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EDITORIAL BOARD Prof. Dr. Zorica Kuburic University of Novi Sad, Serbia Prof.univ.Dr. Iulian Boldea Universitatea " Petru Maior", Târgu-Mureş, România Prof. Alessandra de Falco Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Brazil Asoc. Prof. Constantine Andoniou The American University in the Emirates, United Arab Emirates Dr. Giovanni Ercolani Nottingham Trent University, England Dr. Edmond Çali Università Degli Studi Di Napoli "L'Orientale", Italy PhD Ines Rolo Amado De Montfort University, United Kingdom PhD Kais Al-Momani University of Technology, Sydney, Australia PhD Cand. Ivana Kojadinovic University of Belgrade, Serbia Fourth Issue Coordinator Ms. Martha Zimbber

IJOSC is published by "Mankind Tracks" CTR. International Office: Auckland, NZ

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© 2013 IJOSC is published by "Mankind Tracks" CTR. International Office: Auckland, NZ. © 2013 The copyright to the essays in this volume belongs to the authors. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronically or mechanically, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

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Martha ZIMBBER, Introductory note Heidi MASTON, " Identity in Transactional Environments: In what ways does self-efficacy impact identity?" …………………………………….7 Brikena SMAJLI, “Naim Frashëri, Tehajjulat (‫)تخيالت‬, a Textual and Intertextual Approach, toward a Philological and Hermeneutical Translation”..

Meliha BRESTOVCI, “Using the Prepositions in, on, at-a Challenge for the Teachers and Students in Kosovo”……………………………………………………………. 38 Vincent CUVILLIERS, Matthieu FONTAINE, Philippe MOULIS, ”The Itinerary of a Lazarist from the north of France: Adrien Lamourette………… 47 Blendi DIBRA, "Public Participation Promotes Sustainable Development"………… 64 Peter BERG, "Empowering Youth to Take Charge of Their Health”………………..77 Holta HEBA, "Interpretation of Phraseological Expressions and Proverbs in the Process of the Translation of Fables" ………………………………………………… 84 Blerjana BINO, Nevila XHINDI, Ketrina ÇABIRI, “Youth academic and professional achievement in higher education in Albania: Perspectives on the role of English Language……………………………………………………………………………. 94 Giuseppe STABILE Med ie va l V lac h s a nd V lac h ia s o r So ut h - Ea st Eur o p ea n Ro ma n i t y a s s ee n b y o th e rs ...... ...... ... ........ ...... ...... .... 1 1 0 Brikena QAFA - OSMANI, “Rethinking marital violence: Some observations from Albania and their impact on women’s lives”……………………………………….126 Ilda MUCMATAJ, “Novelties concerning the Private International Law in connection with issues related to the natural persons in Albanian, after the new adopted law”..138 Oli vi era MI JUS K OVI C , Balkan and Philosophy…………………………….. 149 Alma KARASALIU (QOSE),”The importance of words and graphical elements in Swifts “A Tale of a Tub”…………………………………………………………... 162

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Juliana BYLYKBASHI, “Legal Aspects of Insurance Contract”…………………... 170 Ahmad SAMARJI, “How Problematic is Problem-Based Learning (PBL)?”……… 185 Alban KOÇI, Lorena ÇABEJ, “Clinical Education, part of legal education”............ 201 Romina RADONSHIQI, “Motivation is an Essential Factor in the Development of a Business”.................................................................................................................... 210 Edmond ÇALI, “Ismail Kadare: The winter of Great Solitude – as a Proof of Dissent against Communism and Socialist Realism”………………………………………. 225 William KODOM GYASI, “The Role of Readability in Science Education in Ghana”………………………... 242 Atd h e HY K O LLI, “C a le n d ar ia n R it u al So n g s”. . ... ........ ...... ...... ..... 2 5 8 Sandeep SATAPATHY, Siddharth SEKHAR DAS, “Transitions of Undergraduate Scientific Research in India: An attempt to perceive Science”……………………. 273 Armela KROMIÇI, “Undertakings for Collective Investment in Transferable Securities under the Albanian Legislation”………………………………………... 290 Ermira JASHIKU, “Natural and Anthropogenic Risks in the Region of Korҫa-Devoll”.…………… 299 Sengupta IPSHITA, TARAR J.L., “Use of Fly Ash as Bio - Pesticide for Cotton Plant”……………………………………………………………………….. 311 Eriola QAFZEZI, “A tale about a tail: Approaching the limits of (un)translatability in translation of children’s literature”………………………………………………… 322

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Martha Zimbber Introductory note

International Journal of Science is a scholarly open access, peer-reviewed, interdisciplinary journal focusing on Human, Social and Natural Sciences. It is an academic journal that adheres to the highest standards of peer review and engages established and emerging

scholars

from

anywhere

the

world.

International in scope and authorship, the International Journal of Science bridges academic communities together. Its scope is to bring close disciplines and continents with a view to sharing information and debate with the widest possible audience.

IJOSC has a particular interest in policy-relevant questions and interdisciplinary approaches. It serves as a forum for review, reflections and discussions about the results of recent and ongoing research. It is published in one language edition: English. IJOSC Fourth Issue will be sent to our contributors and subscribers worldwide.

Website visitors are encouraged to read it online. Special thanks go to ISSUU for publicizing and marketing this issue.

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Dr. Heidi MASTON

Identity in Transactional Environments: In what ways does self-efficacy impact identity? ABSTRACT st

The 21 Century ushered in change with the increased use of technology in educational delivery methods and opened the doors of opportunity for greater numbers of students that ever before. Institutions recognized the benefits of this untapped market of students and, as technology continued to evolve at an unprecedented rate, the merger of technology mediated education began to infiltrate the landscape. As classrooms and content are developed around, and distributed through, the venue of technology, the student population has become a much more varied pool of participants. Traditionally the physical classroom was comprised of students who shared many similar commonalities (social, economic, race, religion, etc.) that provided a very insular population from which to view the outside world. These populations shared enough similarities that a collective identity was easy to assume, if not readily evident, and the students could be relatively assured they were being holistically understood and their needs met. st However, the technology classroom of the 21 century is not that classroom. The classroom that relies on communication technologies not only for its content distribution and learning platform but also as the primary (if not only) means of peer to peer and student to instructor means of communication is a different classroom entirely. This classroom is a melting pot of global proportions. This is the classroom that is a pool potentially filled with learners from every corner of the globe, every class of student, every religion, race, and creed. While this classroom provides the biggest learning gains for the student in terms of intellectual exposure and dialogue, it also poses two ideological and intellectual challenges in education: the concepts of selfefficacy and identity in these transactional environments. KEYWORDS Technology, distance motivation, leadership

education,

self-efficacy,

Dr. Heidi MASTON â&#x2013;Ş Identity in Transactional Environments

identity,

transactional,

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INTRODUCTION The concepts of self-efficacy in transactional environments and three inter-twined schools of thought have been pulled into a mix to create new and comprehensive research on the topic of identity development in distance education. The parameters of examination for these topics will be viewed through an analysis of the fields of: Technology, Motivation, and Leadership and Change and their interactive correlations. Each of these topics will be interwoven to address the topic of the discussion and will demonstrate the correlation between the various components of research, theory, practice and literature. The final analysis will culminate with the answer to the initial question of inquiry, “Identity in Transactional Environments: In what ways does self-efficacy impact identity?” Definitions The definitions will focus on the working usage of the key terms used in this study. While academic definitions vary, it is critical to state the working intent of usage for the parameters of this study in order to best address the complexity of the issues to be presented. Transactional Distance (TD): Due to the complex nature of this theory, the full academic definition of Transactional Distance is necessary: “A concept describing the universe of teacher-learner relationships that exist when learners and instructors are separated by space and/or by time: Transactional distance is a function of dialog and structure,” (Moore, 1973.) Self-efficacy: A person’s belief about his/her ability and capacity to accomplish a task or to deal with challenges of life. Identity: A known or recognizable set of behaviors and/or characteristics that as shared by an individual either in isolation or as part of a collective group. History Transactional Distance In 1972 Michael Moore proposed a fundamental concept that “evolved from basic insights regarding independent learning and learner autonomy (Moore, 1972) into a multidimensional set of interrelated definitions, propositions and constructs known as the "Theory of Transactional Distance – M. Moore, 1993 (Gorsky & Caspy, 2005.)”

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While the general understanding of transactional distance involves the components of structure and dialogue, it is the notion of space and time that distinguishes the instructor and learner relationship, learning parameters, and outcomes in all aspects of the content exchange. This exchange occurs in both synchronous and asynchronous environments and, according to Moore, is present in all transactions involving distance. Many researchers have examined transactional distance (Saba & Shearer, 1994; Bunker et al., 1996; Bischoff et al, 1996; Chen & Willits, 1998; Chen, 2001a and 2001b; Holmberg, B. 1986 and 1989; and Peters, O. 1983.) While their findings have been varied as to the start and finish of the initial and ongoing communication cycle, the one constant in their findings is that transactional distance does exist and does impact the relationship of the instructor and student in a distance learning environment. Structure and dialog comprise the two underlying variables that create a foundational relationship resulting in the identity development of learner autonomy. This resulting pedagogical theory explains the interactive communicative nature of programs and courses, and ultimately, the selfefficacious behaviors of teachers and learners. Self-Efficacy The classroom has shifted from being a place of sole content distribution to one of content assimilation from a wide range of sources that are being introduced by the student to the other students. The push towards content engagement and dialogue has made students a partner in their own learning rather than solely a receiver. In the DE classroom, the use of orchestrated implementation of TD components will provide a formulaic approach to this phenomena by collectively organizing the student population according to self-efficacious identity styles: diffuse-avoidance (the individual chooses to take no action in a situation); informational (the individual chooses to gather information prior to taking action); and normative (the individual follows their societal norms when taking action) (Boyd et al., 2003.) Classrooms are being influenced and redesigned by the current influx of technology and pedagogical changes and the relationship between the instructor and the student is evolving. Traditional education has focused on a teacher-centric content provided environment but content is now coming to the student from a wide range of sources such as multi-media, YouTube, Wikipedia, and open source (Oliver et al., 2009; Towell, 2009; Ni & Aust, 2008.) Dr. Heidi MASTON â&#x2013;Ş Identity in Transactional Environments

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The student’s role with both the course and content is changing and impacting the face-to-face (f2f) and virtual classroom. According to Oliver, Osbourne & Brady (2009) increased academic learning based on pre-determined courses of self-efficacious actions of the student set in motion by the instructor via the components of transactional distance. Identity As the Net Generation begins to enter the universities their identities developed by digitized socialization will run counter intuitive to most university courses constructed by digital immigrants. Unfortunately, a great deal of current administrators and faculty are still being trained to “bring technology to the classroom” as a novelty rather recognizing the native’s behaviors in the construction of the learning environments. The result of creating top down rather than bottom up engagement is a DE classroom where the student’s experiences, perceptions, expectation and ideals are often not being met.. The identity of a successful learner is comprised of the following characteristics: self guided, has a wider range of experiences, and demands that the required learning make sense and is relevant to the students needs. The characteristics of a successful learner are variable based on the division of age of the student. The successful adult learner is problem-centered, results-oriented, self-directed, and skeptical of new information, seeks relevant education, and accepts responsibility for their learning successes and failures. The characteristics of the youth learner are very different from their adult counterpart. The youth learner is subject-oriented, future oriented, dependent on direction, accepting of new information willingly and without question, seeks new information for unclear outcome, and does not accept responsibility for learning. It is within this framework that the multi-generation, multi-cultural, multi-national transactional classroom exists. So the focus must shift from a group identity historically born of commonalities to one comprised of a number of representative ideologies and cultural identities working both in unison and sometimes in opposition, to achieve the same learning goals. How does this happen? Nick Yee (2009) discovered what he calls “The Proteous Effect” that occurs in transactional environments when digital self-representations are utilized. This effect shows that the actions and reactions that occur online, with an avatar type representation of self, have a direct impact on the reactions of the individual in their real world experiences.

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This effect can be harnessed to propel a student in a transactional environment towards the self-effaciousness of their identity development much in the same way that an instructor motivates a student in a traditional f2f classroom. Technology While the roles of the instructors and students are evolving in the current era of technology enhanced DE there is a high need for definition of their individual duties. There is no argument as to the diversified roles that both parties are under immense pressure to fulfill. However, the challenge has become how to train the instructors to set the tone in the DE in such a manner that the student’s strengths are harnessed and learning occurs in a selfefficacious manner. In the TD environment the need for increased personal and interpersonal understanding and acceptance becomes increasingly evident as the fundamental working behaviors and expectations of a global population meet separate and infiltrate each other’s cultures, academic and working environments. While the environment provides the opportunity for interaction on a global scale, the technology can be used to create a self-effacious learning environment that creates the platform for individual and collective identity development. Oliver et al., (2009) identified the roles of the distance education instructor as being,” pedagogical, professional, evaluator, social facilitator, technologist, advisor, administrator, and researcher.” These roles are typically found in the f2f classroom, however they require a higher level of training so that the instructor can fulfill these in the DE classroom where lack of interpersonal f2f communication often blurs the exchange. “Knowledge provider to learning facilitator,” (Dillenbourg, 2008) is an operational counterargument for the decreased use of instructors as teachers. Dillenbourg argued that teachers are being placed on the wayside as simply facilitators to the existing technology and its varying content. Following the th massive upswing and implementation of DE at the end of the 20 and start of st the 21 centuries, the focus was heavily on technology as the teacher. Fifteen years later, this argument is being strongly refuted by many authors (Oliver, et al. 2009; Correia & Davis, 2008; and Dennen, et al. 2007.) While it is important to clearly identify the role of those directly within the virtual classroom, it is also paramount to recognize the culture of the community involved in the DE classroom. Dr. Heidi MASTON ▪ Identity in Transactional Environments

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Correia (2008) further breaks down the roles of the participants in any distance education classroom and identifies their individual tasks. These roles are identified as community of interest, goal oriented community of interest, learner’s community, and community of practice. Leaders are therefore continually challenged with the responsibility to ensure their students are technologically prepared to learn, work, and interact with an increasingly global and diverse population. Without addressing these challenges, students will be unprepared and technologically illiterate to compete on a global scale. The secondary phase of this research becomes one of motivation of self in order to create an individual (and often collective) identity in the transactional environment. In order to understand the inter-connectedness of these thoughts an understanding of the motivational process is necessary. Motivation The notion of self is created from the perceived experiences and impact of events and stimuli, both known and unknown, on the individual over the course of a lifetime. While these imprint upon the character and influence the development of one’s identity, they are by no means set in stone from birth, nor are they in constant flux. Somewhere along the trajectory of growth and maturation, comes a point at which the concept of choice, acceptance, and rejection of these input comes into play. During this process comes the idea of identity and self-efficacy. The result of this domino effect is the potential for the individual to choose the outcome of their experiences based on their notion of self and desired direction. However, it can be ignored if the individual chooses to respond to immediate input and operate from a reactionary position to stimuli and input. For the purposes of this paper, the concept of productive choice will be assumed. This idea of choice and selection can be harnessed and utilized in a variety of venues and for a variety of purposes. Lifestyle, health, social, career, and interpersonal relationships are all components of choice selections that are made based on resources, influences, and awareness of self. While children have lesser of an immediate choice in the selection of these realities, they are often capable of influencing the outcomes of these categories as they age. The concept of identity development in the classroom becomes a powerful influence on the needs acquisition of the top three tiers of Abraham Maslow’s “Hierarchy of Needs” (1943)

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which was later expanded on by Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness and Growth.) Additional theorists addressing the issues of identity and motivation include J. W. Atkinson’s Expectancy Theory (1957), Leon Festinger’s 1957 Cognitive Dissonance Theory, and Gordon Allport (1955): Trait Theory. Each of these theorists examined and developed an independent area of motivational psychology and study and their works have been utilized and implemented in a variety of fields. It is important to note that each of these theories play an integral part in the motivation of the learner and the potential for identity creation. While the basic forces in human motivation remain the same in f2f environments, is it important to recognize the unique demands on the role of the student in the transactional learning environment. The role of the instructor is defined in much more concrete ways than that of the learner. The role of the student in a DE classroom is as diverse as the personalities that make up the f2f classroom. Each student brings to the classroom an identity style and a wide range of skill sets, preconceived notions, prior experience in the format (ranging from none to expert), and an uncertainness of how this particular classroom will be managed. Stein, Wanstreet, & Calvin (2009) identify and address the perspective of the new online adult student. Using the framework of TD they orchestrated effective parameters for engaging the new adult online student by focusing on the creation of an online persona, peer to peer support/dialogue, and instructor guidance in the communication process. Students reported increased feelings of belonging, comfort, and competence. With the positive student feedback, the clearer parameters of self-effacious identity development begin to emerge. As students progress through the course, it is important for them to develop an online identity, establish (and maintain) group norms, and develop and foster online relationships (Morgan, et al., 2009.) The role of the student is to be present and active within the parameters of engagement as set forth by the skilled instructor. This engagement leads to a greater sense of involvement which then reinforces the basic tenants of motivation, that of belongingness and place and thus, a greater sense of identity within the group as well as the solidification of the group as a whole. In order to transition between f2f environments and meet the challenges presented by the transactional environment, basic tenets of learning in the f2f classroom can be applied in the distance education classroom. In order to demonstrate learning, “successful communications Dr. Heidi MASTON ▪ Identity in Transactional Environments

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have four essential characteristics: (a) students take a lead role, (b) work samples or demonstrations show proof of learning, (c) students invite an audience to participate in the process, and (d) audiences take active roles and give specific feedback to learners (Davies, 2001.)â&#x20AC;? These tasks can accomplished in the transactional environments by using a wide range of communication tools that can be modified and implemented within the classroom to meet a wide range of learning styles and abilities. The successful implementation and utilization of these tools will create a greater sense of self-efficacy and set the foundation for greater individual identity and group cohesiveness. While the known course (s) of action are identified above, it falls on the leaders at the institutions to implement these measures, and champion the acquisition of the tools, so that the transactional environments needs can be met and the student be positively motivated to succeed. Leadership and Change st

The first decade of the 21 century brought many changes to the way education was delivered. The classroom was redefined, the students were redefined and the time, place, space continuum was redefined to meet the needs of the ever diverse learning population. However, what remained consistent in this real of discovery, growth and evolution was the ongoing power struggle of some leaders in positions of authority for whom this change was not necessarily a positive measure but rather one to be faced with ambivalence and suspicious attitude. Where there have been champions of causes in all areas, there have always been those unwilling to adopt to change. The transactional environment was no exception to this and became a divisive point for many educators. Fortunately, as technology was developed to become an increasingly viable way of instruction, and access was made available to more students, the rift between leaders began to subside as tolerance became the new collaboration point. Leadership methodologies began to play more diverse roles in the development of transactional environments in education. These forms of leadership include: Transformational Leadership; Versatile Leadership; and Relational Leadership (Gilbert, 2004.) Transformational Leadership involves change, innovation, and entrepreneurship (Bass, 1997.) Versatile Leadership describes the ability to move from one thing to another with ease and readily apply talents and skills to each new challenge with a fresh approach (Noonan, 2003.)

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Executive Leadership identifies the “Three guides to Action,” which includes clue sense (ability to understand signals, recognize behavioral patterns, and determine what behavior is appropriate in any setting), cue sense (ability to detect signals from individuals or organizations in the external environment to build a base of support) and negotiating sense (ability to achieve a viable solution by understanding the diverse positions and goals and gaining support for a position (Hanson, 2002.) Transformational leadership plays a significant important role in the ongoing development and implementation of effective DE systems. The three goals of transformational leadership, as it applies to education, have been identified by Leithwood (1992) as: 1. Helping staff develop and maintain a collaborative, professional school culture. 2. Fostering teacher development. 3. Helping teachers solve problems more effectively. Versatile leadership requires the ability to harness, at any given time, the skills of a transformational leader and the knowledge of an executive leader. With the ever-evolving technologies of transactional environment, it is paramount that the leaders of an institution, or organization, have the flexibility and social maturity to make impactful decisions as well as to be receptive to continual change. Executive leadership, “whether it is viewed from an individual or collective perspective, takes mental agility, systems thinking, openness, and flexibility. It involves a great deal of scanning, conceptualizing, imagining, and studying to expand perspectives and grasp the whole. Wrestling with novel problems and mining opportunities become strategies for leadership” (Valdez 2004.) While not one of these leadership styles plays an exclusive or preferred role in the success or failure of the transactional distance classroom it is worth noting that the interaction and multi-tiered application of each of these styles benefits both the classroom and its students. By combining the innovators, the versatile and the sensory change agents, a team of leaders emerges that has the ability to recognize the needs of the classroom and the willingness to implement the necessary changes into the program design. This results in a classroom that is one of self-effacious identity development for all of its students, regardless of the student’s original starting point.

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Conclusions Many factors must be taken into consideration when addressing the question of, “Identity in Transactional Environments: In what ways does selfefficacy impact identity?” These include relevant definitions, history, technology, motivation, leadership and change. While each of these topics has been thoroughly examined in relation to the initial question, what remains is the conclusive tie in that puts them all together. It is significant to keep in mind that the transactional environment is, in this case, a time and place in a space that is regulated by the student and instructor but facilitated by the technology. Transactional environments are not simply a geographic separation of learners and teachers, but, more importantly, is a pedagogical concept. It is a concept describing the universe of teacher-learner relationships that exist when learners and instructors are separated by space and/ or by time. This concept is determined by the fluxuating interactions of the communication model experiences the ever changing positions of dialogue, structure and learner autonomy. Self-efficacy impacts the identity of students in a number of ways in the transactional environment. While each of these encompasses a specific trajectory of influences, they are fully interchangeable and can be impacted by the interactions of the structure, dialogue and learner autonomy allowed and encouraged within the transactional environment. First, the nature of the transactional environment is such that the population of the classroom is occupied by a more diverse group of students. This necessitates the need for a student to be highly self-efficacious in their desire to help develop norms and mores of the classroom environment rather than just plug in to the existing identity. Second, if a student is not self-effacious (either by choice or ability) it then becomes the responsibility of the instructor to structure the transactional environment so that identity of the student is integrated into the classroom. With the student adopted by the environment in accordance to the motivation techniques identified above, the actions of the student are capable of being impacted in accordance with the findings of Yee’s 2009 “Proteus Effect.”

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Third, self-efficacy impacts the identity of the student through opportunities that are inherent to the transactional environment: increased technology skills, increased communication skills, increased global connectiveness. It is through the transactional environment that students learn the skills necessary to succeed in the ever increasing global marketplace and thus, they develop a greater skill-set which translates to increased self-efficacy and impacts their identity on an individual level.

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"Theoretical Principles of Distance Education (1997), Routledge, pp. 22-38. Moore, M. and Kearsley, G. (1996.) Distance Education: A systems View. Wadsworth. Morgan, K., Cameron, B., & Williams, K. (2009.) Student perceptions of social task development in online group project work. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 10(3), 285-294,320. Ni, S., & Aust, R. (2008.) Examining Teacher Verbal Immediacy and Sense of Classroom Community in Online Classes. International Journal on ELearning, 7(3), 477-498. Noonan, S. J. (2003.) The elements of leadership. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. Oliver, K., Osborne, J., & Brady, K. (2009.) What are secondary students' expectations for teachers in virtual school environments? Distance Education, 30(1), 23-45. Rogers, I. (2008.) Correlating diversity success with academic success. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 25(8), 30-31. Retrieved November 30, 2009, from Education Module. (Document ID: 1493723031) Saba, F. (2005.) E-Mail conversation. [online]. Range of dates May – June 2005. Saba, F. and Shearer (1994.) Verifying Key Theoretical Concepts in a Dynamic Model of Distance Education. The American Journal of Distance Education. Vol 1. No. 1 1994 Stein, D., Wanstreet, C., & Calvin, J. (2009.) How a novice adult online learner experiences Transactional Distance. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 10(3), 305-311,319-320. Towell, L. (2009.) The Student-Teacher Digital Divide and Six New Technology Roller Coaster Rides. Distance Learning, 6(2), 53-57.  Yee,

Nick (2007.) The Proteus Effect: Behavioral modification via transformations of digital self-representation. Retrieved September 10, 2009: http://www.nickyee.com/pubs/Dissertation_Nick_Yee.pdf

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Dr. Brikena SMAJLI Naim Frashëri, Tehajjulat (‫)تخيالت‬, a textual and intertextual approach,

toward a philological

and hermeneutical translation.

ABSTRACT: Naim Frashëri (1846-1900) is one of the most prominent authors of Albanian Awakening, known as a ‗national poet‘. Although his work of poetry got several published monographs and a countless written scholarly articles about the tradition of writing poetry, which he had consecrated in Albanian culture, we cannot valuate his poetry as a simple romantic one. Trying to read for the first time his first verse book written in Persian, we can argument that his poetry style is still unknown and never reached the Albanian reader as such. This first verse book, named Takhayyulat(‫ )تخيالت‬published in Turkey in 1884 was adapted in Albanian (not translated) by the Albanian Orientalist, Vexhi Buharaja in 1971, and due to the nature of the publications of communist regime avoid this kind of religious imagery and metaphor ( in order to have at least a faint version of Naim Frashëri's poetry in Persian) still important for the whole knowledge of his poetry written in Albanian. For this reason due to the textual analyses and a comparative translation of some of the components of this book we argument the need for a textual and intertextual study of it and a final hermeneutical and philological translation. Tehajjulat (‫ )تخيالت‬is adapted in Albanian with a title Dreams giving the whole poetries, included there, the perception of a dreamlike verse, solitary one and even pessimist way of thinking about the world which is the contrary to the whole tradition of poetry to which Naim Frashëri affiliate, including the imagery of Tehajjulat (‫ )تخيالت‬himself.

KEYWORDS: religious lexic, imaginary theory, philosophical poetic, imagery, intertextuality, Quranic interpretation. Dr. Brikena SMAJLI▪Naim Frashëri,Tehajjulat, an intertextual approach.

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1. Town of Përmet and Frashëri village where Naim Frashëri grew up, 1 was a centre of Bektashi believers for Albanians , and, consequently, the first lessons taken there in the tekke of Baba Tahir from the imam of the village 2 about Turkish, Arabic and Persian , besides their importance they have firstly for the future Albanian poet, will have an indisputable cultural and religious 3 significance in his poetry. Moreover Bektashism tariqah (way) of Sunni Islam, took place in Albania by an approach with the mentality and culture which came to Albania from Turkish, use Arabic as a general language of theology and religion and Persian as the language of culture, poetry, to build to their followers of the respective religious direction, a solid relationship with culture 4 and cultures and not only Islam.

ELSIE, Robert. 2001, History of Albanian Literature, Second ed.,Dukagjini, Peja, f.57. ―The Bektashi tekke, notably those of Kruja, Korça, Konica, Frashëri and Gjakova, should after a short time be, hidden centres of culture, education, tolerance and at the same time national resistance against the Turkic dominance‖ 2 Certainly it is of great importance, that of education in Zisimea gymnasium of Janina, where he learned also classical languages: Greek, Latin and Italian, French also, which open to him the horizont of knowledge about the European culture. 3 ELSIE, Robert. 2001, History of Albanian Literature, Second ed.,Dukagjini, Peja, f.57. 4 DOJA, Albert. March, 2006, A Political History of Bektashism in Albania,Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions,Vol. 7, No. 1, 83–107, p.87. ―There is general agrement that after its noticeable presence in the second half of seventeenth century, Bektashism gradually became more and more deeply rooted in Albania during nineteenth century. One reason for this was the fact that the Bektashis were spared the suppression that the order had to face in Anatolia and other core areas of the Ottoman Empire in the first quarter of the nineteenth century (1822–1826)...Many high Bektashi dignitaries, including sometimes even the supreme leader of the central institution, are often thought to be of Albanian origin. When Turkey decreed the definitive abolition of all mystic orders in 1925, the Bektashi general headquarters once again took refuge in Albania. In Albania, in several instances religion has played a unique role compared to the rest of Europe...Generally, in Southeast Europe and elsewhere ethnicity is closely linked to the adherence to a specific religjion(...)Islam did not seem to be very deeply rooted in Albania until the nineteenth century and it is usually assumed that this was also the case with Christianity some centuries earlier, which of course must have facilitated conversion to Islam. In addition, there is general agreement about the fact that religion in Albania tends to be

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Reading poetry of this kind of approach we cannot ignore intercultural relationships or cultural influences as well as the kind of affiliation toward the religious texts and tradition. But for the poetry of Naim Frashëri the problem can be more complex as he uses to write not only a poetry in Albanian language influenced by, but he, first of all, wrote and published a poetry book in Persian, linking himself with the Persian poetry system, rich in tradition and well-known in the world culture for the mystical approach. Reading his poetry today with the ignorance of his poetries written in the foreign languages means not to know his work at all or reading it in accordance with the only Albanian poetry system. So, taking in consideration through a short analysis of the poetry text, 5 written in Persian Tehajjulat , title enclosed, we use to prove the necessity of a philological and hermeneutical analyses and translation of this poetry book, part of revision of a complete study of his work. Our analyses is focused on the poetry (‫کنار درپا‬, kenar derja) Next to the seaside and (‫اسمان‬, asaman) 6 7 Heaven and the title itself (‫)تخيالت‬Takhayyulat. Cultural approaches and adaption - Albanian version Since the time when Tehajjulat was published in Persian, in Istanbul, on 1885, it was been read only by a few people with the knowledge of the poetry system, Persian. According to the ―life‖ the book could have through reading, it continues to be read and studied as part of Persian culture of writing, as it actually is. By the other point of view, Naim Frashëri is an important author of Albanian writing system; moreover he is one of the founders of national literature, well known as ―national poet‖. Seeing by this point of view of Albanian culture and its poetical system, this work of poetry, the first one written by the author, is of a great importance for the whole work syncretistic. Many traits of Christianity survived among Muslim converts in form of the so called Crypto-Christianity.‖ 5 The Tehajjulat title here is written according to the Albanian spelling of ‫تخيالت‬, as it is reflected in the book published in Albanian. 6 FRASHËRI, Naim. Tehajjulat Ëndërrime, adapted in Albanian by Vexhi Buharaja, Fondacioni Kulturor ―Saadi Shirazi‖, Tirana, 2005, p. 42-50, 134-139. (This is a version of bilingual edition: Albanian –Persian) 7 Takhayyulat is English spelling of ‫ تخيالت‬in Persian. Dr. Brikena SMAJLI▪Naim Frashëri,Tehajjulat, an intertextual approach. 23

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of poetry of Naim Frashëri. Through this it is of great importance even for the Albanian culture of the period. For the long time this book was been studied as a part of Persian 8 culture and poetry, written by a European poet. Today, by a general point of view, we can see through this, not a simple work of poetry written by an Albanian poet in Persian language, but a ―bridge‖ and the correlation through two poetical systems, out of which it cannot be possible to read and study neither Naim Frashëri work of poetry, nor the Albanian poetry of this period, that is to say, the oriental viewpoint of Albanian poetry. Meanwhile the importance of this work of poetry, the very philological translation of this book, was never appeared in Albanian culture. In 1971, the orientalist V. Buhara, adapted, but not translated the book. So the Albanian 9 version, Ëndërrime (Dreams) edited at that time and the other editions give a faint view of Persian tradition, it losts some of metaphors, imagery and 10 symbolism who are of great importance for this kind of poetry. During the communist regime the translation cannot be at that kind as to show all the religious imagery and textuality as this poetry do have. The edition appeared at Studime filologjike no. 2, 1971, certainly do not incorporate all the stratum of religious register, the same as to the metaphorical expression, which the original text suggests, as well as there are no additional notes apt to explain properly the imagery and intertextuality of the poetry, which should be necessary for a special edition of this kind even in European languages. 8

BULO, Jorgo. 2007/1, Naim Frashëri and Persian classical code of versification, PERLA review, p, 54-55 ―…the correlation of N. Frashëri with poetical Persian tradition present a special case: it is intertextuality correlation and relation of belonging. Naim wrote a work in Persian, Takhayyulat (1885) and with this he is a European poet of Persian literature‖ p. 54. 9 There are different editions of the book, beginning with the first one of 1971, at Studime filologjike, no. 2, 1971, Tirana. FRASHËRI, Naim. Ëndërrime : poezi,Tetovë : RUMI, 1996. (Biblioteka: Zehra) FRASHËRI, Naim. Tehajjulat Ëndërrime, adapted in Albanian by Vexhi Buharaja, Fondacioni Kulturor ―Saadi Shirazi‖, Tirana, 2005. FRASHËRI, Naim. Ëndërrime, shqipëroi Vexhi Buharaja, ―Toena‖, Tiranë, 2007. Naim Frashëri. Shqipëroi: Vexhi Buhara. "Naimi". 2012. 10 SMAJLI, Brikena. Naim Frashëri and W. B. Yeats: mythical symbolism of Creation elements. Poeteka review, no. 18, 2011, Issue dedicated to Naim Frashëri‘s work which gather the papers of Doctoral school, Literary Studies of Centre of Albanological Studies, p. 8 and 12. In this paper it is explained even the problem we meet, through the textual translation that has to do with the proper symbolism and the use of Sentence instead of Word in relation of Jesus Christ and the Hebrew Amidah pray with the Crucifixion.

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The original version of the book gives attention to interesting phenomena: that of comparison and relation between two cultures: Persian and Albanian. The solution made by V. Buhara in adapting not translating the poetry book, give to him professionally the possibility to be free in recreation, not to be clear and precise, nor so faithful and truthful textually, toward the original, to give at least the possibility that this work of Naim Frashëri could be part of complete work in Albanian, keeping partly even its mystical spirit of original poetry. For the time it was been adapted, perhaps it fulfilled a gap on the entire work of Naim Frashëri, moreover it expressed even faintly the nature of the kind of poetry. Textual approach The beauty and the value of the poetry of Naim, not for it is written by a stranger, astonishes by the proper fact that he have deep knowledge of the techniques of Persian poetry and this make Naim insuperable master of Persian letters. His poetry is not characterized by praise for no one and not for himself. His poetry is simple and has high aim that make him father of wisdom. 11 (Vahid Fermand,) The above statement of the Iranian scholar, distinguishes an interesting data for the history of literature that of systematic correlation of an author toward two different poetical cultures, from which it is created, proceed and is organized a work of poetry. The model of observing and that of reading of this kind of poetry suggests, firstly, a comparative viewpoint of the poetical text toward the Persian poetical tradition, a specific approach toward Attar 12 Neishabouri, Jalal ad-Dīn Muhammad Rumi and Saadi Shirazi as authors of the same poetical viewpoint of the poetical system. The nowadays studies, make clear the textual approach of Naim Frashëri‘s poetry with that of Rumi, but without being focused in this specific work of poetry – to Takhayyulat, that should be the beginning of a complete study of his work. It is also made clear

FERMAND, V. Interview of Iranian scholar Vahid Fermand: Naim Frashëri –the last great poet who wrote Persian poetry, International Literary Manifestation, Naim‘ Days, 2009. http://www.ditetenaimit.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=66%3Abisede-meintelektualin-iranian-vahid-fermandnaim-frasheri-poeti-i-fundit-i-madh-qe-shkroi-poezi-nepersisht&catid=40%3Ainformativ&lang=sq 12 Fermand, Vahid. Ibid. Dr. Brikena SMAJLI▪Naim Frashëri,Tehajjulat, an intertextual approach. 25

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the Quranic intertextuality in the work of Naim Frashëri in general. (See, 13 Ahmeti, Isak. Quran in Albanian Literature) . Studying the quranic intertextuality of this work helps even in approaching the work toward the Persian writing poetry in general, toward the religion and religions, as well as Sufi poetic interpretation, picking out, in this context even interpretative values and the profoundness of metaphor for the author. In the overview and the reading, however cultural or textual of the work, we pursue in continuity even other poetical and cultural approaching of this work of Naim Frashëri with other contemporary authors, the Persian poetical system-contemporary poetry. From this viewpoint it can be more conscious the research of correlations and the motifs of the Persian poetical text of Naim Frashëri with the work written by him in Albanian language and the projection of this work in Albanian poetical system, that is to say the oriental culture and system in Albanian poetry. Poetical text – translation The knowledge about the connections of intertextuality in a such wide and multiple viewpoint, approaches us with the poetical text of ―Ëndërrimet‖/Tehajjulat, discovering clearly even first, second and third meanings of the author's text itself, whose in-depth knowledge prepares a complete translation of the work,which, although written in Persian, part of the Persian culture, though written by an Albanian author, for the poetic system it is of the high importance, according to the place of Naim Frashëri in Albanian culture and poetic system, as well as the author's poetic work itself, written in Albanian. Generally so-far studies of this work although noting its special quality in relation to Persian poetic system are addressed to the poetic text, adapted version of V. Buhara that, cannot be of a great reliability in an intertextual and a comparative systematic analysis as such. While they are of highest interest studies or comparative articles written by Iranian scholars, who have given opinions of interest to the work of Naim Frashëri, properly focused on these systematic relationship of poetical one, the same cannot be said for the introductory study of this work of Naim Frashëri, that of Jorgo Bulo

Ahmeti, Isak. Quran in Albanian Literature, iii. Quran as inexhaustible inspiration source for Naim Frashëri published only in http://www.shkoder.net/fjala/2006/iahmeti1.htm.

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(edition of Perla review, XII year 2007 No. 3 (46) f. 9-14, as well as that the foreword of the poetry book in Albanian Dreams, written by the same author). In this study, although it can be mentioned for distinguished systematic analysis of the poetic text (serious by the nature of approach toward the text), the fact is that Prof. J. Bulo used to study the adaption not the original text. In contrary, reading it in Persian, we find that the first one is not always correct, and statements and conclusions there not always speak of that kind of poetry which Naim Frashëri wrote. We use to see out some of textual approaches able to express the kind of poetry which N. Frashëri does write. Sama dancing and Poetry By linking this first education of Naim Frashëri with his first book of poetry, we use to associate his writing with Bektashy tradition of praying and the sufi philosophy of expression. That is to say our interest in, ‫تخيالت‬ Tehajjulat / Dreams, is focused on this kind of perception, natural with Sufi and Bektashi tradition. In writing this book, the first one, moreover than showing his complete knowledge in Persian language, Naim Frashëri demonstrates the connection that an author does have with a specific cultural and poetical tradition, other than his own, specifically the Persian-Arabic cultural system. Stable relationship that the author expresses and creates, since his infancy, with this poetic cultural system, will also affect generally the poetry written by him in Albanian, which should be read and appreciated not only as a result of this relationship, but of its intertextual and suggestive value, in the metaphorical expression and symbolism. Addressing our study now to the first work of the author, the intertextual, metaphorical and symbolic viewpoint, of which it is a necessary part of the poetical valuation and from which the work of poetry is written, we see two permanent intertextual relationships and both have to do with Bektashism as religious affiliation and Sufism as the mystical mentality of the God and the universe perception. Dr. Brikena SMAJLI▪Naim Frashëri,Tehajjulat, an intertextual approach.

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The first has to do with the tradition of mystical poetry writing, mathnawi form, in Persian-Arabic culture and mainly Jalal ad-Dīn Rumi 14 poems, as it was pointed out by criticism, and the second one, has to do with religious texts, as primary texts, mainly with Quranic verses, but it evoke the Bible also as story and perception, whose intertextuality is observed in poetry, as a mystical interpretation and reflection. At the same time, to this kind 15 primary text come the mystical interpretation of Makalat (conversations) by Haji Bektashi Veli, from which the poetic text of Naim Frashëri is in the light of Qur'anic and biblic interpretation, as versification; to the religion, religions as world viewpoint and Bektashi with the Makalat experience mentality and interpretation. In connection with this tradition of poetry writing, the most noted in terms of perception and poetic imagination, as the completeness of this creation, is the harmony of nature, in which the poet, the poetic voice feels melted. This harmony and this unity is a componential part of the acceptance and reconciliation, to which the work also corresponds in form and content, whether from the point of view of the thinker believer, either in terms of the writer as a poet. In this latter perspective, Naim Frashëri writes in the tradition of poetic writing of mathnawi (distiches) and in accordance with the mystical tradition of Persian-Arabic poetry, mystical mathnawi, from whose textual 16 approach with Sufi ritual of Sama has a different tradition rooted early in this 14

BULO, Jorgo. XII year, 2007 Nr. 3 (46). Rumi and Naim Frashëri, PERLA review, p. 9-14 . Makalat is the work of Haji Bektash Veli or Hajji Bektash Wali (1209-1271), spiritual founder of të Bektashism. His work was written firstly in Arabic, translated later in Turkish by Katipoglu, being so foundament of ritual and secret doctrine, characteristic for bektashism. See The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New edititon, prepared by a number of leading orientalists, editors:H. A. R. Gibb, J. H. Kramers, E. Levi-Provengal, J. Schacht, ass. M. Stern (pp. 1-320) B. Lewiss, CH. Pellat and J. Schacht, C. Dumont.... (pp. 321-1359) The International Union of Academies, Vol. I, A-B, Leiden E.J. Brill, 1991, f. 1161-2. 16 Sama/sema is a sufi dance associated with music. For its mystic meaning, that evoke hearing among its followers we use to refer to Ibn Arab. ―Ibn Arabi did not encourage audition among his own followers, but he did explain the theory that lies behind the practice. True sama’, he tells us, is simply remembrance of the primordial ―Be‖ (kun) that brought about the world‘s ―being‖ (kawn) in the first place. The dance that accompanies this remembrance reflects the transferal of things from the storehouses of the unseen realm into the world. ―What the Folk of Sama‘ perceive in the singer‘s words is God‘s word Be to a thing before it comes to be.‖ The ―Folk of Sama‘‖ are those 15

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culture through epic writing. The cultivated poetic discourse acts as a quality of metaphor (biblical parables) or idiomatic metaphorical discourse in the wake of the mythical fables cultivated from Attar to Rumi. This kind of poetry, which in itself is started as a Quran interpretation, and not meant poetic exclusively, combines mystical content with ethical and religious education subject, marking not a simple poetic text, targeted individual, but an experience all of spiritual value and a true spiritual sublime story, unique of writer subject. However, what it is read, it is not a story of life experiences. At the level of the imagination of the thinker believer it is a story of revelations, which thinker believer brings us in a poetic language. J.Rumi example is indicative to the highest degree of this image mystic increasing, organizing the mystical fable in accordance with the religious mentality (the subject, the text of the Qur'an), 18 symbolic and metaphorical expression and the versification in hexametrical 19 distiches. Naim Frashëri operates in the same way: in his mystical meditation 20 of the religious thinker, he meditates for Heaven (‫ )اسمان‬and rejoices by 21 [mildnight and the moon that leads (teaches)] whose rays pour fresh smell

Sufis who employ music to transport themselves into ecstatic states.‖See Chittick. C. William. Sufism, Never ending dance, Oneworld books, Oxford, 2008, p. 97. 17 Mathnawi is a distic line organized poetry, whose rhyming is of the same format. After each two lines comes another line who is indipedent and gives reason to another rhyming in a chain type, that opens the way of a new distic. Persians call it mathnawi, a verse of two lines rhyming. Originally the Mathnawis are long epical poems, but later on, elaborated in the lyrical and mystical type, as they are the Rumi mathnawi. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New edititon, prepared by a number of leading orientalists, editors:C. E. Bosworth, E. Van Donzel, B. Lewis, CH. Pellat, W. P. Heinrichs, As. F. TH. Dijkema and Mme S. Nurit (pp. 1-512-1044), The International Union of Academies, Vol. VI, MAHK—MID, Leiden 18 Chittick, William C. The Sufi Doctrine of Rumi, Illustrated ed. , Foreword by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, World Wisdom, 2005, p. VII, ― It is true that Rumi did not write direct metaphysical expositions as did an Ibn Arab! or Sadr al-Din Qunyawi. But Jalal al-Din was a metaphysician of the first order and dealt with nearly every gnostic and metaphysical question, but often in the form of parables, narratives, or other forms of literary devices and poetic symbols.” 19 Schimmel, Anne Marie. November, 1992, A Two-Colored Brocade: The Imagery of Persian Poetry, University of North Carolina Press, p. 20-21. 20 FRASHËRI, Naim. Tehajjulat/Ëndërrime, adapted by Vexhi Buharaja, Fondacioni Kulturor ―Saadi Shirazi‖, Tirana, 2005, p. 42, 43. 21 Ibid, v, 1. ‫ = شب لطيف و ماه تابان دلبر است‬in the Persian text author explains an soft night and the moon which brings light to the earth. Dr. Brikena SMAJLI▪Naim Frashëri,Tehajjulat, an intertextual approach. 29

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on earth; it is the bird (symbol of the sky, space, air) to undertake the journey from Heaven to earth, from which arose the Sama dance, including poetic 23 voice itself, which is contemplative. 1. ‫شب لطيف و ماه تابان دلبر است‬ 2. ‫زمين پر ري ور است‬، ‫باد مشکين‬ 3. ‫مرغ هوشم می پرد اندر سما‬ 4. ‫در فظای نورپاش جانفزا‬ Albanian version is of descriptive type and a dreamlike world, opens toward our eyes through this lines: 1. Natë e qetë, hëna e bukur plot me dritë, 2. Fllad i ëmbël, toka hapur ka stolitë, 3. Zogu i mëndjes po më sulet drejt nga qielli, 24 4. N‘hapësirat plot me afsh e dritë dielli. (adapted. V. Buharaja) The beginning of a poem about the Heaven as such, more over when this poem is the first of all poetry book, is indicative of the overall organization as part of the unifying and excitement, Sufi ritual, from where the contemplation is of the point of view of internal and external. In this process, not of selfsufficiency - neither individual nor authorial - introspective subject is exalted, lightened together with his meditation lightening, because he feels himself a part of this universe, of this Sky/Heaven. Standing at this point of his meditation perception the poet sees the harmony, the perfect order of placing things in nature, with a sense of wonder, stronger than doubt and questionable, and while is listing a set of questions to the universe, the heavens, the Lord, he acknowledged in action (feeling the evocation) inclusiveness, marvelous-wonder and harmony versus chaos, becoming himself witnesses of the miracle itself: heaven, God, nature, the universe. 22

CHEBEL, Malek. Dictionnaire de Symbols Musulmans: Albin Mishel S.A., Paris, 1995.Oiseou, f. 306-307. 23 Po aty, v, 3. ‫ = مرغ هوشم می پرد اندر سما‬here the bird (morgh/‫) مرغ‬rush on from the heavy heigh, as a mirage of sama (‫) سما‬dance. 24 Compare: 1.Quiet night, beautiful moon full of light 2. Gentle breeze, the earth opens its ornaments, 3.The mind bird rush on me through to the sky,4. In the spaces full heat and the sun light.

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Ç’është, ç’është kjo-e paana Gjithësi? Dhe ky rregull dhe ky libër që sheh ti? Kjo e kaltër hapësirë e paanë. Këto drita që kufi e numër s’kanë? Këto yje trupergjëndë e faqeartë, Që vërtiten me nxitim e dritëqartë? Kjo natyrë dhe ky det, burim i jetës? 25 Këto ligje, këto pamje të së fshehtës? (shqipëroi: V. Buhraja)

11. What, what is this immense universe?12. And this order and this book do you see?13. This vast space entirely blue. 14. These lights with no limits and no numbers?15. These silver body and golden faced stars? 16. That crawled quickly and fairylighted?17.The nature and the sea, the source of life?18. These laws, these images of the face unseen? Imaginalization. Seeing the poetic work of Naim Frashëri, in this regard, [Dreams] Tehajjulat (‫ )تخيالت‬we note that it is organized even in the title with a mystical relationship, which, moreover motivates and is motivated by the imaginative motif. While the title of adapted version in Albanian is Dreams (by VB) it appears vague and generalized, giving to the whole book the main motive of

FRASHËRI, Naim. Tehajjulat /Ëndërrime, adapted by Vexhi Buharaja, Fondacioni Kulturor ―Saadi Shirazi‖, Tirana, 2005, p. 44-45, ll: 11-18 ‫چيست اين کا ًننات بی حساب‬ ‫اين نظام و اين کتاب مستطاب؟‬ ‫اين فضای آب رنگ بی کنار‬ ‫پرتو اندازان بی عد و شمار؟‬ ‫اين همه زرين لقا سيمين بران‬ ‫نور پاش و چابک و رقص آوران؟‬ ‫اين يم آب حيات؟‬، ‫اين طبيعت‬ ‫ اين معجزات؟‬،‫ اين رازها‬،‫اين حکم‬ ‫اين چه اجرامند پرتاب و شرر؟‬ ‫اين چه اکوانند پر از نور و فر؟‬ Dr. Brikena SMAJLI▪Naim Frashëri,Tehajjulat, an intertextual approach.

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reveries, images impossible, taking place within the mind of the poet; much 26 more, when it coincides with contemporary romantic European mentality , in which, though our author in Albanian later approach is not avoided; about the mentality and poetic tradition from which the work was written, the adaption title is limited in semantically point of view. Nor the assertion of his poetry, as romantic, is justified. By obeying to the hermeneutic textual reading that respects cultural and religious relations of the poetry of the author, we are pressing to distinguish semantic qualities of the word, which are important in it for the value of the author's poetic meditation and of harmony, as an element of inherent artistic writing and creation. English-Persian dictionary first argues that the word ‫( تخيالت‬takhayyulat) does not mean a dream, but the imagination, 27 appearance. European relevance of this word will be matched not only with the first concept of bringing in mind, imagination, as the action which happens in our mind, due to have a concrete memory and closing the facility construction, event, human; as an independent product of mind detached from the sensory approach, but as an act of memory and feeling at the same time, as it explained by William C. Chittick, in biblical terms. Revelation begins with dream-visions rather than sense perception because intelligible meanings are closer to imagination than they are to sense perception. Sense perception is the lower side, while meaning is the higher and subtler side. Imagination stands between the two. Revelation is a meaning when God wants meaning to descend to sense perception, it has to pass through the Presence of Imagination before it reaches sense perception. The reality of imagination demands that it give sensory form to everything that becomes actualized within it. There is no escape from this. If the divine revelation arrives in the state of sleep, it is called a “dream-vision," but if it arrives at the time of wakefulness, it is called an “imaginalization" takhayyul. That is why revelation begins with imagination. Then imagination is transferred to the angel in the outside world. 26

―The romantic collection of lyrical poems of our national poet, Naim Frashëri, written in Persian and published in Istambul on 1884, entitled Tehajjulat, is part of first phase of his composition.‖ See: Ahmet Kondo, 1996, Some Word to Readers, Frashëri, Naim. Ëndërrime, Biblioteka Zehra, adapted by: Vexhi Buharaja, Rumi, , p. 4. 27 English-Persian Dictionary, Ed. Arthur N. Wollaston, W. H. Allen & Co. London, 1882, p. 151.

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The angel imaginalizes itself as a man, or as a person who is perceived through sense perception. It may happen that only the one who is the object of the revelation perceives the angel, or it may happen that those with him also perceive it. Then the angel casts the words of his Lord into the prophet’s 28 hearing, and this is “revelation." C. Chittick here explained the word, ‫( تخيال‬takhayyul) as an act of revelation, of its inner perception, connecting the title of the work of Naim Frashëri itself not with a simple imagination, but with that, which is in the first instance, an act faith or has to do pronouncedly with the perception and that of evocation of faith. Asking to find to this word its componential significant in the language/languages of source, we follow the thought of Nabil Matar, who, 29 referring to Al-Farabius explained the nature word, borrowed by the root ‫خال‬ (Khal). Matar points out, that, according to Al-Farabius, this word is the corresponding Semite word, for the Greek one imagination = (Phantasia) 30 υαντασία, ―apparition‖ explained to the work of Aristotel, De Anima. But this on the contrary does not have to do with the concept of fiction or the unreal 31 thing. The author explained it as hauntimagination ‫( تخيال‬Takhayyul). Term as such coincides to the Latin respective biblical word aparicione /apparition/ 32 apareo. Another word that approachably (poetically) call our attention by the way of sound evocation and the faith perception, with takhayyulat is ‫( خد‬khad) from which the word ‫( تهجد‬takhayyud) = To observe, staying awake by night in 28

Chittick. William C. 1994, Imaginalwords: Ibn Al-Arabi and the problem of religious diversity, Suny series, p. 75. 29 Abu Nasr Al-Farab (875–950) Alfarabius in medieval latin texts, called as ―second teacher‖, after Aristotel, is one of most original thinkers of the Islamic philosophy, during the golden Islamic period. See: The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology, 2008. ed. by Tim Winter, Cambridge Companions to Religion, III. Series, p. 63. 30 Latin languages use the word APPARITION(angl), apareo (lat), see: Diccionario auxiliar espańol-latino para el uso moderno del latín - Bahía Blanca: Instituto Superior Juan XXIII, 2007, p. 80. (aparicion) dhe Rodale, J. L. The synonym finder, Jerome Irving, 1898-1971. Warner Book Edition, Rodale Press, 1986, p. 57 (Apparition). 31 see. Matar, Nabil. Magazine/Journal, Literature/writing, West Chester University, Feb, 1996, v23, Issue: n1, ISSN: 0093-3139. 32 Diccionario auxiliar espańol-latino para el uso moderno del latín - Bahía Blanca: Instituto Superior Juan XXIII, 2007, p. 80. (aparicion) dhe Rodale, J. L. The synonym finder, Jerome Irving, 1898-1971. Warner Book Edition, Rodale Press, 1986, p. 57. Dr. Brikena SMAJLI▪Naim Frashëri,Tehajjulat, an intertextual approach. 33

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sacred devotion, to pass the night praying although it is not a verb which is linked by the same root with the word in question is verbally part of this faith over living, suggesting an evocative tincture of the act of imagination, 33 ‫تخيال‬tekhayyul/takhayyul and connects the last word with the finite elaboration of the imaginalization, cited above from C. Chittick. This suggest in the meaning of the word ‫تخيال‬tekhayyul/takhayyul, not at all an outside and descending act of revelation on the evocative subject, but that of the quest of the man toward the revelation, the knowledge as a preparation for it. Therefore, this vision-imagination comes like a last appearance by the quest and the journey of the believer thinker. Further following the references, we took in consideration the explanation of the Encyclopaedia of Islam, which in 34 volume X, Brill, 2000,edition, explains the word tekhayïl as poetic term, technical us such, which is being explained by different meanings, all of them in the field of hermeneutics: theory of imagination, philosophical poetics, Qur‘an interpretation, rhetorical figure. It has a whole tradition in mystical 35 poetry of Persian-Arabic and signs a particular metaphor. Trying to summarize all what the word means in vision - imagination of the title ‫( تخيالت‬Takhayyulat) we present the following meanings: that of the prayer, as well as the kind of imagination as sign of devotion and that of haunt imagination, sign of sacred inspiration and the mirage, due to the pray, as the kind of philosophical and theological imagination also, which expresses and elaborate through Quran interpretation language a specific metaphor, similar to biblical parables. Precisely the title of the book can be translated imaginations/përfytyrime. In this title, imaginations/Përfytyrimet coincide with the nature of poetic writing (mystical mathnawi) that according to the tradition by which N. Frashëri writes, have the same relationship with poetical imagination of the mystic, the spiritual guide in the Bektashi and Sufi ritual of pray and dance.

The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New edition, prepared by a number of leading orientalists, editors:H. A. R. Gibb, J. H. Kramers, E. Lfivi-Provencal, J. Schaht, The International Union of Academies, Vol. X, T-U, LEIDEN E. J. BRILL, 2000, p. 129-32.) 34 Phonetic transcription is according to the Turkic spelling of the encyclopaedia. 35 The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New edititon, prepared by a number of leading orientalists, editors:H. A. R. Gibb, J. H. Kramers, E. Lfivi-Provencal, J. Schaht, The International Union of Academies, Vol. X, T-U, LEIDEN E. J. BRILL, 2000, p. 129.

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Reading of poems in this context, notably those of cosmogony nature (Heaven, Moon, Sun, Next to the seaside, God) means to think it over precisely with the value of haunt imagination, that comes due to the rhythm of dance, rotation of sama, from which the poetic discourse rhythms through enumeration, anaphora, inversion, rhyme and chain principle of the connection of two lines (distiches) – that will be part of European tradition through Dante‘s tercina of Divine comedy- sound symbolism etc. So, imaginations are in itself a deeper and a complexes process than ordinary poetic writing or versification. They are not product of a simple raised process, but part of a completeness, that in artistic expression terms, collect, in the integrated ritual of inspired pray, poetical text that is due to the viewpoint of imagination (takhayyulat), as a result of another artistic expression, dance as an experienced act, as ecstasy of melting, the unity in oversorrounded dance, of Sufis, precisely a dance of togetherness of the earth and sky, human and the divinity, God. In this point of view it is motivated even the authorial and personal quest of Naim Frashëri toward a harmony and unity, which is not determined simply as part of poetical text harmony, its imagination, author as a writer, but to the textual viewing and the author as part of an unity, universe, in which each is part of this harmony. By this viewpoint all the book is visionary and invocatory, toward the universe imagination, toward God. The poems of this book are distinguished for this harmony, which, besides meditation of the universe, put the poet himself (poetical voice, observing, contemplative and haunted eyes of the believer thinker) in this kind of melting and unifying correlation. From this viewpoint spring the proper natural harmony percepted by human, that it is part of inherent harmony, which poetries do evoke as a special spiritual inspired mood. Meanwhile, the today translation is needed to know specifically this work, Toward/in correlation with the Persian poetical system and parallel to emergent European poetry. Toward the poetry of Naim Frashëri in Albanian, of which is its continuity, its philosophical beginning for the Albanian author. In accordance with the poetical Albanian system, as a work who specifically reflects an oriental approach and European approach of Albanian poetry. Dr. Brikena SMAJLI▪Naim Frashëri,Tehajjulat, an intertextual approach.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY              

 

BULO, Jorgo (2007) Rumiu dhe Naim Frashëri. PERLA – Revistë shkencore – Kulturore tremujore. Viti XII Nr. 3 (46). Diccionario auxiliar espańol-latino para el uso moderno del latín (2007) Bahía Blanca: Instituto Superior Juan XXIII. DOJA, Albert (2008) Bektashizmi në Shqipëri: histori politike e një lëvizjeje fetare. Instituti Shqiptar për Studime Ndërkombëtare. Tiranë. CHEBEL, Malek (1995) Dictionnaire de Symbols Musulmans. Albin Mishel S.A.,Paris, Oiseou. Chittick, William C (2008) Sufism, Never ending dance. Oneworld books. Oxford. Chittick, William C (1994) Imaginalwords: Ibn Al-Arabi and the problem of religious diversity, Suny series. Chittick, William C (2005) The Sufi Doctrine of Rumi, Illustrated ed. Foreword by Seyyed Hossein Nasr. World Wisdom. FRASHËRI, Naim. Ëndërrime, shqipëroi Vexhi Buharaja, ―Toena‖, Tiranë, 2007. Frashëri, Naim. Ëndërrime, adapted: Vexhi Buhara. "Naimi". 2012. ELSIE, Robert (2001) Histori e letërsisë shqiptare. Botim i dytë. Dukagjini. Peja. FRASHËRI, Naim (2005)Tehajjulat/ Ëndërrime. Shqipëroi Vexhi Buharaja, Fondacioni Kulturor ―Saadi Shirazi‖. Tiranë. English-Persian Dictionary (1882) Ed. Arthur N. Wollaston. W. H. Allen & Co. London. Kondo, Ahmet (1996) Pak fjalë lexuesve. From Frashëri, Naim. Ëndërrime. Biblioteka Zehra. shqipëroi: Vexhi Buharaja. Rumi. Matar, Nabil. Feb, 1996, v23, Issue: n1,. Magazine/Journal, Literature/writing,West Chester University, ISSN: 0093-3139. o Rodale, J. L (1986) The synonym finder. Jerome Irving, 18981971. Warner Book Edition, Rodale Press. Studime filologjike, no. 2, 1971, Tirana. Schimmel, Anne Marie. (November, 1992) A Two-Colored Brocade: The Imagery of Persian Poetry, University of North Carolina Press. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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 

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The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (2008) ed. by Tim Winter, Cambridge Companions to Religjion, III. Series. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New edititon, prepared by a number of leading orientalists, editors:C. E. Bosworth, E. Van Donzel, B. Lewis, CH. Pellat, W. P. Heinrichs, As. F. TH. Dijkema and Mme S. Nurit (pp. 1-512-1044), The International Union of Academies, Vol. VI, MAHK— MID, Leiden. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New edititon, prepared by a number of leading orientalists, editors:H. A. R. Gibb, J. H. Kramers, E. LeviProvengal, J. Schacht, ass. M. Stern (pp. 1-320) B. Lewiss, CH. Pellat and J. Schacht, C. Dumont.... 1991, (pp. 321-1359) The International Union of Academies, Vol. I, A-B, Leiden E.J. Brill, f. 1161-2. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New edititon, prepared by a number of leading orientalists, editors:H. A. R. Gibb, J. H. Kramers, E. LfiviProvencal, J. Schaht, The International Union of Academies, Vol. X, T-U, LEIDEN E. J. BRILL, 2000, f. 129-32.) Ahmeti, Isak. Quran in Albanian Literature, iii. Quran as inexhaustible inspiration source for Naim Frashëri published only in http://www.shkoder.net/fjala/2006/iahmeti1.htm. FERMAND, V. Interview of Iranian scholar Vahid Fermand: Naim Frashëri –the last great poet who wrote Persian poetry, International Literary Manifestation, Naim‘ Days, 2009. http://www.ditetenaimit.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=artic le&id=66%3Abisede-me-intelektualin-iranian-vahid-fermandnaimfrasheri-poeti-i-fundit-i-madh-qe-shkroi-poezi-nepersisht&catid=40%3Ainformativ&lang=sq

Dr. Brikena SMAJLI▪Naim Frashëri,Tehajjulat, an intertextual approach.

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Meliha BRESTOVCI Using the Prepositions in, on, at-a Challenge for the Teachers and Students in Kosovo.

ABSTRACT Some of the fundamental challenges that society of higher education is facing,are the needs for research on difficult issues and comparisons at global level on one side, as well as at the local level taking into account the fact that in the modern world such comparisons are being made more useful and attractive. Having in mind that the English prepositions, respectively prepositional phrase has been studied enough, we have tried to follow a path in consultation with numerous materials with the aim of achieving the most useful, only to enlighten better and have realistic picture of the comparison. To study the prepositional phrase in the novel, an analysis of three prepositions in, on and at is done, comparing them with prepostions in Albanian language from the selected novel in English `Guliver`s Travels` by Jonathan Swift, translated into Albanian by the author Halit Selfo. In particular, this paper is an attempt to include a comparative analysis of the prepositional phrase, especially for three mentioned which in Albanian in most cases they appear translated with the preposition nĂŤ. Despite the possibility that there might be other different translations, which of course will be targeted through other extended research, they mostly appear with prepositions of accusative and less with prepositions of nominative. This fact strengthns the view that accusative carries the main burden of translations of the three prepositions into Albanian.

KEYWORDS: English, Albanian, prepositions, time, location, prepositional phrase, education, novel, comparative analyses

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Some of the fundamental challenges that society of higher education is facing, are the needs for research on difficult issues and comparisons at global level on one side, as well as at the local level, taking into account the fact that in the modern world such comparisons are being made more useful and attractive. Preposition is one of the parts of speech in English. Grammatically, preposition is the word which shows the "relationship" between parts of the sentence and its object. In this way it serves as a link that shows how is the noun or any part of speech associated with other parts of the sentence. All those who start to learn English face the same problems: how to best use prepositions in English, which sometimes are not so easy just because of their multiple meanings. They may encounter several problems in using them properly, but the main ones are as follows: a) if in a sentence a preposition is necessary or not, and b) which preposition should be used if it is required. The first problem can cause trouble to those speakers who have in their own language such sentence structure that requires preposition, while the same sentence in English requires no preposition, and vice versa. Main prepositions, more frequent prepositions (on, in, at) deal with relations in space, time and place. Frequent use of prepositions in English language has become a necessity because of the lack of nominative case forms to express all nuances of meaning. Unlike Albanian language, in English a constantly great use of prepositions plays a role in the expression of syntactic relations of the noun and pronoun in the sentence. Most of prepositions in English are consisted of one word and in a sentence can be found many of them, eg, Jane had lunch at a restaurant out of town on the hill. international journal of science â&#x2013;Ş 2013 â&#x2013;Ş volume 4

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Having in mind that the English prepositions, respectively prepositional phrase has been studied enough, we have tried to follow a path in consultation with numerous materials with the aim of achieving the most useful, only to enlighten better and have realistic picture of the comparison. To deepen the paper, we studied the preposition in the novel, namely the analysis of three prepositions in, on and at, comparing them with prepostions in Albanian language from the selected novel in English `Guliver`s Travels` by Jonathan Swift, translated into Albanian by the author Halit Selfo.We agreed for the prose, because we think that the language of prose is the most common language and close to everyday speech. In particular, this paper is an attempt to include a comparative analysis of the respective prepositional phrase, which in Albanian in most cases they appear translated with the preposition në. Let`s take some examples when these prepositions are translated with those of accusative case -në, nëpër, për, me, më, mbi (...and fell onmy face-.godita faqen në tryezë;.an impression onmy mind.-dhe më janë rrënjosur aq thellë në tru; low heels inthe administrationt- thembër-shkurtit në krye të shtetit;Given at our Palace, at Belfaborac - Dhënë në pallatin tonë, në Belfaborek; alighted at an inn - zbriti në një han...). From the above examples we see that prepositions on, in and at, are translated with në indicating the place where an action is performed (në tryezë; në pallatin ). Regarding the second example (në tru), is an implication of a different nature where the preposition bears the burden of mental and spiritual action or other manifestations of this activity. On, in, at with the preposition nëpër(onthese packthreads.- nëpër spanga; both in the streets -nëpër udhët e qytetit;at the gate- nëpër dyert), show the place (nëpër shtrat, nëpër udhët, nëpër dyert) where someone or something moves in different directions, indicate the environment (nëpër shkëmbinjë), and the mean (nëpër spanga).

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On, in, at with the preposition për (..on your account.- për punën tuaj;and that in three minutes- sa për tri minuta; towers at ten foot distance. Për çdo dhjetë këmbë gjatësi,), show the topic or issue during a lecture or a meeting, as well as a limitation of a feature or of an action. As regards to preposition in translated with për, is used with a cardinal number to indicate duration of an action, and other examples show the spatial distance. On,in, at with me, më..(..on each other- me njëra-tjetrën; onthe pretence of health-me yckel se ish e semurë; in very gentle terms- me ca fjalë të bukura; at the end of my krife- me majën e thikë;, at good price- me një çmim të mir; , on the 21st of April- Më 21 prill...), indicate the presence of objects (me njëra-tjetrën) together in one place as well as their participation in a joint action (të përplaseshin me njëra-tjetrën), and indicate the purpose of an action or intention (me yckel se ish e sëmurë ).On translated with më, is always used for dates and days also, indicating the time when something happens or when an action is done. Also the preposition on translated with mbi (onthe table- mbi tryezë; onthe bed- mbi shtrat; onmy head- mbi kokë ), used with a noun in accusative case to make the place known, on which surface someone or something moves; with preposition sipër (mbi tryezë, mbi shtrat), shows the space above which an action is performed (a përmbi, mbi kokë ). On, in, at with prepositions of nominative case te, të (onthe rope- te një tërkuzë; in the royal park- të parkut mbretëror; at least forty- të paktën nga dyzet; at London brige- te ura e Londrës) mark the place (te tryeza, te ura) or a thing to (te njëtërkuzë). It shows less possible amount or necessary, as it should be or become necessary, not less than they are (të paktën nga dyzet të tjerë). On, in, at with nga (onthat side- nga ajo anë; in sea-affairs- nga punët e detit; at the closet window- nga dritarja në dhomë; at noon- aty nga dreka)show the direction from which someone or something leaves or avoids aside (nga ajo anë, nga të dyja anët),as the feature or side that we take as a international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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support to determinate or evaluate someone or something (nga punët e detit), the place which something passes through (nga dritarja në dhomë). Preposition at translated with nga, shows the approximate time during which something is done (nga dreka), or other examples observed during the analysis of the novel show the time taken as a starting point. On, in, at with prepositional phrase, indicate that PP in English (on the shore, on the table, at home, at the royal park) are translated with PP in Albanian (ndanë detit, ndajë skelës, pranë vatrës, majë çatisë). Obviously, Albanian language sometimes does not take a preposition before NP, since only with it the meaning is clear. As seen above, here we have linguistic compatibility in both languages. On the other hand, on, in, at - lack of translation of the whole phrase(on these occasions, when a servant had given me notice -Kur më lajmëronin se kish ardhur një musafir; The Emperor holds a stick in his hands, both ends paralel to the horizont - Perandori mban një shkop në mënyrë horizontale, kandidatët afrohen njeri pas tjetrit; My master, to avoid a crowd, would suffer only thirty people at a time to see me - Që të mos bëhej rrëmujë, im zot nuk fuste më tepër se tridhjetë veta të më shihnin). The phrases in bold are not translated into Albanian, and were never replaced with any word or another phrase. Apparently the translator has carried the message rather than an accurate translation. We think that the translator has done it right, because the message is transmitted completely, and the eventual translation of some phrases could give also a deep diversity of translation, giving full information on the respective sentences. Therefore, we consider that translator, with a unique originality, was keen to highlight the concept for an acceptable ordinary reader, as he achieved to carry ideas, semantics of the moment, and even the emotions of the writer. Analyzing the situations in the sentences, one cannot say different than, even in cases of a non-direct translation of any possible phrase, the aesthetic-emotional value is transferred in an excellent way.

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This qualifies not only finding and adapting relevant words, but also related to a linguistic accuracy. The English prepositional phrasewith a preposition head on translated with a noun into Albanian(on your shirts- këmishët; female noun,definite form, plural in accusative case and on the back- shpinës also translated with a female noun, definite form, singular,in ablative). Unlike the two examples, PP with the preposition head in (in the Guards, in Nottinghamshire) are translated with nouns that take frontal article e, i (i gardës, e Notingamit). Another characteristic of this group, is that all these nouns are in the genitive case, definite form, singular. The conclusion to this part is that PP translated with nouns into Albanian appear translated in three cases, accusative, ablative and genitive. The largest number of them is in the accusative and genitive case, but all these nouns have a common characteristic which is the definite form of the noun. The following pages provide three tables through which are reflected, in the rough use, these three prepositions in English and their equivalencies translated into Albanian language. In our analysis, the prepositions on, in, and at are translated in several ways, for example with prepositions of accusative, nominative, lack of translation of the whole PP, they are translated by adverbs of place, time, quantity, manner, with free translation. We noted that prepositions on, in and at are translated into Albanian with adverbs of place (poshtë, an`e mbanë, brenda, përdhe, përpara, larg etc.) which show where someone or something ends and the action performed. In particular, a greater diversity in translation with adverbs of all kinds, as will be seen from the table, has proven to give the preposition at translated with all the above adverbs.

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1. Table with data for preposition on Translation used for analysis

times

433

100%

204

47.11%

- with prepositions of nominative (nga, te, të)

9.9%

- with adverb of place

7.6%

- cases when not translated at all

12.2%

- translated with other sentences (free translation)

12%

- idiomatic translation

5.3%

- with verbs

2.77%

- prepositional phrase

1.6%

- numeral

1.38%

English prepositional phrase with the head

- with prepositions of accusative -with preposition në-124

(28.63%)

- with preposition me, më -37 Prepositional phrase with the head on –translated into Albanian

- with preposition mbi-17

(8.54%) (3.92%)

- with preposition nëpër-9

(2.07%)

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2. Table with data for preposition in Translation used for analysis

times

1927

100%

707

36.68%

119

5.86%

4.98%

- cases when not translated at all (the whole phrase is missing)

292

15.15%

- translated with other sentences

234

12.17%

- without preposition (with noun)

5.3%

-expressions

0.25%

English prepositional phrase with the head

with prepositions of accusative -with preposition në-595

Prepositional phrase with the head in – translated into Albanian

(30.90 %)

- with preposition me, më-109

(5.66 %)

- with preposition nëpër-23

(1.20 %)

- with prepositions of nominative nga-32 -te, të- 87

(1.66 %) (4.52 %)

With adverbs -of place- 45 -time- 37

(2.34%) (1.92%)

-manner- 9

(0.46%)

-amount-5

(0.25%)

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3. Table with data for preposition at: Translation used for analysis English prepositional phrase with the head at

635

100% 32.7%

13.0%

9.76%

-cases when not translated at all(the whole phrase is missing) - translated with other sentences (free translation)

105

16.5%

10.7%

- idiomatic translations

3.92%

- with expressions

1.26%

- prepositional phrase

0.31%

-with preposition në-145

(22.99%)

- with preposition me, më-61

(9.60%)

- with preposition nëpër-2

(0.31%)

-with prepositions of nominative -nga -24

(3.78%)

- te, të – 59

(9.29%)

-with adverbs -of manner- 25

(3.93%)

-time - 16

(2.52%)

- place – 11

(1.74%)

-amount - 10

208

- with prepositions of accusative

Prepositional phrase with the head at –translated into Albanian

times

(1.57%)

Meliha BRESTOVCI ▪ Using the Prepositions in, on, at ...

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Dr. Vincent CUVILLIERS, Dr. Matthieu FONTAINE, and Dr. Philippe 1 MOULIS . The Itinerary of a Lazarist from the North of France: Adrien Lamourette (1742-1794)

Scholarship on the history of the Catholic Church during the French Revolution is multiplying rapidly. Innovative research methods and different 2 avenues of enquiry renew the historiography of the period. A significant number among those studies has been devoted to the career of Adrien Lamourette, both during the revolutionary period and during his time as a constitutional bishop of Rhône-et-Loire. There are, for instance, Daniele Menozzi “Philosophe” e “Chrétiens éclairés” Politica e religione nella 3 collaborazione di G.H. e A.A. Lamourette (1774-1794), and the work of Caroline Blanc-Chopelin, De l’apologétique à l’église constitutionnelle, Adrien 4 Lamourette. Lamourette‟s career path preceding the Revolution is still relatively 5 6 unknown, and requires closer examination. He was born in Frévent (Artois)

Translate from french to english by Liesbeth CORENS, University of Cambridge. Vincent CUVILLIERS, Des "empereurs au petit pied" entre exigences gouvernementales et résistances départementales : l'exemple des préfets du Pas-de-Calais (1800-1815), thèse de doctorat d’Histoire, doctoral thesis under supervision of Annie Crépin, M.C.F. H.D.R., Université d’Artois, 2009; Matthieu FONTAINE, Espace, temps et administration. Vivre dans les campagnes du nord de l’Artois (bailliages d’Aire et de Saint-Omer). De la reconquête française à la Révolution (1677-1790), doctoral thesis under supervision of Pr. Gilles Deregnaucourt, Université d’Artois, 2009; Philippe MOULIS, Université de Paris XIII, CRESC (E.A. 2356) : Le clergé paroissial du diocèse de Boulogne-sur-Mer de 1627 à 1789, doctoral thesis under supervision of Pr. Gilles Deregnaucourt, Université d’Artois, 2008. 2 Philippe BOURDIN and Philippe BOUTRY, «L’Église catholique en Révolution: l’historiographie récente », Annales historiques de la Révolution fraçaise, 2009/1 n° 355, p. 3-23. 3 Brescia, Paideia, 1976 ; See also: Jacques GODECHOT’s bibliographical overview in Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire, 1980, volume, 58, n°2, p. 525-527. 4 PhD thesis with Bernard HOURS, Université de Lyon II, 2006, published in éditions Honoré Champion in 2009. 5 David SORKIN, The Religious Enlightenment. Protestants, Jews and Catholics from London to Vienna, Princeton University Press, 2008, p. 267. Dr. Vincent CUVILLIERS, Dr. Matthieu FONTAINE, Dr. Philippe MOULIS. 47

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in 1742, entered the seminary in Saint-Lazare on 4 May 1759, and made his vows there on 5 May 1761. Lamourette became priest in 1769, and afterwards professor of theology at the seminaries of Metz and Toul. He received his doctorate in theology from Pont-à-Mousson in 1775, but left the congregation in 1778 and became curate in Outremécourt (Lorraine), an occupation which he fulfilled 8 until 1783, when he was reintegrated into the congregation. He was elected constitutional bishop of Rhône-et-Loire, and installed in Lyon on 7 April 1791. He then acted as depute to the Législative. 9

At the taking of Lyon, he was arrested, imprisoned in the Conciergerie (where M. Emery ensured he retracted his vows), and executed 10 on the guillotine 22 Nivôse year II (11 January 1794). Archival documents shed new light on the career of this Lazarist priest. This article focuses upon his youth, his family and his career in the congregation of the Mission, and his time as curate in Outremécourt in Lorraine. Caroline Chopelin-Blanc and Alain Clément have argued in an article about Nicholas Baudeau and Adrien Lamourette‟s idea of poverty, that Adrien Lamourette was crystallised around the Franciscan ideal of poverty and the

Stéphane NIVET, « Caroline Chopelin-Blanc, Adrien Lamourette (1742-1794). De l'apologétique à l'Église constitutionnelle, 2 vol. 768 et 784 p.», Chrétiens et sociétés, 13|2006, online: 15 September 2009. URL: http://chretienssocietes.revues.org/index2077.html 7 Ecclesiastics of the congregation of the mission are also called Lazarists. 8 Paul CATRICE, « L’abbé Henri Grégoire (1750-1831), « amis de tous les hommes », et la régénération des Juifs », Mélanges de Sciences Religieuses, 36, 1979, p. 161-162. 9 Michel BIARD, 1793, le siège de Lyon entre mythes et réalités, Lemme edit Illustoria, 2013, 114 p. 10 Léon-Noël BERTHE, Dictionnaire des correspondants de l’Académie d’Arras au temps de Robespierre, Arras, 1969, p. 131.

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figure of Vincent de Paul. However, it is important to take into account Lamourette‟s personal experience as well. Gaining a better understanding of Lamourette's formative early years, helps us to understand more of what shaped the famous writer's thinking in later years. Childhood and education in Frévent and Boulogne-sur-Mer A family of Frévent

Adrien Lamourette was born as the sixth child out of ten to the wool comber Jean-François on 31 May 1742. He was baptised in the parish Saint-Hilaire in Frévent in the diocese of Boulogne The Lamourette family counted a number of wool combers among its members, and thereby took part in a rural protoindustry which involved various 12 households. This protoindustrial activity was driven by a merchant capitalist who delegated work to a couple of humble rural families, and paid them according to the work produced. The role of the wool comber was to clean the wool which had previously been washed. They used a heated comb covered with grease in order to remove dust, knots, and other irregularities. From this phase in the production process, the wool was returned to the merchant capitalist, who passed it on to spinners. Women and children often took part in this employment. Adrien Lamourette‟s father and grandfather had been wool combers. While it is certain that Adrien Lamourette had seen them at work, we only can assume he also had participated in their labour. While it is impossible to prove whether Adrien Lamourette had suffered from poverty during his childhood, he did grow up among wool combers who lived under difficult circumstances in Frévent. The signatures in parish registers show that Caroline CHOPELIN-BLANC, Alain CLEMENT, « L’idée de pauvreté chez deux ecclésiastiques des Lumières : Nicolas Baudeau et Adrien Lamourette », Histoire, économie et société, 2008, p. 45-63. 12 Claude CAILLY, « Contribution à la définition d’un mode de production proto-industriel », Histoire & Mesure, 1993, VIII-1/2, p. 19. Dr. Vincent CUVILLIERS, Dr. Matthieu FONTAINE, Dr. Philippe MOULIS. 49 11

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Adrien‟s grandfather, Druon Lamourette was unable to write, and signed with a cross, while his uncles did sign but with irregular hands. Nonetheless, the Lamourette family did count amongst its members two other clergymen, for two of Adrien Lamourette‟s nephews were ordained priest. A Lazarist Education

Numerous biographical notices state that Adrien Lamourette was educated in a Lazarist seminary, more precisely that of Boulogne-sur-Mer. Even though the appalling state of the archives impedes detailed research on this phase of his formation in particular, it is possible to reconstruct a general picture of the functioning of the Lazarist seminary of Boulogne-sur-Mer during the first half of the eighteenth century. The synodal statutes of Boulogne required „a formation period‟ in the seminary before ordination. A minimum knowledge was required before admission to the seminary. In 1701, Monsignor Pierre de Langle ordered that no ecclesiastic was to proceed to minor orders before the age of eighteen, and 13 only after finishing a course in philosophy. Similarly, holy orders were only bestowed after at least one year of theology. Monsignor de Part-de-Pressy increased this required period to two years of theology in 1744. It is this term which Adrien Lamourette fulfilled. The duration of obligatory presence in the seminary was determined by synodal statute and had been fixed at fifteen months since 1662. Under the episcopacy of Monsignor de Langle, this period was extended: tonsured students stayed two weeks, and candidates for the minor orders a month. For the latter, the duration was again increased from 14 one month to „several months‟ under Monsignor Partz-de-Pressy. Such a short course of only a few weeks of study before each of the three orders was

A. M. Saint-Omer, 10789 85-5, t. 2 : Statuts synodaux du diocèse de Boulogne-sur-Mer de 1701, titre I, article IV. 14 A. M. Saint-Omer, 10789 85-5, t. 2 : Statuts synodaux du diocèse de Boulogne-sur-Mer de 1744, titre I, article IV.

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very little time to gain a sufficient grasp ecclesiastical understanding. The duration of the seminary education increased from fifteen months and fifteen days in 1662 to seventeen months in 1744. In 1750, Monsignor de Partz-de-Pressy decided to fund scholarships for those who were willing to stay in the seminary in Boulogne for over fifteen 16 months. Because of this initiative, the duration of seminary education oscillated between fifteen and twenty-one months in the second half of the eighteenth century. It thereby approximated the ideal of a two-year clerical formation period set out by the congregations and companies directing the 17 seminaries. The eighteenth-century synodal statutes show that the bishops sought to impose particular books as required reading for the priests in the diocese of Boulogne-sur-Mer. In 1701, the Jansenist bishop Pierre de Langle recommended a number of books, both for their instruction and their personal use: the Bible, the Catechism of the Council of Trent, a author of moral theology, such as La somme de Tolet, the Théologie de Grenoble, the Théologie de Sylvius, the Conférences de Luçon, the Imitation de JésusChrist, the Méditations de Busée, Méditations de Veuvelet, Manuel de Veuvelet, Cathéchisme de Grenade, Couronne de l‟année chrétienne by 18 Abelly, and Instructions de Godeau. Monsignor Pierre de Lange also advised priests should read the Church Fathers. Monsignor Partz-de-Pressy repeated this list in the statutes of 1746, but without the Instructions by Godeau since that author was under suspicion of Jansenism by then. The seminarians of the diocese of Boulogne-sur-Mer had received a Jansenist formation during Pierre A. DEGERT, Histoire des séminaires français jusqu’à la Révolution, Paris, Ed. Beauchesne, 1912, t. 2, p. 11. 16 A. D. Pas-de-Calais, 25 G 1 : « Le 29 may 1750, receu de Mgr l’évêque pr le Iere fois pour la pension du surplus des 15 mois que les seminaristes passent dans le seminaire 653 livres 6 sols 8 d ». 17 D. JULIA, « L'éducation des ecclésiastiques en France aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles», Problèmes d’histoire de l’éducation, Actes des séminaires organisés par l’Ecole française de Rome et l’Università di Roma – La Sapienza (janvier-mai 1985), Ecole Française de Rome, Palais Farnèse, 1988, p. 157-158. 18 Antoine Godeau wrote several works of piety, such as Instructions et prières chrétiennes pour toutes sortes de personnes, as also pastoral works like Ordonnances et Instructions synodales which discussed the rights and obligations of bishops, priests, and laity. According to Goudeau, the Tridentine Reformation was solely possible through charity and poverty. Dr. Vincent CUVILLIERS, Dr. Matthieu FONTAINE, Dr. Philippe MOULIS. 51 15

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de Langle‟s episcopacy (1698-1724), but the prelates after him promoted a strictly Tridentine and anti-Jansenist formation. In addition to its role as a place of preparation for the priesthood, the seminary of Boulogne-sur-Mer became a school of theology in 1725. The successor of Pierre de Langle - Monsignor Jean-Marie Henriau aimed to re-institute orthodoxy and for this purpose he procured numerous 19 proved and licenced publications. Among those was, for instance, the orthodox course in moral theology by Raymond Bonal which was very 20 successful in seminaries from the 1650s onwards. The account book of the congregation of the mission in Boulogne-sur-Mer (1715-1771) also listed the purchase of a number of instruction manuals on Tridentine ceremonies, such 21 as Manuel des Cérémonies and Manuel des cérémonies romaines. Similar lists of publications and their titles have been preserved in the account books under the episcopacy of Monsignor d‟Hervilly de Devise for the period between August 1739 and December 1742. These books, which were strictly orthodox in content, came from 22 Paris. The seminary bought them and subsequently sold them to the 23 seminarists or other ecclesiastical figures. During the episcopacy of Monsignor d‟Hervilly de Devise, some of the titles or a summary were entered in the register of receipts of the seminary . Predominant were the standard works aimed at the practical instruction in of ecclesiastics, such as the Livre des cérémonies, manuel des Cérémonies romaines, Exhortations aux malades in two volumes, Instruction à 19

A. D. Pas-de-Calais, 25 G 1 : « Le 31 aoust 1730, receue de Mr Bois pr un jansenius in Evangelia, 3 livres 10 sols ». 20 Le cours de theéologie morale, dans lequel les cas de conscience sont amplement enseignez et la pratique nécessaire aux Pasteurs des âmes et à toute sorte de personnes, tant ecclésiastiques que séculières, divisé en deux tomes, composé par M. Raymond Bonal, prestre et docteur en théologie (Toulouse, 1651). 21 A. D. Pas-de-Calais, 25 G 1. 22 A. D. Pas-de-Calais, 25 G 1 : décembre 1740. 23 A. D. Pas-de-Calais, 25 G 1 : décembre 1740.

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la pénitence, la Conduite des Confesseurs, and Instruction des Confesseurs. 25 Honoré Tournely‟s works on theology became obligatory. Tournely (16581729) was theologian in the Sorbonne, regarded as one of the most skilled theologians of his time, and a fierce opponent of Jansenism.

From 1725 to 1729, he published a course in theology which acquired a great reputation during the eighteenth century. His course consisted of sixteen volumes, the first entitled: Praelectiones Theologicae de gratia Christi, quas in scholis sorbonnicis habuit Honoratus. Many authors published summaries of Tournely‟s work. Another aspect taught in the seminary was biblical history, as for instance reflected in the purchase of Histoire du peuple de Dieu, by the French Jesuit historian Isaac Joseph Berruyer, in August 26 1739. This strict orthodoxy was maintained throughout the episcopacy of Monsignor Partz-de-Presy. During this period, from January 1743 until September 1759 –when Adrien Lamourette attended the seminary- the money spent on books reached 1478 Tours pound, their origin still being Paris. The practical formation of clergy was facilitated by works specifically written for that purpose, such as: Instructions sur le sacrement de penitence, Livrets sur les principaux devoirs d‟un bon curé, Conduites des Confesseurs, and des 27 devoirs d‟un bon curé ou le Sermonaire. From November 1757 until October 1758, the seminary also subscribed to „un dictionnaire de cas de conscience‟. Lazarist personnel under the episcopacy of Monsignor Partz-de-Pressy.

The president of the seminary of Boulogne-sur-Mer was appointed by the general superior of the congregation and his council, and their term in office depended upon the bishop‟s advice. The president was in charge of the

A. D. Pas-de-Calais, 25 G 1: novembre 1738; décembre 1740; janvier 1741; avril 1741; mai 1741; juin 1741; février 1742; 25 A. D. Pas-de-Calais, 25 G 1. 26 A. D. Pas-de-Calais, 25 G 1 : « Le 14 aoust 1739, receu pour l’histoire du peuple de dieu, dix escus ». 27 A. D. Pas-de-Calais, 25 G 1: avril 1744; octobre 1744; février 1745; mars 1746, février 1747, mai 1759. Dr. Vincent CUVILLIERS, Dr. Matthieu FONTAINE, Dr. Philippe MOULIS. 53

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general organisation of the seminar and communicated with the bishop about the admission of students, bursaries, studies, ordinations, and remissions. He also guarded the discipline of the establishment, controlled the work of directors and students, and taught some courses. The superiors of the house in Boulogne-sur-Mer in the second half of 28 the eighteenth century were: -1750-1754: Melchior-François Duparcq (4 years) -1754-1760: Sébastien Le Graët (6 years) -1760-1778: Giles Chonnault (18 years) There are some details about the Lazarists who stayed at the seminary during Adrien Lamourette‟s time there, and therefore will have had contact with him. -Claude Buignet, from the diocese of Amiens, who died in in Boulogne-surMer on 5May 1764, at the age of 34 -Jean Calberger, from Alsace, who died on 29 July 1767 at the age of 31. -Jean-Charles Caron: “Jean-Charles Caron was born to Philippe-Albert and Marie-Antoinette Duprez on 30 December 1730 in Auchel, a village of 93 households, and 338 inhabitants, thirty kilometres north-east from Arras. He was baptised the following day, in the church of Saint-Martin, by Pierre-André Cossart (…). Jean-Charles attended the village school and learned to read and write, the was taught the catechism, and probably also some basic understanding of Latin. After some first grounding in secondary education, he th arrived at Saint-Lazare on 9 October 1750. He made his vows there the 10 of October 1752. On 20 November 1752, the bishop, Monsignor de Pressy allows tonsure. After his priestly ordination, about 1759, Jean-Charles was 28

Félix CONTASSOT, Les Lazaristes au séminaire de Boulogne-sur-Mer avant la Révolution (1681-1791), Paris, 1962, p. 22.

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placed in the parish of Saint-Louis in Versailles, at about a kilometre from Notre-Dame, both located mere hundreds metres from the entry of the palace. (…) Jean-Charles left his parish and the Congregation in 1770 for reasons unknown. He was appointed vicar in the parish of Saint-Étienne, in Brie-Comte-Robert (Île-de-France), where he signed his last act on 28 September 1781. He was then appointed curate in Collégien, a village of one hundred inhabitants in the archdiocese of Paris. He there signed parish acts from 28 October 1781 onwards. (…) Jean Charles took the oath legally required from priests on 13 February 1791, but with reservations. He signed his last Catholic act on 29 March. The reservation in his oath turned him into a resistant, and he had to leave his charge. On 31 July, another priest who had taken the oather takes up his task. Jean-Charles retires to Ferté-sous-Jouarre, before asking hospitality from Louis-Joseph François, the superior of the Seminary SaintFirmin. Given his year-long absence from the district of Meaux, he had been entered on the list of Emigrés. As a prisoner, he could not move to foreign countries. Like the majority of prisoners, he was killed on 2 September 29 1792.” -Pierre-François Flours (brother), from the diocese of Boulogne-sur-Mer. He entered the seminary in Boulogne-sur-Mer on 8 February 1764, and made his vows on 29 February 1766. He died among his family in 1797. -Claude Hernu (brother), from the diocese of Boulogne-sur-Mer. He entered the seminary of Boulogne-sur-Mer on 10 July 1759, made his vows there in 1761 in the presence of M. Chonnault. -François Leroy (brother), from the diocese of Boulogne-sur-Mer. He entered the seminary of Boulogne-sur-Mer in October 1762, and made his vows in 1764 in the presence of M. Chonnault.

Paul HENZMANN, « Bienheureux Jean-Charles Caron », Archives de la Congrégation de la Mission, Paris, 2006. Dr. Vincent CUVILLIERS, Dr. Matthieu FONTAINE, Dr. Philippe MOULIS. 55

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-Jérôme Leuiller (brother), from the diocese of Amiens. He arrived in Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1753, and made his vows there on 1 December 1754 in the presence of M. Le Graët. -Nicolas Leuiller (brother), from the diocese of Amiens. He arrived in Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1753 and made his vows on 1 May 1754 in the presence of M. Duparcq. -Joseph Oblin, from the diocese of Cambrai, died 31 July 1767 at the age 33 and the fourteenth year of his vocation. -Charles-Philippe Paradis, from the diocese of Arras, died 30 July 1767 at the age of 31, and the tenth year of his vocation. -Joseph Retaux (brother), died at Boulogne-sur-Mer on 22 September 1767. -Remi Saint-Léger from the diocese of Arras was in Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1767. -Laurent-Joseph Veniel (brother) from the diocese of Boulogne-sur-Mer. He entered the seminary of Boulogne-sur-Mer on 25 September 1769, made his vows there in 1771 in the presence of M. Chonnault. The seminary: recruitment pool for the congregation of the mission

The seminary of Boulogne-sur-Mer was an important internal recruitment pool for the congregation of the mission. Félix Contassot estimates that 4630 Frenchmen entered the internal seminaries of the 30 congregation. The internal seminaries contributed both to the recruitment 31 and the formation of Lazarists. The Congregation of the Mission counted

Félix CONTASSOT, Le recrutement de la Congrégation de la Mission en France avant la Révolution, Etude documentaire, Archives de la Congrégation de la Mission, Paris, 1959. 31 One has to make a distinction between internal seminars and the external ones, the latter being diocesan seminaries which local bishops confided to the congregation of the mission for the formation of their clergy.

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seven internal seminaries during the seventeenth century, but only three of 32 these continued to function in the early eighteenth century. The first one was opened in June 1637 in Saint-Lazare in Paris. 3316 33 Missioners out of 4630 were educated at this foundation. The second internal seminary was the one in Lyon, which opened its doors in 1671. Until 34 the Revolution, 546 recruits were formed in this establishment. The seminary in Cahors was the third internal seminary. Opened in 1689 it furnished 450 35 recruits. In these internal seminaries the applicants for the mission were enrolled in a two-year programme, preparing them to take their vows. In order to be appointed to a particular mission, the clerics embarked upon further studies in Saint-Lazare, Cahors or Lyon. Félix Contassot has estimated the 36 recruits were aged between twenty and twenty-three. The diocese of Boulogne-sur-Mer was ninth in ranking among the 120 French dioceses from which the Congregation recruited both priests and 37 brothers. Between 1625 and 1789, the diocese provided 143 members to the Congregation of the Mission: one bishop, 100 priests, 4 clerics, 38 coadjutor 38 brothers. Among those 100 priests, the parishes of Frévent and Saint-Pol32

The internal seminar of Richelieu (1653-1660); the seminary of Saint-Méen, for the recruitment of Bretagne (starting from the years 1670-1685); the seminary of Toul, for the province of Champagne (1692-1697); the seminary of Angers, for the recruitment of the province of Poitou (1693-1702). 33 Recruitment area was mainly spread across the dioceses in the North, West, East and centre of France. 34 These mainly originated from the dioceses of Lyon, Annecy, Besançon, Clermont, Embrun, Le Puy, Mâcon, Marseille, St-Claude, St-Flour, and Vienne. 35 The recruits mainly came from the dioceses of Cahors, Agen, Albi, Bordeaux, Codom, Dax, Limoges, Pamiers Rodez, and Sarlat. 36 Félix CONTASSOT, Le recrutement de la Congrégation de la Mission en France avant la Révolution, Etude documentaire, Archives de la Congrégation de la Mission, Paris, 1959, p. 21. 37 Between 1625 and 1789, the eight preceding dioceses were : Paris 392, Lyon 339, Amiens 257, Besançon 217, Arras 185, Cahors 181, Rouen 181, Toul 174. The diocese of Saint-Omer was in thirty-first position with forty-one inividuals. See: Félix CONTASSOT, Le recrutement de la Congrégation de la Mission en France avant la Révolution, op. cit. , pp. 16-19. 38 Félix CONTASSOT, Les Lazaristes au séminaire de Boulogne-sur-Mer avant la Révolution (1681-1791), Etude documentaire, Archives de la Congrégation de la Mission, Paris, 1962, pp. 65-68. Dr. Vincent CUVILLIERS, Dr. Matthieu FONTAINE, Dr. Philippe MOULIS. 57

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sur-Ternoise were very prominent -16 and 12 priests respectively. The recruitment was concentrated mainly in the eighteenth century, with 84 priests and 34 brothers. Family and locality impacted considerably upon the recruitment in the Congregation of the Mission. One can note the repetition of the same family names in particular agglomerations, and this round about the same time. Some families, like the Caron family (Auchel), and the Davelu and Lamourette family (Frévent) had traditionally contributed numerous sons to the Congregation of the Mission.

Name

Place of birth

Date of birth

Date of entry

state

Adrien Lamourette

Frévent

1742

1759

Constitutional bishop

AngeBernard Lamourette

Frévent

1767

1786

Priest

LouisAntoine Lamourette

Frévent

1766

1783

Priest

Similar to the attachment of some families to the Congregation, is the prominence of some regions, such as Frévent (17 Lazarists) and Saint-Polsur-Tenoise (13). Adrien Lamourette was received into the Congregation on 4 May 1759 in Saint-Lazare, where he also took his vows on 5 May 1761. The next sections will turn attention firstly to his career path between the taking of his

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vows on 5 May 1761 and his ordination in 1769, and then to the posts he occupied between 1769 and 1773.

A Lazarist from Artois in Lorraine: the culture shock. A seminary Lazarist in Metz Lamourette moved from Artois to Lorraine in the early 1770s. Coming from a region with a distinctly Spanish-Tridentine culture at the frontier of Catholicism, 39 Adrien Lamourette was confronted with multiconfessionalism in Lorraine. This „culture shock‟ is important to note. It was in Lorraine that the Lazarist encountered Protestant and Jewish communities. The few Calvinist families in 40 Boulogne-sur-Mer lived along the sea coast. As for Jews, apart from some itinerant merchants who passed through the villages, Jews did not have any established communities in the diocese. In Metz, Adrien Lamourette was professor of successively philosophy and theology. Most notoriously, one of his students was the future 41 revolutionary leader Abbé Grégoire who remembered him as a wise and 42 43 profound educator. According to his nineteenth-century biographer, Abbé Grégoire moved from Nancy to Metz in 1772 in order to finish his theological

Pierre CHAUNU, « Jansénisme et frontière de catholicité (XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles). À propos du jansénisme lorrain » Revue Historique, t. 227, 1962, p. 115-138 ; R. CHABOCHE, « Sur une frontière de catholicité : Le diocèse de Nimes au XVIIe siècle », Revue d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 1982, t. 29, N° 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1982), p. 635-649. Philippe MOULIS, « L’Artois : une province ultramontaine et antijanséniste sous l’éspiscopat de Mgr Pierre de Langle, évêque de Boulogne-sur-Mer de 1698 à 1724 », Bulletin historique du Haut-Pays, t. XVI, n° 65-66, 2003, p. 80-98. 40 Alain JOBLIN, Autour de la Révocation de l’Édit de Nantes (1685) : le refuge huguenot calaisien en Angleterre (1681-1727); l’enlèvement des enfants protestant en France (vers 1650-vers 1750), H.D.R, Université d’Artois , 2006 ; Fiona VERHAEGHE , Le Calaisis au début du XVIIIe siècle : aspects démographiques, économiques, sociaux et religieux, Master dissertation, under the direction of Alain Joblin, Université d’Artois, 2009. 41 Caroline CHOPELIN, Paul CHOPELIN, L’obscurantisme et les lumières. Itinéraire de l’abbé Grégoire, Paris, Vendémiaire, 2013. 42 Abbé Grégoire, Défense de l’ouvrage intitulé Légitimité du serment civique, 1791. 43 L. MAGGIOLO, La vie et les œuvres de l’Abbé Grégoire de 1750 à 1789, Nancy, 1873; Léon BERTHE, « Grégoire, élève de l'abbé Lamourette », Revue du Nord, n° 173, XLIV, 1962, p. 45. Dr. Vincent CUVILLIERS, Dr. Matthieu FONTAINE, Dr. Philippe MOULIS. 59

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studies and proceed to ordination. In his courses, Lamourette took issue with classical theology and attempted to reconcile the Enlightenment with religion. As Jacques Godechot notes, it is not surprising that „l‟Abbé Grégoire, his 45 student, has gained much from his lessons‟. Abbé Grégoire mentioned Lamourette in his memoirs: “Many churches were widows, either because they had been abandoned by their bishops, or because their bishops had died a natural dead or had been decapitated judicially. Among those, there were 46 Raux, Expilly, Lamourette, Gouttes, etc.' Afterwards, Lamourette taught philosophy at the seminary SainteAnne, which between 1758 and 1776 was governed by another priest from 47 Artois: Jean-Antoine Labouré, born in Croisilles, in the diocese of Arras. During his stay in Sainte-Anne, Lamourette encountered the following 48 figures: -Bonnet Claude François: Priest of the seminary of Sainte-Anne in 1774; President from 1781 to 1786. -Ducrochet Gabriel: Priest of the seminary of Sainte-Anne fro, 1774 to 1776 -Laboure Antoine: Priest of the seminary of Sainte-Anne -Sar Antoine: Priest of the seminary of Sainte-Anne from 1779 to 1785; President from 1786 to 1791 -Bourdon Nicolas: Brother from 1776 to 1778

44 45

BERTHE Léon, « Grégoire, élève de l'abbé Lamourette », Revue du Nord, n° 173, XLIV, 1962, p. 45. Jacques GODECHOT, op. cit., p. 526.

Mémoires de l’abbé Grégoire, Paris, Editions de Santé, 1989, p. 138. N. HAMANT, Histoire du Séminaire Sainte-Anne (1661-1791), Saint-Amand, Bédu, 1926, p. 151 48 Félix CONTASSOT, Personnel des maisons de France avant la Révolution, Paris, Archives de la Congrégation de la Mission, 1958, p. 84-86. 46 47

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The Lazarist seminary in Toul Established in 1635, the foundation in Toul became one of the principal 49 houses of the Congregation of the Mission. Adrien Lamourette was twice at the seminary: once in 1772, and again in 1776-1777, but then as superior. Félix Contassot‟s work on this house reveals some interesting elements about 50 this period. Eugène Martin has argued that choosing Lamourette was 'illinformed': "a man of fervent imagination and reckless ambition, the future constitutional bishop of Rhône-et-Loire might have possessed great talents, but at the age of only thirty years old, he was not sufficiently mature to pass on to the clerical youth firm convictions in the faith and in the exercise of priestly 51 abstention”. Among the missionaries at Toul during Lamourette‟s stay there were, for instance, Jean-Baptiste Poncelin, who remained in Toul for 29 years, JeanBaptiste Georgein, who died there on 14 May 1777, and Michel Machenot (or Macheust), who died 5 July 1776.

Since its foundation, the seminary of Toul was part of the Province of Champagne which comprised eleven houses at the time of the Revolution: Toul (1635), Troyes (1638), Sedan (1643), Montmirail (1644), Metz Ste Anne (1661), Sens (1675), Auxerre (1680), Châlons-sur-Marne (1681), Dijon (1682), Metz SaintSimon (1742), et Nancy (1780), Félix CONTASSOT, Les Lazaristes dans le diocèse de Toul avant la Révolution (1635-1791), Étude documentaire, Archives de la Congrégation de la Mission, Paris, 1970, p. 4. 50 Félix CONTASSOT, Les Lazaristes dans le diocèse de Toul avant la Révolution (1635-1791), Étude documentaire, Archives de la Congrégation de la Mission, Paris, 1970. 51 Eugène MARTIN, Histoire des diocèses de Toul, de Nancy et de Saint-Dié, Nancy, Crépin-Leblond, 1899-1902, t. II, p. 625-626. Félis Cantassot has rightly written: ‘We cannot quibble with Eugège Martin on the value of this judgment, which appears to ahve been influenced by Adrien Lamourette’s later errors, for he did indeed become constitutional bishop of Rhône et Loire, and was ordained in Paris on 27 March 1791. However, one should not forget that he was far from losing his faith, and that, under the influence of M. Emery the superior of Saint-Sulpice, he had the courage to repent publicly on 7 January 1794, after having reconciled himself with God. died on the scaffold on 10 January. Félix CONTASSOT, Les Lazaristes dans le diocèse de Toul avant la Révolution (1635-1791), Étude documentaire, Archives de la Congrégation de la Mission, Paris, 1970, p. 107. Dr. Vincent CUVILLIERS, Dr. Matthieu FONTAINE, Dr. Philippe MOULIS. 61

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Adrien Lamourette got into conflict with the traditionalist Etienne Des 52 Michels de Champorcin, the bishop of Toul from 1774 until 1802. According to Eugène Martin, “Lamourette was deposed on 31 December 1777, but the next day, 1 January, the seminarians walked out without permission to offer their well wishes and condolences to their disgraced superior, and filled the 53 streets with their cries.” Félix Contassot has expressed some doubts about this disgrace, arguing that “there is an element which is difficult to understand. The assumption that M. Lamourette was „disgraced‟ implies that he was still a Lazarist, and it is therefore not possible for him to have received lodgings outside of the seminary, even while awaiting his departure. That is against the custom. Hence, how could the students have left, without permission, in order to search for their deposed superior outside of the walls? It is difficult to take this story at face-value, as is the narrative has been dramatised. It is improbable!" After his deposition, M. Lamourette quitted the congregation of the mission and became curate of Outremécourt (1778-1783). After the Congregation of the Mission

Adrien Lamourette was appointed to the curate of Outremécourt in the deanery of Bourmont at the heart of the diocese of Langres from 1778 until 1783.It has thus far been impossible to find archival material which sheds light on his personal development during these years, but the parish registers do 54 offer some insights. The first act signed by Adrien Lamourette was a notification of engagement, celebrated on 7 February 1778. A baptism which took place three days later was not officiated by himself, but by Locquet, priest

Jacques GODECHOT, op. cit., p. 526. See also: Abbé GUILLAUME, Histoire du diocèse de Toul et de celui de Nancy depuis l’établissement du Christianisme chez les Leuci jusqu’à nos jours, Nancy, Thomas & Pierron, 1867, t. IV, p. 319-327. 53 Eugène MARTIN, op. cit., t. II, p. 23. 54 Archives départementales de Haute -Marne, E dépôt 397, registres paroissiaux d’Outremecourt , 1647́ 1802.

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of Sauville. In April 1778, a burial act was signed by Charles Degoix. Adrien Lamourette was also absent from his parish in the beginning of the month of august 1779, for three acts, dated 4, 6, and 7 August, were signed by C.M. Colin, Pellegrin, curé of Sommecourt, and by Champange, curé of Gendreville. Lamourette was replaced by B. Le Fèvre, vicar of Gendreville in both August and December 1780. In each case, the priests replacing him came from neighbouring parishes. Lamourette was absent twice in November 1781, and the substitute was the Cordelier Misserand and brother of La Villette, also a Cordelier. His absences became more frequent during the year 1783, for he did not sign acts in January and February, nor from May until August, when he was replaced by Guadez, vicar of Jainvillette. Upon closer look at the month of July, it becomes clear that he was nd absent in the beginning of the month, but present on the 22 only to be replaced again from 25 July onwards. Misserand, La Villette‟s brother, replaced him again on 27 and 28 September, as he had done in 1781. The new curate, Adrien Roussel, recollect friar, signed the register for the first time on 7 October 1783. Adrien Lamourette would, therefore, have left the parish of Outremécourt during the month of September. He returned to Paris, where he 55 was appointed chaplain of Sainte-Perrine de Chaillot. The current state of research allows us, not solely to fill in gaps in the early years of Adrien Lamourette‟s life, but also to offer some preliminary reflexions and compile a list of teachers and persons he encountered during those years. Adrien Lamourette was born in a small provincial town, in a family which was part of the proto-industrial environment. However, his successes in his studies enabled him to flourish at the seminary of Boulogne, and subsequently become a teacher at Toul and Metz, and curate in Outremécourt. The year 1783 was a pivoting point, for it is during his sojourn at Paris that he embarked 56 upon his publishing career and became well-known.

« Lamourette », Dictionnaire des législateurs, 1791-1792, edited by Edna Hindie LEMAY, volume II, Centre international d’étude du XVIIIe siècle, Ferney-Voltaire, 2007. 56 In 1785, he published his Considérations sur l’esprit et les devoirs de la vie religieuse (Paris, in-12, 302 p.), in 1786 his Pensées sur la philosophie de l’incrédulité (Paris, 288 p.), and in 1788 Les délices de la religion ou le pouvoir de l’Evangile pour nous rendre heureux (Paris, in-12, 372 p.) Dr. Vincent CUVILLIERS, Dr. Matthieu FONTAINE, Dr. Philippe MOULIS. 63

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Blendi DIBRA, PhD Candidate Public Participation Promotes Sustainable Development Abstract This paper will present basic concepts of Public Participation as an important instrument for sustainable development. Modern democratic life requires an active role from the population and needs participation from members of the community. Participation transforms the democratic system, creating a permanent connection between the governed and those who govern. Public participation in decisions about development is an important tool to achieve possible solutions which promotes sustainable development. The challenge of a development pattern striving to harmonize economics with social and environmental needs requires active citizen participation in public issues. The concept of democracy is connected to the idea of public participation because it allows government actions to become transparent and effective by avoiding corrupt behaviors. In order to build a participatory democracy, it is necessary to provide citizens with an institutional framework that will allow for effective participation in public issues. Numerous international documents have expressed the importance of public participation and the need to institutionalize it to move towards sustainable development. Facilitating the access to information by spreading using most important instruments of communication encourage public awareness and participation. States shall provide an effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, including redress and remedy. The main arguments in this paper, stress the fact that for an effective way of public participation itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s important to ensure the access to the decision making process, to the public information and to the justice.

Keyword: public participation, government, governance, decision-making, sustainable development

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Overview The challenge of a development pattern striving to harmonize economics with social and environmental needs requires active citizen participation in public issues. Modern democratic life requires an active role from the population and needs participation from members of the community. Public participation in decision-making is fundamental achieving lasting and possible solutions. It should no longer be the case that those who are governed act only to elect and then, whatever the outcome, are governed without there existing opportunities to interact with their representatives. The modern societies require democratization of the system, energizing it, by creating a permanent connection between the governed and those who govern. The joint venture permits more reasoned decisions (being these the product of a higher consensus), enables a better understanding of the problems that preoccupy a society, and allows the two parties to work cooperatively towards possible solutions. Public participation allows government actions to become transparent, effectively avoiding corrupt behaviors. It also clarifies responsibilities and facilitates the eventual application of sanctions, in case of reproachable conducts. In order to build a participatory democracy, citizens should be informed about institutional framework that allows them for effective participation in public issues. The importance of public participation is expressed through numerous international documents which state the need to 1 institutionalize it to move towards sustainable development . The main principles in the Rio Declaration outline some basic components that must be present in all participatory democracies. Therefore, to participate in an effective way, people must have: 1) Access to decision making 2) Access to public information 3) Access to justice 1

Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development in 1992, establishs that: " States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely available. Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, including redress and remedy, shall be provided"

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1) Access to decision making processes Democracy its indirect when people decide exclusively through their representatives in governmental bodies; while a direct democracy is when all the citizens are assembled to decide. This kind of democracy existed in some 2 cities of ancient Greece . Today we are facing the development of the concept of active citizenship and encouragement of public participation in the decision making processes. To do that citizens should become active in the daily life and participate in governance and at the other side government shall be aware to share their responsibilities among citizens and invite them in the decision making processes. If citizen’s participation will be not guaranteed the decisionmaking processes will likely lead to failure. It’s important that authorities are informed about citizens needs and to do that they should deal with technical issues which guarantee citizens participation before making decisions. With participation prior to decisionmaking, authorities can better reflect on public opinion inputs when making their decisions. After decision-making, the public can participate by controlling the means for enforcement and in the joint management of the decision. In this way life quality is affected by public participation before and after decisionmaking which helps improving the quality of the decisions and implementation. Public participation consists of different mechanisms of civic action within a democratic system. Citizens can participate in the following ways: - Before authorities make decisions: giving advice, participating in consultations, and promoting projects. - After decisions are made, by acting in the execution of such decisions or by controlling their execution. There are different forms and institutional mechanisms of participation. Each mechanism has its particular characteristics, its strengths

Platonian concept onfreedom of speech, assembly, voting, andequalrepresentation, etc.

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and weaknesses. It is difficult to state whether certain forms of participation are better than others; in general, viability and efficiency of any form or mechanism depends on the political, social, economic and cultural context where it is developed. In brief some of the participation mechanisms are: a) public hearings, b) participatory budget processes c) referendums. a) Public hearing In order to promote and facilitate communication between government authorities and the public hearing are best tools to be used. In this way authorities takes into account information, opinions or objections expressed by the public at the decision-making moment, thereby strengthening the decision. From a legal perspective, public hearings are not binding; comments and remarks expressed by the public do not force authorities to act a specific way. In some cases, authorities are obligated to justify their decisions and provide an explanation if they did not follow public opinion. Usually a public hearing is a formal meeting between citizens and government authorities in order to discuss a particular subject, or any other type of decision to be made by the government. These meetings are carried out during the decision-making process. In general public hearings occur at both legislative and executive levels. b) Participatory budget processes One of the revolutionary public participation processes it’s participatory budget. A participatory budget provides citizens with a mechanism for controlling or influencing the government´s use of public resources. It guarantee public accountability instrument whereby people have the opportunity to participate in the elaboration and control of the State budget (used actually quite often in Albania mainly at the Municipality level). Normally at the city town councils halls, authorities and the public meet to reach an agreement on how to transfer public priorities into public policy agendas. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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Some of the main identified criteria needed in the implementation of the public participation tool are: 1) Citizen participation must be guaranteed, without needing to belong to any particular organization or association. 2) The participation process must be open and deal with broad-based issues, from the way the state spends financial resources to different forms of financing expenditures 3) Public participation must also include management control and accountability. 4) In principle, opinions given in the participatory budget process are not binding; c) Referendum Referendum as tool of public participation has a binding effect. Public officials should be forced if citizens request that or address the issue to the citizen’s choice to be decided by majority of votes through a wide participation process in decision making. Government authorities must accept and implement citizens’ decisions. A referendum is a widespread kind of semi-direct form of democracy. Citizens vote in favour of or against a proposal to establish a new norm or to modify or revoke an existing one. It is important to distinguish this kind of participation from others that are not binding, such as public hearings. Countries that use referendums establish the legal criteria, forms and topics 3 that can be involved in this kind of participation on a case-by-case basis . In 4 several Central and Eastern European countries public participation in

Article 150 of Albanian Constitution says: “The people, through 50 thousand citizens who enjoy the right to vote, have the right to a referendum for the abrogation of a law, as well as to request the President of the Republic to hold a referendum about issues of special importance.“ 4 e.g. Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia

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environmental decision making is based on the constitutional right to launch a 5 referendum or legislative initiative . 2. Access to public information The effectiveness of public participation is directly related to the information available. The public should have access to the meetings at community level and notifications are required by law to be posted prior to the meetings. Citizens need access to information in order to choose the most viable mechanism to deal with the problem at hand. In several cases public officials intentionally neglect to engage the public by not informing them regarding the decision-making process. Lack of information or misinformation substantially affects the quality of public participation. The existence of tools for public participation and citizen control are not enough. Due to this, most modern democracies have institutionalized mechanisms related to specific ways to access information because it’s important to ensure the opportunity of citizens to provide their inputs on local decisions before they go into effect. Free access to information is a right by which any person can access the information wanted. Free access to information allows any person access to the documentation of public records, meeting minutes, correspondence, technical reports, scientific surveys or any other documentation financed by public budgets. It also comprises information about policies, programs, plans and projects; information about various decision-making petitions, opportunities to make oral or written comments, and public and technical organizations´ opinions. To assess the impact of new laws in some countries such as Canada, Finland and Japan, the government is required to consult with citizens. Indeed the process of discussion should be as soon as possible in the point of view of making laws applicable and acceptable. During the preparations of the Freedom of Information Law, passed in 2000, the United Kingdom Government conducted extensive public consultations where parliament received 2 248 comments on the bill. Today, is going to be developed rapidly 5

Local referendums on environmental issues have been held rather often in Hungary, Poland and Slovakia.

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so called e-government where the activity of government is provided online. Through online platforms are promoted and developed online debates, consultations, although it presents several limitations as far as not everyone have the possibility of using the Internet in due time. However, governments everywhere have been criticized for creating distance with people, for their lack of sensitivities regarding civic concerns, leaving them out from governance. There is a need for a greater government transparency and accountability, especially by promoting public media scrutiny of government actions. In several cases such tasks public officials intentionally neglect to engage the public by not informing them regarding the decisionmaking process. The theoretical ground to freely access information is based on the nature of it being public. It deals with relevant information regarding life and decisions affecting the community as a whole. Generally, this right draws on access to information administered by the State. Access to information involves the right to select documentation from the moment of its existence as part of a record. That is to say, it lets any person select the aimed document without any previous justification. A requisition is enough to receive the information. There are some restrictions on the right to freely access information: - This right does not include preliminary drafts of documents. - This right is limited by the protection of other rights or collective values: privacy protection, commercial and industrial confidentiality, national defense, international negotiation, etc. - In the case of a legal process, the restrictions on public access to information are determined in order to guarantee due process. - Generally, the legislation that institutionalizes and regulates access to information establishes a detailed regime of exceptions. 3. Access to justice Access to justice is one of the ways citizens can enforce legislation. Legal standing is the ability of a person to show a sufficient legal interest in a matter

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to allow him or her to bring a case to court. So far citizens are required to use alllegalareasto increasetheir participation as far as public opinionaboutimportant issuesincrease transparency as necessaryto guaranteethe exercise ofa balanced poweroriented tocivicconcerns. In this way, individuals can bring forward legal actions or go through administrative proceedings to defend their right. When defending individual rights, such as the right to life, to dignity, to liberty, property, etc., the individual must prove that their value or good (life, dignity, liberty, property, etc.) is being threatened or damaged. In this sense, the individual is considered to have just and sufficient cause for defending their right. In the case of defending third generation rights (such as the right to a healthy environment, the right to peace, the right to non-discrimination, etc.) it is necessary to revise the traditional criteria of legal recourse, namely those granted to individual rights. Without redefining these legal rights, a judge, for example, who is faced with a citizenÂ´s demand to preserve a native forest, might reject the case because the citizen can not demonstrate an exclusive and immediate individual interest that brings just cause to save the forest. Thus, in the case of environmental rights, people do not hold individual, immediate or exclusive interests in the environment; the relationship of people with respect to the "environment" that they wish to protect, is one of co-ownership. This signifies that individuals only have a portion of the environmental right, non-exclusive and identical to the rights and interests of other members of the community. These are known as collective rights. Given this collective nature, access to justice is complicated in environmental matters. In response to this legal dilemma in environmental law, various judicial mechanisms have been implemented. - Public Interest Action A public interest action is a type of judicial action that grants legal standing to all State residents in defense of certain collective rights or interests, such as the protection of the environment, the protection of national heritage, etc. In this way, the need to prove personal and direct interests in the good is exempted from the claim to legal protection. Legislations from different international journal of science â&#x2013;Ş 2013 â&#x2013;Ş volume 4

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countries demonstrate diverse methods of public interest action for the legal 6 protection of the rights of the common good . - Legal standing of government agencies Traditionally, the State has assumed the role to defend and protect the general interests of society through government officers, such as the longestablished Attorney General and more recently the Ombudsman. Currently legislation in different countries has amplified the scope of power and responsibilities of these sectors for the protection of the collective good, such as the right to a healthy environment, consumer rights, etc. - Legal Standing of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) A number of states recognize the right to legal action by non-governmental organizations or associations whose objectives are to protect and conserve the environment. In some cases, the legislation differs with respect to formal 7 requests demanded by NGOs to act as authorized claimants . Argentina, Spain, Brazil, Germany and others are among states that recognize legal standing in favour of organizations that defend collective rights. As mentioned briefly above, these judicial mechanisms differ from country to country. Below we will highlight a few country-specific mechanisms and outline how various countries have defined legal standing for individuals and NGOs with regards to the right to a clean and healthy environment. Conclusions and recommendations: As analyzed briefly in this paper it’s important to guarantee public participation as important tool to promote sustainable development. The three main 6

Following is a list of examples: • The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Brazil (1988) Art.5, inc.LXXIII • The Constitution of the Republic of Costa Rica (1994) Art.50 • The Political Constitution of Portugal (1976) Art.66, inc.3 • The Code of Environmental and Natural Resources of Peru (1990) Art. 7 For example: Italy and Denmark only grant legal standing to a limited number of organizations, defined specifically in a legislative act; whereas in Peru, the legislation has a much broader definition, conceding legal standing to NGOs whose general objectives are to protect the environment.

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components were mentioned as important to strength citizen’s participation such as access to decision making, to public information and to justice. Doing that it’s important to develop and support institutional structures, policies, and procedures that promote and facilitate, within all levels of government and civil society, interaction in sustainable development decisions, and encourage change within existing institutions to pursue a basis for long-term direct dialogue and innovative solutions. Where necessary, institutions should strengthen and develop management mechanisms to expand and incorporate participatory practices and techniques in project design, implementation, and evaluation. The creation of partnerships between government and civil society, including all stakeholders, should be encouraged. During this process it’s important to ensure creation and strengthening of existing formal and informal communication mechanisms which encourage information sharing, collaboration, and cooperation within and among civil society groups, within and between levels of government, and between all levels of government and civil society. Clear and accessible mechanisms that enable government and civil society to provide and obtain relevant information on policies, projects, and programs in a timely manner are essential for effective public participation. Special efforts must be made to use information and means of communication that will reflect and respect cultural, ethnic, religious, social, linguistic, and economic diversity in order to engage all stakeholders. Efforts should be made to give mass communications an effective role in the communication between governments and all sectors of civil society. Meaningful public participation in decision-making processes on sustainable development depends on laws and regulations that will ensure access to relevant and timely information, access to the decision-making process, and access to the justice system. This is why it’s so important to enforce implementation of legal and regulatory frameworks that ensure participation of civil society in sustainable development decisions. In addition, legal frameworks should clarify and expand the legal standing of those persons and communities affected by development decisions, seek a reasonable balance in the roles and joint responsibilities of the various levels international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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of government and civil society, and be adapted continuously to respond to changing reality or when they constitute an obstacle to public participation. Democracy theorists have argued that the entire edifice of democracy 8 rests in the final analysis, of the public opinion . Beside the component mentioned above to ensure public participation its important as well to Create, strengthen, and support formal and informal opportunities and mechanisms for public participation in which sustainable development activities are discussed and decided upon. Strengthening and, where necessary, creating new opportunities and mechanisms for consultation and agreement that include stakeholders from all sectors of society are essential for the participation process. Partnerships between and among government institutions and diverse sectors of civil society in decision-making should be encouraged, and existing opportunities for them be made use of and replicated. These mechanisms should also ensure that the results of the participatory process are made known to all stakeholders.

Sartori, Giovanni. 1998 “Ç’eshte demokracia”, Tirane; Dituria, fq.45

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Çela, Erisa & Ismaili, Valmir & Hafner, Tanja. 2008. “Praktikat e mira rajonale mbi pjesmarrjen komunitare ne qeverisjen vendore”, Tirane; Instituti per Demokraci dhe Ndermjetesim Kval Mellbye & Trafoy. 2006. “Politika dhe demokracia”, Tirane: Onufri. Meidani, Rexhep. 2009. “Mbi qeverisjen”, Tiranë: Dudaj Omari, Luan. 2011. “Ndarja e pushteteve dhe pavaresia e institucioneve kushtetuese”, Tiranë: Elena Gjika Popper, Karl. 2009. “Për filozofinë dhe shkencën”, Tiranë: Shtëpia botuese “Fan Noli” Schmidt, V. 2006. “Democracy in Europe. The EU and National Polities”, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sartori, Giovanni. 1998 “C’është demokracia”, Tirane; Dituria Sokoli, Lekë. 2008. “Refleksione sociologjike”, Tiranë: Instituti i Sociologjisë Sokoli, Lekë. 2006. “Komunitarizmi, rasti i Shqiperise”, Tirana Observer, 28 Shtator Zakaria, Fareed. 2004. “E ardhmja e lirise”, Tiranë: Instituti i Dialogut dhe Komunikimit Weber, Max. 2009. ”Politika si profesion, Shkenca si profesion, Tre tipat e pastër të sundimit legjitim”, Tiranë: Shtëpia botuese “Fan Noli”

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Resources on internet - The Aarhus Convention www.unece.org/env/pp/ - Agenda 21 www.un.org/esa/sustdev/agenda21.htm - American Convention of Human Rights. San Jose Agreement of Costa Rica. www.oas.org/cidh/bรกsicos/basicos3.htm - American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man. www.cidh.oas.org/Bรกsicos/Basic Documents/enbas2.htm - Dublin Declaration on Access to Environmental Information www.unep.org/infoterra/infoterra2000/report1.htm - International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_ccpr.htm - International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_cescr.htm - ISP: Inter-American Strategy for the Promotion of Public Participation in Decision Making for Sustainable Development www.ispnet.org/Documents/INDICE.html - Resolution on Access to Information, Public Participation in DecisionMaking and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters www.mem.dk/aarhus-conference/issues/public-participation/inforesolution43add1-rev.htm - Universal Declaration of Human Rights www.un.org/spanish/aboutun/hrights.htm

Blendi DIBRA, PhD Candidate โ ช Public Participation

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Peter BERG Empowering Youth to Take Charge of Their Health

ABSTRACT

Young people are in the midst of an unprecedented health crisis. For the first time young people have ailments that used to be limited to adults. According to the Centers for Disease Control (2013), childhood obesity has doubled in young children and tripled in adolescents in the past 30 years. Type 2 diabetes, a disease normally seen in adults over 40, is on the rise in children and adolescents (Centers for Disease Control, 2013). The number of cases of nonalcoholic fatter liver disease in young people over the age of 10 is on the rise (Vajro et al., 2012). These are not the only health issues todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s young people are faced with. As the info-graphic below shows, mental health disorders such as anxiety, depression, bipolar and mood disorders are prevalent in adolescents and young adults. The World Health Organization (2012) estimates that 20 percent of adolescents worldwide experience a mental health problem every year.

Peter BERG â&#x2013;Ş Empowering Youth to take charge of their health.

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Source: Alyssa Celebre via Nomad Creatives

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Add in the approximately 3.5 million young people that are taking meications for Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and the fact that some estimates suggest that half of young people, ages 6 to 21, in the United States have some form of learning disability, it’s no wonder that many young people today feel confused, out of touch with themselves and powerless to do anything to change their situation.

Here’s the good news! These statistics can be changed and young people can take charge of their health. This is the focus of my work at youthtransformations.com. I have witnessed these statistics firsthand and believe that young people need to know that they have a say in how their life unfolds.

Young people are often confused by the mixed messages they receive about health from the media, family, friends and society at large. On one hand, they are shown unrealistic images of lean-muscled female and male bodies that are airbrushed and/or touched up to hide imperfections as the ultimate in health; these images are confusing, unrealistic and represent a limited view of health.

While the people in these images may indeed be healthy, we have no real way of knowing that. On the other hand, young people are told to be healthy and that being healthy is important, yet they are surrounded by a sea of junk, imitations and distorted views of life that are available 24 hours a day.

Peter BERG ▪ Empowering Youth to take charge of their health.

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They are bombarded with advertising images specifically developed for their age group with their developmental needs, wants and desires factored in.

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So what can we do? In my work, I empower young people to take charge of their health and be the masters of their lives. One of the main ways to do this is to help young people know themselves. Giving young people time to reflect, think and be still is key in helping them getting to know themselves, what they need, and ultimately, what works for them. As young people get to know themselves, they begin to understand the needs they share with others and the needs that are unique to them. In turn, this also increases their ability to empathize with others. Knowing their unique needs is an important step in young people’s ability to make decisions that are best for them. Support from adults is key in empowering young people to take charge of their health and be the masters of their lives. This is especially important when making lifestyle changes. In essence, all of the work is about making changes that become a way of life, not an add-on or a chore. Another key area I focus on is healthy eating. This doesn’t mean going on a ‘diet.’ It’s about finding ways to eat foods that are delicious, nutritious and work best for each individual young person. Sometimes this is about a shift towards eating more whole foods; other times it is about transitioning from patterns of behavior that result in unhealthy eating habits. Most of the time it’s about the young person being empowered to make the best food choices for them based on self-knowledge, exploration and careful consideration. I am often asked if this means a young person can never have ‘fast’ food, various other forms of ‘junk food’. It doesn’t mean that at all. What it does mean is that each young person would have a real choice in choosing what and how they eat.

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If the young person has all the information and chooses to eat ‘junk’ or ‘fast’ food, even though this is something we would want them to do sparingly, it’s at least an empowered choice. Health is not simply the absence of disease or illness, it’s sustaining a balance in mind, body and spirit. Keep in mind that are bodies, minds and spirits want to be whole and are constantly moving towards balance and healing. This is what my work is ultimately about, helping young people empower themselves to work with their natural inclination and drive to be healthy, whole and balanced. I outlined few ways that scratch the surface of how I work with schools and individuals. Remember, we all have the power to take charge of our health and be the masters of our own lives.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY CDC - More Information - Children and Diabetes - Projects - Diabetes DDT. (n.d.). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved June 29, 2013, from http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/projects/cda2 CDC - Obesity - Facts - Adolescent and School Health. (n.d.). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved June 29, 2013, from http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/obesity/ Vajro, P., Lenta, S., Socha, P., Dhawan, A., McKieran, P., Baumann, U., et al. (2012). Diagnosis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in children and adolescents: position paper of the ESPGHAN Hepatology Committee. Journal Of Pediatric Gastroenterology And Nutrition, 54(5), 700-13. WHO/Europe | New report on Adolescent mental health published. (n.d.). WHO/Europe | World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe. Retrieved June 29, 2013, from http://www.euro.who.int/en/what-we-do/healthtopics/Life-stages/child-and-adolescent-health/news/news/2012/07/newreport-on-adolescent-mental-health-published

Peter BERG â&#x2013;Ş Empowering Youth to take charge of their health.

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Holta HEBA, PhD Candidate

Interpretation of Phraseological Expressions and Proverbs in the Process of the Translation of Fables

Abstract The fable is an instrument of communication of the written language. The history, religion and folklore of many nations are reflected in the written fables. Our historic forefathers used the verbal as well as the nonverbal language as a means of communication. Being an ancient genre, the fables used to be told orally with the help of the body language. The language itself is an extremely important factor in the progress of a civilisation. The object of this paper is the translation of phraseological expressions and proverbs based on the comparison of the text: “Fables choisies” by La Fontaine and the 1 translated work: “Fabula të përzgjedhura” (Selected fables) by Vedat Kokona (1). The essential argument of this paper is the detailed analysis of the examples drawn through the comparison of phraseological expressions and fables during the process of transition from one identity to another. The research question presented is: How is the translation of phraseological expressions and proverbs made possible without altering the meaning of the message in the communication between two different cultures?

Keywords: translation, intercultural communication, message, phraseological expressions, proverbs.

Published in 2005. Kokona Publications. On the left page is the fable in French, while on the right page is the fable in Albanian. Holta HEBA, PhD Candidate ▪ Interpretation of Fables 84

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Introduction

Based on the elements that constitute the fable as a genre, we could say that it represents a specific literary style due to the abundant use of the phraseological expressions. The artistic function of the language used in the fables is based on its communicative function. Being an artistic work, its emotional and expressive elements are different and they belong to a specific literary style. La Fontaine, like all authors has an entirely personal and specific style. The translator also has his own specific style of interpretation. The interpretation of La Fontaine’s fables by Vedat Kokona is entirely specific due to his entirely individual style and the time factor. The translator undertakes the translation of an author’s work that belongs to a century entirely different from his own, as well as to a nation with a different culture. The difficulty with the interpretation of this literary genre is even more difficult in view of a communicative language which combines the literary style with the individual style of the author. “Considering the literary style, the study of the language used in artistic literature should start with the analysis of the individual style that characterises each individual author” (9) This is precisely the value of this paper to communication sciences since we are faced with a personalized style in the source language, which in itself comes in a personalized style of translation to the target language with the sole purpose of conveying a meaningful message from one language to the other as well as from one culture to the other. The linguistic and cultural material used in the source language fable has to be adapted to the linguistic and cultural material of the target language in order for the message to be conveyed in a meaningful way. A writer’s individual style is interpreted through the individual style of the translator.

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The translation of the fable The fable is a literary genre whose roots are found in the spoken language while at later times its written form had an impact on the development of the social life, on the rising of empires, on the preservation of the history and knowledge as well as on the development of a stable legal code. “Prior to the written word, the legal decisions were formulated by local judges that represented the villages and communities they lived in….. The first legal document in history, The Code of Hammurabi was written in Sumeria circa 2000 B.C.” (3)

Why is the meaningful translation of fables important? Being a literary genre rooted in the folklore, traditions and religions of a certain culture, the fable conveys the abovementioned elements through a specific style of communication making use of figures of speech which are deeply rooted in the culture of a nation. We should not forget the fact that the translator knows the French language and culture very well, which facilitates the interpretation of the fable in the target language.The culture of the French nation comes to Albania through the linguistic and cultural codes of the contemporary translator Vedat Kokona. Nevertheless, the translation and interpretation of fables is relatively difficult. The semantic content of the message is very important in intercultural communication. The system of linguistic and non-linguistic codes of two different identities is not the same. As Prof. Dr. Artan Fuga expresses himself in his book entitled “Monolog”, page 157, The message is not entirely expressed because the source and its recipients do not possess an identical codified system of signs that would allow the semantic context to be freely expressed” (5).

Holta HEBA, PhD Candidate ▪ Interpretation of Fables

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The folk language found in fables is a genuine indicator of the use of an obsolete language. The language of La Fontaine belongs to the XVII century, while the language of the translator belongs to the XIX century. For this precise reason, it is of paramount importance that the linguistic and cultural codes to be properly fitted, in order to allow the message to be conveyed in a meaningful way between these two distant centuries. La Fontaine’s art is conveyed through the art of a translator living in an epoch entirely different from the one when the French fable was created. Between two different cultures, in two different time periods, the way of conveying a meaningful message is closely related to the two main planes: linguistics and culture. Author’s and interpreter’s styles are not the same. Each author, poet and translator has his own unique style in certain epochs. What is most important in this research is the contents. Shifting from one language to another or from one culture to another, the message has to be identical both in the source and the target language. Everyone’s style is closely related to the culture, tradition and the period his work is written in. The difficulty with the meaningful translation of a fable written at the end of the XVII century is related to the fact that a certain language evolves in the course of a century. This difficulty becomes even greater when the distance of time between fables’ creation and translation covers almost two centuries. Phraseological expressions and proverbs In the written and spoken language are always present certain groups of words that are not created at certain moments, but rather they exist in the linguistic system of a certain language. Translator’s first task when coming across with the phraseological expressions and proverbs is to understand that 2 there is a phraseological expression there and he needs to treat it as such.

We translate the concept rather than the word or the sentence.

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The translation of phraseological expressions and proverbs is rather delicate since the meaning of a message when shifting from one language to another is at risk due to different ways of constructing phraseological expressions, which in essence follow a logic that is entirely dependent on specific cultures. A great number of phraseological expressions have an extra linguistic basis as well as an historic origin. A good translator needs to have deep knowledge of the language and culture of the source language in order to get the accurate meaning of the phraseological expression and transmit it both on the syntactical as well as the semantic plane. In this analysis of texts, certain phraseological expressions and proverbs in the source language are translated through phraseological expressions and proverbs of the target language, but a number of them do not have a correspondent in the target language. In such cases, the translator is obliged to translate through a set of common words. Nevertheless the Albanian language, as confirmed by E. Shijaku in 3 the introduction of his dictionary, “the Cinderella of Indo-European family” manages to stand in a dignified way before the “great lady shining brightly due to outstanding pens” (8). Kokona has managed to dig into the precious treasures of the Albanian folk language and avoid the non-translatable French phraseological expressions and proverbs. 3.1 On page 57, fable “Luani sevdalli” (The lion in love), the two final verses of the fable are translated into Albanian with the use of phraseological expressions entirely of spoken Albanian:

This is how Albanian language is described by E. Shijaku in the introduction of Albanian Phraseological Dictionary. Holta HEBA, PhD Candidate ▪ Interpretation of Fables 88

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French version (6): Amour quand tu nous tiens, On peut dire “adieux prudence” Albanian version: O dashuri, kur na rrëmben, Trutë e kokës na i merr era. In this case, the carelessness one displays when overtaken by love is conveyed through such an expression which is entirely appropriate for preserving the meaning. 3.2 “Lynx envers nos pareils, et taupes envers nous” (verse 3, page 20) is the French version of the fable “Hejbejtë” (the Bags). The literal translation of French proverb is: “a lynx with the others and a mole with yourself”. In the Albanian language and culture this expression is translated through the use of some entirely different concepts. To a certain extend the meaning can be drawn taking into consideration the typical features of these two animals, but such a translation is totally irrelevant to the culture of the target language, thus the translator makes use of an entirely Albanian proverb while translating the verse: “S’e shohin trarin që u ka zënë sytë, por qimen në syrin e tjetrit” (they cannot see the joist before their eyes, but the hair before the eye of the other). The Albanian proverb used in the translation is much closer to the culture of the target language. The meaning of the proverb in both its versions can be analysed through such a comparison: in the source language culture, the people are transformed into predator animals like the lynx with the others, and concealed or obscure like the mole when trying to disguise their own imperfections. The use of such figures is directly related to the source language.

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Considering the target language culture, the figures used in the proverb are not the animals anymore, but “the joist and the hair”. The meaning conveyed through these proverbs is closely related to the specific culture of these two different countries which utilise totally different instruments. Literal translation cannot be considered a mistake, but given that the source language version finds its correspondence in the target language version, the transformation allows the preservation of an intact meaning of the latter. 3. 3 “Shumë kuvende të tilla me bujë, kanë bërë një vrimë në ujë” (verse 5, 6, page 39). These two verses belong to the fable “Kuvendi i minjve” (Mice Assembly) (page 38-39). In the French version, the above verses do not contain any phraseological expression at all: “J’ai maints chapitres vus, Qui pour neant se sont ainsi tenus”. A phraseological expression meaning that nothing has been done by the mice assembly concerning the relevant issue is used in the Albanian translation. In this fable the problem is that all mice are reluctant to put the bell around cat’s neck. Thus, they make a hole in the water. The phenomenon in the target language is described through the use of a phraseological expression that is missing in the original version. 3. 4. “Puisqu’il est de vivant, ne songez plus au morts” (verse 2, page 102) in Albanian is translated into: “i gjalli me të gjallët, i vdekuri me shokë” (the living with the living, the dead with the dead) (verse 2, page 103). This is another example of proverb translation. In this case, the proverb is translated with the help of correspondence, since the phenomenon is expressed with the same expression in both cultures.

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3.5. In the fable “A fly sat on the chariot wheel” (Karroca dhe miza), verse six: “s’introduisent dans les affaires” is translated through the phraseological expression: “i fusin hundët kudo/ they poke their noses everywhere”. In the target language culture it is quite understandable that poking your nose everywhere means that you do not mind your own business but rather you deal with things that are not your business. In the source language verse, there is no phraseological expression used, while in the target language verse the meaning of the verse is closer to the culture of the latter one. 3.6. “La jeunesse se flatte et croit tout obtenir” (verse 24, page 176). The literal translation of this sentence in the indicative mood is: “youth boasts that it can achieve everything”. In the target language version, this sentence is expressed through a phraseological expression: Ç’fluturon hahet, beson i riu” (youth believe that whatever flies can be eaten). The Albanian texthas been adapted through the use of this expression in order to preserve the meaning of the verse in French. The above examples of transformation of proverbs and phraseological expressions indicate the shifting from one language to another and from one culture to the other. While describing a certain concept or idea, the target language does not make use of the same proverbs and phraseological expressions used by the source language. The meaning is rather important in this specific case. The phraseological expressions and proverbs are communicative expressions that belong to the cultural universe of a specific nation. As professor Artan Fuga puts it: Communicative expressions are neither composed only of the letters nor of the language in which they are formulated. But, a lot more than that, they are a unity of material codes of the words expressed through an alphabet, of their meaningful contents expressed along concrete and different acts of expression, as well as the context in which they are expressed (4). international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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Conclusion

Proverbs and phraseological expressions are rather unique in each language and culture, in this case the French and Albanian cultures. The translation of proverbs and phraseological expressions is extremely difficult since the message they convey is enormously deep and requires a clear logic of understanding as well as deep knowledge of both cultures. Their unavoidable transformation, when shifting from one language to another requires deep linguistic and cultural knowledge, if preservation of a meaningful message is claimed. In the process of translating proverbs and phraseological expressions the translator is certainly free to find equivalences and correspondences, but reliance on culture in order to find the exact meaning is even more important. The culture of a country varies and is not identical anywhere. Even though the objective world is unique, we are aware that while shifting from one culture to another there are changes in the development level as well as in the manner these cultures express the reality using the respective language.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY         

Çajupi, A. Përralla të zgjedhura nga të vjerështarit math, La fontaine, Heliopolis. 1920. Dictionnaire du français primordial Micro Robert, Robert, P. (1977). Paris: Societé du nouveau Littré Dominik, Joseph R. Dinamika e komunikimit masiv. Tiranë: Uet/Press. 2010. Fuga, A. Brirët e dhisë. Tiranë: Ora. 2008. Fuga. A. Monolog. Tiranë: Botimet Dudaj. 2010. Kokona, V. La Fonten, Fabula të zgjedhura. Tiranë: Botimet Kokona. 2005. Robert, P. Dictionnaire Petit Robert. Paris:Societé du nouveau Littré. 1970. Shijaku, E. Fjalor Frazeologjik Frengjisht-Shqip, Tiranë: Dituria. 1998. Shkurtaj, Gj. Kultura e Gjuhës. Tiranë: Botimet e librit Universitar. 2006.

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Blerjana BINO, PhD Candidate, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nevila XHINDI, Ketrina ÇABIRI, MA Youth academic and professional achievement in higher education in Albania: Perspectives on the role of the English Language Abstract This research project is concerned with the use of English as the major foreign language in the Albanian education system with a particular focus on the teaching and learning experiences of staff and students in the higher education context. The principal aim of this research project is to investigate the ways in which the use, teaching and learning of the English Language in the higher education system in Albania could be developed in order to contribute to the student’s quality education and consequently successful academic and professional achievements at the national and European level. As such the research seeks to explore the foreign language policy at the higher education system in Albania in order to map the use of the English Language as the major foreign language and provide an overview of its status and relevance. In addition, the research includes a thorough needs analysis into the English language use in the higher education context in Albania in order to: first, shed light into the challenges faced by educators in teaching English for academic purposes; and second, examine the acquisition and learning practices of university students. Thus the extent and ways in which the English Language impacts students’ learning outcomes and their academic and professional achievements at the national and European Level, will be explored. Based on a qualitative research methodology of focus groups with English tutors and university students, the research project points out that the ability to speak and write in English is a crucial predictor of academic success, professional development and therefore later socioeconomic success.

Blerjana BINO, PhD Cand, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nevila XHINDI, Ketrina ÇABIRI, MA

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Drawing from the perspectives of English tutors and university students, the research project provides insights regarding the design of tailored support for the development of the English Language in the academic context in Albania by the relevant stakeholders such as the British Council and the higher education institutions.

Keywords: English as foreign language, higher education in Albania, academic and professional achievement, students, development;

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Research background, rationale and objectives The contemporary society in Albania has been undergoing major social, cultural, economic and political transformations and is moving towards the development of a knowledge-based society in which the role of higher education and research is extremely important and thus the academic achievement of students and their professional development is highly relevant. If Albania is to play an active role in the European economic, political and cultural space and in the European research area, it is necessary to develop appropriate skills for students as the future elite of the country. In this sense, the English Language proficiency is crucial as it is the key to communication in the international arena in cultural, business, political and other interactions. In the framework of the ‘English-speaking Albania’ initiative, the English language learning is set out as a priority of the Ministry of Education and Science. In the education context, the English language teaching now startsearlier, beginning with the third grade, and continues on until completion of thesecondary education (MoES, 2012). Given the emphasis on English language teaching in pre-university settings, it is assumed that university students have an adequate level of English language proficiency and as such English language courses in the higher education academic curricula are generally classified as basic skills courses in line with Introduction to Informatics or Academic Writing. However, in practice students who enter university lack adequate knowledge and proficiency of the academic English which is essential for the successful completion of their studies and future professional development. For instance, university students need to fulfil English language requirements in order to pursue a master or doctoral programme either in Albanian or foreign universities. This research is concerned with the development of the English Language in higher education settings in Albania and its relevance in the academic and professional achievement of university students.

Blerjana BINO, PhD Cand, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nevila XHINDI, Ketrina ÇABIRI, MA

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The principal aim of this research project is to investigate the ways in which the use, teaching and learning of the English Language in the academic context in Albania could be developed in order to contribute to the students’ quality education and successful academic and professional achievements at the national and European level. As such the research objectives are: (i) to conduct a needs analysis into the English language use in the higher education context in Albania in order to shed light into the challenges faced by tutors in teaching English for academic purposes and examine the acquisition and learning practices of university students; (ii) to explore the extent and ways in which the English Language impacts students’ learning outcomes and their academic and professional achievements; (iii) to provide insights based on students and staff perspectives regarding the design of tailored support for the development of the English Language in the academic context. Research design This research project adopts a qualitative methodology, which enables researchers to collect in-depth data on the practices of teaching English, students’ acquisition competencies and learning outcomes. Focus groups and in-depth interviews are used in order to conduct the needs analysis and impact of the English Language in learning outcomes and academic achievements. Focus groups can be defined as a group interview that is based on the communication and interaction between research participants in order to generate group data (Barbour & Kitzinger, 1999). The central feature is that of group dynamic and interaction to generate data, which differs from individual data collected from in-depth interviews. In-depth interviewing as a qualitative research method can be defined as a structured conversion that aims to understand the views and the experiences of the subject interviews in relation to the research topic and aim (Kvale, 2007). The qualitative approach to focus groups and in-depth interviews seeks to comprehend and evaluate the world from the subject’s point of view and to examine the direct and latent meanings of personal experiences and opinions of individuals participating in the research project. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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Literature review has been conducted in the first phase of the research and the resources used refer to strategies on higher education and pre-university, educational policies in Albania and related laws and regulations; intervention programmes; reports and declaration of relevant stakeholders such as the governmental officials, Ministry of Education and Science, the Public Agency for the Accreditation of Higher Education etc. In the second phase of the field work, the focus groups and in-depth interviews have been conducted with university students and English tutors. The focus groups were organised in October and November 2012 at the European University of Tirana: a total of six focus groups and a total of 42 students involved. The focus groups were composed of 6 to 8 university students and were organised according to the cycle of study and type of programme, i.e. bachelor students, master and doctoral students. The first focus group was st conducted on the 31 October 2013 with eight doctoral students at UET from various disciplines including law, social sciences and economy. In the first week of November three focus groups were organised with Bachelor students at UET (law, economy and IT; political sciences; communication studies), a total of 19 students were involved. In the following week, two focus groups were conducted with masters’ students in UET, a total of 15 students involved. Students were selected based on convenient sampling by referring to the cycle of study, programme, academic performance and gender balance. This was done in consultation with the Programme Coordinators, Head of Departments, Student Services and Students Council, who suggested a list of students as per the sample. They were then contacted via email, a second reminder was sent via email and personal contacts at the university were also applied to secure students’ participation in the focus groups.In addition, five in-depth interviews were conducted with English tutors based on a convenient sampling. The contact details of the English tutors, teaching in high schools and university in Tirana, were provided by British Council and the tutors were approached via email. The interviews were conducted at the premises of the UET Centre at the European University of Tirana in October and November 2012.

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The aim and objectives of the study were communicated in advance to the university students and tutors when the invitation was sent for the focus group and their informed consent was secured in this way. This research respects the anonymity of the participants in focus groups and in-depth interviews. Challenges in teaching methodology and learning practices of English Despite the strategies, programmes and action plans set by the Albanian government and related governmental organisations to meet European standards on higher education (Law No. 8834, 2011), the higher education system in Albania faces a series of problematic issues which hinder the development of European standards on education and research. The challenges are covered in the National Strategy on Higher Education 20072013 in the attempt to identify measures to ameliorate the situation. According to the Strategy, some of the major concerns about the higher education landscape in Albania are: (i) the HE system needs to be shaped according to European criteria and requirements and be able to reflect the dynamics of the society as such; (ii) information for students shall not be provided in a narrative form, but enhance the analytical dimensions and critical thinking of university students (NSHE, 2008: 4). The teaching methods should be interactive and student-centred; (iii) students must be provided with elective subjects, choosing in accordance to their academic and research interests; (iv) the need to develop contemporary management of academic performance (NSHE, 2008: 5); (v) it is necessary to invest towards the continuous training of educators and assessment of their performance and quality assurance. According to the Law on Higher Education (Law No. 10307, 2010), HEIs must establish their own systems of enhancing the performance of the academic staff and put in place tools which ensure the financial award for educators with high performance; (vi) equipment, facilities and other institutional capacities (labs, libraries,) need to be developed in order to fulfil students’ needs and requirements (NSHE, 2008: 7). international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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In this regard, the development of the English Language for academic and professional purposes is affected by the challenges that the higher education system at large faces in Albania. The development of the English Language for academic and professional purposes in the higher education context in Albania faces some significant constraints, which could be broadly categorised into these main pillars: first, preparation and qualification of the English Language tutors in higher education; second, teaching methodologies and learning practices; third, institutional capacities and financial resources. These constraints were also expressed by the English Language tutors as demonstrated by the indepth interviews. In terms of the preparation and qualification of the English Language tutors the major constraints refer to the professional qualification of the English Language tutors, their academic preparation, remuneration, working conditions, social benefits etc. This reflects a gap between the governmental priorities on the English Language and the realities in the higher education settings concerning the development of highly qualified human recourses. As far as methodology is concerned, there is a need to improve teaching methodology and use alternative methods through the application of information and communication technologies in order to be able to respond to students’ needs and emerging demands in lieu of the information society. In addition, learning resources could be enriched through enhancement of cooperation with publishing houses in Britain and other English-speaking countries. As far as learning practices are concerned, thorough and systematic scientific research is required so as to be able to assess students’ competences and generate alternative learning practices. In this regard, building collaboration links between HEIs in Albania and in Britain and other English-speaking countries could prove useful in order to exchange know-how and best practices in teaching methodology and learning practices. Finally, a significant dimension, interlinked with the above mentioned, refers to institutional capacities and financial resources. Better Funding and appropriate investment are needed to design and implement academic curricula that respond to students’ needs and interests so as to bridge the gap between policy discourse on the relevance of the English Language

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and the realities in auditoriums in higher education settings. In addition, systematic research should be conducted in order to explore the English Language for academic and professional purposes and the links between English as Foreign Language policy, academic curriculum development and teaching and learning practices. The relevance of English language in youth academic and professional achievements An important dimension in the use of the English Language in the higher education settings relates to the teaching and learning community such as the classroom settings, the fellow students, the tutors and the university landscape at large. Research suggests that participation in a positive learning community has positive effect on learning outcomes as well as students’ perceptions about their learning outcomes (Tompkins, 2001). In this sense, university students point to the relevance of the teaching and learning environment and community and how this affects their learning experience and outcomes. The challenge in here is how to build positive teaching and learning community. The positive teaching and learning community includes: (i) university capacity and culture, i.e. norms, values and expectations regarding the English Language. In this framework, some relevant aspects in here are university leadership and communication strategy; systematic student assessment and human capital as well as research and professional development; and (ii) university management, i.e. organisation of teaching and learning as well as funding and cooperation with other actors; teaching methodology, learning practices, resources and opportunities for students (Tompkins, 2001). This coincides with the challenges that the development of the English Language in the higher education faces in Albania as detailed above. The implication here is that university quality and effectiveness in culture and management has a direct and positive impact upon students’ academic achievement and professional development. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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A positive teaching and learning environment in university creates positive experiences for English Language Learners and thus enhances their academic performance. Positive university teaching and learning environments value each and every student and their mode and pace of learning, have high expectations for achievement and involve students in university operations. The organization and delivery of teaching and learning in university is highly relevant in this sense. The principal topics that emerge in regards to the role of the English Language tutors are: the capacities, competences and preparation of tutors; their language proficiency; their motivation to teach well and be responsive to the characteristics and learning paces of their students; and their continuous professional development. One of the major dimensions of the link between the acquisition and proficiency of the English Language of university students and their academic and professional achievement is related to teachers and lecturersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; capacities and preparation in teaching English as a second language. Preparing highly qualified tutors for teaching English as a second language to students is a complex issue. In the Albanian higher education system is English as a foreign language education context where the English tutors are non-native speakers of English with some exceptions which are relatively isolated. In this context, the continuing professional development of tutors of English language is highly relevant. The mainstream approach to professional development is that of knowledge transmission and knowledge consumption. However, recent research shows that a more participatory continuing professional development approach needs to be encouraged whereby tutors are empowered to take an active role as knowledge producers not just knowledge receivers. The suggestion here is that this model should be transmitted in classroom settings, i.e. encouraging students to take an active role in the process of knowledge production and acquisition. One of the major challenges in the development of the English Language for the successful academic and professional achievements of university students refers to the appropriate teaching methodology, recourses and assessment. The suggestion here is that there should be a more studentcantered approach on teaching methodology and tutors should develop ways in which to motivate students and empower them through active participation.

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Teaching resources are also crucial in this sense and application of improved methods so as to respond to students’ needs. Teaching is related not only to methodology and recourses but to the ways in which students are assessed for their language proficiency. English Language Learning students need to be evaluated on a regular basis in order to meet their language and educational needs. What is crucial is not the means by which students are evaluated but that English language proficiency is viewed as a variable, or continuum, with gradual, individual progress as the goal. It is also important that educators plan the time students need to progress and understand different modes and paces of learning for different students as will be demonstrated in the following paragraph. Language learning is a multifaceted process that entails active involvement and collaboration of teachers and learners. Motivation is a factor that has been established in the research literature as important for English Language learning students. Research shows that the English Language Learning students with strong aptitude, motivation and first language skills are more successful in English proficiency. It is necessary to provide opportunities for English Language Learners to produce written work, oral presentations and engage in debate and exchange of ideas. Some students learn in solitude, others value more group work as such collaborative learning tools should be applied. Not everyone learns at thesame pace nor under the same strategies, so customized learning strategiesare truly important if learning is the objective (Garcia, 2000). It is also crucial to interact, where possible, with native English-speakers or communicate amongst peer in English thus providing opportunities for extended dialogue. The role of family, friends and community is important in the capacity of students to learn English. Different students have different stages of language fluency. Testing is another topic of concern amongst students, teachers and educational policy-makers and educational leaders in pre-university and higher education settings. Testing is also linked with the students’ skills in their native language. In this sense, developing native language skills properly increases the likelihood that English Language Learning students international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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will also develop adequate English speaking skills. In addition, students are concerned about the acceptable level of English proficiency as a condition for their graduation in the second cycle of studies and for admissions requirement for the third cycle of study, namely master and doctoral studies. Additional time, effort and financial resources are placed by pursuing extra English Language courses to prepare for the English testing on the side of students and their families. Another area of concern is that of the acceptable levels of the English language proficiency of university students and how is this related to their ability to succeed in universities. The research shows that low levels of language proficiency impact students’ ability to deal comprehensively with their courses materials. University students need academic resources in order to successfully complete assignments, course work, essays and research studies. Apart from the materials they can find in Albanian language, the majority of reputable studies and academic journals are in English. As such the level of the English language proficiency impacts the quality of their assignments, course work, essays and research studies. In this sense, a primary reason for students struggling through their undergraduate or graduate studies is a lack of capacity to cope with reading materials in English language due to the low levels of proficiency. Lecturers argue that in general students who have higher levels of language proficiency produce better academic work partly because they are able to refer to additional resources that the compulsory readings in Albanian language. Students notice a difference between academic language and everyday communication skills. Academic language fluency is especially important for academic achievement.Distinguishing between oral and academic language is important forimproving the academic progress of English Language Learners. While individuals can easily learn basic conversational language skills, it takes longer to acquire academic language skills. Research shows that it can take about 4 to 7 years todevelop academic English proficiency (Hakuta, 2000). Academic English is meant the ability to use spoken English with such complexity that one’s academic performance is not impaired.

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One significant component of this definition is the notion that Englishlanguage proficiency is not static but changes depending on grade level and teachers’ and educators’ expectations. A second important component is its link to socioeconomic status: the greater is a student’s socioeconomic status, the more likely are they to master academic English. However this is highly contested. So the implication is that academic English is a very specific way of thinking and expressing oneself. Students and tutors’ perspectives on the English Language in academic context Drawing from personal experiences and perspectives, students and tutors point to these main topics in regards to the development of the English Language in the academic context: development of adequate qualification for teachers, tutors and lecturers of the English Language and investment in their continuous professional development; improvement of teaching methodology, resources and assessment of students’ proficiency in English with a shift from traditional modes of teaching and assessment towards a student-centred approach, interactive communication and empowering students to participate actively in teaching and learning settings; development of the English for academic purposes in higher education; In order to ameliorate the learning practices and command of the English Language amongst university students, extra hours and additional courses for English for Academic Purposes could be designed and implemented based on the programme of study, for instance Legal English, Business English, and English for Social Sciences. They also refer to delivery of lectures in English in higher education; Students and tutors alike emphasise the positive impact on improving English learning skills through the delivery of lecturers in English and they suggest that this practice shall be encouraged across faculties. For instance, in the European University of Tirana some of the classes are delivered in Albanian and in English, thus enabling students to engage in writing, reading and dialogue in English for their particular study programmes; extra-curricular activities as an instrument to improve the proficiency of the English language. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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An important dimension is that of organisation of extra-curricular activities such as open lectures, seminars, workshops whereby the participants have the opportunity to interact in English; Students suggest that when motivated they tend to communicate with their fellows in English in order to practice speaking skills; linkages of the English learning experience with the English culture; in this sense, students and tutors suggest learning about the English culture through art and cinema. In addition, learning English in the United Kingdom; The focus groups suggest that students tend to believe that the best way to learn English is by attending an English school in the United Kingdom or other English-speaking countries. In this regard, they point to the need for suitable information and support with the application processes to study English in the United Kingdom. A major role could thus be played by organisations such as the British Council or the Student Services in higher education institutions; role and relevance of the British Council in the development of the English Language in the academic context; more visible to students and young professionals with information and guidance about applications; financial support for students, scholarships and loans to study in the United Kingdom; the use of ICTs to develop alternative teaching and learning mechanisms. In this sense, it is necessary to develop appropriate curricula for the higher education settings in regards to the English language teaching. In addition, teaching methodology and materials are to be linked with the learning necessities of university students, their profiles and learning paces as well as to their professional development prospects. For instance, teaching Business English to students of the Faculty of Economy and Legal English to law students.

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Concluding remarks It is argued that the ability to speak and write in English is a crucial predictor of academic and professional development and therefore later socioeconomic success. The English Language as any other language is a complex process and involves a multitude of individual, family, community, educational and socio-cultural factors. Moreover, although acquiring everyday English-language skills is relatively easy for university students, it is mostly academic English that is difficult to grasp and which is highly correlated with professional success. Therefore, student academic performance is contingent on acquiring academic-English proficiency. Higher education institutions should create optimal conditions for English Language Learning students by providing practices, opportunities and resources to use English formally and informally based on specially-designed educational programmes responding to the needs of students. In order to reduce the achievement gap amongst students it is necessary to conduct research that includes them in the analysis, explores in depth the challenges they face in language acquisition and addresses their abilities to master academic English. This is principally a qualitative study based on a relatively small sample of students and tutors participating in the focus groups to discuss about the English language development in higher education contexts in Albania. A combined approach of quantitative and qualitative research design is needed in order to have a comprehensive picture of the topic.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Barbour, R.S. and Kitzinger, J. Eds. 1999. Developing Focus Group Research. London: Sage. Garcia, G. 2000. Lessons from research: What is the length of time it takes limited English proficient students to acquire English and succeed in an all English classroom? Washington,DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. Hakuta, K., Butler, Y., & Witt, D. 2000. How long does it take English learners to attain proficiency? Davis: University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute. Kvale, S. 2007. Doing Interviews, London: Sage Publications. Tompkins, G. 2001. Literacy for the 21st century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. UNESCO. 2011. ‘World Data on Education: Albania’, United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization Report, available at http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/pdfst versions/Albania.pdf, accessed 21 September 2012. USAID. 2011. ‘ICT Country Profile: Albania 2011’, Regional Competitiveness Initiative, Report published by the United States Agency of International Development, available at www.rciproject.com/itprofiles.../ICT_Country_Profile-Albania.pdf, accessed on th 20 September 2012.

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List of documents examined in the document analysis

Law No.10307, date 22.7.2010 amending Law No.9741, date 21.5.2007 ‘On Higher Education in the Republic of Albania’. Law No.9741, date 21.5.2007 ‘On Higher Education in the Republic of Albania’ amended by Law Nor.9832, date 12.11.2007. Law No. 8834, date 22.11.2001 on ‘Ratification of the Convention for the Recognition of Higher Education Qualifications in Europe’, Tirana, 2001.

‘Reform of Curricula’, Mininistry of Education and Science – MoES, available at http://www.mash.gov.al/faqe.php?id1=4&id2=22&lang=en, accessed on the rd 3 November 2012.

The National Strategy on Higher Education (2007-2013), Ministry of Education and Science, Tirana, 2008.

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G iu sep pe ST AB IL E, P hD M ediev a l V la ch s or S out h - E ast Eu rop e an Rom an it y as s e en b y O th er s . 1. “ Vl ac h” , th e Nom e n B a rb ar i cum of Ro m an ce Sp ea k er s in t he M iddle Ag e s O n e of th e p i vo ta l is s ues ab o ut Vl ac hs – t h os e m ed i e va l he ir s of S ou th - E as t E ur o p e an R om an it y – i s th e f ac t th a t t h e na t io n a l ph i l o lo g ies a nd h is to r i o gr a p h ies in q ues t io n (Cr o at i an , A lb a n ia n , G re ek , Ser b ia n, R um an i a n an d Hu n gar i a n) h a ve al l at tem pt e d t o g i ve t h e ir o wn p ar t ic u l ar s l an t t o th e p as t a nd a lm os t o pe n l y ex p l o it ed i t i n o r d er t o la y c la im to his t or ic a l pr im ac y a n d et hn ic u n it y. W hils t I m ak e no pre t enc e t o unc o v er l on g los t s ec r e ts or to pr o v i d e d ef i n it e a ns w ers t o t h e n um ero us qu es ti o ns s t i l l b e g g i n g c l ar if ic a t io n , i n th is f o ra y I s e ek f irs tl y to “ m atc h u p” th e m ai n li ter ar y tr a d it i ons o f the E as t er n a nd W es tern Mi d d le A g es an d s ec on d l y to r ec o ver “ Vl ac h is m ” (c f . th e G erm . W al ac h e nt um ) as a m ar k er no t o n l y f or a l on g f or g ot te n a n d c o nc ea l ed R om an i t y b ut al s o f or a s ens e of l im in ar it y an d ot h er nes s wh ic h ex t e nd e d we l l b e yo n d t h e c onc e pt of l i ng u is t ic o r e th n ic d i v er s it y. O ri g in a l l y, th e wor d “ V lac h” was th e et h n i c on us ed b y no n- Rom ans t o i n d ic a te th e R om ans ; it w as a n ex o n ym , a n et h no n ym u tt er ed b y o u ts id er s wh i ls t “Rom an” was its c or r es p o nd i ng e n do n ym , or t o be m or e pre c is e, th a t is wh at i t bec am e, wh er e v er i t l os t i ts p ol i t ic a l s t at u s a nd ad o pt ed t h e s ta tus of an et h no n ym us e d b y i n s i d er s . T h i s ph e nom en o n was tr i g ge re d b y th e f a l l of t he R om an Em pir e a nd pr i or to t ha t it was th e r es u l t of t h e Em p ir e‟s gr ad u a l dec l i ne , wh ic h h ad a lr e a d y d am ag ed t he anc i e nt , u n i ve r s a l is t ic Ro m an i tas , d o om ed i n t im e t o pr es er v e no t hi n g m or e th a n a t ok en v a l ue . N o s ur p r is e t ha t t he Eas ter n R om an Em pi re p rou d l y c o nt i n ue d t o r ef er t o its e lf as b e i ng “ Rom a n” ( “ R om aïc ” c f . the B yz. G r. ῥωκ α ϊθ όο ) , e v en th o u gh , b y t h at s t a g e, it h ad ac t u al l y bec om e G r e ek in l i n gu is tic a n d c ul t ur a l t er m s , wh i l s t it c o nt em ptu o us l y us e d t he t erm Βι άρ νη , i. e . “ V l ac hs ” ,

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i n t he Sl a v ic an d G e r m anic m an n er , wh e n ta lk i ng a bo u t t h e “ Rom ans ” wh o s t i l l d we l le d be t we e n t h e B a lk ans an d th e Dn i es t er (“ Rom ans ” – a n ywa y – wh os e R om ani t y was pr es um ab l y re d uc e d t o a r om a nc e d i a lec t) . T he t wo t o po n ym s “ V lac h ia ” a nd “ R om an ia” wer e r e le g at e d to a s im i l ar tr ad i t io n a n d h is tor y as were t h e et h no n ym s “ V l ac h” a n d “ Rom an ” ( c f . th e B yz. G r . Ῥω κα λ ί α an d th e tk . Rū m) , e ve n th ou g h t h er e is no tr ac e of t he wa y th at t h e Da n ub i an an d B a lk an “ Rom ans ” i nd ic at e d th em s el v es a nd t h eir o wn “ Rom an i a e” d ur i ng t he M i dd l e A ges ; on e c a n a t m os t pr es um e t ha t it der i v e d f r om the L at i n R om a nus - R om a n ia a nd it on l y v a g ue l y r es em bl ed t he R um . R om â n i e , t he er u di t e f orm th 1 c o in e d i n th e 1 9 c e nt ur y o n Ro m ân < L at . R om a nus . As a r u le , th e r o ots o f th e e t hn o n ym “ V lac h” are tr ac ed bac k to Ce l t. * Vo lc o( s ) , whic h was us e d t o des i g na te a g ro u p of st Ce l tic t ri b es (c f . th e L at . V o lc a e a n d th e G r. Ο ὐόι θ α η, in t h e 1 st c . B .C . - 1 A .D .) , wh o or i g in a l l y s et tl e d s om e wh er e b e t wee n E as t er n G au l a n d t h e B oh em ia n H ig h la n ds , per h a ps as e ar l y as rd th e 3 c . B. C. a n d wh o wer e i n c o nt ac t wit h t h e G erm an ic tr i b es . S o, t h e m ean i ng of th e G m c . *W al χ os , b y m ea ns of a c om m on a nt o nom as t i c pr oc es s , was gr a du a l l y ex t en d ed to i nc l u de a l l C e lts wi t ho u t dis t inc t io n , th e n g en er a l l y t o n o n G er m an ic p o pu l at i o n s . As m os t of t he Ce lts ha d b e e n st th s ubj u ga te d b y R om e be t we en t he 1 an d 4 c c . A .D ., *W a l χos c am e to m ea n t h e R o m ani ze d Ce l ts , p ar t ic u l arl y t he G a u ls , an d e ve n tu a l l y us e d t o i nd ic at e t he R om ans them s e l ves . T he G er m an ic s , wi th t h e ex c ep t io n of th e G ot hs (c f . t h e G ot h. 3 Rū m ōn e is „ R om ans ‟ a nd Rū m- a „ R om e‟), d i d n ot c a l l R o m ans th e R om an p o pu l at i on s s pe ak in g t he r o ma n a l i ng u a , bu t ra th er W alh a ( O HG erm . W al( a) h < G m c . *W al χ os ). Mo re o v er, wh e n t he r om a na l in g ua s p l it of f i nt o v ar i ous Rom anc e di a l ec ts ( c f . th e I t. par l ar i r o m a n zi , a nd th e G erm . th th r o ma n is c h e n Mu n d ar t e n ) b e t we en t h e 5 an d 9 c c ., 1

According to the historical phonetics of the Rumanian language, a possible standard consequence of the Latin Romània might have occurred with the form *Rumâĭe, that of a theoretical Balkan Lat. *Romanìa< Byz. Gr. Ῥωκαλία the form *Rumăĭìe. Arvinte (1983): 27 3 K ö b l e r ( 1 9 8 9 ) : R ū m a , R ū m ō n e i s ; L e h m a n n , H e wi t t , F e i s t ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 2 8 7

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th e G erm a nic s c o nt i nu e d t o r ef er t o t h e v ar i ous r om anc e po p u la t io ns us i ng t h e s am e e th n o n ym of C el tic ori g i n. T hus t h e m od er n F r e nc h , W allo o ns , I ta l i a ns , R om ans h s pe ak ers a nd Rum an i ans bec am e W alh a. N on e th e les s , o v er t he M id d l e A g es , t h e us e of “ V lac h” an d s pec u la rl y “R om an” bec am e l es s a nd l es s wid es pr ea d a n d t od a y it is l i m ited to t wo a nc ie n t bor d er la n ds : t h at of the R h ae t o - R om anc e ar eas in E as t er n S wi t ze rl a nd , wh er e Rom s h. Ro m au ns c h or R um a nts c h „R om ans h ‟ < La t. r om an ic e ( c f . Rom s h. R o ma u n „ Rom a n‟ ' < L a t. Ro m an us ) c on tr as ts wi th t he G er m an ( Ch ur - )W a ls c h ; t h at B alk a n - R om anc e in pr es e n t - d a y R om an i a a n d M o l do v i a, as we l l as s m all enc l a v es s c at ter e d i n t he B a lk an s , wh er e t he R um . Ru m ân or R o mâ n „R um an i an /R om an i an ‟ (c f . a ls o Ar um . Ar ( ă) mâ n „ Ar um an ia n ‟, Mr um . *R u m ôn „ Mac e do - R um an ia n ‟, Ir um . R u m år „Is tr o - R u m ani an ‟) c o n tr as ts wi t h th e h e irs of W al ah i n v ar io us la n gu a ges , s uc h as t h e G r . Βι ά ρ νο , t he Bu l g. , M ac . an d S er b. Вл ах , В ла( у ) , t h e Cr . Vl a h, t he H un g . O l á h, t he Al b . 4 V l la h a n d th e T k . Ef l a k , İ f lak or U lak . In So ut h - E as t er n E ur op e , t h e h is t or y of th e Rom a ns ‟ no m en b ar b ar ic u m tak es on a n i nt er es t i n g s l an t b ot h i n t erm s of th e l i gh t i t s he ds o n t hos e “ d ar k c e nt ur i es ” of Me d i e va l t im es , an d in term s of th e s he er num ber a nd di v ers it y of li n g uis t ic tr a d it i on s t h at it v ir t ua l l y i n vo l v es . At t he n a di r of a g r a du a l dec l i ne i n Rom a n l if e in t he f or m er Da nu b ia n an d Ba lk a n pr o v i nc es of th e R om an Em pir e, th th be t we en th e 6 a n d t he 7 c c ., So u th - E as t Eur o pe a n R om an it y s eem s to d is ap p ear f r om s our c es a l on g wi t h L a ti n term i no l o g y th th “ Rom an o - Rom a ni a” o n l y to r e a pp e ar be t we e n t h e 10 a n d 1 1 c c . “v l ac his e d” i. e. c onc e al e d u n der t he G erm an ic - S l a vic ter m i no l og y “ Vl ac h - V lac h i a” . The pr ec is e t im in g and c ir c um s tanc es i n wh ic h t h is “ v l ac h is at i o n ” t o ok pl ac e an d h o w i t i nf l ue nc ed f irs t o n e l an g ua g e an d th e n an ot h er f rom E as t to W es t is s ti l l o nl y p ar t i a ll y c l e ar . It is c om m on l y th o ug h t t h at th e O HG erm . W ala h or th e G m c . *W a l χos s pr e a d f irs t f rom W es t to E as t , pas s i n g thr o ug h Ch ur c h S l a vo n ic a nd B yz a n t in e G re ek .

Paris (1906): 8-9, 11-15; Tagliavini (1982): 165, 170; Mihăescu (1993): 154; Αλδξηώηεο (1983): 54 G i u s e p p e S T A B I L E , P h D ▪S o u t h - E a s t E u r o p e a n R o m a n i t y . 112

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Af t er t h at , it s e em s to h a ve t ak en t he o p pos it e d ir ec t i on , f r om Eas t to W es t, g o in g t hr o ug h M ed i e va l La t in ( wh ic h wa s , no n et h el es s , a c o ur t l y l an g ua g e in s e v er a l par ts of C en tra l a n d E as t er n Eur o pe a l l t h r ou g h ou t t h e Mi d d le A ges a nd l a ter o n) an d f i na l l y r e ac hi n g t he W es ter n R om anc e l a ng u ag es , Fr e nc h , Pr o ve nç a l, I ta l i an , a nd C at a la n . T he ex is te n c e of i ntr ic at e l ink s b et we e n E as t a n d W es t is c l ear l y d em ons tr a te d b y t h e e ve n t wh ic h alm os t c er ta i n l y ac c om pa n i ed t he f ir s t e ver m e nt i on of V l ac hs , u nd er t h e n am e th th of W al ag o th i . T h is l as t was us e d b y a 7 or 8 c . i nt er po l at or of G er m an ic or i g in ( m a ybe a Fr a nk ) , wh o c o p yi n g t he s o - c a l l e d th Fr ä nk is c h e V ö lk er t af e l – m a yb e wr i tt e n i n th e 6 c. – d is t i ng u is h e d th e G o t hs of It a l y, Fr anc e or S pa i n ( wh o h ad a lr e a d y pr ob a b l y a do pt e d a m ix tur e of G ot h ic a nd R om anc e l an g ua g e) f rom ot h er G ot hs a nd G er m an i c ge n tes (« Pr im us Er m en i us ge n u it G o t h os , W alag o th os , W anda l os , G ip p e di os e t 5 S ax o n es ») . T oda y, of th is d e ba ta b le e th n og o n y, o n l y t he L at i n tex t s ur v i ves , b ut i t is f e as ib l e th a t it m a y h a ve be e n or ig i n al l y wr i tt e n i n G r eek i n th e E as t er n R om an Em pir e (m a yb e i n Co ns t a nt i no p l e), bef or e b e in g tr a ns la t ed an d e v e nt ua l l y c op i ed 6 ou t i n t h e Fra nk is h K i ng d om . It wo ul d no t ha v e b e en un t i l t he th th 8 or 9 c . t h at t h e O HG er m . “ Rom a n” W ala h was a tt es t e d wh e n i t s tar t ed t o b e i ns er te d b y G er m an g l os s a t ors i n v ar i ous l at e L at i n or Pr ot o - R om anc e tex ts ( s om et i m es int o g l os s ari es , l ik e th e L at i n - Ba v ar i a n c a l le d K as s e l G l os s es wh ic h c a n b e 7 da t ed t o c c a 8 0 0) . O n l y th e G o t h. W al- a „f ore i g ner , R om an ‟ m a y ha v e a p p ear e d m uc h ear l i er i n a nt hr op o n ym s tra ns m it te d th th b y L a ti n s ourc es of th e 4 - 5 c c . ( th e Rom an G a u l of f ic i a l t ha t Am m ia nus M arc el l i nus c a lls B a lc ho b au d es , nam e in wh ic h th e pr ef ix B alc h o ˂ W a lc h o is a r es u lt of t h et yp i c a l b- /w - os c i l l at i on 8 i n th e L at i n d oc um en t at i on) .

Schönfled (1911): 250; Müllenhoff (1887): 280; Goffart (1981): 146, 150 163 6 Goffart (1981): 157, 160 -161 7 Köbler (1993): Walah; Tagliavini (1982): 163 n. 12, 478 -479 8 Köbler (1989): Wal-a; Schönfeld (1911): 43

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It is b e l ie v e d t ha t t he S la vs l ear n t t he Ro m an‟s a nc i en t ex o n ym d ir ec tl y f r om th e G er m ans wi th wh om the y c am e i nt o c on t ac t bo t h in S o ut h - Eas t er n E ur op e ( i n th e f orm er D ac i a T r ai an a wh ic h ha d s i nc e b ec om e G ot h i a a nd t he n G e pi d i a to g et her wi t h a p ar t of Mo es ia) , a nd in Ce ntr a l -W es tern Eur o p e, i n N oric um an d in P an no n i a t o war ds th e E lb a, on wh at h ad be e n c ons i d ere d to b e f or c en t ur i es a nd wh at p art i a ll y c o n ti n u ed t o be th e E as t er n b or der wh ic h d i v i de d t h e G e rm an wor l d f rom th e Rom an on e ( gi v e n t h e pr ox im it y of It a l y a nd of Rh a et i a, t h e 2 en d ur in g rem na n ts of l oc a l R om an it y) . T here is n o r ec or d of th e C hu r c h S la v o n ic В л ах ъ [ V l ah ”] th bef or e t he 1 2 c . ; th e ol d es t r ef er e nc e i s f ou n d in a d e ed be l o ng i ng t o t h e Se r b i an K i ng St ef a n N em anj a an d i t is us e d wi t h th e m ean i ng of „B a lk an V l ac h‟ , b ut Mik l os ic h r ec or ds i t wit h th e o l der m ea n in g of „R om an, It a li a n ‟ in c o p i es of th e P al e os la v o n ic P at er ic um an d t he V it a Met h od i i wh ic h da te bac k th th to s om et im e b et we e n th e 1 2 a nd 1 4 c c ., th e or i g in a l v ers i on th of wh ic h c a n b e tr a c ed bac k to th e e n d of th e 9 c. and th er ef or e to th e C yr i l lo - M et h od i a n m is s io n i n M or a v ia an d P an n on i a ( 86 3 - 8 86) or at l eas t t o i ts d ir ec t c o nt i nu ers i n Da lm at i a an d B u lg ar i a . T he ex is te nc e of t wo S l a vo n ic v ar i at i ons v l a- a n d v lo- or v o l- , ( S ou t her n t h e f or m er, E as t er n t he l at t er, f r om wh ic h t h e C h . S l . Вл ах ъ a n d t h e O Rus . В о л ох ъ [ Vo l oc h ”]) , s ug g es ts th a t t he n a m e ent er ed i nt o c om m on S l a vic b ef or e its th th d if f er e nt i at i on t o ok p l ac e , i .e . n ot af t er th e 8 to 9 c .; a c om par ab l e ter m i nus ad q u e m s ug g es ts l i q u i d m et at hes is (G m c . *w a l- > So ut h er n S l . v la- a nd E as t er n S l. v lo- >v o l o- b y p le o ph o n y), t he ef f ec ts of wh ic h m a y b e obs er v e d in a l l t h e S la v o n ic f orm s . T he O Rus . Во л ох ъ – a tt es te d f or t h e f irs t t im e i n th e N es t or ’s C hr o n ic le or Th e Ta l e o f B y go n e Y e ars , wh ic h th da t es b ac k to t h e 1 2 c . bu t c o n ta i ns e ve n m ore a nc i e nt m ater ia l – do es no t d if f er f r om the Ch . S l. В л ах ъ as it was ge n er al l y us e d wit h th e s am e m ean i ng ( s ee V as m er: « al t er Na m e d er ro ma n is c h en Vö lk er ») ; ye t i t is t his v er y e arl y 2

Mihăescu (1993): 155; Rosetti (1968): 213-214; Stănescu (1968a): 420, 432-434; Panaitescu (1994): 76; Georgescu (1984): 417, 419 -20; Mirdita (2004): 174, 157-159; Даничић (1863): 132-134; Miklosich (1862 -‟65): 68; В. Георгиев (1971): 163-164 G i u s e p p e S T A B I L E , P h D ▪S o u t h - E a s t E u r o p e a n R o m a n i t y . 114

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r ec o r d e d m ean i ng wh i c h is dis p ut e d a nd i t f luc tu at es b e t we en “ A nc ie nt Rom ans ” , “ Fr a nk s ” an d “ V l ac hs ” – th e C ar pa t hi a n 3 Da n ub i an on es (t he f o r ef at h er s of to d a y‟s R u m an ia ns ) . T he Vl ac hs of S o ut h E as t er n Eur o pe a p p ear e d f or th e v er y f irs t t im e in B yz an t in e s o ur c es un d er t he G r eek n am e of th Βι ά ρ ν η , b e t wee n t he e nd of t h e 10 c . an d t he b e gi n n in g of t he th 11 . T h e y f ig ur ed i n t wo d ip l om as of Β αζ ηι ε ύο B as i l I I th e Mac e do n i an ὀ Βν πι γ α ξ νθ η ό λν ο , da t ed 98 0 a nd 1 02 0; wh i ls t t he k il li n g π αξ άη η λῶ λ Βι αρ ῶλ ὁ δ ηη ῶ λ of a br o th e r of th e B u l gar i a n Mac e do n i an T s ar S a m uel i n 9 7 6 m us t b e tak e n as t he f irs t ep is o de in v o l v in g V la c hs , t h ou g h i t was r e c ord e d a t th e e n d of th th e 1 1 c . b y t he C hr on ic l e of K e dr en os ( w ho h a d dr a wn on t h e 4 s l ig h tl y o l d er c hr o nic l e of Sk yl i t ze s ) . T he re l at i v e l y t ar d y ap p ear a nc e of t h e Βι άρ ν η i n B yza n t in e s o urc es c an b e ex p la i ne d a wa y b y t h e ir l e ng th l y is ol a ti o n f rom t he B yz a n t in e ν ἰθ ν πκέ λ ε a nd t h e ir l ac k of i n vo l v em ent – un d er t he n am e of Βι άρ ν η – i n s i gn if ic a nt h is t or ic a l e v en ts , b ut a ls o b y t he t en d en c y to c a l l th em b y d if f er e nt n am es th a n th os e t h e y us e d t o c a ll t hem s e l ves . W e c an j us t pr es um e t ha t “ Rom ans ” wa s th e en d on ym th e y ef f ec t i ve l y us e d. T he y s t a ye d Μ η μ νβά ξβ αξ ν η ne v er f u ll y adm it t ed to t he Λ α όο η ῶ λῥ ωκ α ίν λ a nd th e Ῥω κα η όη εο ( t his is wh y i t is e n tir e l y p o s s i bl e t ha t th e r om an is ed p o pu l at i o ns of S ou th E as t er n E ur o pe ap p ear e d i n t h e B yza nt i ne s o urc es e ve n ear l i er, u n de r bar b ar ia n n am es s uc h as Πα ηδ ηάθ αη a n d Κ( ν) πκ ά λν η or ar c h a i c o nes s uc h as Γά θ αη , ΢θ ύ ζα η , Γ έηα η , Βέ ζ ζ νη an d Μπ ζ ν ί – tho u g h th er e is ins u f f ic ie n t e v id e nc e to 5 dem ons tr at e t his pos s i b il i t y) .

Vasmer (1953): 222; Gyóni (1949): 76 -92; Толстов (1948): 12; Mirdita (2004): 367 4 Mihăescu ( 1966): 163-174; (1993): 155-156; Stănescu (1968a): 407 -415; Armbruster(1993): 18; Dragomir(1959): 111, 161-162; Bogrea (1929): 50-53; Gyóni(1947): 115-119; (1951-‟52): 495-514; Murnu (1905): 101, 109; Grégoire(1939): 303; Brezeanu (1982): 393; (1987): 206-208; Mirdita (2004): 2324; Năsturel (1979): 91, 101-102; W innifrith (1987): 100-105 5 Stănescu (1968a): 420, 432-433; Brezeanu (1976): 220-221; (1981): 1330, 1338; (1982): 388, 397-399, 400-401; (1987): 213; Tamás (1943): 198-199; Mirdita (2004): 22-23

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Co ns id er a bl y o l d er t h an t h e B yz. G r. Βι άρ νο , bu t m ore unr e l i ab l e in t erm s of i nt er pr e ta t io n , is t he O E ng l . R ū mw ā l( a)h m enti o n ed i n t h e po em W ids it h ( i n pl . d at . R ū mw ā lu m ) a nd th th da t in g t her ef or e t o t h e 9 t o 1 0 c .; t he t erm is a c om po un d wor d of R ū m a n d W ālh m ean i n g l it e ra ll y „ R om an - V lac h ‟ ( Ch am bers u n ear t he d a s im il ar t er m G a lw a l um „G a u l- V l ac h ‟ ? i n th th e A ng l o- Sax o n C hr on ic l e , d at i ng as f ar as t h e 7 c .) an d wh ic h c a n b e un d er s t oo d t o b e „ Rom an ( p art ic u lar l y o n e f rom It a l y o r G au l) ‟ or „ E a s ter n Rom a n‟ , wh ic h m eans „ B yza n t in e ‟ if 6 no t „ E as t er n V lac h ‟. A lt h ou g h t h is t he or y is n ot v er if i a b le , it do es s eem to b e c or r ob or at e d b y th e f ac t t ha t R ū m a n d W āl h ar e l ik e l y t o b e of G ot h ic or i g i n a n d a ls o b y t h e f ac t t ha t th e po em as s oc i at es th e s e t er m s wi th E as ter n G erm an ic tr i b es , s uc h as th e G o ths b ut es p ec i a ll y t he R ug i a n s an d th e G l om m as , wh o ha d s e tt l e d b et we en N or ic um , I ll yr i a an d I ta l y ( « Mi d Ru g um 7 ic wæs on d m id G lo m m um ond m i d R om wa l um »). If we a ls o tak e i nt o ac c o u nt 1) t h at W ā l h ( th e s ec on d h a lf of t h e c om pou n d wor d) m a y h ad th e g en er ic m ea n in g of „f o re ig n er ‟, bu t it als o m eant „ n at i v e Rom an s pe ak er ‟ or „ V lac h ‟, a n d 2) t ha t th e G o th . Rū m a m ean t „ B yza n t i ne , E as t er n R om an Em pir e‟ , we c a n c onc l u de t h at Rū m wā l as c o ul d m ea n „ V l ac hs of th e E as t ern Rom an Em pir e ‟. Ho we v er , i t is th e as s im il at i o n of th e c om m on S l. В л ах ъ as Βι άρ νο b y B yza n t in e a ut h or s whic h f orm s th e re a l c rux of th e m atter in t h e h is t or y o f th e n om e n b ar b ar ic u m of t h e Rom a ns . T he tra ns i ti o n of th e S o ut he r n v ari a nt i n - a- of t he c om m on S l a vic to t h e B yz. G r . Βι ά ρ ν ο – e ar li er t h an t h e o l der k no wn rec or ds of t h e C h . S l. В л ах ъ – m us t be de em ed im por ta nt f or t wo m ai n r eas o ns : 1) t his tra ns it i o n c o i nc i d ed wi t h a c r uc ia l c h a ng e i n t he s e ns e, h a v i ng b e en r es tr ic t e d to t h e s i gn if ic a nc e of „ Ba lk an a n d/ or Car p at h ia n - D a nu b i an R om an s pe ak i ng m an ‟ ; 2) B yz an t ium was th e m ai n v e h ic l e a l o ng wh ic h th e ol d G erm an is m s pr ea d ou t t o war ds th e E as t bu t es p ec i al l y to war ds th e W es t. In de e d, i t is f r om the B yz. G r. Βι άρ ν ο t h at der i v e d b ot h th e M e d . La t. B lac h us a nd , p erh a ps t hro u gh t h e l at ter , t he O Fr. B lac / B la q u e, B las an d B la s qu e , i n wh ic h th e 6

Armbruster (1993): 23; Chambers (1912): 211; Malone (1962): 25; Malone (1962): 115, 193 -194 G i u s e p p e S T A B I L E , P h D ▪S o u t h - E a s t E u r o p e a n R o m a n i t y . 116 7

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pa l at a l i za t io n c h >s c o u ld b e af f ec t e d b y t h e M ed . L at . p lu ra ls B las i , B l a zi or ( bu t t h is is m or e o p e n t o d o ub t) b y th e C h. S l . 8 p lur a l В лас и [V l as i] , i f not b y a S o ut her n S l. f orm V las . St i l l f r om Βι άρ νο we d er i v e th e T k ./ Kum . Ul ak , Lak „ Vl ac h/ V l ac h i a ‟ th ( ?) , att es te d i n O ğ u z- nā m e, wh ic h da t es t o t he 11 c . a n d is t he o ld es t pr es er ve d T u r k is h c hr o n ic le , an d a ls o i n th e L i de u is am e nt d ou Mo n d e b y M ar c o Po l o, wh i c h d a tes t o t h e e n d th of t h e 13 c . , bu t a ls o th e O t t. T k . Ef l ak , Af l ak or İ fl ak „ i d em ‟, wh ic h m os t pr ob a b l y d i d n o t en ter e d i nt o l it e rar y us e b ef or e th e th th m idd l e of t he 1 4 c . , att es te d i n 1 5 c . c hro n ic l es s uc h as Tār ī ḫ- i E bü ’l - f e tḥ [T h e His t or y of t h e Co nq u er or] b y T urs u n 9 B eg . T he s am e B a lk an Βι άρ ν η m en ti o ne d i n m an y B yza n t i ne s our c es ar e c l ear l y r ec o g n is a b le in t he Vl ac h i of t h e A nn a les th th B ar e ns es ( 7 – 11 c .) , b e i ng p ar t of m ix ed c o nt i n ge nts ( «R us s orum , G u an d al or um , T ur c or um , B urg aro rum , V lac h orum , Mac e do n um , a l ior um que ») , t h at th e Βα ζ ηι ε ύο C ons t an t in e VI II th s en t at th e s t ar t of t h e 1 1 c . t o So ut h er n It a l y; b y n o m ea ns c o inc i de n ta l l y th e f ir s t V l ac hs t o be a tt es t e d b y a Me d ie v a l La t i n 10 s our c e . th th O v er th e n ex t f o ur c e nt ur ies b e t wee n th e 1 2 t o th e 1 5 c ., th e rem a ins of S o ut h - Eas t E ur op e an R om an it y of t e n ap p ea re d as V lac hs i n t he Me d i e va l L a ti n s ourc es , b ut wh i ls t th e m ean i n g of t he e x on ym des i g na t in g t h em s ta ye d u n v ar ie d o ver tim e, th e var i at i on i n f or m is bot h s t rik in g an d tr ic k y t o ex p l a in : V(a) l ac hus / V o lac h us , W al l ac hus , W alat us , O l ac hus , B lac h us an d B l ac ( c ) us , e tc . O n e of t h e m os t a nc ie n t an d 8

Brezeanu (1981): 1333; Drăganu (1933): 17 -18 At least 2 facts can be taken for proved on the presence of Vlachs in the Ottoman sources: 1) the broad use of the exonym in chronicles and c o l l e c t i o n s o f O t t o m a n l a ws d a t e d f r o m t h e 1 5 t h t o 1 6 t h c c . ; 2 ) t h e T u r k i s h compilers drew the terminology on Vlachs from the Byzantine tradition and p o s s i b l y f r o m t h e S o u t h e r n S l a v i c o n e ( t h e m o s t c om m o n f o r m s e em t o h a v e been Eflak, Eflakiar) using it, originally, in an ethnic sense. Cf. Brezeanu (1991): 322, 346; Georgescu (1984): 419; Ekrem (1980): 289 -290; Beldiceanu (1965): 688-689; (1984): 1-14; (1985): 287-292; DvoičenkoMarkov (1984): 514, 521; Decei (1945): 178 -179; Mirdita (2004): 313 -314; (2007): 260; A. Tanașoca (1981): 1515 10 Brezeanu (1981): 1332; (1982): 401; Armbruster (1993): 30 -43; Mirdit a (2004): 41-43, 45-50 9

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i nt er es t i ng of th es e at tes ta t io ns r e g ar ds D i n ar ic an d D alm at i a n Rom an i t y, t he « M or o v lac h i hos es t N i gr i La t in i » in t h e Re g nu m S lav or u m c hr o n ic l e b y t he an o n ym o u s Pr i es t of D uk lj a – k no wn to t h e S l a vs as Lj et o p is P op a D uk l ja n in a – , wh ic h d at es th to t h e s ec o nd ha lf of th e 1 2 c . ( c f . t he M ed . L at . Mor ov lac us „ B lac k V l ac h ‟ < t he B yz. G r . Μ α πξ όβι α ρ ν ο, th e Cr. 11 Mav r ov l ah ,t h eI t. Mor l a c c o ) . T he o l der r ef er e nc es to t h e C ar pa t hi a n - D a n ub i a n V l ac hs ar e at t es t e d b y Me d i e va l La t in s o ur c es s uc h as W al at i i n a l et ter da te d t o 1 2 34 f r om Pop e G r e g or y I X to t he H u n gar i a n K in g B é la I V, a n d B lac h i or B l ac i i n t he C hro n ic l e o f th e th A no ny mo us No t ar y d a ti n g b ac k to t he m i dd l e of t h e 1 2 c . or th th e be g in n i ng of t he 13 c . b y a Hu n gar i a n Ki n g Bé l a (m ore l ik el y t he I I or II I) a nd wh ic h has b e en t he o bj ec t of l on g s ta n di n g d is pu t es be t we en Rum an i an a nd Hu n gar i a n h is t or io gr ap h y c onc e r n in g t h e c o n ti n u it y of th e R um an i an 12 pr es e nc e i n T ra ns yl v a n ia . Am on gs t t h e W es ter n s our c es , th e o n l y o n e s c om para b le wi t h th e M e d ie v a l L at i n a nd G r eek B yza n t i ne on es i n t erm s of 11

The reasons why these Vlachs are called “black” is not clear at all; one of the theories is that the name might be linked to an ancient Indoeuropean, or more probably Altaic, symbolic tradition which associated given colours to t h e c o m p a s s p o i n t s , b l a c k wi t h t h e N o r t h ( c f . t h e T k . K a r a - U l a h a n d K a r a İflak> the Bulg. Каравлах „Black Vlach, North -Danubian‟ whilst Беливлах„W hite Vlach, South-Danubian‟, originally „western, close‟). Black w a s t h e c o l o u r o f t h e c l o a k wi t h w h i c h t h e y w e r e t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d i n s o m e r e g i o n s ( C f . S e r . a n d C r . г у њ / g u n j , t h e G r . γ ν ύ λ ( λ ) α , f r o m wh i c h derived Crnogunjci/Црногуњци and Καξαγνύλεδεο „Black mantles‟). Panaitescu evokes the image of the black garments of the Vlach shepherds and caravaneerscoming from the inland mountains which contrasted with the w h i t e c l o t h i n g o f t h e c o a s t a l i n h a b i t a n t s , wh o i n t h e p o r t s o f I s t r i a a n d Dalmatia were mainly Italian. Thus, the strange name of the Dinaric and Istrian-Dalmatian Vlachs and its variants in the various Balkan languages probably originated from the It. Morlacco. Cf. DRAGOMIR (1959): 89-92, 143148; Bešker (2007): 22-24; Mirdita (2004): 337 -348, 369-370; Găzdaru (1957): 108; Armbruster (1993): 30 -31; Lăzărescu-Zobian (1984): 265; Skok (1972): 392, 606-607; (1971): 634; Iosipescu (1979): 673 -685; Panaitescu (1969): 224-227; Tanașoca (2004): 30 -49 12 Papacostea (1993): 61; Brezeanu (1981): 1317, 1325; (1982): 401; Armbruster (1993): 36 -41; Gamillscheg (1943): 270 -276; Gherghel (1926): 387-389; Pascu (1971): 47-49; Kristó (1978): 656-657; Tamás (1935): 208221; Королюк (1972): 154-159 G i u s e p p e S T A B I L E , P h D ▪S o u t h - E a s t E u r o p e a n R o m a n i t y . 118

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“ V l ac h” at t es t at i ons , wer e wi th o ut d ou bt th e Fr enc h s ourc es of th th th e 12 to 1 5 c . I n A nc ie nt a n d M i d dl e Fr e nc h , t h e he irs of W ala h pr es er ve d t he s am e m ean i n g of “E a s ter n R om an” whic h th e y al re a d y h a d in Me d i e va l L at i n a n d G reek B yza n t i n e, bu t th e y ac q uir e d c er ta i n f eat ur es , a m ar k ed po l ym orp h is m ( Bl as , B lac , B lac h, B l aq u er r e , W a l( l ) a q ue , V(a) l a qu e , e tc .) an d t h e ap p ar en t be t ac is m of t he i n it i a l, wh ic h s eem s t o be f o un d ex c lus i v e l y in t he M e d i e va l L at i n an d Rom a nc e h e irs bu t n ot i n 13 th e G re ek B yza nt i n e an d Ch ur c h S l a v ic on es . It was th e v ar io us L at i n s c r i pt a e m edi at i ng t h e G r e ek s c ri pt tr ad i t io n wh i c h ga v e r is e t o s uc h a v ar ie t y of f or m s and es pec i a l l y t o t h e b ir t h of th e in i t ia l b- var i a nt no t o n l y in M ed i e v a l L at i n, b ut als o i n 14 W es tern R om anc e. M or e o v er , t he s am e re as o ns m ig h t a ls o ha v e s p a wn e d i n it i a l b- f or m s in s om e G er m anic tr a di t io ns (c f . 15 th e O Is l. B lök u ma ðr , t he Ba v . B l ac h or t he S ax . Bl ōc h) .

In a recently published, monographic study, the author managed to quantify the presence of Vlachs and Vlachias in medieval French literature. On the basis of a survey of 27 texts vastly ranging in terms of genre and dating between the 12th and 15th c., in its turn taken from an examination of 7 5 t e xt s , 4 3 3 a t t e s t a t i o n s w e r e r e c o r d e d , 2 0 4 o f t h e e t h n o n y m a n d 2 2 9 o f the toponym. See Stabile (2011): 85-91 14 T h e o r i g i n o f t h i s b - m u s t b e s o u g h t i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t we e n o r a l i t y a n d writing as it was defined during the Middle Ages rather than in a pec uliar p h o n e t i c e v o l u t i o n o f t h e W e s t e r n h e i r s o f W a l a h . C f . B r o wn i n g ( 1 9 8 3 ) : 2 7 ; Vasmer (1941): 294 -295; Malingoudis (1981): 146; Br unet (1985): 235 -265; Bonfante (1973): 113, 116 -117; Viscidi (1944): 6 -7, 13, 16, 19-20; Terracini (1935): 147-149; (1936): 1-4, 12-16, 19-22; Stabile (2011): 40 n. 18 15 Schullerus (1924): 650; Pintescu (2001): 4 and passim.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Α Ν Γ Ρ Ι Ώ Σ Η ΢ , Ν . Π. 19 8 3. Δη πκ νι νγ ηθ ό Λε μη θ ό η εο Κν η λ ήο Ν εν ει ι ε λ ηθ ή ο. Θ εζ ζ αι ν λ ίθ ε: Α ξη ζη νη έι η ν Π α λε π ηζ η ίκ ην Θ εζ ζαι ν λ ηθ ήο – Ιλ ζ ηη ην ύη ν Ν εν ει ι ε ληθ ώλ ΢ πν π δώ λ . 19 9 3. R om an it a te a r o m âni l or is t or i a u ne i i d e i, B uc ur eş t i: Ed . E nc ic l o pe d ic ă. ARVINTE, V. 19 8 3. R om ân , r om ân e s c , Rom ân i a. St u di u f i l o lo g ic . Buc ur eș t i : E d. Şt i in ţ if ic ă ş i E nc ic l op e d ic ă . BELDICEANU, N. 19 6 5. Ef l āk . I n B . L e wi s , Ch . P e ll o t an d J . Sc hac h t ( eds .) , T h e E nc yc l o p ed i a of Is l am . V o l. I I ( C - G ) . L e id e n - Lo n do n : E. J . Br i l l Lu za c & C o . 1 78 - 1 89 . 19 8 4. Î ns em năr i as u pr a r om ân i lo r d in Ba lc a n i l a l um in a s urs e lor ot om an e. I n B u le t in u l B ib l i ot ec i i Rom â ne . S t ud i i ș i D oc um ent e Rom ân eș ti . X I/X V , s .n . ( 1 9 84) , 1 - 1 4. 19 8 5. Su nt V al a h ii am in t i ţi î n O g u z - nam e ?. B u le t in u l B i b li o tec i i Rom ân e. 12 ( 19 8 5) , 2 87 - 2 9 2. BEŠKER, I. 20 0 7. I M or l ac c h i n e l l a l et ter a tur a e ur op e a. Rom a: I l C al am o. BOGREA, V. 19 2 9. Sur les V la q ues « ὁ δ ίη α η» d e C éd r é n us , B u l le t in de l ‟I ns t i tu t p our l ‟é t ud e d e l ‟ Eu r o p e S ud - O r ie nt a le , V II (1 9 29) , 7 - 9, 50- 6 3. BONFANTE, G. 19 7 3. St ud i i R om en i. Rom a: Soc i et à Ac c . R om ena . B R E Z E A N U , S. 19 7 6. D e l a p op u l aţ i a r om an i za t ă l a V l ah i i b a lc a n ic i. R e v is t a d e Is t or ie . X X IX ( 19 7 6) , n r . 2, 2 1 1 - 22 2. 19 8 1. R o ma n i ş i Bl ac h i i l a A no n ym us . Is tor i e ş i id e o lo g ie po l i tic ă . Re v is ta d e Is t or ie . X X X IV ( 19 8 1), 7, 1 3 13 - 1 34 0 . 19 8 2. L es R oum a ins e t « le s il e nc e des s o urc es » da ns l ‟ «o bs c ur m ill é na ir e » . R e v ue R o um ai ne d‟ H is t o ir e. X X I (1 9 82) , nr . 3 - 4, 39 3 .

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19 4 3. Bl ac h i ac p as t or es r om an or um , In O m ag i u l u i Io a n L up aş l a îm pl in ir e a v ârs t e i d e 6 0 de an i – a u gus t 1 94 0 . B uc ur eş ti : s . n. 27 0- 2 76 . G Ă Z D A R U , D. 19 5 7. L es p l us a nc ie n nes al l us io ns a ux R ou m ains d a ns l a er l it tér a tur e pr o v enç a l e. i n Ac t es et m ém oires du I C o ngr ès In ter n at i o na l d e l a ng u e et l it tér at ur e d u M i di d e l a Fra nc e. A v ig n o n: I ns t it u t M éd i t er r an é en d u Pa l a is du Ro ur e. 1 0 7 - 1 1 2. GEORGESCU, V. A. 19 8 4. L e t erm e d e R o m anus et s es é qu i v a le nts e t d ér i vés d a ns l ‟h is to ir e d u p eu p l e r o um ai n. I n L a No zi o n e d i “ Rom an o” tr a c it t ad i na n za e u n i ver s a li t à. A tt i d e l S em in ar i o In t ern a zi o n a le di St u d i “ Da R om a a ll a T er za R om a” , C am pi d o g li o , Rom a, 2 1 - 23 apr i l e 1 98 2 , Na p ol i : E d i zi o n i Sc i en t if ic he I ta l ia n e. 4 0 5- 43 6. Г Е О Р Г И Е В , В л. И . 19 7 1. (р е д .). Бъ л г арс к и Е ти м о ло г и че с к и Р еч н ик . т. I ( А - З). Со ф ия : Из д . на Бъ л г а рс к а та A ка д е ми я на На ук и т е . GHERGHEL, I. 19 2 6. Pas c u a Rom a no r um : P a bu l a I u li i C a es ar is ? – U n c a p it o l d in n om enc l at ur a is tor ic ă r om ân ă. R e v is t a A rh i ve l or. I ( 19 2 6), 3, 3 8 3 - 3 9 7 . GOFFART, W . 19 8 1. R om e's F a l l a nd Af t er . L on d on : T h e H am bl ed o n Pr es s . GRÉGOIRE, H. 19 3 9. L a C ha ns o n de Ro l an d d e l ‟ a n 10 8 5. B ul l et i n d e l a C las s e des Le ttr es e t des Sc i enc es M or a les e t P o l it i qu es d e l ‟ Ac ad em ie e Ro ya l e de Be l g iq u e. ( 5 s ér i e) , t . X X V ( 1 9 3 9 ), nr. 1 0 - 1 2, 2 1 1 27 3 . GYÓNI, M. 19 4 7. Sk yl t i zè s et les V la q u es . R e vu e d ‟ His t o ire C om par é e. E ud es H on gr o is es , n.s . X X V ( 1 94 7) , 11 5 - 1 69 . 19 4 9. L es V o l oc hs des A n na l es pr im it i v es d e K i e v. Et u des S la v es e t Ro um ai n es . v o l. II ( 19 4 9) , f as c . I, 55 - 9 2. 19 5 1- ‟5 2 . La prem i èr e m enti o n h is t or i qu e d es V l a qu es d es m onts B a lk ans . Ac t a A nt i qu a Ac a d em iæ Sc i e nt i arum H u ng ar ic æ . I ( 19 5 1 - ‟5 2) , 4 95 - 5 14 . I O S I P E S C U , S. 19 7 9. “L a c o l o ni a d e l li R om an i n egr i c h e d ic on o V a l ac c h i” . L a Rom an i té des R o um ai ns d ans la c o ns c i enc e E ur o pé e nn e d u

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X IV s i èc le . R e vu e R o um ai ne d‟ H is t o ir e. X V I II (1 9 79) , 4 , 67 3 68 5 . KÖBLER, G. 19 8 9. G ot h is c h es W ör ter b uc h. A v. a t: ht tp :/ / www.k oe b le r g er har d .d e/ g ot h wb h in . htm l . 19 8 9. Al t hoc h de u ts c h e s W ör ter b uc h. A v . a t: ht tp :/ /h om ep a ge . ui bk . ac . at / ~c 30 3 10 /a h d wb h i n. htm l . К О Р О Л Ю К , В л. Д. 19 7 2. С л ав ян е, в лах и , р им л ян е и р и мс ки е пас т ух и ве нг е рс ко г о Ан он им а . В Ю г о - В ос т оч н ая Е в ро п а в с ре д н ие ве к а. К иш ин ев : Шт и и нц а . 13 9 - 1 59 . KRISTÓ, G. 19 7 8. R óm ai ak és vl ac hok N ye s zt or n á l és A n on ym us n á l . S zá za d ok . 1 1 2 ( 1 97 8) . 6 2 3 - 5 8. L Ă Z Ă R E S C U - Z O B I A N , M. th 19 8 4. C um an i a as th e Nam e of 1 3 C en t ur y Mo l d a v ia a n d E as t er n W allac h ia : S o m e As pec ts of t h e K i p c hak - R oum an i a n Re l at i ons . T ürk l ük B i l g is i Ar as t ir m a lar i / J o ur n a l of T urk is h s tu d ies . V II I ( 1 98 4) , 2 65 – 27 2 . L E H M A N N , W . P., H E W W I T T , H. J O - J . , F E I S T , D . 19 8 6. A G ot h h ic E t ym o lo g ic a l D ic ti o n ar y. L e i de n: E.J . Br i l l. 19 8 1. St ud i e n zu d en s l a vis c h en O r ts n am en G ri ec h e n la n ds . Bd . 1. Sl a v is c he F l urn am e n a us der m es s e n is c h en Ma n i, Ma i n z: Vr l g. d er Ak a dem i e d e r W is s ens c h af t e n un d der Li t era t ur, W ies bade n: Fr a n z S te i ner Vr lg . MALONE, K. 19 6 2. (e d .). W ids ith . K øb en h a vn : R os e nk i ld e & B a gg er . M I H Ă E S C U , H. 19 6 6. I nf l u en ţa gr ec e a s c ă as upr a l im bi i r om âne pî nă î n s ec o lu l a l X V- le a . B uc u reş t i: E d. Ac a d em ie i R SR . 19 9 3. L a R om an it é d a ns l e S ud - Es t d e l ‟ E ur op e . B uc ur eş ti : E di t ura Ac a d em ie i R o m âne. M I K L O S I C H , F. 18 6 2- ‟6 5 . Lex ic o n L in g ua e P a l ae os l o ve n ic o - G ra ec o - L at i num . Em en da t um Auc t um . V i nd o bo n ae : G u i l elm us Br aum ue l l er. M I R D I T A , Z. 20 0 4. Vl as i u H is tor i o gr af ij i . Za gr e b: Hr v ats k i I ns t it u t P o vij es t . 20 0 7. Vl as i , po l i nom ič an nar o d. Po vj e zn i Pr i l o zi . 3 3 ( 2 00 7) . 24 9- 2 69 .M Ü L L E N H O F F , K. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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18 8 7. D e uts c he A lt er t um sk und e , 2. Bd . B er l i n: W eidm an ns c h e . MURNU, G. 19 0 5. C â nd ş i un d e s e i v es c r om ân i i î nt â ia d at ă î n Is t or ie . Co n v orb ir i L i ter ar e. X X X IX ( 19 0 5) , 1 0 1 - 1 0 2. N Ă S T U R E L , P . Ş t. e e 19 7 9. L es V a l aq u es b a lc a n iq u es a ux X - X I II s ièc l es ( M ou v em en ts de po p ul at i on et c o l on is at i o n d ans la R om an i e gr ec q u e et la t in e) . B yz an t in is c h e F or s c hu n g e n. VI I ( 1 97 9). 7911 2 . PANAITESCU, P. P. 19 6 9. I ntr o d uc er e î n is tor i a c u lt ur i i r om ân eş t i . B uc ur eş ti : E d. Şt i i nţ if ic ă . 19 9 4 ( 1 94 7) . In te r pr et ăr i r om ân eş t i . St u d ii d e is tor i e ec on om ic ă ş i s oc i al ă ., B uc ur eş t i: E d. Enc ic l op e dic ă . PAPACOSTEA, Ș. 19 9 3. R om ân i i în s ec o l ul al X I II - l e a în tr e c r u c i at ă ş i im p eri u l m ongo l . B uc ureş t i: Ed . E nc ic lo p e dic ă . PARIS, G. 19 0 6. R om ans , Rom an i a, L i ng u a Rom a na , R om anc ium . Mé l a ng es L i ng u is t i q ue s , I . P ar is : H o n or é C h am pi on . P A S C U , Ş t. 19 7 1. Vo e v od a tu l T r an s i l va n i ei . V o l. I . C luj : E d. D ac ia . P I N T E S C U , F l. 20 0 1. Prés e nc es de l ‟ é lém en t v ik i ng da ns l ‟ és p ac e d e l a r om an it é or i en t al e e n c on t ex t m édi t er r an é en . St u d ia An t iq u a et Ar c ha e o lo g ic a . V II I ( 2 00 1) , 1 - 16 . ROSETTI, Al. 19 6 8. Is tor i a L im bi i R o m âne. Buc ur eş t i : E d. P en tr u L it er at ură . SCHÖNFELD, M. 19 1 1. W örterb uc h d er a ltG er m an ic s c he n P er s on e n - un d V ölk er n am en. H e id e l b er g : C ar l W inter ‟s . S C H U L L E R U S , A. 1 9 24 . ( b ear b .). Si e be nb ür g is c h - s äc hs is c h es W örterb uc h. B d . 1. ( A- C) . Ber l i n - Le i p zi g : S K O K , P. 20 1 1. Va l ac c hi e V a la c c h ie n e l la le tt er at ur a f ranc es e m edi e va l e. R om a: N uo v a Cu l tur a . S T Ă N E S C U , E.

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19 6 8a . B yza n t i no v l ac h ic a: 1. L es V l aq u es à l a f i n du X e t d éb u t e du X I et la r es t a ur a t io n d e l a dom i na t io n b yz an t in e d a ns l a P én i ns ul e B a lk an i q ue . I n Re v u e d es Et u d es S ud - es t E ur o p ée n nes , 6 ( 1 96 8) , 3, 4 2 0, 4 3 2 - 4 3 4. T A G L I A V I N I , C. 19 8 2. L e or i g in i d e l le l i ng u e ne o l at i ne . B o lo g na : P àt ro n. T AMÁS, L. 19 3 5. R óm ai ak , R om á nok és O l áh ok D ác ia T raj á n áb a n. B ud a pes t: Ma g ya r T u d om án yos Ak ad ém ia . 19 4 3. F orm a zi on e d e l po p o lo e de l l a l i ng u a r um ena , R as s e g na d ‟U ng h er ia . II I ( A pr . 1 94 3) , 19 7 - 2 11 . T A N A Ș O C A , A. 19 8 1. Au to n om ia Vl a h i l or d in Im pe r i u O t om an în s ec o l e le X V X VI I. R e v is t a d e Is t or i e. X X X I V ( 1 98 1) . nr. 8 , 15 1 3 - 1 5 3 0. T A N A Ș O C A , N .- Ș. 20 0 4. R om ân i i b alc a n i c i a pus e n i. Vl a h ii ba lc an ic i a p us e n i, i zv o ar e ș i pro b lem e is t or ic e . In A. T an aș oc a, N. - Ș. T a n aș oc a . Un i ta te r om an ic ă ș i d i v er s it at e b a lc a n ic ă. C on tr ib u ţi i la is t or i a r om an it ăţ i i b a lc a n ic e. B uc ur eș ti : E d. F u nd aț i e i Pr o. 3 0 - 4 9. TERRACINI, B. A. 19 3 5- ‟3 6 . Di c he c os a f an no la s t or i a g li s t or i c i d e l l in g ua g g io ? . Ar c h i vi o G lo tt o lo g ic o I ta l i an o. X X VI I ( 1 93 5) , 13 3 - 1 52 ; X X VI II ( 19 3 6), 1 - 3 1 . Т О Л С Т О В , С. П. 19 4 8. „ На рц ы ‟ и „ Во лх и ‟ на Д ун ае ( И з ис т о р и ко эт но г р аф и ч ес ких ко м ме нт а ри е в к Н ес т о р у) . С о ве тс ка я Этн о гр а ф ия . X X I II ( 19 48) , б р . 2. , 8 - 38 . VASME R, M. 19 4 1. D i e S l a ve n i n G r i ec h e nl a nd . B er l i n: V rl g. d er Ak ad em ie der W is s ens c h af te n i n K om m is s io n b ei W . De G r u yt er u. C o. 19 5 3. R us s is c h es e t ym olo g is c h es W ör terb u c h. Bd . I ( A - K) . He i de l b erg : C ar l W inte r . VISCIDI, F. 19 4 4. I pr es ti t i l at i n i n e l gr ec o a n tic o e b i za nt i no . Fi re n ze : O ls c hk i. W INNIFRITH, T. J. 19 8 7. T he V lac hs : T h e H is t or y of a B a lk an P eo p l e. L o nd o n: Duc k wo rt h. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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Brikena QAFA-OSMANI

Rethinking marital violence: Some observations from Albania and their impact on womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lives

Abstract

Research on domestic violence indicates that abuse against women is complex and multidimensional. Universally, violence against women is under reported and in Albania violence against women is a serious human rights issue that is not openly discussed by society. The aim of this paper is to describe the experience of marital violence experienced by Albanian women as well as to address the coping mechanism used by women to enhance their survival. Therefore, the study of this problem will expand the body of knowledge about marital violence in Albania through gaining an understanding of lived experienced by women themselves. It is the objective of this present study to provide more formalized description of this experience in order to provide more meaningful direction for further researcher efforts.

Keywords: domestic violence, human rights, women, Albania

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Introduction The couple relationship based on love is a subsystem of the family, which is marked by publicity, on the one hand, and by secrecy and privacy on the other. Changes in family structure have entailed problems in families, which may manifest themselves in violent behavioral changes (Coltrane and Collins 2001). The United Nations has defined violence against women as: “any act of gender based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to a woman including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary depravations of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life.” While, violence is universally underreported, according to a WHO estimate, violence against women causes more death and disability in the 1544 age group than cancer, malaria, traffic accident and war combined (Morrison and Orlando 1997). Similarly, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported that up to 70% of female murder victims were killed by their male partners (Amnesty International 2004). Various reasons have been suggested for why people perpetrate violent behavior, including biological, social and cultural factors. In the feminist literature, violence against women is often seen as an extension of a more general power relationship between sexes. However, in some cultures, the belief system may be offered as a justification for spouse abuse by men (Simoneti 2000) Intimate partner violence can be defined as physical and sexual violence, threats of violence, psychological and emotional abuse. The perpetrator may be a current or former spouse, boyfriend or dating partner (Gelles 1997; Campell and Soeken 1999)

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In Albania violence against women is a serious human rights issue, yet it is topic that is not discussed openly in society (Osmani 2012). Historically, Albanian society has regarded domestic violence as a personal problem, and a phenomenon that belongs “behind the closed doors” (Gjermeni and Bregu 2003). In 1995, a survey of men and women across Albania conducted by Shoqata Reflesione found that 46.3% of rural women, 36.3% of urban women reported intimate partner violence, and 28% and 16.4% respectively reported sexual violence. Furthermore, the Albanian Reproductive Health Survey conducted in 2002 found that of those women who reported intimate partner violence, 30.4% experienced verbal abuse, 8.2% reported long term physical abuse, and 2.9% reported being forced to engage in unwanted sex. Researchers found little difference according to residence or age, although younger women were more willing to report physical violence. Spouse abusers are not a homogenous group and no one factor can predict the likelihood of spouse abuse. The characteristics that research has associated with domestically violent men include low self-esteem, poor social skills, unemployment, poverty, history of childhood abuse, alcohol and drug abuse etc. However, despite the increased awareness regarding the problem, the statistics above demonstrate that marital violence against women in Albania now more than ever deserve increased attention. It is hoped that with increasing interest on the topic, both at national and international levels more focused studies will be conducted on how to address this social evil. Therefore, this paper is an attempt in this direction, and the aims of this study were to: 1. Describe women‟s experiences of marital violence and its consequences; 2. To look at what kind of help and support these women receive and hope to receive;

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3. To address women‟s coping mechanism that enhanced their survival. Research Method For this study a qualitative case study approach was used to examine the depth, multifaceted nature and complexity of the phenomena of violence. The qualitative method was used based on the assumption that the real life situation of abused women is best described by the women themselves (Abraham 2000). Through women‟s own account, we gain inside of the experience of marital violence and its impact on women‟s lives. The research was conducted in Berat city, mainly at the Kristal Center for Women and Girls. The Kristal Center started its activities in May 2000. The Center aims to help and give advice to women and girls in the city of Berat and surrounding areas, who are victims of violence. This study targeted abused married women, who were coming for help at the center. According to Barbie (2001), the population should be the first consideration prior to searching for the sampling frame. From the outset, the specific aim of this study was to draw on a sample of victims of intimate partner violence. However, since this subject is still considered as something of taboo in Albania (especially for the small cities as city of Berat) drawing the right population was very challenging. Ten anonymous women representing different ages, occupations and social classes expressed their wish to participate in this study. In depth-interviews was the primary data collection for this study. The interview themes were selected based on the earlier literature and studies (Kvale 1996; Campbell and Soeken 1999; Gelles, 1997). All the interviews were on tape recorded and transcribed. Ethical Issues The participants in this study were provided with an opportunity to ask questions about the study. The safety of the respondents and confidentiality were ensured, and care was taken that the interview process was affirming international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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and did not cause distress. At the same time women had the right to withdraw from the study (Ellsberg and Heise 2002). Findings The findings show that the participants all experienced occurrences of marital violence in their own unique way. The study revealed four aggregate categories that emerged from the research questions. The aggregate categories „instability in family‟, „forms of marital violence‟, and „experience of violence in women‟ describe women‟s experiences of marital violence and its impact on their lives. On the other hand, the aggregated category „coping mechanism‟ describes women‟s experience on the receiving support and their survival. Instability in Family It was the women‟s experience that intimate partner violence was associated with opinions, and patterns of the family and sexuality. Moral, traditional and cultural perceptions gave rise to conflict concerning the man‟s and women‟s position in the family. According to them, they were expected by traditional customs to show obedience and respect for their husbands as the head of the households. In women‟s opinion their husbands tended to emphasize their masculinity through their sexuality. As in other countries, in Albania the fundamental cause of violence is the inequality between men and women in all spheres of lives. Various existing social and cultural constructs not only help in perpetuating the inequality but also facilitate its justification. Women are made to believe that women are inferior to men; they are expected to serve their husbands, obey them and satisfy their sexual needs. Sometimes these social constructs have conditioned their minds to such an extent that both men and women consider wife-beating an accepted form of behavior and justify it as a part of a woman‟s married life. The following quotation typically reflects it:

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“When I got married I was told that now I am married, my husband is everything to me. Listen to him…scolding and other conflicts are part of married life “My husband said that sex is the privilege of men” Striving for independence exhibited by sexes and differences in values manifested themselves as conflicts. Women expected their marital relationship to give them the feeling of security and to satisfy their affection needs, but they felt that the relationship had failed to meet these expectations. Forms of Marital Violence as experienced by women The stories of the abuse and violence uncovered during the interviews with women brought to light several types of abuse, such as physical, sexual, emotional, social and economic abuse. The findings show that almost all of the participants experienced physical violence. Although, the form of abuse differed from person to person, they all indicated that they did not fight back when their husbands physically attacked them. In Albanian culture and according to social codes men have the right to control women‟s behavior by any means as necessary (Osmani 2012). Some women reported that, after incidents of physical abuse, their husbands asked them for forgiveness and they thought the abuse would stop. However, the abuse continued and as time went on, it increased in frequency and severity. The women described their lives as loveless and devoid of emotions. Some of the women experienced their husband portrayed as reliable, socially skilled, sexually active, but repressive and abusive towards their wives. Furthermore, some of the women reported that their marital relationship was characterized by jealousy while some reported cases of infidelity from their husbands as quoted below.

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“He said that he needs another woman because I don‟t give the satisfaction he is looking for.” “He used to come with me every time I wanted to visit my parents, he was constantly following me everywhere I used to go.” While some of the women viewed themselves as sexual object, four of the participants reported to have agreed to involve in sexual intercourse to escape the threat of violence against them. “Sometimes I‟d cook something he liked and then acquiesced to sex, thinking he might be nicer, but that wouldn‟t last for too long.” The bottom line which the study reveals is that women generally believe that whatever they do, their husbands will find one or the other excuse to scold them and they have to accept these harassments as part of married life. The study also reveals that regular scolding and incisive comments from the husband in the presence of the other family members cause more hurt and mental torture than occasional beating. Several participants expressed this view and their feelings are well reflected in the following quotations: “The most hurting is hearing abusive records about my parents or receiving scolding from him in front of others. I cannot do anything about it except cry in my room.” “If he slaps me in my room I do not mind it. When he scolds me in front of other it hurts the most. I feel often he does it intentionally.” The research reveals that the violence involved is of all the forms physical, psychological, sexual, economical and spiritual. While sexual abuse involved treating women sometimes as sexual objects, the psychological abuse involved name-calling, rejection of the women‟s values, and their needs, belittling, derogatory comments about their appearance or intelligence.

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The physical abuse involved various forms such as exertion of power, slapping, pushing, punching, etc. The analysis further shows that the reported violence was multiple in nature and most of the women were subjected to more than one type of violence. Taking scolding along with other forms of physical violence (slapping, forced sex, or beating) the data was analyzed to get an idea of various common combinations of violence to which women were subjected. Marital Violence as Experienced by Women Living in an abusive relationship had impacts on physical, psychological and social being of these women. They blamed their husbands for the lack of empathy and respect towards them. However, in the same time they blamed themselves for loosing interest on their appearance. They were ashamed of their own bodies, social status, and failure in the marriage. As women became aware of the violence, the negative feeling started to manifest itself, they were trying with all means sometimes to isolate themselves from others in order not to let others know what they were going through. Women sometimes think of themselves as useless and tied to an abusive relationship. However, as women become aware of the violence they were experiencing, they recognized their self-hate and anger feelings, which sometimes were demonstrated with social withdrawer or a tendency of isolation. Most of the participants were very alert of the community opinion about them. They reported that they were ashamed to leave their marriage because they were worried about how society, friends and others would perceive them. In Albanian culture not succeeding at your marriage is perceived as a failure: therefore to avoid exposing their marital problems, participants minimized interaction with others (Osmani 2012; De Waal 2005). Moreover, some of the women reported bitterness, self-rejection and loss ofself-confidence as below:

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„I feel like a piece of cloth that he throws me away after he doesn‟t need me any more.‟ „I couldn‟t put up any longer with his attitude, I felt all the time like a slave.‟

Coping Mechanism According to Abraham (2000), coping with resistance can be as seen as the counterpart of domestic violence, because violence and resistance are constantly interacting with each other. The findings of this study show various coping strategies used by the participants. Seeking help was complicated but the some of the participants reported the encouragement by their families to leave the abusive relationship, while others reported that their families advised them not to discuss their marital problems with strangers but to try to solve them quietly among each other. Support by others like friends or neighbors were not reported but support by the center was much appreciated. The participants in this study also used avoidance in order to escape further escalation of anger in their partners, practicing different tactics such as trying to control their own temper, keeping quiet whenever there is a conflict, or by finding themselves busy and keeping distance from their partner. Almost all the participants explain that they were willing to accept the abuse due to their commitment to their children. The findings are consistent with the previous research by Babani (2003) and Osmani (2012) where interviewed women stated that they had to be patient and obedient for the sake of their children. Spiritual coping was yet another strategy used by some of the women in this study. The findings indicate that that situation of these women was slightly improved when they prayed. Believing in God was very insightful, and had and important role in their lives and as an essential element it brought easy and comfort over their wounded lives.

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„I always believed that there is God and he will make things for me better.‟ Furthermore, women in this study associated the experience of survival of violence with the ability to dream and make future plans and to rediscover their own feelings, femininity, sexuality and self-respect. Their future plans often included the establishment or hope of a new, safe and healthy couple relationship. Being released from guilt and an experience of setting one‟s boundaries made women stronger. Discussion and Conclusions This paper brings out a few important observations on the dynamic of marital violence against women in Albania. It reveals that marital violence was associated with conflicts between independence and commitments, gender roles and sexuality. Gender patterns adopted in the family of origin failed to support the gender identity and the couple relationship. Although the forms of marital violence as experienced by this women deferrer, the findings identified that long-term tragedy that has imbued women‟s lives, some of them, which are deeply scared by the pain, but at the same time reveal the resistance by many others. The experiences of the women participating in this study suggest that men who behave violently have 1 a low self-esteem. Studies by Murphy et al. (1994) and Umberson et al. 2 (2002) suggest that violent behavior is associated with poor self-esteem and the inability to manage the stress. The spiritual coping plays an important role in the lives of these women and after coping, many women wanted to help others who were suffering from marital violence. However, one of the most important ways to

Murphy, C.M., Meyer, S-L., and O‟Leary, K.D. 1994. Dependency characteristics of partnerassaultive men. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103, pp. 729-735. 2 Umberson, D., Williams, K. and Anderson, K. 2002. Violent behavior: A measure of emotional upset?. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 43, pp. 189-206.

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reduce violence against women in Albania perhaps is helping in reducing of gender inequality and increasing the bargain powers of women within family. Meantime, socio-economic and cultural factors that perpetrate the violence against women will have to be identified and eliminated in order to address this social evil effectively. Nevertheless, this requests broader social changes and a modification in the socialization process as a whole. Sooner we address the broader social issues the closer we will be in achieving the objectives of eradicating this social evil.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Abraham, M. 2000. Speaking the unspeakable: Marital violence among South Asian immigrants in the United States. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. Amnesty International (2004) It‟s in our hands: Stop violence against women. London: Amnesty International Publications. Babani, A. 2003. Dhuna ndaj grave ne Shqiperi: Studim explorues, Botim I UNICEF [Violence against women in Albania: exploratory research]. Tirane: PEGI. Barbie, E. 2001. The practice of social research 9thed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning Inc., Campbell, J. and Soeken, K. 1999. Forced sex and intimate partner violence: Effects on women‟s risks and women health. Violence Against Women 5, pp. 1017-1035 Coltrane, S. and Collins, R. 2001. Sociology of marriage: Gender, love and property 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

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De Waal, C. 2005. Albania Today: A portrait of post-communist turbulence. London: I.B. Tauris. Ellsberg, M. and Heise, L. 2002. Bearing witness: Ethics in domestic violence research. The Lancet 359, pp. 1599-1604. Gelles, R. 1997. Intimate Violence in Families. CA: Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Gjermeni, E. and Bregu, M. 2003. Monitoring media on domestic violence 2001-2002. Tirana, Albania: Women‟s Center Tirana. Kvale, S. 1996. Interviews: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Morrison, A. and Orlando, M.B. 1997. The Socio-economic impact of domestic violence against women in Chile and Nicaragua. Paper presented at the Conference on Domestic Violence in Latin America and the Caribbean IDB, Washington, D.C. Murphy, C.M., Meyer, S-L., and O‟Leary, K.D. 1994. Dependency characteristics of partner-assaultive men. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103, pp. 729-735. Osmani, B. 2012. Marital Violence among Albanian women in Berat: Their voices, pain and experience. PhD Dissertation, IIUM. Simoneti, S. 2000. Dissociative experience in partnerassaultive men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence15, pp. 1262-1284 Umberson, D., Williams, K. and Anderson, K. 2002. Violent behavior: A measure of emotional upset?. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 43, pp. 189-206.

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Ilda MUCMATAJ, PhD Candidate Novelties concerning the Private International Law in connection with issues related to the natural persons in Albanian, after the new adopted law.

Abstract: Private International Law is a branch of the domestic law which recently plays a very important role in Albania. Its role has grown as a result of intensification of people‟s movement and the development of international cross border trade. The specific law that governed the private legal relations characterized by foreign element and which stayed in force for a long time (until 2011), was the Law No. 3920 date 1964 “On the enjoyment of civil rights by foreigners and the foreign law enforcement‟‟. This law nowadays is replaced by the new law No. 10426 date 02.06.2011 „On Private International Law‟. The new law entered in force in order to fulfill the new needs of the society which are nowadays characterized by the intensification of international transactions, of the movement of the goods, services and persons. It covers a larger field of application criteria‟s, applying new criteria or improving the existing ones and also an enlargement of the possibility that issues characterized with international character could be judged by Albanian Courts. Thus, through this article I aim to shed light on the regulation of certain issues related with natural persons as one of the subjects of Private International Law by, presenting solutions or innovations that Private International Law provides by facing them with the provisions of the Law No. 3920, date 21.11.1964 “On the enjoyment of civil rights by the foreigners and the foreign law enforcement‟

Keywords: International Private Law, habitual residence, conventions, applicable criteria, natural persons.

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1. Introduction in Albanian Private International Law.

Private International Law is that part of law which comes into play when the issue before the court affects some facts, event or transactions that is closely connected with a foreign system of law as to necessitate recourse to that system (Cheshire et al. 2008, pp.5). In the domestic context, Private International Law (PIL) is that part of Albanian Law which operates whenever the court is faced with a claim that contains a foreign element. It means that Private International Law is a domestic law that governs legal relationships of private law nature featuring an international aspect, so in consequence the Private International rules are different for each country. Albanian Private International Law is governed by International Sources of Law as: Conventions, Treaties or International Agreements and Internal Sources of Law as: the Constitution, Private Codes including (Civil Code, Family Code, 1 Civil Procedure Code, Labor Code etc), specific laws and domestic regulations in force. The foreign element can be situated in each of the component of a legal relationship, in object, subject or the content (Kuci et.al. 2008, pp.168). If the foreign element is situated in one or more than one, of these components the legal relation shall be characterized by the international character which means that this relation shall involve two or more states. The forms in which this foreign element may appear are numerous. For example: an Albanian citizen which gets married in Italy with an Italian citizen, a French citizen whose immovable property is situated in Albania, an Albanian citizen contracting with a Croatian citizen who choose to apply the Italian Law to govern their contract etc.

For example: Law No. 10428 date 02.06.2011 ‘On International Private Law’, Law No.7764 date 02.11.1993 ‘On Foreign Investment’, Law No. 7980 date 27.07.1995 “ For purchase of land’, Law No. 8260 date 26.11.1997 for an addition to the law No. 7980 date 27.07.1995 “ For purchase of land’. 1

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Up to 02/06/2011, the specific law governing the legal relations characterized by the foreign element was the Law No. 3920, date 21.11.1964 “On the enjoyment of civil rights by the foreigners and the foreign law enforcement‟, which is now replaced by the Law No.10426 date 02.06.2011 “On International Private Law”. The Law No.10426 date 02.06.2011 “On International Private Law” was adopted as a consequence of the need to govern in an expanded way the issues characterized by foreign element. Its provisions are clearly approximated with the regulations of EU countries, this is related with the reference that the law itself has made in its first page. It presents as reference the Regulation (EC) No.593/2008 of the European Parliament and Council "On the law applicable to contractual obligations” and the Regulation (EC) No.864/2007 of the European Parliament and Council "On the law applicable to non contractual obligations‟. The Law consists of 89 articles which are organized in XI chapters. Issues related with the subjects of Private International Law are specifically settled in the second chapter of the Law. The domestic doctrine defines them as: „The subjects of a private legal relationship are all the parties‟ participant in that private legal relationship‟ (Tutulani-Semini 2006, pp.22). Furthermore the subjects of Private International Law are natural persons, legal persons and the state, the state is considered as a subject of Private International Law specifically in cases that he undertakes trade and economic activities or private character activities (Kalia, no date, pp.64). The foreign element is situated in the subject, in case that one or all the parties may be foreign by citizenship, domicile, residence or habitual residence.

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2. The Citizenship, Domicile, Residence and Habitual Residence of natural person according to Albanian International Private Law.

The Albanian doctrine and also the PIL No. 3920/1964 usually has applied the citizenship as a connecting factor which links a person with a particular legal system. Mostly this connecting factor was used until the entry in force of the PIL No. 10426/2011, which has enriched the connecting factor by applying also the domicile, residence and habitual residence as applicable criteria. Albanian citizenship is the main distinguishing element from the foreign citizens and stateless persons. Citizenship brings birth to rights and obligations for a natural person in relation with his origin country. The article 19 of the Constitution of the Republic of Albania provides that: „Everyone that has at least one of the parents with Albanian citizenship automatically acquires the Albanian citizenship. Albanian citizenship is acquired also through other reasons provided by law. An Albanian citizen cannot lose citizenship except when he quits himself from it‟. In the PIL field, the citizenship is one of the subjective applicable criteria that is often applied for linking a person with the state of his citizenship. In the case of stateless persons, the Republic of Albania has ratified the Convention of New York by law No. 9057, date 24.4.2003 „On the status of stateless persons:‟ the article 12 of which provides that:‟ Personal status of a stateless person will be governed by the law of his permanent domicile or when he does not have a permanent domicile, by the law of his country of residence‟. The Albanian PIL in force also applies the same connecting factor for the stateless persons. The second most used connecting factor is of course the domicile. The general meaning of domicile is „permanent house‟. This seems clear enough according to the article 12 of the Albanian Civil Code which provides that “domicile is the place where the person due to his work or permanent service, the property sit or realization of his own interests, stays usually or most of the time‟. There are three kinds of domicile: domicile of origin, domicile of choice and domicile of dependence. (Collier 2006, pp 38). international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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Also is noticed a categorization of people, on one side it is provided the freedom of every adult person to determine freely his domicile, by referring that a person may not have at the same time more than a domicile and on the other side is settled the minor subjects domicile. It is about the persons that didn‟t reach the age of fourteen years old by determining as their domicile that of their parents and in case that the parents have different domiciles, their child under fourteen years old has as domicile of the parent who they live with. The law „For Civil State‟ No.10129 date 11.05.2009 supports the same idea that: citizens may have one or more domiciles for personal or family use in the Republic of Albania and they are obliged to declare the address of every domicile for use. The citizens are free to choose in which domicile to live usually or most of the time. If a person lives usually for more than three months or more than six months in a calendar year in a place he must declare his domicile. (Art. 14). He should register this domicile at the Civil State Office, Commune or Municipality of the territorial jurisdiction of the domicile of the declared habitation. If a citizen has more than one habitation in use, he must declare the habitation where he has his domicile. The citizens cannot declare simultaneously more than one domicile. In case of domicile change or when it is not used for personal or family use, this change must be declared at the Civil State Office. Furthermore the foreign citizens and stateless persons also should register their domicile. Our substantial domestic law has also defined and regulated the notion of the residence, where according to definition given by the article 14 of the Civil Code, „Person‟s residence is the place where he is present to accomplish work or certain tasks, to attend a school or a certain course, to be treated from illness, to suffer a criminal judgment and for such other cases‟. In practice this residence must be proved because is not related to the obligation of registration at the Civil State Office which is the main difference between the domicile and the residence, while the „habitual residence‟ of the natural person enters as a new concept by the PIL No.10426/2011. The law gives the definition of habitual residence in the article 12 thorough which tends to explain its use in practice.

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So it provides that “habitual residence of a natural person is the place in which he has decided to stay most of the time even in the absence of registration and regardless of the permit or authorization to stay. In determining this place the court shall consider the circumstances of a personal or professional nature showing stable relationships with this place or the person's intention to create such links‟. This provision needs a general interpretation attempting or taking into account the circumstances of a personal or professional nature showing stable relationships with this place or the person's intention to create such links and the fact that not necessarily this habitual residence indispensably need the registration, the permit or authorization to stay by the competent authorities. In one side the habitual residence differs from the domicile in several aspects. It is not ascribed to a person at birth and also the intention required for its acquisition is different. On the other side it differs from the residence too. The provision gives the possibility to register the habitual residence that wasn‟t object of the residence, which brings us to the conclusion that the habitual residence is more linked with a state than the residence as connecting factors. In a procedural view the habitual residence gives major opportunity to the Albanian courts to judge issues characterized with a foreign if the defendant has the habitual residence in the Republic of Albania. 3. Name and Surname of natural person according to Albanian Private International Law. Name and Surname are attributes of personality that serve to identify the person (Latifi 2007, pp.81). The article 5 of Albanian Civil Code provides that: „Every natural person has the right to has his own name and surname‟ and also the subjects have the right to change their name or surname in cases of inadequacy by their request in accordance with article 57 of Law No.10129, date 11.5.2009 for „The Civil Status‟. General Directorate of Civil Status defines the inappropriate names receiving preliminary opinion by specialized institutions. Names evaluated inappropriate by court decision are directly included in a report which will be accessible to every Civil Office.

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In case of changed name or surname, this modification will be reflected in the National Register of the Civil Status after the approval of the citizen‟s request by the person in charge of the registrar's office. In the report which is held in this case are reflected the components of the citizen‟s civil status, the reason for change, also changed name and surname. The report will be signed by the applicant, by all the major members of the family that have the name or surname in their component in case they accept the change, by the clerk and the person in charge of the registrar‟s office. According to the PIL No. 3920/1964, there were no provisions which may govern this moment but the PIL No. 10426/2011 establishes that for naming a foreigner or changing the name or surname of a foreigner, the general applicable criteria will be his citizenship legislation but if this foreigner has his habitual residence in Albania then giving name or changing it, will be governed by Albanian law. In my opinion this provision must be applied only in those cases where the habitual residence of the foreigner is registered in the Civil State Office. 4. The announcement of missing and presumable death declaration of the natural person according Albanian Private International Law. The personality of the natural person ends with a person‟s death. Death is a legal fact that brings the suppression of certain civil and legal relations and at the same time gives birth of new civil legal relations like heritage. The death has to be proved in order to provide consequences and the legal document that certifies a decreased person is the Death Certificate. In the cases of the missing person the announcement of the person‟s disappearance regulates temporary only the position of the missing person but according to the circumstances he may appear again and get back his old personality while presumable death declaration states a legal fact as the person is really dead bringing the same legal consequences to natural death. In accordance with the article 15 of Civil Code of the Republic of Albania: „The person missing from his last domicile or residence and for which there are no news for more than two years, upon request of any interested person he may be declared missing with a court decision‟ furthermore the article 17 of the Civil Code adds that: ‟ the person declared missing, upon request of any interested persons

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may be declared dead with a court decision, after four years without news from the day of missing declaration‟. In the both cases the citizenship connecting factor will apply according to PIL No. 3920/1964 also the law gives the opportunity to the Albanian Courts to declare disappearance or death of a foreigner upon the request of persons who claim inheritance rights on movable or immovable property which are situated in the Republic of Albania or when the request is submitted by the husband/wife who at the time of the application is resident in Albania. (Art. 28). While the PIL 10426/2011, applies the same connecting factor as PIL No. 3920/1964 but also gives importance to the factor time. The connection criteria for announcing the missing person or the death of a natural person will be: the law of citizenship of the person in the day of his latest news, and if the person was foreigner in the day of his latest news and has habitual residence in Albania he may be declared missing or dead under Albanian law if there is a legitimate interest for this. (Art.14). So the conditions to be fulfilled in order to apply the Albanian Law for a foreigner in this case are: at first he must have his habitual residence in Albania in the day of his last news and also his relatives have to prove a legitimate inters for the consequences of his death, for example heritage. Of course article 14 at this point provides the applicable criteria but certainly before determining this law we have to check if the Albanian Courts do have jurisdiction to declare the disappearance or the death of the natural person. Thus according to the article 74 of PIL No. 10426/2011 the Albanian courts do normally have jurisdiction if: „The person declared missing or dead had Albanian citizenship in time of missing or death; The person declared missing or dead had, his latest domicile in the Republic of Albania; The person submitting the request has a legitimate interest in the death or disappearance announcement of a person by an Albanian Court‟.

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Conclusions: The fall of the communist regime was followed by significant changes in the field of the law. The change has transformed the PIL as well. The Law No. 3920, date 21.11.1964 “On the enjoyment of civil rights by the foreigners and the foreign law enforcement‟ was the main law that governed the issues characterized by the foreign element in Albania for a long time. Moreover we may say that it was an advanced law for the time that he has entered in force. This considering that the regime established in Albania at the time of issuing this law on one hand, raised on pedestal and fanatically defended the domestic law and on the other hand was suspicious about applying the foreign law in Albania while the free movement of people was quite limited. However it seemed that in this case the legislator has taken a liberal approach in applying the foreign law, approach that is necessary to insure and guarantee the issues characterized by the foreign element. With the economical, political and social development of the state, the improvement of International Private Law appears as a necessity. So in the context of governing International Private issues, nowadays the Republic of Albania become part of a series of International Agreements and Conventions and also by entering in force of the Law No.10426 date 02.06.2011 “On International Private Law”. The new PIL covers a larger field of application criteria‟s, applying new criteria or improving the existing ones and also an enlargement of the possibility that issues characterized with international character that could be judged by Albanian Courts and moreover improving the regulation of issues related with the natural person as one of the subjects of Albania International Private Law. On the jurisdictional point of view we may agree that: most of the defendants present in the country where the judgment will be held are most closely connected with this country, they may live or work there, their property may be situated there or their act among which they may be sued may be happened here (Mandro Balili et al. 2005, pp.7).

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Albanian Law and doctrine widely has recognized and governed the concepts like the „domicile‟ or „residence‟, and it is clear that the PIL No.10426/2011 brings as novelty the concept of „habitual residence‟. This concept of „habitual residence‟ is a particular favorite of the Hague Conference on International Private Law. The expression appears in a number of international conventions but as a matter of policy the Hague Conventions do not define the notion, to avoid rigidity. However; the expression is now widely used in domestic legislation (O‟Brein 1999, pp. 89).

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BIBLIOGRAPHY   

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Cheshire, North P. Fawcett JJ, „Private nternational Law‟, Oxford University Press, 2008. Collier J.G. „Conflict of Laws‟, Cambridge University Press 2006. Constitution of Republic of Albania approved with the Law No.8417 date 21.10.1998 of Popular Assembly, approved with referendum on 22.11.1998. Announced with the President of the Republic of Albania decree No. 2260 date 28.11.1998. Dr. Kuci H., Dr. Bilali A. „E Drejta Nderkombetare Private‟, Pjesa e Pergjithshme, Prishtine 2008, Universiteti i Prishtines, Fakulteti Juridik. Kalia A. „E Drejta Nderkombetare Private‟Sejko Latifi J.„E Drejta Civile‟ (General Part), Tirane 2007. Law No. 10129 date 11.05.2009 „For the Civil Status‟. Law No. 10428 date 02.06.2011 „On Private International Law‟ Law No. 9057 date 24.04.2003 „On the accession of the Republic of Albania to the Convention „On the status of stateless persons‟, (New York). O‟Brein J. MA, LLB, LLM, Barrister, ‟Conflict of Laws‟, Second Edition, 1999. Prof. Asoc. Dr. Mandro Balili A. Walker G. Kalia A., “E Drejta Nderkombetare Private‟, Tirana 2005, Copyright: Magistrates School. Republic of Albania Civil Code, Approved with the Law No. 7850 date 29.07.1994 amended by Law No. 8536 date 18.10.1999 and the Law No. 8781 date 03.05.2001. Republic of Albania Procedural Civil Code, Approved with the Law. No. 8116 date 29.03.1996 amended by the Law No. 8431 date 14.12.1998, the Law No. 8491 date 27.05.1999, the Law No. 8535 date 18.10.1999, the Law No. 8812 date 17.05.2001, the Law No. 9953 date 14.07.2008 and the Law No. 10052 date 29.12.2008. The Law No. 3920, date 21.11.1964 “On the enjoyment of civil rights by the foreigners and the foreign law enforcement‟ Tutulani-Semini M. „E Drejta e Detyrimeve dhe e Kontratave‟ General Part, Skanderbegbooks 2006. Ilda MUCMATAJ, PhD Candidate ▪ Private International Law; novelties

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Olivera MIJUSKOVIC, PhD Candidate Balkan and Philosophy

1. Balkans as mythology The Balkans are specific not only for its geo-political complexity and multiculturalism, but also for its historical - mythological map that attracted the attention of many scientists in different areas. As interesting for the study of historians and strategists, it is also appealing for philosophers, art historians and political analysts. However, the evidence that the Balkans (as it is often called today "a powder keg" because of its history and the turmoil) is very fruitful for science is the existence of a separate branch of science 1 balkanology . The term "powder keg" is somewhat similar to the etymology of the names of the Balkans, if you take into account the mythology that has spread in Serbia. A legend says the mountain is named after Ham Thracian tyrant who was killed by Bizas, the son of the god Poseidon. Bizas was the founder of Byzantium. Somewhat different legend says a little different story about the origin of Ham, and is thought that he is the son of a north wind Boreas, the strongest among all the winds. His wife was the Rhodope, with whom he had a son Hebar which bears the name of the river Maritsa. Due to a major conflict with the other gods, they were transformed into the mountains. A 2 little later spread an Italian belief that the name Balkan is derived from the Italic god of volcanic fire Vulcan, who was also a blacksmith. This name refers not only to Ham, but to the whole peninsula.

It emerged in the eighteenth century and deals with the cultural - historic, socio - political, philosophical, artistic and folkloric characteristics of Balkan Peninsula. 2

Something different myths grow Bulgarians. According to them, the word Balkan Celtic origin of the word bal(h)kan or grand mother. Another tradition of Bulgarians say that the very name is derived from the language of the Bulgarian national name when Proto - Bulgarians settled on the island, so in this case the bal(h)kan. According to this theory, in fact, the so-called Bulgarian Empire.

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What is still more certain is that the name of the Balkans for the first time appeared in written documents in the fifteenth century by Italian diplomat, writer and chronicler Philippus Chalimachus, (1437-1496). In a letter to the Pope in Rome 1940th year, Philippus Chalimachus wrote that people called the mountain, where he was, by the name - Balkan (quem incolae Bolchanum vocant). This fits the theory that the name is Turkish by origin because the word Balkan is the Turkish name for the wooded mountain. After this, the name of the Balkan appears in the writings of European diplomats, writers and historians, because Ham mountain range (which is the name from the ancient times) coincides with the well-established name. However, the official use of the name Balkans has only been used by the 1809th year thanks to the 3 Germans Johann August Zeune . It is well known that the mythical consciousness preceded the birth and philosophy of subjective thought and self-awareness. The Balkan, including ancient Greece is the cradle of spirituality and human procreation jendog new way of political and social order embodied in a democracy. In Greek philosophy it arose precisely for this reason, because the freedom of the human mind to understanding the reality around them, and that selfawareness has not been possible in the East, where the mythical consciousness trapped upon veil supreme personality of autocratic rulers. This ruler was the center of worship and the meaning of life each man scared the mythological force of destiny. The same ruler was the master. In such an environment philosophy was not possible. It was not possible to make the transition from mythical to philosophical rational self - discovery and the beginning of opinions that existed in Greece. On this evidence the oracle at Delphi and the inscription "Know thyself". Easterners embodied their rule in grandiose buildings and belief in afterlife, like the Egyptians.

His intention was to call southeast Europe, such as the Iberian and Apennine peninsula, after the mountain that lies there. This is taken from a French geologist Ami Boue who called Balkan as Stara Planina in Bulgaria even though the whole title does not refer to the entire mountain. Science has quickly accepted this proposal, although there are still opinions that this place should be called South-Eastern Europe.

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The ruler was also the ruler of the mythological creature and fate. Hellenic poleis were the spiritual center of the image of a democratic society that later spread to other parts, however paradoxical it may sound because the Balkan is a geopolitical earthquake-prone areas with frequent religious conflicts and turmoil. Despite this, philosophy has found its way even to this day, and has found a way to be institutionalize.

2.Chronology of philosophy institutionalization in the Balkans in the 19th and 20th Century

2. Balkan - map Balkans are the turbulent area in terms of the political situation. The reason for this is because in this region are the main routes between Europe and the Middle East. Because of all this, history is riddled with numerous Balkan wars, upheavals. The Balkans is a transit point for many nations. Around the Balkan countries have bickered and fought representatives of the world's greatest empires. In these circumstances, it would seem that it was very difficult to find time for spirituality, but she grew up as such for centuries, from ancient Greece to the present day. Olivera MIJUSKOVIC, PhD Candidate â&#x2013;Ş Balkan and Philosophy

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The next section will be based on the period of the last 200 years. Dimitrije Obradovic - Dositej, born between 1739 - 1744 in Cakovo, former Austrian Empire, plays a very important role in Balkans spirituality, especially in Serbia. He died in Belgrade, in 1811. Obradovic was a collector of literature works, wisdom and philosophical writings of all nations. He is made available by Aristotle, Plato and Moliere, Lessing and many others for people in Balkan. It is believed that he was a member and representative of the rationalistic direction in philosophy. He attached great importance to science and reason. He believed that his mission was to teach people science and philosophy in the most remote villages and towns. His role was enlightening. It is considered a window of philosophy in the Balkans. One of the most important of his works is "Načertanije". Vladika (bishop) Rade, historically known as Petar II Petrovic Njegos, ruler of Montenegro and hills, was born in Montenegro. He lived in the period from 1813 to 1851. He was educated by the Boka`s monks and by Sima Milutinovic - Sarajlija, who taught him classical literature, poetry, mythology and philosophy. His role model was a poet Lucian Musicki. It is very interesting that Njegos read Greek poetry in Russian, a part of the "Iliad" translated from Russian to Serbian. Special part in his work is "Mountain Wreath" which resembles a Greek tragedy and philosophical part of the "Light of Microcosm" which dealt with philosophical and moral dilemmas. Twentieth century is the century of science rebounds and scientific achievements, as well as technology. Although it was considered that philosophy lost the battle with practical philosophy and contributed to the emergence of sociology in the nineteenth century, the philosophy has found its way into University study. Especially the university centers in Belgrade, Zagreb, and later in Novi Sad, founded a number of philosophical associations and institutes. As Greece was a center of spirituality and philosophy in the Balkans during the classical period, former Yugoslavia took the primacy during the twentieth century.

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3. Branislav Petronijevic One of the most important philosophers of the twentieth century on 4 the Balkans certainly is the Serbian philosopher Branislav Brana Petronijević (1875-1954), who was also a paleontologist. He wrote his scholarly books in several languages, including French and German. His most important work is the two-volume work "Prinzipien der Metaphysik (Principles of Metaphysics)". 4

As synthetic philosopher and dialectician he tries to merge primary philosophic doctrines: in gnoseology, empirism and rationalism; in metaphysics, monadology and substantialism; in ontology and methodology, dialectics and metaphysics (in Hegel's sense); science and religion, science and speculation and others. His main philosophic work "Principles of Metaphysics" (I and II) was left undone. He believed, however, that there is a parallel between metaphysics and mathematics. With regard to the method, metaphysics remains physics, and in it lies both their strength and weakness. The motto of the first part of Petronijević's "The Principles of Metaphysics" (published in Hidelberg in 1904) reads: "Exact mathematical notions are a key to the solution of the world's enigma." These metaphysics can be theology as well—these two sciences are related—but they will never be able to give any full answers to the so-called ultimate questions. Petronijević upheld an ethical theory of transcendental optimism and free will. He devoted a number of studies to aesthetics, particularly in the work of the Serbian poet-princebishop Petar II Petrović Njegoš and Leo Tolstoy. Some 53 original principles, discoveries and innovations were published by him. He considered that the highest level in science he reached in mathematics, especially with his original discrete and finite geometry. Time and space are real forms of the being and the space itself is simultaneous coexistence of real points and the fragments of the being in the time. That geometry mathematicians today consider as unusual, abstruse and not strictly mathematically grounded. Though not adequately studied, however, it is possible that in its deepest essence it has certain philosophical basis, if not truthfulness. This mathematical quintessence is still not clear to anyone but it has to be discovered and further developed through strict mathematization of Petronijević's ideas. He worked on other mathematical problems but was less successful. For mathematician Petronijević demonstrated surprising depth of knowledge and great capability in the field of science. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branislav_Petronijevic

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In addition to this, his most important works are About Value of Life, and recent history of philosophy (History of Philosophy and Newer). He was a founding member of SANU and Philosophical Society, the oldest in the Balkans, "The Serbian Philosophical Society", which brings together philosophers from Serbia and the region for more than a hundred years and still today. It is still an active journal published under the auspices of the Society - "Theoria". He was a full-time professor at Belgrade University and mentor of the first woman assistant professor, Xenia Atanasijevic.

4. Xenia Atanasijevic Xenia Atanasijevic (1894 - 1981) was the first woman PhD and the first woman professor of Belgrade University. In her philosophical oeuvre she dealt with the ancient Greek philosophy and The history of Serbian philosophy. She was also a translator of the most important philosophical works, such as the works of Aristotel and Plato. She was also a campaigner for women's rights and anti - fascist. At the age of 28 she became PhD with doctoral thesis "Giordano Bruno's De minimo triplici" in class of Professor Brana Petronijevic.

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5. Milan Kangrga In the sixties, as part of the University of Zagreb, the philosophical 5 journal "Praxis" was founded under the auspices of the Croatian Philosophical Society. This magazine had not only narrow local character, but also had foreign editions from 1965 to 1973. The founders were Branko Bosnjak, Danko Cervic, Milan Kangrga, Rudi Supek, Gajo Petrovic, Predrag Vranitzky, Danilo Pejovic and John Kuvačić. In its work, "Praxis" was not only a scientific journal, but also a philosophical movement, and gathered around itself the most eminent philosophers of the East and the West. Their criticism was directed against the Leninist theory and practice by the Communist Party pursued. The journal's brightest period coincides with the ascent of Western Left and the student revolt of 1968. in Paris that entailed also the students of the Faculty of Philosophy in Belgrade. The jargon was called "red university" because of Marxist philosophy. The editors of the magazine were, among other, Kostas Axelos (Paris), Alfred J. Ayer (Oxford), Zygmunt Baumann (Tel Aviv), Norman Birnbaum (Amherst), Ernst Bloch (Tübingen), Thomas Bottomore (Brighton), Umberto Cerroni (Rome), Robert S. Cohen (Boston), Veljko Cvjetičanin (Zagreb), Mladen Čaldarović (Zagreb), Bozidar Debenjak (Ljubljana), Mihailo Djuric (Belgrade), Marvin Farber (Buffalo), Muhamed Filipovic (Sarajevo), Vladimir Filipovic (Zagreb), Eugen Fink ( Freiburg), John Focht (Sarajevo), Erich Fromm (Mexico City), Lucien Goldmann (Paris), Andre Gorz (Paris), Jurgen Habermas (Frankfurt), 5

The authors gathered around his creative philosophical journals sought inspiration in the

philosophy of Antonio Gramsci, Karl Korsch, Georg Lukács, Ernst Bloch, Herbert Marcuse, Erich Fromm and Lucien Goldmann.

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Erich Heintel (Vienna), Agnes Heller (Budapest), Besim Ibrahim - Pasic (Sarajevo), Mitko Ilievski (Skopje), Leszek Kolakowski (Warsaw), Veljko Korac (Belgrade), Karel Kosik (Prague), Andrew Kresic (Belgrade), Henri Lefebvre (Paris), György Lukács (Budapest), Serge Mallet (Paris ), Herbert Marcuse (San Diego), Mihailo Markovic (Belgrade), Vojin Milic (Belgrade), Enzo Paci (Milan), L. Horward Parsons (Bridgeport), Zagorka Golubovic Pesic (Belgrade), David Reisman (Cambridge, Massachusetts), Rus (Ljubljana), Svetozar Stojanovic (Belgrade), Julius Strinka (Bratislava), Abdullah Sarcevic (Sarajevo), Ljubo Tadic (Belgrade), Ivan Varga (Budapest), Kurt Wolff (Newton), Aldo Zanardo (Bologna), Milan Ţivotić (Belgrade). Later it would be celebrated in the social life of some of the students of that period like Zoran Djindjic, Serbia's first democratic prime minister, who earned his doctorate in Germany under the supervision of the greatest philosophers of our time Jurgen Habermars. Milenko A. Perovic, Doctor of ethics, gained his doctorate under the supervision of one of the founders of "Praxis" Milan Kangrga. Perovic became the founder of the philosophy department in Novi Sad (where Djindjic was the teacher) and many others. At about the same time in 1967. in Belgrade Mihailo Markovic founded the "Institute of Philosophy" in Faculty Philosophy of Belgrade. In the year of 1975, The National Assembly of Serbia voted lex specialis in which it denied the right to work and paid compensation to the professors of Faculty of Philosophy in Belgrade. They suffered this fate because of the actions mentioned in the praxis group, Belgrade branch. Thanks to the intervention of the International Labour Organisation in 1980. the procedure was initiated for the review of compliance with international conventions by Yugoslavia. This intervention has been successful and founded the Center for Philosophy and Social Theory in 1981st year, as part of the existing Institute of Social Sciences. The center called the Institute for Philosophy and Social Theory is now working in Belgrade. Its founders are: Zagorka Golubovic, Mihailo Markovic, Dragoljub Micunovic, Nebojsa Popov, Svetozar Stojanovic, Ljubomir

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Tadic and Miladin Zivotic. It used to issue philosophical journal "Philosophy and Society".

6. Milenko A. Perovic "Institute for Philosophy and Sociology" was founded in Novi Sad in 1976 at the Faculty of Philosophy, in a philosophical and a separate group of late 80's. Philosophical Department has launched a three-year-old scientific research project1 and project "The place of philosophy in modern society". With the "Cultural Centre of Novi Sad" is also established "Philosophy Disput of Novi Sad " which was tied around her eminent Balkan philosophers and ran a debate on the most pressing social and philosophical themes. Under the 6 auspices of the founders of the Department of Milenko A. Perovic other employees and teachers in the department, remained multidisciplinary roundtable "Studies of modern times" with the theme "The modern concept of 7 personality". Perovic has published more than 100 scientific papers and dozens of books and is credited with institutionalization of philosophy in 8 Vojvodina. He founded scientific jornal “Arhe”. Zoran ĐinĎić was a lecturer in his department.

1990th - Founder and first head of the Department of Philosophy 1994th - Founder of the Department of Philosophy

See the chapter about Praxis-groupe The same.

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7. Zoran Djindjic A special place in the social and philosophical picture of the Balkans belongs to tragically late Zoran Djindjic. It is believed that he continued to engage in philosophy, surpassed his mentor Jurgen Habermars, as Habermars personally confirmed. He went on to study advanced courses in Bonn, Frankfurt and Konstanz. He worked as an assistant in Konstanz and in Novi Sad as a teacher. He was attracted to Frankfurt by the aura of its philosophers in "Frankfurt School". He has worked on research genealogies, original system called German philosophy - German idealism. He was a scholar of Alexander von Humboldt (1982-1984) and one of the founders of the Democratic Party. He was elected as a Prime Minister of Serbia in 2001. year. He was assassinated two years later. He has won several international defaces for democracy. He is author of the books: "Subjectivity and Violence," "Autumn dialectic", "Yugoslavia as an unfinished state." He was chief editor of the magazine "Theoria", scientific journal of "Philosophical Society of Serbia".

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9. Slavoj Zizek 9

The postmodernists Slavoj Zizek had a special place in Ljubljana. His work is primarily reflected by Jacques Lacan psychoanalytic theory, which is applied to pop culture and sociology. He did not long for Marxism. He received his Ph.D. at the University of Ljubljana. His areas of interest are fundamentalism, tolerance, political correctness, globalization, subjectivity, human rights, myths, cyberspace, postmodernism, multiculturalism, post-Marxism, and personalities such as Alfred Hitchcock, David Lynch and Lenin. He has published more than one hundred books and 900 papers. He speaks several languages.

The most significant works: Znak, označitelj, pismo [Beograd, Mladost, 1976] • Birokratija i uživanje [Beograd, Radionica SIC, 1984] • Metastaze uživanja [ Beograd, I. Čolović : S. Glišić : I. Mesner, 1996] • Manje ljubavi - više mržnje!: ili, zašto je vredno boriti se za hrišćansko nasleĎe [Beograd, Beogradski krug, 2001] • Škakljivi subjekt: odsutno središte političke ontologije [Sarajevo, Šahinpahić, 2006] • Nedjeljivi ostatak: ogled o Šelingu i srodnim pitanjima [Zagreb, Demetra, 2007] • Ispitivanje realnog [Novi Sad, Akademska knjiga, 2008] • O nasilju [Zagreb, Naklada Ljevak, 2008] • Čudovišnost Hrista: teologija i revolucija [Beograd, Otkrovenje, 2009]

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Conclusion Philosophy was born on the Balkan Peninsula in ancient Greece. It reached its peak in the era that has marked. Although the Balkans as a constant clash of cultures and the field of military force, was in serious political crises and destruction, it is interesting that the major world powers of Hellas, like Rome did not manage to create their own unique and original thought and spiritual products. Specificity in the Balkans lies in its historical background, as well as the fact that today is the meeting place of different cultures, religions and political interests. However, during the 19th and 20 century it did not lag behind the global trends in cultural and philosophical terms. It spawned a unique way to build institutions that philosophy to this day considered the most fundamental questions of society, politics, morals and general overview of the problem of today. The richness of the Balkans lies in the diversity and traditions of all the people living in this region, multiculturalism and possibility to do something as big as the scientific, artistic and philosophical projects. How to side with someone seemed paradoxically, so the fate of the people in this region depends on each other. History connects people as much as it separates them. As many times different people were on the opposite sides, so many times they were together. History is a circular process. And philosophy is one that is born in the particular circumstances of a society. By making a chronological overview of its way to institutionalize, we realize that it did not give up at any point, no matter how much it was good or bad. The future of the multicultural area is exactly in the same building bridges through the achievements of the spirit, through science, philosophy and art. If history is a teacher of life, the philosophy is its creator.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Stevan K Pavlovic, Cedomir Antic, “Istorija Balkana”, Clio, Beograd, 2004.  ^ "Balkan". Balkan. Microsoft Corporation. Archived from the original on 2009-10-31. Retrieved 2008-03-31  Todorova, Maria N. (1997). Imagining the Balkans. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.. p. 27.  Istituto Geografico De Agostini, L'Enciclopedia Geografica – Vol.I – Italia, 2004, Ed. De Agostini p.7  Bideleux, Robert; Taylor, Richard (1996). European integration and disintegration: east and west. p. 249.  Milenko A. Perović, “Istorija filozofije”, Grafomedia, Filozofski Fakultet Novi Sad, 1997  Ljubomir Tadic, “Nauka o politici”, BIGZ, Bograd,1996  Plato, Gorgias, 481d and 513b * Aristophanes, Wasps, 97  Plato, Republic, 2.368a  Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1.987a  Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV  Ljiljana Vuletic, “Ţivot i misao Ksenije Atanasijević”, Jovan, Beograd, 2005. Secondary sources 1. www.ff.uns.ac.rs 2. www.f.bg.ac.rs 3. www.srpskofilozofskodrustvo.org.rs 4. http://en.wikipedia.org 5.

www.instifdt.bg.ac.rs

Menthors

Milenko A Perovic, (PhD), University of Novi Sad Zeljko Kaludjerovic, (PhD), University of Novi Sad

Olivera MIJUSKOVIC, PhD Candidate ▪ Balkan and Philosophy

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Alma KARASALIU (QOSE), Msc.

The importance of words and graphical elements in Swifts “A Tale of a Tub”

ABSTRACT “A Tale of a Tub” is a multiple-level satire that has been a subject of study to many critics. Being a satiric writer, Jonathan Swift makes use of all possible forms of rhetoric art to achieve what he intends to. This paper makes an observation on the way the writer insinuates hidden messages. By means of analytical techniques, it will be pointed out that, in this satire, words tend to jump out of the text and out of their context, to take on meanings or values in their own right, apart from their larger meanings or values within the sentences in which they appear. Attention will be drawn to the way the writer makes use of italics, footnotes, marginal notes and synonymous pairs of words to get his meaning across. In this context, special emphasis will be put to the importance Jonathan Swift gives to the proper names and to nicknames and to the way he uses them to imply a multiplicity of identities. In conclusion, it will be pointed out that Swifts emphasis on proper names shows his attitude towards artificial respect. The italics, the footnotes and the marginal notes, on the other hand, not only focus the reader‟s attention on individual words and phrases but, they also imply messages that are visible only to the critic reader.

KEYWORDS: italics, footnotes, marginal notes, synonymous pairs of words

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INTRODUCTION “A Tale of a Tub” has always been considered to be a difficult book to read, not only for the fact that it is difficult to understand the puns and the irony it abounds with, but also because there is not a single object or a person towards the attack is implied. There are a great number of concepts, events, people and phenomena that become subject to Jonathan Swift‟s irony and parody. Despite the fact that this work is full of subdivisions, introductions, letters directed to the reader, etc, so as to make it easier to be understood by the reader, and even though the modern, throughout the book, „tries‟ to summarize and to explain what he thinks is difficult to understand, the reader, continuously encounters multiple introductions and various digressions which lead him to the process of looking into the concepts carefully as to find implications. It should not be assumed, while reading the “Tale of a Tub”, that the words present there are intended to express the idea of the character who expresses them. In fact, there are critics who claim that words, in this work “suggest the cocksure arrogance of one who has taken over wholesale the opinion of others” (Ehrenpreis 1962, p. 206), which is way far from what Jonathan Swift, as a writer, encourages his critic reader to do. On the other hand, there are other critics, who argue that “we might not be wise in reading the words merely for the satisfaction of seeing their speaker gulled by his own eloquence” (Donoughue 1969, p. 3) and that, while considering Swift‟s way of using words, “it is better to postpone referring the words to their speaker, at least until we have taken their measure as words on a page”. (Donoughue 1969, p. 5) Words are often taken for what they are worth as events of language, which depend as much upon the resources of language as upon the presumed character of the speaker. As Denis Donoghue states, “the first peculiarity is that words, released in this way, have no responsibility towards a speaker; they live their own lives”. (Donoughue 1969, p. 7) Furthermore, taking into the consideration Swifts way of writing, as a satirical writer, on the one hand, and the fact that there exists no unity of a single voice throughout the book, on the other hand, international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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it is undisputable the fact that while reading the book, we notice words which imply things being said rather than words being said. Also, words in Jonathan Swift‟s writings resemble more to arrows, thrown towards several directions and implying other ones, simultaneously. Besides the panegyric Modern, who is idealized with a false stupidity, which is the only way to allow the writer put forward several disturbing issues, he makes use of a number of punctuation elements such as capital letters, asterisks, italics, footnotes, marginal notes and blank spaces, in order to imply messages and to keep the critical reader, not the simple one who judges his Modern for his lack of wit and the problems in the way he arguments his statements. THE FUNCTION OF ITALICS IN “A TALE OF A TUB” Jonathan Swift pays the word a lot of attention because, as John Locke says, “It often happens that men even when they would apply themselves to an attentive consideration, do set their thoughts more on words than things” (Locke 1690, p.7) Being conscious for the importance a word carries within, when used appropriately, the writer makes use of italics throughout all the book and this is due to his intention to draw our attention on the typographical existence of words. A highlighted example is the one where the Modern states that “Whatever word or Sentence is Printed in a different Character shall be judged to contain something extraordinary either of Wit or Sublime" (“A Tale of a Tub”, p. 46). As it can be noticed, the writer has italicized the words "Wit" and "Sublime". Based on the idea that Swift uses his Modern to imply a different message from what he states, the modern reader gets the idea that what he intends to say, is that nothing exists in a word to make it extraordinary. What is more, the italics in this case emphasize the lack of any special meaning in those words. (Smith 1979, p. 12) It is not the word that implies wit or sublime, but the way we make use of it and the context we employ it in what contains and represent the extraordinary. What is more, the writer uses them to keep the reader focused on what we are reading for the fact that there might be something underlying the italicized word.

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The irony underlying the Modern‟s words is clearly noticed even in the following example about wisdom, where the writer uses the italicized words to present a pun on worms and to highlight the new coinage, “Grubaean,” with the view of making the reader realize that what began for the Modern as the kernel of wisdom, has become for Swift a parasite who feeds on the wisdom of others: “But then, lastly, 'tis a Nut, which unless you choose with Judgment, may cost you a Tooth, and pay you with nothing but a Worm. In consequence of these momentous Truths, the Grubaean Sages have always chosen to convey their Precepts and their Arts, …” (“A Tale of a Tub”, p. 66) Such a reality leads us to the idea that the italics in “A Tale of a Tub” work one way for the writer and another way for the Modern. Jonathan Swift uses italics not only to emphasize puns and coinages, he employs in his writing, which are the essence of humour and satire in many of his passages, but also to highlight several analogies. In the following example: “I conceive therefore, as to the Business of being Profound, that it is with Writers, as with Wells; A Person with good Eyes may see to the Bottom of the deepest, provided any Water be there; …” (“A Tale of a Tub”, p. 207), the writer sets up analogies between literary „works‟ and „wells‟ and between „readers‟ of the literary works and „those who stare into wells‟. THE EFFECT OF FOOTNOTES AND MARGINAL NOTES Footnotes are marginal notes are two other means the writer employs to refer often to single words within the text defining a word, interpreting it or questioning its use. Their use has the aim of keeping the reader focused on what he is reading, by keeping looking to continuously to the text and to the footnotes and to the marginal notes, but also imply messages. It is worth mentioning the fact that by using such notes, the author simultaneously underlines the typographical aspect of his book, meanwhile refusing to let his book stand still by offering the reader fuller explanations on what he is reading. This is why Swift‟s footnotes play a great role in this work and serve like a weapon, which a skillful author, like Swift, knows how to make profits from. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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Talking about the marginal notes, it can be stated that Swift‟s they are necessary to the multilevel effect of “A Tale of a Tub”. The marginal notes focus our attention on individual words or phrases, in order not to let the reader on a simple left-to-right reading and drawing his attention on words which the author considers as important and whom he provides further explanations with. Moreover, they are used to provide explanations to concepts like: “Three Pence” which is explained as “A Lawyer‟s Coach-hire” (“A Tale of a Tub”, p. 176) There are cases, though, when the explanations the reader is provided with throughout the book, in the marginal notes, seems to be more inferior than the meaning the reader can obtain by simply reading the word, or at least to imply something which is difficult to be grabbed by the text. Such an example is the case where the author explains the phrase "Husks and their Harlots," (“A Tale of a Tub”, p. 65) as “Virtuoso Experiments, and Modern Comedies” which, as a matter of fact, seem to suggest more "old men and their wives". THE USE OF SYNONYMOUS PAIRS OF WORDS The author often employs synonymous pairs of words, by putting them on the mouth of the Modern, in order to get his message across to the reader. The book abounds with such pairs, and in most of them the second one is used to define the first like in “Thought and Application of Mind” (“A Tale of a Tub”, p. 71) or in “Dispositions and Opinions”. (“A Tale of a Tub”, p. 81) There are cases, though, where the use of such kind of pairs is unnecessary and excessive as in “Errors and Defects” (“A Tale of a Tub”, p. 92) In such an example, the second term simply echoes the first. (Wilkins 1968, p. 20) It is worth mentioning the fact that the author puts synonymous pairs of words in the mouth of the Modern with the view of expressing his attitude towards the potential a single word can have and against the excessive use of words. Thus, by making the Modern use these pairs, especially the ones with no necessity at all, he mocks the attitude of the writers of seventeenth century towards the multiplicity of words in guarantying the meaning. (Smith 1979, p. 13)

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MULTIPLE IDENTITIES HIDDEN AFTER THE USE OF NAMES AND NICKNAMES The attitude Jonathan Swift shows towards the artificial respect, derived by the use of various titles, especially by the clergy is clearly made obvious in section four, where the older brother, who as a matter of fact considered himself to be most learned one, becomes „Peter‟, „Mr. Peter‟, „Father Peter‟ and so on. Names in “A Tale of a Tub” tend to shift, to be loosely, not absolutely applied to people. (Smith 1979, p. 11) As such, it can be stated that the absence of the names of the two other brothers until section six, relates to the religious history. Jack‟s attributed nicknames have double function too. The author purposely leaves the reader find the most appropriate nickname for him, after providing an explanation for each of them and this is not only to make him think but also to imply that no matter which one the reader finds as the most appropriate one, they all represent the same thing in different forms. In this context, it is worth mentioning the fact that „the Modern Author‟, in this literary work, does not posses a proper name, and it stays opposite Swift, who, on the other side, makes use of his unreliable speech to attack several subjects at the same time and, at the same time, to criticize him for being prone to wordiness and to unrelenting stupidity.

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CONCLUSION

Swifts irony and the way he makes use of words give them the ability to have a different meaning for each point of view they are judged from. This is why we often get multiple messages while reading a sentence in Swift‟s “A Tale of a Tub”. It is significant that in “A Tale of a Tub” the italics, the footnotes and marginal notes, and the Modern's glossary style, all play up the synonymy of language. The book abound with footnotes and marginal notes, which, most often, serve as a means of explaining what the author has expressed in the text, but the role of which, at times, is almost unnecessary as they fail to provide further information or just repeat what is previously mentioned by the Modern. The author‟s obsession with the proper names and with the nicknames, which are always italicized, contrary to that of Peter, who aims only at the titles and in the end becomes one of them and nothing more, involves, as a matter of fact, an issue deeper than just names. The instability of proper names is that Swift intends to satirize both Catholics and Protestants into stereotypes, suggesting that whatever you call them, they are all the same.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY



Ehrenpreis, I. 1962. Swift, The Man, His Works and the Age, Vol. 1: Mr. Swift and His Contemporaries. Methuen, London



Donoghue, D.

1969.

Jonathan

Swift:

A Critical Introduction.

Cambridge University Press 

Locke, J. 1961. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. New York



Smith, F. N. 1979. Language and reality in Swift’s A Tale of a Tub. Ohio State University Press Wilkins, J. 1968. An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language, ed. R. C. Alston. Menston, England



Wimsatt, W. K. 1948. Philosophic Words: A Study of Style and Meaning in the "Rambler" and "Dictionary" of Samuel Johnson. New Haven

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Juliana BYLYKBASHI, PhD Candidate Legal Aspects of Insurance Contract

Abstract

The insurance contract is a contract specifically governed by the provisions of the Civil Code and Law no. 9267, dated 29.07.2004 "On the insurance and reinsurance activity and insurance and reinsurance mediation" as amended. The legal provisions have predicted not only that the insurance contract should be done in writing, because otherwise it is invalid, but also have determined the concrete form of how the contract should be drafted. The reason behind the legislature providing concrete forms of drafting the contract, which is the evidence of insurance or insurance policy, stems from the need to standardize the legal relations arising thereof between the parties of the right, which have a special and unique character in relation to other contracts. In this article we will address some legal aspects of insurance contract which provides a set of characteristics that should be considered preliminary as they are essential for the correct understanding of the rules that regulate entering into the contract, its validity and some court cases.

Keywords: insurance contract, adherence, warranty, term, consensual, entering into contract, etc.

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The insurance contract is an agreement between two parties aiming to insure tangible and intangible property from natural disasters, to insure life and health from illness, accidents and so on. The insurance contract is regulated by the Articles 1113 to 1161 under the Civil Code. As defined in the Civil 1 Code " in the insurance contract one party (the insurer) if liability activating 2 event is verified (the insured event ) undertakes to pay to the other party (the insured) or a third person, in whose favor the contract was entered into, a cash reward, within the limits of the amount stipulated in the contract, for a premium paid by the insured. "The risk (event) should meet the following requirements to be legitimate:    

Be possible to verify, Be random, Be measurable, though random, and subject to survey and 3 statistical evidence to measure identical objects , Be real, the risk of damage to the property should not depend on the will of the insured or the person concerned.

The basic concept of insurance is the risk to which are exposed the material goods or lives of individuals: first in terms of risk, the goods are lost, damaged or destroyed, or property generally is damaged under different circumstances. Second in terms of risk, human life is unexpectedly ended. The function of the insurance contract is the transfer of risk from the insured to the insurer, against payment of a premium. For this reason if there was no risk (e.g. if the house insured against fire is not built, the life insured person does 4 not exist) the contract is void for lack of initial cause . The risk that the insurance contract transfers to the insurer is he to whom items or life policyholders are exposed to occasional unfortunate

Article 1113,Civil Code, Chapter XXIII "Insurance", "General Provisions" The events provided in the insurance contract, which if occur entitle the insured to be indemnified by the insurer. 3 Naim Isufi, Jeta juridike, Nr.1, August 2003, pp. 25-26, published by ASM. 4 Civil Code, Article 1121 2

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(e.x fire caused by lightning), or excluding force majeure unless it agreed by the parties to the contrary, earthquake, war, insurrection or riot popular. The most complex operation of an insurance contract is presented by the economic function. By means of the premiums paid by the insured it is composed the entirety of the fund, which is used for compensation of individuals affected by damage, so the damage produced by an event, instead be borne entirely by the person who has suffered, distributed among all those who are exposed to this damage and the damage of each of them goes to the extent of the premium paid to the insurer. 1.1 No chance no insurance. Odd character applies to itself the object of the contract of insurance: the risk guaranteed; just an odd risk may be subject to an insurance contract. The odd character of the risk provides a based validation of insurance contract. It has resulted that if the risk is verified at the time of conclusion of the contract, this is invalid. The chance is obvious in the case of a recovery of an uncertain risk (e.g. insurance against fire), but it also exists in the case of a certain risks, such is insurance in case of death, or the date of the accident and when the number of the years of premium payment remains unknown. However in the domain of "life insurance" some formulas actually compose an investment and do not bring any risk of loss to the organization that generates the funds. It is attempted to classify the insurance contracts the unsecured 5 contracts random ones: at the time of conclusion of the contract, the insured does not know, if the insured event will occur, or when it will happen, and if versus premiums that insurers give, he will get compensation. 1.2 One of the main features of the insurance contract is that it is solemn formal contract. This feature is explicitly provided for in the Civil Code, according to which "the insurance contract shall be concluded in written form, namely, in the form of proof of insurance or insurance policy, because otherwise the contract is void" 5

Galgano, Francesco "E drejta private", page 710, Tirana, 2006.

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This means that for this contract legislator has provided that the parties will appear on the outside, being necessarily manifested in writing, otherwise the absence of such written form, the contract is void. In this case the form of the contract is for the purpose validity (ad substantiam) and is part of the content, which is required to be respected by the parties, so that they enter into a valid contract. In relation to the form of the insurance contract, the law provides that it should not only be done in writing, because otherwise it is invalid, but also to determine the concrete form of how the contract should be drawn up. By law, the insurance contract must be made in writing, in the form of an insurance certificate or insurance policy issued by the insurer to the 6 insured . The reason why the legislator has provided the written form about this contract is for purposes of validity, which derives from the great importance of this contract in the civil circulation, as well as the wider and larger interest that this contract covers. Another reason is that since the will of the parties manifested in writing, in case the conflict is much easier for the parties and the court to implement the terms of the contract that are written, and it is easier for the court to interpret the terms of a contract, when they are clearly expressed in writing, in case of dispute settlement between the parties. On the other hand we can add that the reason why the legislature has provided the concrete forms should be drafted this contract, which is evidence of insurance or insurance policy, is the need to standardize the legal relations arising from 7 the contract between the subjects' law , which have a unique character and specific in relation to other contracts. This provision is also made for the fact that as a party to the insurance contract is always a legal person, which is equipped with special knowledge in the field of insurance and the party is obliged to issue the certificate of insurance. Given how insurers can go a number of different subjects, which is also proven by the established practice in the insurance field until now, in order not to create confusion in the relationship, the legislator, has provided that the contract be drawn up in the form The insurance policy, defining the necessary elements to it. 6 7

Article 1114 of the Civil Code; Luan Hasneziri; Doctoral work, "Insurance contract by the Albanian Civil Code"

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1.3 It is a consensual contract . The consent of both parties, the insurer and the policyholder is required to the stipulation and the validity of the insurance contract. The only thing required is a written confirmation of the contract, the outcome of which is the perfect conclusion of the agreement between the parties. This consensual character will be specified following the analysis of the contract of insurance. 9

1.4 It is an affiliation contract . The insurance contract is often given as an example of the accession agreement (adhesion) doctrine and sanctioned as such by the jurisprudence, as its consensual character must protect the freedom and equality of the parties. In fact, it is true that the insurance contract compiled, drawn, printed by the insurer and the insured here "adheres" to a predetermined contract where he discussed the general conditions. This situation has brought a number of abuses. Before this situation, the courts have attempted to establish a balance to the qualification of the contract as "a contract of accession" and easily recognizable as a "lack of consent" of the insured person, to change the nature of the contract. In the case of the ambiguous or unclear provisions, (Article 685 of the Civil Code) interpreted the agreement in favor of those who contracted the obligation (or liability insurer that contracts of guarantee and indemnity becomes a debtor in case of accidents). 10 1.5 It is a contract in good faith . According to the provisions of the Civil Code (section 674.682) the signed agreements will be legally carried out in good faith. The insurance contracts are qualified as bona fide contracts, which underscore the absolute necessity to ensure the loyalty of the person to 8

Consensual contract, see infra n. 220 J. Ghestin, "La notion de contrat" D. 1990, 147 Chron: FR Mouterde " Le consensualisme et le détermination des risques garantis dans le contrat d’assurance" ThéseLyon, 1992; G. Durry ". 9

Affiliation contract and consensuality: R. Schmidt, " Le critére de la qualification de simplicité dans le droit des contrats d’assurance" in Etudes Besson, LGDJ, 1976, page 291 and J. Bigot " La protection juridique des contrats d’assurance " Ibidem, page 43; F. X. Testu “Le jude et le contrat d’adésion” JPC 1993.I.3673. 10 G. Durry; contract in good faith, on sanctioning of confidence in the risk statement, see infra no. 331;

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keep the balance of the contractual relationship, as the insurer is often forced to believe his statements, without the possibility to verify them at the time of the subscription of the contract. This is why the proved misfaith of the person ensured is sanctioned by special rigor, with the resolution of the contract if we are dealing with misfaith in the declaration of the risk, or non-payment of 11 insurance amount . The classification of the insurance contracts (good faith) uberrimae fidei, as consequence of the existence of the emphasis of the facts 12 is justified by Lord Mansfield in Carter v. Boehm issue (1766). INITIAL STIPULATION OF THE INSURANCE CONTRACT 13

The contract stipulation , in abstract manner, can be divided into two phases: information and consensus, which will be materialized by the subscription of the policy. 2.1 The preliminary information. The insurance contract is a consensual contract, so it is part of the agreement between the parties on the subject of warranty and its price. However, the determination of the moment for this wills is very delicate considering the various elements that precede it. It belongs, in fact, to the future insured to acknowledge to the insurer the object of the guarantee required (for example insurance against the fire of a real estate) giving all the useful elements of evaluation: the object of the "insurance bid" should be analyzed by the insurer in function of his statistics to classify it in the appropriate category, in order to determine the appropriate fee. 2.2 The information provided by the insurer: the information file and 14 project of the contract . The insurer must necessarily give a folder of

Article 1118, Chapter XXIII, Civil Code “If it is verified the event of the 3 months insurance of the acknowledgement of incorrect information, the insurer is not obliged to pay the insurance amount” 12 Master Judge Mansfield stated that insurance contracts "based on speculation", and circumstances that form the basis for the calculation the risk involved in the contract, tend to be known only to the insured person, so that good faith is necessary in order to ensure that the insurer discovers all the information that may affect the insurer's decision to accept or reject the risk. 13

S. Corone, " Comment se forme le contrat d’assurance" Argus February 4, 2000, page 28 et " Les conditions pour éviter la nullité " Argus March 3 200, page 34;

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information on the price and guarantees before the subscription of the contract. On the other hand it must make available to the insured person a draft contract with accurate information on the guarantees and the exclusions. 2.3 The information to the insurer by the insured person: the 15 insurance offer . The insurance offer is the document through which the future signatory requires a guarantee of the insurance for the risks he declares. In practice, the offer consists of the answers to an electronic or printed questionnaire predetermined by the insurance company and transmitted to the insured by the company itself or by the insurance intermediary. The insured persons are obliged .... "to respond exactly the questions asked by the insurer ..." with regard to the nature and circumstances of which the insurer determines the risks in charge to him. The insurers must develop specific and exhaustive questionnaires. This questionnaire allows to the insurers to collect all the data that the eventual client can give and these statements will serve as the basis for the subscription of the contract. The insured person shall notify the insurer about all the circumstances acknowledged by him and which are essential for determining the nature and extent of the risk. The legislator has defined what the circumstances have "essential importance" defining as such ..."circumstances about which the insurer has asked the insured person in writing." In the court case of Tirana 16 District Court , based on General Conditions of Insurance for the Aircraft body, according to the section: "Where the aircraft operates", "Flights for the passenger transport in Albania", the case is been considered as non – compensable by the company of insurance Insig sh.a, the fact that the helicopter (the object of the insurance contract), have been flying to Italy, then

Consumer information on insurance, see above, no. 126 and following, namely no. 131, S. Yaëaga, " Les obligations précontractuelles de l’assureur" RDGA, 1997 / 1.83, " L’information de l’année: insuffisances ou trop plein?" RDGA 2007, page 457 and following. 15 S. Coroni, " La proposition, acte important fans la vie du contrat", Argus, November 3, 2000, page 53; Civ.1st, February 17, 1987, D. 1987 Sorrim 335 (insurance proposal does not engage insurer); Civ. 1st, May 21, 1990, RGAT 1990.552 (idem) 16 For more see decision No.9919, dated 17.11.2008, it is decided to accept the plaintiff's claim and the Guard of Republic and the obligation of Insig to indemnify the latter with ALL 10.8 million as compensation for the loss of the Helicopter Bell 222 U in the accident in date 16/07/2006 (the lawsuit was brought down by the Court of Appeal)

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out of the territory of the Republic of Albania, when the territory is explicitly defined in the Insurance Agreement signed between the parties. So given that the territorial extend of coverage is one of the essential elements of the insurance contract concluded between the parties and this condition is not respected by the insured person, the company Insig JSC is not obliged to refund. In the questionnaire acquisition of 2005, (part of the contract) to the question: Will it fly at night? The insured has answered "No", while the helicopter has flight at night, in violation of this point of the questionnaire that is also part of the contract between the parties. It is not only the disregard the geographical limit, but also the travel during the night itself that increased the risks not only for aircraft crash, but for every kind of travel. The insured can expand the territory of insurance for passenger flights abroad, by means of negotiations with the insurer / Insig sha; such fact could be realized, but certainly by paying additional premium for the extension of the territory or geographical limits, night flight, etc., which constitute a serious proliferation of risk. So in these terms the "risk" and "premium" are in proportion with each other, thus the risk of occurrence of an insurance event increases, certainly increases the respective premium payable by the insured person. It is exactly these moments of disrespect of the preliminary circumstances of insurance and on the basis of which is designed and stipulated the insurance contracts between the parties, are contrary to the requirements of articles 1117 and 1118 of the Civil Code. According to Article L. 112-2 of the French Insurance Code "the offer of insurance does not involve the insured person or the insurer." In fact, it is not only an offer to contract made by the proposer, who is deemed free to withdraw this offer not yet accepted by the insurer and to terminate the negotiations undertaken. Despite this, if the contract is signed on the basis of the statements included in this offer, they receive a great importance since 17 they constitute "the declaration of the risks" covered, and allows the establishment of good faith or misfaith of the insured person.

Statement of risks: Civ. 1st, March 31, 1998, RCA 1998, no. 215, note Groutel, Gaz.Pal, 1998.2.559, note Favre-Rochex (the insured person must also declare, if verified before signing the contract, new circumstances that make incorrect the initial answers given to the insurer)

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2.4 The exchange of approvals and signature of the insurer . The insurer is not bound significantly by the offer of insurance, transmitted by its agent or the commissioner of the company, and which is nothing else but a contractor's bid. He may refuse to guarantee a risk that is not included in its activities, or that seems too high. He may also seek additional clarifications and not accept the contract that exceeds some preventive measures, some limitations of guarantee or some exceptions. There exists the approval when he has accepted to insure the risk is proposed, and about which a fee has been defined. This fee may be more or less automatic if it's a simple risk, which ranks in the predefined categories, he then decides contract "police" to be signed and sent it for the signature by the insured person. 19

3. Special rules in cases of contract in the distance Information and communication technology have certainly an increasingly important role in trading of insurance and contracts concluded at a distance, at any time without the simultaneous physical presence in the same place the signatories and insurers or its brokers. In the future there will be, without any doubt, numerous contract awarded in correspondence, telephone (with all the variations that are achieved by modern telephony), Internet.

The development of the insurance contract is perfected by the agreement of wills: Civ. June 14, 1977, RGAT 1978.217 (Signature of insurer); Civ. 1st, January 23, 1980. 19

Article 36, Contracts in distance LAW No.9902, dated 17.4.2008 "On the consumer tutelage"

defines: the contract in distance is any contract for goods or services, stipulated between the trader and the consumer, according to a scheme of arrangement of distance sales or service provision by the dealer, who, for the purposes of the contract, makes exclusive use of one or more means of distance communication up to the moment of conclusion of the contract and including this moment. Article 36/2. Means of distance communication are all means which, without the simultaneous physical presence of both parties, can be used for the contract, such as correspondence, printed materials, publicity release form of orders, catalog, e-mail, electronic commerce, fax, phone and TV.

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Some sets of rules should be considered; 3.1 It is understood that above all the legal provisions on the insurance activity should be observed. The subscriber has the right to all the common pre-contractual information and the police must mention all the usual elements: it should respect the need to use emphasized characters for the exclusion clauses, etc. If a mediator intervenes in the process, it must provide information and advice provided as the contract is in electronic format (the idea that prevails in these texts is that all that can be done in writing can be done also in an electronic form). 3.2 Being the contract stipulated in electronic format, it is inserted another part of rules; the law on the electronic signature and the electronic commerce, applicable whenever the stipulation of the contract follows this path, regardless of the contract in question (and thus it is included the insurance contract): the mandatory declarations in the contract offer (mainly in various stages followed to this type of contract, the error correction techniques, the modalities of archiving and the access conditions in the contract stipulated), the system called "double click" for the expression of the approval of the client, the compulsory sending of a notification of receipt of the professional. For this reason, the probative force of an act in the electronic format is recognized as equivalent to the one in paper. Of course, this is the case in which its author uses a real electronic signature, which consists in the use of a reliable procedure which guarantees his connection with the act in 20 which it is located" but currently the details dispose such an electronic signature. 3.3. Finally, whenever an insurance contract relates to a consumer insurance under a system providing a service in distance by an insurer or an intermediary, who has used for this contract one or more of the distance communication techniques (electronic as well as classical ones: phone, mail) to / and including the stipulation of the contract (at any moment the parties should meet in person), a third set of rules apply: those that organize the consumer protection in the cases of trade in the distance. These regulations are issued by the Law "On Protection of the Consumerâ&#x20AC;? No.9902 dated 17.04.2008, as amended.

Law no. 9880, dated 25.02.2008 "On electronic signature"

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First the tutelage from the pre-contractual information: it should give to the consumers "by all appropriate means" the technique of trading in distance with a number of correct information (the identification of the insurance, the premium, the minimum duration of the contract and guarantees and exclusions provided by it, the duration of the validity of the information, the modalities of the contract and the payment of the premium, the existence or absence of a right of withdrawal and its duration; the modalities of complaint and the case of maturity of a guarantee fund). Another important instrument for consumer tutelage is the right of 21 withdrawal (Article 35, Article 37/3; Law "On protection of consumers' No.9902 dated 17.04.2008, as amended). At insurances different from the life insurance, this right is valid for a period of 14 calendar days from the date of delivery of goods or of the stipulation of the contract for the service, if the service is not provided within that period. In the life insurance the deadline for the withdrawal is 30 days starting from the day when the person is informed for the stipulation of the contract. 4. Start of the contract effects. The principle: the guarantee is bound 22 from the stipulation of the contract . In principle, the contract begins the effects, namely the insurer guarantee owes in case of confirmation of the insured event, once it is stipulated and the insured person is covered for the risk guarantee. However, the signing itself can be difficult to determine and if an accident / disaster is verified, it is important to know whether the insurers guarantee is active or not. The contract of insurance under the provisions of the Civil Code "... starts the legal consequences for both contracting parties from 24 o’clock of the day when premium or its first installment (contract price)is paid ... If the insurance premium is not paid the contract is suspended till 24 o’clock of the day when insurance premiums are paid"; The Civil Code and the terms of the insurance contract have predicted that the time of the start of the liability of the 21

The right of withdrawal: M. Cannassa " Les faculties de retractation en droite de la consummation et en droit des assurances: continuité en droite interne, changements en droite communaitaire" RGDA 2009.25. 22

The start of the effects of the contract and the time of the accident / disaster: Civ. 1, January 27, 1981, JCP 1982.II.19705, note Besson and D.1982.IR.100, OBS. Barr and Groutel (theft of an insured vehicle starting at 12 o'clock is noticed on 18 o’clock: the owner must prove that the theft took place in the afternoon).

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insurer for the insurance coverage is the time of the premium payment, the fulfillment of this condition is undoubtedly the effective date of the establishment of the liability of the insurer to fulfill the obligation assumed by the insurance contract"; This principle is provided for in the provisions of the Law No. 9267, dated 29.07.2004" On the insurance, reinsurance and insurance and reinsurance mediation" and exception to the rule, the contract can enter into force before the payment of the premium if the contract will provide so, unless stated otherwise, the general principle will apply. So the moment of the beginning of the insurer's liability is related to the payment of the insurance premium. With the premium payment it is accomplished the condition for the start or continuation of effective guarantee of the insurance under a contract signed between the parties, which means that despite the fact that the contract is signed, the contract effects are related to the condition and binding upon payment of the premium". The suspension of insurance "...means that the insurance policy remains valid, but it is suspended liability of the insurers to cover with insurance the event, so the guarantee of the insurance during this time is not effective." When the insurance contract has been suspended until the payment of the premium, the moment of confirmation of the event makes it invalid, because at this point the plaintiff has had all the legal and practical possibilities to pay the insurance premium, but after the event such opportunities are terminated because the failure to pay the premium entails the termination of the contract by the insurer free from the fulfilling of the obligation ... the absolute impossibility of paying the premium after the occurrence of the event turns an insurance contract suspended in a void contract. " In the highest levels of the judiciary system it is interpreted the civil matter between the parties; the company "Sigal" sha (the insurer) and the company "REAL X" shpk (the insured person) with object the compliance of the contractual obligation of the insurance company under the insurance contract. Among them it is stipulated an insurance contract for the goods transported and for this purpose, it was issued an insurance policy dated 11.04.2007. The insurer has issued the fiscal invoice with serial number 22949535, dated 12.04.2007, for the amount of $ 5,040, which is the value of the insurance premium, accepted by the insured person, but the premium payment was not carried out. The ship carrying the goods has sank with load insured. The company has refused to fulfill the obligation under the contract / international journal of science â&#x2013;Ş 2013 â&#x2013;Ş volume 4

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insurance policy submitting that the insurance contract never entered into force because the insured person has not paid the premium of the insurance and the contract does not entail any legal consequences. Consequently, the court of first instance, pursuant the articles 1113, 1124 and 1125 of the Civil Code, considering that the premium payment is the condition after the fulfillment of which the insurance relationship is established and the legal effects of the insurance contract start, estimated that the lack of payment of the premium entails the termination of the contract by the provider free from the fulfillment of the obligation. The Civil College of the High Court has stated that the provisions of the Articles 1124 and 1125 are common arrangements to the property insurance contracts, and in this case are applied 23 the articles 1147 to 1149 , governing the insurance contracts against the risks 24 in the transport of goods . Thus, this legal arrangement referred to the case of insurance against the risks of goods during transportation, whether by land, air, sea or mixed, the principle "lex specialis derogate lex generalis" applies. In terms of these provisions the entry into force of the contract is related to the moment of the delivery of the goods to the carriers, so it entered into force on the date when the goods are delivered together with the accompanying documentation and covered the provision of goods, not for any determined period time (term), but up to the moment in which these goods will be delivered to the recipients (the insured person). In my reasoning should begin from the purpose aimed by the parties with the stipulation of this contract: The real purpose of the party was insuring 23

Article 1148 of the Civil Code, unlike Â§ 1 Article 1124 and 1126 of the same code that the moment of entry into force of the insurance contract for the properties are related to the payment of the premium by the insured person, the moment of entry into force of the insurance contract against the risks of transporting goods is explicitly defined "from the moment that goods are delivered to the carrier" and the contract "continues until they are handed over to the receiver, unless the contract provides otherwise". 24

Decision No. 269, dated 24.05.2012 Civil College of the High Court. The Civil College of the High Court has concluded that the contract of insurance, the insurance policy dated 11.04.2007, has been valid and that the insurer has the obligation to pay the compensation insurance to the policyholders, within the limits of the amount stipulated in the contract.

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the goods by the Insurer the insurance company "Sigal" sha, against payment of premium by the insured company "REAL X" shpk. The payment of the insurance premium, is never realized and consequently the insurance contract is suspended which entails no legal consequences for insurance contracts. While the insurance contract for the goods against the risks during transport, it is not a contract with determined term, but due to the specifications, the entry into force of the contract is related to the moment of delivery of the goods to the carrier. The motivation based in the provision 1148 of the Civil Code is wrong, as in this provision the legislator has defined the term for the effectiveness of the insurance contract of the goods being transported, in function of the transport contract by defining this period from the carrier to the consignee of the goods. The expression of the legislator about the entry into force of the contract of insurance of goods to be transported is made in the frame of a transport relationship and does not show the intention of the legislators to determine the details of the entry into force of the insurance contract. Conclusions From as analyzed above, we can conclude that in practice we encounter different cases which need interpretation. Nowadays humanity has achieved significant results in terms of economic, technical and cultural development becoming increasingly dependent on the need for tutelage and economic insurance against the actions of the nature power and related disasters. In the stipulation of the insurance contracts it should be taken into account and protected the consumer rights, which is one of the most vulnerable subjects of this relationship. The movement for the tutelage of the consumer is one of the main reforms undertaken from the European Union too. While the right of withdrawal, one of the clauses defined to protect the right of the consumer, has not achieved yet the application on the travel or luggage insurances or " similar insurance policies with duration of less than one month"; to the compulsory vehicle insurance; to the contracts executed in an integrated manner by both parties under expressed request of the consumer before the latter exercises his right of withdrawal. international journal of science â&#x2013;Ş 2013 â&#x2013;Ş volume 4

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Secondly it is necessary that the clauses set by the insurer, who elaborates the contract terms to be subject to the legal regulation and supervision by a state institution, the Financial Supervisory Authority, which regulates and supervises this activity in accordance with the legal provisions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Kodi Civil, Kreu XXIII "Sigurimi""Dispozita të përgjithsme"  Naim Isufi, Jeta Juridike Nr. 1, gusht 2003, Edition of Shkolla e Magjistraturës;  Galgano Francesco "E drejta Private", Tiranë, 2006;  Hasneziri Luan; Doctoral work “The insurance contracts according to the Albanian Civil Code"  J. Ghestin, "La notion de contrat", D. 1990, Chron 147:  G. Durry, Contract in good faith: the sanctioning of the good faith in the declaration of the risk, see infra no. 331;  S. Corone, "Comment se forme le Contrat d 'assurance" Argus February 4, 2000, page 28;  S. Coroni, "La Proposition acte important fans la vie du contrat", Argus, 3 november 2000, page 53;  M. Cannassa " Les faculties de retractation en droite de la consummation et en droit des assurances: continuité en droite interne, changements en droite communaitaire" RGDA 2009.25.  Law no. 9880 dated 25.02.2008 "About the electronic signature";  Law no. 9267, dated 29.07.2004 "About the activity of insurance, reinsurance and intermediation in insurance and reinsurance" as amended;  Law No. 9902, dated 17.4.2008 "About the consumer tutelage" as amended;  Court decision No. 9919, dated 17.11.2008;  Case Carter v Boehm (1766);  Decision No. 269, dated. 24.05.2012 of the Civil College of the High Court

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Dr. Ahmad SAMARJI How Problematic is Problem-Based Learning (PBL)? The Case Study of Medicine Education*

Abstract st Teaching and learning in the 21 century is prompted to be student-centred rather than lecturer-centred or content-driven. One of the promising pedagogical approaches that have been argued for nearly half a century to promote student-centred learning and understanding is problem-based learning (PBL). Many research and studies highlighted the powerfulness of PBL and the education benefits it brings about. However, other studies identified pedagogical gaps, knowledge deficiencies, and logistics difficulties associated with such approach. This article will offer a comprehensive literature review about PBL, highlighting the pros and cons of adopting such approach. The article will focus on medicine education as a case study for PBL and as the earliest accommodator to such pedagogy. This study reports that the benefits of PBL and its education promises have been over promoted in some instances. This article argues that whilst PBL remains one of the most efficient pedagogical approaches, there are other approaches which are as efficient. Education remains one of the most important and complex human transactions. Hence, education needs to be approached from a spectrum (including PBL) of teaching and learning approaches which can cater to the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; various learning needs and capabilities on the one hand and connect to the curricular planning underpinning such approaches on the other. The paper concludes that further research is required to inquire into PBL beyond the reported and obvious benefits of the approach to investigate the other important issues to teaching and learning.

Keywords: Problem-based learning (PBL), Medicine Education, Deficiencies, Challenges, Teaching and Learning, Pedagogy, Curriculum, Higher Education.

Dr. Ahmad SAMARJI â&#x2013;Ş The Case Study of Medicine Education

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Introduction Problem-based learning (PBL), as one of the innovative active learning approaches, has been trialled, discussed, and researched for nearly half a century. PBL has its origins in the late sixties when new medical schools were established and problem-based learning was integrated into the medicine curriculum (Barrows, 1996). Since then, PBL has been well advocated and applied not only across medicine but also across a variety of sciences and disciplines such as engineering, law, business, and education. The question on whether or not PBL is effective has been an ongoing inquiry with a number of studies advocating for such effectiveness and others doubting it. PBL has been associated with terms such “authentic” and “active” learning and promises such as students‟ engagement, self-directed learning, problem solving skills, and experiential knowledge development. However, a number of studies reported that this approach, when adopted, posed challenges and deficiencies. The ongoing debate between studies which confirm the benefits and effectiveness of PBL versus those which highlight its deficiencies and challenges raises questions on whether PBL benefits and promises have been exaggerated and over-promoted in certain instances. This article will conduct a literature review about PBL exploring its structure and the reported Pros and Cons associated with its implementation. The article will then review PBL in the context of medicine education as medicine was the first discipline to cater to PBL. Finally, the paper will map the discussions to highlight some key ideas about this approach and about teaching and learning. PBL as a Pedagogical Approach: Reported Success and Efficiency PBL is defined as „focused, experiential learning organised around the investigation and resolution of messy, real-world problems‟ (Torp & Sage, 1998:14). Clarke et al. (1998) and Davis (2006) view PBL as “authentic learning”, where students are „driven to develop and test solutions to real problems‟ (Clarke et al., 1998: 5). Delisle (1997:1) describes the approach as a „discovering-learning process‟ which helps students internalise learning and gives them the chance to develop their own questions and investigative techniques. PBL is argued to be not only a teaching and learning strategy, but also a curricular approach in its own entity, context, and culture, where team learning and active learning practices are promoted (Savin-Baden, 2003).

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In higher education, PBL emphasises the amount of knowledge that explicitly needs to be provided for students in a specific syllabus or topic and sets out a framework through which students can better relate theories to reallife problems (Lam, 2004). PBL, when compared to Lecture- based learning (LBL), is argued by many scholars to promote critical thinking, communication skills, problem solving capabilities, teamwork, interpersonal skills, students‟ engagement and interest (Gordon et al., 2001; Hmelo-Silver, 2004; McBroom & McBroom 2001; Sage 1996; Savoie & Hughes 1994; West 1992). PBL is characterised to be student-centred, where real-life problems „form the organizing focus and stimulus for learning‟ and become „vehicles for the development of experiential knowledge and problem-solving skills‟ (Barrows, 1996:5). In a PBL setting, students are offered „opportunities to learn how to learn‟ (Savin-Baden, 2000:146), whilst engaging in self-directed learning to acquire new information with support of their coach: tutor/ lecturer (HmeloSilver, 2004). PBL initates with an “unfamiliar” problem posed to students, where students in groups attempt to approach the problem and generate possible hypotheses. Following this phase, students individually work on acquiring knowledge they have identified necessary for their generated hypothesis in the initial phase. Finally, students meet as a team to report, share, and discuss their findings (Yew et al., 2011). The architacture of PBL can be viewed as three-phase cyclic process: „initial problem analysis, self-directed individual learning, and a subsequent reporting phase‟ (Barrows, 1988; Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Schmidt et al., 2009). Hence, group work or teamwork characterises two phases of PBL, where students meet in teams to conduct initial analysis to the problem posed (Phase One) and meet again in the reporting phase (Phase Three). During all this process, the tutor/lecturer plays the role of facilitator and coach or facilitator rather than knowledge transmitter (Barrows, 1996; HmeloSilver, 2004). The significance of PBL emerges from the arguments throughout literature about the learning outcomes achieved through problem solving situations. Barell (1995:131) asserts that „Problematic situations are robust in that they contain within them significant concepts worth thinking about‟. Hence, learning occurring in conventional lecture-based learning (LBL) often relies on listening, writing, observing and memorising; whereas, that taking place through PBL incorporates a much broader type of knowledge acquisition and application including active thinking, performing, and experiential learning Dr. Ahmad SAMARJI ▪ The Case Study of Medicine Education

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by trial and error (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980). In the same context, HmeloSilver (2004) argues that psychological research and theory suggest that learning through a problem solving format facilitates learning not only of content, but also of thinking strategies. Over the last three decades, „the framework for understanding the psychological basis of learning has shifted gradually from a teacher-centred approach to a student-centred approach‟ drawing more attention and prominence to PBL (Sungur & Tekkaya, 2006:307). Medical education was the first discipline to accommodate PBL and apply it in the 1960s (Jonas et al., 1989; Savin-Baden, 2003). Since then, PBL has spread throughout the northern regions of America and other parts of the world (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993). It has since been applied to other health science curricula such as dentistry (Branda, 1990), occupational therapy (Salvatori, 2000) and nursing (Forbes & Prosser, 2001). PBL has expanded and has been applied to many other disciplines such as business, education, architecture, law, engineering, social work (Savery & Duffy, 1995), mathematics, science, chemical engineering (Wilkerson & Gijselars, 1996), counseling (Stewart, 1998), and psychotherapy (Sunblad et al., 2002). The expansion of PBL into various academic disciplines can be attributed to the promise that PBL brings about towards the achievement of educational goals which traditional pedagogies struggle or fail to do (Savin-Baden, 2003). However, adopting PBL is not always a so obvious process as it might encounter complexities related to the nature of the discipline, the organisational culture, the structure of the curriculum, and/or students‟ understandings, concerns, and needs (Savin-Baden, 2000). The following section will highlight concerns around PBL. Concerns and Criticism around PBL PBL as a program and a curricular approach is a „demanding process‟ which demands a great deal of planning and organisation (Azer, 2011), increased labour, and time consumption (Ribeiro, 2008). Hence, in terms of resources and logistics, implementation of PBL is more demanding and expensive than that of lecture-based learning (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993) and the increased costs might not overweigh or even balance the educational benefits of the approach (Colliver, 2000).

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Criticism around PBL goes beyond the logistics and implementation of the approach to raise concerns around the theoretical basis, pedagogical challenges, and desired outcomes from such approach. The theoretical basis behind PBL is argued to be unconvincing (Colliver, 2000). Complementing this argument, Kirschner et al. situates PBL amongst the „very popular and intuitively appealing approaches‟ which are instructionally „unguided or minimally guided‟, failing to recognise and acknowledge the structures that constitute „human cognitive architecture‟ and hence fail in prompting effective learning (2006: 75). Agreeing with Kirschner, Mayer argues that „guided discovery‟ is more effective than „pure discovery‟ upon which PBL is based (2004). Constructivism in teaching and learning is best approached through „methods of instruction that involve cognitive activity rather than behavioral activity‟ (Mayer, 2004:14). Onyon (2012), through a review of educational and psychological theory, defends the theoretical framework underpinning PBL; however, the author admits that in practice there is “uncoupling” between the underpinning theories and the desired or expected outcomes. Based on its architecture, PBL is heavily reliant on group work. Teamwork is required for at least two of the three phases of PBL (initial problem analysis and reporting phase). Hence, the pedagogical concerns that are generally associated with group work apply to PBL in this context. In Phases One and Three of PBL which are dominated by group work, legitimate concerns can arise on the problems associated with group work. The chance that in a number of groups there will probably be non-performing members who solely rely on the accomplishments of the competent members (The “free-rider” Problem) is a problem which will by itself create another problem when performing students react in a manner to reduce their input (The “Sucker Effect” Problem) so that they are not taken advantage of (Davies, 2009). In addition, group work imposes a Social Dilemma Problem for the members of the group to establish a balance between extrinsic motivation towards group work and group achievement versus the intrinsic motivation towards maximising one‟s self-interest such as grades, individual recognition, and accomplishment (Davies, 2009). In terms of desired outcomes, PBL seems to have failed so far to fulfil its promises. PBL students show little or no improvement in written examination scores when compared to those following conventional curriculum (Morrison, 2004). Dr. Ahmad SAMARJI ▪ The Case Study of Medicine Education

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PBL in Medicine Education PBL practically emerged in the 1960s when new medical schools were established and problem-based learning was integrated within the curricula of these schools (Barrows, 1996). This approach was originally developed in these schools to facilitate the integration of fundamental science and clinical knowledge in a real problem setting which doctors encounter, whilst developing clinical reasoning and lifelong learning skills (Barrows, 1996; 2000). Since then, PBL has been well applied worldwide in medical education (Jonas et al.,1989). Prince et al. (2003: 15) argue that in PBL, learning takes place in a „meaningful and authentic context‟ for students in practice learn to „connect clinical phenomena to underlying basic science concepts‟. Jones et al. (2002: 16-25) assert that introducing PBL in medical education curriculum has changed the profile of the perceived preparedness of graduates for entering professional practice. Although medicine is the first accommodator for PBL and both medicine education and PBL have socialised for nearly half a century, arguments and debates relating to the effectiveness of PBL are still ongoing. A number of scholars have doubted the effectiveness of this approach as being uncertain (Kelly & Cantillon, 2003), non-convincing (Colliver, 2000), and not as comprehensive as conventional approaches (Kim et al., 2000). On the other hand, many scholars have researched and defended the effectiveness of PBL in medical education. Albanese and Mitchell (1993), after reviewing all literature published on PBL in medicine education from 1972-1992, argued that PBL graduates, although scoring lower on basic science examinations, performed the same and sometimes better than LBL graduates on clinical examinations and faculty evaluations. Prince et al. (2003:15) conducted a study about the possibility that PBL might lead to deficiencies in basic science knowledge. The study researched eight medical schools in Netherlands which have adopted either PBL or non-PBL techniques. Prince et al. found that PBL students have the

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same perceived level of anatomy knowledge as those taking more traditional educational approaches. In a similar study, Verhoeven et al. (2002) investigated the growth in student knowledge over the course of the Maastricht Medical School‟s 6-year PBL curriculum. Verhoeven et al. based their study on the argument that the degree of acquisition of knowledge by students is one of the measures of the effectiveness of the adopted curriculum. They found that overall, medical knowledge and clinical science knowledge demonstrated a steady upward growth curve. However, the results for years 5 and 6 show diminished growth in basic and behavioural/ social sciences knowledge suggesting that there were discrepancies between actual and planned curricula. In a study about students‟ feedback in problem based learning, Parkish et al. (2001) surveyed 103 final year students across five PBL Ontario medical schools to determine the types of feedback that students received in those schools. The researchers found that there exist significant differences in the types of feedback students received across the five schools, and that the use of peer feedback and self-assessment was limited in most schools. In another study, Jones et al. (2002) conducted a comparative study between the 1998 Manchester graduates (the last group of graduates of the conventional medicine curriculum) and 1999 Manchester graduates (the first group of graduates of the newly introduced PBL curriculum) about the differences in perceptions of how well graduates are prepared for their role of preregistration house officer. After interviewing graduates from both the conventional and PBL course, Jones et al. found that the PBL course graduates rated their understanding of disease processes lower than those of the conventional course. However, education supervisors rated the PBL course as better than the conventional course in preparing graduates in some of the competencies and specific skills listed by the General Medical Council. The researchers conclude that „a major change in curriculum approach has changed the profile of the perceived preparedness of graduates for entering professional practice‟ (Jones et al., 2002: 25). Few years later, a similar study was conducted by Mavis and Wagner (2006) on second-year medical students at Michigan State University who Dr. Ahmad SAMARJI ▪ The Case Study of Medicine Education

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were exposed to both conventional LBL during their First Year and PBL during their Second Year. Mavis and Wagner (2006:126) argues that although students favoured LBL for „efficiency and direct learning‟, they valued and endorsed PBL for „breadth of learning and enhancing interpersonal skills‟. A study on the integration of PBL in a clinical settings found that PBL provided positive learning experience for the students; however, it does not replace „traditional bedside teaching‟ (Macallan, 2009: 799). Another study about the perceptions of Fourth Year medical students at King Faisal University reported that PBL was perceived by the majority of students as a better learning opportunity prompting teamwork and communication skills (Sulemal et al., 2010). However, the study reported that students‟ opinions varied the most in response to questions focusing on learning needs and knowledge of basic science (Sulemal et al., 2010). This again raises the concern on whether or not PBL can cater to all learning needs and whether such approach can properly cover theories and understanding of basic and fundamental knowledge. Discussion The benefits of PBL in general and in medical education in particular are an ongoing debate and area of research. The debate is mainly between two stances. The first stance argues that PBL represents an appropriate curricular approach which responds to the changing needs of knowledge and practice (Maudsley & Strivens, 2000: 535). Hence, PBL students are better equipped to apply conceptual knowledge to practical and clinical situations (Boshuizen & Schmidt, 1992), retain their acquired knowledge over a longer period of time (Eisenstaedt et al., 1990), and are lifelong learner in their fields (Shin et al., 1993). The opposing stance doubts the effectiveness and the comprehension of PBL and the gaps it may generate in the knowledge base of graduates (Kelly & Cantillon, 2003; Colliver, 2000; Kim et al., 2000). The following table (Table-1) summarises the reported features and benefits of PBL and articulates the consequent arising concerns.

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PBL Reported Features and Benefits The problem posed in PBL is the stimulus and context for learning and comprises the most effective and unique feature of the approach.

The pedagogical implementation of PBL is heavily reliant on group work.

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Arising Concerns What if the problem does not engage the students? What if the problem is not contextualised enough or the learning settings do not cater to problem-based situations? What about the Free-rider, Sucker Effect, and Social Dilemma potential problems encountered in group work?

What about the additional assessment complexities provided by group work? A great deal of affirmation of the benefits Are students’ engagement and satisfaction of PBL is reported through research sufficient determinants of the efficiency and focusing mainly on students’ engagement appropriateness of a teaching and learning and satisfaction. approach? Clinical settings in medicine may be problematic and “organically” linked to problem-based learning more than other PBL was mainly devised for medicine workplace settings relevant to other education and a great deal of research on disciplines. In addition, medicine has PBL has been conducted from a medicine socialised enough with PBL over half a education lens. century, where numerous research was conducted on this context. Given that many disciplines have not socialised enough with PBL, would it not be risky to generalise the success that has been reported so far in medicine education over to other disciplines? PBL is more costly than other approaches With still unclear knowledge-acquisition when it comes to finance, resources, benefits which are merely the same as labour, planning and implementation conventional approaches (with reported time. instances on being worse than LBL), would it be worthwhile spending extra time, work, and finances on PBL? Table-1 Dr. Ahmad SAMARJI ▪ The Case Study of Medicine Education

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Despite the lack of consensus about the effectiveness of PBL, there is nearly consensus amongst all studies relating to it on the necessity of further research to generate deeper understanding towards this approach (e.g. Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Morrison, 2004; Onyon, 2012; Prince et al., 2003; Verhoeven et al., 2002). In addition, Pease and Kuhn (2010:59) argue that „serious methodological problems have plagued research on PBL‟ and that more research needs to be conducted with a focus on „experimental control in a number of crucial aspects‟. Advocates of PBL have not socialised enough with the various disciplines unlike medicine education, where adequate socialisation has occurred over many years. Hence, the reported success and achievements in medicine education- and reported failures as well- cannot be over generalised to other disciplines without active research laterally investigating PBL on various important issues, not the least acquisition of basic and fundamental knowledge and being able to respond to various students‟ needs and capabilities.

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Conclusion

This paper does not in any sense aim to undermine PBL and the reported effectiveness of this approach in literature. The author of the article, himself, employs PBL in the context of his teaching and learning practice along with other pedagogical approaches. However, there have been numerous studies focusing on the efficiency and success of this approach, advocating for PBL in a sometimes exaggerated manner whilst paying very little attention to the demands, challenges, and problems associated with it. Hence, this paper focused largely on the reported criticism and deficiencies in PBL in an attempt to create a counterpart argument to that promoting PBL in an unconditional manner. The stance of this paper is that studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; engagement, active participation, and problem solving skills are evident enough through PBL; however, there are other serious aspects to be considered when we look at knowledge construction and effective teaching and learning. Hence, further research is required to investigate PBL across various disciplines and inquire beyond the reported and obvious benefits of PBL to test the other important education aspects of teaching and learning. Different students learn in different ways, some of which may not be compatible to a problem-based situation. Human cognitive architecture and knowledge inquiry are too complex to be reduced to a single approach. Effective teaching and learning need to comprise an A-Z spectrum of approaches, one of which is PBL. This paper argues that educators, lecturers, tutors, and teachers are expected to employ strategies and tactics from such diverse spectrum of pedagogical approaches in a holistic manner. By doing so, they ensure that the various needs and capabilities of their students are addressed and that theoretical knowledge, experiential knowledge, and the whole range of generic skills (critical thinking, problem solving, communication skills, and lifelong learning) are acquired in an engaging and inclusive education learning settings.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  Albanese, M.A. & Mitchell, S. (1993) Problem-based learning: A review of literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Academic Medicine 68(1): 52-81.  Azer, S. A. (2011). Introducing a problem-based learning program: 12 tips for success. Medical Teacher 33(10): 808-813.  Barell, J. (1995). Problem-Based Learning and Crew Members of the Santa Maria. In J, Barell (ed), In Teaching for Thoughtfulness, Longman, New York.  Barrows, H.S. (1988). The tutorial process. Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield, Illinois.  Barrows, H.S. (1996). Problem-Based Learning in Medicine and Beyond: a Brief Overview. In L, Wilkerson & WH, Gijselaers (eds), Bringing Problem-Based Learning to Higher Education: Theory and Practice. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, pp. 3-11.  Barrows, H. S. (2000). Forword. In D. H. Evensen & C.E. Hmelo (Eds.), Problem-based learning: A research perspective on learning interactions. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.  Barrows, H.S. & Tamblyn, R.M. (1980). Problem-based learning: An approach to medical education. Springer, New York.  Boshuizen, H. & Schmidt, H.G. (1992). The role of biomedical knowledge in clinical reasoning by experts, intermediates and novices. Cognitive Science 16: 153-184.  Branda, L.A. (1990). Implementing problem-based learning. Journal of Dental Education 54(9): 548-549.

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 Clarke, J. et al. (1998). Real Questions, Real Answers: Focusing Teacher Leadership on School Improvement. ASCD, Virginia.  Colliver, J. A. (2000). Effectiveness of Problem-based Learning Curricula: Research and Theory. Acad Med 75: 259-266.  Davies, W. M. (2009). Groupwork as a form of assessment: Common problems and recommended solutions. Higher Education 58(4): 563-584.  Davis, J. (2006). Using PBL to teach the university mission. Academic Exchange Quarterly 10(4): 244- 248.  Delisle, R. (1997). How to Use Problem-Based Learning In The Classroom. ASCD, Virginia.  Eisenstaedt, R.S. et al. (1990). Problem-Based Learning: Cognitive Retention and Cohort Traits of Randomly Selected Participants and Decliners. Acad Med 65(S): 11-14.  Forbes, H. & Prosser, M. (2001). Students‟ perceptions of learning outcomes from group-based, problem-based teaching and learning activities. Advances in Health Sciences Education 6(3): 205-217.  Gordon, P.R. et al. (2001). A taste of problem-based learning increases achievement of urban minority middle-school students. Educational Horizons, 79(4): 171- 175.  Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn? Educational Psychology Review 16(3): 235-266.  Jonas, H.S. et al. (1989). Undergraduate medication education. Journal of American Medical Association 262: 1011-1019.  Jones, A. et al. (2002). Perceptions of How Well Graduates are Prepared for the Role of Pre-registration House Officer: a Comparison of Outcomes from a Traditional and an Integrated PBL Curriculum. Medical Education 36(1): 16-26.  Kelly, M. & Cantillon, P. (2003). What the educators are saying. BMJ, 327(7428):1393 Dr. Ahmad SAMARJI ▪ The Case Study of Medicine Education

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 Kim, S.A. et al. (2000). Development of a problem-based learning program in nursing education curriculum. Journal of Korean Psychiatric Nursing 9(4): 559-570.  Kirschner, et al. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problembased, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist 41(2): 75-86.  Lam, D. (2004). Problem- based learning: An integration of theory and field. Journal of Social Work Education 40(3): 371-389.  Ribeiro, L.R. (2008). Electrical engineering students evaluate problembased learning (PBL). International Journal of Electrical Engineering Education 45(2): 152.  Macallan, D. C. et al. (2009). A model of clinical problem-based learning for clinical attachments in medicine. Medical Education 43(8), 799.  Maudsley, G. & Strivens, J. (2000). Promoting Professional Knowledge, Experiential Learning and Critical Thinking for Medical Students. Medical Education 34(7): 535-544.  Mavis, B.E. & Wagner, D.P. (2006). Comparing problem-based learning and lectures. Academic Exchange Quarterly 10(4): 126-129.  Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should There Be a Three-Strikes Rule against Pure Discovery Learning? American Psychologist 59(1): 14-19.  McBroom, D.G. & McBroom, W.H. (2001). Teaching molecular genetics to secondary students: An illustration and evaluation using problembased learning. The Problem Log 6: 2-4.  Morrison, J. (2004). Where now for problem based learning? Lancet 363(9403): 174-174.  Onyon, C. (2012). Problem‐based learning: a review of the educational and psychological theory. The Clinical Teacher 9(1): 22-26.

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 Pariksh, A. et al. (2001). Student Feedback in Problem Based Learning: A Survey of 103 Final Year Students Across Five Ontario Medical Schools. Medical Education, 35(7): 632-637.  Prince, K. J. A. H., et al. (2003). Does problem-based learning lead to deficiencies in basic science knowledge? An empirical case on anatomy. Medical Education 37(1): 15-21.  Pease, M. A. & Kuhn, D. (2011). Experimental analysis of the effective components of problem‐based learning. Science Education 95(1): 57-86.  Sage, S.M. (1996). A qualitative examination of problem-based learning at the K-8 level: Preliminary findings. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York.  Salvatori, P. (2000). Implementing a problem-based learning curriculum in occupational therapy: A conceptual model. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal 47(3): 119-133.  Savery, J.R. & Duffy, T.M. (1995). Problem-based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. Educational Technology 35: 31-38.  Savin-Baden, M. (2000). Problem-based learning in higher education: untold stories. The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press, Buckingham, UK.  Savin-Baden, M. (2003). Facilitating problem-based learning. McGrawHill International, Maidenhead, UK  Savoie, J.M. & Hughes, A.S. (1994). Problem-based learning as classroom solution. Educational Leadership 52: 54-57.  Schmidt, H.G. et al. (2009). Constructivist, problem-based, learning does work: A meta-analysis of curricular comparisons involving a single medical school. Educational Psychologist 44(4): 227-249.

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 Shin, J.H. et al. (1993). Effect of Problem-Based Self-Directed Undergraduate Education on Life-Long Learning. F Can Med Assoc 148(6): 969-976.  Stewart, J.B. (1998). Problem-based learning in counsellor education. Canadian Journal of Counseling 32(1): 37-49.  Sulemal, W. et al. (2010). Perception of 4th year Medical students about Problem Based Learning. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences 26(4).  Sunblad, G. et al. (2002). Students‟ evaluation of a learning method: A comparison between problem-based learning and more traditional methods in a specialist university training programme in psychotherapy. Medical Teacher 24(3): 268-272.  Sungur, S. & Tekkaya, C. (2006). Effects of problem-based learning and traditional instruction on self-regulated learning. The Journal of Educational Research 99(5):307- 317.  Torp, L. & Sage, S. (1998). Problems As Possibilities: Problem-Based Learning for K-12 Education. ASCD, Virginia.  Verhoeven, B.H. et al. (2002). Growth of Medical Knowledge. Medical Education 36(8): 711-717.  West, S.A. (1992). Problem-based learning- A viable addition for secondary school science. School Science Review 73(265): 47-55.  Wilkerson, L. & Gijselaers, W.H. (1996). Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice. Jossey- Bass, San Francisco.  Yew, E. H. J., et al. (2011). Is learning in problem-based learning cumulative? Advances in Health Sciences Education 16(4): 449-464.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Alban KOÇI, PhD Candidate

www.ijosc.net Lorena ÇABEJ, LLM student

Clinical Education, part of legal education

Abstract Lawyers are deeply involved in problem solving on a daily basis. It is part of their job to assess different situations, to examine the issue and then to make decisions. If we refer to lawyers, how they make decisions and act, the question arises of where they are based. Consider the question: if plumbers work with pipe and carpenters with wood, what is the working instrument of lawyers? A reasonable question to this answer might include word or people 1 or laws, or values or money. A more general answer suggests that lawyers work with problems. Lawyers are problem solvers. Therefore, it is essential for law students to understand that the ability to solve problems is a very important skill in this profession. Even teaching from the professors should go in this direction. It is important for the students to reflect on the lawyering process, how they will be able to represent the client’s interests and how to solve legal issues outside the halls of the faculty. Law clinics is a teaching method intended to teach the students fundamental skills and values of practicing attorneys by representing clients under faculty supervision. The clinic practice includes a wide range of subjects. Law students advocate before state and courts to represent their client’s interests. Legal clinic teaches the law students the habit of reflection, value of collaboration and gives important lessons about what it takes to make justice a reality in the lives of those who cannot afford to pay a lawyer. This paper aims to bring attention to the importance of clinical education in the formation of young lawyers and how one can learn from experience.

J.P.Ogivly, Leah Wortham, Lisa G.Lerman – Learning from practice, Second Edition , p. 120 Alban KOÇI, PhD Cand./Lorena ÇABEJ, LLM student ▪ Clinical Education

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Legal clinic, decision-making, codes of ethics, internship, goals Lawyers. Decision and Practical Judgment During their daily work lawyers face numerous difficult issues, which require a certain decision making process. Practice should begin in classes, to include legal clinic. Then, they can practice during internships in legal offices, which will precede the employment of young lawyers. Often, it is not easy to take the right decision considering the consequences, especially for young lawyers who donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have experience in a specific field. In any case, it is necessary to consider all options, positive and negative consequences to make a better assessment of the situation, in order to minimize the possibility that the decision taken is not the right one. While during the study period a decision has only theoretical value, during the legal profession this decision might bring important consequences not only for the lawyer, but also for the interests of the party represented which can result severely injured. Therefore, the student should learn to reflect about the consequences of his actions, in order to be prepared for an even more important decision in professional life. A decision may report difficulties in the exercise of good judgment in any situation, or in a given situation. A good judgment highlights specific problems, unique subjective facts, involvement of different people with conflicting interests and preferences which present for the litigants different opportunities and risks, thus leading to the conclusion that a good judgment requires more than a simple legal analysis. Decisions taken by lawyers in their cases are pragmatic. People vary in making a decision. Further, their capacities to assess the situation differ and so does the the ability to correctly assess the consequences, or merely the perception they have of a specific issue, which is often based on ethics and morality rates. It is understood that the solution of legal issues will vary from one student to another, and even their ability to be successful in the solicitation will vary, but it is important that each of them thinks and practices the decision-making process. Decision-making process starts from exams, where the student has to decide on the resolution of case studies, and will continue later in their professional lives after the graduation. Theoretical classes must be accompanied by legal

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clinic presenting practical cases, in order to truly engage students in the process of decision making, facing what will actually do in practice. Practice should begin in classes, which should include legal clinic. Then, they can practice it during internships in law offices, which will precede their future employment as legal attorneys. Law office or place of work might be a good example for the student to appreciate which are good or bad decisions and what their consequences are. During internship, the student is required to develop critical judgment to assess the situation and importance of decision making in each case. Reflection is a necessary process that affects the legal performance of the lawyer and his professional preparation. Good lawyers depend on an accurate assessment of the issue. Lawyers estimate the importance of decision-making in resolving customer’s problems. Assessment and reassessment occurs through the lawyering, where the issue of assessing achievements represents major phases in the development of lawyer’s qualities. Office work can provide many opportunities of view and assessment methods. It can provide information to make an assessment conducted through stages of investigation and legal research. To have a better appreciation of the issues, attorneys must understand the effects of the case, legal problems which identify and evaluate legal research using particular facts. Students usually reach an immediate “legal” answer. However, immediate responses are not the best solution for the legal problem. To give an answer, which might provide a desirable outcome for the parties, an evaluation process is required, based on a reasonable judgment of facts and the legal system. 2. Ethical Issues in legal clinic The right to practice law and to speak before court on behalf of those 2 who do not know the law is a privilege. During their legal work lawyers are obliged to respect codes of ethics governing their conduct. These codes of 2

James DINGEMANS - Disciplinary issues in the legal profession. Establishment of rule of law. – The advocacy. Publication of the National Bar Association, first edition, Tirana , 2012 , p. 23 Alban KOÇI, PhD Cand./Lorena ÇABEJ, LLM student ▪ Clinical Education

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ethics are prepared by Lawyers Associations or High Courts, depending of the rules applicable in every state. It is important to note that legal profession is governed by a set of rules or ethical issues which are crucial to be followed, in order to be a good lawyer and represent as well as possible the client’s interests. It is already known how important is to have independent and capable lawyers. The key of a successful career is to maintain a high level of advocacy standards. We can list some of the most important ethical issues during the lawyering process. 2.1 Civil and criminal liability for lawyers Lawyers, like other people, are bound by laws and rules during their legal acts. If they fail to respect the laws, they will face civil and criminal liability for lawyer’s misconduct. There are many lawyers who have been brought in jail for mail fraud, securities fraud, or nonpayment of taxes. Lawyers who harm the clients may be subject to civil liability. He would be bound to pay civil damages because he might be sued by his client for legal malpractice, breach of contract or breach of fiduciary duty. Law students should be aware of laws governing their profession and of the consequences of lawyer’s misconduct, during their legal practice in externships or law offices. They must obey the state rules of professional conduct in the jurisdiction where they practice. Additionally, legal clinic has the scope to instruct them to face their own responsibilities. If they practice law, they will face legal problems too and should be aware of where their conduct will lead them. This is an important goal of legal clinic, part of their legal education as future lawyers. 2.2 Confidentiality of information A lawyer shall not reveal information relating to the presentation of a client, unless the client gives his consent. Codes of ethics prohibit lawyers to spread to third parties confidential information relevant to the issue followed in order to prevent violations of the clients’ rights and their interests. If lawyers do not respect the obligation of confidentiality, clients can sue them for breach of the duty of loyalty. The lawyer’s judgment will often be concerned with honoring basic confidentiality duties. This is an important issue that should be learned by students too, during their clinic classes. Only by practicing law and seeing how a specific case will progress, a law student will learn to respect the duty of confidentiality to the client. In addition to protecting the client’s

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interests, workplaces often have specific rules to safeguard the sensitive information. For example, the corporations may have procedures in place to protect proprietary information. Judges have internal rules designed to 3 maintain the integrity of judicial process and confidential matters. 2.3 Conflict of interests Law students, even they are not licensed lawyers, should avoid client representation that would involve conflict of interests. Modern rules regarding the conflicts of interest guide lawyers not to involve in cases that would impair their duty to loyalty and impartiality to each client they represent. Laws and rules prohibit not only the actual, but also the potential conflicts of interest. A potential or actual conflict of interest exists where a lawyer’s ability to fulfill his professional responsibilities may or will be impaired by the lawyer’s responsibilities to another current or former client, the lawyer’s duties to a third 4 party or the lawyer’s own interests. There are many relationships and circumstances that may lead to an actual or potential conflict of interest. They can present directly or indirectly. For example, when a lawyer represents two present clients or when the conflicts of interest of one lawyer affect the professional work of other lawyers. Violation of conflicts rules can bring serious consequences for both lawyer and his clients too. Therefore, law students should be aware of conflicting rules during their practice in law offices or externships, in order to avoid it during their future legal careers. Depending on the specific case, they can avoid conflicts of interest in different ways; they can decline representation of the client. In other cases, they can take informed consent from all affected clients, confirmed in writing. However, the most effective way to cure conflicts of interest is withdrawal from representation of the client, not only for his personal duty but also to protect the client’s interests. Identification of the conflicts of interest can sometimes be difficult, especially for law students. Therefore, it is important to practice different

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conflicting situations during clinic classes, in order to make them able to manage this kind of cases.

3. Pro bono legal services Legal clinic has the scope to offer pro bono legal services for members of community that cannot afford to pay a lawyer. It is a service offered for the good of the community. Often, lawyers are encouraged to expand access to the legal system by representing poor clients or organizations that have no money to pay a lawyer, especially the ones who attend public interest issues. Generally speaking, legal clinic consists of the delivery of legal services for poor clients or organizations that cannot pay for these services. Law students can answer: Is it wrong for law clinics to represent client who can afford lawyers? The general rule is that licensed lawyers may represent 5 whom they please. This principle applies too, while working in a law office for non – commercial purposes, to advance the public interest. It would be human and very useful for the community that every lawyer provides a pro bono case every year. This is a principle to be taught to the law students too, even if they do not have a lot of experience in representing a client. 4. Legal clinics goals Two primary goals of legal clinics are: providing high quality educational opportunities for law students, and providing quality 6 representation for clients in an effort to impact social change. Considering these two goals altogether, we can say that clinical legal education aims to train students to be future successful advocates. Changes in legal advocacy presently require attorneys capable to undertake a multifaced problem solving process that warrants not only legal skills and legal strategies, but also multi-party collaboration. The best way to provide these 5 6

Clinical Law review- New York University School of Law. Vol. 17 / Nr. 2, Spring 2011. p. 497 Id. p. 567

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qualities for law students is integrated law clinic education. Integrated law clinics may take a variety of forms but they include more than one legal advocacy strategy at a time. Integrated law clinics may include a combination of individual and organizational representation in litigation, legislative advocacy and community education. Legal clinic allows students to gain extensive experience or practice in legal research, legal writing, legal drafting, client interviewing and counseling, oral advocacy, legislative/administrative interpretation etc. The clinical education is an important and irreplaceable part of law education. It helps students improve their skills in their efforts to become a successful advocate. Legal clinic helps students to improve their skills in civil litigation, criminal defense, entrepreneurship law, children and family justice, international human rights and other areas of law. Clinic class sessions focus on developing student’s pre-trial litigation, skills- interviewing, counseling, case planning, negotiation, and motion- practice - brainstorming alternative strategies for litigating cases and exploring various social and legal issues affecting the poor. Students prepare the case, they consult the facts, explore different possibilities to propose the best solution for the client, negotiate and use their skills to represent the client’s interests. Law clinics can be designed to teach law students that lawyers have a variety of strategies and legal tools at their disposal to produce social change. To be helpful for students, it is important to explore and test new combinations of legal advocacy to provide meaningful learning experiences for law students. During legal clinic classes, students learn how to study the case, think different ways how to solve it, evaluate pros and cons of the situations and prepare themselves how to present the client’s interests in the court. They cannot be able to resolve a specific case, if they don’t do it in practice. During legal clinic they agree that the law clinic has taught them many things that cannot be taught differently, giving them a new experience, which is irreplaceable and the first on their way to be successful lawyers. 5. Legal clinic in Albania In the framework of teaching methods applied at Tirana University, professors attach greater importance to students' theoretical training, causing important and obvious deficiencies in their abilities to apply law. This prompted Alban KOÇI, PhD Cand./Lorena ÇABEJ, LLM student ▪ Clinical Education

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the Faculty of Law to create Law Clinic classes, as part of the new academic curriculum. This clinic was implemented in cooperation with USAID in Albania, as innovative university training and was the first and only public experienced university where theoretical ability interlaced with practical actions and activities who provided students to work with the citizens and clients. Law Clinic is a widespread experience in America but for many decades and in many countries of Civil Law tradition in Europe, this branch of law is part of legal training .Different states such as Poland have a long experience with Legal Clinics and very surprising results as well. Faculty of Law in Tirana aims to establish institutional cooperation not only with these clinics but with a wide range of institutions within and outside the country, in order to achieve the expected results. A series of legal training methods are developed in clinical education and major interest is shown by students, who find this academic new program very attractive and useful. The cooperation with some prosecutors and the “Judicial Defense at Trial" training program, brought to our attention the significant dedication of students while they play the main role and are charged with specific tasks. Given the large number of people in need in our country, and their inability to be advised with qualified legal expertise, the clinic students and tutors will give a new spirit to the pro bono legal assistance . Making interviews from students, linking personal contact with clients, file creation and acquisition of evidence, furnishing the primary opinion about the case and illustration of the issue by the tutors, puts them in a key position in framing legal clinic assistance. This new approach resulted even more interesting than legal practices developed by them at different institutions of the Administrative and Legal System. We are aware that while with excellent results, our students have a lot of difficulties to implement their knowledge in everyday legal practice even in simple actions in the field of law. This makes legal clinic an important goal in law curriculum at Tirana University. Every student who undergoes the Legal Clinic experience and engages in real legal actions, is able to create a clear idea of the area where he has more affinity, and that helps to be better realized in his future profession. The three clinics in Criminal law, the Civil and Public Law programs are intended to include a greater number of issues and prepare the ground for its extension to other areas of law.

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The Faculty of Law at Tirana University aims to be a leader in this field and contribute to the training of other clinics in the country.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. James DINGEMANS - Disciplinary issues in legal profession. Establishment of rule of law. – Advocacy. Publication of the National Bar Association, first edition , Tirana , 2012 ,

2. Clinical Law review- New York University School of Law. Vol. 17 / Nr. 2, Spring 2011

3. J.P.Ogivly, Leah Wortham, Lisa G.Lerman – Learning from practice, Second Edition

Alban KOÇI, PhD Cand./Lorena ÇABEJ, LLM student ▪ Clinical Education

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Romina RADONSHIQI, Msc.

MOTIVATION IS AN ESSENTIAL FACTOR IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF BUSINESS

Abstract Motivation plays a critical role in achieving goals and business objectives and is equally as important for companies. Motivational strategies can help improve employee performance, reduce the chances of low employee morale, encourage teamwork and instill a positive attitude during challenging times. In Albania the system economic based in Small and Medium Enterprises. Changes in the patterns of employment in Albania, as in most other countries in region, have been enormous. Like its neighbours, Albania has found the transition from guaranteed full employment to a market based employment model difficult, and job creation in the formal private sector has been weak. In this way, concluded that human resources are called by most Albanian entrepreneurs as an addition cost that do not generate profits in an investment with long-term perspective. The employees havenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t determined their specific duties, they cover many positions in the same time, accept changes of duties, plans and programs can be modified. Albanian business should pay attention more how to motivate their employees, because the modern concept of human resource management, conceived like in the west is far away from the application in local companies.

Keyword: Motiviation, human resource, performance, stress, etc.

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1.1 The situation of organization in Albania

The human resource frame places emphasis on the relationship between the individual and the organization. One way for an organization to gain a competitive advantage over its rivals is to generate a more motivated workforce. The success of every business depends upon many factors but the most important factor that affects the business is its employees. We all have to work and we all want to have a job that we enjoy. This is not just about finding the right role; it is also about working in the right environment. The economy of Albania has undergone a transition. After collapse of economy in Albania the system economic based in Small and Medium Enterprises, but big companies are few in number. Changes in the patterns of employment in Albania, as in most other countries in region, have been enormous. Like its neighbours, Albania has found the transition from guaranteed full employment to a market based employment model difficult, and job creation in the formal private sector 1 has been weak . The business sector in Albania still faces serious problems, mostly related to the successful legal implementation of these policies and the high levels of informality and corruption. In Albania, the function of human resource has often been limited to some specific activities such as: employee salaries, vacations, absences, etc. These activities are known as office of staff. The modern concept of function of human resources includes the evaluation of strategic needs of human resource needs assessment, identification of competencies in order to realize the strategies and the organize vision the management, recruitment management, integration of employees, training, promotions and its evaluation management. We can say with certainty that in Albania the modern concept of human resource management, conceived like in the west is far away from the application in local companies. This analysis presents some factors that influence human resource practices in Albanian companies. 1

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The informal economy is an important contributor to employment and production in Albania but is also characterized by tax evasion and avoidance of legal regulations, which is why it is a hotly debated issue. The informal employment is a dominant phenomenon in Albania. International Labour Organization (ILO) has given a number of suggestions for private companies but also to the Ministry of Labour that to take measures to reduce this phenomenon. According to the study in Albania 2 construction sector is the most problematic. Informal employment is important both to the economy and to the welfare of many households; however, it is also significantly correlated with low earnings, poverty, and vulnerability. The average monthly gross salary in Albania is around €150. The average gross salary for a manager is less than €1,000 per month.

Stress

Informal employmen t

THE PROBLEM HRM IN ALBANIA

Incentive schemes

Selection of employees

Figure 1.1: The problem HRM in Albania

OECD Investment Compact, The informal economy in Albania: Analysis and policy recommendations, report prepared for the Ministry of Economy of Albania, OECD, 2005. Romina RADONSHIQI, Msc.▪ MOTIVATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF BUSINESS 212

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In this way, concluded that human resources are called by most Albanian entrepreneurs as an addition cost that don’t generate profits in an investment with long-term perspective. As a result, an efficient management of career is not the priority of Albanian owners. The lows and policies that related modern human resource management and their development are do not exist in Albania. Another important factor is even the social and cultural environment. Albanian society is a society with moderately masculine trend. According of statistic a large percentage of women are in important position 3 but the most important position are the men . Albania society culture in the majority of organization is “variable”. The employees haven’t determined their specific duties, they cover many positions in the same time, accept changes of duties, plans and programs can be modified. The organizations do not make a description of position; they apply a horizontal specialization of work not vertical as Anglo-Saxon enterprises. Selection of employees is another problem. In Albania in state and private enterprises has not transparent process in recruitment, because prioritize friend and the family. Nepotism is the disease of Albania society. There is a strong need to improve Business Planning, Management Systems and Human Resource Management among Albanian enterprises. Furthermore, there appears to be a lack of awareness about the importance of strategic and business planning, as key functions in the company. This is particularly true among the very small enterprises, where management is often centered around the enterprise owner. Moreover, the relationship between enterprise owner and the management/ workers (often organized by work descriptions, incentive schemes and organizational schemes) needs strengthening. The Albanian enterprise owners/managers regard verbal communication skills as important and that these skills will be increasingly important to them in the future.

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The most highly regarded verbal communication skills (now and for the future) were negotiation skills, appraisal, and face to face communication, counseling, interpersonal skills, disciplinary, assertiveness skills and coaching. These should be an integrate part of training modules aimed at strengthening the overall management capacity of Albanian SMEs. Furthermore, some communication skills, such as appraisal, counseling and disciplinary, are integrating parts of an enterpriseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s human resource management system. The expressed perceptions of needs for improvement focused also on human resource management, namely in relation to staff hiring and day to day management and orientation. The understanding of the value of enterpriseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s human resources is less developed among Albanian enterprises. This is manifested by low scores for staff training and lack of delegation of managerial responsibilities. The centralization of power and decisions to one person or a small management group is an indication of a less developed human resource management system or culture, which in turn acts as a bottleneck which negatively impacts on the overall performance of the enterprise and slows down growth. The enterprises need to formalize their operations in order to make management more effective and result oriented. Quality management systems as well as, organization and human resource management offer 4 effective solutions and tools to make management more effective . 2.1 The importance of motivation Motivational strategies can help improve employee performance, reduce the chances of low employee morale, encourage teamwork and instill a positive attitude during challenging times. The employee motivation is primarily the responsibility of the line management. However, people at work relate mostly to other people either individually or in group settings. Motivation plays a critical role in achieving goals and business objectives and is equally as important for companies.

Meyer, J. W. (1978). Strategies for further research: Varieties of environmental variation. In M. W. Meyer and Associates, Environments and organizations (p. 352-368). Romina RADONSHIQI, Msc.â&#x2013;Ş MOTIVATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF BUSINESS 214

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Making sure each employee's workplace goals and values are aligned with the organization's mission and vision is important for creating and maintaining a high level of motivation. That can lead to higher productivity, improved work quality and financial gain across all departments. All the people work because they obtain something that they need from work. Everyone is in need of motivation. When individuals believe that there is a purpose for their being and that they have had some input in to their destiny, motivation will occur or the individual will search for a way to cope with that unhappiness. The employees are members of their teams and they have to take care about their personal development and their satisfaction. No one else can be responsible for the direct communication with employees. The managers have to understand; the HR Professionals set the general framework for the people management in the organization. They select the suitable employees during the recruitment and staffing process. The HR and managers have to agree on the common approach towards the employee motivation. The managers always argue about the salaries of employees and their motivation. But HR and the top management sets the limits and managers have to live within the given boundaries by the compensation policy. The employee motivation is not about salaries, it is about the approach toward employees. In each organization, there are departments with no fluctuation and there are departments with the high fluctuation. The main difference between the departments is the approach of the manager to his or her employees. Employees with a high level of motivation typically work harder and can overcome common workplace challenges with ease; this helps the organization reach its objectives and improve operations overall. However, motivation will only occur when there exists a strong linkage between the needs of the employee, the alignment of the individual and

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organizational needs, interpersonal and group dynamics, and management or 5 leadership approaches . Motivation of employees is indeed important for the health of the companies. Only when employees are motivated sufficiently can they give their best. Motivation is essential not only to boost employees to perform better, but in the long run, would aid in the growth of the organization for the better. Motivation has become increasingly important for organizations and companies of all sizes that want to reach their organizational objectives in a competitive marketplace. Motivation is closely related to organizational culture which is an essential aspect of HRM. Every company needs motivated employees to survive (Smith, 1994). The employees who are motivated are necessary because they help the organization to develop. These employees are more productive than others for this reason the manager should to understand what motivates them. By all the functions that a manager performs, the motivation of employees is the most difficult. All the organizations have profit from the motivation. Reducing the risk of low motivation among employees typically requires a strategic plan and a combination of different activities and tactics that help improve employee morale. Companies that invest time and resources toward improving their employees' well-being and workplace experience can look forward to a high return on their investment as employees become more productive, maintain a positive attitude, commit to their roles and duties and maintain a strong work ethic. Two things are worth noting with respect to no motivational determinants of performance:  

First, people lacking the requisite abilities cannot perform a complex task even under the most favorable goal-related circumstances. Second, some subtle relationships exist among goal setting, attention, and cognitive capacity that affect task performance.

Hill, M. (1982). Group versus individual performance, Psychological Bulletin, 91, 517-539. Romina RADONSHIQI, Msc.▪ MOTIVATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF BUSINESS

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Such people need to devote all their attention to the task, and goal setting is unlikely to enhance their performance.

3.1 Incentive and reward Systems

Reward strategy provides a sense of purpose and direction and a framework for developing reward policies, practices and process. It is based on an understanding of the needs of the organization and its employees and how they can best be satisfied. It is also concerned with developing the values of the organization on how people should be rewarded and formulating guiding principles that will ensure that these values are enacted. Reward strategy is underpinned by a reward philosophy that expresses what the organization believes should be the basis upon which people are valued and rewarded. Reward philosophies are often articulated as guiding principles. Individual pay-for-performance plans base financial compensation, at least in part, on the accomplishments of individual workers. The rewards personal goals relationship is commonly called valence. It refers to the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual. Unfortunately, many managers are limited in the rewards they can distribute, which make it difficult to personalize rewards. Moreover, some managers incorrectly assume that all employees want the same thing. They overlook the motivational effects of differentiating rewards. In either case, employee motivation may be lower because the specific need the employee has is not being met through the reward structure. Valence ranges from –1 (very undesirable reward) to +1 (very desirable reward).

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Compensation should make employees feel valued and motivate them to work toward goals, while rewarding them for their ongoing contributions. Compensation need not always be direct or monetary. It can also include vacation, flexible schedules, fringe benefits, insurance and a positive working environment. Without a competitive compensation offering, businesses will lose their best workers and fall behind their rivals. By building an effective system of compensation of employees may help the company to recruit and keep valuable staff. The incentives are rewards about the real goals. Awards are benefits in salary increase. The simulations and rewards are financial and nonfinancial. Incentive related performance as bonuses can encourage higher levels of staff performance. The employees can have individual, group and team incentive. Awards are usually related with the achievements of real personal or organization goals. Awards are benefits to give as addition to salary, which means increased satisfaction at work. Two types of individual programs exist: those based on merit and those based on incentives. Merit based pay plans are by far the easier to administer and control. These programs assess performance at the end of the fiscal year via subjective ratings of employees made by supervisors.

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Table 1.2: Advantages and disadvantages of incentive schemes Interactive scheme

Advantages

Disadvantages

Focus in achieving the goal

Awards are sometimes small

The achievements are valuable

This situation can demoralize if the rewards are too small

Can assess employees and lifestyle priorities Can encourage the business connection

Can be obtained for gift

Individual

The individuals focusing on achievement Additional payment link with additional production

Can be divisive Individual salary can changed

Group

Teamwork The performance of individuals may improve

Individual skills underestimated Sub-contributors may be obligate

Financial

Nonfinancial

May be inappropriate

Money is not important to all employees. High achievers, for instance, are intrinsically motivated. Money should have little impact on these people.

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Similarly, money is relevant to those individuals with strong lower order needs; but for most of the workforce, lower order needs are substantially satisfied. In most organizations, managers have a very small area of discretion within which they can reward their higher performing employees. So money might be theoretically capable of motivating employees to higher levels of performance, but most managers are not given enough flexibility to do much about it. In recent years, organizations have been paying for performance on bases other than strict productivity. 4.1 Job satisfaction increases motivation Employee satisfaction is supremely important in an organization because it is what productivity depends on. Satisfied employees are also more likely to be creative and innovative and come up with breakthroughs that allow a company to grow and change positively with time and changing market conditions. If employees are satisfied they would produce superior quality performance in optimal time and lead to growing profits. Employee Satisfaction is of utmost importance in any organization be it small or large. Thinking that employee satisfaction is important only for the employee then it is not right because is the important and for the company. 5.1 Stress reduce the motivate In many organizations, managers are overworked. An overworked manager may also neglect his staff, who as a result are underutilized or inefficient because they do not have enough responsibility or information to perform their tasks to the best of their abilities. The situation can be confusing to both staff and managers, but HR is in a uniquely objective position to step in and help the department start working together as a team and improve its practices. The HR department is often charged with creating and promoting corporate culture. Human Resources can step in and play a critical role in managing workplace attitudes and behaviors.

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By maintaining open lines of communication between the HR division and other departments, policies can be enforced and early action can be taken to prevent critical issues from arising. The employees and management is the person who creates the climate of stress or calm, discontent or satisfaction. Even so, HR should regularly assess the attitudes and practices of an organization's managers and identify areas of concern. HR should be the friendly, helpful, go to division that can provide diplomacy and guidance to help managers effectively guide and support their staff. HR can also implement programs that encourage positive attitudes, relationship building and a generally healthy lifestyle. 6

Stress results in decreased job satisfaction , reduced production, and increased conflicts, which all lead to we guessed it more stress. When staff is unhappy, they are less efficient, less effective and more likely to squander work hours or quit. Stress affects not just morale, but a company's bottom line. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -

Development of human resource has become an essential component because the development process is motivated by human factor. The modern of human resource management of all the functions a manager performs motivating employees is maybe more complex. This is because that the staff motivation changes constantly. The availability of skilled and productive employees is a top priority for businesses of any size and in any industry.

Chen, J. C., & Silverthorne, C. (2008). The impact of< IT> locus</IT> of control on job stress,

job performance and job satisfaction in Taiwan. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 29(7), 572-582.

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Managers should pay attention reward and stimulation scheme because only this way the employees can be motivate and may be more efficient in their work. Establish clear objectives help employees to focus in better specific tasks and company’s goals. Employees with a high level of motivation typically work harder and can overcome common workplace challenges with ease; this helps the organization reach its objectives and improve operations overall. A structured system of evaluation can helps employees to feel that their work will evaluate by manager. The adoption of culture external and internal environment of the company is another important aspect that managers take into consideration. In Albania are developed small and middle enterprises, they own a flat structure which means are limited hierarchical level. The employees of business in Albania work under stress, outside the hours of work and don’t get any reward except their salary. So businesses haven’t developed reward schemes for employees.

Romina RADONSHIQI, Msc.▪ MOTIVATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF BUSINESS

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Human Development Promotion Center [HDPC], Albania: Social partners’ role and capacities for more effective education/training and employment policies, Tirana. ETF

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Lu, H. and Chen, J. (1990) "Strategic Issue in Human Resource Planning in the People's Republic of China", Working Paper for The Asian HRD Planning Network, International Labor Organization, Asian Employment Program, New Delhi.

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Daniels, K., Beesley, N., Cheyne, A., & Wimalasiri, V. (2008). Coping processes linking the demands-control-support model, affect and risky decisions at work. Human Relations, 61(6), 845. Di Zhang, D., & Bruning, E. (2011). Personal characteristics and strategic orientation: entrepreneurs in Canadian manufacturing companies. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 17(1), 82-103.

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Monks, K. 1993. 'Models of personnel management: a means of understanding the diversity of personnel practices?', Human Resource Management Journal, 3(2), 29-41

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Dr. Edmond ÇALI Ismail Kadare: The Winter of Great Solitude – as a Proof of Dissent against Communism and Socialist Realisms

1. Albanian totalitarian state The Great Winter novel has a detailed description of activities of the totalitarian state's repressive apparatus. Narrator uses internal monologue of Raqi, the chief of staff of the newspaper where he Besniku works. Issential in this case is the figure of his friend, Araniti. Raqi is important because it leads to political activity of Koçi Xoxe, Hoxha's interior minister after the war, which was later condemned as philo-jugosllav. The first contact with Koçi Xoxe, was put in Besniku dream. Besniku, who has just returned from Moscow, is at home. He is noticed for the invitation at the Palace of Brigades. During the dinner, as he is very tired and falls asleep for a minute in an armchair placed in a small hall of the palace. And he sees a dream. This dream involves a dialog between Koçi Xoxe and Besniku. Kadare is the only Albanian writer who writes on public prohibited arguments. His dissent metaphorical allows to handle with the necessary realism of historical novel most important historical moments in the history of 1 Albania. After the dream of Besniku (which is a story within the story that sets a further "contact" with the figure of Koçi Xoxe in Chapter XI in the second part of the book), the author returns to the same argument in chapter XIII, in the third part of the novel. Raqi, chief of human resource at the newspaper where he Besniku works, talks to Bedrije, the cleaning woman, who has just removed from the wall portrait of Khrushchev. The comic conversation between Raqi and Bedrije, who speaks in Tirana dialect, involves Raqi internal monologue, who meditate about Besnik, Koçi Xoxe and the year 1947. 1

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This is a very important part of the novel: state control, nostalgia for the terror of 1947 in Raqi‟s mind, the memory of the main moments in the history of Albania testify the importance of narrating the state-individual relations. This is a proof of the writer‟s dissidence, because he describes the totalitarian system in its different stages: Albania at the beginning of 1947; when the terror was exercised by the Minister of Interiors Koçi Xoxe; Albania in the years 1960-1961, time when the system used the same people who were holding other high level positions in the bureaucratic hierarchy. The conversations between Raqi, chief of human resource, and Bedrije, the cleaner, witness the control of the totalitarian state. Raqi is jealous of the fact that the Besnik knows more things than he does because he has been in Moscow with the last delegation. His participation in government dinner at the Palace of Brigades has transformed Besnik, 2 according to Raqi, in a man closer to the state power. Raqi has already become a functionary of state who lives with the nostalgia of the past. He agrees only with his friend Araniti, but he is afraid to express his 3 opinion . Until 1947, Raqi had worked in Departmental Committee, an investigation institution that no longer exists. Raqi„s internal monologue 4 unfolds in details the climate of terror in which all the country lived . Kadare perfectly analyzes the psychology of Raqi, a representative of secret police in a totalitarian regime. He manages to erase the border dividing the duty from pathology to the point that the message that reaches the reader hints that the required behavior is exactly what is described: that of an 5 unbalanced anomalous man .

KADARE 1973, pp. 224. KADARE 1973, pp. 224. 4 KADARE 1973, pp. 224-225. 5 KADARE 1973, pp. 225. 3

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Even though the Minister of Interiors was sentenced and a part of police structure was destroyed, Raqi manages to “recycle“ himself in the 6 bureaucratic state apparatus . At first glance it seems that Raqi is a scrupulous bureaucrat in the service of the state, but he carries within himself the experience of years of 7 terror and he often thinks about his unfortunate Minister of Interiors. Kadare describes in Chapter XVI, in pgs. 289-293, the meeting between Araniti and Raqi. Araniti confesses to his friend about a letter that will write to Enver Hoxha. This argument relates to Enver Hoxha, who was situated against “his” past: he reads the letter of Aranit Çorraj and he recalls Koçi Xoxe. So, even Enver Hoxha recalled Koçi Xoxe‟s activity. His point of view is contrary to Raqi‟s. Herewith we have two conflicting assessments of the same historical facts, from two different perspectives. The dissidence of Kadare is "guaranteed" by the presence of the figure of Enver Hoxha. It is important to note that the historical truth is not questioned, although opinions 8 over the facts vary . 2. Enver Hoxha and the Socialist State The internal monologue of the Communist leader reveals the problems of Albanian society: a realized attempt of Kadare to express his 9 dissidence . Topics that dominate the thoughts of Enver Hoxha are the reduction of wages, the abolition ranks in the Albanian army and the fight 10 against the state bureaucracy . It is interesting how is treated the relationship 6

KADARE 1973, pp. 225-226. KADARE 1973, pp. 226. Kadare in the Chapter XVI, in pp. 289-293, he describes the meeting between Raqi and Arianiti. Aranit talks to his friend about a letter he intends to write to Enver Hoxha. 8 KADARE 1973, Chapter XIX, pp. 352-356. 9 KADARE 1973, pp. 357-360. 10 KADARE 1973, pp. 357. Dr. Edmond ÇALI ▪ Ismail Kadare: The Winter of Great Solitude 227 7

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between the state and communism and the problem of bureaucracy in 11 socialist society . Although Albania is fighting for the construction of socialism, the leader of this regime himself understands that the life of society is not always governed by socialist principles: "The epidemy was blowing like a warm breeze on the entire space of the socialist camp. Revolution was turning stale. The “40-years head” of Soviet Union was getting covered with the gray hair of the empire. The wind which had permeated Moscow, Warsaw, Prague, had not left untouched Tirana. The bureaucratic trend felt like “families” began to create ". 3. Historical documents, novels, works of Enver Hoxha The Winter of Great Solitude and Concert at Winter’s End are two great historical novels of Ismail Kadare. Criticism has dealt with various 12 aspects of these two works . According to us, The Winter of Great Solitude and Concert at Winter’s End can be considered as two parts of the same act, a single novel. Regarding dissidence it is important to note the connection between history and literature in both novels. Presence of history is evidenced by literary perspective; historical point of view is guaranteed from archive materials which the author had consulted and cited especially in

Shiko KADARE 1973, pp. 358. The concert has been analyzed from different critics. In our research, we have taken into consideration the contribution of Prof. Dr. Floresha Dado (see DADO 2006, pp. 126, 139, 144 e 149), Alfred Uçi (UÇI 1999) analyzes many characters (Ekrem Fortuzi, UÇI 1999, pp. 140-142, Mao Tze Tung, UÇI 1999, pp. 163-166; in order to analyze the dissent, it is important to take into consideration the review of similiarities between China and Albania, UÇI 1999, pp. 67); Shaban Sinani underlines the anti-totalitarian value of work (see SINANI 2005, pp. 38) and the censorship control that was constantly exercised over the book (see SINANI 2005, f. 41). A general introduction to the Italian reader has been made by Giuseppina Turano (see TURANO 2008, pp. 24). international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4 228 12

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The Winter of Great Solitude . In the notes at the bottom of the page details are given about parts of The Winter of Great Solitude and parts of Volume 19 of the series Selected Works of Enver Hoxha that deal with the same historical arguments. 4. The criticism of The Winter of Great Solitude It is important to see what says, writes and publishes Kadare himself about the use of historical documents in literature. Let us consider one of his important contributions: his speech at the second Congress of the Union of Writers and Artists of Albania, whose works were held in Tirana from 24 to 26 April 1969. The writer begins his speech with a review of the importance of 14 works of Enver Hoxha . He opposes any possible objection, stating the relationship between historical 15 documents and literary structure . In this way its is provided a solid ground for the historic contribution that deals with the events of the 60s of the last century and he almost re-establishes what is right and the obligation of socialist realism literature: Perhaps it is again this reason that the great events of the 60s, events of great importance for our nation and with international resonance throughout the world have remained unaccounted properly or with dignity in our literature. Apparently, having not inserted these 13

Hoxha's wife writes in the first volume and second book of her memoirs (published after the fall of the communist regime in Albania) about the possibility that Ismail Kadare had to consult the archives of the Labour Party of Albania (see Hoxha N. 1998 pp. 281 and 380 to 381, and 2001 N. Hoxha, pp. 132-151). Following we will address the enigmatic and contradictory relationship between the writer and Hoxha family, especially between Kadare and Nexhmije Hoxha, who used to be a partisan and exponent of the Albanian resistance, exponent of the Albanian communist leadership from the war until the fall of the regime, the wife of the most influential communist leader, coherent witness, although, of course, biased of the history of contemporary Albania. 14 KADARE 1969, pp. 214. 15 KADARE 1969, pp. 214. Dr. Edmond Ă&#x2021;ALI â&#x2013;Ş Ismail Kadare: The Winter of Great Solitude 229

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spectacular events in our scenes, we have left them out of literature. We have omitted them, but our consciousness of the writer reminds us day and night that we have a huge debt to time and people. We must 16 not fall asleep without filling this gap . It looks like the Winter of Great Solitude is like a literary theoretical manifesto of relations between Labour Party of Albania and Communist Party of Soviet Union in the days of Meeting of 81 Communist and Labour Parties held in Moscow in 1960 and maintained in the Central Archive of Labour Party of Albania. Kadare has very clear ideas regarding the importance of great historical moment and the place that it should take in the literature of socialist realism: The years 60s, just like the National Liberation War years, have an unprecedented epics. These were years of great tension, strong nerves, it was the time when a small mistake could cost us really dearly and it would be fatal to the existence of the party and the state, years of revisionist blockade, of the sacrifices and heroism, starting from the days after the Moscow meeting until the parting of Albania from the Warsaw Pact. These years are waiting to rise again in our works, magnificent and memorable, as we have all lived and remind of them. We know that is not easy to intermingle in a work such cardinal problems of the nation, state and party. But we also know it is our duty to do so. And we will do this, while it is our duty and desire of 17 the people Official criticism supported the same thesis when treated the connection 18 between contemporary reality, socialist society and literary content . The Albanian criticism has supported the thesis, accepted by Kadare, according to which the novel The Winter of Great Solitude is part of the inevitable compromise between the writer and dictatorship:

KADARE 1969, pp. 214. KADARE 1969, pp. 214-215. 18 BRAHIMI 1989, pp.178. 17

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"The symbolic work of impending level of compromise with the communist time and dictatorship, apart of tangible signs in a variety of texts, is the novel The Winter of Great Solitude; the first known publication of this 19 title and then processed in abbreviated form with the name The Great Winter Many attempts have been made to find a distance between the author and a part of his work. Regarding The Great Winter let us bring the attention to Behar Gjoka‟s analysis in his book Re-reading Kadare, where the critic exceeds what would have dared to ask even the author himself. More balanced thesis, according to us, is that of Alexander Zoto„s. The critic 20 summarizes all the controversy over the book and highlights the importance 21 of the novel in describing the real situation of communist Albania . 22

Historical documents in Kadare's works guarantee the implementation of literature by providing comprehensive literature-history relations, under which dissidence is manifested in a clear detailed form. Enea Nauni underlines the importance of history in the works of Kadare by oposing many examples to Razi Brahimi„s assessment: "For Razi Brahimi the reproduction of history in Kadare„s works is questionable, but in France, Kadare is estimated that he worthily competes even with a historian ...

GJOKA 2008, pp. 33-34. See pp. 36-36 and 68-69. Muharrem Jakupi makes a sharp lookout for changes that the writes has been obligated to do, Jakupi 2005, pp.172. Shaban Sinan makes a more concise evaluation of two novels of Kadare (The Great Winter and The Concert at the end of the winter), See ALIU SINANI ÇAPALIKU ÇOBANI 2001, pp. 171. 20 ZOTOS 1996, pp. 256. 21 ZOTOS 1996, pp. 256. Elio Miracco performs an in-depth study about the changes that Kadare made in later editions of his works, on the history of the novel 'Pyramid' (see MIRACCO 1999. By the same author MIRACCO see also 2007). The problem has also been affected by BELLUSCIO 2008. 22 Enea Nauni rejects Razi Brahimi, who in turn had a negative assess toward the presence of documents in Kadare's works, NAUNI 1993, pp. 35. Dr. Edmond ÇALI ▪ Ismail Kadare: The Winter of Great Solitude 231

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So from all works of historical themes he (R. Brahimi) evaluates only the 23 "Castle". . Enea Nauni protects Kadare from any possible accusation from critics about the use of history in literature: "It is important to emphasize that the" modernization "of history for which Kadare is accused by critics in Albanian studies, mainly consists in the 24 concretization of the abstract while standing strong on realistic targets" .

A very important historical moment in the history of Albania, the crisis and the rupture of relations with the Soviet Union in 1961, is perfectly reflected in the Great Winter. Enea Nauni examines this argument in the context of the analysis of relations between Russia as a superstate and the small Albania. 25 He analyzes in details the parts of the novel that deal with this topic . Regarding the meeting of 81 communist parties in Moscow we have a more 26 objective assessment . When considering the narration about the device of cobalt expressed in the Great Winter , Enea Nauni identifies Albanian historical events with the history of cobalt apparatus used for the treatment of cancer; therefore cobalt aparatus must be considered as a symbol of the state apparatus. In addition to the novel The Great Winter (where cobalt appartus is present) stands close the novel November of a Capital City (where a bunker is present , which might be compared with the apparatus of cobalt ) , which reinforces intertextuality, where the author describes the Albanian communist 27 state . We have accurate information concerning censorship of the novel the Great Winter, where is quoted Kadri Hazbiu, the name of the Minister of 28 Interiors of Albania .

NAUNI 1993, pp. 46. NAUNI 1993, pp. 74. 25 NAUNI 1993, pp. 97-99. 26 NAUNI 1993, pp. 157-158. 27 NAUNI 1993, pp. 172-173. 28 NAUNI 1993, pp. 150. 24

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5. Nexhmije Hoxha and Kadare Ismail Kadare denies that he was a dissident. But the space that the works of Kadare have in Albanian literary system and its relations with socialist realism show major differences between his works and the fundamental principles of official literature of the times . Let us briefly look Kadare„s relations and his work with some of the protagonists of literary and political life in terms of dissidence, with the target in Kadare's literary work . We recall here the estimation on Kadare in order to have a complete framework of assessments and to better meet the importance of Kadare works in Albanian literary system. Therefore it is important to recall here a significant assessment of Nexhmije Hoxha. In the first volume of her book My Life with Enver Hoxha, dictators„wife recalls Kadare twice : the first time she talks about lunch time at her home and the second time when she writes about the meeting of 81 communist parties in Moscow in 1960. In the first episode Nexhmije Hoxha considers Kadare 29 among the most important personalities of Albania . The second episode leads us to the novel The Great Winter. Following is written the assessment about Ismail Kadare: "The writer Ismail Kadare, the hunter of big events and turns, in his masterpiece, the novel "the Winter of Great Solitude” perpetuated the atmosphere and the great courage of Enver Hoxha in the meeting of 81 30 Communist and Labour parties in Moscow in 1960 " . Nexhmije Hoxha underlines Enver Hoxha's attitude about his presence in 31 Albanian literature of socialist realism . So we come to the novel Concert in 29

HOXHA N. 1998, pp. 280-281. HOXHA N. 1998, pp. 380. 31 HOXHA N. 1998, pp. 380-381. Dr. Edmond ÇALI ▪ Ismail Kadare: The Winter of Great Solitude 30

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the Winter’s End:"When the decay of friendly relations with China happened and 'Notes ...' of Enver Hoxha was published, Ismail Kadare asked again to put in center of his new novel, 'The Last Concert', the figure of Enver Hoxha, 32 but Hoxha refused ! '". The permission given to Ismail Kadare to put the figure of Enver Hoxha in the center of the novel The Great Winter could be explained in this way: Kadare was allowed to centralize the figure of Enver Hoxha in the “Great Winter“; he was even supported with long informative conversations and complete internal documentation , radiograms and other correspondence between the leadership of the Party, Tirana - Moscow and vice versa. The main goal was not to set up the cult of Enver , but to help by all means to overcome the rupture that suffered the friendship between two countries, the 33 friendship which had deep roots in the circumstances elaborated above . Let us consider the second volume of the book My Life with Enver and go through the chapter "Friend of the writers " . From 39 pages of this chapter , 20 are devoted to Ismail Kadare. This chapter resumes the arguments addressed in the first volume in February , and a complete analysis of Ismail Kadare as a writer and as a public character of Albanian society . The part of the chapter devoted to Kadare begins with a paragraph in which we have a 34 summarising assessment . Nexhmije Hoxha underlines the intervention of Enver Hoxha on behalf of Kadare‟s protection; also the chapter contains the 35 entire speech of Enver Hoxha over the novel the Winter of Great Solitude . Analysis of Kadare's books and Kadare relations with the regime and 36 especially with Enver Hoxha is given in long details . It starts from the bottom, from an article that Kadare published after the death of Enver Hoxha , in which

HOXHA N. 1998, pp. 381. HOXHA N. 1998, pp. 381. 34 HOXHA N. 2001, pp. 132. 35 HOXHA N. 2001, pp. 133-134. 36 HOXHA N. 2, pp. 134-135. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4 234 33

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Kadare recalled his own meeting with Enver Hoxha . We have a quote from 38 Kadare where he accepts to have had the opportunity to consult archives . The data given were related to the meetings between Nexhmije Hoxha and Ismail Kadare in which Nexhmije Hoxha explains to the writer what type of 39 reserved materials would he consult . Let us turn back to the novel The Great Winter. Our concern relates to analysing a letter of Kadare addressed to 40 Nexhmije Hoxha . The review of the meeting between Nexhmije Hoxha and Ismail Kadare dated in October 17, 1975 , clarifies not only the relationship between the writer and the government but it provides data relating to the structure of his work , to the part that deals with modern and contemporary history . Nexhmije Hoxha underlines the Kadare‟s desire to analyse the figure 41 of Enver Hoxha . Let us conclude the reviewing of Nexhmije Hoxha‟s writing with two arguments: the place, which according to her, that the novel the Great Winter holds in Kadare‟s works and her personal testimony related to the novel itself. Nexhmije Hoxha re-establishes the importance of the novel The Great Winter: Kadare‟s works were written during the socialist period, labelled as dictatorship time by him, but as he himself claimed, have been associated with that period, during which Kadare‟s creativity reached peaks. His masterpiece is the Great Winter which is reprinted seven times, without making any modifications to the figure of Enver Hoxha, to whom Kadare raised a literary monument in his novel.

HOXHA N. 2001, pp. 135. HOXHA N. 2001, pp. 135. 39 HOXHA N. 2001, pp. 135-136. 40 HOXHA N. 2001, pp. 136-137. 41 HOXHA N. 2001, pp. 137. Dr. Edmond ÇALI ▪ Ismail Kadare: The Winter of Great Solitude 38

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The strong ties between the writer and the exponents of communist power are recalled from Nexhmije from a personal gift of the manuscript of the novel The Great Winter, which Kadare has given to her. 6. Author and his book The Winter of Great Solitude (The author on his book The Winter of Great Solitude) I had just written the "anti-anthem" of the communist universe. Propaganda and socialist realist literature were celebrating forty years separation with the West. By the Winter of Great Solitude (and later with the Concert.....) I finally got the opposite side. There, I glorified the separation from the East and the communism. This is the essence of the novel and at the same time what Albanian reader was interested in. That's why these two novels (which brought an end to a taboo and overthrew idols) were the best known in the country, an even the most appreciated. I would like to repeat (with the fear annoying you) that precisely in this viewpoint Winter.... is an "anti-anthem" and it should be judged only in that regard. Other interpretation are small-minded. On the other hand, everyone was interested in the portrait of communism. Kadare gives a lot of information dealing with his novel Winter of Great 42 Solitude in interviews given after 1990 .. Let us take into consideration 43 Barbaric Time , the novel in which the relationship between the communist power - the writer and the dissidence has an important place . He tries to guarantee himself the freedom of writing within the 44 communist world . He makes a resume of his publications and thinks he has 45 found the way to work without being disturbed .. Protagonists of his work are Ismail Kadare , Ramiz Alia , Hoxha 's successor , and the archives of the Labour Party of Albania . Let us go back to the relationship between history and literature. The opportunity to consult the archives is guaranteed by Enver 42

We learn everything related to the terms of titles of novels and links between The Winter of Great Solitude and The Concert. See FAYE 1991, pp. 26-27. 43

It is about pp. 67-111, “Biseda e tretë”, KADARE 2000. KADARE 2000, pp. 74-75. 45 KADARE 2000, pp. 76-77. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4 236 44

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Hoxha‟s wife, Nexhmije Hoxha. This argument is presented by the author of the Winter of Great Solitude himself . Referring to his truth, Kadare gives the reader details about the opportunity that was afforded by exponents of the Communist hierarchy in his research for the novel that brings into light the disrupting relations between Albania and the Soviet Union . The political critics acuse him that he is a 46 liberal and he attempts to reduce the trust that was given . Let us analyse what Kadare said about his relationship with Ramiz Alia , one 47 of the closest associates of Enver Hoxha and his successor as well . The author is aware of the importance of the artistic message of the book against the communist world : -I had stabbed the communism in the heart! In my novel, the Kremlin was like Macbeth's castle where killers, courtiers, scoundrels and hypocrites seek to glean the eyes or to poison each other during sleep at night. I had painted a dark picture, totally negative and depressing about international 48 communism . Therefore, the criticism of Albanian critics, the public opinion and 49 a part of the apparatus of the regime were very cruel. . Even before, Kadare had suffered the reaction of criticism when the “Great Winter” was published. Kadare gives the reaction of Enver Hoxha, which was described earlier by Nexhmije Hoxha. In another case Kadare does not specify the importance of the intervention of Enver Hoxha in his favor: The tyrant was puzzled. To condemn me meant to tear with his own hands his portrait. (The literary work could be condemned along with its own writer). Then he chose a path of compromise. 46

KADARE 2000, pp. 77-78. KADARE 2000, pp. 80-82. For changes made in the novel Kadare speaks on FAYE 1991, at pp. 45: “Malgrado tutto, non ho mai cambiato niente di sostanziale. Al contrario! Ho apportato delle modifiche puramente stilistiche”. On the contrary, I had simply made few stylistic modifications.”). 48 KADARE 2000, pp. 82-83. 49 KADARE 2000, pp. 83-84. Dr. Edmond ÇALI ▪ Ismail Kadare: The Winter of Great Solitude 237 47

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To appease dictatorship he allowed criticism against the work, and he even admitted that this work had to be considered half 50 prohibited, but eventually did not destroy the work . Earlier, Kadare had not accepted the role of Enver Hoxha in his defense 51 during the organized campaign against his novel . Let us conclude with two more episodes, which according to us , are very important for the assessment that Kadare himself provides for the connection history-literature. The first episode deals with the relationship between the novel Winter of Great Solitude and the historical truth of relations between Albania and the Socialist camp , while the second episode has to do with Enver Hoxha‟s personal behavior. It is appropriate to note that the opinion expressed by Kadare has to do with literature , history and image of Enver Hoxha and that we are dealing with a long interview ( divided into ten parts ) given over a period of three years, from June 1996 to May 1999 , after the collapse of the socialist regime in Albania. Kadare responds to the relation between power and literature during the dictatorship of the proletariat in Albania and explains how he used the archive material : - We have discussed about tricks a writer had to use if he wanted to publish works that were considered „dangerous‟ for that period of time. Was it a preference for you ? Have you cheated the system ? - At the Great Winter I had no need to use trickery . I would like to qualify it as an objective novel. I had no need to make up bizarre dialogues for this novel , but I only recreated them. I had no need to imagine situations, but I just gave them a literary or artistic twist. I did not need to add any note or to make comments. I made a description , just a description of the atmosphere , the attitudes of the parties , their relationship . I tried to convey the authenticity . I acted in the same way with Enver Hoxha‟s figure , our dictator . I did not distort his words . How could I do it? Where 50 51

KADARE 1996, pp. 37. FAYE 1991, pp. 45-46.

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did I get information on what I was writing? I used forty pages drawn from the archives. I had a going through contract in order to control the use of this documentation. My notes on this documentation underwent verification . And 52 these forty pages of the file appear in the novel . After his transfer to France, Ismail Kadare has spoken many times about the figure of Enver Hoxha. Of course he could freely express his opinion and to treat arguments that previously could not be touched. Consequently, in most cases he gives a negative evaluation for the Albanian leader. However, in this study we are interested in the relation among history, literature and Enver Hoxha's role at the Winter of th Great Solitude. We have noticed that Kadare re-established and advocated his literary, political and historical approach: -Let's go back to Enver Hoxha‟s profile: I still continue to think that the Winter of Great Solitude gives a pleasurable portrait of his image ... -Dennis Fernandez-Récatala, sometimes you have the mania to complicate things. In Moscow, in a dirty and wrecked atmosphere, Enver Hoxha conducted a positive act, which historically was the only one during his rule. Do you want me to 53 ignore this fact? Winter of Great Solitude is one of the greatest historical novel of Kadare, which has an important place in the system of his entire career and in the Albanian literature system as well. The relationship between history and literature guarantees uniqueness and the artistic beauty of the novel. Today, after the fall of communism going through the act of reading guarantees the possibility of determining its high literary value. 52

KADARE 2000, pp. 92-93. KADARE 2000, pp. 97. Further information for this argument see: pp. 93-104. Kadare expresses the same idea more clearly in KADARE 1996 pp. 36-37. Kadare repeats the same concept: "So, more than a portrait, it was the choice of a favourable episode, a 'heroic' episode of the chief of Albania, at the time when he was pulling Albania out from the foul universe. In my novel I emphasized that this division, the solitude, honored him, therefore, if he wanted to be acceptable for the future (for the West, take it as you want) he had to admit the guise that I had proposed.” KADARE 1996, pp. 36. Dr. Edmond ÇALI ▪ Ismail Kadare: The Winter of Great Solitude 239 53

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BIBLIOGRAPHY AAVV, Letërsia si e tillë. Probleme të vlerësimit të trashëgimisë sonë letrare. Akte të konferencës shkencore me këtë temë mbajtur në Tiranë më 28-29 mars 1996, Akademia e shkencave, Instituti i gjuhësisë dhe i letërsisë, Tiranë, Toena, 1996. Letërsia bashkëkohore shqiptare, Tiranë-Tetovë, Alb-ass, ALIU-SINANIÇAPALIKU-ÇOBANI 2001, pp. 252. 2001 BELLUSCIO 2008 Giovanni Belluscio, “Ismail Kadare in italiano, tra riscritture e „mistificazioni‟”, në SCARSELLA 2008, ff. 31-50. Razi Brahimi, Duke ndjekur procesin letrar, Artikuj dhe BRAHIMI 1989 shënime kritike, Shtëpia botuese “Naim Frashëri”, Tiranë, 1989, ff. 319. Floresha Dado, Intuitë dhe vetëdije kritike, Onufri, Tirana, DADO 2006b 2006, ff. 383, ff. 28-49, 107-163. Éric Faye, Conversazioni con Kadaré, Ugo Guanda FAYE 1991 Editore, Parma, 1991, ff. 111; [titulli origjinal Ismail Kadaré Entretiens avec Eric Faye]. Behar Gjoka, Kadare i rilexuar, Princi, Tiranë, 2008, ff. 284. GJOKA 2008 Enver Hoxha, Hrushovianët, Kujtime, Tiranë, 1980, ff. 461. HOXHA 1980 Nexhmije Hoxha, Jeta ime me Enverin, (Kujtime I), Tiranë, HOXHA N. 1998 Lira, 1998, ff. 400. Nexhmije Hoxha, Jeta ime me Enverin, (Kujtime 2), Tiranë, HOXHA N. 2001 Neriada, 2001, ff. 391. JAKUPI 2005 Muharrem Jakupi, “Proza e Kadaresë dhe raportet e saj me poetikat moderne”, në Rrjedhat e letërsisë bashkëkohore shqiptare, Prishtinë, 2005, ff. 165-184. KADARE 1969 Ismail Kadare, “Për një thellim të karakterit socialist të letërsisë sonë”, (“Nga diskutimet në Kongresin II të Lidhjes AAVV 1996

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SINANI 2005

TURANO 2008 UÇI 1999 UJKAJ 2001 ZOTOS 1996

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së Shkrimtarëve dhe Artistëve të Shqipërisë”), Nëndori, Botim i posaçëm, 1969, ff. 210-217. Ismail Kadare, Dialog me Alain Bosquet, Tiranë, Onufri, 1996, ff. 189. Ismail Kadare, Dimri i vetmisë së madhe, Tiranë, 1973. Ismail Kadare, Kohë barbare, Nga Shqipëria në Kosovë, (Biseda), Tiranë, Onufri, 2000, ff. 297. Elio Miracco, Analisi di temi del romanzo ‘Kështjella’ di Ismail Kadare, Roma, 2007, ff. 83. Enea Nauni, Kadareja i panjohur, (Laokonti filloi të flasë I), Tiranë, 1993, ff. 208. Alessandro Scarsella (a cura di), Leggere Kadare. Critica Ricezione Bibliografia, Biblion Edizioni, Milano, 2008, ff. 187. Shaban Sinani, Një dosje për Kadarenë, (II, Studime, intervista, dokumente, Botim I plotësuar), Tetovë, Albas, 2005, ff. 1-71, 83-95, 177-184. Giuseppina Turano, “Ismail Kadare, scrittore d‟Albania. Un breve profilo”, në SCARSELLA 2008a, ff. 17-30. Alfred Uçi, Grotesku kadarean, (Sprovë estetike për analizë stilistike), Tiranë, Onufri, 1999, ff. 167. Kadri Ujkaj, Kryqëzimi modern i gjenive, Tiranë, Onufri, 2001, ff. 95. Aleksandër Zotos, “Diktaturë dhe letërsi: mendime dhe shembuj rreth disa krijimeve të Dritëro Agollit dhe të Ismail Kadaresë”, në AAVV 1996, ff. 251-278.

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William KODOM GYASI

The Role of Readability in Science Education in Ghana: A Readability Index Analysis of Ghana Association of Science Teachers Textbooks for Senior High School

Abstract The study investigated the readability of science textbooks for senior high schools in Ghana. Survey research design was employed for the study. Using stratified sampling technique, a sample size of 300 SHS 1, 2 and 3 students were drawn from five senior high schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis, Ghana. Gunning Fog and Cloze Test readability indexes were used to examine the difficulty level of the Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Integrated Science textbooks for senior high schools, written by the Ghana Association of Science Teachers. Findings of the study revealed that, on the average, the books are difficult to read. The study further showed that the Integrated Science textbook is the most difficult among the textbooks, followed by the Physics textbook. The study concludes by proffering the following recommendations: long sentences and multi-syllable words in these books should be reformulated into smaller structures for easy understanding; and the Ghana association of Science Teachers should write more simplified text materials that can improve readership and understanding. Keywords: text readability; readability index, Gunning Fog Scale; Cloze Test Index of Readability; Ghana Association of Science Teachers; approved science textbooks for senior high schools in Ghana.

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Introduction In his speech during a convocation address at Allahabad University in 1946, Nehru said, it is science alone that can solve the problems of hunger and poverty, of insanitation and malnutrition, of illiteracy and obscurantism, of superstition and deadening customs, of rigid traditions and blind beliefs, of vast resources going to waste, of a rich country inhabited by starving millions (cited in Gaillard, 1991). In the context of establishing modern science and technology as a live and vital force to alleviate the multifaceted problems facing our dear nation, the significance of science education cannot be overstretched. Indeed, science education plays a crucial and pivotal role in the alchemy of scientific research and technological innovations in any given country. However, science education without readable and appropriate textbooks is comparable to democracy without appropriate constitution or farming without functional farm implements. Farmer et al. (2007:206) affirm that “textbooks constitute the most fundamental source of reference for students.” They further state that textbooks are: Printed educational and instructional materials comprised of rich texts equipped with cognitive and perceptive capabilities appropriate for age and knowledge levels of students, prepared on the basis of principles on which education programs are Corroborating this point, Unsal and Gunes (2008:388) posit: “these books are at thetransferring same timethe thecontained most important tools to enabling the individual to grounded, and knowledge students. work independently and repeat the information for many times”. In view of the important void science textbooks fill, its readability should be of serious concern to both writers and tutors, because, according to Wellington and Osborne (2001), language use is the major barrier to most students in learning science. With the dominance of the English language in the linguistic ecology of Ghana, it has come to stay as the official language of the country and is used as the main medium of instruction in schools. This medium of instruction and its influence on learning science in our schools, international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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according to Yong (2010), has become an important issue. Studies have found that students encounter numerous problems because learning science through English is complicated by having to simultaneously master both the science content and language at the same time (Rollnick, 1999). Lemke (1997) reported that students in English as a second language situations have to immerse in two social practices together at the same time when learning science: one which has to do with learning a new language (i.e. English) and the other which has to do with learning science (i.e. language of science). Several researchers have indicated that the language used in some science textbooks exceeds the normal experience of many high school students (Lynch, et al., 1972 cited in Letsoalo, 1996, p. 184) for whom they are written. Curtis and Millar (1988) contended that if the understanding of textbook language is difficult for English speakers, it is likely to be even more difficult for students who learn science in a second language. In the local context, it has long been recognized that students encounter enormous problems learning science in a second language (Heppner et al., 1997; Yong, 2003, Mohiddin, 2007; Romaizah, 2009 ;). Many senior high school teachers believe that students‟ performance in science would be very much improved if serious attention is given to the readability of the approved science textbooks used in the schools. They argue that it is the language used and style of writing that is the main stumbling block for learning science rather than the science content itself. Underscoring the seriousness of the role readability plays in education, Scott (2011) writes that “written text in the form of textbooks forms the backbone of a good education system. A “good” text forms the basis of a good learning experience for students. Scott explained that the quality of a “good” text include its readability. The text should be easy enough to comprehend and difficult enough to contribute to students‟ academic development.

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In harmony with the above expressions, the preface of the science textbooks written by the Ghana Association of Science Teachers (GAST) state: “the language level and depth in the text reflect the year group for which the text is written. This facilitates easy reading and understanding” (Physics Textbook written by GAST, 2002). They further state that “the text is well and attractively illustrated with photographs and large, simple, clear and welllabeled diagrams to aid quick understanding and arouse interest.” Several educationists have lauded the contribution of the science textbooks towards science education. The Ghana Education Service has consistently conducted deliberate interventions geared towards encouraging the study of science. For example, Science clinics were introduced for girls during the long vacations to help promote girls‟ interest in Science and by so doing get more girls to take to the sciences as they get to senior high school. A number of corporate institutions were encouraged by the initiative and gave it their support. In echoing other sources encouraging science education, Wireko (2009) intimates that the private sector has done a lot to promote children‟s interest. For example, Primetime Ltd, a local advertising company, introduced the Brilliant Math and Science Quiz some fifteen years ago which hooked several individuals and children alike to science as a subject. This initiative thus sustained the learning interest. Also, a decade ago, the Unilever Ghana Foundation for Education and Development instituted an annual nationwide Young Scientists Award for children below the age of sixteen to encourage innovation and scientific thinking. All these activities made science and mathematics interesting for all, particularly, students. In spite of all these encouragement and assistance towards heightened interest in science education, a report given by a team of educational scientists from the University of Cape Coast and the University College of Education, Winneba, in 2009 indicated that Ghana‟s performance in the sciences is simply pathetic. The team was tasked to assess the performance and impact of 48 nations in the international Maths and Science international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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competition. Ghana was ranked 47th and last in the Mathematics competition and 48th and also last in Science. In fact, among African countries, Ghana was still the weakest among the six African countries that participated in the quiz programme. Botswana placed 43rd and 46th in Maths and Science respectively. Egypt was in the 38th and 41st positions in Maths and Science respectively. This poor performance shows that something serious is amiss; this aroused an urgent inquiry among several educators and researchers (Wireko, 2009). A brief survey I conducted among teachers and students reveals that there is low readership of the approved science textbooks written by the Ghana Association of Science Teachers for senior high schools. While some of the factors responsible for this situation could be socially or psychologically inclined, it would be important to explore the readability of these textbooks to ascertain whether they match the grade level of targeted readers. The aim of the present study is to subject the four science textbooks – Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Integrated Science written by the Ghana Association of Science Teachers to a readability test, using two readability indexes, namely, Gunning Fog Scale and Cloze Test Readability Index. Subjecting these textbooks to a readability index analysis is important because readability indexes are a prerequisite to improving students‟ proficiency in the English language. It can also be an indicator and guide to ascertain students‟ comprehension of texts in a book. Illuminating their importance, Scott (2011) state that „Right from their inception in the late 1940s, readability indexes revolutionized the writing style of everyone…they affect every industry because of their all-appealing premise.” Among other things, readability formulas help assess and develop textbooks and other written material for the exact grade level. For instance, if an author prepares textbooks for third grade level students and the appropriate readability formula tells the author the textbooks are for the fifth grade level, it helps the author to revise the text. A readable text produces greater comprehension, retention, reading speed, and motivates readers.

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Methodology Two readability indexes were used for the study – Gunning Fog and Cloze Text Readability Indexes. The readability of the textbooks was first determined by using Gunning Fog Readability Index. Gunning‟s Fog Index is one of the best known readability indexes and measures the level of reading difficulty of any document (Ivan, 2010). The underlying principle of the Gunning Fog Index formula is that short sentences written in plain English achieve a better score than long sentences written in complicated language (Miles 1990). The researcher also used the cloze test to assess the reading ability of the students. The technique involves the ability of students to select appropriate words if occasional gaps occur in a passage based on their abilities to infer meaning from context (Taylor, 1956). As Todd (2008) notes, “Cloze tests are relatively easy to administer and provide valid and reliable information about a student‟s language proficiency through deliberate deletion of targeted language features such as verb forms, prepositions and lexical items.” Moreover, Ayodele (2012) employed it in a recent research in connection with basic science and technology textbooks for primary schools with impressive results. A passage was selected from each text book and th every 4 word was deleted from the passage. The students were asked to insert the appropriate words in a word bank provided at the bottom of the test for the 50 blank spaces in the passage. After the completion of the test, the cloze passage was scored. Spelling errors were not penalized. The raw score was the number of words that are inserted correctly. The number of correct instances was doubled to find the percentage. That is, for 40 correct replacements, 40 x 2 = 80%. Below is a table that explains the various levels of difficulty of the cloze text procedure.

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Table R2: Students’ Reading Level in Relation to Scores in the Cloze Test and Suitability of the Text Material

Percentage 0-43%

Type of Material Material is too difficult

Level of difficulty Frustration Level

44 - 57%

Material is about right

Instructional Level

58-100%

Material is too easy

Independent Level

Source: Adapted from Bachman, 1985. Independent level according to Table R2 occurs when a student‟s score is between 58 -100%, indicating students could effectively learn with the textbook with minimal teacher instruction. Instructional level refers to a situation where a student‟s score is between 44 – 57%, this means student experience reasonable difficulty level, so that the textbook is adequate for learning with teacher instruction. Frustration level occurs when a student score is between 0 – 43%, this means even with instruction the textbook will probably be too difficult for learning (Bachman 1985). Using stratified sampling technique, a sample of 300 students was selected from five schools. The breakdown is presented below: Table R1: Breakdown of respondents sampled School Ghana National College Mfantisipim School Edinaman Senior High School St. Augustine College Adisadel College

n=300

248

SHS 1 20 20 20 20 20

SHS 2 20 20 20 20 20 Grand Total:

SHS 3 20 20 20 20 20 300

Total 60 60 60 60 60

Sources: Field Survey Data, 2013. William KODOM GYASI ▪ Role of Readability in Science Education in Ghana

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As shown in Table R1, a total of 300 students from five senior high schools in Cape Coast were used for the study. The sample consisted of 100 SHS 1 students with an average age of 14.5 years, 100 SHS 2 students with an average age of 15.5 years, and 100 SHS 3 students with an average age of 16.5 years. Passages used for the Fog analysis were selected from the beginning, middle and towards the end of the textbooks. The mean value of the score of three chosen passages in each textbook represented the average readability level of the textbook. The selected passages from each of the science textbooks (Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Integrated Science) were fed into the computer and were subjected to readability test using the Gunning Fog readability index. Ivan (2010) indicates that the ideal score for readability with the Fog index is 7 or 8. Anything above 12 is too hard for most people to read. Miles (1990) asserts that readability scores from 1-8 are might for elementary school students,9-12 for high school students and 13-16 for post high school students. Result and Findings This section presents the findings of the study. The first aspect of this section deals with the results of Gunning Fog Index analysis (Table R3) for all the textbooks and the second part discusses the result of the cloze test (Table R4). Table R3: Result of Readability test Textbook Physics Chemistry Integrated Science Biology

Beginning 14.7 13.2 17.1 12.1

Scores Middle 12.3 9.7 17.5

Towards the end 14.8 10 13.9

Mean Score 14 11 16

Difficult to read

13.3

Difficult to read

Remarks Fairly difficult to read Difficult to read

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Table R3 above showed that though the textbooks contained a lot of useful information that can equip students scientifically, the readability index revealed that they are very difficult to read and understand. A quick comparison of the results as shown on Table R3 indicated that of all the textbooks, Integrated Science textbook is the most difficult text, scoring as high as 17. 5 and on the average 16 which is far from 12 which is considered fairly readable for all type of audiences (Ivan 2010). Given the fact that fog index scores from 13-16 are might for post secondary readers, it can safely be concluded that the integrated science text book was written far above the reading comprehension level of the senior high school students in Ghana. For that reason, senior high school students would find it difficult to comprehend the test. (Miles 1990). The Physics textbook also had as high as 14.8, which means comprehension will be difficult for the students .This is because it also scored a Fog index that is might for post senior high school student (Miles 1990). The Chemistry textbook however scored a Fog index of 11 which is appropriate for senior high school students (Miles 1990). To Ivan (2010), however, Fog index of 11 is just manageable for most readers. As depicted in Table R3, most of the textbooks are difficult to read. Gunning Fog readability index revealed that the textbooks were written above the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; reading level, especially in the case of Integrated Science textbook which scored 16 on the average which is might for post senior high school readers.

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Table R4: Percentage of respondents who read the text materials at independent, instructional and frustration levels based on the scores obtained in the Cloze Test Textbooks Physics

Chemistry

Int. Science

Biology

Cloze Reading Levels Independent level Instructional Level Frustration Level Total Independent level Instructional Level Frustration Level Total Independent level Instructional Level Frustration Level Total Independent level Instructional Level Frustration Level Total

Scores 60-100% 40-59% 0 – 39%

Number of Students 43 98 159

60-100% 40-59% 0 – 39%

86 144 70

60-100% 40-59% 0 – 39%

39 66 195

60-100% 40-59% 0 – 39%

69 98 133

Percentage 14.3% 32.7% 53.0% 100.0% 28.7% 48.0% 23.3% 100.0% 13.0% 22.0% 65.0% 100.% 23.0% 32.7% 44.3% 100.0%

n=300 Source: Field Survey Data, 2013. Table R4 clearly revealed that the Physics, Integrated Science, Chemistry and Biology textbooks written for SHS 1, 2 and 3 were written above the reading and comprehension level of the intended readers – The three classes of the Senior High Schools in Ghana. Examination of Table R4 above shows that all the textbooks on the average are fairly difficult for students to understand as revealed in the percentage of students who experienced frustration in the course of reading the text materials. For example, 195 representing 65% of the respondents are reading the Integrated Science textbook at frustration level. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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Also, 159, representing 53% of the respondents, are reading the Physics textbook at frustration level. However, the situation improved with Chemistry textbook because only 70, representing 23.3% of the respondents, are reading it at frustration level. Table R4, further showed that only 39 (13%) of the respondents can read the Integrated Science textbook meant for Senior High Schools independently without assistance from teachers, while only 14.3% can read the Physics textbook at independent level. It is noteworthy that 28.7% of the respondents can read the Chemistry textbook at independent level, while 69 representing 23% can read the Biology textbook independently without assistance from teachers. The result as depicted on Table R4 indicated that majority of the respondents cannot read the textbooks independently; overall 46.4% of the respondents are reading the various textbooks at frustration level, 33.8% are reading it at instructional level, and only 19.8% can read the science textbooks at independent level. Interested in unveiling the source of this unwelcomed failure, the researcher also conducted a brief interview with some seasoned science teachers coupled with a number of students. After highlighting the valuable information contained in the approved biology textbook, Geshon Mensah, a biology teacher in Edinaman Senior High School, stated: “the students are not performing well academically because they are not reading the approved biology textbook which was prepared to assist them gain a good grasp of science, they preferred other science textbooks” Another biology teacher from Ghana National College, Doris Esseam, said “several students are not inclined to use the approved biology textbook, even though they have it, hence they are just tagging along in their studies” Corroborating the above expressions,

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Ama Amenakoma, a chemistry teacher in Ghana National College, stated “many students are comfortable using other chemistry textbooks and recoils at the mention of the approved chemistry textbook written by GAST” Kennedy Prempeh, a Physics teacher in Ghana National College also mentioned that it is becoming very difficult to teach students these days, they cannot fully understand discussions in the classroom because many do not come to class with their approved Physics textbook which could have facilitated understanding of basic principles in physics.” The researcher also conducted interview with a cross-section of the students, their comment are noteworthy. For example, an SHS1 student commented: “Integrated science textbook is too voluminous and difficult to understand”. An SHS2 student also commented that he always calls on his teacher to explain several terms before he could fully understand the physics textbook. One of the girls in SHS2 said she was tired of checking meanings of words in a dictionary when reading the approved chemistry and physics textbooks, hence she dumped the book. Findings of this interview corroborate the results of the study that the textbooks were written above the reading level of the students.

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Conclusion and Recommendation The major findings of the investigative study revealed that, apart from the Chemistry textbook for senior high school, which is fairly difficult according to Ivan (2010) but appropriate for senior high school students according to miles (1990), the others are above the reading comprehension levels of the students, to read and comprehend, all other textbooks – Physics, Integrated Science and Biology are very difficult to read and comprehend. In fact they were written quite above the students reading level. Table R3 and R4 vividly portray that the majority of the respondents (46.4%) could not understand the textbooks even with instruction while a large section of the respondents (33.8%) cannot understand the textbook even at the instructional level. This is due largely to the textbooks being written above their reading level, for example, Integrated Science textbook scored 17.5% (Table R3) on the Gunning Fog scale of readability indicating the textbook was far above the reading level of SHS 3 students. The findings of this study are similar to the result of a recent research conducted by Rubagumya et al. (2010) on Language of Instruction and Quality of Learning in Tanzania and Ghana. Their report indicated that in “both Ghana and Tanzania …textbooks were difficult for learners to read. Language use in most textbooks was above the level learners can understand.” (p. 1). Findings emanating from this study are a linchpin to identifying why students are reluctant to read the Ghana Association Of Science Teachers Science textbooks. In order to address this situation, it would be appropriate to use readability indexes to determine the readability of the various textbooks used at all grade levels (1-12) in the country. Efforts should be geared towards reducing long and complicated sentences so as to fan the flickering embers of the desire and interest of the Ghanaian senior high school students to read these valuable books.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Ang, A. and Gill, B. (2003). Book review of the work of Ministry of Education Elementary 8. in terms of physical science course workbook topics the class a critical look. Kastamonu Education Journal, 11 (2), 387-394. Ayodele, M. O. (2012). Readability levels of basic science and technology textbooks for primary schools. Research Journal in Organizational Psychology & Educational Studies 1(1) (2012) 33-36 Burke, V., and Greenberg, D. (2010). Determining readability: How to select and apply easy-touse readability formulas to assess the difficulty of adult literacy materials. Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal, 4, 34-42. Curtis, S. & Millar, R. (1988). Language and conceptual understanding in science: a comparison of English and Asian speaking children. Research in Science and Technological Education, 6(1) 61-78. Farmer, Ö., Chechen, M. A. and Melanlıoğlu, D. (2007). Sixth-grade English class in terms of readability of text books. The Social Science magazine. 6 (22), 206219. Gaillard, J. Scientists in the Third World. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1991. Heppner, F. H., Heppner, M. C. & Leong, Y. P. (1997). Teachers‟ estimate of, and measurements of students‟ reading ability, and readability of text materials in English as a second language secondary Biology course. Journal of Applied Research in Education, 1(2), 31-39. Ivan, A. (2010). Klariti.com. Fog Index and Readability Formulas. Available at http://www.klariti.com/business-writing/Fog-Index-ReadabilityFormulas.shtm1#top.. Accessed on March 12, 2013. Lemke, J. (1997). Cognition, context and learning: a social semiotic international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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perspective. In Kirschner, D. & Whitson, J. A. (Eds.), Situated cognition, semiotic and psychological perspectives, (pp. 37-56), Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum. Letsoalo, M.B. (1996). Improving text for English second language biology pupils. Journal of Biological Education, 30(3), 184-186. Mohiddin bin Haji Noordin (2007). Students’ achievement in biology in public and private schools: Understanding the differences. Unpublished Masters Project, Universiti Brunei Darussalam. Miles, T., (1990). The fog index: a practical readability scale. West Virginia University. Retrieved April 2, 2006, from http://www.as.wvu.edu/~tmiles/fog.html Rollnick, M. (1999). The influence of language on second language teaching and learning science. In Clements, M.A. (Ken) & Leong, Y.P. (Eds.), Cultural and language aspects of science, mathematics and technical education,(pp. 123-132). Gadong: Universiti Brunei Darussalam. Romaizah Salleh. (2009). Brunei primary pupils‟ ideas of water cycle: effects of culture and language. Jurnal Pendidikan, 14, 70-80. Rubagumya, C., Kiliku, P., Mapunda, G., Muhdhar, R., Mtana, N., Tarimo, E. Ankomah, Y., Forde, L. D, Osei-Amankwah, L., Afitska, O., Clegg, J. (2010) Language of Instruction and Quality of Learning in Tanzania and Ghana. EdQual Policy Brief No 2, 09/10 p. 1. Sackey, J.A (Ed.) (2007) “The English Language in Ghana: A Historical Perspective,” in English in Ghana, M.E. Kropp Dakubu. Accra: Ghana English studies Association. Scott B. (2011) Why the education industry needs readability formulas. ReadabilityFormulas.com Sey, K. A. (1973) Ghanaian English: An Exploratory Survey. London: Macmillan

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Taylor, W. (1956). Recent Developments in the use of “Cloze Procedure.” Journalism Quarterly, 33, (1), 42-48, 99. Wellington, J. & Osborne, J. (2001). Language and literacy and science education. Buckingham, England: Open University Press. Wireko, V. (2009). Ghana last in Science and Maths? How come? Daily Graphic, Reality Zone, 8/09 Yong, B. C. S. (2003). Language problems in the learning of biology through the medium of English, Journal of Applied Research in Education, 7(1), 97-104. Yong, B. C. S. (2010) Can Students Read Secondary Science Textbook Comfortably? Brunei Int. J of Sci. & Math. Edu., Vol. 2(1), 59-67.

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Calendarian Ritual Songs Folk oral literature, as entirety, has the roots in the ancient past of all the nations in general and, of each nation in particular. The beginnings of this literature as the first conductor, the earliest one and the most credible of the life of the people in all of its featured forms, starting from the first social formations of the social life, and coming up to the sharpest contemporary political events. Every important event in the life of the mankind, such as, in the family (birth, marriage, death), in society (hunting in the woods, labour in the fields, going to the war, victory or betrayal), in the nature (such as the seasons of the year, various natural disasters, great droughts, or flooding and other disasters), has raised the thinking and the feelings to the humans, which were expressed differently from the daily usual conversations. At the beginning of its developments, folk oral literature, certainly was expressed based on the most simple forms of expression in verses, then by carving the poetic form of expression, by pursuing and by finding the rhythm and rhyme of expression and, by coming up to the most fulfilling forms of artistic expression. Later, this oral literature has begun to create very briefly prose narrations, in particular the form of anecdotes and tales, since they either did not have the courage, or they did not want to widely present various thoughts and experiences. The selection of the eloquent types and forms in folk oral literature beforehand was determined by the selection of the themes and the ability of the author, then it was conditioned by the tradition of nurturing of folk oral literature in certain social environments. These were influenced by colossal social changes and unequal living conditions. Certain environments were involved by major influences from great foreign factors, since they were closer to the sources of great world conflicts. The others have lived more peacefully, since they were further from the major world break up events, and based on folk‟s usual saying they were “in the tail of the lute”.

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To such dimension of living and social changes, the interests and the needs were different for the benefit of traditional culture of oral literature. Lyrical folk poetry has expressed the concern and the direct sensibility of the social life and the life of the individual that are closely connected with one another. But, at the same time, lyrical poetry, with all the types and forms of its realization, has preserved the living footsteps of its connections with the most ancient forms of beliefs and social life, as it happens with the songs and rituals of different celebrations, as it happens with yearly songs, as it happens with lullabies or with other types and forms of this poetry. In this line, therefore, its multiple value has prompted many scholars to get engaged with the studying of its origin and development, in order to discover many issues which were unknown until then, or partly known. The scholars that got engaged with lyrical poetry of the oral folk creation, have studied the mental and physical development, then economic and social circumstances, moreover the viewpoints that connected with the laws of the nature, and in particular, time, circumstances and the ability in creating of such goods of the art of lyrical poetry. It is known for a long time now that this part of spiritual culture is a reflection of human‟s life. In this manner, facing the laws of the nature, which were known very briefly, enabled the establishment of a range of rituals. Footsteps of the majority of them are found even today in various creations and beliefs. In line with this, such as the facing of enemy‟s assault, facing of different abusers, has increased the hatred towards the evil and the love for the beauty and the valuable. Therefore, it could be said rightly that, oral literature has followed step by step the historical development of mankind. Oral literature is people‟s literature, of all its categories. Oral creation is a collective production, meanwhile one must not look at this as a conclusive process, since one cannot exclude the individual character, since the song is sung or the tale is narrated by an individual. Thus, in the first place, the production is individual, while the changes are the result of the others, which are adapted to its requests as well as social circumstances that they live in. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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This does not imply to the myth, since it has a collective character, be it in creating or interpreting. Oral creations, then also the Calendarian songs must not be seen as rigid. They change in different periods. These changes are made not only in the form but in the content as well. Such types of oral creation are the most ancient, while it can be said that they are consentient with the oldness of the Albanian people themselves, which facing different difficulties during their history, such as political, economic and social did not forget the spiritual life as well. Pagan elements in oral literature are present in almost all the periods of Albanian social developments, therefore they represent an evidence of early sources of Illyrian culture and onwards. We find these in oral creations of different genres and types, in particular in fairytales, legends, in yearly songs and rituals and so on, such as for example, metamorphoses of characters, as: dragons, fairies, clocks and so on. To the similar significance, there are also the different songs which are dedicated to the phenomena of nature, moon, sun, clouds, fog, etc. Albanian oral literature includes all the fields of life, starting from the yearly rituals and songs, working songs, farming ones, then agriculture, family songs, love ones, legendary songs, historical songs. In line with songs, it is included the development of different types of the prose, such as: fairytale, legend in prose, legend, anecdote, proverb, riddle. Therefore, it can be said that every work, every activity, and other areas of life, were followed by oral creation, whilst as it can be looked into each of them, despite the other values, there are artistic values as well. Lyrical songs are the most ancient creations of all the genres and types of oral creation. Lyrical songs that were not conditioned, or linked with different events, which were sung freely, have undergone the most drastic of changes. Whereas the lyrical songs that were not linked with habits and customs of peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x;s life, have undergone fewer changes, since habits, customs, pagan and religious celebrations, rituals and ritual activities change less.

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Therefore, it can be said that lyrical songs that are dedicated to these habits and customs of people‟s life come from an ancient tradition, as habits and customs have a long continuity of history and time. Humans from ancient time did not know the laws of the nature. Hence, it created a range of beliefs and rituals, in order to accept them spiritually, as well as to face all those uncertain life challenges and, in this way they would be used to them. Ceremonies, rituals and beliefs began to associate with farming life, with hard agricultural labour, and with other activities and needs, by dealing with time and its changes, with seasons, months, weeks, days and they have found the great path of the school of life, as they must have learned this way because their life was depending on them. Considering this generally, Calendarian songs have a pagan character, regardless of wide social spreading, since they deal with various areas of life and always they preserve content and form, which can be noted without any difficulties. The first written evidence of the existing of creations from oral Albanian literature are later and very few in comparison with the ancientness of this creation, having in mind the quality, quantity as well as the dimensions of cultivating and reviving of them in people. Oral creations, in general but also Calendarian songs in particular, have played an important role in the process of creating and the development of our people. The whole living process was expressed there, by carrying from generation to generation the whole variegated level of development of human society. In the life of our people, spiritual creation has had a major significance as from birth, and in all the phases of the development of our life, until the end of the our life, or as it is referred usually as the death, in the tradition of people‟s creation, to the death rituals and mourning songs. Variety of their creation, the majority of versions of these rituals, purpose and continuity of the types, since the most ancient times up to the contemporary changes of our people, which also undergo these types of oral creation, are in full harmony with influences of time and space. Also the process of their fading and forgetting is a consequence of changes in time that happened within the lives of our society. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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Types and levels of social life of all the society categories were followed permanently by various types of oral creation of our people by becoming this way, the best and the most accurate expression of its lifetime preoccupations. Considerable types of oral creation were created and preserved by humans during their development since earlier phases of their existence. Meanwhile, it could be concluded that oral creation was founded and developed as a human need to express their internal word, feelings and meditations that deal with life, with labour, while never separating from the influences of natural occurrences and of life social path. Therefore, there we can find disunited systems of judging and thinking that have to do with the rapports of relationships of humans with nature and of human relations with the life within society. The specific of these creations is that they have preserved all the layers of time of their creation. Through these oral creations higher forms of relationships of artistic communications were developed, that furthermore enriched the spiritual world and risen the level of thinking of humans, by permanently preserving the characteristics of time periods, in particular those primal ones of creation. We can also find this characteristic in other nations as well, particularly at those sorts of oral creation that express mythology layers of ancient nations, footsteps of which were preserved even in the processes of social changes. Such oral creations were not only created at one particular period, or only by one generation of Albanian society. They were followed from mouth to mouth by this way passing them throughout centuries of social life, always by developing and transforming, but also preserving the footsteps of this development throughout time periods. However, sometimes, being faded away and being forgotten. Oral creation of our nation in general is as old as the nation itself, therefore the Calendarian songs, always remain fresh. It is not accidental that the initial creation, by passing of the time meets with various versions. For example as it is demonstrated by the works of expeditions of our folklorists, it is known that there were collected over 2000

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variety of songs of heroic epic. Hence, it can be said that during this process, also Calendarian songs have undergone massive changes, from which then there were created various other versions. Imperatively, created by more developed individuals, by the time they take a character of a collective production. And, by passing them from mouth to mouth throughout years and centuries, it is natural that upon this oral creation to influence and to operate also the waves of the “Sea of Oblivion”. Since its beginnings oral creation was born as expression in verses, so as poems, but followed by a melody. At the majority of cases, it was accompanied, even often, with moves, so with the first elements of dancing. In this way, it can be said it becomes a subject to the process of syncretisation, which makes the oral creation inexhaustible artistic and aesthetic value. These processes of these ways of developments were also subject to the part of oral creation of Calendarian songs, as one of the cradles of creations, where the poetic muse of national creator is flourished with all its variegation in all the periods of time of the individual and collective life of our people, in order to achieve that what is called spiritual purpose of popular genius. Ritual songs are the oldest creations, which usually at ancient times were accompanied by a certain ritual, by expressing a collective magical act, by giving peculiar characteristics to certain important moment of the social life. This was particularly manifested during the preparations of the works in agriculture, during the taking care of the works in farming, but also in following the regeneration of the life in nature during the change of seasons. Similar to lyrical songs of labour, lyrical ritual songs also express the love of the people for works, for the nature and its unknown features, for the stock which was a part of human‟s life, for the tenure and fertility, which demonstrates the need for renovation of the cycle of life. Such songs and rituals are connected with the New Year, with the first snowfall, with the arrival of the spring, with the harvest of the grapes, so with various yearly holidays. It is known that even today the ritual annual songs are sung by children. However in all this stratified matter for centuries in our culture and tradition, there are also present the mythical creatures, which are international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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an integral and active part of these creations, but that they demonstrate for the cleaning function towards indissoluble forces of nature, and which are linked with the life of the farmer, as well as with their belief to influence upon these natural forces for a more calm life, more prosperous and more secure, such as in these examples for the coming of the month of May, which is considered as one of the nodes of the changes of seasons: May, May, grow the wool, Like governance, in vineyard. Like tempered tail, Like trees in woods, Like yardstick of bazaar. or, Scissor tail tern Get this wide lace, throw it into the sea, bring ten okkas of health. and, Red faced tern Get this red string, To send me through the sea To bring me bread â&#x20AC;&#x201C; health.

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All nations from Balkans have such rituals, such as this one for the arrival of the spring, or for the welcoming and letting the tern go. Even today in our folklore tradition these are preserved in all the regions where Albanians live, as in Albania, Kosova, Montenegro, Macedonia, Eastern Kosova and in Çamëria, but they are also preserved to Arbereshs from Italy and those from Zara. Also now days the magical acts are alive in children, but also the belief, based on which, when they take out “summery” (which is a red rope, or white, or yellow, or even blue, which they have put in their hand, leg, or in the neck, the first day of March, as a beginning of the spring, demonstrates the belief that the worst things are left behind that winter brings). Such superstitions have accompanied the lives of all the nations of this space, where there were clashes of different cultures which lived together, of nations and different languages since the ancient times onwards. But, as it can be seen, the example that was recorded in Southern Albania by Stavro Frashëri in 1936, is more convincing that all possible theoretical conclusions. In such songs and in such rituals one can see clear the wishes of the future farmer. Tern, that symbolizes the arriving of the spring, believes that it will initially bring bread (food) and health. In one song recorded in Përmet, the wish of the people is expressed for the summer to bring them wealth, babies and hardworking brides: As wool on three rams, That wealth to have! As many flowers that cornel has That many boys also to have (stopanë)! As many flowers this pear has To come with a right manners As many flowers this cherry has, international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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That many boys and infancy! As many onions that cottage has That many hardworking brides!”

By passing of the time, lyrical labour songs and those of Calendarian family rituals have lost the importance and their meaning that they had in different periods of time, therefore now there are more songs and children‟s games. Such as: the first day of March, in some regions of Albania, in the South children take a bell in their hands and wander in dark places, meanwhile while ringing their bells they sing:

Go away, snakes, Go away souls, Then comes Vangjelizmoi It chops you, it kills you With sabre and with rifle!

Children‟s songs were made, therefore, almost all the ritual songs such as those for the rain, Christmas carol songs, for New Year songs, Llazorës songs and other similar ones. In the life of our nation there were many pagan holidays, accompanied with different rituals, which in many cases were followed by a song. However, with the passing of the time the majority of these rituals have ended at the children‟s games by preserving their following element, the song. They are even now days suitable and raise the curiosity and the fantasy of children‟s world. Since the early stages of the development

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of social life, songs and rituals were created almost for all the months. In the verses of these songs one can see the great presence of the works in agriculture and farming, which were two of the greatest opportunities for maintenance of human‟s life. Cults, rituals, habits and customs are preserved in these songs in which, since the ancient times were created and people‟s pagan beliefs were put up, as their footsteps can be found even now days:

February cuts bridges‟, March raises skin.

Holidays that mark events for different months of the year must be mentioned Calendar (Christmas carol) (from the Latin „calendae‟ – the first day of the year), which were initially celebrated on December 24. On this day, so the Calendar day, for example children go out as groups, boys and girls by going from home to home and they sung songs at those residents, as this one that was collected by Spiro Dine, which, depending on the region where it was collected, it is preserved in different versions:

Calendar, mellendr, Chirp, chirp, quack quack, You granny give me a bun, Because I‟ll hit you with lighter, I‟ll make you a bloody head!

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Meanwhile, in March, on the 25th of that month Vangjelizmoi was celebrated. In Muslimâ&#x20AC;&#x;s lives it is known as the Night of Nevruz (from Persian which means spring). On this day, children make noises with empty dishes, or even with stock bells, they go on the fields to dismay the snakes. These rituals are accompanied with songs:

Go away you snakes, go away you reptiles, Go away you animals and you rats, Because March comes and swallows you

There are different songs for Llazores as well. This holiday is linked to Saint Llazar, from Christian religion, which the Christ revived after the death. On this occasion children go from door to door by asking the landlady coloured eggs. They sing and dance for Rusica, by expressing rituals, habits and customs of this ceremony, which is thought to be very old. In our spiritual culture these values, which were preserved from generation to generation, represent certain levels of our civilisation, despite the fact that there were different periods of time when these ancient relicts were ignored and were cynically valued. Intellectuals from all the periods of time in the lifetime of our nation, equipped with authentic culture and with scientific information of the time, have always had respect for their values and the weight as rituals and valuable habits, not only for the life of ancestry, but also for the culture in general, therefore they have evaluated and have recognized as one of the basic values of our culture and the national ancestry. Our intellectuals have operated similarly to their European brothers, and those from Balkans, especially those from our National Renaissance.

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This is how our greatest Renaissance representatives operated, such as Naim and Sami Frashëri, Çajupi and Mjeda, later Gurakuqi and Konica, and the others as well who collected, published and studied these values of tradition. Despite other forms of spiritual and material creation during the years, the Albanian nation has also cultivated other games, mainly with pagan spirit, which are a meaningful type of oral dramatic creation. As all other nations from Balkans, or the majority of them, such games were played on special occasions, especially during the winter season, then in various pagan and religious holidays, in various family Calendarian rituals holidays, in weddings and other celebrations. Games, with all the similar features with the culture of the nations of Balkans, have peculiar features as well. Created and preserved from subjects that indispensably have inherited those games, which were created, preserved, were cultivated and were executed in different time contests. Therefore, as a part of our popular culture during the years, those elements of our existence were preserved which have helped us not to disappear as a nation. In latter historical processes they have become a part of shaping and the affirmation of a modern state. It is important today to preserve this treasure of our culture and not to perish before the dynamic waves of modern time. Art of oral creation in general, but also of the creations of this type represent the life and its phenomenon, by becoming spokesperson of life‟s reality of different periods of time, by evolving and by developing with it. In this regard, always new occurrences were tackled and presented through verses in the aesthetic perception of those life phenomenon, by continuously conveying their magnificent side. Magnificent character and the reality of life follow the same path on the scope of their formation as creations of oral creation, by articulating this way the rapports of the relationship between them.

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In the first place, they become expression and protection of the advanced ideals of time for the life of the nation that create them, by expressing the magnificent, but by preserving and materializing also the function for the aesthetic ideal, as it is by preserving the cults of water, corn, woods, fertility, but also for the fulfilling of the requests for the afterlife of the dead. Such cults, constantly compressed with figures and mythical creatures, are the components of the structure of lyrical songs of Claendarian rituals, not only in the oral creation of Albanian nation, but of the other nations in Balkans as well, which were not dispersed even before the religious spirit and from traditional habits and customs, but not even before norms and totalitarian systems which were brought by waves of different periods of time.A constant element of the structure of these creations is the space. Space, as a system and a communication mean is as old as human beings. By linking with the very early events of humans‟ life, we find them expressed since incantation and augury, prayers and magic, various rituals, as well as pagan holidays. But it is known for a long time that during prayers and magic, there are always certain spaces. Also different pagan holidays had their ceremonies always linked with space and the certain time. It is known that these holidays are accompanied with ceremonies and acts that convey various magical occurrences. The place of these ceremonies and magical acts was determined. For example, during “Christmas Eve”, the tree was brought from the open space, similar to nature, woods and fields, to the closed space, in household. The entire food that was prepared for this holiday was placed upon it. After this act, in the meantime the food was served, which also contained all the variety of food. Therefore, there is a possibility that the cult over the table to have survived from this time as a very popular ritual. In Albanian popular culture, as it is known, the stepping and the crossing of the table is prohibited. So, the house, tower with its entire infrastructure: fire place, tree, table, etc., are signs of language expressions, which represent their old age. In the acts that express these rituals, as well as based on the norms of traditional life and canon rules, therefore in the old songs that are linked with these pagan

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holidays, them, so the acts have a magical meaning. Even now days some parts of these objects and of these things are preserved and respected. I do not know anything else in the life of our people to be valued more than the honour of the house, family (chimney), kitchen and the table. Summer Day, as a pagan holiday, is done with many acts, which resemble to magical occurrences, which express the human welfare, wealth and harvest. Summer Day, according to the old calendar, is celebrated on 1st March, whilst based on the new calendar it is celebrated on the 14th March. On this day, in some regions of Kosova, children of both genders go in the garden, fields, woods or elsewhere and they collect flowers, leaves and sticks and they make crowns. They use them for a certain time, during the day or night, while the next day they throw them on the well. These rituals and magical acts have decently preserved the songs that were collected in various parts of Kosova: Tiny moon has fallen from pear to pear, Oh we‟ll go and rip the sticks in well. Tiny moon has fallen on top of the mountain, We will send yokes to the valley of fountain Verses of this ritual song, stratified in the memory of centuries everywhere in our land, besides people‟s beliefs regarding the magical power of the green or colourful stick, show that they threw the yokes on well and fountain, since they believed that the water had cleaning power, therefore entering the water made the yokes unbreakable. At the same time, in different songs of this holiday, there are such verses that demonstrate that in a certain fountain the water must be taken at a certain time. Songs of First Tern are linked with the Summer Day holiday. Motivation is the wish of the people for terns to be the bearer of luck, life, health, and the future, as it is seen in the above-mentioned examples. It is easy to understand that the motivation of these songs is the happiness for the arrival of the first terns, where the sizes of space are almost self-understood, as it has to do with the arrival of the first terns from warm regions. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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Also the rituals and songs of this holiday are also related with the time of a particular season. As it is expressed in different verses of these songs, the children request from terns to bring them red “summery”, red belt, as well as everything else that is linked with the red colour, which according to the beliefs it has a great apostrophic power, but all of these with a condition for the tern to send them “somewhere beyond the sea” accompanied with a wish “to bring them bread and health”. In the quoted verses we see that this deals with a limited space, which the humans were trying to set themselves. According to their belief it was a very wide space, very far, away beyond the sea. However, even in the dimension of such space there is no lack of the power of aesthetic imagination, where the message of realizing of the dream is given for possession and wealth, for life and health. On Saint George holiday, besides preparations that express people‟s joy for the arrival of the holiday, also there are known different magical acts and rituals that are always followed with certain formula, acts and mimic and olphatic moves and with expressions, sometimes incomprehensible, in the form of prayer and incantation, as well as with different songs, which children sing, or imitate their singing during the day of this holiday. In this plan, especially the girls are livelier, more active. They act for almost every element of this holiday based on the ritual and the magic, which are often followed with lyrical songs. In the introduction of his work, which Gjeçovi wrote in Gjakova, in April 1927, for rituals and habits of Albanian nation, collected from 1900 until 1926, this note can be found: “In this notebook I collected some works (under A.H.) and habits that I had on paper in order not to lose the work and for Albanian literature not to be impoverished. Gjakova 23/06/1927”. The manuscript has around 200 pages and is archived in the National Museum of Shkodra, registered as number 2130. This fact was highly evaluated by Gavril Dara, Jr: “As flags stand in the war as a symbol of the homeland in order to collect the disbanded soldiers, as the songs during the time are light, where the hearts are enlightened, the symbol of the nation, the flag of honour, testament of footsteps”.

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SIDDHARTH SEKHAR DAS

TRANSITIONS OF UNDERGRADUATE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN INDIA: AN ATTEMPT TO PERCEIVE SCIENCE

Abstract The judgmental consideration of an undergraduate student, posing less efficiency and potency for performing projects in laboratory has been shadowed by the increasing participation of students in scientific research with an aim of perceiving real science. The fast evolving science needs smarter innovations and ideas, and that’s what actually is continually built in the minds of undergraduate student, an early voyager of infinite research career. It has been hypothesized and proved that the quality of teaching and understanding of science at undergraduate level, is strengthened by performing dedicate research work apart from credit based laboratory experiments. Indian higher education system has fostered multiple undergraduate research programs and these have been well acclaimed by the students in form of summer and shortterm research internships. The study reveals various opinions on different aspects of a career in research collected from 200 undergraduate students from different streams like Science, engineering, medicine, management and humanities. The relative interest for a career in research has been proved to root irrespective of stream of study.

Keyword: Summer Research Programs, Government funds, IISc, SERB, DST, JNCASR, IITs, IISERs, TIFR, NITs, Mentor.

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1. Introduction: A transition has marked the new face of undergraduate (UG) science research in the present time. Classrooms promote learning activities that fully engage students in learning and discovery process. Accompanied by lab works, focus has been shifted to enquiry-based experiences in which cookbook recipes are discarded in favor of student-derived hypothesis and experimental design. The transformation has permeated the curriculum beyond the classroom. Undergraduate students are now involved in mentor based research projects, not merely enduring lectures about science on studying their textbook. The stereotype of setting a age or degree bar for being a researcher, has indeed declined in the past few years. Research is the sole requirement for development and this has been accepted by one and all. But the orthodoxy involved in considering a UG student, still naĂŻve for research, has been discarded trashed by the examples set by few remarkable discoveries and research rooting at the UG level. The Indian higher education system defines undergraduate studies as the basic step into a higher study and if pursued in long run can establish one as a researcher. However, the involvement of UG students in research in some of the developed countries of the world has led our academicians and policy framers to ponder, whether the cultivation of science in India must be accompanied by strengthening the pillars of future researchers at an early stage of life.The benefits of undergraduate research has been broadly respected and empirically established [1]. Quantitatively and qualitatively UG research experience boosts an interest in career in science, engineering, technology and medicine [2]. It has been proved that understanding scientific contexts has been more vivid, when supplemented with research projects at undergraduate level [3]. A benchmark career rehearsal is necessary for future scientist after all innovation is not just solving equations or remembering definitions, rather in a real sense involves the inquisitiveness and curiosity harnessed and the ability to transform these curiosities into a strategic scientific temperament, can help to solve mysteries and explore the unknown.

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A UG student mounts within feelings of comparison between reality and classroom teachings. Transiting back in time, few years ago we realize that graduate applications with even few research experience was considered a remarkable job and publication if any granted a surety of selection. But at the present time, graduate applications seem to have ample examples of UG research and publications, thus shifting the focus from the quantity of research activity to quality. Classically UG students used to follow a cookbook recipe in designing their menu but at the time being UG students design their own recipes and aim of writing new cookbooks of scientific research [4]. UG research has not only favored strengthening of scientific foundations, but also boosted skills like independent thinking, community tasking, leadership and problem solving. This turns to be instrumental in later career in science. A study recently proved that even mentors and researchers find it equally important to have a UG student in their labs, to keep the spirit of enthusiasm high and let there be an unrestricted uprise of ideas and innovations [4]. After all they say, students are the winners. In India the concept of interdisciplinary research has been a more recent appreciation and thereby most UG students feel this new field to be challenging and exciting. Academic courses of interdisciplinary sciences with management and humanities help in laying out vital fundamentals of research like ethics in research and the safeguarding of intellectual property. The university based semester systems although include laboratory experiments as coursework, time limitations and generality of experiments performed never meets the curiosity level of few students deeply interested in a career in research. Undergraduate research helps in transforming the scientific theories into a wider frame of global exposure and the commercial viability and successful implementation of results of research for social benefit, being the other criteria of importance. Rightly quoted “I think therefore I am a scientist” now finds a kind of more subtle presence now among Indian undergraduates.

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Wright (1998) [6] quoted precisely the responses of researchers involved in summer research programs and found that 67% of students accepted into summer research grants actually took up higher degrees in science, 0.05% pursued medicine and 0.02% changed their field of higher study after graduation. The US based unified body called Council of Undergraduate research, acts as a database and source of information for UG student profiles, graduate school information’s and thus bridges the gap between both these and also conducts workshops and seminars promoting undergraduate research and need to pursue advanced degrees of research in science. In context of India, we are still not with such a body but the government has many specific and exclusive programs for scientific research through the Department of Science and Technology (DST). The dept. has precise information on scientific research and various funding programs for promoting science both at undergraduate and higher levels. One of the famous programs of DST include INSPIRE (Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired research), which promotes undergraduate research through funding and programs dedicated specially for undergraduates. The newly constituted science body after a parliamentary amendment is named as Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) providing set of programs for boosting scientific research among researchers with no upper and lower age restrictions. The core programs include travel grant for attending International conference, Prime minister’s fellowship for Doctoral studies and Young Scientist Award .The board welcomes all genuine scientific research ideas and innovations, in need of financial support and technical expertise. In addition the country’s most oldest and reputed science institute named Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore has launched a 4 years Bachelors in Science (BS) degree with primary focus on undergraduate academics with research orientation and specifically to promote interdisciplinary research. Similar courses have also been introduced at some of the premier universities in India like University of Delhi, Shantiniketan University, and West Bengal etc.

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The country in the past decade has set up some research oriented institutes with academic wings like Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISERs) and National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISERs), funded by the Ministry of Human Resource development (MHRD) and Dept. of Atomic Energy, Govt of India. The main goal of these institutes is to give a high-class undergraduate education in science with a parallel research skill, which actually motivates young intellectuals to opt for a career in scientific research. In engineering Sciences, country’s premiere institute like Indian Institute of Technology (IITs) and National Institutes of Technology (NITs) and few others have set an example in the world in the field of education and research. In medical sciences, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) and Armed Forces Medical College (AFMC) and many others have contributed equally to the education system with a forefront research activity. These institutes mostly host their independent funded summer research programs with a few jointly organizing these programs with the Indian Academy of Science (IAS) for a period of 2-3 months and in cases there has been benchmark results obtained from these time bound research projects apart from the skill learnt and knowledge shared. The IITs and National Center for Basic Sciences (NCBS) Bangalore are planning to revolutionize the undergraduate medical education in India by starting the world recognized integrated MD-Phd programs, with the focus to amalgamate physicians’ skill with research temperament. This will lead to milestone education reformation as the existing one has seen most physicians getting oriented only for clinical practice and thereby the link between biologists and physicians seems to be gapped in India. Some of the major summer research programs for undergraduates in India include, 

Summer Research fellowship program, offered by Jawaharlal Nehru Center for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bangalore which also can lead to the prestigious Rajiv Gandhi Fellowship, offered by JNCASR and Rajiv Gandhi Foundation, New Delhi.

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   

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Visiting students Research Program, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Mumbai. Joint Summer Research Fellowship program, Indian Academy of Sciences (IAS). Visiting Students program in Theoretical Physics, Institute of Mathematical Science. IISC Young Engineering Fellowship program, IISC Bangalore.

Apart from this IISc Bangalore also has summer research grants for undergraduate students in science belonging to minority community. This encourages participation of the minorities in higher and advanced scientific study and research. The Homi Bhaba Center for Science Education (HBCSE) and Tata Institute of Fundamental research (TIFR) co-host the National Initiative on Undergraduate Science (NIUS), which includes initiating and guiding students for a long term research career and promotion of undergraduate research. The uniqueness of these programs is the rejuvenating lecture series, which are accompanied by innovative laboratory workshops that makes it an ideal school for perceiving science. The limitation of opportunities and funding for undergraduate research activities has been mitigated in the past years and efforts are still on to facilitate undergraduate science in more real terms. A student body called Science for Society (S4S) started its functioning with all undergraduate member and at present it has seem wide expansion and has itself started extending support to undergraduate students to decide area of work, associate researchers from different parts of the country and commercializing the technologies. At the undergraduate level, an independent research activity provides an exact perception of research culture and helps to envision self as a leading a life of scientist and thereby to decide whether to invest their life in this career or not. The gift that these research projects harvest ultimately is the gain of hands on skill, knowledge and expertise ion the field of interest, share of ideas and interests with the lab members and also teamwork compatibility. Even the art of writing Scientific letters and literature is very important to express one’s research to the world scientific community and undergraduate research, tenders to the build up of these skills

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at an early stage as well. Many undergraduates in India involved in research work have published their articles in International and National Journals of repute with an appreciable impact factor. Even in the years of undergraduate studies, students get to visit and work in different labs and thereby learn to identify which are of research fascinated them and develop on an ability to decide upon laboratory for pursuing graduate research. Therefore, an early research experience at undergraduate level pays sooner or later in form of building of scientific temperament and inquisitiveness. Along with strengthening of professional skill, it also improves the basic personal attributes. In this survey based analysis report collected from 200 undergraduate students on various questions, which tries to access the basic idea of scientific research among these students and also their aspirations to take up a career in research. These students are from different streams of study including basic sciences, Medical Science, Engineering and humanities. A rather pilot study, this report highlights certain critical issues that needs consideration by the policy makers and academic designers in the future course of action.

2. Method: Respondent Analysis: The survey was fed by opinions of 206 undergraduates representing 12 premier universities and colleges across India. The diversity was assured in form of the student types, their socio-psychological background and the courses they were specializing in. It spanned from engineering, medical sciences, architecture, basic sciences, pharmacy, clinical research and central research laboratories etc. The gender ratio of respondents was higher for the females (58%) outweighing the males (42%) (Table 1).

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Table 1:

Field of Study

% of Male respondents

% of Female Respondents

Architecture

Basic Science

Clinical Research

Central Research Labs

Engineering

Medical Sciences

Pharmacy

A very slight observation indeed showed a diversity of total responses collected from students of different streams, which indicates openness to answering the question, thought processing levels and indication of spontaneous interest in research related activities (Table 2).

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Table 2: Contribution of several streams to survey responses:

Stream

% Contribution to total response

Architecture

Basic Science

Clinical Research

Central Research Labs

Engineering

Medical Sciences

Pharmacy

Response Analysis: The satisfactory part of response collection was almost all students answered in an ample manner whether in favor or against a career in higher research. This proved instrumental not only in analyzing their opinions but also understanding the psychological background of such responses. The survey mainly involved questions (MCQ type-with most probable options), however at many times cases arise where the student opinion does fit to the provided options and that amounts to our consideration of biased opinion or blockage of opinion for a roughly 3-4% of survey results.

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Respondent, who declared having received any funding in for short or long term research projects, were asked to cite the source of funding or institute of funding in order to analyze the available opinions. Mostly the funding source was government-sponsored programs with certain private body funded programs.80% of the respondent had already been placed after their undergraduate level and nearly half of them were sure of joining for a job after completion of degree. Rest 15% had a strong interest for pursuing higher career in research and most strikingly 5% of the respondents found answering their future career out of context, even though they were passing out in the same or immediate coming year. Designing of the Survey: The survey of undergraduate research experience was titled as “Junior steps in scientific research” and had 25 very specific questions asked on a wide range of aspects related to research interests or outlook necessary for undergraduates. Surveying: The college coordinators, student representatives were informed about the survey via email, notice or post and requested for circulating this questionnaire among students and responses were directly collected at our end using online survey form. Students were asked to give their name, institutional details and the stream to make the analysis more specific. 3. Results and Discussions: Understanding scientific Research: A clear understanding of scientific research as an in-depth understanding of a context, which comes from a sense of inquisitiveness and a defined theoretical background; has been observed among almost all the undergraduates. It is generally conceptualized as an act of lab works and experiments, which in a later stage has socially beneficial impacts.

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86% of students agreed to have varying levels of commitment to pursue a career in research, however rest 14% denied to this (Fig 1). The reason behind such responses unanimously grounded at the lack of future prospective, economical limitations and inefficiency of govt. infrastructure for promoting such work. However, there is a awareness among UG about the changing scenario of scientific research in India, with rising funding and scholarships for promoting research with world class State of the art laboratories. However the number of such labs and institutes coming up doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t suffice to the no of UG students dreaming for a similar career. This disparity in both location and organizational establishment has been due to varying policy and their implementation, Centre-State driven policy issues and level of education imparted at these institutes. Instances of lives of scientists in India has not been that inspiring to some UG students, which detract them from thinking of a similar career for themselves. A more practical aspect is the fascination and excitement associated with the life of a researcher and this has been questioned time and again

Fig 1-11:Response Analysis of several questions asked in survey.

Fig 1

Fig 2

Drop out

Yes No

Fig 3

Change Field

Fig 4 Like/Not me

Like/yes I'll SANDEEP SATAPATHY & SIDDHARTH SEKHAR DAS â&#x2013;Ş Attempt to perceive Science

Agree Disagree

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Appropr iate

Fig 6 Aware

Upto a Mark

Fig

Possible

Unaware

Fig 8 Lab Work Theoretical

Impossib le

Fig 9

Fig 11

Yes Reservatio n No Reservatio n Would ruin

No Idea

Fig 10 Research Coporate Others No Idea

Yes No Its Ok

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What if Research becomes monotonous at a point? For a scientist, this question might with little scope of answering but for a UG student, it is indeed of importance. Although research in India has shown rapid strides in past decades, peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s inclination to medicine or engineering as a career choice seems to be more socially prejudiced and with hopes and aspirations of higher self benefit.75% of UG students agree to the fact that they have the patience and anxiety to pursue their research, even it seems monotonous or boring to them at a point of time (Fig 2). The reasons probably are the changing educational pattern (research oriented), scopes in science and rising collaborations of scientists from India and abroad. A 3% of students opined to change their area of research and 21% thought of dropping out of the career, if it seems to be monotonous confirming with those students who had either been biased for such a career or have no demarcated set of interests. Interdisciplinary Courses and Modern degrees: Introduction of interdisciplinary research based degrees and integrated programs have changed the prospectives of research career from the grassroot level that is the UG career. Integrated MS (Masters in Science), Integrated PhD and MD-PhD programs are considered to be the need of the future years and will yield some of the finest scientists in the coming years. However the rate of acceptance of such courses is 28% among UG students, although awareness fairly exists about its prospectives (Fig 3). Mostly this is due to the duration of such courses and the difficulty level related, which initially strikes to a student looking for an UG career. Apart from the student community, the parents of such students also feel a short duration professional study followed by a good job is what is their prime requirement for ensuring a settled life. 52% of UG students think that courses like MD-PhD are possible and should be introduced in India, whereas 10% opine against it (Fig 7). Nevertheless, it is expected that this figure is going to be revamped in the years to come, with rising awareness and interest both among students and parents. Government policies can be a vital force in such a case. SANDEEP SATAPATHY & SIDDHARTH SEKHAR DAS â&#x2013;Ş Attempt to perceive Science

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Apart from lab based research, theoretical science has always been an integral part and research in this field is considered to be equally challenging.68% of students find research more interesting when it involves lab works and experiments (Fig 8). Research in India and Abroad: This question pertains in the mind of every student whether directly involved or far from a career in research. Mainly the reasons for brain drain, or rising emigration of intellectuals and students is due to better career options and flexibility of education system with an ultimate consideration of better life style abroad. This has really been India’s concern and thereby a change in India’s scientific policy and revised job protocols for scientists in India, has been able witness a situation as like reverse brain drain.39% of students agree to the fact that research can ensure a dreamt of life if pursued abroad, 28% feel India to be a good place for research and 23% express non clarity of views related to research across the world and thereby fail to make comments in this regards (Fig 4). 49% of students have agreed that life of researchers in India is a source of inspiration, which is due to the level of achievements of Indian scientists. Government Policy and Infrastructure: 66% of UG students, who are currently enrolled in a research-oriented course, have felt that the government policy and infrastructure for research development and focus in involvement of UG students is not satisfactory and thereby acts as a major deterrent factor leading to a negative conception build up or ignorance of future outcome in such a career (Fig 5). The reasons are the deficiency in capacity to absorb students interested in this career. The funding of projects and labs in various institutes across the country has been random and uncertain, amounting to lack of proper resource utilization. The involvement of UG students in the labs is limited to the lab space, funding, interest of scientists to absorb and time demand by syllabus to complete the degree.

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Approximately 23% of students have agreed to their satisfaction with existing policies and focus.60% of students are aware about the government or private sponsored fellowships or programs for promotion of science (Fig 6). However around 5% of such students have selected for such programs, which indicates lesser representation or more students not meeting the criterias, either of the cases need serious attention. Although these programs and fellowships are highly acclaimed in the students community and there is a neck-to-neck competition for these, few of the students opine that it is a form of incentive to be attracted for a career in research instead of being lured for other professional careers. The amount of scholarship at present is also considered to be minimally low which makes life difficult for students from average-low income families.40% students ignorant about such opportunities, also indicate that there needs to be a wider participation of students through increasing application statistics, which will ensure selection of the best. The concept of reservation for minorities in research career was introduced with an aim to ensure greater participation and upliftement of the deprived sections, but at the present situation 40% students feel, reservation in research may actually ruin the quality and lead to deprivation of merit due to limited chances. This ultimately can contribute to brain drain and lesser interest in a career as such (Fig 9). 37% of students however, speak neutrally saying reservation will not affect the quality of research, as there it is depends on oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s innovativeness and inquisitiveness. Deciding the future career and exposure to research at UG level: Most diverse options were seen, when UG students are questioned about their career decision.24% are interested for a career in research, 22% like to go for some other career options, 19% prefer corporate fields and 18% are not sure about the future yet (Fig 10). This figure mismatches with the interest in of UG students in scientific research, which is considerably high. One of the potential reasons being the difficulty in accepting a life as a researcher, which outweighs the fascination for this field. Mostly, very few students get opportunities to be in a research lab or to visit such a place, which can make their decision making easier. SANDEEP SATAPATHY & SIDDHARTH SEKHAR DAS â&#x2013;Ş Attempt to perceive Science

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Attending conferences, workshops and seminars are real motivators and around 60% students have attended such in their UG life, but 34% of such students feel at present the registration fee is high for students which at times, stands to be a limiting criteria (Fig 11). 10% of students express that conferences and workshops are just to utilize the free time as like holidaying and at such instances it hardly steams up their research orientations. Apart from the involvement of students in UG research, a simple question in form of “Noble prize in Science” was reverted with great enthusiasm and spirit.90% of student’s believe it to be the highest level of achievement that human brain can dictate. Conclusion: Science is an ever growing and an expanding field, where innovation leads the race. Considering the potential of human resource we have, Science originating and spanning over India and the mankind in large, have proved its worth globally. However, seeing the population dynamics and the professional demographics, research career still seems to be prejudiced and involvement of UG students needs far more attention. Revision in existing programs and policies both at government and institutional levels can indeed prove to be a boost to the strengthening of junior steps in scientific research. The rising involvement of UG students in research based activities, is a positive trend in this regards and will ultimately lead to a more tailored scientific community in future, that can be the country’s strongest manpower.

Acknowledgments: We would like to express our thanks and gratitude to all the UG students who are directly or indirectly a part of this survey based study and helped in understanding the system more precisely.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Abrash SA, Otto CA, Hoagland KE. 1998. Undergraduate research: Building a road to better undergraduate education. Council on Undergraduate Research. White Paper. Washington DC. [2] Blits KC. 1999. Aristotle: form, function, and comparative anatomy. Anat Rec (New Anat) 257:58–63. [3] Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research University. 1998. Reinventing undergraduate education: A blueprint for America’s research universities. Stony Brook, NY: State University of New York at Stony Brook. [4] Bradley D. 2001. Researching undergrads: Sampling life at the bench. In: HMS Beagle: The Biomed Net Magazine. Issue 112. [5] Brown K. 2001. Time, money, and mentors: Overcoming the barriers to undergraduate research. HH MI Bulletin. January: 30 –33. [6] Chopin SF, Moury JD. 2001. Undergraduate research symposium in south Texas. AAA Newsletter 10(4): 10. [7] Committee on Undergraduate Science Education. 1999. Transforming undergraduate education in science, mathematics, engineering and technology. National Research Council, National Academy Press [8] Fortenberry NL. 1998. Integration of research and curriculum. CUR Quarterly 19:54 – 61. [9] Gonzalez C. 2001. Undergraduate research, graduate mentoring, and the university’s mission. Science 293:1624–1626. [10] Hoopes M. 1993. For undergraduates, hands-on research and book learning go hand in hand. Scientist 7:10. [11] Light RJ. 2001. Making the most of college: Students speak their minds. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. SANDEEP SATAPATHY & SIDDHARTH SEKHAR DAS ▪ Attempt to perceive Science

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Armela KROMIÇI, PhD Candidate

Undertakings for Collective Investment in Transferable Securities under the Albanian Legislation

Abstract

The undertakings for collective investment in transferable securities are investment schemes that enable the collection of capitals from investors, usually the general public, in order then to invest this capital in the financial markets. The capitals collected by the general public constitute transferable securities and are invested in the market based on the principle of risk sharing. Investors may operate even on their own in the financial markets but by investing their capitals through collective investment patterns they increase their benefits and minimize the risks of loss which would be much bigger if they would be operating alone in the markets. In the Albanian legislation, undertakings of collective investments in transferable securities are currently regulated by Law no. 10198 adopted by the Parliament on 10.12.2009. For the drafting of this law, the Albanian legislator followed as a model the directives adopted by the EU on undertakings of collective investments which is reflected not only in the structure but also in the content of the law currently in power. The aim of this paper is the analyze of these scheme under the Albanian Legislation.

Keywords: transferable securities, financial market, Albanian legislation

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1. A historical observation on the Albanian financial market and undertakings of collective investment The financial and commercial legislation have an important place in Albania’s integration process to the EU in compliance with the obligations arising directly by the Stabilization and Association Agreement which entered into force on April 1, 2009. The drafting and adoption of a commercial and financial legal framework in line with the provisions of the EU aim at removing the obstacles related to the creation and activity of commercial companies, as well as simplifying the procedures according to European and international best practices. The Albanian legislator is currently engaged to offer to the companies established based on the legislations of EU member states and their branches the same treatment provided for domestic commercial companies. Especially, article 70 of the Agreement provides for the obligation of the Albanian legislator to approximate the Albanian financial legislation with the European one. In the Albanian legislation, undertakings of collective investments in transferable securities (UCITS) are currently regulated by Law no. 10198 adopted by the Parliament on 10.12.2009. For the drafting of this law, the Albanian legislator followed as a model the directives adopted by the EU on undertakings of collective investments which is reflected not only in the structure but also in the content of the law currently in power. The abovementioned law actually is not the first act adopted by the Albanian legislator; previously the Parliament adopted the law no. 7979, dated 26.7.1995 On Investment Funds. This law regulated for the first time in the Albanian legislation the way of establishment, the activity of investment funds, the protection of the investors and the state supervision investment funds. As for the law on the undertakings of collective investments also the law On Investment Funds was drafted referring to acts adopted by the European legislator of the time. The law On the Investment Funds provided for the opportunity of creating funds based on the model of joint-stock companies with a structure composed by two management levels, which could be established with a legal capital of 20 000 USD (around 15500 Euros). These funds would be managed by private management companies, which could not manage more than two investment funds. The supervision and licensing procedures would fall in the powers of the Ministry of Finances which had space in the determination of licensing procedures and regulation of funds. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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Also for the Banks it was forbidden to own shares by an investment fund, whose activity referred only to the investment and reinvestment of the money. The law provided limitations for foreign natural persons and legal entities. The later could own up to 50% of the shares of a fund on the condition that the rest of the capital would be owned entirely by Albanian subjects (natural persons and/or legal entities). Furthermore, the law did not define clearly the role and responsibilities of the depository limited only to a few paragraphs which clarified their powers and responsibilities, the contracts they could conclude with the fund and the prohibition to use the assets 1 deposited in the fund . The various abovementioned limitations as well as the lack of experience of Albanian economic operators in this field became an obstacle for the effective implementation of this law. In this transition climate, in the Albanian fragile financial market the pyramid schemes started to operate. The Bank of Albania and the first private banks were not able to reiterate capitals due to the scarcity of the services they offered. The financial legislation of the time, and especially the law which regulated the establishment of new banks was very restricting and made entry into the Albanian financial market hard for other banks, thus, this situation led private entrepreneurs toward the informal 2 market in pursue of capital leading to the fall of the Albanian financial system . The situation created and the bankruptcy of the financial mediators made it necessary, under the supervision of the Ministry of Finances and the Bank of Albania, the process of restructuring and privatization of the second level banks having state capital. While the financial market underwent radical changes, the financial non-banking market and especially the investment schemes did not change. Only in year 2006, which may be considered as a revolutionary year for the financial non-banking system in Albania, the Law no. 9572, dated 03.07.2006 on the Financial Supervision Authority (FSA) as a 3 public independent institution was adopted .

Malltezi A., Rystemaj J., Pelinku L., (2013). Sipermarrja e Investimeve Koletive (SIK) in Aspekte Te Se Drejtes Se Biznesit Ne Shqiperi. Editor: MediaPrint, Tirane, pp. 84-86. 2 Jarvis C., (2000) The Rise and Fall of the Pyramid Schemes in Albania, IMF Staff Papers, Vol.47, N.1 in www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/staffp...pdf/jarvis.pdf , see also Bezemer D., (2001) Post-Socialist Financial Fragility: the Case of Albania, in Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 25, No.1. 3 http://amf.gov.al

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Currently, the two main regulatory and supervisory institutions of the financial market in Albania are the Bank of Albania which supervises the banking market and the Financial Supervision Authority which supervises the financial non-banking market. In 2007 FSA licensed for an undetermined term the Tirana Stock Exchange, a state shareholders’ company with a sole shareholder – the Ministry of Finances, with a minimum capital of 20000000 4 Albanian Lek . The flourishing of the Tirana Stock Exchange is a complex and process depending on many factors and despite the various efforts undertaken to this regard, the Tirana Stock Exchange still does not function at the proper level. Currently, the banking sector continues to dominate in the Albanian financial system. This fact is a common characteristic of the countries of the region especially the countries having their economies under development, which testifies the great dependence that the economic development has on the banking system situation, but different from the other countries of the region, the Albanian financial non-banking market still needs to develop, in order to create other alternatives for the investment of the saving, for the financing and management of the risk for the economic operators not only as an obligation arising from the Stabilization and Association Agreement but also for the facilitation of domestic and foreign investments in the Albanian market. Referring to the financial non-banking market, the Albanian legislator has already undertaken a series of reforms and has adopted important laws.

2. Undertakings of collective investment in transferable securities under the Albanian legislation in power The Law no. 10198 aims at regulating the conditions on the establishment and functioning of the undertakings of collective investment, of management companies, funds’ structures, the licensing and supervision exercised by the FSA. Also, the law regulates the activity of the foreign collective undertakings and management companies which want to operate in the territory of Albania. Article 3 of this law clarifies that the wording ‘Undertakings of Collective Investment’ (UCI) refers to all forms of investment schemes which had not been regulated before by any Albanian law and the participation 4

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through shares or other rights is provided in order to increase the participation in money and, explicitly, aims at investing over 60 per cent of this participation in securities’ portfolios, deposits and all other types of assets. The same article explicitly excludes banks, pension funds, insurance companies licensed according to Albanian rules, or capital investment undertakings which increase their capitals without public offers, from being considered UCI, but does not prohibit for the abovementioned subjects to invest their assets in UCI. Based on the Albanian law UCI may be created following two schemes; the contractual one of joint funds and following the statutory scheme of investment companies. While, referring to the statutory scheme, the investment companies gather their capital through public or private offer. The investment company with a public offer is a joint-stock company which is established by the management company, with or without a term, based on the provisions of the law On 5 Entrepreneurs and commercial companies . The registered capital of the investment company should be at least 40.000.000 Albanian lek, which is approximately 300000 Euro, and the shares of the investment company must be paid completely before the registration of the investment company at the National Registration Center and in the Funds’ Record. The investment company with a public offer cannot emit other types of securities different from common shares which give the shareholders equal rights. Investment companies with private offer the same as investment companies with a public offer are joint-stock companies established in compliance with the law on entrepreneurs and commercial companies and licensed by FSA. By this general overview it is easily understood that different from the European directive or legislations of different EU member states, in the Albanian law it has not been provided for any opportunity of investment in private investment funds with variable capital. Undertakings of collective investments are registered in the Funds’ Record of the Republic of Albania which is kept by FSA and is accessible to third parties. Registration with the Record is done only after the FSA issues the license and each new undertaking in collective investments is given an identification number. Both investment schemes provided by the Albanian legislation (investment funds and investment companies with a public offer) are established by the management company. The management company is the joint-stock company which may be established with a minimum capital not lower than 15 625 000 Albanian lek, and specifically in article12 point 2, the 5

Article 58, 59

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law provides that this capital may not be borrowed, taken as a loan or advances by third parties and at least 51% of the shares or the voting rights is owned by banks or financial institutions. The duration of the company may be with an undetermined term. The organization of the company is done based on the model with one management level; Management companies are registered at the National Registration Center and are licensed by the FSA after the interested entity has fulfilled a detailed list of requirements determined by article 16. FSA has broad powers as regards the conditions that management companies must fulfill in order for them to be licensed and to exercise their activity, and as a consequence the regulations and secondary legislation adopted by this Authority will have an important role. Internal and external financial control is exercised on the management company. As regards the internal financial control, the law requires that the persons assigned by the company with the internal control of the company be independent. This is a general provision of article 19 which necessarily means the fulfillment of requirements through secondary legislation by the FSA and also by the management company in order to have an effective control on the company would be not only in the benefit of the shareholders but in the benefit of the companiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance as well. Also, article 19, along with the internal financial control also provides for risk management control, as an opportunity for the fulfillment of principles of good governance of the commercial companies. The function of the risk management, among others, monitors the risks that threaten the company, as well as monitors the activity of the company in order to guarantee that the company acts within the limits of the risks defined in the prospectus and respecting the law. The persons exercising the functions of risk management, as well as the persons exercising internal financial control are independent and report before the management council. As regards the external financial control, first, the management company must keep complete and accurate accounting records, updated monthly. The company should prepare each year the financial balance sheets for the financial year of the management company, in compliance with the International Standards of Financial Reporting which reflect in detail the state of the company, and must submit consolidated financial balance sheets if it is part of a group. Article 20 of the law, paragraph 2, provides that the balance sheets should be annually controlled by a registered accounting expert appointed by the management company in order to prepare the balance sheet of audited income and expenses. international journal of science â&#x2013;Ş 2013 â&#x2013;Ş volume 4

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Article 20 itself in paragraph 3 provides that the FSA with its own expenses may perform a financial control in each period of the year as deemed necessary, and also the FSA must be informed for any appointment or discharge of external accounting experts made by the company. Any Albanian or foreign undertaking of collective investment which performs in our country commercial activity as defined by the law on undertakings of collective investments must appoint a depositary licensed by the FSA to act as its depositary. The law has explicitly provided that depositary may be only a second level bank or the branch of a foreign bank with registered office in Albania and approved by the Bank of Albania to act as a depositary. The depositary and the management company conclude a written agreement approved based on the provisions of the Civil Code and signed by the parties before the notary public; this agreement is valid only upon approval by the FSA. The activity of the depository is referred to the performance of all actions related to the needs of the undertakings of collective investments, especially the safeguarding of asset classes, including banking accounts and other assets, their management or the differentiation among different UCI assets from one another. The UCI assets have the right of being differentiated, as these assets are not included in the assets of the depositary, who may not use or benefit from these assets be it on his behalf or on behalf of his employees, and may not use these assets in insolvency or liquidation procedures started against the depositary. The depositary must act only in the interest of the shareholders of the funds or the investment companies and is liable for the damages caused for any action or omission unduly committed. The management company is not allowed to substitute the depositary without prior approval by the FSA. The depositary who intends to interrupt the agreement reached with one or more UCIs or who has decided to close his activity must notify, in written, not less than 60 days before the date of the notification for the closure of the activity, the FSA and the management council of each company he is performing the activity of the depositary for.

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3. Advantages of the undertakings of collective investments and the Albanian challenges The undertakings of collective investments for the fact itself that they are mainly directed to unprofessional investors are among the most controlled and transparent instruments that circulate in the financial market. Among reasons differentiating these investment schemes from other types. Autonomy of the fund of the investment company which is separated by that of the management company. The legal provisions state that the amounts invested by the investors should be saved in a depositary bank independent by the management company or by the group of companies controlling the management company. The Control exercised over the undertakings of collective investments is done through rigorous legal provisions. The market of undertakings of collective investments is subjected to the supervision of the Financial Supervision Authority, the depositary bank and the external audit mandatory for these types of schemes. The Diversification refers to the opportunity of investing in a diversified portfolio of securities despite the fact whether the invested amount is high or low. The risk in a diversified portfolio is lower than the investment in some securities. The Transparency is related to the obligation of the management companies to give updated information regarding the markets and the investment schemes. All the actions which have to do with these investment schemes should be acknowledged to the Authority and be published in order to become known to the investors. The Liquidities is an aspect that has to do with the opportunity provided to an investor who may not be capable of selling some of the securities owned by him, repurchase by the fund itself or by the investment company of the shares emitted by him. The development of the financial market in Albania constitutes one of the future challenges not only for the Albanian legislator but also for the Albanian entrepreneurs themselves. In the recent years the Albanian legislator has undertaken a series of reforms with a view to approximating the Albanian legislation to the European one in this sector, as one of the conditions of the Stabilization and Association Agreement but also as a necessity for the development of the Albanian financial market itself.

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Although currently this market in Albania is in its initial steps, the awareness of the Albanian entrepreneurs to expand their investments in this market has increased, as it has also increased the interest of foreign investors to invest in our country. In such a situation it is necessary not only the establishment of a contemporary legislation, but also the creation of conditions for its effective implementation. The revival of the Tirana Stock Exchange through a contemporary and appropriate legal framework would develop the market of investments in securities thus approximating the Albanian market to European markets. On the other hand, an important role plays also the general Albanian public knowledge and the information on the new investment opportunities and the advantaged of undertakings in collective investments.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Malltezi A., Rystemaj J.,

Pelinku L., (2013). Sipermarrja e

Investimeve Koletive (SIK) in Aspekte Te Se Drejtes Se Biznesit Ne Shqiperi. Editor: MediaPrint, Tirane, pp. 84-86. 

Bezemer D., (2001) Post-Socialist Financial Fragility: the Case of Albania, in Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 25, No.1.



Jarvis C., (2000) The Rise and Fall of the Pyramid Schemes in Albania,

IMF

Staff

Papers,

Vol.47,

N.1

www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/staffp...pdf/jarvis.pdf.

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Ermira JASHIKU, MSc.

NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC RISKS IN THE REGION OF KORҪADEVOLL

Abstract The region of Korça-Devoll is located in the southeastern part of Albania. It has a very good geographical position in cross-bordering Greece and Macedonia. This geographical position has e great impact in the development of economic, social and cultural relations among them. Since the early times the region has provided good opportunities for its population because of the numerous water resources, fertile soil and healthy climate. It has developed almost all sectors of the economy and today it is facing numerous environmental problems. Using the environment for its needs the human society has had a negative impact on exploitation of underground resources such as ironnickel, quartz sand, exploitation of fertile lands and forestry, urban waste disposal, etc. Besides the anthropogenic risks the region also faces natural risks such as geological and climatic risks. One of the most important objectives of this study is to highlight the risks of the region KorçaDevoll and suggest some ways to prevent them.

Keywords: Korçë – Devoll Region, natural risks, anthropogenic risks, Geostrategic position.

Ermira JASHIKU, MSc. ▪ Natural and Anthropogenic risks

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Geographical position, natural conditions and the economy of the region

Korça –Devoll region lays in the southeast part of Albania. It borders Pogradec (north), Maqedonia (northeast), Greece (east-southeast), Kolonja (south) and district of Permet (southwest), district of Skrapar (west) and the district of 2 Gramsh (northwest). This area has a surface of 2181 km and from an administrative view it is divided into three city halls, 18 Communes, 196 villages. Its strategic position, as it borders Greece and Macedonia, enables the development of socio –economic and cultural relations among them. In the Korça - Devoll area there are two custom points, that of Gorica that connects Albania with Maqedonia located 45 km far from the city of Korça and that of Kapshtica that links Albania and Greece, 32 km far from the same city. The passage of TAP in the territory of this area will affect its economic development in a positive way, increasing employment opportunities and at the same time gas supply. Rich water resources, fertile soils and the dense forests made this region highly inhabited since ancient times. This is supported by the footprints found in the sites of Tren, Maliq, Dunavec, Polena, tumulus of Kamenica. The population of this area reaches approximately 244 932 inhabitants ( INSTAT) with the most dense cities of Korça, Maliq and Bilisht. The main economic activities are focused mainly in the first sector, including agriculture and farming, known for production of wheat, potatoes, beans sugar beet, vegetables and fruits, especially apples. Hills are known for pomology and viticulture. Mountains are rich in forests which make possible strong bases for the development of wood processing industry and heating. They are also known for their grazes which on their side provide room for a well-developed farming. With moderate development there is also the second sector (nutritional, textile, metallurgical industry) and that of social services (trading, transportation, etc).

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Being close to Greece makes possible many economical contracts between Albanian and Greek partners, especially in the clothing business. Greek investments in that area occupy the first position compared to the investments of other neighboring states. Except greek investments, it is worth mentioning the German, Italian, French ones, etc., which affect the improvement of infrastructure, the economic development, the reduction of unemployment and income growth. Korรงa-Devoll area is confronted with natural risks: geologic risks such as hail, blizzards as well as hydrologic risks such as floods. Anthropologic risks are caused by the growth of human activity and have affected the quality of the environment in different ways such as pollution, damage of river banks from taking away the inert material, deforestation and forest fire, etc. 2. Geological risks. The territory of Korรงa - Devolli districts is part of the breaking region LibrazhdMokra and Korรงe - Oher -Erseke, one of the areas with the highest seismic activity in the country. The falling and differentiation of some parts of this area, the raising of some others and the breaking of Voskop-Dishnice regenerate earthquakes, sometimes very strong earthquakes. This region is included in the earthquake map of a magnitude of 5. This area has been hard hit by earthquakes: Korce, in 1931 with a magnitude of 5.8 and a intensity of VII-IX; Korรงa, in 1960 with a magnitude of 6.4 and a intensity of VIII-XI; Baban, in 2010 with a magnitude of 1,3- 3.0 and a intensity of V-VI which brought mainly material damage. A study of the area from the tectonic point of view and the earthquake history makes it possible to get a full idea of identifying the seismic character risks. The establishment of a seismic station, a good evacuation plan, and appropriate buildings are some of the measures which are needed to be taken in case of an earthquake. Geological composition is diverse limestone, ultrabasic, terrigeous rocks etc., which correspond not only to the geomorphological forms and processes, Ermira JASHIKU, MSc. โ ช Natural and Anthropogenic risks

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but also to the existence of numerous mining resources. There are many underground resources in the area of Korce - Devoll: to mention but a few, there are areas of iron - nickel in the Bitinckë - Tren - Vernik and Kapshtice, coal in Mborje - Drenovë and Menkulas, quartz sands in Ziçisht and Çipan, clays in the area of Pilur - Baban, Fitore, Eçmenik, Inonisht, Vranisht, Korça, construction and decorative materials (such as asbestos, talc, etc.) which are found in Bilisht, Progër, Boboshticë, Zëmblak, etc. These assets are intensively used as well as exported abroad like in Macedonia. Excavation of minerals as sand, scarification, coal, clay, building materials etc., pose various risks to the health and lives of workers, land configuration, the degradation of land, damage to flora and fauna, etc. Some of the measures to be taken to prevent negative effects as a result of indiscriminate exploitation of mineral resources are: -

to develop correct plans on the using of minerals while studying the area to use of appropriate tools and methods for exploitation of minerals to fill the pits after mineral extraction. to plant them with vegetation suitable to the area. to continuously study the area to see the progress of land repair.

3. Relief Risks The region of Korça-Devoll includes a verity of relief forms, mostly composed of mountains and hills, where plains and valleys are also present. They make up the highest average altitude in Albania, of 1145 m. The main composite parts of the relief are the landfall of Korça surrounded by mountains and highlands like Morava ridge, Vithkuq, Gora, Voskopoja, Rakicke and Llapisht highlands, the plain of Bilisht, upper Devolli valley, the hollow of Prespa, Ivan Mountain, and so on. Hypsometric characteristics of the mountainous areas and the composition of the rocks have also favored a lot of negative processes like soil

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erosion, landfalls and many landslides as well. To mention but a few, there is the landslide of Moglica and the one in Vidohova. Slide of Moglica was created in the south slope of the Lenie mountain. That is one of the the biggest slopes in our country, which destroyed Moglica village, the hydroelectric power plant of the village, and also fields and agricultural production.” (Sala and Qiriazi 2005, p. 9) It began in February of 2 1977 and continued for several months, laying in ne 1.5 km . The slide mass had a thickness from several centimeters to 35 meters with an the average of 10-15 meters , and its volume, which was made up of both deposited and root 3 material, reached 150 million m . The factors that activated this slope are complex. Some are connected with the high clay content of the slope, its sloping character, the anthropogenic effect and the high level of the rainfall. For the prevention of the negative effects of the slides different measures must be taken, measures that are related to the studies in area about the conditions which cause their development, the disciplining of underground and superficial waters in the area of slide, planting deep rooted trees, cooperating with specialists in other field, and so on. 4.

Climatic risks

As a result of the geographic position away from of the marine air masses and as a result of the landscape which is mainly mountain, the climate in this area has the continental character with a harsh and long winters with fresh and short summers. It comprises in two climatic zones, the premountain southern Mediterranean and southeastern Mediterranean mountain a zone. The results for the values of climatic elements Sun radiance reaches the average values of about 1450 kw/meter square. The air temperature reaches the average value of 10.7⁰C and the coldest month is January which reaches the average values up to 0.5⁰C and the hottest month is July with a temperature of 20.6⁰C. The number of days with temperature 0⁰C or under 0⁰C reaches at about 88 days. Here is also Ermira JASHIKU, MSc. ▪ Natural and Anthropogenic risks

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recorded the lowest temperature in Albania in 30-31 December 1941, in Sheqeras with -26.8⁰ C. The rainfall in the area of Korça and Devoll is lower and it reaches an average of 722 mm a year. (Bozgo 1984, p.161) The average number of rainy days is 121. (Bozgo 1984, p.161) Rainfall in some cases brings many negative th effects like the flood in the Maliq field on February 5 , 2003, from the „big flood‟ of Devoll river “In the Maliq field, about 200 ha of land were covered in water. Also in the whole district of Korça it was snowing for 24 hours non-stop. In the mountainous areas the snow reached 30 cm where as in the city that melted.” (Mecaj 2003, p.119) The studies of atmospheric precipitation are of the same importance for the economic development and especially in the agriculture, tourism and construction. After the swamps was dried something which was performed in two phases, the “benefit of that was a surface of about 5.550 ha new plant followed by another 5.370 ha benefited from improvement of drainage system. From that time until now the level of the field of Maliq has lowered in some sectors up to 6 meters, a phenomenon that favors continuous floods. Hailstorms usually happen during the season of spring and autumn. They cause many damage in agricultural products, crops and especially in the fruit trees. In this area there are many cases of hailstorms and damages it th, causes. The hailstorm dated June 4 1971 in dhe Devoll area , approximately in a surface larger than 1500 ha, mainly in Bilisht anda bit less in Menkulas village, caused damage in wheat fields, in a surface of 510 ha in Bilisht and 40 ha in Menkulas.(Pano 2008, p.120) The huge amount of the hail stones damaged and other crops such as rye, potatoes, barley, beans, tomatoes. The hailstorm of July, 1999 damaged almost all agricultural crops at the same region. The same hailstorm repeated itself in June, 2013 destroying almost everything in Bilisht and some villages close to it. The snow is a very common phenomenon during the season of winter in the area of Korca and Devoll. The number of snowy days reaches an average of 30 days a year and the its level reaches up to 50 cm.

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In the mountainous areas there are cases those values are higher. Heavy snowfall can cause blockage of the roads ( a repeated phenomenon in the villages of Dardhe and Voskopoje) damage of the buildings, difficulties in the movement of the people and there are also cases of avalanches as a result of the tough slopes at the sides of the mountains. The wind, the existence of the gorges between mountains allows the movement of the continental air masses through them especially in winter time. Winds that blow in the area of Korca – Devoll are South, the SouthWest, the North-East. The most destructive of all are Juga and the SouthWest which is otherwise called Ambarthata, then comes The North followed by the East. Winds usually have a speed of less than 1.8-2 m/sec and it rarely happens to pass the speed of 20-30 m/sec. As far as the measures that should be taken about the damages caused by the winds, it should be taken into consideration the influence of the gorge they come from and planting forest line barriers appropriate to the direction which will later become a barrier for those winds. It is suggested that against the South winds, not exactly the direction East-West but more of West –NorthWest, and East-SouthEast forest barriers should be build. Frost begins from the middle of November until in the beginning of April. The number of freezing days reaches an average of with 84.4 days in Korça, 105.6 days in Sheqeras and 99.4 days in Zvirina. “In the region of Korça, during the autumn of 1970 as a result of winter and spring freezes, 308 ha of wheat and 88 ha of rye were totally destroyed.” ( Mecaj 2003, p.121) Damages have been also registered in other crops in the villages of Drenove, Lumalas, Polene and Voskopoje . In the last two days of the September and October of 1970 the immediate lowering of temperatures caused freeze in some areas of Albania, including a part of the region of Korça-Devoll. In the area of Korça the frost covered an area about 5000 ha corn, out of which 700 ha were totally destroyed, which was expected to bring a production of 3800 ton (50kv/ha), whereas in another area of about 1500 ha, the damage reached a total of 840 ton. (Mecaj 2003, p.116) These figures show that freezing can Ermira JASHIKU, MSc. ▪ Natural and Anthropogenic risks

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cause considerable damage in agricultural economy. The measures for reduction of freezing results are related with planting land which is less affected from the freeze such as land as near slopes, depending on their direction, watering them in the form of furrow or rain. Measures must also be taken according to the weather forecast. 5. Hydrographic risks The area of Korça-Devoll has a lot of natural water resources such as subterranean and superficial sources like lakes, rivers and streams. Hydrographic axis of this area is the river of Devoll and Prespa Lakes. Devoll River is one of the main branches of Seman River and it has a length of 196 km. The utilization of the sand of Devoll river has had a neegative impact such as the destruction of the riverbed, destruction of the river ecosystem but at the same time it is also one of the causes of floods. Some of the most significant flooding due to heavy rains had occurre in the village of Maliq, Pojan Municipality etc. Another problem of Devolli river is the pollution as a result of urban and industrial waste dumping. Prespa Lakes are copmosed of the Lake of Big and Small Prespa, 2 with an area of 329 km , from which only 49.5 km2 is part of Albanian territorry. The lake of Small Prespa has natural and cultural values but it is disappearing as a result of natural and human factors. The vegetation of Small Prespa Lake pit is one of the most important problems because it affects turning the area of Small Prespa Lake in a swamp and even the disappearance of the lake. Some of these problems consist on: • Tectonic movements with decreasing character • Stuffing with sludge and reeds. • Pollution from pesticides. • Uncontrolled fishing. (Using explosives) • The disappearance of flora and fauna. • The disruption of biological balance and biodiversity degradation as a result of water supply by Devoll river.

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6. Risks in the protected zones Part of this area are two National Parks "Cross Border Prespa Park" and "National Park of Drenova Fir". "Natural Managed Reservoir of Cangonj" and 35 natural monuments such as “Guri i Cjapit (Billy Goat Stone)”, Maligrad Island, Cave of Tren, the lime of St. Peter, the oaks of St. Athanas, the pine trees of Voskopoja, the fir of Vishnje, are part of this area too. All of these natural resources have a great impact on the development of tourism and offers many opportunities for economic development of this zone. “Cross Border Prespa Park” lies on the slopes of “Mali i thate (Dry Mountain)”and it has a surface of 27 750 hectares. It was declared Balkan park, part of three countries, Greece, Macedonia and Albania. This park has significant value regarding to the karsts, cultural and natural values and especially to the living world. Besides numerous opportunities for tourism development, this park at the same time faces many problems such as “intensive development of karst and the process of erosion". (Qiriazi 2006, p.72) The karst development process has had a negative impact on agriculture. Furthermore it has been observed that the lake level is lowered to about 6 m. Some of other problems of the park are of anthropogenic nature as the use of explosives for exploitation of mineral resources in the caves areas. National Park of "Drenova Fir" lies at the back of Morava mountains, 10 km away from the city of Korça, with an area of 1380 ha. It is a large park with natural values, several water asset and with a variety of flora and fauna. Nowdays this park is facing with natural and anthropogenic risks. A phenomenon which is seriously affecting the forest is the process of top drying firs. (Qiriazi 2006, p.72) There are many problems in western part of the park because of the erosion and gravity falls, and in eastern part of it because of large slope, numerous landslides and demolition. ( Dida 2004, p.79). Fires and illegal cuttings (deforestation) are phenomena that have consistently affected this park, such as the August fire of the year 2012 that damaged about 70% of the park area. The most affected areas by the problem Ermira JASHIKU, MSc. ▪ Natural and Anthropogenic risks

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of illegal cuttings of wood are the northern, northeastern and the area around “Guri i Cjapit (Billy Goat Stone)”. “The worst part of this is that the illegal cuttings in these sectors had a negative impact on disappearance of forest vegetation such as old trees and new ones”. (Qiriazi 2006, p.73) The process of undertaking actions against natural or anthropogenic problems will enhance the importance of the park for the development of ecotourism, on recreational and relaxing facilities. Immediate measures should be taken to protect the forest from fire, to implement the reforestation, to study the problems of drying peaks, to prevent the erosion and illegal cuttings etc. Conclusions and Recommandations    

The region of Korça-Devoll has got an important geographical position and natural resource appropriate for an overall development of economy sectors. The underground of this regions rich in several types of minerals like ironnickel, clay, cuarc sand, which apart from the economic development that offer, also show many risks as a result of exploration. The area under study belongs to the areas of high seismic intensity, awareness of which would avoid/prevent damages from earthquakes. The mediterranean premountainous and mountainous climate which is typical for this region is a source of natural risks such as snowfall, hailstorms and freeze.



Information and awareness of the elements and climacteric risks of this region will be a great help in agricultural sector for proper care about certain crops during certain periods of the year.



Conservation of the woodland resources offers excellent opportunities for careful exploitation and the development of wood processing industry, for managing the climate effects (natural risks) as well as for the development of mountainous tourism.



Knowledge of natural and anthropogenic risks and the measures against them will affect the conservation and preservation of the environment, the improvement of the life of the community and also the development of the economy of this region.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY             

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Bozgo, A. 1984. Gjeografia e rretheve, Vëllimi I. Tiranë. Dida M. et al., 2004. Zonat e Mbrojtura Natyrore, Parqet Kombëtare të Shqipërisë, Tiranë. Farudin, K. et al. 1991. Gjeografia fizike e Shqipërisë, Volumi II, Akademia e Shkencave e Republikës së Shqipërisë. Tiranë. Isidorov, G., C. 1955. Klima e Shqipërisë. Tiranë: Instituti i Shkencave, Drejtoria e Shërbimit Hidrometeorologjik Krutaj, F. 2005. Rrisqet natyrore katastrofike në Shqipëri, Studime Gjeografike Nr. 15. Tiranë. Mandili, T. 1975. Klima dhe kulturat bujqësore. Tiranë: Botim i shtëpisë së propagandës bujqësore. Meçaj, N. 2003. Përmbytjet në Shqipëri (1933- 2003). Tiranë: Instituti për studimin e natyrës dhe edukimit ambjental në Shqipëri. Muço, B. 1996. Tërmetet, demonët e nëntokës. Tiranë: Shtëpia botuese enciklopedike, Nako, I. 1959. Mbrojtja e tokës dhe kulturave nga erërat dhe erozioni, Tiranë: Mihal Duri Pano, N. 2008. Pasuritë ujore të Shqipërisë, Monografi. Tiranë. Peza, L. 1967. Gjeologjia e Shqipërisë. Tiranë: Universiteti i Tiranës, Fakulteti Gjeologji- Miniera, Katedra e Gjeologjisë. Pumo, E. et al. 1990. Gjeografia fizike e Shqipërisë, Vëllimi I. Tiranë: Akademia e Shkencave e Republikës së Shqipërisë, Qiriazi, P. 1985. Morfologjia dhe morfogjeneza e gropave juglindore dhe e maleve përreth tyre, Monografi. Tiranë: Universiteti i Tiranës, Fakulteti i Historisë dhe i Filologjisë. Qiriazi, P. 2006. Gjeografia fizike e Shqipërisë. Tiranë: Shtëpia Botuese e Librit Universitar.

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Qiriazi, P. 2006, Probleme të degradimit të peizazhit në disa zona të mbrojtura në brendësi të vendit, Studime Gjeografike Nr. 17. Tiranë: Qendra e studimeve gjeografike. Sala, S., Qiriazi, P. 2005. Përhapja e rrisqeve gjeomorfologjike në Shqipëri dhe qeverisja e tyre. Studime Gjeografike Nr. 15. Tiranë: Qendra e studimeve gjeografike. Sala, S., Qiriazi, P. 2006. Monumentet e natyrës së Shqipërisë. Tiranë: Ideart. UNPD, Vlerësimi i rreziqeve në Shqipëri. Trojani, V. 2011. Gjeografia Fizike e Përgjithshme, Volumi I,II,.Tiranë: Aferdita. Web pages http://www.trans-adriatic-pipeline.com/

international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE SENGUPTA IPSHITA

www.ijosc.net TARAR J.L.

USE OF FLY ASH AS BIO - PESTICIDE FOR COTTON PLANT

Abstract

Dumping of industrialized solid waste impinge on the soil, thereby inhibiting the crop growth. The key causes of land pollution have been the industries like paper and pulp mills, power plants, iron and steel plants, oil refineries etc. Fly ash, the tarnished waste product of coal based thermal power plants and well-known for its ill effects on agricultural land, may now serve the farming community. Coal and lignite fly ash equally act as a fine carrier for bio pesticides. It is used as a conditioner to detain soil erosion, and to make plant resistance against diseases. Thus use of fly-ash is an effectual way of utilization of problematical fly-ash waste in a constructive manner. This study was carried out with the aim of studying the beneficial use of fly ash based pesticide for agricultural purpose. The soil was amended with fly ash based bio-pesticide and the crop chosen was cotton.

(Keywords: Fly ash, pest, pesticide, cotton, mealybugs, boll weevil)

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Introduction Various devastating ecological and human disasters of the last four decades implicate industries and the waste being generated as a major contribution to environmental degradation and pollution (Ladwani et al., 2012). The term ‘waste’ refers to solid or liquid matter which has no longer any economic value. With industrialization and urbanization, ensuing growth in urban solid and liquid wastes is a relatively recent development in India (Suryawanshi et al., 2013). Cotton fits into the genus Gossypium and is a soft and fluffy staple fiber, more or less pure cellulose and which nurtures in a shielding capsule, about the seeds of cotton plants. Present world ballpark figures for cotton production are about 110 million bales annually. India is the 2nd largest producer of cotton in the world and takes pleasure in the distinction of being the earliest country in the world to domesticate cotton and use it for fabric manufacturing. India accounts for just about 25 per cent of world’s cotton area and 16 per cent of total cotton production. Pesticides are dangerous chemicals as they are manufactured with the aim of killing, resisting or hampering the growth of living organisms by weakening biological progressions crucial for safeguarding of life. In numerous cases, pesticides not only have an effect on the bodily processes of the pest species they are meant to control but also impact upon the well-being of humans and biodiversity. This evident fact is predominantly related with insecticides, accounting for just about 60% of the entire agrochemicals applied to cotton universally. Fly ash is the key solid waste produced in thermal power stations and currently almost 100 million tons of fly ash per year is being generated from 70 the thermal power stations scattered all through the country. Fly ash is very fine glass crushes, the constituent parts of which are by and large sphereshaped and vary from 0.5 to 100 micron in dimension. The fine particles of fly ash reach the pulmonary region of the lungs and remain there for long periods of time; they behave like cumulative poisons (Ahmad et., 2012). Disposal of this mammoth magnitude of fly ash is posing an immense difficulty owing to its restricted utilization in the manufacturing of bricks, cements, ceiling and additional civil edifice activities.

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This would further bring changes in land-use patterns and contribute to land, water and atmospheric degradation, if proper management options for handling ash are not undertaken (Kalra et al., 1996). Making use of fly ash in agriculture offers a practicable alternative for its harmless disposal to perk up the soil environment and augment the crop yield. Nevertheless, a well thought-out management approach has to be developed to decrease the land contamination from the heavy metals present in the fly ash. Present study deals with the effect of the application of varying levels of fly ash based pesticide on early plant growth and yield of cotton. MATERIAL AND METHODS For analysis reason fly ash was collected from Koradi Thermal Power Station, Koradi. In the present study, clayey black soil was mixed with farmyard manure (10% w/w) and amended with fly ash at 5%, 10%, 20% and 40% w/w, in the laboratory and added to selected site. The crop under study was cotton. Pesticide dust formulation of fly ash was achieved by grinding, filtering, and then blending. The products were then stored in sealed containers and labeled. Pesticide dust formulations were then applied on the cotton leaves making use the laboratory fly ash duster. The leaves were sprayed with water prior to dusting for easy adhering of the dust and then air dried. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The base of each leaf of the cotton plant encloses a small cuplike formation holding nectar in addition to the cotton flowers. These nectar deposits and the luscious stem make the cotton plant attractive to an assortment of insect pests. Most noticeable among these pests is the boll weevil and bollworm. The bollworm-tobacco budworm as well is one of the most detrimental cotton pests in terms of losses and control costs. Other significant pests include armyworm, thrips, lygus and red spider. Therefore, pest control plays a key role in increasing the production of cotton. At present, pest control is being done by and large through conventional methods. However long-term usage of chemical pesticides can SENGUPTA IPSHITA & TARAR J.L. â&#x2013;Ş Use of Fly Ash as Bio - Pesticide

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have a prospective harmful impact on the environment, wildlife and human beings. Bio-pesticides control pests by harmless means and are substances available naturally. Usual pesticides however are synthetic materials that either exterminate or inactivate the harmful as well as useful pests. The proper management of fly ash (FA) generated from coal-burning electrical power plants remains a controversial issue (McNally et al., 2012). Physico–chemical analysis of fly ash has revealed the presence of both macro-micro nutrients, which can sustain plant growth. Its application in the agricultural land acts as a liming factor and improves crop growth by neutralizing the soil acidity, increasing the water availability for the plants and supplement of nutrients. The physico-chemical properties of fly ash are given in Table 1. Table 1. Analysis of Fly ash Physical properties pH

8.43

Electrical conductivity (MS/cm)

0.155

Bulk density (g/cm

Water holding capacity (%)

1.14 46

Chemical Properties

314

% Organic carbon

0.19

SiO2 (%)

62.5

Al2O3 (%)

17.5

Fe2O3 (%)

7.5

CaO (%)

1.75

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MgO (%)

1.5

TiO2 (%)

1.293

P2O5 (%)

0.261

K2O (%)

0.81

Na2O (%)

0.28

LOI (%)

0.72

Heavy Metals in Fly ash Copper (%)

0.55

Zinc (%)

0.64

Manganese (%)

0.4

Boron (%)

0.15

Molybdenum (%)

0.16

Selenium (%)

3.4

Arsenic (%)

1.3

Cobalt (%)

0.08

Chromium (%)

0.45

Lead (%)

0.3

Nickel (%)

1.1

Cadmium (%)

0.05

Application of fly ash to cotton crop indicated that the soil samples have an alkaline pH (8.0) with high calcium and aluminum content (2.44 and SENGUPTA IPSHITA & TARAR J.L. â&#x2013;ª Use of Fly Ash as Bio - Pesticide

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24.17% respectively) and relatively lesser amount of potassium (1.6%). Bulk 3 density was found to be as low as 1.48 g/cm by the addition of fly ash. Shortterm field studies had shown dose-based effect of coal fly ash on chemical properties of soil. An increase in pH, electrical conductivity, water holding capacity, calcium and aluminum was observed in the soil with increasing dose and time. Fly ash dose of 20% were found to be most suitable for the soil. An increasing dose of 40% was harmful for the soil nutrients and thus plant nutrient uptake. The presence of calcium, magnesium and iron in most of the fly ash samples was found to improve the quality of cotton crop produced. An increase in arsenic content from 0.002 to 0.008% was also observed. Observations of similar nature were done by Pandey et al., 2011. They reported that dumping of fly ash in open ash pond causes serious adverse environmental impacts owing to its elevated trace element contents, in particular the arsenic which causes ecological problems. The changes in various soil parameters by the use of fly ash are listed in Table 2. Making use of fly ash as pesticide is well acknowledged. Despite the fact that limited quantity could be utilized for this purpose, the fly ash based dust pesticide formulation prepared is cost effective (Vitekari et al., 2012). Table 2. Changes in properties of soil on addition of Fly Ash

Physical properties

Initial value

Changed value

7.6

Electrical conductivity (dS/m)

0.28

0.32

Natural moisture content (%)

Bulk density (g/cm )

1.56

1.48

Water holding capacity (%)

63.5

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Chemical properties % Organic carbon

0.62

0.6

SiO2 (%)

63.1

Al2O3 (%)

24.07

24.18

Fe2O3 (%)

3.5

3.9

CaO (%)

2.39

2.43

MgO (%)

1.55

1.58

MnO4 (%)

2.05

2.06

TiO2 (%)

0.04

0.05

P2O5 (%)

0.08

0.1

K2O (%)

1.6

1.75

NO3N (%)

0.05

0.045

Na2O (%)

0.38

0.37

As2O3 (%)

0.002

0.008

CuO (%)

0.01

0.013

ZnO (%)

0.014

0.018

ESP

Cotton plants under study are infected by various different types of pests, some of which are exceeding damaging. Few of these cotton pests are boll weevil and boll worm, which causes reduction in lint development and makes way for rot organisms into the partially damaged bolls and cotton aphids which curls and pucker the leaves and makes heavily infested seedlings stunted leading to their death was controlled to some extent by the use of fly ash. SENGUPTA IPSHITA & TARAR J.L. â&#x2013;ª Use of Fly Ash as Bio - Pesticide

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Several species of thrips which attack seedling cotton and makes the infested foliage distorted and curled upward, sometimes killing terminal buds were reduced by the use of fly ash based bio-pesticide. A few cotton pests which were not recognized previously have emerged as major pests. Two emerging pests of in South-Central India, the Green stinkbug which damages immature bolls by stabbing the fruit wall and feeding on immature seeds and Serpentine leaf miner which causes drying and subsequent dropping of leaves due to severe infestation were kept under check by use of fly ash as pesticide. Species of mealybug, also an emerging pest attacks the growing parts of cotton namely, the core stem, branches, fruit and immature flowers thereby adversely resulting in yield reduction. Using fly ash as bio-pesticide aided in the control of these mealybugs also to some extent. Table 3 lists the various pests affecting cotton under study. Table 3. Pests affecting the cotton plant under study Sr No. 1

Pest Boll weevil and Boll worm

Effect on Cotton Plants Reduces Cotton lint development and makes way for rot organisms

Cotton aphids

Curls and puckers the leaves. Causes shedding of young fruiting forms and premature opening of infested flowers and bolls

Cotton thrips

Attack seedling cotton. Makes infested foliage distorted and curled upward. Sometimes kills terminal buds

Green stinkbug

Damage immature bolls by piercing fruit wall. Feeds on immature seeds

Serpentine leaf miner

Causes drying and dropping of leaf due to severe infestation

Mealybugs

Attacks growing parts viz., the main stem, branches, fruit and immature Flowers

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Additionally, farmers reported that in the absence of soil borne pests, the size of cotton buds and their luster got improve with the application of fly ash, resulting in better quality marketing. Fly ash based dust formulation increased the cotton productivity on an average by 12.25%, leading to a profit of about Rs 5000/ha. In addition to the yield of produce, significant increase in biomass yield was also found. Figure 1 shows the change in cotton bud size and cotton yield on use of fly ash. Fly ash application rate of 13 t/ha was found to give the maximum yield.. 16

14 12 10 8

Boll weight (gm)

Increase in yield (%)

4 2 0 10 11 12 13 14 15 t/ha t/ha t/ha t/ha t/ha t/ha

Figure 1. Graphical representation of Increase in Boll weight and Cotton yield based on different fly ash application rates Thus, utilization of fly-ash as carrier in bio-fertilizer formulations emerged as safe and effective alternatives. Use of fly-ash as carrier in these formulations is an effective way of utilization of problematic fly-ash waste in a useful manner (Kumar et al., 2010).

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CONCLUSION Industrial waste like fly ash is an important waste resource, having a potential of recycling in agricultural land. Fly ash is a waste product residue resulting from the combustion of pulverized coal in coal-fired power generating station. Even though fly ash cannot entirely accomplish the need of chemical fertilizers or organic manure it can be used in combination with these for improvement of biological, physical and chemical properties of soil. Fly ash based bio pesticides are valuable in controlling an assortment of insect pests autonomously. These less expensive bio-pesticides can be used effectively by the bottom level farmers. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are thankful to various cotton research scientists for their support and help. They are also thankful to the cotton farmers for giving their valuable feedback on use of fly ash. The authors would like to express their gratitude to Dr. Sunil H. Ganatra, HOD, Dept.of Environmental Science for giving them permission to carry out the research work in the laboratory.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Ahmad S, et al., 2012. Impact of Coal Based Thermal Power Plant on Environment and its Mitigation Measure, International Research Journal of Environment Sciences, 1(4): 60-64. 2. Kalra N, et al., 1996. Effect of fly ash incorporation on soil and crop productivity, ICAR News, 2(2): 18. 3. Kumar V, et al., 2010. Efficacy of fly-ash based bio-fertilizers vs perfected chemical fertilizers in wheat (Triticum aestivum), International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 7(2): 31-35. 4. Ladwani K D, et al., 2012. Impact of Industrial Effluent Discharge on Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Agricultural Soil, International Research Journal of Environment Sciences, 1(3): 3236. 5. McNally D, et al., 2012. Trace Metal Leaching and Bioavailability of Coal-Generated Fly Ash, International Research Journal of Environment Sciences, 1(5): 76-80. 6. Pandey V C, et al., 2011. Arsenic hazards in coal fly ash and its fate in Indian scenario, Resource Conservation and Recycling, 55(9): 819-835. 7. Suryawanshi P C, et al., 2013. Solid and Liquid Wastes: Avenues of Collection and Disposal, International Research Journal of Environment Sciences, 2(3): 74-77. 8. Vitekari H N, et al., 2012. Fly ash based biopesticides: A comprehensive review, Biological Sciences, 59: 173-178.

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Eriola QAFZEZI, MSc. A tale about a tail: Approaching the limits of (un)translatability in translation of children’s literature

ABSTRACT This paper aims to investigate on the limits of translatability in children‟s literature, focusing on Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and its variants in Albanian as a case study. The reasons for the selection of this specific genre are multifold. First, research in children‟s literature, and, most importantly, research in translation of children‟s literature is gaining significant ground worldwide and it is necessary to introduce similar studies in Albania as well. Secondly, it would be really interesting to discover factors that contribute to the decision-making process in translation of children‟s literature. Thirdly, through analysis and comparison of the original pun tale-tail to the Albanian variants, it is aimed at further reflection on the constant struggle between form and content during translation. In order to fulfill the aims of the present study, close parallel reading and comparison of original ST to several Albanian variants has been effectuated, which has brought to light various interesting facts about the tendencies exhibited by translators whether to preserve form or content in Albanian. The paper is concluded by some findings and recommendations to translators of children‟s literature specifically, and literary translators in general.

KEYWORDS: translation, children, translatability, form, content.

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1. Introduction 1

Translation is one of the most necessary tasks of any literature . Through this article we intend to investigate on the relationship between form and content and the way this relationship is recreated into the target language. The prevailing view about literary translation is that the sense may be translated, while the form often cannot. And the point where form 2 begins to contribute to sense is where we approach untranslatability . In other words, meaningfully and intentionally portrayed texts are considered untranslatable, although the degree of (un)translatability may vary. In order to take a stand in this ongoing debate, we will analyse examples taken from the classical children‟s book Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and its variants in Albanian. It is hoped that the examples extracted will help us determine the priorities of the translator during the important process of decision-making. 2. Objectives of the present study This article aims at outlining different views on the phenomenon of translatability, focusing on the constant struggle between form and content. Laying special emphasis on the genre of children‟s literature, we intend at bringing certain examples which bring to light different criteria involved in the decision-making process of translation. Comparison of each of the translated variants to the original, as well as comparison among variants themselves, will aid us towards better evaluation of the tendencies exhibited by translators diachronically. Being based on the examples, we will contemplate on the reasons and motivations that serve as impetus towards choosing to attach more importance to the form rather than the content or vice versa. It is also hoped that this article will be specifically helpful to translators of children‟s literature and literary translators in general. 3. Contrastive views on the ongoing struggle between form and content in translation Jiří Levý, representative of the Prague School, in his Art of Translation maintains: A translation is not a monistic composition, but an interpenetration 1 2

Von Humboldt cited in Schulte & Biguenet (1992: 56). Hatim and Munday (2004: 10). international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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and conglomerate of two structures. On the one hand there are the semantic content and the formal contour of the original, on the other hand the entire 3 system of aesthetic features bound up with the language of the translation . As LevĂ˝ rightly states, translators will have to pay particular attention simultaneously not only to content, but also to form and to aesthetic features as well. Having to constantly balance these different features in the target language in approximately the same way as they appear in the source language is not an easy matter, and one whose attempts are not always rewarded with satisfactory results on the behalf of the receivers of the translated text, i.e. the target audience (in our case mainly, but not exclusively, children). Nida contributes to this ongoing debate on form vs. content by saying: Anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, 4 unless the form is an essential element of the message , a view which lays more emphasis on the form as a component which can contribute to the level of difficulty of translation. Formal fidelity, however, should not result in awkwardness. Nida and Taber warn us against unfaithfulness to the content 5 and impact of the message . Similarly, Walter Benjamin states that great fidelity in reproducing the form impedes the rendering the sense and no case for literalness can be 6 based on a desire to retain the meaning . Agreeing with Benjamin that the relationship between content and language is quite different in the original and 7 the translation , we think that this fact is what translators should realize at the beginning, but this does not mean that they should approach tasks of translation from the general perspective that certain types of text are untranslatable, and, hence, abandon altogether the task of translation, and their mission as builders of bridges of communication. There are easy texts to translate as well as there are difficult texts to translate. The degree of difficulty of translation should not serve as an obstacle or a drawback to translators, but, on the contrary, as an open invitation to to be involved in more challenging tasks.

LevĂ˝ 1963, cited in Bassnett-McGuire (1980: 5-6). Nida and Taber, (1982: 4). 5 Ibid. (1982: 13). 6 Benjamin cited in Venuti (2000: 21). 7 Benjamin (1992: 76). Eriola QAFZEZI, Msc â&#x2013;Ş A Tale about a tail 324 4

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We conclude this discussion by citing again some advice given by Nida “…one is constantly faced by a series of polar distinctions which force him to choose content as opposed to form, meaning as opposed to style…and naturalness as opposed to formal correspondence. In order to choose meaningfully between these opposing sets of defining features, it is necessary to set up certain fundamental criteria for guidance in the process. That is to say, one must establish a set of priorities, which can define translating from 8 different perspectives: the perspectives of form and of comprehensibility . It is of primary importance, therefore, to identify not only the meaning of the original and the form in which it is expressed, but also the (underlying) intention, the overall purpose and the original impact of the source text and attempt to bring all these elements successfully in the target language. 4. The pun tale-tail and its variants in Albanian The greater the importance of the degree of form, 9 the greater the possibility of loss of meaning . This section of the article aims to present more practically the views outlined above. There will be introduced one of the most interesting puns in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and one most widely discussed puns in comparative studies in the field of translation. The tale told by the Mouse (a character in AAiW) is probably one of the most largely famous emblematic verses: poetry written in such a form as to resemble the content. The misunderstanding between Alice and the Mouse starts when the Mouse says: “Mine is a lond and sad tale” and Alice, looking at the Mouse‟s tail, remarks, “It IS a long tail, certainly, but why do you call it sad?” This is a wise choice from the writer who, through using the homophonic couple tale-tail, builds a net of semantic relationships underneath the surface meaning and also a source of miscommunication between the characters.

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Nida and Taber (1982:15). Ristani (2010: 221). international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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Table 1: Variants of the pun “tale-tail” in Albanian translations through the years AAiW „You promised to tell me your history, you know,‟ said Alice, „and why it is you hate--C and D,' she added in a whisper, half afraid that it would be offended again. „Mine is a long and a sad tale!‟ said the Mouse, turning to Alice, and sighing. „It IS a long tail, certainly,‟ said Alice, looking down with wonder at the Mouse's tail; ‘but

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V. I “Ti më premtove me më kallxue historín t‟ande”, i tha Liza, “dhe shkakun pse i urren m... e q…” shtoi me zâ shumë t‟ulët, nga friga se mos e fyente prap. “Historija e ime âsht e idhët dhe e gjatë” tha Miu, tue fshâ. “Vërtetë do të jetë e gjatë” tha Liza, tue i hudh nji sy bishtit të tij, “por pse e quen t’idhët?”. Dhe gjithnji vriste mendjen pë r me gjetë arsyen...nd ë rsa Miu vazhdonte

V. II “Ti më premtove të më tregoje historinë tënde‟ – tha Liza dhe shkakun pse i urren M... dhe Q...” – shtoi ajo me një zë shumë të ulët nga frika se mos e fyente prap. “Historia ime është e gjatë dhe e hidhur” – u përgjegj Miu me një zë si për të ardhur keq. “Sigurisht është e gjatë”– tha Liza duke shikuar me habi bishtin e tij, - por

V. III “Ti më premtove të më tregosh historinë tënde, – tha Liza, - dhe shkakun pse i urren M... dhe Q... – shtoi ajo me zë shumë të ulët, nga frika se mos e fyente prapë. “Sigurisht është i gjatë, – tha Liza me vete duke shikuar me habi bishtin e tij - * por pse e quan të hidhur?” (* shën. përkth. Tale (histori) dhe tail (bisht), të dyja anglisht shqiptohe n teil. Liza e

V. IV “Më premtove se do të më tregoje historinë tënde, të kujtohet? Tha Liza. “Duhet të më shpjegosh pse i urren Q... dhe M...” shtoi gati me pëshpërimë, nga frika se mos e lëndonte sërish. “Historia ime nuk është nga ato pa fillim dhe pa mbarim; ajo është edhe e gjatë edhe e trishtueshme” u drejtua Miu nga me një frymëmarrje të rëndë. - “E di që trimëria jote është e gjatë” tha Liza, e cila nuk e kishte dëgjuar mirë atë që kishte thënë miu. “Po si mund të jetë edhe e trishtueshme?

Eriola QAFZEZI, Msc ▪ A Tale about a tail

V. V “E mbani mend, ju na premtuat të na tregoni historinë tuaj, - tha Liza, - dhe pse ju i urreni... M dhe Q, shtoi ajo me zë të ulët nga frika se mos Miu fyhej përsëri. - Tregimi im titullohet “Për bishtin”. Ai është i gjatë dhe i trishtuar. Miu u kthye nga Liza dhe u mbush thellë me frymë. “Për bishtin? Ai vërtet është i gjatë, mendoi Liza, duke vështruar

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE why do you call it sad?‟ And she kept on puzzling about it while the Mouse was speaking, so that her idea of the tale was somethin g like this: --- (p. 18)

kallximin, kë shtu që , në fund, ajo e pë rmblodhi vetë historín e tij në kë tê më nyrë : (p. 33)

pse e quan të hidhur?” Dhe gjithënjë vriste më ndjen për të gjetur arësyen..., ndërsa Miu vazhdonte tregimin, kështuqë në fund ajo e përmblodh i vetë historinë e tij në këtë mënyrë: (p. 22)

ngatërron të parën me të dytën.) – Dhe zuri të vriste mendjen për të gjetur arsyen... ndë rsa Miu vazhdonte të tregonte, kështu që në fund ajo e përmblodhi vetë historinë e tij në këtë mënyrë: (p. 34-35)

www.ijosc.net ” Ajo e bëri këtë pyetje, ndërsa Miu fliste. Kështuqë nuk kuptoi gati asgjë nga tregimi i tij, nga i cili mbetën të fiksuara vetëm disa fjalë të shkëputura. (p. 35)

me çudi bishtin e Miut. – Megjithatë , çfarë ka tek ai të trishtuar?” Dhe ndërsa ajo përpiqej të zgjidhte këtë enigmë, ndërkohë që Miu rrëfente historinë e vet, atëherë dhe vetë tregimi në përfytyrimin e Lizës ishte i tillë. (p. 35-36)

Edmond Tupja, the Albanian translation scholar and practicioner, citing Jacques de Decker emphasizes: “Puns, especially of a phonetic character, constitute a problem, which, as you know, presents lots of 10 obstacles and difficulties”. It is interesting to inspect closely the examples listed above and the difficulties posed in translation. The Mouse uses tale referring to the history he is about to tell, whereas Alice keeps staring at the Mouse‟s tail, thinking that it was the tail that the Mouse was making comments about since the beginning of their conversation. For Englishlanguage speakers the homophonic couple is clear enough, but, for readers of the Albanian variants who do not know Engish language, the pun is not identified as such and, what is more, they do not understand why Alice is 10

Tupja (2003: 84). international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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staring at the Mouse‟s tail when he is narrating his tale. Let us carefully analyse each of the variants in order to reflect on the different choices made by the translators and how they affect the general understanding and impact of the passage which appears in the source text. In the first variant, history and tale are both translated with the same word in Albanian (histori – history). For the word tail it is used the corresponding word bisht (tail) and the reader does not build any relevance between the history and the Mouse‟s tail. What is more, when she is referring to the Mouse‟s tail, Alice uses feminine gender (in accordiance with histori (history) belonging again to feminine gender in Albanian language, whereas tail (bisht-i) is of masculine gender. We do know that the gender is not a problem in the original, but since the category of gender exists in Albanian language, there should be made several adaptions in order to make readers wholly enjoy the net of implied meanings. In the second variant, history and tale are translated by using the same word histori (history) and tail by the word bisht. There is still no adoption made concerning the gender of the nouns histori-a (feminine gender) and bisht-i (masculine gender). The same words are used in the third variant, but there are some differences; first, the gender is changed into the masculine even for the adjective (bisht-i – masculine gender; i gjatë – masculine gender), even though there is no match between the feminine gender of the noun histori- a and the masculine gender bisht-i; secondly, in order to aid readers to comprehend the pun which is lost in translation, the translator supplies a footnote which partly compensates the pun in the original, or, at least, transfers the ambiguity of meaning without recreating a pun in the target text. In the fourth variant the translator uses two words which rhyme in Albanian language, both belonging to the feminine gender: histori-a and trimëri-a. There is no pun recreated in the target text, there is neither any reference to the fact that Alice is staring at the Mouse‟s tail, so the pun is lost altogether. There is still the mismatch of gender between the nouns tregim-i of masculine gender, and histori-a of feminine gender. What is more, the attributes e gjatë dhe e trishtueshme (both of feminine gender) are not semantically appropriate to be used in the noun phrase trimëri e gjatë or trimëri e trishtueshme (eng. long bravery or sad bravery). In the fifth variant in the beginning it is used the noun histori-a (feminine gender) followed by the noun tregim-i (masculine gender). There is something different in this variant, however, which creates a certain relation between the tale and the tail, or, referring to the corresponding words in Albanian, between tregim-i and bisht-i (both nouns of masculine gender). Even without recreating the pun

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itself, the translator attempts to recreate the effect of the pun, first, by saying that the Mouse is about to tell a tale entitled “About a tail”; secondly, by saying that the tale will be long and sad; and, thirdly, by mentioning that Alice is staring at the Mouse‟s tail, which is really long, but, she cannot find any motivation for its sadness. The pun, however, does not end here. Carroll unites form and content in the original by composing a long „tail’ which reveals the Mouse‟s „tale’. Let us observe closely each of the variants in Albanian in order to decide whether the translators have paid more attention to the form or to the content and whether the „tale’ really resembles the Mouse‟s „tail’ as it does in the orginal. This is how the Mouse‟s tale is written in the original, with the verses following the shape of a tail:

Picture 1 The Mouse‟s tale in the original

This tale is considered one of the wisest choices of Carroll from all Englishspeakers who can easily recognize the pun tale-tail and see the tale incorporated within and taking shape after the tail. international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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Will readers of the Albanian variants perceive the text similarly? Will there be more emphasis laid on the form or the content? Will the effect be the same? Below there will be presented five pictures which illustrate exactly how the verses appear in the five translated variants. Each of the pictures will be commented upon shortly.

Picture 2 The Mouse‟s tale in V.I in V.II

Picture 3 The Mouse‟s tale

As it can easily be observed by the two juxtaposed pictures above, the translator of the first variant has preserved the form of the tail, even though it is shorter than the original (38 verses compared to 49 verses in the original).

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The rhythmical effects are successfully transmitted in Albanian, together with the musicality that characterizes the original. We can thus state that both form and content are preserved in this translation. In the second variant, as it can be observed in picture 3, the form is not preserved at all. The tale is told following the traditional pattern of a poetry consisting of 16 lines which enjoy rhyme. The content is transmitted for target readers, whereas the form is sacrificed (even though form in itself is meaningful and intentionally used).

Picture 4 The Mouse‟s tale in V.III Let us first remind readers of this article that the second and the third variant are brought into Albanian by the same translator (Maqo Afezolli). Compared to the second variant, the content is just the same, whereas, as far as the form is concerned, we can conclude that the translator has attempted to bring us closer to the original by not writing the verses after the usual fashion a poem is written in. However, upon closer scrutinity, we can discover that the shape mostly resembles a zig zag rather than a mouse‟s tail, and there are no graphic adaptions in the size of the letters (see picture 1). international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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It might be that the translator has not „built‟ a tail because he thinks it is sufficient for the readers the explanation given in the footnote, which makes it explicit that there was a pun in the original for the words tale-tail. Being based on these variants, we agree with Edmond Tupja who states „The translator is obliged to build a new relationship between the said and the 11 unsaid, a relationship which privileges the former‟ .

Picture 5 The Mouse‟s tale in V.IV

In the fourth variant, as commented above, there is no mention whatsoever about the pun tale-tail. There is no attempt made by the translator to make the verses fit the shape of a tail although he has tried to make verses rhyme, these are the reasons why we think that this translator has paid more attention to the content rather than the form.

Tupja (2003) Pro Translatore p. 33-34. Eriola QAFZEZI, Msc ▪ A Tale about a tail

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Picture 6 The Mouse‟s tale in V.V Even in the fifth variant there is more importance attached to the content rather than the form. The verses follow a rhythmical pattern similar to the original, whereas the shape of the verses does not resemble the tail of a mouse, and that happens partly because the letters should start decreasing in their size by the middle of the history, as they do in the original. Following the tale-tail pun, there are other misunderstandings appearing in the original, as a result of a wrong interpretation of the idiom the fifth bend and the homophonic pair knot-not. Since, as we mentioned at the beginning, there is not a single intentional pun created by Carroll, but there is an entire net of puns interwined so skillfully, it is not easy for the translator to decide whether to recreate the pun or not, and, what is more, to remain coherent in the choices he makes, because puns reappear at different sections of the book, acquiring new shades of meaning. Advice could be given to translators to avoid word-for-word translation of the pair tale-tail into Albanian, not only because these words do not constitute a pun in any way, but also because the pun continues through Alice‟s remarks about the fifth bend (the word bend still referring to the shape of the tail) and about the knotnot (the word knot again referring to the long tail which has formed a knot). international journal of science ▪ 2013 ▪ volume 4

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As we see, the group of puns is really long like a mouse‟s tail, and, as such, it is not entirely easy for it to be wholly recreated in Albanian language. However, in order to transmit the effect and not the exact words, translators could compensate for the loss of certain elements by gaining others in Albanian for the target audience. It would be better to avoid using the word histori-a since it is of feminine gender and use words of masculine gender such as rrëfim-i, tregim-i, etc. Furthermore, in order to preserve reference made to the Mouse‟s tale-tail, translators should be involved in a process of close inspection of idioms in Albanian language which have the word bisht (tail) as one of its constituents, or, which imply length. For example, we suggest certain ways of expression: Rrëfimi im s’ka fund e krye, nuk i gjender filli (followed by Rrëfimi vazhdoi kaq gjatë sa u bë lëmsh or Alice, bored by the details of the Mouse‟s history, could say: Bjeri shkurt tani, prije... followed by the frightened Mouse, replying Kë të pres, moj, bishtin,), mos i bëj bisht; 12 do t’i japësh fund sot apo mot? – Not, po ku di unë not, moj?, etc . It is not of primary importance to reproduce all puns as they appear in the original, we think that is is necessary to fulfill the intention of the author: difficulties and misunderstanding during communication among characters. That is the reason why the translator should try to be faithful to the expectations of the target readers, and not to the exact words and idioms in the source text. The most important thing is to recreate the effect or impact of the original, which should also be the general principle to guide the translator through the decision-making process in translation.

English variants of the proposed suggestions in Albanian would be: The tale has no beginning and no end…And? What about the end? It doesn‟t end with an and. An and never stands without a bend; or: The tail is really long and sad – Cut it short then! Cut what short? The tail? No, no, the tale; or: C‟mon. Tell us the tale and don’t get round to it. Get round what? The tail?, etc. Eriola QAFZEZI, Msc ▪ A Tale about a tail 334

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5. Concluding remarks Based on what we have mentioned we conclude our discussion about the importance of form and content in translation by saying that there are, as there have always been, easily translatable texts and texts which present more difficulties in translation. The later are usually those texts in which form contributes to content and the two are reciprocally linked, texts in which language is used intentionally to achieve aesthetic functions. What the translator should do in these cases is to start by identifying original author‟s intentionality in ST and attempt at transmitting the effect rather than the exact form or exact words as they have appeared in the original. Referring to the corpus under analysis, more concretely, the pun tale-tail and the form of the tail itself, we can assume that, from a diachronic point of view, translators have not preserved the form but have aimed at reproducing the impact of the original for the target readers. We close these remarks by emphasizing that since the process of translation is considered to be a process of decisionmaking, translators should be careful about the choices they make since each choice will be followed by subsequent decisions in later parts of their works. Therefore, it is demanded from them to be coherent in order for the translation to be read and received flawlessly. 6. Implication of the study for future research This study in itself is just a modest contribution to deeper research in translation of children‟s literature from English into Albanian. However, we hope that the actual study lends itself into more interesting research in the future by offering deeper insights into translation of puns in children‟s literature, translation of proper nouns, etc. Particular relevance of the study to the different tendencies exhibited by translators could be obtained by involving a wider corpus, representative of children‟s literature originally written in English language.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Bassnett-McGuire, S. 1980. Translation Studies. London: Methuen. Benjamin, W. 1992. Illuminations (tr. Harry Zohn), London, Fontana Press. Carroll, L. 1944. Liza në Botën e Çudinavet. (tr.) Hysejn dhe Beqir Çela, Botonjës Ismail Mal‟Osmani: Tiranë. Gardener, M. 2000. The Annotated Alice – the Definitive Edition, W. W. Norton & Company: New York, USA. Hatim, B.; Munday, J. 2004. Translation: An Advanced Resource Book. Routledge, London and New York. Karoll, L. 1961. Liza ne Boten e Çudirave. (tr.) Maqo Afezolli, Mihal Duri: Tiranë. Kerël, L. 1998. Liza në Boten e Çudirave. (tr.) Maqo Afezolli, Shtëpia Botuese „Mësonjëtorja‟: Tiranë. Kerël, L. 2008. Liza në Botën e Çudirave. (tr.) Taulant dhe Eri Tafa, shtëpia botuese Botimet Vëllezërit Tafa: Tiranë. Kerol, L. 2008. Liza në botën e çudirave. (tr.) Frederik Shuraja, Redona, Tiranë. Lloshi, Xh. 2005. Stilistika e Gjuhës Shqipe dhe Pragmatika Shtëpia Botuese e Librit Universitar: Albas. Nida, E. A. and Taber, C. R. 1982. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden. E. J. Brill. Ristani, V. 2010. Kontribut në Studimet Përkthimore gjatë viteve ’90. Shtëpi Botuese-Shtypshkronjë Miryeeralb: Tiranë. Schulte, R.; Biguenet, J., ed. 1992. Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Tupja, E. 2003. Pro Translatore – Shënime Kritike për Përkthyesin dhe Përkthimin. Shtëpia e Librit OMBRA GVG: Tiranë. Venuti, L. (ed.) 2000. The Translation Studies Reader. London and New York: Routledge.

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Heidi MASTON Brikena SMAJLI Meliha BRESTOVCI Vincent CUVILLIERS, Matthieu FONTAINE, Philippe MOULIS Blendi DIBRA Peter BERG Holta HEBA Blerjana BINO, Nevila XHINDI, Ketrina ÇABIRI Giuseppe STABILE Brikena QAFA - OSMANI Ilda MUCMATAJ Oliviera MIJUSKOVIC Alma KARASALIU (QOSE) Juliana BYLYKBASHI Ahmad SAMARJI Alban KOÇI, Lorena ÇABEJ Romina RADONSHIQI Edmond ÇALI William KODOM GYASI Atdhe HYKOLLI Sandeep SATAPATHY, Siddharth SEKHAR DAS Armela KROMIÇI Ermira JASHIKU Sengupta IPSHITA, TARAR J.L. Eriola QAFZEZI

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