International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 6 (June 2022)
Print version: 1694 2493
Online version: 1694-2116
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 6
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Effectiveness of Virtual Laboratories in Teaching and Learning Biology: A Review of Literature 1 Celine Byukusenge, Florien Nsanganwimana, Albert Paulo Tarmo
Mindset and Levels of Conceptual Understanding in the Problem Solving of Preservice Mathematics Teachers in an Online Learning Environment
....................................................................................................................................... 18 Ma Luisa Mariano Dolesh, Leila M. Collantes, Edwin D. Ibanez, Jupeth T. Pentang
Exploring the Teacher Professional Development Activities: Perspectives of Nigerian High School Teachers 34 Oluwatoyin Ayodele Ajani
Mental Health and Wellbeing of Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia 50 Kee Pau, Aslina Binti Ahmad, Hsin Ya Tang, Ahmad Jazimin Bin Jusoh, Asma Perveen, Kong Kwoi Tat
Structure, Activities and Teacher Development in the Philippine Science Teachers’ Community of Practice ........ 71 Rhea F. Confesor, Rosario M. Belmi
Physics Course Content of University Physics Education Programme as Reference to Content Distribution of JUPEB and WAEC Syllabi 90 Olalekan T. Badmus, Abiodun A. Bada, Loyiso C. Jita
Rasch Validation of Instrument Measuring Gen Z Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Application in Teaching during the Pandemic 104 Hilman Qudratuddarsi, Riyan Hidayat, Raja Lailatul Zuraida binti Raja Maamor Shah, Nurihan Nasir, Muh Khairul Wajedi Imami, Rusdi bin Mat Nor
The Level of Sports Participation and Academic Success among Malaysian Student Athletes 122 Jorrye Jakiwa, Siti Azilah Atan, Mohd Syrinaz Azli, Shahrulfadly Rustam, Norhafizah Hamzah, Aizuddin Amri Zainuddin
‘Publish or Perish’: a Transformation of Professional Value in Creating Literate Academics in the 21st Century138 Asep Kurnia Jayadinata, Kama Abdul Hakam, Tatang Muhtar, Tedi Supriyadi, J. Julia
E learning Outcomes during the COVID 19 Pandemic 160 Sang Tang My, Hung Nguyen Tien, Ha Tang My, Thang Le Quoc
Saudi Teachers’ Attitudes towards using Online Learning for Young Children during the Covid 19 Pandemic 178 Ahlam A. Alghamdi
A Survey of Teachers’ Perceptions of a Learning Portfolio in Lesotho Classrooms 194 Julia Mathabo Chere Masopha
Purposeful Collaboration through Professional Learning Communities: Teacher Educators’ Challenges 210 Carolina Botha, Carisma Nel
Trends of Educational Technology (EdTech): Students’ Perceptions of Technology to Improve the Quality of Islamic Higher Education in Indonesia............................................................................................................................ 226 Susanto ., Evi Muafiah, Ayu Desrani, Apri Wardana Ritonga, Arif Rahman Hakim
High School Students’ Mathematics Anxiety: Discouragement, Abuse, Fear, and Dilemma Induced through Adults’ Verbal Behaviour 247 Boj Bahadur Budhathoki, Bed Raj Acharya, Shashidhar Belbase, Mukunda Prakash Kshetree, Bishnu Khanal, Ram Krishna Panthi
Entrepreneurship Education in Ghana: A Case Study of Teachers’ Experiences....................................................... 270 R J (Nico) Botha, M Obeng Koranteng
Enhancing Students’ Attitudes in Learning 3 Dimension Geometry using GeoGebra 286 Marie Sagesse Uwurukundo, Jean Francois Maniraho, Michael Tusiime
Pre Service Teachers' Perspectives towards the Use of GammaTutor in Teaching Physical Sciences in South African Secondary Schools
................................................................................................................................................ 304 Sakyiwaa Boateng, Jogymol Kalariparampil Alex, Folake Modupe Adelabu, Thamsanqa Sihele, Vuyokazi Momoti
Continuing Professional Development of the Teacher Education Faculty among Philippine State Universities and Colleges 324 Ninez B. Tulo, Jiyoung Lee
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 1 17, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.1
Received Mar 3, 2022; Revised May 22, 2022; Accepted Jun 22, 2022
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE), Kayonza, Rwamagana, Rwanda
Florien Nsanganwimana
University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE), Kayonza, Rwamagana, Rwanda
Albert Paulo Tarmo Educational Psychology and Curriculum Studies, School of Education, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Abstract. Scholars have debated whether virtual laboratories are educationally effective tools and if they should be continuously developed In this paper, we comprehensivelyreview literature about the effectiveness of virtual labs in teaching and learning biology to identify thetopicsoftentaughtandthelinkedlearningoutcomes. WeusedGoogle Scholar, ERIC, and Web of Science electronic databases to access journal articles and conference proceeding papers. Through a systematic analysis, weobtained26articlessolelyrelatedtovirtual lab useinbiology education. The overall findings from the reviewed literature indicated that virtual laboratories are often used ontopics that seem abstract. These include cell and molecular biology topics, followed by microbiology, genetics, and other practical topics such as dissection and biotechnology. This review study revealed that virtual labs are effective as they improve students’ conceptual understanding, laboratory or practical skills, and motivation and attitudes towards biology. We recommend the use of virtual labs in teaching as a means of actively involving students in safer and more cost effective scientific inquiry
Keywords: Biology topics; computer simulations; learning outcomes; virtual laboratories/labs
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Information and communication technology is increasingly penetrating almost all domains of human life, including education. In addition, with the current global trend of achieving twenty first century learning skills, where digital literacy is one of the core goals, there is an increasing, understandable desire to bring more educational technologies into the classroom (Dakhi et al., 2020; Smetana & Bell, 2012; Tarbutton, 2018). Globally, researchers and practitioners agree that educational technology can transform the learning process by providing teachers and students with access to relevant resources when integrated into teaching However, to be successful, educational technology should enhance the achievement of learning objectives (Griffin, 2003), because effective technology should enable students to achieve critical thinking by creating a shift from memorizing factual knowledge to understanding principles and applications.
Like any other science subject, the teaching of biology inevitably requires laboratory exercisesas apart of thepractical skillsacquisition process (Borgerding et al., 2013). Indeed, most biology topics heavily rely on practical activities, especially in laboratories (Cavanagh et al., 2005; Çimer, 2012; Vijapurkar et al., 2014). In addition, research has shown that laboratory activities can potentially develop students’ intellectual abilities, such as critical thinking, scientific inquiry, and practical skills. For instance, Hofstein and Mamlok Naaman (2007) revealed that science cannot be significant to students without practical experiences in the school laboratory. When students have no access to laboratory activities and experiences, they often meet with difficulties in the learning of biology, especially in molecular biology topics (Boulay et al., 2010; Öztap et al., 2003; Sammet & Dreesmann, 2017; Tibell & Rundgren, 2009)
Literature has shown that technology can provide students with laboratory experience and enhance learning (Keller & Keller, 2005). However, the question to be asked is which kind of technology can provide students with authentic scientific practice and help them move from memorization to a deeper understanding of concepts and applications. Research has shown that using inquiry based and learner centered technologies that allow students to manipulateand observescientific phenomena (Flick & Bell, 2000; Sivin et al., 2000) bring about a deeper understanding of concepts and applications. Virtual laboratories, commonly called virtual labs, meet the criteria in this context.
Virtual lab technologies were proposed by the National Science Foundation’ s (NSF) task force to upgrade the state of STEM education as a dynamic response to the sustainable preparation of the population for complex global challenges in the twenty first century (Borgman et al., 2008). Researchers have shown that virtual labs could help make science concepts in general and biology in particular more concrete (Olympiou et al., 2013) and meaningful for students without requiring complex and costly equipment (Elangovan & Ismail, 2014; Makransky et al., 2019; Marbach Ad et al., 2008).
Several pedagogical advantages have been highlighted regarding virtual lab use in education. For instance, by using virtual labs, teachers can easily explain complex theoretical concepts through a visual and immersive experience that can make it simpler for students to understand the subject (Smetana & Bell, 2012) With virtual labs, students try various experiments in risk free environments without fear of damaging equipment. In addition, students can conduct the same experiment multiple times to ensure an understanding of the concept. Virtual labs allow teachers to capture students’ attention and ensure their engagement and motivation (Babateen, 2011). Furthermore, virtual labs help students to learn at their own pace as they can prepare and perform laboratory experiments at any time and place. With virtual lab technology, teachers and students can explore topics that would otherwise be unworkable in conventional classes (Smetana & Bell, 2012).
Radhamani et al. (2014) and Pearson and Kudzai (2015) emphasized the need for virtual labs in teaching biology, especially in developing countries. They argued that, generally, science education in developing countries faces many limitations. These include shortage of laboratory equipment and reagents, space and time constraints, insufficient laboratory protocol, inadequate technical support, and safety, among other limitations. According to Radhamani et al. (2014), virtual labs are asset tools to mitigate the challenges of insufficient laboratory equipment needed in teaching biology topics such as biotechnology. This is despite some drawbacks of virtual labs, such as students not being able to feel, smell, or touch as in a physical laboratory.
While physical laboratories are absent or not fully equipped in many schools due to the high costs of their equipment and maintenance, virtual labs have been affirmed to lessen financial constraints related to laboratory equipment, space, and maintenance (Fisher et al., 2012). These potential advantages have triggered research interest, and a good number of empirical studies have been conducted about the effectiveness of virtual laboratories (Breakey et al., 2008; Dyrberg et al., 2017; Muhamad et al., 2010, 2012; Pope et al., 2017; Radhamani et al., 2014; Ray et al., 2012; Triola & Holloway, 2011)
Along this vein, several review studies on the effect of virtual laboratories in teaching sciences have been carried out (Brinson, 2015; De Jong et al., 2013; Ma & Nickerson, 2006; Smetana & Bell, 2012; Udin et al., 2020) However, most reviews only included laboratory practices of many other disciplines, such as physics, chemistry, and engineering, with few review studies about the effectiveness of virtual laboratories in teaching and learning biology (Udin et al., 2020). There is a need to know for which topics of biology virtual labs are more useful and what outcomes are brought about by virtual labs in the teaching and learning of biology. Therefore, we assume that this study will shed light on the effectiveness of virtual labs and in which preferred topics teachers are called to use the virtual labs. This relates especially to those biology topics which seem difficult to be taught by teachers and those which are too hard to understand for students because they aretoo abstract. Thefollowingspecificquestions guidethis literature review:
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1. In which topics of biology are virtual laboratories the most useful?
2. What learning outcomes are best achieved using virtual laboratories in biology?
The use of virtual laboratories in teaching and learning is based on David Kolb’ s (1984) experiential learning theory, which is rooted in the constructivist approach and John Dewey’s work (Ouyang & Stanley, 2014). Around 1938, Dewey showed that no learning happens without practice and the active involvement of students. Kolb advocated and applied Dewey’s concept of “learning by doing” , believing that learning occurs through cognitive and experiential learning (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). The core of experiential learning theory is the individual learner’ s participation and experiences (Ouyang& Stanley,2014). The application ofvirtual labs in teaching ensures students’ active learning (Evans et al., 2004). The use of virtual labs allows learners to experiment with immediate feedback and interactivity (Dyrberg et al., 2017; Tan & Waugh, 2013). Thus, virtual labs help students to learn by doing and to become more engaged in their studies (Gallagher et al., 2005; Marchevsky et al., 2003)
We applied preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta analyses (PRISMA) principles and guidelines in our review (Moher et al., 2009). PRISMA guidelines assist researchers in conducting transparent and comprehensive systematic review reporting. These guidelines help researchers define research strategies, eligibility criteria, the selection process, and the data collection process.
We used an open federated search in this review study to find relevant articles from trusted databases. This type of search involves searching various electronic databases for information relevant to the review study. We used certain keywords to search and retrieve articles related to our study. These included “biology laboratory” , “virtual laboratory in teaching biology” , “virtual labs and biology topics” , “biology education and virtual laboratory” , “virtual and physical laboratory”, “virtual lab and real lab”, and “effectiveness of virtual labs in biology education”. We used trusted electronic databases such as Google Scholar, ERIC, and Web of Science to access reliable articles and conference proceedings
Using a systematic selection process and the elimination of duplicates, the first stage of searching yielded 161 papers. Manual filtering was applied based on how an article is relevant to our study. In selecting the relevant articles for inclusion in the review, we screened the titles and abstracts of all recorded articles. We used several inclusion and exclusion criteria to filter irrelevant articles (Table 1).
Empirical studies in peer reviewed journals, and conference proceedings
Reviews in non peer reviewed journals
Virtual labs used for biology education Virtual lab development procedures, design, or architecture
Virtual labs used for medical biology
Articles published in English Articles that are not in English
The screening of titles and abstracts yielded 38 publications. The publications were further subjected to screening by checking their full text content. Thearticles that focused only on biology virtual lab development procedures, design, or architecture without any relation to teaching biology were excluded. In this regard, 12 publications were filtered out. Eventually, we gathered 26 studies relevant to our review study, and each study was recorded to categorize information for further analysis (see Table 2 and Figure 1). The PRISMA diagram in Figure 1 shows the selection process. The obtained articles are dated from 2002 to 2019
Figure 1: PRISMA diagram of the selection process of the reviewed studies
In response to the first research question, we present in Table 2 the biology topics in which virtual laboratories are most commonly used for effective teaching. We also present the related learning outcomes that are most commonly enhanced by the use of virtual labs
Table 2. Biology topics in which virtual labs are used and related learning outcomes
1 Akhigbe and Ogufere (2019) Genetics Student attitudes and academic achievement in genetics
2 Akpan and Strayer (2010) Frog dissection Actual dissection practices and attitudes towards dissection
3 Breakey et al. (2008) Genetics Understanding of experimental genetics procedures
4 Collier et al. (2012) Histology Content mastery and time management
5 Diwakar et al. (2011) Biotechnology (No learning outcomes were identified)
6 Dyrberg et al. (2017) Microbiology and pharmaceutical toxicology
Enhanced student positive attitudes, motivation, and self efficacy
7 Elangovan and Ismail (2014) Cell division Student conceptual understanding of cell division
8 Flowers (2011) Various topics, most of which are related to cell and molecular biology (DNA, cell structure, enzyme controlled reaction, cell reproduction)
Student perceptions of biology
9 Havlícková et al. (2018) Dissection Student motivation
10 Huppert et al. (2002) Microbiology Student science process skills and academic achievement
11 Ismail et al. (2016) Microbiology (dissolving pathogenic bacteria)
Enhancing student scientific literacy
12 Kiboss et al. (2006) Cell division Conceptual understanding and perceptions
13 Makransky et al. (2016) Microbiology Knowledge transfer and practical skills
14 Makransky et al. (2019) Microbiology Student knowledge, motivation, and self efficacy in microbiology
15 Marbach et al. (2008) Molecular biology Enhanced student achievement
16 Meir et al. (2005) Introductory biology (osmosis and diffusion)
Student understanding of how these processes work at a molecular level
17 Muhamad et al. (2012) Cell division Student understanding of cell division, specifically applications of mitosis in cloning
18 Oser and Fraser (2015) Genetics Student perception of the learning environment, attitudes towards the topic, and achievement
19 Pope et al. (2017) Evolution Student understanding of natural selection concepts
20 Radhamani et al. (2014) Biotechnology Enhanced student achievement
21 Shelden et al. (2019) Cell division Understanding of cell division phases
22 Stuckey Mickell and Stuckey Danner (2007)
Introductory biology Enhanced student perceptions
23 Tan and Waugh (2013) Molecular biology Student conceptual understanding and attitudes in molecular biology
24 Toth et al. (2009) DNA and gel electrophoresis Student understanding and laboratory skills
25 White et al. (2007) Genetics Conceptual understanding
26 Whitworth et al. (2018) Enzyme kinetics Conceptual understanding
Table 2 displays the topics in which virtual labs were used and the learning outcomes that were attained as a result of their use. The reviewed articles are dated from 2002 to 2019. We did not find literature for the years 2020 to 2022. In the reviewed studies, virtual labs were used to teach genetics, dissection, microbiology, cell division, osmosis, DNA and gel electrophoresis, enzyme kinetics, biotechnology, evolution, histology, and introduction to biology. Virtual labs were used most frequently in teaching microbiology and cell division. Moreover, some of the learning outcomes that were attained using virtual labs included conceptual understanding, knowledge transfer, practical skills acquisition, and enhanced positive attitudes, motivation, and self efficacy among students. The topics and learning outcomes are further described in the following sections, respectively
3.2. Topics in Which Virtual Labs are the Most Useful We analyzed the reviewed studies to identify which biology topics were most taught using virtual labs. Figure 2 shows the different topics that were facilitated using virtual labs.
It is not by coincidence that the identified topics in Figure 2 employ virtual laboratories. The listed topics are perceived by both teachers and students to be difficult, abstract, and daunting due to their complexity, difficulty to visualize, and not being practicable in normal physical school laboratories. For instance, before conducting their study on developing and implementing a scenario based biology virtual lab, Muhamad et al. (2012) carried out a preliminary investigation of a survey type involving 72 students and 10 high school teachers. Their investigation aimed to identify the biology topic that was most difficult to teach and learn and to focus on developing a virtual lab for it. Their preliminary study findings indicated cell division as the most difficult topic for both teachers and students (Muhamad et al., 2010)
Tan and Waugh (2013) undertook research employing virtual reality simulations in teaching and learning molecular biology in Singapore high schools. Teachers claimed that the topic of molecular biology was challenging and difficult to teach. They also indicated different complaints by students about teaching materials used by their teachers, such as diagrams and 2D presentations, which do not enable them to see DNA and protein molecules. Tan and Waugh (2013) argued that before studying molecular biology by use of virtual reality simulations, it was difficult for students to relate the structure and molecular interactions for cell functioning. Radhamani et al. (2014) reported that after virtual lab classes, 44% of the students who participated in their study scored 90%, with an average class score of about 70% in the post test evaluation. In the pre test evaluation, the majority of the students (88%) had scored below 70%.
Indeed, the topic to be taught with the use of virtual labs depends on the nature of the experiment. For instance, considering the topic of dissection, this topic raises many debates and disagreements regarding ethical issues among researchers,educators,andanimal rightsactivists.Virtuallaboratoriesthatdissect animal specimens provide a viable alternative to real dissections and relieve
ethics related issues. Studies comparing the value of virtual frog dissections with traditional dissections using real specimens have revealed mixed results, however. Some supported that real dissections in the physical laboratory are effective (Cross & Cross, 2004), while others agreed that the simulated dissections are effective for improving students’ performance in the virtual laboratories (Akpan & Strayer, 2010).
The learning outcomes identified in the reviewed studies were grouped into three categories (Figure 3) These are: 1) knowledge and conceptual understanding; 2) laboratory skills, knowledge transfer, and self efficacy in laboratory activities; and 3) students’ motivation, perceptions, and attitudes towards biology and the learning environment. Some of the reviewed studies assessed more than one of the above learning outcomes The total number of studies indicated in Figure 3 therefore exceed the number of reviewed studies. The overall findings indicated that the learning outcomes varied, but in most studies, knowledge and conceptual understanding were frequently assessed.
Motivation, perceptions, and attitudes
Laboratory skills, knowledge transfer, and self efficacy
8
21
5 0 5 10 15 20 25
From our analysis, 21 out of the 26 reviewed studies reported that the use of virtual labs enhances students’ conceptual understanding (Figure 3). Indeed, virtual lab exercises have been proven essential for students to understand biology concepts. Virtual labs present multiple opportunities for students to gain access to learning resources easily, and to get enough time to do and repeat activities, thereby nurturing deeper learning (Muhamad et al., 2012)
Furthermore, biology is a molecular science; most of its topics require visualizations, videos, and illustrations for students to understand how processes work at the molecular level (Evans et al., 2004; Muhamad et al., 2012). Many studies have shown that virtual laboratories are effective, low cost tools to enhance students’ understanding of biology concepts. This is because they provide students with visualizations of abstract concepts through animations, simulations, and virtual practices of simulated laboratory experiments for some
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topics, which could not be done even in normal classes (Akhigbe & Ogufere, 2019; Collier et al., 2012; Makransky et al., 2016; Oser & Fraser, 2015; Špernjak & Šorgo, 2018; Tan & Waugh, 2013)
In the study conducted by Tan and Waugh (2013), students admitted that before exposure to visualization exercises, molecular biology was a dry topic, too abstract and daunting for them. This resulted in some of them giving up biology altogether. Nonetheless, Tan and Waugh confirmed that after viewing the animations and participating in the visualization exercises, the students demonstrated increased interest, understanding, and engagement in the subject. Whitworthetal.(2018) reportedavarieduseofsimulationsinlaboratoryactivities after seeing a significant increase in post test scores of the experimental group of students over the control group of students. The experimental group was taught using standard lab instruction coupled with simulated lab instruction, while the control group was taught with only standard lab instruction. The increased post test scores of the experimental group had an average standard deviation of 1.59. Based on their study results, Whitworth et al. (2018) concluded that computer simulations improve students’ conceptual understanding of enzyme kinetics.
Moreover, various studies have shown that virtual labs are adequate for improving understanding of biology topics that are difficult to observe directly in theclassroomcontext (Collier etal., 2012;Pope etal., 2017; Radhamaniet al., 2014). For example, evolution by natural selection has been shown to be notoriously difficult for students to understand, and its processes have been described as not directly observable (Krist & Showsh, 2007; Nehm & Schonfeld, 2008; Plunkett & Yampolsky, 2010). However, Pope et al. (2017) clearly showed that simulations of natural phenomena are effective tools that support an active teaching approach to help students overcome natural selection misconceptions
3.3.2 Laboratory skills, knowledge transfer, and self efficacy in laboratory activities Eight out of the twenty six reviewed studies indicated that virtual laboratories enhance students’ laboratory skills, knowledge transfer, and self efficacy (Figure 3) These studies suggested that virtual laboratories are effective tools for pre lab preparation and transferring knowledge and skills from an idealized environment into physical reality (Makransky et al., 2016). Research has affirmed that for meaningful laboratory learning to occur, students should be prepared before performing the required laboratory tasks (Jones & Edwards, 2010) According to O’Brien and Cameron (2008), laboratory practices help students to move from abstract to concrete settings. However, if students are not prepared, they could experience stress and confusion during laboratory activities instead of expected manipulative and process skills. The students become overloaded with too much information about the assigned task and may become overwhelmed as they try to handle new manipulative tasks as well as master new concepts (Pogačnik & Cigić, 2006).
Virtual labs are crucial for the preparation of students before embarking on a physical experiment. Researchers have affirmed that to perform the required
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practical tasks, science classes should blend real and virtual experiments so that students acquire the skills necessary. Several of the reviewed studies suggested the desirability of integrating hands on laboratories with virtual ones and the effectiveness of engaging in virtual experiences before the real, hands on investigation (Akpan & Strayer, 2010; Toth et al., 2009). In addition, other researchers have indicated that students prepared using virtual labs do not waste time on how to handle apparatus in organizing the experiment; rather, they focus on testing hypotheses through practicing and making important observations (Johnstone & Al Shuaili, 2001). Prepared students begin the procedures faster and ask questions on a higher level than those who are less or not prepared (Dyrberg et al., 2017)
In their post test,Akpanand Strayer(2010) discovered thatstudentswho engaged first in simulated dissection outperformed their peers who only performed conventional dissection. Similarly, Maldarelli et al. (2009) found that visual demonstration of laboratory techniques via instructional videos before the actual physical laboratory activity was sufficient to mediate significant increases in knowledge, self efficacy, and experience in basic biology laboratory procedures. However, not surprisingly, some studies found that students believed that traditional labs offer more effective pedagogical techniques in teaching them how to use biology laboratoryequipment than virtual labs (Flowers, 2011). Researchers have also criticized virtual labs, claiming that they have limited potential for teaching students how to handle specimens and perform techniques such as fixing, staining, and thin sectioning (Scheckler, 2003). However, other scholars have indicated that with simulations, students have opportunities to repeatedly learn all steps of an experiment, enabling them to transfer knowledge and skills gained from virtual learning to physical applications (Makransky et al., 2016)
3.3.3 Students’ motivation, perceptions, and attitudes towards biology and the learning environment
In this study, 5 out of the 26 reviewed studies reported about virtual laboratories as related to students’ motivation, perceptions, and attitudes towards biology and the learning environment (Figure 3) According to these studies, virtual labs are important for enhancing students’ attitudes, stimulating interest and enjoyment, and motivating them to learn biology, improving their performance. Toth et al. (2009) performed a study about myDNA by using virtual labs to show the separation of DNA fragments. They found that students were happy to learn and efficiently repeated experiments and studied the effects of the variables. In a recent study, Akhigbe and Ogufere (2019) assessed the effect of computer simulations on students’ attitudes towards biology, finding that computer simulations improve students’ attitudes towards genetics. A significant improvement in performance was seen with the students who were exposed to the computer simulation instructional strategy over their counterparts who were taught using traditional methodologies.
The majority of the reviewed studies revealed that students have positive perceptions towards virtual labs. Stuckey Mickell and Stuckey Danner (2007) made a contrary finding in their qualitative study analyzing open ended qualitative responses by students after completion of several virtual lab sessions
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in human biology. This allowed them to investigate how students perceive virtual labs as compared to hands on laboratory activities. They found that with virtual labs, students lacked the enjoyment of student teacher interaction and the ability to ask questions and receive direct feedback from the instructor.
Based on the study’sfindings,we conclude that virtuallaboratoriesare commonly effective in teaching difficult and abstract biology topics related to cell and molecular biology. Furthermore, conceptual understanding is the learning outcome most enhanced when using virtual labs. Studies have further affirmed thatvirtual labs improvestudents’ motivation,self efficacy,andattitudestowards learning biology topics. Virtual laboratories deserve the attention of researchers, teachers, and instructional designers due to their appealing nature as a means of actively involving students in safer and more cost effective scientific inquiry. We suggest that future research assesses teachers’ preparedness to use virtual labs in teaching and learning processes. The effectiveness of virtual labs, like any other instructional tool, may be greatly influenced by how they are used in the classroom. This study did not address the limitations of the virtual laboratory in teaching and learning biology. Thus, we recommend further research into the negative effects of using virtual laboratories in teaching and learning.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 18 33, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.2
Received Mar 3, 2022; Revised May 29, 2022; Accepted Jun 22, 2022
Ma Luisa Mariano-Dolesh
Distance, Open and Transnational University, Central Luzon State University Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Leila M. Collantes
College of Education, Central Luzon State University Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Edwin D. Ibañez
College of Science, Central Luzon State University Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Jupeth T. Pentang*
College of Education, Western Philippines University Puerto Princesa City, Philippines
Abstract. Mindset plays a vital role in tackling the barriers to improving the preservice mathematics teachers’ (PMTs) conceptual understanding of problem solving. As the COVID 19 pandemic has continued to pose a challenge, online learning has been adopted. This led this study to determining the PMTs’ mindset and level of conceptual understanding in problem solving in an online learning environment utilising Google Classroom and the Khan Academy. A quantitative research design was employed specifically utilising a descriptive, comparative, and correlational design. Forty five PMTs were chosen through simple random sampling and willingly took part in this study. The data was gathered using validated and reliable questionnaires and problem solving tests. The data gathered was analysed using descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, and simple linear regression. The results revealed that the college admission test, specifically numerical proficiency, influences a strong mindset and a higher level of conceptual understanding in problem solving. Additionally, this study shows that mindset predicts the levels of conceptual understanding in problem
* Corresponding author: JupethT.Pentang,jupeth.pentang@wpu.edu.ph
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
solving in an online environment where PMTs with a growth mindset have the potential to solve math problems. The use of Google Classroom and the Khan Academy to aid online instruction is useful in the preparation of PMTs as future mathematics teachers and problem solvers. Further studies may be conducted to validate these reports and to address the limitations of this study.
Keywords: conceptual understanding; growth mindset; mathematics education; online learning; preservice teachers
Future math teachers must be equipped with the right mindset and a full understanding of problem solving. Mindset and conceptual understanding have a crucial role in the preparation of preservice mathematics teachers (PMTs). The academic mindset is critical in deeper learning (Farrington, 2013) where understanding the mindset of preservice teachers improves their morale as future educators (Yazon et al., 2021). Sadly, preservice teachers have a mindset that they cannot do mathematics (Cutler, 2020). Considering that a positive mindset is a gateway to mathematical achievement (Sun, 2018) and problem solving performance (Pentang et al., 2021), an exploration of this matter is necessary to guide the teacher educators in empowering the PMTs. Poor conceptual understanding may also be a product of a negative mindset. Ibañez and Pentang (2021) have reported this among preservice teachers in the Philippines. Discovering ways to develop a strong mindset and conceptual understanding among PMTs was disrupted by the occurrence of the novel coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID 19). Nevertheless, it opened up opportunities for teacher education institutions (TEIs) to explore alternative teaching and learning modalities.
TEIs in the locality suspended face to face classes and limited academic exchanges to mitigate the public health effects of COVID 19 (Tan et al., 2021). Institutions adopted a purely online modality while some blended it with self learning modules to aid the instructions which may have affected the mindset and level of conceptual understanding among PMTs. Although online learning has been configured under a wide variety of different formats over half a century, one could say that COVID 19 has made educational institutions aware of the new normal way of academic exchange. Given the challenges due to the pandemic’s impact, experts in educational institutions have been forced to adopt remote teaching strategies maximising online resources as a teaching learning tool. As online classrooms promote a healthy mindset and encourage learning motivation (Bacsal et al., 2022; De Souza et al., 2021), TEIs have begun to adopt online technology methods for disseminating the teaching learning processes such as Google Classroom and the Khan Academy.
On the other hand, educators who wish to improve their learning outcomes must consider approaches to establish a growth mindset (Dimitriadis, 2015). A person with a strong mindset shows grit, hard work, and perseverance. Embedded in each of these beliefs, or mindsets, are networks of beliefs and assumptions that shape how people approach learning (Tabrizi, 2020). In contrast, those who
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believe that intelligence is fixed tend to focus on judgment. They are more concerned with proving that they are intelligent or concealing that they are not, which means that they avoid circumstances in which they might fail or have to work hard (Dweck, 2016). The faculty and staff require more than just technological knowledge; they must also be fully prepared to apply instructional approaches that improve the students’ online experiences (DeBrock et al., 2020; De Souza et al., 2021). Thus, there is a need for teachers, including those in the preservice, to assess their beliefs about intelligence. Their mindset will drive how they teach and facilitate learning in the mathematics classroom.
Studies about mindset have not yet been fully explored, especially in the field of mathematics education. It is noticeable that growth mindset research emerged recently, less than ten years ago. Likewise, the conceptual understanding of problem solving in an online environment has not yet been examined. It will be interesting to find out whether mindset has a connection with the level of conceptual understanding in an online setup. Moreover, the research will likely be compelling if the study is done in a group of preservice teachers who are taking mathematics majors. Considering that these future teachers will probably teach mathematics in the K 12 program in a few years (Bacsal et al., 2022; Domingo et al., 2021; Ibañez & Pentang, 2021; Pentang et al., 2021), it would bring in great benefits to the students, parents, and administrators if their mindset and levels of conceptual understanding are found to be related.
As an academic institution that trains and prepares preservice teachers, Central Luzon State University (CLSU) has been dramatically affected by the pandemic due to the lockdown and school closures that started in March 2020. Online resources are needed to address the unprecedented pandemic issues in the teaching learning process (Manca & Meluzzi, 2020; Pentang, 2021b). Given the uncertainty of how long the pandemic lasts, online learning plays a vital role in the continuity of teaching and learning (Bacsal et al., 2022). Google Classroom and the Khan Academy was used to facilitate continuous learning despite the ongoing closure and lockdown in schools, colleges, and universities. These scenarios have compelling reasons to study the mindset and levels of conceptual understanding in problem solving in an online learning environment using readily free available tools like Google Classroom and the Khan Academy in a mathematics classroom at CLSU, specific to PMTs, who are deemed to be able to recuperate the status of Philippine mathematics education.
1. What is the PMTs’ mindset when problem solving in terms of growth and a fixed mindset?
2. What is the PMTs’ levels of conceptual understanding when problem solving regarding best, partial, complete/incomplete, functional, and no understanding?
3. Is there a significant difference in the PMTs’ mindset when problem solving when grouped according to socio demographic characteristics?
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4. Is there a significant difference in the PMTs’ levels of conceptual understanding of problem solving when grouped according to socio demographic characteristics?
5. Do the PMTs’ mindsets significantly predict their conceptual understanding of problem solving?
The inequalities in the Filipino students’ mathematical literacy can be attributed to their unawareness of a growth mindset and lack of conceptual understanding, both of which are linked to their teachers’ means of imparting knowledge and skills in mathematics. With the unprecedented move to online learning brought about by the pandemic, mathematics educators have been obligated to employ online learning management systems such as Google Classroom with the Khan Academy to train and prepare future maths teachers who are deemed able to address the mathematics illiteracy among young Filipinos. It is an opportunity to assess the growth mindset and conceptual understanding of problem solving of the preservice mathematics teachers (PMTs). The Khan Academy existed prior to the pandemic but was not commonly used in formal mathematics instruction.
The PMTs’ mindsets can be influenced by what they believe about their academic ability. Intelligence may be strengthened by a growth mindset (Dweck, 2016). A person with a growth mindset knows that intelligence may be attained through hard work and the assistance of others (Romero, 2015). Knowing a student’s mindset will assist a teacher in developing techniques to promote learning (Tabrizi, 2020). Growth mindset techniques enable the students to engage in risk taking activities (Hennessey, 2019). Thus, it is vital to consider the right mindset when pursuing academic success in mathematics, especially in relation to problem solving. The PMTs’ mindset may be found to be helpful in problem solving activities with the aid of the Khan Academy.
PMT's conceptual understanding of problem solving also has implications for mathematics education. Conceptual understanding denotes a comprehensive and functional knowledge of mathematical notions (National Research Council, 2001). Conceptualunderstandingiscriticaltosolvingaproblemandunderstandingwhy the algorithms and approaches used work. Conceptual understanding, in which learners grasp ideas in a transferable manner, enables them to apply what they learn in class across domains (Moser & Chen, 2016). Problem solving and deep conceptual understanding is demonstrated when a student decides how to solve a problem (Ibañez & Pentang, 2021; Pentang et al., 2021). The PMTs should be able to monitor their process and judge whether the procedure is the right method to answer the question or if a new way is needed (Pentang, 2021a; Schoenfeld, 1989). Through the Khan Academy, it is deemed that the PMTs’ conceptual understanding will be estimated.
Thesocio demographiccharacteristicssuchassex,numberofsiblings,birthorder, family monthly income, father’s and mother’s educational attainment, and CAT Numerical Proficiency, are essential factors to consider when determining the PMTs’ mindset and level of conceptual understanding. Considering that both
mindset and conceptual understanding are essential in mathematics education, this study resolves the gap in the literature where no exploration has established the influence of socio demographic characteristics in relation to the PMTs mindset and conceptual understanding of problem solving as well as to establish whether mindset is a predictor of the PMT’s conceptual understanding. The study also conceptualised the vital role of online learning in problem solving through the use of Google Classroom and the Khan Academy (Figure 1).
This study employed a quantitative research design combining descriptive, comparative, and regression methods to address the research questions and conceptual framework of the study (Magulod et al., 2021). The descriptive analysis addressed the first two research questions which described the participants’ mindset and their level of conceptual understanding of problem solving in an onlinelearning environment. Additionally, thecomparativeanalysis answered the third and fourth research questions which distinguished between the socio demographic characteristic differences in the participants’ mindset and level of conceptual understanding, respectively. Moreover, the regression
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analysis answered the fifth question which showed whether the PMT’s mindset predicts their conceptual understanding of problem solving.
The participants of the study were preservice mathematics teachers (third year Bachelor of Secondary Education major in Mathematics students) from Central Luzon State University. The study targeted respondents who had taken mathematicscollegecoursesandwhowerecurrentlyenrolledinProblem solving, Mathematical Investigation, and Modelling in their first semester of the school year 2020 2021. The simple random sampling employed drew 45 participants (Table 1).
Table 1: Participants’ socio demographic characteristics (n = 45)
Socio-Demographic Characteristics Frequency Percentage
Sex
Male 14 31.11 Female 31 68.89
Number of Siblings 0 2 10 22.22 3 5 31 68.89 6 and above 4 8.89
Birth Order
Family Monthly Income
Father’s Educational Attainment
Last born (Youngest) 12 26.67 Middle born 21 46.67 First born (Eldest) 12 26.67
Less than ₱11,690 34 75.56 Between ₱11,690 to ₱23,380 9 20.00 Between ₱23,381 to ₱46,761 2 4.44
Did not finish Elementary 7 15.56 Elementary Graduate 7 15.56 High School Graduate 26 57.78 College Graduate 5 11.11
Mother’s Educational Attainment
Elementary Undergraduate 2 4.44 Elementary Graduate 6 13.33 High School Graduate 30 66.67 College Graduate 7 15.56
CAT Numerical Proficiency Below Average 8 17.78 Average 24 53.33 Above Average 13 28.89
The instrument utilised in this study was a survey questionnaire (for Part I and Part II) and a problem solving test (for Part III). Part I determined the socio demographic characteristics of the participants. Part II focused on the participants’ mindset following the example of Dweck (2016). It consisted of two subscales: Entity Self Beliefs (items number 1 to 4) and Incremental Self Beliefs (items number 5 to 8). The entity or fixed mindset items were reverse coded so then the students who answered strongly disagree for these items showed agreement with the growth mindset. Higher scores for this subscale showed agreement with the incremental or growth mindset items. Part III was aimed at the participants’ levels of conceptual understanding of problem solving in terms of their best understanding, partial understanding, incomplete understanding,
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functional misconception, and no understanding. The levels were determined based on Jensen and Finley’s (1995) theory. The problems provided focused on the following topics: expressions in multiple variables, systems of equations, graph labels and scales, quadratics, and exponential graphs. These problems were among the difficult items included in the work of Bacsal et al. (2022), Domingo et al. (2021), Ibañez and Pentang (2021), and Pentang et al. (2021) in their studies on mathematics problems concerning elementary preservice teachers in the same institution. The research instrument was pilot tested which demonstrated a high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.891).
The researchers secured approval and consent from the institution and the participants, respectively. Upon approval, the course professor assisted the researchers in gathering the data. At the start of the class, the participants familiarised themselves with the course expectations of the online learning environment. The participants completed an online survey about their socio demographic characteristics and mindset towards problem solving. In the following meetings in the first week, the course professor facilitated discussions on mathematical investigation, developing critical thinking and problem solving skills, as well as math problem solving techniques and strategies. Examples of how to solve different mathematics problems were presented which served as a review of the PMTs’ prior knowledge regarding their mathematics courses.
The researchers oriented the participants of the Khan Academy online resource in the first meeting of the second week of class. Given how the participants have prior knowledge of the mathematics concepts from previous years, the Khan Academy platform offered them an opportunity to practice mathematical skills repeatedly to master the concepts. It also allowed them to track their progress as it provided instant feedback. Thus, the participants could fill in the gaps in their understanding by watching the related videos and getting hints or moving ahead.
During the two weeks of the class meetings, the students independently practiced their problem solving skills. The PMTs continued to do the practice exercises and watch videos, if necessary. In the next two weeks of the classes, the students answered the problem solving questions in Google Classroom through Google Forms. Each problem set had four multiple choice questions. The students wrote the solutions and explanations to their chosen answers in the multiple choice area for each item question. After a month of online learning, the researchers gathered the data on the number of times each participant tried to answer the given five sets of problems to achieve mastery learning using the Khan Academy.
Descriptive statistics such as the mean and standard deviation were utilised to determine the PMTs’ mindset regarding the presence of a growth mindset or absence of a growth mindset, equivalently a fixed mindset, whereas frequency count and percentage were used to describe the PMTs’ level of conceptual understanding of problem solving in an online environment. Besides this, a series ofAnalysisofVariance testswereemployedtodistinguish between thesignificant differences in the PMTs’ (a) mindset and (b) conceptual understanding in
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problem solving when grouped according to their socio demographic characteristics. Follow up post hoc analysis was conducted using the Scheffe test. Furthermore, simple linear regression was utilised to find out whether the PMTs’ mindset was able to predict their level of conceptual understanding of problem solving in an online environment.
The study found alarming results where the PMTs recorded a weak growth mindset (Mean = 3.98, SD = 0.16). The PMTs have limited their perspective regarding their intelligence and ability to do problem solving. Still, the Khan Academy online intervention showed that the PMTs performed the exercises several times to reach the mastery level. As Table 2 reflects, the PMTs have a strong growth mindset regarding the time and effort needed to improve themselves. This demonstrates the PMTs' readiness to maximise their resources, learn from their mistakes, and accept challenges, as they consider failure as a chance to learn (Boaler, 2022; Dweck, 2016). Also, the PMTs seemed determined and persevering when it came to accomplishing whatever they set their minds to. Hence, the PMTs showed that they are most likely to demonstrate the characteristics of people with a growth mindset, such as hard work, perseverance, seeking help from others, and learning from feedback (Boaler, 2022; Dweck, 2016; Wilkins, 2014).
There is still a need to cultivate a growth mindset among the PMTs. The PMTs’ growth mindset will be vital when addressing the poor status of mathematics education in the Philippines. Several online resources relevant to mathematics instructions maybeadoptedtofullyprepareprospectivemath teachers.With “the teacher’s crucial role in facilitating and monitoring the student’s development” (Agayon et al., 2022), this weak growth mindset may be replicated in the PMTs’ students. Thus, the institution may provide ample training and activities to strengthen the PMTs’ growth mindset. In line with De Souza et al. (2021) and Pentang (2021b), the course professors concerned may further utilise several online teaching learning tools and integrate available technology to communicate effective instructions.
Parameters Mean SD Description
*1. I don’t think I can do much to increase my intelligence. 3.84 1.26 WGM
*2. I can learn new things but I can’t change my basic intelligence. 3.76 1.28 WGM
*3. My intelligence is something about me that I can’t change very much. 3.98 1.29 WGM
*4. To be honest, I don’t think I can change how intelligent I am. 3.93 1.25 WGM
5. With enough time and effort, I think I could significantly improve my intelligence level. 5.24 0.98 SGM
6. I believe I can always substantially improve my intelligence. 4.89 0.71 AGM
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7. Regardlessof my current intelligence level, I think I can change it quite a bit. 4.80 0.50 AGM
8. I believe I can change my basic intelligence level considerably over time. 4.87 0.69 AGM
Pooled Mean 3.98 0.16 WGM
Note: 5.16 6.00 = Strong Growth Mindset (SGM) *Reversely Coded
4.33 5.15 = Average Growth Mindset (AGM)
3.50 4.32 = Weak Growth Mindset (WGM)
2.67 3.49 = Weak Fixed Mindset (WFM)
1.84 2.66 = Average Fixed Mindset (AFM)
1.00 1.83 = Strong Fixed Mindset (SFM)
Most (40 out of 45) PMTs recorded their best conceptual understanding in problem solving (Table 3). This shows that the PMTs have prior knowledge of the concepts and mastered the skills needed in problem solving, which opposes the work of Ibañez and Pentang (2021) and Pentang et al. (2021) who revealed that the majority of the preservice teachers have functional misconceptions and an incomplete understanding of problem solving. This result approves the effective use of Google Classroom with the Khan Academy as employed by the PMTs’ professors where the institution they belong to has led to the standard of being one of the best universities in Asia. The PMTs have shown their ability to impart knowledge and skills in mathematical problem solving to their future students.
Meanwhile, five PMTs had an incomplete to partial understanding, which can be attributed to a lack of contextual comprehension of the mathematical topics (Domingo et al., 2021; Pentang, 2021a; Pentang et al., 2021). This unwanted result may infer that the PMTs are not yet ready for the challenge to empower young Filipinos in their mathematics courses. Since partial understanding hampers the students’ understanding of the subsequent mathematical knowledge (Shockey & Pindiprolu, 2015), there is a need for an intervention to facilitate the preparation of the PMTs as math teachers. Other online based platforms and resources may be utilised in the teaching learning process to improve the PMTs’ conceptual understanding as well as to effectively strengthen their growth mindset in mathematics
Table 3: PMTs’ level of conceptual understanding
Levels Frequency (n = 45) Percentage
Best Understanding 40 88.89
Partial Understanding 4 8.89
Incomplete Understanding 1 2.22 Functional Misconception 0 0 No Understanding 0 0
ANOVA found there to be a significant difference in the PMTs’ mindset in terms of the CAT numerical proficiency of the PMTs, F(2,42) = 1.002, p < 0.05 (Table 4). PMTs with an above average CAT numerical proficiency (Mean = 4.430, SD =
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0.139) tended to have a stronger growth mindset in relation to problem solving compared to the PMTs with an average (Mean = 3.973, SD = 0.155) and below average (Mean = 3.937, SD = 0.197) CAT numerical proficiency. This means that numerical proficiency can influence mindset in relation to problem solving. Overall, the study results suggested that there is no statistical evidence to say that there is a significant difference between the PMTs’ mindsets when grouped according to their socio demographic characteristics except for their CAT Numerical Proficiency.
The results can be related to the work of Boaler (2022) and Bower (2017) where people who have a growth mindset directly impact how they face academic challenges, including college examinations. However, this finding contradicts Li and Bates (2020) where admission test scores throughout the transition from high school to college were not found to be connected to a growth mindset. When establishing the PMTs' mindset, it would be beneficial to focus more on their academic profile, such as college admission test scores. The PMTs’ high school background may be included, and a stringent retention policy in the mathematics teacher education program may be implemented.
Table 4: Socio-demographic characteristic differences in relation to the PMTs’ mindset towards problem-solving
Socio-Demographic Characteristics Mean SD df F p
Sex
Male
3.946 0.137 1,43 1.044 0.302 Female 4.000 0.168
Number of Siblings 0 2 4.000 0.150 2,42 0.496 0.613 3 5 3.989 0.162 6 and above 3.916 0.176
Birth Order
Youngest
3.923 0.148 2,42 1.297 0.284 Middle 4.015 0.153 Eldest 3.983 0.178
Monthly Family Income
Less than ₱11,690 3.890 0.152 2,42 0.409 0.667 Between ₱11,690 to ₱23,380 3.972 0.186 Between ₱23,381 to ₱46,761 4.083 0.235
Father’s Educational Attainment
Did not finish Elementary 4.023 0.133
3,41 0.537 0.219 Elementary Graduate 3.964 0.249
High School Graduate 4.003 0.127 College Graduate 3.850 0.170
Mother’s Educational Attainment
Did not finish Elementary 4.000 0.235
3,41 0.058 0.981 Elementary Graduate 4.000 0.166 High School Graduate 3.983 0.165 College Graduate 3.964 0.143
CAT Numerical Proficiency
Below Average 3.609b 0.197 2,42 1.002 0.037
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Average 3.903b 0.155
Above Average 4.430a 0.137
Note: Means with the same subscript do not differ using Scheffe post hoc analysis.
4.4. Socio-Demographic Differences in the PMTs’ Conceptual Understanding of Problem-Solving
ANOVA found there to be a significant difference in the PMTs’ conceptual understanding of problem solving when grouped according to CAT Numerical Proficiency, F(2,42) = 3.464, p < 0.05 (Table 5). The post hoc analysis using Scheffe showed that PMTs with an above average CAT Numerical Proficiency (Mean = 3.792, SD = 0.238) tended to have higher conceptual understanding of problem solving compared to the PMTs with an average (Mean = 3.644, SD = 0.423) and below average (Mean = 3.306, SD = 0.545) CAT numerical proficiency. This suggests that there is no significant difference between the PMTs’ conceptual understanding of problem solving in an online environment when grouped according to the socio demographic characteristics, except according to their CAT Numerical Proficiency.
College admissions tests have a long track record of bringing value to higher education institutions by giving a predictive value of student success in entry level college courses. This conforms to the work of Allen and Bond (2001), Mengash (2020), Montalbo et al. (2018), and Tesema (2014) but opposes Laus (2021). The college admission test is indeed a good measure for admitting potential preservice teachers. However, the institution may opt to accept those with a higher numerical proficiency to ensure that the PMTs are ready not only in their college preparation but also for the board exam and their anticipated teaching career. A strict admission policy may be implemented considering other backgrounds such as their high school grade point average and national achievement test results.
Table 5: Socio demographic characteristic differences in relation to the PMTs’ conceptual understanding of problem-solving
Socio-Demographic Characteristics Mean SD df F p Sex
Male 3.739 0.208 1,43 1.490 0.229 Female 3.571 0.494
Number of Siblings 0 2 3.783 0.130 2,42 0.989 0.380 3 5 3.565 0.503 6 and above 3.700 0.127
Birth Order
Youngest
3.691 0.270 2,42 2.115 0.133 Middle 3.478 0.554 Eldest 3.800 0.126
Monthly Family Income
Less than ₱11,690 3.576 0.475
2,42 0.862 0.429 Between ₱11,690 to ₱23,380 3.750 0.208 Between ₱23,381 to ₱46,761 3.850 0.212
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Father’s Educational Attainment
Did not finish Elementary 3.521 0.655
3,41 0.237 0.870 Elementary Graduate 3.707 0.302 High School Graduate 3.617 0.439 College Graduate 3.680 0.148
Mother’s Educational Attainment
Did not finish Elementary 3.875 0.354
3,41 0.258 0.855 Elementary Graduate 3.575 0.194 High School Graduate 3.610 0.472 College Graduate 3.650 0.475
Below Average 3.306b 0.545
2,42 3.464 0.041 Average 3.444b 0.423 Above Average 3.792a 0.238
Note: Means with the same subscript do not differ using the Scheffe post hoc analysis.
A simple linear regression analysis was performed to determine whether the PMTs’ mindset predicts their conceptual understanding of problem solving in an online learning environment. Table 6 shows that the model is significant, R2 = 0.515, Adjusted R2 = 0.407, F(1,43) = 4.781, p < 0.05, indicating that PMTs who have a growth mindset tend to have higher conceptual understanding of problem solving. The coefficient of determination (R2) means that about 51.5% of the variance in the PMTs’ levels of conceptual understanding in problem-solving in an online learning environment is explained or accounted for by their mindset.
Similar to Hennessey (2019), the results show that a growth mindset is associated with better educational outcomes. The study also agrees that an individual with a growth mindset is inspired by mastery goals, finds inspiration in others’ success, and learns from feedback (Wilkins, 2014). This inspiration and reflection is cultivated in an online learning environment. Thus, the growth mindset must be instilled among PMTs while they are in their formative years in the teacher education program. This measure will be helpful as part of encouraging a full understanding of problem solving.
The results further prove that people who have a growth mindset accomplish much (Boaler, 2022) as the PMTs pursue becoming excellent math teachers. However, this study is contrary to the research conducted at the same institution concerning elementary preservice teachers. Although the preservice teachers try to develop a positive disposition, they find it hard to learn mathematics (Ibañez & Pentang, 2021). Even preservice teachers who have a growth mindset toward mathematicsdonotshow afullconceptualunderstanding when solvingproblems (Pentang et al., 2021). The study still needs validation due to the limited sample size.
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Table 6: Simple linear regression analysis of the PMTs’ conceptual understanding in problem solving as the criterion with mindset as the predictor
Model
Unstandardised Coefficients Standardised Coefficients t-value p-value B Std. Error Beta
Constant 2.365 1.729 1.983 0.055 Mindset 0.273 0.420 0.558 4.490 0.049
Note: R2 = 0.515, Adjusted R2 = 0.407, F(1,43) = 4.781, p < 0.05
The PMTs have to develop a strong growth mindset which is necessary for them as future teachers. The PMTs’ preparedness to teach mathematics to young Filipinos cannot be assured with a fixed mindset. To foster a growth mindset among the PMTs, this may be integrated into the Psychology Course that the preservice teachers are taking. The PMTs with a growth mindset are more likely to know that academic success is no accident it is related to learning, studying, hard work, perseverance, sacrifice, and love of what you are doing or learning to do. Additionally, the inclusion of growth mindset activities in the Mathematics Education Courses would be beneficial to the PMTs. This may result in more awareness that intelligence can be developed. This may lead to a stronger growth mindset among the PMTs who will shape the younger generation’s minds in the upcoming K 12 program.
The PMTs attained the expected level of conceptual understanding in problem solving. The PMTs showed a mastery of skills in mathematical problem solving due to their strong academic background combined with the online intervention via the Khan Academy activities. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that there are still a handful of them who have gaps in their conceptual understanding of problem solving. It is good to advocate the use of an open source platform like the Khan Academy to enhance the PMTs’ conceptual understanding. They are likely to be motivated to have mastery skills through independent learning. It is also a useful intervention for those who exhibit a partial or incomplete understanding of the mathematics concepts.
Since the PMTs with a higher CAT Numerical Proficiency tend to have a stronger growth mindset and higher conceptual understanding of problem solving, it is proposed that the college admission test is used in the admission of potential PMT applicants. Besides this, mindset predicts the level of conceptual understanding in problem solving in an online environment. With the use of online resources through Google Classroom and the Khan Academy, it is profitable to develop and implement online mathematics lessons that incorporate a growth mindset and conceptual understanding.
The continuous use of online resources (e.g., lesson videos and practice exercises) via the Khan Academy even in the post pandemic time is highly recommended even after limited face to face classes are implemented. Online resources are beneficial for the PMTs’ growth mindset and conceptual understanding of mathematical problem solving. This may also help the PMTs to prepare for the board examinations and their future teaching career. With the limitations posed
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by the current study, further research on online learning may be looked to, considering a larger sample size and the adoption of similar variables and methods to validate this report. Other online learning tools such as maths applications and software as well as academic and non academic factors that possibly influence the mindset and conceptual understanding may also be considered.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 34 49, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.3
Received Mar 5, 2022; Revised May 29, 2022; Accepted Jun 22, 2022
Abstract. The quality of education is central to the Sustainable National Developmentthatcanbeattainedbyanycountry.Hence,theprofessional development of teachers is critical to classroom practices in the education system. Teachers attend various professional development activities every year toimprove their classroom practices. The aim of the study was toestablish teachers’ perspectivesonprofessionaldevelopment activities. The study adopted an interpretive qualitative approach to explore teachers' views on the phenomenon. The study engaged three heads of departments in semi structured interviews and five teachers in a focus group interview to explore teachers’ lived experiences of professional development. The study employed andragogy as the theoretical framework to understand teachers' views on workshops, subject association meetings, conferences and other professional development activities they attended. Thematic analysis of the data was carried out systematically to generate themes from the findings. Teachers did not regularlyattendannualprofessionaldevelopment activities.Thecontents of the professional development activities did not adequately address teachers’ needs for dynamics in the classroom. It is therefore recommended that teachers’ classroom practices be assessed by their heads of departments, vice principals/principals or subject specialists to determine how their classroom practices could be enhanced. The frequency of professional development activities for teachers should be increased every year, to improve their classroom practices.
Keywords: classroom practices; content based frequency; professional development; perspectives
Quality education remains the priority of the Nigerian education system to promote sustainable national development ( cf. United Nations, 2015), and teachersaremomentously significantin theattainment ofquality educationin any country. The quality of teachers is exhibited in their classroom practices, as teaching and learning are designed, planned and facilitated by teachers (Ajani,
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
2018). Various professional approaches have been designed for teachers to improve their classroom practices. The professional development programmes designed to improve teaching and learning are critical for sustainable development in education (Ajani 2020) In service professional development programmes provide opportunities for teachers to reflect on their classroom practices, to improve their teaching approaches, and enhance learners' academic performance (Lessing & De Witt, 2007). Research has established that cluster systems, workshops, conferences, and other development opportunities succeed in their goal, as approaches to professionally develop teachers for effective and enhanced classroom practices (Jita & Ndlalane, 2009; TRCN, 2010; Jita & Mokhele, 2014; Ravhuhali, Mashau, Kutame & Mutshaeni, 2015; Ajani, 2021)
This study was aimed at exploring the perspectives of teachers and heads of department (HoDs) on the existing professional development activities, and how these activities impact classroom teaching and learning in Nigerian high schools. The main objective of the education system is to provide students with learning experiences that will make them responsive to contributing their share to national growth and development.
The professional development of teachers is critical to quality education and is capable of driving Sustainable National Development in Africa. Several approaches have been adopted to enhance teachers’ classroom practices; however, these activities have been identified as ineffective in some cases (Metcalf, 2011; Ajani, 2019). Teachers deserve regular and quality professional development training that is constant and consistent, aimed at enhanced classroom practices (Ryan, 2007). In other words, teachers, who are facilitators of learning, need adequate professional development that will assist them in effective curriculum delivery (National Policy Framework for Teacher Education, 2007; McMillan Education South Africa, 2017). From the state of basic education in Nigeria, it can be deduced that many teachers are confronted with how best to facilitate learning and reduce learners’ challenges in their academic performance (Steyn, 2008; Fareo, 2013; Akpan & Ita, 2015; Ajani, 2021). Steyn (2008) further states that classroom practices of teachers need to be improved to support and improve learners' problem solving skills in the classroom. Similarly, teachers need to be responsible for how they can individually and collectively improve their classroom teaching to enhance their learners’ performance.
To ensure the effectiveness of professional development, the Teacher Registration Council is responsible for the continuous design of varieties of professional development activities for teachers, taking cognisance of the effectiveness of such activities aimed at teaching improvement (TRCN, 2010). The ’ one size fits all’ or cascade model of professional development activities usually are ineffective in improving the classroom performance of the teachers and needs to be improved. Govender and Ajani (2021) argue that one size fits all professional development activities do not address the professional needs of individual teachers. This approach brings together teachers with different subject backgrounds and tends to present common knowledge and skills to them in the same approach, while cascading expects of teachers who attend professional activities to transfer knowledge gained during professional development activities to their colleagues
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upon return to their schools (Ejima& Okutachi, 2012). Fiske and Ladd(2004) agree that teachers in the cascade approach may not be able to deliver as much knowledge and skills as they have received in their professional development to colleagues. Hence, other teachers cannot benefit from the cascade model.
In the same vein, Ryan (2007) disagrees with the use of professional development activities to introduce teachers to and familiarize them with new curriculum policies. According to him, much emphasis rather should be placed on teachers’ subject pedagogy and classroom practices which can improve the curriculum delivery and learners' performance. Bowman, Donovan and Burns (2001) also reported that African teachers' professional development activities were found to be irregular and inconsistent, and did not adequately address the teachers' professional needs. Various challenges of in service professional development activities of the teachers can be traced to disjointed professional development structures, absence of teacher assessment to establish their professional needs, lackofclassroomfeedbackonprofessionaldevelopment(PD)activities,andmany more that have hindered the efficiency of in service training (Archibald, Coggshall, Croft & Goe, 2011).
Based on various challenges identified, Egbo (2011) concurs with Elmore (2002) to emphasise the need to develop teachers regularly (for example, every year) to ensure they perform efficiently in their professional duties They need to be updated and have to keep abreast of the trends in their classroom practices via in service professional development activities. Education is dynamic and requires teachers to be professionally developed to satisfy learners’ yearning for learning. This is necessary because learners believe that teachers are encyclopaedias of knowledge who can provide learners with appropriate knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. Murphy (2002), and Rivero (2006) emphasise that classroom responsibilities are critical and require lifelong training that is content focused and beneficial to support teaching and learning. Reeves (2005) maintains that the development of any nation depends on educational change and reforms. Hence, teachers must access continuous professional development activities frequently. Education is the vehicle to the national development of any nation, and no nation can be greater than the quality of the teachers in the education system (Ajani, 2018).
To understand the impact of teacher professional development activities on classroom effectiveness, a need exists to explore theories of learning to view the efficacy of the activities. Therefore, andragogy theory was adopted to view how adults can learn meaningfully to impact their classroom practices. This theory describes the acquisition of or yearning for new knowledge as the basis for adult learning in professional development (PD) activities For learning to occur according to this theoretical perspective, teachers must be seen as adult learners who are mature and understand why they need to learn to improve their practices (Knowles, 1984). Knowles (1980 in Ajani, 2018) highlights four appropriate assumptions about teachers as adult learners:
(i) Teachers as adult learners clearly understand the need to acquire new knowledge that can improve their classroom practices As adult
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learners, teachers give attention to learning experiences that can influence their learners’ academic performance. Appropriateness of professional development to teachers’ classroom needs inform their attendance at various PD programmes.
(ii) Attainment of learning by adult learners is driven by their learning experiences. Teachers find it easier as adult learners to acquire knowledge and skills through their engagements in various professional development activities. They share experiences with colleagues to develop various approaches to teaching and learning, thus gainingfirst handlearning experiencesthatare practically related to their classroom practices.
(iii) Adult learners engage in learning for problem solving. Teachers willingly participate in various activities that are provided to them duringprofessionaldevelopmentactivitiestoexploreproblem solving skills. The problem solving skills are adopted into their classroom practices to empower learners as well.
(iv) Adult learners recognize the benefits of attending professional development activities. Hence, the significance of their participation anchors what they can derive or adopt to improve their classroom practices. Hence, teachers should not attend a workshop if it will not add value to their professional practice
This study adopted a qualitative research approach. The interpretive paradigm provided the study with the lens to explore lived experiences of teachers in various professional development programmes they had attended (De Vos et al., 2005). Economics subject teachers and economics teaching heads of departments from high schools in Lagos, Nigeria were the population for this study. Purposive sampling was used to select five economics teachers for the focus group interview that lasted 62 minutes (Appendix B), while three economics teaching heads of departments were further engaged in 40 45 minute semi structured interviews (Appendix A). These teachers were selected from eight different high schools. The interviews were audio recorded and transcribed for qualitative analysis. Interviews were conducted at the selected schools of the participants for their convenience. Participants were required to verify their information on the transcripts to ensure the trustworthiness of the information. All ethical considerations were strictly adhered to. The participants were duly informed, and their participation was voluntary after consent forms had been endorsed. Ideas on the transcripts were coded and categorized to generate themes for the presentation and discussion of findings. The demographic information of the participants is summarized in Table 1:
Table 1. Demographic information of the participants
Code for the Participants Gender Experience (years) Highest Qualification
1
Research Participant No
Code for the Participants Gender Experience (years) Highest Qualification
3 TR3 Female 7 PGCE
4 TR4 Male 10 B.Ed.
5 TR5 Female 12 B.Ed.
6 HoD1 Female 22 Honours
7 HoD2 Male 17 M.Ed.
8 HoD3 Male 12 Honours
Data collected through semi structured interviews in one on one interviews with the three economics teaching heads of departments and five economics teachers in focus group interviews were thematically analysed. The following themes were generated as findings of the study:
Existence of various activities for teacher professional development Findings revealed that teachers attended different professional development activities to improve their classroom teaching. Teachers classified these activities as on site based and off site based professional development. Off site based activities refer to professional development activities attended outside teachers’ school premises, and usually are organized by the Ministry of Education, while the on site based professional development activities take place on the school premises and are usually organised by the schools. Participant TR3 maintained that he had attended various in service professional development activities over the past four years: They are many in the last four years, maybe three. One within the school, the two were off site (TR3).
Participant TR5 explained that teachers’ in service professional development activities were school based and off site based for teachers’ classroom improvement:
Yes, I have attended some in the last four years. Two were within the school organized by the School Management Team (SMT) while the other two were by the Department (TR5)
Participant HoD2 provided more explanation of the programme for teachers’ professional development for the year: I will start with outside the school, normally in the year, we have two workshops which are organized by the district and in the school, and we have got two, which are subject meetings, during which our department plans. This means four in all (HoD2)
Participant HoD3 also substantiated the on site and off site based forms of teachers’ professional development for Nigerian teachers: Yes, we indeed attend workshops and other forms of professional development training. Some are being organized by the school principal and the Heads of Departments, these trainings take place in our school during the school calendar while the district through our subject inspectors also organizes workshops for us, usually, outside the school (HoD3)
It was establishedthat Nigerian teachers could select fromvariousworkshops and other professional development activities that prepared them for better classroom practices. However, the question is: How frequently do teachers attend professional development activitiesevery year?Participants responded asfollows on the frequency of their PD opportunities every year.
Participant TR5 complained that the frequency oftheir PD activitieswas irregular: We indeed attend in service training every year, but we only attend once or twice a year, this is not enough for us. As teachers, we need more workshops on what to teach every term. (TR5)
Participant TR2 had a different view, and according to him he had attended three within a year: There are many, maybe three. One within the school, the two were off site (TR2).
Meanwhile, a call for an increase in the frequency of teachers’ professional development activities was made by participant TR3 who explained that: I think we should have more than what we have now. Sometimes it is just once we have in the school and once by the Department (TR3).
It further could be explained that teachers need more participation in teacher professional development activities, year in and year out to improve their classroom practices. Participant HoD2, therefore, suggested an increase in teachers' PD activities by relevant stakeholders: Presently, the numbers of workshops available to teachers every year are not many. There is a need for the school to organize training or workshops for teachers, departments by departments by the School Management Teams every term, so also the subject advisors are to organize for teachers once every term to promote classroom practices of teachers at least every term! (HoD2)
Another participant, HoD1, also corroborated that the frequent attendance of teachers at PD activities will boost their classroom teaching: If the subject advisors can be organizing it often, it will make it easy for us to understand the topics and make learners understand the contents as well (HoD1).
Teachers' views on the contents or focus of the available in service professional activities were sought during the interviews. Participants maintained that the contents did not satisfy them. Some comments are are cited:
According to participant TR2, existing PD activities cover numerous topics: Lots of things are included in the PD, they tell us what to do. For instance, in the chapters we are going to teach, we got experienced teachers who will tell us what to do and then an analysis of the results will also be there (TR2).
Participant TR1 mentioned that some contents of PD activities are not useful to the teachers, as what they need most is the PD on what they teach: We normally start with the analysis of the results, which I think is not relevant, it is not helping, and we use the whole day to analyse the results. What we really need is the content of what we teach. How they can focus on these topics with lesson study on how to teach the topic (TR1).
Some topics are found to be difficult for teachers teaching Grade 12. These topics, in participant HoD1’s view, should be addressed by experienced teachers through a lesson study for other teachers to learn how to teach successfully: Most times, especially teachers teaching grade 12, are faced with some difficult topics like multiplier, national income, public sector, etc. so they expect to be supported with lectures on these topics in the workshops, but are often disappointed with other things addressed in the workshops (HoD1)
According to another viewpoint, in service professional development aimed at teaching activities should address classroom practices of teachers to improve their performance. Participant HoD2 purported teachers needed professional development, aimed at addressing their professional needs: Professional development should indeed support and improve classroom teaching, but if the contents are not appropriate to the teachers or do not meet the individual needs of the teachers, it becomes a problem. For example, a general workshop for teachers may not address their individual subject needs (HoD2).
A need exists for teachers to be supported and motivated with adequate follow up. Teachers want school management teams to support their teaching and learning activities. There should be follow up on teaching and learning activities. Their responses are cited below.
Participant HoD2 decried the inability of the Ministry of Education/SMT to adequately support teachers in attending PD activities: It is so bad that not all teachers attending are being supported with the funds for transport, some of us with cars are giving money for petrol while others who need to go by public taxi are left to sort out themselves (HoD2).
To participant HoD1, the lack of follow up on teachers who attended PD activities by the District Officials on a regular visit constitutes an inadequacy: Yes, the District Official follows up to check if those things mentioned in the workshops have been implemented. They come to schools to check but not regularly, at least once a term to check curriculum coverage, learners’ notes, other files and records (HoD1)
Participant HoD3 agreed that the subject advisor did visit for follow ups, but the visits did not occur regularly.
Yes, the subject advisors come to school to check. They do follow up; they check the documents, learners' materials and others, but follow up on PD activities is not regular (HoD3).
It is globally believed that the essence of professional development in any profession is to improve the professional responsibilities of the members of such a profession. Hence, the main focus of teacher professional development will be to improve classroom practices of teachers as well as to improve learners’ performance. Based on that, the participants affirmed that professional development activities have improved their classroom practices.
The data showed that participant TR1 was excited to express that PD activities had improved his classroom practices and he had benefited a lot: Yes, they have improved my teaching a lot. Like in the past, I was a teacher who was not unpacking learning but now I unpack learning for my teachings for learners to learn deeply, in our PD they emphasized that we must always unpack learning to our learners. Also, before I could not teach graphs very well, I realized after the PD that the way I was teaching it, was to blame, but now I can teach graphs very well after attending PD. Now I can say that my learners understand graphs very well. I have been assisted in the way I relate to learners in teaching. I changed the way of explaining the graph (TR1)
Another participant, TR2, concurred that PD activities had improved his confidence as a teacher and that he could now teach with confidence: I can now teach Economics with confidence and also my learners are happy now, they can now relate what they learn in their books to the real world around them. So, it has helped (T2).
Similarly, participant TR3 believed that various PD activities had contributed to his classroom performance: I have gained a lot of experience and I have gained a lot of information through this PD. I have an understanding of Economics now and relate to what is happening now (TR3).
Professional development activities are planned for teachers at different times of the year without considering teachers' classroom engagements. The majority of the participants disapproved of the inability of the organisers to consult teachers in determining convenient times or periods within the school year for workshops or other forms of training. Participant TR2, according to the data gathered, expressed dissatisfaction with the wrong timing of PD activities. That means that some teachers had to be absent from school and abandon their learners to attend: Sometimes they call us during very busy times when we are supposed to revise with the learners They will tell us that we need to attend this PD and it’s very difficult to leave the learners in the school and attend this PD, so I wish they can help to attend this PD, by arranging it for the beginning or the end of the term (TR2).
To participant TR3, attending PD many times could be inconvenient for teachers during the busy school hours: The other challenge we are facing is that sometimes they call us during school hours and the principals may not allow you to leave the school, so you find out that the attendance is poor just because teachers are not attending. (TR3)
Teacher professional development is a life long career development process, which should offer diverse activities of a short or longer duration to enable comprehensive learning, educative interactions, mentoring, and other supportive approaches that will promote teachers' classroom efficiency. The participants expressed their concern about PD activities which mostly are concluded within a day, especially when the activities obviously require a longer duration. Participant TR3 expressed a need for teachers' professional development activities of a longer duration :
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I think it must be done at the beginning of the term and the closing of the term. And it must not be only one day; I think two days will be fine to cover everything that will be taught in that term (TR3)
Participant TR4 also supported subject based PD of a longer duration: Teachers' professional development activities should be more than one day workshop, especially the ones that teachers need to be taught difficult topics we struggle to teach. We need more time to observe lesson study from other experienced teachers who will assist us in those difficult areas. You see we need time if we are to observe many lessons during the PD activities (TR4).
Teacher professional development activities present ideal opportunities to design and develop materials to be used to facilitate learning. Thus, teachers can improvise and become creative in designing teaching and learning support materials (TLSM) to suit individual learner differences, and the diverse situations of subjects and schools. The participants indicated that PD had successfully assisted them in producing, or trained them how to create TLSM for their classroom practices. According to Participant TR 2: Yes, at the workshops some materials are shared freely with us, while at a big teachers' meeting, you see some teaching and learning materials that some publishers put up for sale, so if you have the money, you buy (TR2)
Another participant, TR4, also responded that PD activities promoted creativity in TLSM designs for schools:
In our cluster meeting, we try to design or brainstorm on what materials and how to teach each topic to the benefit of learners. With this knowledge, I have learned to be creative in designing teaching and learning materials for my learners. We can also ask for assistance on any aspect of the subject there (TR4).
The use of varied teaching and learning materials in classroom practices had been pinpointed as a practice that helped both the teachers in facilitating learning and the learners in quick comprehension of the learning experience. Participant TR5 corroborated the idea:
Honestly, I have attended PD activities where I was trained on how materials can actually help me in teaching some difficult topics, were shared with us, those we couldn't get, and we were taught how we can improvise the materials, using the learners to produce these materials; thereby the classes became so interesting, and learning was overwhelmingly achieved in my learners (TR5)
Learners' use of recommended materials, such as textbooks, writing materials and other learning materials, mirrors the effectiveness of PD activities in classroom practices. Teachers' views on the adequate use of these materials by the learners revealed that most learners could not afford or provide materials that could assist them in learning. Participant HoD1 identified learners’ inadequate resources as a challenge for the effectiveness of PD in schools:
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Sometimes we need resources like books for learners and other resources which are expensive; we compile notes for them, and make copies for them, in short, no adequate resources (HoD1)
Participant HoD2 also confirmed that the lack of adequate resources for learners remained a serious challenge to teachers’ readiness to explore new skills mastered during PD:
The resources resources are scarce, not adequate and that slows down our work. It is a serious challenge. It doesn't make our work go as planned; most learners can't afford the necessary materials (HoD2).
According to the findings, based on responses of the participants various professional development activities existed for teachers. These activities are stipulatedby the TeacherRegistration Council(TRCN) (2010),a professional body that regulates the teaching profession and specifies professional development activities required for professional points for career progression. The Teacher Registration Council also recommends that teachers should engage in professional development activities annually to enhance learners' performance in schools.
According to the participants, PD activities available to teachers are grossly inadequate. Moreso, teachers do not participate in these activities frequently Teachers, therefore, need regular activities to achieve and sustain quality education; a need exists for them to improve their skills and knowledge in their disciplines (Ajani, 2018). According to Fareo (2013), classroom practices of teachers can be enhanced by appropriate activities that address their professional needs frequently and adequately. These activities should be attended at least annually. Findings confirmed the need for an increase in the number of existing activities to ensure better teacher participation. Furthermore, Hassler et al. (2021) encourage teachers to take advantage of the variety of professional development activities that may assist them to stay abreast of their professional responsibilities in the dynamic education system.
While the majority of the participants agreed that the contents of the activities with which teachers are provided in professional development programmes can influence their classroompractices if well designed. McNaught and Gravett (2021) argue that the focus of any professional development programme for teachers should be enhancement of their classroom practice. The participants affirmed that existing teachers' PD activities cover different things for the teachers, some of which are results analysis, teaching methods, topics and chapters of different school subjects, and other activities. However, teachers suggested that the contents of the PD activities should focus mostly on what they were teaching in theclassrooms,topicsthat werechallengingtothem,andwhatthelearnersshould expect from matric examinations. According to Archibald et al. (2011), the effectiveness of PD startswith appropriate contentfor the teachers, that is, content that can benefit the teaching and learning in the school system. This view is in accordance with Ajani’s (2018) opinion that the needs of the teachers should be the basis of the content that PD activities should cover. Ravhuhali, Kutame and
Mutshaeni (2015)furtherposit thatteacher evaluationsshouldbeused toestablish the nature and content of PD activities designed for them.
Some participants further contended that teachers were not regularly visited to follow on their attendance of PD activities to ensure the necessary changes in their classroom practices. Birman, Desimone, Porter and Garet (2000) agree that professional development for teachers can effectively transform and improve the quality of teaching and learning if teachers are monitored and followed up on every professional development training they attend. This is to ensure the implementation of what they have learnt or acquired from such training. Monitoring or following up on them enables the teachers to be assessed and recommended for other supportive professional needs whenever necessary (Wittmann & Olivier 2021).
Findings, therefore, revealed that participation of teachers in various PD activities may improve their classroom practices if the contents of the in service training are beneficial to the teachers; teachers may acquire necessary skills and improve their subject knowledge for better classroom practices. Ajani (2021) calls for regular and appropriate workshops for teachers that can add value to their classroom practices. Teachers’ participation in various PD activities regularly every year enables the teachers to meet with other experienced teachers; they share experiences and also brainstorm on solutions to common issues.
Similarly, most of the participants explained that the timing for their in service professional development activities should be convenient for them. PD activities should not be arranged to take place during school hours, resulting in learners being abandoned. It is thereby observed that teachers preferred professional development activities to be conducted during their holidays to avoid disruption of their teaching schedules. Hassler et al. (2021) agree that teachers should be consulted to determine the convenient times for their workshops or training, so as not to pull them out of classrooms during school hours. Conversely, most of the participants contended that some aspects of the teachers' PD activities require more than a one day workshop or meeting. McNaught and Gravett (2021) are of the opinion that a need exists for understanding why teachers need to learn and how teachers need to learn what will benefit their learners. Teachers, therefore, request PD activities of a longer duration to promote the acquisition of necessary knowledge and skills. Ajani (2018) also purports that adequate time should be allocated to teachers' PD activities to allow teachers' understanding of and participation in the training.
Participants further responded that professional development activities had been immensely beneficial to them, as teachers had opportunities to improvise on teaching and learning materials to better suit their subject teaching through their networking and sharing of ideas with their colleagues. Egbo (2011) avows that teaching and learning materials are critical to the classroom practices of teachers Wittmann and Olivier (2021) further agree that learning materials do not only make teaching less stressful to the teachers, but also promote fast learning and make the classesinteresting andinteractive. However, findings alsoindicated that teachers were not provided with enough resources to promote their classroom
practices. Teachers need to be supported with adequate teaching materials, while learners also require appropriate and adequate learning materials to make teaching and learning easy for both teachers and learners
Professional development is critical to teachers’ classroom practices in the 21st century. The education system is dynamic and requires teachers who can respond to learners’ quest for knowledge and skills. This study explored perspectives of high school teachers on various professional development activities available to them. Five teachers and three HoDs were engaged in semi structured interviews to gather their lived experiences. The findings of this study in Nigerian high schools reveal that teachers have various perspectives on the existing PD activities available to them. Teachers indicated that the existing PD activities were not frequently assessed by HoDs; they also advised that these activities should be offered every term to address topics or chapters to be taught. PD activities have been of significant benefit to classroom practices due to the improvement of teaching skills and methods (Ajani, 2018). However, the teachers believed that PD activities should be offered during the school holidays so as not to disrupt their classroom teaching during school hours. The teachers were also dissatisfied with the existing follow up on the PD activities. Therefore, they wanted more support to motivate the implementation of PD knowledge and skills in classroom practices. The HoDs called for more support for teachers' classroom practices. Accordingto theHoDs,teachersrequirerelevantand adequateteaching resources that can enhance teaching and learning, while adequate and regular professional development activities should be designed for them. According to them, they agreed with Ajani (2021) that teachers should be viewed as adult learners when designing the contents of any professional development programme. Hence, the contents of the professional development should adequately address their classroom needs.
This study recommends that the Education Districts and other concerned stakeholders should restructure the existing in service professional development activities. The PD activities should also focus more on subject contents teachers are to teach every grade/class each term. It is also recommended that teachers should be assessed to determine their classroom needs; follow up should be consistent on teachers after attendance of PD activities. Teaching and learning materials should be provided to teachers to enhance classroom practices, and all teachers should be funded by the SMT to attend PD activities frequently. The study also recommends an increase in the frequency of teachers' participation in professional development activities every term and year. Parents are also to be encouraged to provide learning materials to further support the learners at school and at home.
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1. Did you participate in any form of in service professional development activities related to Economics? How often did you participate? 2. How often would you prefer to participate in IPD? 3. What activities have been included for the IPD activities that you have attended?
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4. How would you prefer the IPD to be structured? How would a near perfect IPD look like for you, in terms of intervals, focus, continuity, convenience and accessibility?
5. For the in service professional development activities in which you participated, who has been financially liable?
6. After each IPD activity, do you implement what was learnt? Please, tell me more about your experience.
7. Do you believe the in service professional development activities have improved you as an Economics teacher? Please, tell me more about how IPD activities have improved your teaching.
8. What do think are the challenges experienced regarding in service professional development for Economics teachers? Explain.
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE: HoDs
SECTION A
APPENDIX B
INFORMATION 1. Highest qualification 2. Years of management experience 3. No. of years taught subject
1. How many on school and off site based in service professional development training programmes have your Economics teachers attended? Explain.
2. Who organized these on school and off site based in service professional development trainings for the Economics teachers?
3. What was the main focus of these in service professional development training that your Economics teachers attended?
4. Do you feel the material obtained from these in service professional development training was suitable for classroom practice? Explain
5. Did the facilitators or trainers make any follow up visits to your school to check how you and your teachers are implementing what you have learned from these in service professional development training activities? Explain
6. As the HoD, what challenges do you face with regard to in service professional development training? Explain
7. As an HoD, how do you monitor and support Economics teachers who have attended these in service professional development training programmes in your school?
8. As the Head of Department, what type of in service professional development would you suggest and why?
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 50 70, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.4
Received Feb 13, 2022; Revised May 28, 2022; Accepted Jun 10, 2022
Kee Pau*
Sultan Idris Education University, Perak, Malaysia
Aslina Binti Ahmad
Sultan Idris Education University, Perak, Malaysia
Hsin-Ya Tang Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
Ahmad Jazimin Bin Jusoh
Sultan Idris Education University, Perak, Malaysia
Asma Perveen
Sultan Idris Education University, Perak, Malaysia
Kong Kwoi Tat
Sultan Idris Education University, Perak, Malaysia
Abstract. The teaching profession has been consistently ranked as the moststressfuljobintheworldtoday.Teacherswhoexperienceprolonged exposure to high levels of work related stress can find there to be a detrimental effect on their physical health, mental health, social life, and work performance. This study aims to characterise the mental health and wellbeing of secondary school teachers in Malaysia according to gender andagegroup. Weexaminedburnoutlevelsamong776secondaryschool teachers who were measured across three dimensions (i.e., depersonalisation, emotionalexhaustion, and personal accomplishment), as well as their sources of stress, manifestations of stress, and psychological symptoms. The quantitative data analysis revealed that most of the teachers had experienced burnout in terms of their personal accomplishments, work related stressors, and time management, and that it mostly manifested as fatigue. Overall, the sample of secondary schoolteachersinMalaysiaindicatesariskofpoormentalhealth.Further psychological interventions and self care programs are suggested to help secondary school teachers cope with the early signs of burnout.
Keywords: mentalhealth;wellbeing;secondaryschoolteachers;Malaysia
* Corresponding Author: Kee Pau, pau_kee@fpm.upsi.edu.my
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Teaching ranks among the world’s most stressful professions which affect mental health and wellbeing. The environment in which teachers work is extremely stress provoking (Sveinsdottir et al., 2007), and teachers have been shown to experience greater stress than other white collar professionals (Munir et al., 2014). The teaching profession has also been identified as involving nearly twice the level of cynicism, professional strain, and sadness as other professions (Baig et al., 2016). Such a high level of stress could be attributed not only to the teachers’ increased exposure to a toxic working environment but also to the higher demands of their job and the frequent need to work overtime (Rusli et al., 2006).
As a consequence, adverse mental health conditions among teachers have become increasingly common and, as such, increasingly problematic (Bauer et al., 2007; Weber et al., 2005). If not handled effectively,the stress and mental pressure on teachers is bound to affect their mental health and impact their wellbeing. In the previous research, teachers who attributed their stress to internal factors reported higher levels of depersonalisation and emotional exhaustion as among the dimensions of burnout, as well as a higher intention to quit and more symptoms of illness, than the teachers who exhibited a lower score for stress who reported more personal accomplishments (Teles, et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2015). Among teachers, mental health deficiencies may not only cause them problems but also negatively impact their students as well. In fact, the teachers’ mental health and wellbeing has been shown to affect their students’ psychological wellbeing and their depressive symptoms were found to be associated with their students’ mental health and wellbeing as well (Harding et al., 2019). In particular, depressive symptoms among teachers can also lower the quality of the classroom learning environment and the students’ academic achievements (McLean & Connor, 2015). Among the other downsides, poor mental health among teachers can adversely impact their physical health and even cause lower back pain and in a vicious cycle, weakened physical health can intensify their anxiety and depression (Zamri et al., 2017). Over and above all of those trends, workload has been found to significantly affect the mental health status of teachers (Samad et al., 2010), and especially high workloads can raise the risk of burnout in the form of emotional exhaustion (Jimenez & Dunkl, 2017).
The results of the present study will be able to address several gaps from previous research. Most of the previous studies related to burnout amongst Malaysian teachers wereconductedwithin a limited geographical scope and didnot examine its distinction between orits prevalence among different age groups (Amzat, 2021; Mousavy & Nimehchisalem, 2014; Mukundan & Ahour, 2011; Roslan et al., 2015; Thomas et al., 2012). Similar previous studies on the teachers’ stress level also cover either a single state in Malaysia or a limited geographical range (Hadi et al., 2009; Ismail et al., 2019; Othman & Sivasubramaniam, 2019; Samad et al., 2010; Shen et al., 2018). While there have been studies which include a wider geographic demographic when it comes to research on Malaysian teacher burnout (Yusof, 2012) and stress (Yahaya et al., 2010), there are no recent studies which provides the same wide coverage and overview. This shows that there is a need for an update regarding the burnout and stress amongst Malaysian school teachers on a
wider scale. The present study will include a larger number of participants to increase its generalisability to better reflect the overall population, especially after the effects of the pandemic. The present study has also attempted to identify the teachers’ mental health symptoms according to various dimensions through self reported questionnaires, which has been rarely addressed in previous studies.
In any human undertaking that involves working with other people, burnout can be defined as a syndrome with three dimensions: a reduced sense of personal accomplishment, depersonalisation, and emotional exhaustion (Maslach, 2003). According to Mukundan and Ahour (2011), a reduced sense of personal accomplishment among teachers could mean that they no longer feel capable of teaching students or helping them to grow. In contrast, depersonalisation among teachers experiencing burnout suggests a lack of sense of having a positive effect on the students. Last, emotional exhaustion among teachers is marked by fatigue and a feeling of being emotionally drained (Mukundan & Ahour, 2011).
Multiple studies have pinpointed depersonalisation and emotional exhaustion as the central elements of burnout (Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010; Panari & Simbula, 2016). In one such study conducted by El Helou et al. (2016), elements in the school environment found to cause burnout among teachers included their relationships with administrators, their relationships with other teachers, the school’s rules, and among new teachers without sufficient preparation, a sense of disillusionment. More recently, Khan et al., (2019) found that sources of burnout included environmental demands related to the teacher’s role, the demands of the job, pressure in terms of time management, and a lack of resources, as well as personal demands imposed by their family and their personal perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and involvement towards work
In terms of the demographic factors, women in the profession were found to be more susceptible to emotional exhaustion and reduced personal accomplishment than men were (Mukundan & Khandehroo, 2009). Along similar lines, Mukundan and Ahour (2011) found that women teachers had moderate levels of emotional exhaustion and high levels of reduced personal accomplishment, while younger teachers had higher levels of burnout. However, several studies have also shown that demographic factors such as age and gender do not have any effect on the level of burnout among teachers (Smith & Leng, 2003; Yildirim, 2008). Beyond that, Gavrilovici (2009) discovered that teachers with more teaching experience had higher levels of emotional exhaustion.
In sum, burnout has been identified as a risk factor not only for poor physical health but also for poor mental wellbeing (Salvagioni et al., 2017), including heightened depressive symptoms (Hakanen & Shaufeli, 2012). Among teachers in particular, burnout is likely toincrease the intention to leave the profession (Hong, 2012).
Being a teacher is undoubtedly a stressful job, and stress among teachers is a phenomenon known to occur around the world (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2016).
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Among researchers who have sought to define stress, Abebe and HaileMariam (2011) have posited that stress is due to either internal or external factors that increase the difficulty adapting, and they urge individuals experiencing it to intensify their efforts to maintain the equilibrium between themselves and their external environment. Jiang et al. (2017) added that stress occurs when a teacher’s expectations differ from reality, and other researchers have agreed that stress results from an incongruence between a person’s coping strategies and the demands of their situation (Okeke et al., 2014; Okeke et al., 2015). Among teachers, stress has more specifically been described as negative emotions experienced due to aspects of the profession (Kyriacou, 2010) and what teachers feel due to their failure to effectively cope with challenges in the workplace.
As for its negative effects among teachers, stress has been shown to accelerate career attrition (Lindqvist et al., 2014), manifest behaviourally in physical aggression and increased hostility (Kanchika et al., 2015), and be associated with job dissatisfaction and level of burnout. In contrast, teachers who reported feeling in control of their stressors had higher levels of job satisfaction and lower levels of emotional exhaustion (Wang et al., 2015). In research on sources of stressamong teachers, Kourmousi and Alexopoulos (2016) found that longer distances between the teachers’ home and workplace can heighten discipline and motivation related stressors, that a longer work experience lowers levels of professional distress and stress, and that female teachers perceive themselves to have more stress and work related stressors than male teachers. The authors also found that younger teachers had higher levels of perceived stress than the older ones. Stress among new teachers can be derived from their relationships with other teachers, their relationships with their mentors, poor feedback, and poor classroom management (Paker, 2011; Mahmoudi & Özkan, 2016). Adding to that, Yusof (2011) found that the teachers’ stress can be affected by the leadership style of the school administrator, while others have revealed that the teachers’ stress stems from the pressure that they feel when it comes to being held accountable for test based evaluations (Ryan et al., 2017; Saeki et al., 2018).
Against that background, we aimed to evaluate the mental health and wellbeing of secondary school teachers in Malaysia by identifying their level of burnout, sources of stress, manifestations of stress, and experiences with the symptoms of mental health conditions. We also aimed to identify any differences in the mental health and wellbeing of said teachers according to their gender and age group. The results are expected to clarify the mental health and wellbeing of teachers in Malaysia in general and to aid in identifying their sources of stress. With the findings, Malaysia’s Ministry of Education and other policymaking bodies can formulate targeted intervention plans to help teachers effectively manage their stress and maintain positive mental health.
The present study aimed to provide an overview of Malaysian secondary school teachers’ mental health and wellbeing Therefore, the objective of the present study was to examine the (1) burnout, (2) stress, and (3) psychological symptoms of the secondary school teachers from the different regions of Peninsular
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Malaysia. The study hypothesised that the Malaysian secondary school teachers are experiencing (1) burnout (2) stress, and (3) psychological symptoms.
The present study used the quantitative research methodology. The data required in this study was collected using a self reported questionnaire scored using a Likert scale. The present study also used a cross sectional design for the data collection whereby all data required was collected once from the participants during a single time frame.
The Ethics Committee of the Sultan Idris Education University in Perak granted permission for the conducting of this research (2019 00 18 01). Permission was also obtained from the Educational Research Planning and Policy Division of the Ministry of Education Malaysia (KPM.600 3/2/3 eras (3468) for collecting data at the selected schools. The study consisted of two stages for the sampling selection. The first stage of the study involved the selection of schools based on their location. The research team categorised the schools according to the four regions of Peninsular Malaysia, namely the Northern Region (Kedah, Penang, Perak), the Central Region (Selangor, Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur), the Southern Region (Negeri Sembilan, Malacca, Johor), and the Eastern Region (Kelantan). A list of schools located in each region was obtained, and the research team employed purposive random sampling to select the 27 schools to make up the targeted sample for study. The research team then contacted the principals of the 27 schools to inform them about the aim of the study. Upon the granting of permission to conducting the research, the school counsellors were handed the questionnaires. The study was conducted by the means of the traditional paper and pencil method. Each participant that agreed to participate in the study was asked to fill in an informed consent sheet, three questionnaires, and to provide their sociodemographic information. In total, 1000 questionnaire sets were handed out, and 854 sets were returned (85.4%), out of which 78 (9.1%) were excluded due to incomplete data. The final data analysis involved 776 secondary school teachers, consisting of 167 men (21.5%) and 609 women (78.5%).
Maslach et al.’s (1996) Maslach Burnout Inventory Educators Survey is a modified version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory designed to gauge burnout among educators in three dimensions (depersonalisation, emotional exhaustion, and personal accomplishment). It was used to measure burnout among the teachers of the sample. The scale consisted of 22 items seven on the Depersonalisation subscale, seven on the Emotional Exhaustion subscale, and eight on the Personal Accomplishment subscale all rated on a 7 point Likert scale ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (always). Higher scores for each subscale indicate a higher burnout level in that dimension, whereas the overall scale has no composite score. The Cronbach’s alpha scores were .842 for the Depersonalisation subscale, .778 for the Emotional Exhaustion subscale, .848 for the Personal Accomplishment subscale, and .777 for the overall scale.
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2.3
The teachers’ sources and manifestations of stress were identified using Fimian’s (1984) Teacher Stress Inventory containing 49 items measured on a 5 point Likert scale ranging from 1 (no strength, not noticeable) to 5 (major strength, extremely noticeable) such that higher scores indicate a stronger source of stress or a more frequent manifestation of stress. The sources of stress included time management (eight items), work related stressors (six items), professional distress (five items) discipline and motivation (six items), and professional investments (four items), whereas the manifestations of stress included emotional manifestations (five items), fatigue (five items), cardiovascular manifestations (three items), gastronomical manifestations (three items), and behavioural manifestations (four items). The Cronbach’s alpha scores were .715 for time management, .813 for work related stressors, .834 for professional distress, .865 for discipline and motivation, .861 for professional investments; .953 for emotional manifestations, .904 for fatigue, .918 for cardiovascular manifestations, .942 for gastronomical manifestations, and .864 for behavioural manifestations; and .924 for all sources of stress, .948 for all manifestations of stress, and .956 for the Teacher Stress Inventory overall.
2.3.3
Derogatis’ (1975) Brief Symptom Inventory was used to identify psychological symptoms relevant to teaching, as self reported by the teachers. The instrument consists of 53 items scored on a 5 point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely) in nine dimensions: somatisation (seven items), obsession compulsion (i.e., six items), interpersonal sensitivity (i.e., four items), depression (six items), anxiety (six items), hostility (five items), phobic anxiety (five items), paranoid ideation (five items), and psychoticism (five items). Four items that did not factor into any dimension were nevertheless included in the instrument due to their clinical importance. The raw scores were converted and compared with the T scores to identify the participants experiencing psychological symptoms. The Cronbach’s alpha scores were .901 for somatisation, .890 for obsession compulsion, .811 for interpersonal sensitivity, .869 for depression, .902 for anxiety, .825 for hostility, .866 for phobic anxiety, .845 for paranoid ideation, .832 for psychoticism, and .981 for the Brief Symptom Inventory overall.
2.3.4
All of the instruments employed in the present study were translated to and adapted from the original English language version to Bahasa Malaysia (Malay Language) (see Appendix). This was to facilitate the teachers’ understanding of the questions presented in the questionnaires within the Malaysia context. The translated instruments were validated by six experts in the field who were fluent in both the Malay and English languages. The experts were asked to rate the translated items on a scale of 1 to 4, with a higher number representing the better suitability of the translations. They were also asked to provide comments and suggestions to improve the suitability of the translated items if they saw fit to do so. The scores given by the experts for each translated items were added together and divided by the highest possible score to calculate the scale content validity index. The average scale content validity index (S CVI/AVE) in the present study
has a value of 0.945. S CVI/AVE values of above 0.9 can be considered excellent (Shi et al., 2012).
We sampled data from the four regions of West Malaysia: the northern region (the states of Perlis, Kedah, Pulau Pinang, and Perak), the central region (the states of Selangor, Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur, and Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya), the southern region (the states of Negeri Sembilan, Melaka, andJohor), and the eastern region (the states of Kelantan, Terengganu, and Pahang). Schools within each cluster were randomly selected before being contacted for permission to visit and distribute questionnaires to the teachers. Before the questionnaires were distributed, the teachers were briefed about the purpose of the study and given an informed consent form to be sign. The teachers were also informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences and that their data would remain anonymous and not be disclosed to any third parties without first obtaining their consent.
The collected data was analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (version 23). The participants’ demographic statistics were analysed to compare the differences according to gender and across the age groups (i.e., 22 29 years old, 30 39 years old, 40 49 years old, and 50 59 years old). For the Maslach Burnout Inventory’s Depersonalisation subscale, scores that were less than 6 indicated “Low burnout,” scores of 6–11 indicated “Moderate burnout,” and scores greater than 11 indicated “High burnout.” For the Emotional Exhaustion subscale, scores that were less than 6 indicated “Low burnout,” scores of 18 29 indicated “Moderate burnout,” and scores greater than 29 indicated “High burnout.” For the Personal Accomplishment subscale, scores that were less than 39 indicated “Low burnout,” scores of 34 39 indicated “Moderate burnout,” and scores greater than indicated “High burnout.” For the Teacher Stress Inventory, an average score between 0 and 1 indicated “No strength,” an average score between 1 and 2 indicated “Mild strength,” an average score between 2 and 3 indicated “Moderate strength,” an average score between 3 and 4 indicated “Great strength,” and an average score between 4 and 5 indicated “Extreme strength.” Last, following the Manual for the Brief Symptom Inventory, we considered scores of at least 63 on the Global Severity Index and scores from two dimensions totalling at least 63 to indicate a positive result for the corresponding psychological symptom and categorised individuals earning those scores as having self reported said symptoms.
Based on the descriptive demographic analysis, 776 secondary school teachers in Peninsular Malaysia completed the questionnaires. Out of the total, 29.4% were from the Northern Region (N=228), 25.4%from the Central Region (N=197), 32.2% from the Southern Region (N=250), and 13.0% from the Eastern Region (N=13.0%). The teachers were aged between 22 and 59 years old (M=42 years), and there were 167 male teachers and 609 female teachers.
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The Maslach Burnout Inventory Educators Survey was used to identify burnout among the participating secondary school teachers in Malaysia. As presented in Table 1, most participants (50.5%) reported a higher level of burnout in the dimension of personal accomplishment than in the dimensions of depersonalisation (33.4%) and emotional exhaustion (2.3%). Generally, teachers were less likely to experience emotional exhaustion than the other two dimensions, as 72.6% of them reported a low level of burnout for that dimension specifically
Table 1
BurnoutamongtheSecondarySchoolTeachersinMalaysiaOverall
Dimension of burnout/ Level of burnout Depersonalisation Emotional exhaustion Personal accomplishment
F % F % F %
Low burnout 256 33.0 563 72.6 146 18.8
Moderate burnout 261 33.6 195 25.1 238 30.7 High burnout 259 33.4 18 2.3 392 50.5 Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency %: Percent
In terms of gender, both men and women reported a higher level of burnout in the dimension of personal accomplishment than emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation (refer to Table 2). However, the results also included that women (52.4%) were more likely to experience burnout in the dimension of personal accomplishment than men (43.7%), who themselves were more likely to experience burnout in the dimension of depersonalisation than women. Specifically, 34.7% of men reported moderate burnout compared with 33.3% of women, and 35.9% of men reported high burnout compared with 32.7% of women. Teachers of both genders were the least likely to experience burnout in the dimension of emotional exhaustion, which 74.3% of men and 72.1% of women reported experiencing at a low level.
Table 2
BurnoutamongtheSecondarySchoolTeachersinMalaysiaBasedonGender
Dimension of burnout/Level of burnout
Depersonalisation
Emotional exhaustion
Personal accomplishment
F % F % F %
Low Burnout Men 49 29.3 124 74.3 41 24.6 Women 207 34.0 439 72.1 105 17.2
Moderate Burnout Men 58 34.7 40 24.0 53 31.7 Women 203 33.3 155 25.5 185 30.4
High Burnout Men 60 35.9 3 1.8 73 43.7 Women 199 32.7 15 2.5 319 52.4
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency %: Percent
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In terms of age among the domains of depersonalisation, emotional exhaustion, and personal accomplishment in Table 3 respectively, the younger teachers were more likely to experience burnout in the dimension of personal accomplishment.
Table 3
BurnoutamongSecondarySchoolTeachersinMalaysiaBasedonAge
Dimension of Burnout/ Level of burnout Depersonalisation Emotional exhaustion Personal accomplishment F % F % F %
Low Burnout
Moderate Burnout
22 29 18 36.0 36 72.0 3 6.0 30 39 85 32.3 118 71.5 38 14.4 40 49 86 32.3 199 74.8 57 21.4 50 59 67 34.0 140 71.1 48 24.4
22 29 15 30 13 26.0 18 36.0 30 39 81 30.8 69 26.2 69 26.2 40 49 99 37.2 62 23.3 79 29.7 50 59 66 33.5 51 25.9 72 36.5
High Burnout
22 29 17 34.0 1 2.0 29 58.0 30 39 97 36.9 6 2.3 156 59.3 40 49 81 30.5 5 1.9 130 48.9 50 59 64 32.5 6 3.0 77 39.1
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency %: Percent
Teachers between the age of 30 and 39 years old (59.3%) reported a high level of burnout in that dimension, followed by teachers aged 22 to 29 years (58.0%), teachers aged 40 to 49 years (48.9%), and teachers aged 50 to 59 years old (39.1%). Similarly, teachers aged 30 39 years (36.9%) were slightly more likely to experience a high level burnout in the dimension of depersonalisation, followed by teachers aged 22 to 29 years (34.0%), teachers aged 50 59 years (32.5%), and teachers aged 40 49 years old (30.5). Teachers across all age groups were least affected by emotional exhaustion; 72.0% of teachers in their 20s, 71.5% of teachers in their 30s, 74.8% of teachers in their 40s, and 71.1% of teachers in their 50s reported a low level of burnout in that dimension.
The Teacher Stress Inventory was used to identify the teachers’ sources of stress. Generally, based on Table 4, the teachers reported that their top stressors were work related stressors 7.5% reported those stressors as having “Extreme strength,” while 37.1% reported them as having “Great strength” followed by time management, 2.4% of which reported as having “Extreme strength” and 41.2% as having “Great strength.” The next strongest stressor for the teachers was discipline and motivation, 4.4% of whom reported as having “Extreme strength” and 27.8% as having “Great strength.” After that was professional distress, which 2.2% of teachers reported as having “Extreme strength” and 16.8% for “Great strength”. The weakest source of stress experienced by the teachers was professional investment, with 1.3% of whom reported it as having “Extreme strength” and 13.1% as having “Great strength.”
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Table 4
SourcesofStressamongtheTeachersinMalaysiaOverall
Type of stressor/ Level of strength
Time management Work related stressors Professional distress Discipline and motivation Professional investment
F % F % F % F % F %
No strength 2 0.3 3 0.4 44 5.7 43 5.5 79 10.2 Mild strength 30 3.9 64 8.2 215 27.7 128 16.5 212 27.3
Moderate strength 405 52.2 363 46.8 370 47.7 355 45.7 373 48.1
Great strength 320 41.2 288 37.1 130 16.8 216 27.8 102 13.1
Extreme strength 19 2.4 58 7.5 17 2.2 34 4.4 10 1.3
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 # F: Frequency %: Percent
According to the sources of stress by gender as presented in Table 5, men were more likely to experience stress in the form of professional distress than women; 2.4% reported it as having “Extreme strength” and 25.1% as having “Great strength” compared with only 2.1% and 14.4% of women, respectively. In contrast, women experienced slightly higher stress than men in discipline and motivation; 4.4% reported it as having “Extreme strength” and 28.2% as having “Great strength” compared with only 4.2% and 26.3% of men, also respectively. Women also reported being less affected by stress due to professional investment than men did; 11.3% of women reported it as having “Extreme strength” relative to only 6.0% of men. In terms of age, the sources of stressor presented in Table 6 indicate that the younger teachers experienced higher levels of stress due to time management; 10.0% of teachers in their 20s reported it as having “Extreme strength” compared with only 2.7% of teachers in their 30s, 1.5% of teachers in their 40s, and 1.5% of teachers in their 50s.
Table 5
SourcesofStressamongtheTeachersinMalaysiaBasedonGender
Type
No strength Men 1 0.6 2 1.2 9 5.4 6 3.6 10 6.0 Women 1 0.2 1 0.2 35 5.7 37 6.1 69 11.3
Mild strength Men 6 3.6 15 9.0 39 23.4 34 20.4 52 31.1 Women 24 3.9 49 8.0 176 28.9 94 15.4 160 26.3
Moderate strength Men 87 52.1 72 43.1 73 43.7 76 45.5 72 43.1 Women 318 52.2 291 47.8 297 48.8 279 45.8 301 49.4
Great strength Men 69 41.3 69 41.3 42 25.1 44 26.3 32 19.2 Women 251 41.2 219 36.0 88 14.4 172 28.2 70 11.5
Extreme strength Men 4 2.4 9 5.4 4 2.4 7 4.2 1 0.6 Women 15 2.5 29 8.0 13 2.1 27 4.4 9 1.5
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency %: Percent
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Table 6: BurnoutamongtheSecondarySchoolTeachersinMalaysiaBasedonAge
Types of stressor/ Level of stress
No strength
Mild strength
Time management Work-related stressors Professional distress Discipline and motivation Professional investment
F % F % F % F % F %
20 29 0 0.0 0 0.0 5 10.0 1 2.0 6 12.0
30 39 0 0.0 1 0.4 15 5.7 15 5.7 21 8.0 40 49 1 0.4 1 0.4 8 3.0 16 6.0 31 11.7 50 59 1 0.5 1 0.5 16 8.1 11 5.6 21 10.7
20 29 1 2.0 3 6.0 15 30.0 7 14.0 15 30.0
30 39 14 5.3 22 8.4 72 27.4 41 15.6 62 23.6
40 49 9 3.4 19 7.1 73 27.4 48 18.0 84 31.6 50 59 6 3.0 20 10.2 55 27.9 32 16.2 51 25.9
20 29 25 50.0 25 50 22 44.0 24 48.0 17 34.0
Moderate strength
Great strength
30 39 137 52.1 110 41.8 122 46.4 111 42.2 135 51.3
40 49 145 54.5 131 49.2 134 50.4 126 47.4 121 45.5 50 59 98 49.7 97 49.2 92 46.7 94 47.7 100 50.8
20 29 19 38.9 21 42.0 7 14.0 16 32.0 2 4.0
30 39 105 39.9 102 38.8 45 17.1 78 29.7 39 14.8
40 49 107 40.2 95 35.7 47 17.7 70 26.3 29 10.9
50 59 89 45.2 70 35.5 31 15.7 52 26.4 23 11.7
Extreme strength
20 29 5 10.0 1 2.0 1 2.0 11 22.0 1 2.0 30 39 7 2.7 28 10.6 9 3.4 18 6.8 6 2.3 40 49 4 1.5 20 7.5 4 1.5 6 2.3 1 0.4
50 59 3 1.5 9 4.6 3 1.5 8 4.1 2 1.0
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency %: Percent
Teachers in their 20s were also more likely to experience stress from time management than from other forms of stressors, including work related stressors, discipline and motivation, professional investment, and professional distress. Teachers in their 30s experienced higher levels of work related stressors than other age groups; 10.6% of them reported the stressors as causing extreme stress, followed by 7.5% of teachers in their 40s, 4.6% of teachers in their 50s, and 2.0% of teachers in their 20s. Teachers in their 30s, 40s, and 50s primarily experienced stress due to work related stressors, followed by discipline and motivation, time management, professional distress, and professional investment. However, teachers in their 50s experienced less stress overall than teachers in their 30s and 40s.
The Teacher Stress Inventory was also used to identify the teachers’ manifestations of stress. Generally, based on Table 7, the teachers primarily experienced stress manifesting as fatigue, 4.1% of whom reported its “Extreme strength” and 18.9% its “Great strength.” Second were cardiovascular manifestations, which 3.1% of teachers reported as having “Extreme strength” compared with 16.5% who reported its “Great strength,” followed by emotional
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manifestations, which only 1.4% of teachers reported as having “Extreme strength” and 10.7% as having “Great strength.” The teachers were less affected by the gastronomical and behavioural manifestations of stress, which 45.9% and 53.4% of teachers reported as having “No strength,” respectively.
Table 7
ManifestationsofStressamongtheSecondarySchoolTeachersinMalaysiaOverall
Manifestations of stress/ Level of strength
Emotional manifestation Fatigue Cardiovascular manifestations Gastronomical manifestations Behavioral manifestations
F % F % F % F % F %
No strength 164 21.1 63 8.1 135 17.4 356 45.9 414 53.4
Mild strength 247 31.8 193 24.9 231 29.8 201 25.9 199 25.6
Moderate strength 271 34.9 341 43.9 258 33.2 157 20.2 134 17.3
Great strength 83 10.7 147 18.9 128 16.5 53 6.8 24 3.111 Extreme strength 11 1.4 32 4.1 24 3.1 9 1.2 5 0.6
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency %: Percent
By gender, Table 8 shows that men reported stronger gastronomical manifestations than women, with 1.8% of men reporting as having “Extreme strength and 9.6% as having “Great strength” compared with 1.0% and 6.1% of women, respectively. Men were also more likely to experience behavioural manifestations of stress, which 1.2% of men reported as having “Extreme strength” and 6.6% as having “Great strength” compared with 0.5% and 2.1% of women. In contrast, 56.2% of women also reported behavioural manifestations as having “No strength,” the rate was 43.1% among men. Teachers of both genders responded similarly when it came to emotional manifestations, fatigue, and cardiovascular manifestations.
Table 8
ManifestationsofStressamongtheSecondarySchoolTeachersinMalaysiaBasedonGender Manifestations of stress/ Level of strength
Emotional manifestation Fatigue Cardiovascular manifestations Gastronomical manifestations Behavioral manifestations F % F % F % F % F %
No strength Mild strength Men 36 21.6 13 7.8 22 13.2 71 42.5 72 43.1 Women 128 21.0 50 8.2 113 18.6 285 46.8 342 56.2
Moderate strength Great strength
Extreme strength No strength
Mild strength Moderate strength
Men 49 29.3 41 24.6 41 24.6 44 26.3 47 28.1 Women 198 32.5 152 25.0 190 31.2 157 25.8 152 25.0
Men 56 33.5 74 44.3 62 37.1 33 19.8 35 21.0 Women 215 35.3 267 43.8 196 32.2 124 20.4 99 16.3
Men 24 14.4 32 19.2 40 24.0 16 9.6 11 6.6 Women 59 9.7 25 4.1 22 3.6 6 1.0 3 0.5
Great strength Men 2 1.2 7 4.2 2 1.2 3 1.8 2 1.2 Women 9 1.5 25 4.1 22 3.6 6 1.0 3 0.5 Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 # F: Frequency %: Percent
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In terms of age, Table 9 indicates younger teachers had higher levels of fatigue; 10.0% of teachers in their 20s reported their manifestations of fatigue as having “Extreme strength,” followed by 6.8% of teachers in their 30s, 2.6% in their 40s, and 1.0% in their 50s. Teachers in their 30s also reported experiencing a higher rate of cardiovascular manifestations than the other age groups, which only 4.2% of teachers in their 20s reported as having “Extreme strength,” followed by 3.0% in their 50s, 2.3% in their 40s, and 2.0% in their 20s. The strongest manifestation of stress for teachers in their 20s, 30s, and 40s was fatigue, followed by cardiovascular manifestations, while 3.0% of teachers in their 50s reported cardiovascular manifestations of “Extreme strength,” which was greater than all other manifestations of stress, and 17.2% reported it as having “Great Strength.”
Table 9
ManifestationsofStressamongtheSecondarySchoolTeachersinMalaysiaBasedonAge
Manifestations of stress/ Level of strength
No strength
Mild strength
Emotional manifestation Fatigue
Cardiovascular manifestations
Gastronomical manifestations Behavioral manifestations
F % F % F % F % F %
20 29 7 14.0 2 4.0 7 14.0 22 44.0 25 50.0
30 39 53 20.2 23 8.7 52 19.8 121 46.0 147 55.95
40 49 62 23.3 23 8.6 43 16.2 125 47.0 140 52.6
50 59 42 21.3 15 7.6 33 16.8 88 44.7 102 51.8
20 29 16 32.0 8 16.0 17 34.0 12 24.0 19 38.0
30 39 74 28.1 56 21.3 71 27.0 67 25.5 56 21.3
40 49 92 34.6 73 27.4 88 33.1 66 24.8 72 27.1 50 59 65 33.0 56 28.4 55 27.9 56 28.4 52 26.4
20 29 19 38.0 21 42.0 17 34.0 11 22.0 4 8.0
Moderate strength
Great strength
30 39 91 34.6 105 39.9 83 31.6 55 20.0 49 18.6 40 49 91 34.2 127 47.7 89 33.5 54 20.3 44 16.5 50 59 70 35.5 88 44.7 69 35.0 37 18.8 37 18.8
20 29 7 14.0 14 28.0 8 16.0 4 8.0 1 2.0 30 39 39 14.8 61 23.2 46 17.5 18 6.8 10 3.8 40 49 20 7.5 36 13.5 40 15.0 17 6.4 7 2.6 50 59 17 8.6 36 18.3 34 17.3 14 7.1 6 3.0
Extreme strength
20 29 1 2.0 5 10.0 1 2.0 1 2.0 1 2.0 30 39 6 2.3 18 6.8 11 4.2 1 0.8 1 0.4 40 49 1 0.4 7 2.6 6 2.3 4 1.5 3 1.1 50 59 3 1.5 2 1.0 6 3.0 2 1.0 0 0.0
Total 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0 776 100.0
# F: Frequency %: Percent
The Brief Symptom Inventory was used to identify the teachers’ self reported psychological symptoms. Table 10 shows that 55.0% of teachers reported psychological symptoms. The psychological symptom with the highest rate of response (i.e., T ≥ 63) was psychoticism (51.8%), followed by interpersonal sensitivity (47.9%), phobic anxiety (41.0%), obsession compulsion (39.9%), paranoid ideation (38.8%), somatisation (31.4%), anxiety (28.9%), depression
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(27.3%), and hostility (24.1%). By gender, more men (70.1%) reported psychological symptoms than women (50.9%), and they scored higher than women in all dimensions of psychological symptoms except for paranoid ideation, for which 36.5% of women reported a T score exceeding 63 compared with 17.3% of men. Among men, phobic anxiety (62.9%) was the most reported symptom, followed by interpersonal sensitivity (61.1%), whereas for women it was psychoticism (50.6%), followed by interpersonal sensitivity (44.3%). By age, teachers in their 20s (70.0%) reported more psychological symptoms than teachers in other age groups, followed by teachers in their 40s (56.0%), teachers in their 50s (54.8%), and teachers in their 30s (51.3%). In general, a larger percentage of teachers in their 20s scored T > 63 in most dimensions except hostility. The majority of teachers in their 30s, 40s, and 50s scored T > 63 for psychoticism, followed by interpersonal sensitivity.
Table 10
PsychologicalSymptomsamongtheSecondarySchoolTeachersinMalaysia
Dimensions
TGSI ≥ T63 / T2Dimensions ≥ T63
Self reported frequency of cases (Percentage relative to non cases) General (N = 776)
Men (n = 167) Women (n = 609)
20 29 year olds (n = 50)
30 39 year olds (n = 263)
40 49 year olds (n = 266)
50 59 year olds (n = 197)
427 (55.0%) 117 (70.1%) 310 (50.9%) 35 (70.0%) 135 (51.3%) 149 (56.0%) 108 (54.8%)
Somatisation 244 (31.4%) 72 (43.1%) 172 (28.2%) 22 (44.0%) 72 (27.4%) 86 (32.3%) 64 (32.5%) Obsession compulsion 310 (39.9%) 87 (52.1%) 223 (36.6%) 26 (52.0%) 98 (37.3%) 108 (40.6%) 78 (39.6%)
Interpersonal sensitivity 372 (47.9%) 102 (61.1%) 270 (44.3%) 32 (64.0%) 115 (43.7%) 133 (50.0%) 92 (46.7%) Depression 212 (27.3%) 88 (52.7%) 124 (20.4%) 20 (40.0%) 68 (25.9%) 74 (27.8%) 50 (25.4%) Anxiety 224 (28.9%) 73 (43.7%) 151 (24.8%) 18 (36.0%) 73 (27.8%) 79 (29.7%) 54 (27.4%) Hostility 187 (24.1%) 47 (28.1%) 140 (23.0%) 12 (24.0%) 67 (25.5%) 68 (25.6%) 40 (20.3%)
Phobic anxiety 318 (41.0%) 105 (62.9%) 213 (35.0%) 24 (48.0%) 88 (33.5%) 123 (46.2%) 83 (42.1%)
Paranoid ideation 301 (38.8%) 79 (17.3%) 222 (36.5%) 28 (56.0%) 97 (36.9%) 109 (41.0%) 67 (34.0%)
Psychoticism 402 (51.8%) 94 (56.3%) 308 (50.6%) 36 (72.0%) 128 (48.7%) 144 (54.1%) 94 (47.7%)
# F: Frequency %: Percent
Overall, the results indicate that teachers in Malaysia are generally more likely to experience burnout in the form of havinga low sense of personal accomplishment. The reason for the findings may be that as technology becomes more accessible and as today’s students can thus access and learn a great of information without needing a teacher, teachers may feel that the importance of their role when
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teaching students has diminished. Among the teachers in our sample, women indicated a greater burnout in the dimension of personal accomplishment than men. Likewise, Mukundan and Khandehroo (2009) found that, among teachers, women reported higher levels of burnout in the form of lessened personal accomplishment and emotional exhaustion. This could be a result of Malaysia mainly being a patriarchal society that emphasises the contributions of men more than women. Mukundan and Ahour (2011) found that women reported only a moderate level of burnout in the dimension of emotional exhaustion, however. While the women in our study did report experiencing slightly more burnout in terms of emotional exhaustion than men, the majority of both genders reported low burnout in that dimension. This could indicate that the current teachers in Malaysia are still emotionally satisfied with their jobs and possibly find it rewarding. Men also indicated having slightly more burnout in terms of depersonalisation than women. This could be due to men usually being expected to keep their problems to themselves which leads to a higher possibility of them experiencing depersonalisation than women.
Younger teachers also reported experiencing higher levels of burnout in the dimension of personal accomplishment. Young teachers may lack the life experience needed to deal with others, including students, parents, and their fellow teachers, which may render them more likely to experience burnout than their older counterparts (Luk et al., 2010). However, younger teachers stand a greater chance of accumulating the skills and experience necessary to help them teach students more effectively than older teachers do. At the same time, a previous study found that older teachers are less susceptible to depersonalisation than younger teachers (Mukundan & Ahour, 2011). This finding was not replicated in our study because no noticeable pattern in the development of depersonalisation across the age groups emerged. This could indicate that teachers now are clearer about who they are and feel more grounded compared to teachers of the past.
In our sample, the teachers’ stress stemmed mostly from work related sources, followed by time management. The findings point to the teachers’ being stressed due to having too many job responsibilities to complete in a limited amount of time. Indeed, teachers in Malaysia today are tasked with a multitude of responsibilities, including co curricular activities, dealing with parents, and administrative duties, in addition to their classroom responsibilities (Othman & Sivasubramanian, 2019). In the past, other researchers have ranked classroom management as among the chief sources of stress for new teachers in particular (Paker, 2011; Mahmoudi & Özkan, 2016). However, time management seems to be a main source of stress for younger teachers as well, possibly because they face new responsibilities when entering the profession without having acquired the proficiency to effectively organise their completion beforehand. In general, the older teachers in our study had less stress which corroborates the previous findings that seniority and age are negatively correlated with the teachers’ level of stress (Kourmousi & Alexopoulos, 2016). This is potentially because older teachers are more proficient at their jobs and closer to retirement, both of which give them a sense of relief.
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Above all, the teachers’ stress in our study manifested as fatigue, which may be attributed to the high and easily tiring workload that they face. The second most common form of stress manifestation, in comparison, was cardiovascular manifestations. Burnout is a risk factor for poor physical health (Salvagioni et al., 2017), due to which the teachers may incur increased blood pressure, a higher heart rate, and rapid, shallow breathing. Teachers in their 50s reported experiencing cardiovascular manifestations more commonly than the other manifestations of stress which may be because older people have deteriorated bodily functions. However, in that case, it is surprising that a higher percentage of teachers in their 30s reported cardiovascular manifestations than teachers in their 50s. This results signal that the teachers in their 30s were given more of a burden than their younger and older colleagues due to having more experience than the younger teachers and less seniority than the older teachers.
A higher percentage of secondary school teachers from Malaysia in our sample (55%) reported psychological symptoms. Although the self reported symptoms were not clinically verified, their responses do suggest that a large percentage of secondary school teachers in Malaysia feel that they are at risk of having poor mental health and wellbeing. A higher percentage of men versus women in our study reported experiencing psychological symptoms, which counters a previous finding that women have higher levels of mental health problems than men (Chen & Lucock, 2022; Yang et al., 2009). However, another study on teachers has shown that women generally have normal levels of stress, anxiety, and depression, although some reported severe or extremely severe mental health problems (Lee & Lai, 2020). In our study, teachers in their 20s were also found to have poorer mental health than their counterparts in other agegroups. However, that outcome can be explained by the idea that older teachers generally have higher resilience. Because resilience may not be an innate characteristic but one that is taught or influenced by various factors (Gu & Day, 2007; Pearce & Morrison, 2011; Mansfield et al., 2012), older teachers may have developed their resilience over time as a protective factor against poor psychological symptoms. Nevertheless, the high rate of self reported psychological symptoms is an indicator of perceived poor or at risk mental health for Malaysian teachers which warrants more in depth research in this regard.
Our findings indicate that secondary school teachers in Malaysia are generally at risk of having poor mental health and wellbeing. The findings shed light on the sources of stress among teachers in Malaysia andmay help to guide future studies focused on developing intervention plans to help teachers to maintain or improve their mental health and wellbeing. Another implication which can be derived from the findings is the urgent need for a closer examination of the Malaysian teachers’ mental health status based on the self reporting of psychological symptoms as recorded in the present study.
However, several limitations of our study warrant mention. One was the imbalance between the number of men and women in our sample. Although the
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proportions may accurately represent the demographic distribution of teachers in Malaysia, the low number of men may not accurately represent the overall status of male teachers in Malaysia. We also collected data primarily from public secondary schools in West Malaysia. Thus, future studies could recruit teachers from different types of schools as well as recruiting more participants in general, including those from East Malaysia, to provide a more accurate representation of secondary school teachers in Malaysia. Future research could also look into the use of a qualitative research design to gain a deeper understanding of the mental health and wellbeing of secondary school teachers in Malaysia.
This paper is based on the research project entitled “Transforming Teachers Mental Health through a Mental Health Capacity Building Framework to Enhance the Teachers’ Wellbeing.Theauthorswouldliketoextendtheirgratitude to the Ministry of Higher Education for awarding them access to the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2018/UPSI/02/5/2) that helped to fund the research.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 71 89, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.5
Received Feb 15, 2022; Revised Jun 1, 2022; Accepted Jun 17, 2022
Abstract. Effective Science instructionnecessitates sustained professional learning, such as through Community of Practice (CoP). Reports about COP in the Philippines indicate varying processes. These are limited to school based or regional implementation indicating a lack of common CoP understanding. This paper thus intends to describe the structures, activities, and teacher development of CoPs of secondary Science teachers. The study utilized a descriptive embedded multiple case study design on four exemplary schools nominated by the DepEd Regional offices from the National Capital Region (NCR), Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao using qualitative data sources. Cross Case analyses of the interview and focus group discussions revealed that successful implementation of Science CoP requires vital elements of community structure that include visible and active leadership, committed membership, and opportunities for interaction through various forms of collaborative activities. Science teachers’ involvement in the CoP leads them to collaborate effectively and professionally, become optimistic and adaptableperson,andinnovativeandgoal orientedfacilitatorsofScience learning. In addition, members of the CoP have effectively fostered camaraderie and built effective workingrelationshipsmakingthem more confident,flexible,andmotivatedindividuals,thusaidingtheirsocialand personal development.
Keywords: Community of Practice; Professional Learning Communities; Teacher Collaboration
The importance of having well trained and effective Science teachers cannot be disputed in any educational system. This is because Science teachers are at the forefront of nurturing and developing the next generation of innovators and
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scientists important in any economy. Training teachers to be effective according to Darling Hammond et al. (2017) requires features that include “content focus, incorporation of active learning, support for collaboration, utilization of effective models of practice, coaching, expert support, feedback and reflection, and is of sustained duration. The mentioned features indicate the conduct of professional learning through a community of practice (CoP).
The CoP is based on the idea that learning is done through a social process whereby knowledge is co constructed in a specific context and embedded within a particular social and physical environment, such as schools (Lave & Wenger, 1991). The concept originated from the study of apprenticeship by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in their book Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (1991), where they introduced the situated learning theory. According to this theory, "participation in social practice is the fundamental form of learning" and, as such, viewed learning as "increasing participation in communities of practice."In this theory,learningcan happen in formal orinformal settings among colleagues in a workplace scenario.
There are three structural characteristics for a community, group, or organization to be called a CoP (Wenger & Trayner, n.d.). First is the notion of a domain of knowledge or general area of interest that provides meaning to the actions of the community. In schools, this may refer to the commitment of teachers towards their interests, discipline, or goals that allows teachers to have content focus, collective participation, and coherence Second is the notion of community which refers to the group fostering interaction, collaboration, and sharing of ideas for learning towards the domain. When Science teachers collaborate and regularly discuss with a sense of community, they can foster relationships, have collective responsibility, and a sense of belonging that is rooted in trust and respect (Hallam et al., 2015; Gray et al., 2017) and can therefore work towards their domain. The third is a practice that refers to the product of collective learning or the specific knowledge the community develops, shares, and maintains due to their interaction with the domain (Wenger, 1998; Wenger et al., 2002). Practice can be explicit or tacit in forms. Most studies about CoPs had been about developing and implementing tangible practices such as instructional plans and assessment strategies (Lohwasser, 2013; Southerland et al., 2016). Lesser reported are tacit practices such as becoming reform oriented (Fulton et al., 2011) or the personal, social, and professional development by Bell and Gilbert (1994) based on their three year study of following CoPs of Science teachers in New Zealand.
CoPs are regarded as valuable for creating social capital (Duguid, 2005) and knowledge management (Aljuwaiber, 2016). In education, CoPs have positively affected teaching practices and student achievement (Dogan & Adams, 2018). It reduces teachers’ feeling of isolation, increases sharing of information and resources, promotion of learning and collaboration within organizations by establishing networks and professional alliances (Cardona & Lugo, 2012), promotion of new practices that improve academic rigor, creation of opportunities for instructional leadership (Gerdeman et al., 2018), greater self efficacy, reduced feelings of isolation, and most importantly the co construction
of knowledge concerning the teacher’s professional practice (Curry, 2010; Woodland et al., 2013) and teachers pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), particularly in STEM (Fulton & Britton, 2011). CoP increased the use of active learning practices of STEM teachers, thereby enhancing STEM learning (Fulton & Britton, 2011; Tomkin et al., 2019). It alsohas positive implications forinstructional resilience, such as during shocks and duress such as COVID 19 pandemic, for it increases social capital, mainly through sharing and co construction of instructional resources among STEM teachers (Grunspan et al., 2021). It should be noted that there is a direct impact of teacher PCK on student achievement (Kunter et al., 2017; Kleickmann et al., 2013; Gess Newsome et al., 2017).
CoPs have been used widely as means for the professional development of teachers in many educational systems all over the world to address curricular reforms. In the Philippines, CoP was institutionalized in 2016 and referred to it as Learning Action Cells (LACs). LACs, according to the Department of Education (DepEd) Memorandum, "will become the school based communities of practice that are positive, caring, and safe spaces” (Department of Education [DepEd], 2016). DepEddescribed a LAC as "a group of teachers whoengage in collaborative learning sessions to solve shared challenges encountered in the school, facilitated by the school head or a designated LAC Leader." The features of LAC are aligned with the framework of CoP. The agenda speaks of the domain of knowledge. Interaction and composition showcase the community, and the learning outputs and activities indicate the practice. The implementing policy of LAC recognizes the value of bottom up professional learning methods. It ensures that these continuing professional development programs be integrated with government schools' school based management and school improvement plan.
The implementation of LAC as a CoP came after four years the country shifted from ten years to twelve years of basic education (Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013). This paradigm utilized the Spiral Progression Approach that requires most teachers to teach at each grade level four main topics Earth Science, Biology, Chemistry, and Physics. The approach was reported problematic as most schools in the country practice assigning for each class for the entire school year one Science teacher who would teach all four disciplines (Orbe et al., 2018). Teachers, in this case, are struggling to teach content areas outside of their specialization because of the school structure that cannot accommodate four teachers at each grade level in the Junior High School. The findings, for example, of Resurrection and Adanza (2015) revealed that teachers need more time and training to master all the four science content areas, find it challenging to teach without mastery, and do not feel prepared to teach content, pedagogy, and practical activities (Attia, 2017). These, therefore, present a challenge to Science teachers’ PCK, which was supposed to be addressed by CoPs through LACs
However, the USA’s Teacher’s Know Best report in 2014 provided caution to educational institutions and organizations on implementing CoPs. Their findings showed a higher percentage of negative satisfaction ratings among teachers on CoPs as a form of professional development, with teachers even reporting CoPs as wasted time. The report showcased a need for a better understanding of CoP
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structure and implementation strategies as those who indicated negative ratings have also reported poor collaboration in their schools, and those who indicated positive ratings rated their schools to have good collaboration. The contradictory result here may also be pointed to paucity in CoP investigations that explore teachers’ natural or spontaneous experiences as they go through CoP. Most investigations have been from studies from a research project or as a school based intervention (Fulton & Britton, 2011; Abigail, 2016). These studies can only report the contrived experiences of teachers. This is also true in the Philippines, where studies about CoPs are also limited to assessing school based CoP implementations (Chiao, 2014; Cabral, 2019; Bajar et al., 2021) or regional implementation (Vega, 2020) that provide information on the varying implementation processes, benefits, and challenges of CoPs in the specific locale.
Therefore, there is a need to have a common understanding of what CoPs are and how CoPs contribute to Science teacher development at the national level. Thus, in this paper, we intend to describe the Science CoPs in Philippine schools in terms of (a) structure, (b) activities, (c) factors in its formation and maintenance, and (c) contributions of CoPs to teacher development. It is hoped that the information provided in this article, mainly the key lessons learned, will be valuable for cultivating CoPs in schools.
This study utilized a descriptive embedded multiple case study approach to describe CoP in the Philippine setting and its contributions to teacher development. In this approach, structures, and composition, aside from the nature of each case, can be given attention (Yin, 2018). Each case is considered a unit of study with subunits of analyses and provides literal replication, thus addressing external validity through direct replication logic. The study mainly employed qualitative data through interviews and focus group discussions. Supporting data comes from a self answer sheet or questionnaire, particularly in describing the factors in the maintenance and formation of CoPs. Questions however in this self answer sheet called for in depth answers and were not necessarily scalable. Having multiple sources of data from multiple cases ensures reliability which allows for checking whether findings are consistent with every case.
The first task in data gathering for this study was the selection of cases done through nomination by the DepEd regional offices where educational supervisors identify schools on mature stages of CoP based on a rubric on CoP Stages of Implementation modified from the Wenger et al. (2002). The school heads from these schools were then contacted to seek permission to conduct the study and to schedule interviews and focus group discussions (FGD) with teachers and the school head.
Only five of the seventeen regional offices in the Philippines participated in the nomination of school cases. There was a total of 6 participating cases. One school was used as a pilot case or case E. Another case (case F) was not considered for not meeting the criterion of the maturing stage of COP based on results from teachers’ self rating and responses from the FGD and interview. Thus, only Cases
A, B, C, and D are reported in this paper, and Cases E and F are not reported. Ratings from the regional supervisors and the teachers of the four cases were consistent on their CoP stage. The ratings indicated that they are committed to achieve common goals and know about each other’s approaches. They have a learning agenda and standards for recurring problems, and have developed, organized, shared, and utilized explicit knowledge products based on their agenda.
The four cases are representative of the national capital region and the three main island groups of the Philippines Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. During the time of the conduct of the study, Case A has 14,000 students with 70 Science teachers, Case B has 5,000 students with 32 Science teachers, Case C has 1000 students with 3 Science teachers, and Case D has 4084 students with 27 Science teachers. All schools excel in their respective divisions in terms of student competitions. Case A, B, and Case C had won international student science research competitions. Participants per case include their principal or school head and teachers. There were 9, 13, 3, and 11 participants in Case A, B, C, and D respectively. The Science specializations of teachers are relatively well distributed in all four participating schools. In terms of average years of stay with the school, Case B teachers have been the longest, with a mean of 12.5 years, followed by Case D with 7.4 years, Case A with a mean of 3.75 years, and Case C with 2.25 years.
Interviews andFGDin the fourschools weredone face toface, while in one school, it was made through video conferencing due to COVID 19 restrictions. Participants of the study were informed about the purpose and background of the study, that their participation is voluntary, they can withdraw anytime, the risks and benefits from participation, and the roles of the researcher and participants. Participants who were willing were requested to sign the letter of consent. The participants were then asked to answer a survey that included how they maintain their COPs and rate their CoP stage of development. Lastly, participants who were administrators were interviewed, and Science teachers or members of the CoPs were asked to participate in an FGD. Questions asked to them include: (1) How has pursuing interests, goals, and projects together helped you become better as a science teacher? (2) Do your interests and goals as a community or group change How? (3) Have your interactions and engagements with co teachers changed over time? How? And (4) What do you think in general are the contributions of CoP to being a science teacher?
The interview and FGD were audio and video recorded, transcribed verbatim, and translated into English. Both verbatim and translated transcripts were sent to participants prior to analysis for checking. Audio transcripts were analyzed using Braun and Clarke's six step thematic analysis method (2006). Responses were coded and organized into themes and meaning units per case and cross cases. Case reports were then prepared for each case indicating qualitative themes and were sent to participants for checking once again. Cross case report is then followed by synthesizing data from cross reports. The report incorporated the responses of respondents on a self answer sheet questionnaire which were ranked to emphasize the prioritization of CoP maintenance activities.
This section shall describe the structure, composition, and CoP activities across four nominated cases.
Interview and FGD data from all four cases indicated that Science teachers worked as a CoP much earlier than the establishment of LAC in 2016. The formal structure, however, started with LAC establishment. Table 1 presents the cross case report of the typical structure and composition of Science CoPs with corresponding roles of members reported by participants of the study.
Personnel General Responsibilities Principal Formulates Vision
Provides funding for CoP
Support CoP undertaking through attendance Department Head Supervises schedule of teachers for instruction Directs teachers to implement CoP activities
Provide resources for research Supervises classroom observation Directs the implementation of annual Science activities Supports fellowships
Science Program Coordinators Supervise all activities under his or her care both in instruction and learning
Remind all Science teachers of documents for submission Master Teachers Serve as content specialists for mentoring or coaching Plan and coordinate monthly LAC sessions Plan and coordinate in service trainings
Prepare report for CoP activities
Proficient Teachers Participate actively in all Science activities Meet with master teachers to discuss difficult competencies and sharing of techniques.
The Science CoP structure conforms with the formal organizational structure of schools in the Philippines. This includes the principals as the head and the department heads who supervise the school science teachers together with coordinators. Those having ranks of Master teacher and higher mentor the newly hired or lower ranked Proficient Teachers. The formal structuring of CoP among the cases indicates the importance of the leadership of the principal and the department head in establishing the agenda and direction of a CoP.
The identities of the four CoP cases were established through their interactions and engagements, particularly through their participation in the regular activities that they established. Teachers reported that these activities were collaborative and provided means for them to share and develop their practice. These activities vary for each school as presented in Table 2. It should be noted that the table only includes activities set up by Science teachers’ CoP and tasks that are intended for the school-wide teaching force are excluded in Table 2
Least mastered science learning content, pedagogy, and ICT integration.
Least mastered Science content and coordination of activities
Area Case A Case B Case C Case D Agenda Least mastered competencies, pedagogy, self development, stress management, and assessment.
Activities
1. Grade level seminar workshop sessions (Weekly LAC session)
2. Weekly mentoring session (1 Master teacher assigned to mentor 3 4 grade level teachers for learning content).
3. Monthly Lesson Study 4. Facebook group chat messaging 5. Research groups
1. Science Grade Level seminar workshop (Monthly LAC session) 2. Teacher initiated mentoring 3. Facebook group chat messaging
1. Coaching, informal discussion, and coordination of schedule and activities over lunch (Daily informal LAC session) 2. Team teaching 3. Facebook group chat messaging
Topic: Science content, sharing of best practices, strategies, instructional materials
1. Science Grade Level seminar workshop (Quarterly LAC session) 2. Facebook group chat 3. Action research groups 4. Teacher initiated meetups
It can be seen from the table that Case A has the most structured approaches among the four cases, which is commendable for a population of 70 Science teachers. Their LAC sessions are done weekly and by grade level, where teachers take turns being resource speakers based on their agreed agenda. Their weekly mentoring sessions are targeted to improve science instruction. Master teachers who specialize in the content area of a given grading period in a particular grade level are assigned to three to four teachers to mentor them. Case A is the only case among the four that conducts lesson study. They said that teachers develop together a lesson plan that they are to implement within a school year in their monthly lesson study. Case A also has developed groupings meant to coach students for Science fair competitions. In addition, they communicate via group chat and meet daily in their shared offices.
For Case B, formal LAC sessions are done monthly, by grade level, and organized by the master teachers. The science teachers also initiated mentoring sessions to help each other on Science content topics they are not confident in teaching. Proficient teachers organized their schedules with their master teachers for these sessions at their learning centers. Their group chat was beneficial for them to communicate with each other easily because they are in separate buildings and have no shared office
In Case C, LAC sessions were informal and were done every lunchtime according to the teachers. They were only three Science teachers in their school, so it was very easy to coordinate with each other on activities and mentor each other. It was also easy for them to set up team teaching. They can arrange their schedules so that for grading periods with Science topics outside of their specialization, either they swap with another teacher or seek help to co teach with another teacher. This is due to difficulty teaching Science content topics expected to their current context and structure.
In Case M, formal LAC sessions are done quarterly, arranged by the master teachers with topics prepared and selected prior to the start of the school year. According to teachers, their LAC session is output based. The Science teachers also had action research groups where teachers would implement proposed learning strategies in their classes. They also reported having meetups or discussions about work over coffee. They also said that they do mentoring during these sessions.
It can therefore be said that the Science teachers from four CoP cases are highly engaged with each other on activities that are mandated by the DepEd and on activities that they themselves organize. Attendance to LAC sessions and mentorship of Master Teachers have mandated programs. For example, these are included in the assessment for teachers’ performance rating that prompted teachers to participate. Group chats, research groupings, and other group initiated activities, on the other hand, are non mandated with no equivalent ratings but are still well participated, which indicates the desire to build relationships and foster learning in their respective schools.
Information presented about CoP activities was supported by a survey about how CoPs were maintained. Results are shown in Table 3 with the corresponding rank average per school and across cases. The following discussion incorporates the responses from FGD and interviews of teachers and school administrators
CoP Maintenance Features
Attend meetings of the group and participate actively during the discussion
Designate committee heads or coordinators for tasks that are complex such as school science programs
Initiate or propose activities for the group that is worth undertaking.
There is a leader who facilitates the formulation of vision, goals, and strategies that sets the direction for science learning and instruction
SD Case A Case B Case C Case D
Rank average per item Overall Rank Equivalent
1 3.5 4 1 1 1.60
3.5 6.5 1.5 4 2 2.06
3.5 8 1.5 4 3 2.72
7 3.5 4 4 4 1.60
CoP Maintenance Features
There is a leader who programs class schedules to ensure time for each other for meetings.
There is a leader who addresses teachers’ needs, such as rooms, equipment, and other tools that teachers need during meetings, trainings, workshops, and research activities.
Being responsible for producing outputs required, such as learning resources for the group on time
Refer to minutes of meetings and other documents when planning for science activities in the school.
Utilize data as basis for reviewing and planning instruction.
SD Case A Case B Case C Case D
Rank average per item Overall Rank Equivalent
3.5 1 6.5 9 5 3.49
8.5 6.5 4 2 6 2.84
3.5 3.5 9 6.5 7 2.66
6 3.5 8 8 8 2.14
8.5 9 6.5 6.5 9 1.31
The four cases consistently prioritize their attendance at meetings and actively participate in them. In Case A, for example, teachers said that they respect their leaders and coordinators, so they make sure they attend whenever there are meetings. In Case B, they attend informal meetings most of the time. According to their principal, for Case C, the teachers meet every lunchtime and are very cooperative. However, for Case D, the teachers attend meetings because according to them they are obedient and have no choice. This shows that despite being compelled, teachers are committed to their goals. According to Hord (2009) and Tam (2015), this sense of membership is essential in CoP as this leads to the commitment of teachers to a learning community.
The four CoP cases also have consistently placed designating committee heads or coordinators as one of the top activities in maintaining their CoPs. All four cases have designated coordinators, specifically for their LAC sessions and other tasks. Cases A, B, and D have grade level coordinators for the LAC sessions, while Case A has specific subject specialist master teachers for mentoring sessions. Case C LAC involves all the three teachers to discuss informally, but they each agree on particular assignments to coordinate tasks such as the areas of student research. One teacher is assigned for robotics, another for life sciences, and another for physical sciences. This indicates that in the CoP cases, there was an observed distributed leadership that, according to Leclerc et al. (2012), can provide better coordination among tasks, leading to teachers seeing the value of their contribution and CoP itself.
They are also consistent with initiating and proposing activities for the group. In all four cases, teachers indicated that they proposed activities that the administrators supported. In Case A, for example, their principal noted how dedicated the teachers were by proposing activities such as environmental clean up drives or even submitting a proposal to the mayor’s office for funding; in Case C, the teachers proposedspace shows androbotics training;in CaseB, the teachers
initiated their mentoring sessions; and in Case D, teachers came up with their action research groups. These are just some of the activities teachers initiated in their CoPs. Doing these activities can create what Wenger et al. (2002) termed as rhythm, which they found to be present in successful CoPs and proposed to be a principle for cultivating CoPs. Rhythm is having a balance of activities and correctly pacing them to allow the community to thrive and remain vibrant. The four participating CoPs are also consistent in utilizing data as the least practiced activity. Case A teachers were required to conduct item analysis as a basis for instructional improvement. However, teachers did these individually and were not used as a basis for discussion in the Senior high school since they teach different Science content for different tracks. Case D made use of data as well for decision making. They accordingly used data to transform their instruction following low achievement scores in the National Achievement Test. Data were also used in identifying least learned competencies as the basis for the preparation of strategic intervention materials for both Case C and Case B. The teachers, therefore, utilize data for decision making but not as significantly enough as they do this individually.
It should be noted that the Professional Standards for Philippine Teachers (DepEd Memo 42, s. 2017) also stipulates that data driven decision making be standard practice. It has even included the exploration of data collaboratively to improve instruction and practices as indicators of highly proficient and distinguished teachers. In Gepila’s (2020) study, teachers assess themselves to be proficient only in assessment and data use . This indicates that teachers’ use of assessment and data is for their classroom only and is not shared and discussed with peers. Such a result of Gepila is consistent with the results presented in Table 3. CoPs are supposed to help utilize data for instruction according to the United States Department of Education [USDE] report (2010). However, this required administrative support, collaborative structures, and time for teachers to discuss within workweek. Abbot and Wren (2016) suggest having specialists or experts mentor teachers to utilize data for instruction. Thus, a structure for discussing data and assessments should be embedded in the CoPs.
The four schools vary in their responses on being responsible for producing outputs or learning resources on time. For both Case A and Case B, this item was among the top observed practices, while for both Case C and D, this item is at the lower end. One good reason for this is that the department heads described by both Case A and Case B teachers were supportive. Case A teachers even said that their chairperson is very organized and that all they need to do is comply, which is also why they respected her. This characteristic of the department chairperson is the opposite of what was mentioned in Case D. In Case C, teachers do not have a chairperson. They only need to answer to their principal directly, which indicates that they do not need to rush. Another reason for Case C is that, since there are only three of them to work on tasks equivalent to six teachers, they do not have much time to produce learning resources on time.
The other item with high deviation has a leader who organizes teaching loads and schedules for meetings. This is similar to the scenario in the previous paragraph.
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Cases A, C, and D have department chairpersons who prepare schedules, while Case C is their guidance counselor. For Case D, there was no common schedule for teachers to meet. This is also evident in the frequency of interactions in Case D compared to Case A and Case B. The teachers in Case A have bi monthly to monthly LAC sessions for LAC sessions on average. Case B has four times in a grading period, whereas, for Case D, it is only once per grading period, or once every two months
The other item not consistent in the four cases refers to minutes and documents when planning for activities, which again scored among the top observed practices for both Case A and Case B. However, there is least for Case C and D. This could again be due to the characteristics of the chairpersons of Case A and B as being organized. Regarding Case C, they said that they do not have minutes as most of the time, their daily interactions cum LAC session cum meetings were done informally over lunch.
With what was presented, the following insights are drawn:
1. Active participation in meetings and activities need not require the imposition of a memorandum like that for Case D. What is necessary is the frequent, more structured, and well supported CoP activities through the leadership of both the principal and department head like in Case A.
2. Having a leader who programs schedules to ensure time for each other and for meetings supplements the lack of shared office space, such as in Case B.
3. New CoPs without formal structure but have shared goals still work. They can frequently meet to propose activities worth undertaking and designate committee heads for complex tasks. These maintenance activities helped develop a sense of community that is lacking, such as in Case C.
4. Current CoP cases in the Philippines are not data driven; thus, support is highly needed in this area
Data drawn from the interview and FGD of the four cases points to three main factors in the formation and maintenance of CoPs. These are presented in Table 4
Table 4: Main Factors in Formation and Maintenance of CoPs Factors/Implem entation
Case A Case B Case C Case D
Leadership Management of principal and supervision of Department Head
Sense of Membership Good relationship and commitment towards goals
Opportunities for Interaction
Management of Principal and supervision of Department Head
Good relationship and commitment towards goals
Frequent due to shared office Dependent on CoP activities and proximity of homerooms; lack shared office
Management of Principal Management of Principal
Good relationship and commitment towards goals
Good relationship and commitment towards goals
Every lunchtime at the clinic Dependent on CoP activity; lack of shared office
The first factor reported across cases is leadership. All the principals in the four cases provided the necessary support to the teachers, of particular interest mentioned as providing resources for the student research and competitions. However, the leadershipof the Science department headhas more impact in terms of CoP. In Case A, for example, the department head pushed the members to collaborate. Important characteristics of department heads cited in Case A and Case B are described during the FGD, which included being caring, organized, and supportive. On the other hand, the Case D chairperson was described as someone who does not go out of their comfort zone and is unsupportive, leading the department not to advance. Leadership therefore in the context of CoP is vital as it contributes to better coordination of networks and communication flow, resulting in active participation and an increase in knowledge flow among members (Probst & Borzillo, 2008; Zanjani & Alami, 2009).
Second is the sense of membership which includes aspects of commitment towards their goals for Science learning, professional growth, and collegial relationships. Sense of membership can be observed in both old CoPs such as Case B and newer CoPs such as Case C. This finding is consistent with Pyrko et al. (2016), which stated that CoP development involves creating a new link between finding the meaning of learning together and the sustainability of thinking together
Lastly are the opportunities for interaction which vary mainly across cases due to not having dedicated time for interaction and not having a shared office space. However, teachers compensated for this with their teacher initiated meetups, online group chat, and other teacher initiated activities. Having such regular opportunities allows members to think together which is necessary in CoP based on the findings of Pryko et al. (2017)
This section presents the positive changes Science teachers experienced from their participation in CoPs. This part is anchored to the teacher development model of Bell and Gilbert (1994). According to Bell and Gilbert, CoPs lead to three aspects of development among Science teachers, namely Social Development, Personal Development, and Professional Development. The experience of social development starts with the realization that isolation is problematic and ends in working comfortably with colleagues. On the other hand, personal development changes teachers’ experience in their perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs about what it means to be a Science teacher
Lastly, the professional development of the teachers refers to changes teachers’ experience through CoP that led them to become empowered Science teachers that includes desiring change, experimenting with methods, and then embracing the change (Bell & Gilbert, 1994). The study of Bell and Gilbert was done by observing how teachers work together through a research project for three years to capture teachers’ development. However, in this study, data comes from interviews and FGD, which intends to capture teachers' experiences from natural and spontaneous CoPs. A summary of the results of teacher developments is presented in Table 4
Table 4
Development Aspect Case A Case B Case C Case D
Social Development Friendliness Help seeking Friendliness Help seeking Patience Comfortable with peers Help seeking
Personal Development Confidence to teach Control in the classroom Staying motivated to teach
Professional Development Innovativeness Increase of personal instructional standards
Confidence to teaching and handling responsibilities Staying motivated to teach
Patience Listening skills
Coping stress Staying motivated to teach Flexibility Social identity
Innovativeness Increase of personal instructional standards
Goal orientedness Efficiency Openness to input and feedback
Social Development. The report of the participants has indicated genuine experiences of social development. The first aspect reported is how teachers could get along well with peers. For example, in Case B and Case C, the teachers mentioned learning to get along, opening to others and being open to each other, and adjusting to each other's personalities. Getting along well and adjusting well with peers is essential because it makes collaboration easier, which is necessary according to Case A teachers. After all, they need manpower
Case D teachers also reported developing listening skills from their interactions with each other which is important to know their colleagues better. Teachers also reported improving their patience, learning to listen, and learning to handle and adjust to peers who at times are irate or moody. Another change observed was having a stronger bond that accordingly leads to being able to ask for help from peers, such as in Cases C and D. In case B, teachers do not even have to ask to be helped as they have developed in time an unwritten relational understanding when a peer needs help
The responses of participants as regards to their social development can therefore be put in a continuum. This means that the participants, just like Bell and Gilbert (1994), realized the necessity of getting along with peers by adjusting to each other's personalities, which required listening and being more patient. Through these, theyhave becomemore comfortable with each other,that theycan seek help and give support every time they need each other.
Personal Development. Responses from the participants indicated that there are indeed personal level changes, including coping with stress, gaining confidence, control in the classroom, and having an identity. First is the handling and or coping with stress. Teachers of Case C, for example, had a chat and open forum or feedbacking sessions as means to calm them down and help them handle situations involving classrooms, peers, and students. Though heavily loaded with
teaching assignments, their warm interactions and relationship allowed teachers of Case C to handle stress better. This was particularly observed by a teacher who had experienced being the sole Science teacher in her previous school assignment. No one else could relate to what she went through as a Science teacher.
Another change that teachers endorsed was control in the classroom, particularly in Case A. One teacher in Case A reported that she used to break down resulting from not knowing how to handle her students. She acknowledged that she could not handle her class as a mature person like her colleagues. From there, she received help and support from her colleagues and realized to accept challenges in the classroom and make an effort instead of getting frustrated and complaining about her students
Another personal level change that the teachers experienced in Case D was being able to have an identity. Teachers particularly described it as having roots and belonging to a family. One teacher even said that he felt more effective if he belonged to particular norms or groups. Another described having an identity as a feeling of not being the only person struggling. Teachers added that some identities of science teachers include being more organized and using more teaching tools when teaching than teachers of other subject matter
Participants also reported developing confidence in CoP. One experience of Case A had a new Science teacher who lacked the experience in teaching Science. Her colleagues in the CoP provided the necessary encouragement and support for her to teach Science. In summary, the constant interaction and feedback from CoP led teachers to realize they need peer support leading to control and confidence in the classroom and the development of identities as Science teachers.
Professional Development. In terms of personal development, teachers reported having clearer goals, increased teaching standards, and becoming innovative. First, teachers reported that CoP led them to have clearer goals of producing Science literate learners. They said that if they were alone, they would have wandered. Second is the increasing the standards for Science teachers, which is evident in the teachers’ desire to change. Teachers have reported particularly, in case C, that being surrounded by the best teachers influences them to be better. They were also inspired to stay current or updated on recent advances in Science, saying they wanted to contribute much like their colleagues. Case D teachers have also reported becoming more open to input and feedback from knowing their peers’ performance through CoPs.
Another form of professional development was exploring new ways to teach a particular topic In Case A for example, teachers used to have typical culminating Science activities but changed it recently after their deliberation in their CoPs. They even had another plan for the succeeding year on tranforming trash into something more useful. In Case B, teachers utilized of hands on and student centered approaches and integration of ICTs that stems from their CoPs observation of students who easily get bored in the class. In both cases, CoPs allowed teachers to collectively reflect on their current practice and not just
remain comfortable with the status quo, hence, invoking to practice innovativeness.
These findings are consistent with the review of Dogan & Adams (2018) that CoPs can lead to positive teacher practices as CoPs allow facilitator support and collaboration, promote active learning strategies, focus on instruction and students, and reflective dialogue. In addition, the participants' responses provided evidence that CoP contributed to the social, personal, and professional development of science teachers. This also supports the model of Bell and Gilbert (1994), indicating that the three aspects of development are interactive and interdependent. As mentioned earlier, the personal development of the teachers was enabled by their social development. Both personal and social development precede professional development, as purported by Bell and Gilbert. Being reflective and the increasing standards of teaching are indications of professional development but arriving at this point required the teachers the social interactions afforded to them by their membership in the CoP that allowed teachers to be comfortable with each other, confident when interacting with peers, and is open and empowered by seeking help.
This study thus agrees with Bell and Gilbert that professional learning programs of teachers should involve not only the implementation of suggested activities by the teachers in their respective classrooms but also must consider the personal or social aspects which are often underplayed. This also explains why professional learning that features content focus, active learning, collaboration, coaching, feedback and reflection, and sustained duration is effective (Darling Hammond et al., 2017). This is because having professional learning that is both sustained and collaborative enough could lead to the development of teachers' personal, social, and professional development.
The following key lessons learned are derived from the presented results that can provide inputs for CoP cultivation in schools.
a. The significant roles of the principal in CoP include setting the vision, establishing mechanisms for teacher collaboration, providing the funds and resources needed by teachers for their professional growth, and formulating policies favorable for Science instruction and learning.
b. Department heads directly impact CoPs as they are the ones whoorganize and encourage teachers to collaborate, provide immediate assistance, and monitor implementation. Teachers prefer them to be caring, systematic, and supportive over qualities that limit teachers’ potential.
c. Being a member of a CoP requires a commitment to pursuing goals and maintaining a good working relationship.
d. CoP teacher engagements and productivity are highly dependent on workload, schedule, and shared space.
e. Participation in CoPs can lead teachers to become driven by higher standards, innovative, reflective, flexible, confident, optimistic, motivated, patient, and friendly. This is because teachers can see models of performance and character from peers through their frequent engagements in CoP.
f. Planning for activities before the school year is vital to identify activities that Science teachers will pursue in their CoPs
Based on the four cases, Science CoPs in the Philippines are governed by a DepEd memorandum requiring schools to establish LAC. Science CoPs follow a typical school organizational structure with principal and department heads as leaders and master teachers as mentors and coordinators to Proficient or new teachers Leaders together with members work as a community in setting up learning structure that fosters sharing and co construction of practice through mentoring, coaching, team teaching, LAC sessions, and other group initiated activities such as group chats and meetups. Three vital elements of community structure led to the formation of CoPs, namely leadership, a sense of membership, and opportunities for interaction which are at the same time contributory to maintaining the CoP in the participating schools. The maintenance activities include active participation in CoP activities, programming schedules by department heads, forming committees for complex tasks, and proposing Science activities. On the other hand, the least prioritized activity is utilizing data for reviewing and planning instruction as a group. The lack of fellowship made attendance and participation in meetings a form of compliance rather than a willful act borne out of mutual respect among members and to the leaders of the CoP. Involvement in Science CoP can lead teachers to become innovative and reflective and aim for high professional teaching standards. Socially, they effectively fostered camaraderie and built effective working relationships making them more confident, flexible, and motivated. The study, in general, has provided evidence of total Science teacher development through participation in CoPs that are beneficial for student learning. Therefore, schools and teachers can learn from the structures, learning activities, and maintenance activities presented in this paper to cultivate or improve their current CoP. Further studies focusing on impact of CoPs on Science teaching practice, innovations and PCK are recommended.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 90 103, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.6
Received Mar 7, 2022; Revised May 12, 2022; Accepted Jun 9, 2022
Abstract. The evolution of curricula at any level of education remains relevant based on evolving developments, challenges, and policy direction of society. A university physics education programme has evolved over the years to accommodate, and in some instances, remediate the societal dynamics using the principles of physics. The training of physics teachers for post basic or secondary education has changed over the years to accommodate solutions to various infractions. We examine the physics course content of a university physics education programme with a view to providing data on content distribution of both advanced and ordinary level physics syllabi. This study is qualitative research of the case study type which sampled the content of two syllabi and course content of a physics education programme. Content analysis was employed to analyse topics and subtopics among three documents From the result, topics and subtopics were fractionalised to provide an overview of each of the three examined documents. The implication of this is that amendments can be systematically made to accommodate the newly introduce theme physics in technology Thus, this study proffers a justifiable template for moderating textbooks to authors, bridging the gap between present and future additions and exposing areas of capacity building for physics teachers, among others.
Keywords: content distribution; JUPEB; physics education programme; physics syllabus; WAEC
The dynamic nature of science brings to the fore its evolution. This evolution allows for changes to be made in terms of content, process and product. The teaching of science in the classroom is not static. The introduction of emerging areas in science allows for exposure to learners at all levels of education with a view to accommodating and equipping emerging learners with up to date knowledge in both existing and new fields or disciplines. Automation and green energy are new areas in physics, especially in the developing countries globally
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
(Badmus and Jita, 2022). These new areas are expected to be accommodated in both the curricula and syllabi of all subject areas (in this case, physics). For new introduction, the existing framework and content must be assessed to give direction on areas of addition. For a fact, the number of days in a year will not change, and a similar assumption can be said of time spent in school by learners. As such, the curriculum is always reviewed to cater for emerging areas and for jettisoning old knowledge to avoid cognitive overload. This study examined existing syllabi of ordinary and advance level physics with a view to providing a template for introducing the new theme. Subsequent paragraphs will discuss the terminologies and rationale for this study.
A quality education should equip citizens with the ability not only to cater for the immediate need of society but also to meet the evolving demands of such society in field related challenges. The National Policy on Education (NPE) as relayed in the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) of 2013 has among its goals the study of science and the production of an adequate number of scientists to inspire and support national development. At the senior secondary level (post basic education), the core science subjects are Physics, Chemistry and Biology. The production of scientists is necessary to support national development precepts, producing individuals equipped with the content and pedagogical knowledge (know how) of science concepts at all levels, including senior secondary level of science education (Carlson & Daehler, 2019). Universities are responsible for the training of individuals in various disciplines in science education across the board. As such, the training of educators in the sciences falls under the purview of the faculties of education in these universities (Baumert & Kunter, 2013).
Accreditation of programmes being undertaken in each university is solely done by the National Universities Commission (NUC), a commission under the Federal Ministry of Education. Among other responsibilities, the NUC accredits, supervises and monitors programmes that are being studied at these universities. As a guide, the NUC issues Benchmark Minimum Academic Standard (BMAS) to universities in Nigeria which are occasionally reviewed. These reviews are done to accommodate changes in the curriculum as deemed appropriate in conjunction with various universities in the country. The BMAS, as a document binds public universities (owned by federal and state governments), as well as, private universities (owned by individual and corporate entities). The afore listed categories of universities have the mandate to abide by the standard set in the BMAS. Courses in this document have the compulsory (C), required (R) and elective components. Although the compulsory courses are a core of the student’s discipline, the ‘required’ courses vary with regard to each department. Elective courses are candidate specific in terms of preferences. The training of the aforementioned prospective scientists (physicists or physics educators) is principally the responsibility of the teachers in each of the fields of science at the senior secondary level of education (NUC BMAS, 2007).
Physics is a branch of science that is concerned with the study of matter, energy and their interaction. At the lower level of education, physics is taught as a
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single subject. The branches of physics at the higher level are numerous and still evolving owing to the nature of science. These branches include but are not limited to biophysics, astrophysics, optics, nuclear physics, thermodynamics, classical physics, atomic physics, mechanics, modern physics, geophysics, and acoustics. At both elementary and intermediate levels, physics is considered as a difficult subject owing to its affiliation with mathematical principles and laws (Singh et al., 2016; Benegas & Villegas, 2021). To some students, mathematics is difficult enough; with its application in physics, a number of students lose interest in studying any aspect of it (Nielsen, 2013). While many view physics as a stand alone field, it is all inclusive, its application being found in virtually all the fields of human endeavour. Interestingly, forensic scientists apply the knowledge of physics in unearthing and reconstructing hidden evidence from crime scenes and beyond (Franck & Franck, 2013; Lin et al., 2019).
The importance of the knowledge of physics in the advancement of global technology and the economy has been established. For example, the development in the field of information and communication technology (ICT), especially in the areas of gadgets and devices produced, prevented the world from going into total lockdown owing to legislations put in place by governments to prevent the continuous spread of the deadly Covid19 pandemic. Not only have these benefitted the nation technologically, advancement in information and communication technology has also turned the world into a ‘global village’, thus facilitating the exchange of information. Societies willing for such advancement must give proper attention to the knowledge of physics, its teaching and learning. The teaching of physics is expected to be enshrined in the curriculum of learners from the most elementary stage to the highest stage possible owing to its importance. It is imperative to pay adequate attention to physics knowledge and the content as spelt out at various levels of education, especially the senior secondary level and the university content of the physics education programme. This becomes germane as a result of the ripple effect physics has in all the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM)related fields (Badmus & Omosewo, 2020; Bada and Afolabi, 2020).
Despite the importance of studying physics to scientific and technological development, its teaching and learning have associated challenges. These challenges are not limited to student related factors, teacher related factors, curriculum content factors, or lack of or inadequate laboratory resources for effective teaching and learning (Jeronen et al., 2017; Olatundun Aiyedun & Ogunode, 2020). Of the aforementioned, curriculum related factors which include the step down content as reflected in the Advanced Joint Universities Preliminary Examinations Board (JUPEB) and Ordinary West African Examinations Council (WAEC) level syllabi of the Senior Secondary School Physics Curriculum of the NERDC are the focus of this study. Similarly, the physics component of the physics education programme of the National Universities Commission (NUC) is also of interest. In the physics education programme, there are three component courses, namely the physics content, the pedagogical content and the extension component. The extension component courses in this study are referred to as courses in which candidates minor (such as mathematics and chemistry). The focus of this study with regard to the
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physics education programme is the physics component of the physics education programme (JUPEB, 2020; WAEC, 2020; NUC BMAS, 2007).
Physics education is one of the teacher education programmes in Nigerian universities’ Faculties of Education. Physics teacher education curricula which were developed in line with the criteria established by the National University Commission (NUC BMAS, 2007) are meant to produce competent teachers for senior secondary school physics teaching. In effect, graduates of this programme are certified by various universities to have acquired competence in this area of study and to have the pedagogical skill to pass down the knowledge of physics to the learners.
The curriculum is the backbone of any educational system because it specifies what should be taught, how it should be taught and to whom it should be taught (Usman et al., 2019). Ahmadi and Lukman (2015) defined a curriculum as a particular form of specification about the practice of teaching. The curriculum is usually associated with all the learning experiences that the students are expected to learn within a specified period of time. Musingafi et al. (2015) opined that the curriculum is a well defined and prescribed course of studies which students must complete for them to pass a given level of education. The curriculum is also viewed as the hard core of education that gives the substance and methods for pertinent information, abilities and attitudes for sustainable human development (Milner Bolotin, 2018).
In Nigeria, the different curricula in physics were streamlined to achieve particular purposes because each of the curricula was designed to meet different goals and objectives (Ogodo, 2019). These different goals and objectives all work towards achieving the philosophy of education as recorded in the National Policy on Education. As highlighted in the NPE objectives are a total integration of the individual into the immediate community, the Nigerian society and the world; the provision of equal access to qualitative educational opportunities for all citizens at all levels of education, within and outside the formal school system; the inculcation of national consciousness, values and national unity; and the development of appropriate skills, mental, physical and social abilities and competencies to empower the individual to live in and contribute positively to society (NPE, 2013; Ogodo, 2019).
The senior secondary school physics curriculum is also designed to achieve the goals and objectives of the philosophy of education in Nigeria. The curriculum is designed under six themes as compared to the old curriculum that was designed under five themes (See Table 1). According to Bada et al. (2018), the inclusion of the new theme “Physics in Technology” was to reduce the “abstract nature of some topics in physics, thereby making the knowledge of physics real and concrete” (p. 14). This is because of the importance the study of physics has to the realization of the nation’s philosophy of education. The Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council identified four objectives of the senior secondary school physics curriculum (NPE, 2013). These comprise
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providing fundamental physics literacy of physics for functional living in society, acquiring fundamental concepts and physics principles as preparation for additional studies, acquiring important scientific skills and convictions as preparation for applying physics principles technologically, and stimulating and encouraging creativity.
Table 1: Difference between former and current physics curricula
Theme Former Curriculum Current Curriculum
Theme 1 Interaction of matter, space and time Interaction of matter, space and time
Theme 2 Conservation principles Conservation principles
Theme 3 Waves Waves
Theme 4 Fields Fields at rest and in motion
Theme 5 Quanta Energy quantization and duality of matter
Theme 6 Physics in technology
In order to achieve the earlier objectives, the Nigeria government has tasked a number of examination bodies with the assessment of students or candidates on their attainment of the objectives. Prominent among these examination bodies are the West African Examinations Council (WAEC), the National Examination Council (NECO), the National Board for Technical Education (NABTEB), and the Joint University Preliminary Examinations Board (JUPEB). All these examination bodies have their various syllabi which serve as a guide for students before writing the examination. These syllabi contain the different topics that are more specific to the examination bodies even though the topics that make up the syllabus are drawn from the curriculum.
A syllabus refers to the subject and topics to be covered in the course of study. According to Okai (2010), a syllabus refers to an outline of topics that students are required to study within an estimated time frame. This suggests that the syllabus is more specific regarding the content and topics to be learnt, thereby reducing the ambiguity that comes with the curriculum. The syllabus is a more focussed document outlining the topics to be dealt with during a programme (Dubicki, 2019; Khan & Krell, 2019). This means the various examinations have their specific syllabi that guide the students or learners on specific areas on which to focus Dubicki (2019) posited that a syllabus ensures a fair understanding between the students and the teachers, thus reducing to the barest minimum the confusion on policy relating to the course. This buttresses the importance of the syllabus of examination bodies to the realization of set objectives. This further justifies knowing the content that makes up the different curricula, especially as they relate to university physics education programmes in Nigerian universities.
Prominent among these syllabi are the senior secondary school physics curriculum (West African Examinations Council and the National Examination Council), the joint university preliminary examination board curriculum, and
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the university physics education curriculum. The senior secondary school physics curriculum is designed to expose secondary school students to the basic literacy in physics for functional living in society. In addition, it is also meant to prepare learners to acquire basic concepts and principles of physics as preparation for further studies (FRN, 2013). The senior secondary school physics curriculum has its contents arranged in a thematic approach and it is structured on the two concepts of motion and energy. The content of the secondary school physics is further broken down into six themes, namely interaction of matter, space and time, conservation principles, waves, fields at rest and in motion, energy quantization and the duality of matter and physics in technology. Students are expected to have good mastery of all the topics under each theme and are examined across topics. This curriculum represents the standard for the teaching of senior secondary school physics and guide syllabus and instruction among examination bodies and schools (Rocha, 2020).
This study employed qualitative research of a case study. The cases were the WAEC syllabus (ordinary level physics syllabus), the JUPEB (advanced level physics syllabus) and the physics component of the university physics education programme as spelt out in the NUC Benchmark Minimum Academic Standard (BMAS). Content analysis was conducted on these three documents. Content analysis was employed in the examination of the content of West African Examinations Council, Joint University Preliminaries Examination Board (JUPEB) syllabus and the physics content of the university physics education programme. This was done by organising, analysing, representing and presenting data with reference to the research questions. The method adopted was to group the content of the syllabi and physics courses into topics and subtopics for easy correspondence. The topics and subtopics in the syllabus in each case were identified, as well as the number of items in the subtopics and the percentage distribution of each item The WAEC, JUPEB and BMAS are public documents available to the public and can be found on various websites (https://www.waecdirect.org,https://jupeb.edu.ng, https://www.nuc.edu.ng). There is no ethical violation in accessing, assessing and presenting data in this manuscript.
The WAEC is an examining body that was established in 1952 by the British government to conduct a uniform examination among the anglophone countries of Gambia, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Liberia. WAEC conducts two examinations, namely the General Certificate Examinations (GCE) and the West African Senior Schools Certificate Examinations (WASSCE) each year (Upahi et al., 2015). The GCE is usually conducted for external students who are not identified with any secondary school before writing the examination while the West African examination is usually conducted for internal students currently in identified senior secondary schools. The West African Examination Council has its own physics syllabus which students are expected to use as a guide in preparing for writing the examination. To date the examination body appears to be the most widely accepted examination for senior secondary school students in the country and it is also highly rated among the examination bodies on the
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continent of Africa. The body organizes both ordinary and advance levels of examination in the country. Physics students who register and sit for the WASSCE must have satisfied a minimum of three years secondary school education on the syllabus of the Council. This is because the syllabus spans three years of learning activities which culminate in the writing of the examination (WAEC, 2020).
The JUPEB is an examination body established in April 2014, and pioneered by ten universities in Nigeria. The approval for the examining body was giving by the Federal Government of Nigeria in December 2013. It has the responsibility of conducting standard examinations to student candidates who have been exposed to approved courses with a duration period of one year or more. The JUPEB programme prepares students for diploma programmes or direct entry admission seekers in the 200 level in the university without having to write the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Board (UTME) examinations. The examining body operates a syllabus that is a subset of the physics curriculum as approved by the Federal Republic of Nigeria government (JUPEB, 2020).
The National Universities Commission (NUC) dictates the courses for all programmes of study in the universities in Nigeria, including science education programmes. These programmes (science education) are tasked with the responsibility of producing professionally qualified teachers of science in the post basic (senior secondary) level of education. Accreditation of programmes being untaken in each university is carried out solely by the National Universities Commission (NUC). Among other responsibilities, the NUC accredits, supervises and monitors programmes that are being studied in these universities. As a guide, the NUC issues BMASs to universities in Nigeria which are occasionally reviewed. The BMAS mandates the compliance of the minimum academic courses for prospective students in various disciplines in Nigerian universities. The BMAS contains courses which are compulsory (C), required (R) and elective (E) for the various programmes of study. For a student to graduate from the university, the compulsory and required courses are mandatory for students to pass within the maximum academic years (mostly six). Elective courses are optional and vary from student to student. Although, the compulsory courses are a core of the student’s discipline, the ‘required’ vary with regard to each department. Elective courses are candidate specific in term of preferences (NUC BMAS, 2007).
This study sought to analyse the content of the WAEC syllabus, the JUPEB) syllabus and the university physics education programmes in Nigeria. Specially, this study has the following objectives: to analyse the content distribution of the physics topics in the WAEC syllabus; to analyse the content distribution of the physics topics in the JUPEB syllabus; and to analyse the content distribution of the physics courses in the physics education programme. In line with the objectives, the following questions were asked: (1) What is the content distribution of the topics in the JUPEB syllabus? (2) What is the content
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distribution of the topics in the WAEC syllabus? (3) What is the content distribution of the topics in the physics education program syllabus?
This section presents data analysis which provides answers to the research questions raised in this study. Content analyses of the WAEC syllabus, JUPEB syllabus and the physics content of the physics education programme are presented respectively.
Research Question One: What is the content distribution of the topics in the WAEC Syllabus?
Table 2: Content distribution of the WAEC syllabus
S/N Topic
Frequency of items in subtopics
Percentage distribution (%)
1 Concepts of matter 6 3.6 2 Fundamental and derived quantities and units 2 1.2 3 Position, distance and displacement 4 2.4 4 Mass and weight 2 1.2 5 Time 2 1.2 6 Fluid at rest 3 1.8 7 Motion 7 4.2 8 Speed and velocity 4 2.4 9 Rectilinear acceleration 4 2.4 10 Scalars and vectors 6 3.6 11 Equilibrium of forces 3 1.8 12 Simple harmonic motion 5 3.0 13 Newton’s laws of motion 3 1.8 14 Energy 3 1.8 15 Work, energy and power 7 4.2 16 Heat energy 11 6.7 17 Production and propagation of waves 4 2.4 18 Types of waves 2 1.2 19 Properties of waves 6 3.6 20 Light waves 8 4.8 21 Electromagnetic waves 1 0.6 22 Sound waves 9 5.5 23 Description property of fields 2 1.2 24 Gravitational field 3 1.8 25 Electric field 11 6.7 26 Current electricity 8 4.8 27 Magnetic field 8 4.8 28 Electromagnetic field 6 3.6 29 Simple A.C. circuit 7 4.2 30 Structure of the atom 5 3.0 31 Structure of the nucleus 3 1.8 32 Wave particle paradox 10 6.1
Total 165 100.0
Table 2 reveals the content distribution of the topics and subtopics in the WAEC syllabus. There are 32 main topics in the syllabus with a total of 165 subtopics. The percentage distribution of the topics is as follows: Concepts of matter 3.6%; Fundamental and derived quantities and units 1.2%; Position, distance and displacement 2.4%; Mass and weight 1.2%; Time 1.2%; Fluid at rest 1.8%; Motion 4.2%; Speed and velocity 2.4%; Rectilinear acceleration 2.4%; Scalars and vectors 3.6%; Equilibrium of forces 1.8%; Simple harmonic motion 3.0%; Newton’s laws of motion 1.8%; Energy 1.8%; Work, energy and power 4.2%; Heat energy 6.7%; Production and propagation of waves 2.4%; Types of waves 1.2%; Properties of waves 3.6%; Light waves 4.8%; Electromagnetic waves 0.6%, Sound Waves 5.5%; Description property of fields 1.2%; Gravitational field 1.8%; Electric field 6.7%; Current electricity 4.8%; Magnetic field 4.8%; Electromagnetic field 3,6%; Simple AC circuit 4.2%; Structure of the atom 3.0%; Structure of the nucleus 1.8%; and Wave particle paradox 6.1%. Based on the data in Table 1, it can be concluded that Heat energy and Electric field with 11 sub topics which each account for 6.7% of the entire subtopic distribution have a wider distribution in the WAEC syllabus.
Research Question Two: What is the content distribution of the topics in the JUPEB syllabus?
Table 3: Content distribution of the JUPEB syllabus
S/N Topic
Number of items in subtopics
Percentage distribution (%)
1 Units 7 2.6 2 Vectors 6 2.2 3 Particle kinematics 8 3.0 4 Dynamics 12 4.4 5 The gravitational field 5 1.8 6 Work, energy, power 7 2.6 7 Circular and oscillatory motion 14 5.2 8 Elasticity 5 5.5 9 Hydrostatic 10 3.7 10 Hydrodynamics 11 4.1 11 Idea gases 7 2.6 12 Temperature and thermometry 5 1.8 13 Heat and energy 7 2.6 14 Thermodynamics 4 1.5 15 Electromagnetic waves 2 0.7 16 Geometrical optics 8 3.0 17 Lenses and optical instruments 8 3.0 18 Oscillations and waves 9 3.3 19 Wave theory of light 8 3.0 20 Sound waves 8 3.0 21 Electronics 10 3.7 22 Capacitors 6 2.2 23 Current electricity 14 5.2 24 Magnetic field 3 11 25 Force on conductor and moving charge 7 2.6
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26
Electromagnetic induction 10 3.7
27 Alternating current (AC) circuit 10 3.7
28 Atomic structure 9 3.3 29 Elements of modern physics 9 3.3 30 X rays 7 2.6 31 Wave particle duality 6 2.2 32 Radioactivity and nuclear energy 9 3.3 33 Introduction to semiconductors 7 2.6 34 Applied physics 3 1.1
Total 271 100.0
Table 3 reveals the content distribution of topics in the JUPEB syllabus. Table 2 shows that there are 34 main topics and 271 subtopics in the JUPEB syllabus. The percentage distribution of the topics is as follows: Units 2.6%; Vectors 2.2%; Particle kinematics 3.0%; Dynamics 4.4%; The gravitational field 1.8%; Work, energy, and power 2.6%; Circular and oscillatory motions 5.2%; Elasticity 5.5%; Hydrostatics 3.7%; Hydrodynamics 4.1%; Ideal gases 2.6%; Temperature and thermometry 1.8%; Heat and energy 2.6%; Thermodynamics 1.5%; Electromagnetic waves 0.7%; Geometrical optics 3.0%; Lenses and optical instruments 3.0%; Oscillations and waves 3.3%; Wave theory of light 3.0%; Sound waves 3.0%; Electronics 3.7%; Capacitors 2.2%; Current electricity 5.2%; Magnetic field 1.1%; Force on conductor and moving charge 2.6%; Electromagnetic induction 3.7%; Alternating current (AC) circuit 3.7%; Atomic structure 3.3%; Elements of modern physics 3.3%; X rays 2.6%; Wave particle duality 2.2%; Radioactivity and nuclear energy 3.3%; Introduction to semiconductors 2.6%; and Applied physics 1.1%. Based on Table 2, it can be concluded that the topic Elasticity with 15 subtopics has wider scope in the JUPEB syllabus.
Research Question Three: What is the content distribution of the topics in the university physics education courses?
Table 4: Content distribution of the topics in the physics education syllabus
S/N Topic
Frequency of items Percentage distribution (%)
1 Mechanics and properties of matter 15 5.0 2 Heat, sound and optics 18 6.0 3 Atomic and nuclear physics 14 4.7 4 Electricity and magnetism 15 5.0 5 Practical physics I 12 4.0 6 Practical physics II 5 1.7 7 Mechanics and properties of matter II 8 2.7 8 Vibration and waves 9 3.0 9 Heat, atomic and nuclear physics 14 4.7 10 Electricity and magnetism II 11 3.7 11 Practical physics III 9 3.0 12 Practical physics V 1 0.3 13 Practical physics VI 10 3.3 14 Waves and optics 15 5.0
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15
Thermodynamics and statistical physics 11 3.7
16 Quantum physics 11 3.7
17
Electromagnetic theory I 17 5.7
18 Electronics I 8 2.7
19 Practical physics and treatment of data I 7 2.3 20 Measurement method 8 2.7
21 Solid state physics I 10 3.3 22 Solid state physics II 6 2.0 23 Nuclear and particle physics 14 4.7 24 Communications 17 5.7 25 Electromagnetic theory II 14 4.7 26 Digital electronics 8 2.7 27 Physics of the lower atmosphere 12 4.0 Total 299 100.0
Table 4 reveals that there are 27 physics courses in the syllabus with a total of 299 subtopics. The percentage distribution of the topics is as follows: Mechanics and properties of matter 5.0%; Heat, sound and optics 6.0%; Atomic and nuclear physics 4.7%; Electricity and magnetism 5.0%; Practical physics I 4.0%; Practical physics II 1.7%; Mechanics and properties of matter II 2.7%; Vibration and waves 3.0%; Heat, atomic and nuclear physics 4.7%; Electricity and magnetism II 3.7%; Practical physics III 3.0%; Practical physics V 0.3%; Practical physics VI 3.3%; Waves and optics 5.0%; Thermodynamics and statistical physics 3.7%; Quantum physics 3.7%; Electromagnetic theory I 5.7%; Electronics I 2.7%; Practical physics and treatment of data I 2.3%; Measurement method 2.7%; Solid state physics I 3.3%; Solid state physics II 2.0%; Nuclear and particle physics 4.7%; Communications 5.7%; Electromagnetic theory II 4.7%; Digital electronics 2.7%; and Physics of the lower atmosphere. Furthermore, the data in Table 3 indicated Heat, sound and optics to have 18 subtopics which accounts for 6.0% of the entire subtopic distribution in the physics education syllabus.
The findings from this study revealed the content distributions of the topics/sub topics in the WAEC, the JUPEB and the university physics education programme syllabi. The results in Table 2 showed that the heat energy and electric field had the highest number of occurrences in the WAEC syllabus. Table 3 revealed that circular and oscillatory motion and current electricity had the highest number of occurrences in the JUPEB syllabus while Table 4 showed that topics such as heat, sound and optics, electromagnetic theory, communication, mechanics and properties of matter, waves and optics, electricity and magnetism topped occurred most frequently in the university physics education programme. A critical review of the three syllabi revealed that the topics that make up the theme ‘Physics in technology’ have not been integrated into any of the syllabi despite its inclusion in the last review of the senior secondary school physics curriculum in 2009. This poses a significant question regarding its teaching, even at the senior secondary school level of education. It appears that there is a misalignment between the physics curriculum and the topics in the three physics syllabi of the WAEC, JUBEB and UPEP. The disparity in the number of topics and subtopics among the three syllabi also confirms
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misalignment in the three official documents. This finding is significant as it reveals a disconnect between the official physics curriculum and the three physics related syllabi as its topics and subtopics do not completely reflect what the physics curriculum prescribes This finding contributes to scholarship as it reveals the gap in theory and practice, as the official curriculum did not totally capture all the topics or subtopics as it ought to. The study also proffers a justifiable template that can be used in the moderation of textbooks and other resources in order to bridge the gap between the present and future additions to the curriculum.
As mentioned in the analysis, the profiling of the topics and subtopics has been brought to the fore in this study. Similarly, this profiling of content establishes a template for easy moderation and representation owing to the sixth theme in the senior secondary school physics curriculum (physics in technology) which so far, has no representation in either the syllabi of Advanced JUPEB or Ordinary WAEC levels. As indicated in previous paragraphs, there are two topics in the sixth theme, namely Renewable energy and Automation. These two topics have consequent subtopics which must also be represented in the various syllabi. While the purview of this study is not to moderate or determine the worthiness in terms of representation, this study is a reference material that establishes a framework or template for policy makers and curriculum experts. By extension, the WAEC and the JUPEB syllabi, as well as the physics content of the physics education programme have all been laid bare. Worthy of note is the fact that these topics are well established as courses in the BMAS. Therefore, a shift is needed to change the status of these courses from elective (E) to required (R) to prepare and give capacity to teachers in training for the task of teaching these aspects, among others. Based on the aforementioned, this study should guide the introduction of the sixth theme into the syllabi of ordinary and advanced level topics as well as guiding its introduction into the physics education content of the university physics education programme.
Based on the findings of this study, the present curriculum was reviewed in 2009 and is due for re evaluation with regard to emerging areas in physics education. A misalignment exists in the syllabus when compared to the curriculum content. The sixth theme (Physics in technology) is yet to gain prominence in various textbooks after 13 years. Therefore, efforts need to be directed on its integration into textbooks, as well as the classroom teaching. It is worth noting that the sixth theme is practically oriented and must engage the curiosity of learners. To this end, it is necessary to build the capacity of teachers, instructors and laboratory personnel to engage students. Researchers are encouraged to devise practical manuals in this area to foster hands on and activity based approaches to its teaching as recommended in the curriculum. Further studies should be conducted on discrepancies in terms of content of the documents reviewed in this study
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 104 121, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.7
Received Mar 29, 2022; Revised Jun 12, 2022; Accepted Jun 19, 2022
Hilman Qudratuddarsi
Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Riyan Hidayat*
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia
Raja Lailatul Zuraida binti Raja Maamor Shah
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia
Nurihan Nasir
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia
Muh Khairul Wajedi Imami
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia
Rusdi bin Mat Nor
Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract. The impact of the Covid 19 pandemic has had a far reaching effect on higher education institutions, and individual student assessments have garnered much attention during the pandemic. This study aimed to validate Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) application instruments using the Rasch analysis employing Winsteps version 3.73. A survey was conducted with 201 respondentsfromtwoprovincesinIndonesia.Thestudents wereselected by convenience sampling and answered the adopted STEM application instrument. The STEM application instruments were adapted, and these were divided into seven sub constructs derived from STEM disciplines. Rasch Modelling wasemployed for data analysisusing Winsteps version 3.7.3 to analyse reliability, separation, item fit statistics, unidimensionality, and rating scale calibration. Each sub construct
* Corresponding author: RiyanHidayat,riyanhidayat@fsmt.upsi.edu.my
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
fulfilled a minimum of 0.65 for Cronbach alpha, item, and person reliability, and most of them had more than 1.5 person and item separation. In general, each item had a good score of the mean square, Z tolerated standard, and point measure correlation, indicating fulfilment of the Rasch measurement model. The analysis also showed unidimensionality assumption and an excellent rating scale. This study contributed to the body of STEM knowledge by using Rasch Modelling to test the validity and reliability of STEM application instruments.
Keywords: COVID 19 pandemic; Gen Z; STEM education; higher education; Rasch model
A systemic review has shown that Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education research is growing in importance on a global scale, and the identity of STEM education publications is obvious in the realms of politics, economics, and education (Li et al., 2020a). The importance of STEM is also evident in the substantial amount of funding for STEM education research, whichhas required research collaboration (Carlisle & Weaver, 2018; Li et al., 2020). Li et al. (2020b) found that the number of projects with several principal investigators has risen over time, and STEM education projects have become increasingly collaborative. In Indonesia, as is worldwide, implementation of STEM education is a hot topic among educational researchers. The trend assumes that STEM education is crucial in educatingfuture scientists and engineers to meet the rapid development of technology (Geng et al., 2019). Similarly, STEM education is rapidly being adopted by educational research to increase employment and career opportunities, community STEM literacy (Zouda, 2018), and to acquire key skills and abilities that will be beneficial personally and professionally (Garry et al., 2020). Salzman and Benderly (2019), for example, point out that STEM education produces a large number of students who can fill STEM job openings.
People who were born after 1995, known as Generation Z (Gen Z), were the first to be born into a globally (internet) connected world. Their birth aligns with the beginning of the worldwide web's appearance (Chicca & Shellenbarger, 2018), and the beginning of the digital and internet era. As digital natives, they live and breathe technology, they are quick decision makers and are highly connected (Cilliers, 2017). Owing to their intense interaction with technology, Gen Z go by many other appellations: post millennial, the Facebook generation, switcher, dotcom children, net generation, connection generation, digital generation, and responsibility generation (Csobanka, 2016). Other terms include the N generation (for net), the D generation (for digital), the V generation (for viral), and the Google generation (Poláková & Klmová, 2019). Generation Z adults differ from other generations in that they are more connected to the digital and electronic world, which they identify as digital and technology centric (Sing & Dangmei, 2016). Technology has been integrated into their daily lives and tends to influence their thinking patterns (Polakova & Klimova, 2019). Generation Z has mostly been educated using technology in their daily lives and academic endeavours (Talmon, 2019), and their learning characteristics are unsuitable for traditional methods of
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teaching (Szymkowiak et al., 2021). The challenges of building a STEM education for Gen Z have been explored, but to date, the role of Gen Z as teachers is not as comprehensively discussed in the literature as is that of their closest predecessors (millennial teachers).
Given their under representation in STEM fields, it is apparent that persuading Gen Z to choose STEM careers is a major task. This under representation is true of most of Indonesia's population. Salzman and Benderly (2019) found that the STEM workforce constitutes a tiny percentage of the overall student population, accounting for around only 5% of K 12 students and 8% to 10% of the annual supply of university graduates. In Australia, for instance, Timms et al. (2018) found that elementary and high school pupils' interest in STEM subjects is waning, as is their performance. The same is happening in the Malaysian context. Using a longitudinal study, Mohd Shahali et al. (2019) showed that secondary school students' (13 14 years old) interests did not improve significantly after the programme (Bitara STEM: Science of Smart Communities Program; Bitara STEM) was conducted. Senior high schools in Indonesia revealed diverse beliefs and interests (Suwono et al., 2019): male students were more interested in engineering than female students were in biology. Mohd Shahali et al. (2019) emphasised that the quality of instruction and learning students received in the course was a contributing factor to their lack of interest in STEM education, making it critical to investigate and create an instrument for instructors to evaluate STEM teaching.
The implementation of STEM education during the COVID-19 pandemic presented new challenges According to Bakker et al. (2021), during a pandemic it is critical to research learning and teaching of mathematics in a variety of situations, including professional development, new goals, curriculum, assessment, and teachingmethods. Individual student assessments have garnered much attention, but the review of the curriculum has been neglected. In STEM settings, unfavourable environmental circumstances, time management concerns, and a lack of expertise and experience in lesson planning were among the difficulties instructors encountered (Aykan & Yıldırım, 2022) during the pandemic
Given the importance of teaching quality and its influence on students' interests, understanding how to use the most appropriate valid instrument for the Gen Z generation is important. We used the instrument proposed by Wahono and Chang (2019b), with its seven sub domains, to assess teachers' use of STEM instruction during the COVID 19 pandemic. This instrument used a limited sample (secondary school science teachers) and tested only the exploratory factor analysis (EFA). A large number of samples and advanced analysis were utilised to ensure the quality of the instrument and fit to sample, which are crucial. Many researchers have provided proof of the reliability and validity issues as they commonly adopt measurements from one cultural setting in another (Hidayat et l., 2018; Hidayat et al., 2021). Most prior studies, on the other hand, have focused on using the EFA and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to explore data on validity and reliability issues across a variety of cultural backgrounds. According
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to Clarke (2013), the variety of cultural foundations is becoming increasingly obvious.
This study aimed to validate STEM application instruments using the Rasch analysis. The Rasch analysis compensates for several of the shortcomings in previous studies of STEM application instruments (Wahono & Chang, 2019b), and it gives a more accurate model of the data than results based on means of coded items. For example, Wahono and Chang (2019b) only employed EFA to establish the validity of the scale and a reliability test. Rasch Analyses are anticipated to be at least as accurate as EFA, based on polychoric correlations. Rasch analysis will contribute to the pool of information in terms of validating teachers' applications toward STEM for Gen Z in Indonesian classrooms during the COVID 19 pandemic. Using Rasch Analysis modelling will enhance the validity and reliability of the instrument, which is specifically analysed for its reliability, separation, item fit statistics, unidimensionality, and rating scale calibration. Some scholars argue that the Rasch model is used to determine and confirm deviant answers, such as person fit statistics and item fit statistics (Widhiarso & Sumintono, 2016), person answers and quality of tool (Bond & Fox, 2015), but concentrates only on item fit statistics (Widhiarso & Sumintono, 2016). Since the current instrument employs the Likert scale, it is important to transform the data to a ratio or interval scale to get a more reliable instrument. Alnahdi (2018) indicated that the transformation from raw numbers to interval values is easy to comprehend because each modification in one component has comparable weight across the scale.
The current study aimedto answer the following research question: Is the adopted STEM application instrument using the Rasch model valid and reliable in the Indonesian context? The present work contributes to the body of knowledge by applying Rasch Analysis modelling to test this instrument for Indonesians, in particular Gen Z.
Several concepts of integrated Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education have been offered, but no clear consensus has emerged. The term ‘STEM’ originated from the National Science Foundation in the late 1990s in the United States and is a broad term that encompasses both informal and formal education from pre school to higher education (Shanahan et al., 2016). Several researchers have defined STEM as an interdisciplinary, applied strategy focused on real world scenarios (Gomez & Albrecht, 2013; Peters Burton et al., 2014). According to Sanders (2009), STEM refers to approaches that examine teaching and learning across or among any two or more of the STEM content areas and/or between a STEM topic and one or more other school subjects. Another scholar agreed with the concepts, but integrated STEM education is not limited to a combination of these fields as it can involve numerous classes (Stohlmann et al., 2012). Kelley and Knowles (2016) admit that integrated STEM education refers not only to a method of instructing students on the STEM topics of two or more STEM disciplines, but it is also a way of implementing authentic settings to improve
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student learning. In conclusion, STEM education is a method that examines teaching and learning in interdisciplinary STEM content areas (Kelley & Knowles, 2016), or involves numerous classes (Stohlmann et al., 2012) and focuses on real world scenarios (Gomez & Albrecht, 2013; Kelley & Knowles, 2016; Peters Burton et al., 2014) to improve students' understanding (Kelley & Knowles, 2016). The fundamental aims of STEM education are to increase students' scientific literacy and encourage them to seek scientific and technical vocations such as scientists, engineers, and mathematicians.
The definition of STEM education also depends on the level of discipline integration. English (2016) summarised discipline integration as multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approaches. From a multidisciplinary perspective, each field teaches concepts and abilities in its own way, yet they all have a fundamental theme. The concept of STEM integration proposed by Sanders (2009) seems to be similar to the multidisciplinary perspective, which focuses only on the combination of each STEM field. The goal of the interdisciplinary perspective is slightly different: to increase knowledge and abilities by learning closely related concepts and skills from two or more fields. This idea is in line with the definition of STEM combination suggested by Kelley and Knowles (2016), which focuses on enhancing student learning. Finally, the transdisciplinary perspective refers to the application of knowledge and abilities from two or more disciplines to real world issues and projects that aid in shaping the learning experience. The STEM Task Force Report (2014) defined STEM integration from a transdisciplinary perspective; according to this report, STEM education is more than just a simple combination of the four domains; it includes actual, real world, problem based learning that connects the disciplines through coherent and proactive teaching and learning strategies. The interdisciplinary character of STEM is defined as a holistic strategy that integrates the separate disciplines so that learning becomes integrated, centred, purposeful, and relevant to learners. In other words, it is a continuous, dynamic, student centred teaching and learning process. Despite these various perspectives, the key to equipping STEM teachers is to start with a conceptual knowledge of integrated STEM education by teaching essential learning frameworks, pedagogical techniques, and increasing awareness of current secondary STEM educational projects' research outcomes (Kelley & Knowles, 2016).
The idea of STEM has been extended to include the term ‘art’: Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics (STEAM) (Kim & Kim, 2016; Yakman & Lee, 2012). In a systematic review conducted by Perignat and Katz Buonincontro (2019), STEAM education is described as an approach to engage students in STEM learning, promote students' creativity, or improve problem solving abilities in real world contexts. The two main aims of STEAM are, first, to raise interest in STEM topics and improve the skills needed for STEM professions, and to engage minority and female students in STEM courses; and second, to integrate domain general abilities (e.g., skills in problem solving and creativity) and encourage learners to experiment with and learn about new ways of thinking.
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As with STEM learning, researchers distinguish between five techniques for combining STEAM disciplines: multi disciplinary, interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, cross disciplinary, and arts integration (Perignat & Katz Buonincontro, 2019). Meeth (1978) has defined STEAM as a transdisciplinary approach to teaching and learning, and research has shown that STEAM activities help students learn in both cognitive and affective ways (Kang, 2019), enhancing their creativity (Wandari et al., 2018), engagement (Togou et al., 2020), and conceptual understanding, and minimising misconceptions (Ozkan & Umdu Topsakal, 2020). Hsiao and Su (2021) have revealed that combining STEAM education with Virtual Reality assisted experience courses can assist learners in enhancing both their learning satisfaction and outcomes while also increasing their motivation to learn
Science, Technology, Reading, Engineering,Art, and Mathematics (STREAM) was created to enhance 21st century abilities by leading to the development of metacognitive abilities (Padhmasari, 2016). STREAM education necessitates a student centred approach: students might think about an issue, find appropriate techniques, and decide on a plan of action to solve a problem or complete a task. Students are required to develop, design, and solve issues (Badmus & Omosewo, 2018) However, STREAM education has been extended to different contexts, for example, incorporating STREAM into English Language Learners' (ELL) education can help ELL students grow and engage in STEM courses (Maarouf, 2019). Teachers have a comprehensive perspective and are enthusiastic about STREAM education (Nuangchalerm et., 2020). The importance of this study lies in the use of theory to establish the validity and reliability of skills measuring Gen Z STEM applications during their teaching experiences. In previous studies (Parmin et al., 2020; Wahono & Chang, 2019a, 2019b), the selected instrument was validated using Classical Test Theory (CTT) by referring to reliability and EFA results. However, this study aimed to apply the Rasch measurement model to contribute to the body of knowledge. In many fields, previous researchers (i.e., Gocen & Sen, 2021; Hidayat et al., 2021; Jin et al., 2020; Sen & Gocen, 2021) have shown that applying CTT and Rasch models are appropriate strategies forfinding well validated instruments. The Rasch model can supplement CTT by providing more detailed analysis than just the relationship between an item and a latent factor (DiStefano et al., 2019; Rahayu et al., 2020; Rahayu et al., 2021). Figure 1 provides the conceptual framework for the current work employing Rasch analysis.
Application of Science Technology (SAp ST)
Application of Science Engineering (SAp SE)
Application of Science Math (SAp SM)
Application of Science Technology Math (SAp STM)
Application of Science Engineering Math (SAp SEM)
Application of Science Technology Engineering Math (SAp STEM)
Figure 1: Conceptual framework
This study is a survey study (Creswell, 2014) for collecting data related to the Gen Z application of integrating STEM fields. The survey method can be conducted on a large sample, and the results can be generalised to the population (Chua, 2020). The population in this research was the Indonesian Gen Z generation. The survey was created to evaluate Gen Z applications for integrating STEM fields because the study has the potential to enlighten, explain, and help us understand (Cole et al., 2019) a variety of applications for integrating STEM. The current work used the survey method to examine the reliability and validity of the application of STEM by Gen Z. A convenience sampling strategy (Creswell, 2012) was used for its accessibility and availability (Anderson & Mittal, 2000), and respondents were asked to take an online survey. The researcher elected to use a convenience sampling strategy for its easy access to Gen Z who have had experience teaching science during the COVID 19 pandemic. Using Google Form enabled data to be collected during the online class. A WhatsApp group was used to gather data, and all users were requested to reply to an online survey.
The respondents in the current work are Gen Z who have had the experience of teaching science during the COVID 19 pandemic. A person who was born in the years between 1995 and 2012 is regarded a technology user and uses technology to study, socialize, go shopping, and do many more things than the previous generation (Aziz et al., 2021). The population in this work consisted of 748 respondents, while the sample of current work comprised 201 respondents from two provinces in Indonesia (see Table 1). The respondents were included in the following areas of specialization: Science (18.41%), Chemistry (44.28%), Physics (23.38%) and Biology (13.93%). The majority of the students (66.67% of the overall sample) were female, while 33.3% of the students were male. Of the total number, 25.37% and 74.62% were teachers and student teachers, respectively Although the sample size was rather small in the present work, Chen et al. (2014) have indicated that a sample size of more than 100 is adequate for Rasch analysis.
Samples N (%)
Area of specialization 201 (100%) Science 37 (18.41%) Chemistry 89 (44.28%) Physics 4 (23.38%) Biology 28 (13.93%)
Gender 201 (100%) Male 67 (33.3%) Female 134 (66.67%)
Source of experience 201 (100%) Teacher 51 (25.37%) Student teacher 150 (74.62%)
The application of STEM by Gen Z in their science teaching was evaluated using a locally developed instrument by Wahono and Chang (2019b) which has been
applied in some studies, (i.e., Parmin et al., 2020; Wahono & Chang, 2019a). The instrument can be divided into seven sub domains as the derivation of STEM disciplines. There were two disciplines (SAp ST, SAp SE, SAp SM), three disciplines (SAp STE, SAp STM, SAp SEM), and four disciplines (SAp STEM), where SAp, T, E, and M refer to Science Application, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. The STEM application scale consisted of 26 items rated on a 5 point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
A consent letter was supplied before the online surveys were completed. In the first section, we obtained biographical information from participants, such as area of specialization, gender, and experience. In the second part, we examined the variables relevant to the research question. However, before the online surveys on STEM application instrument were conducted among Gen Z generation, the current work employed back translation to validate the accuracy of the initial questionnaire's interpretation.
After the data was collected, they were tabulated using Microsoft Excel to prepare for data analysis using Winsteps (Linacre, 2017, 2018) version 3.7.3 to analyse reliability, separation, item fit statistics, unidimensionality test, and rating scale calibration. The data analysis was performed separately for each sub construct of the STEM application, based on the Rasch analysis. The core concept behind Georg Rasch's model is that an individual with more ability has a higher likelihood of answering any question of the kind in question, and that if one survey instrument being more challenging than the other indicates that an individual has a higher probability of answering the second test item (Rasch, 1960a). Rasch's analysis is probabilistic in nature and is based on logits (Rasch, 1960b), which enables the creation of a linear measure from ordinal observations (Linacre, 1999). The Rasch study started with an assessment of how well objects and respondents fit together (Abbitt & Boone, 2021). Rasch analysis is a powerful tool for examining the psychometric features of measurements and adjusting for response bias (Bradley et al., 2015). By employing the Rasch model, which falls under item response theory (IRT), we examined an instrument with fewer domains while keeping the psychometric features of the original measure. As a result, measurement accuracy and effectiveness increased. Data may be transformed using Rasch analysis in which the transformation from raw numbers to interval values is easy to read (Alnahdi, 2018). This investigation looked at the rating scale's quality, item quality in terms of identifying STEM application factors, how effectively the items reflect the STEM application range, and item function with regard to the subjects
The STEM application's fit, item difficulty, response scale appropriateness, and person and item separation indices were all examined using Rasch analysis. According to Boone et al. (2014), there are several fit statistics to evaluate to ensure construct validity: (a) the value of accepted Correlation Points (Pt Mean Corr): 0.4 <Pt Measure Right <.085 (b) the value of accepted infit and outfit mean square (MNSQ): 0.5 <MNSQ <1.5. However, items having infit and outfit MNSQ values outside of this range (i.e., 0.6 <MNSQ <1.4) are regarded as misfitting (Aryadoust
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et al., 2020; Linacre, 2020). At the same time, scores greater than 2.0 indicate that the item is either being used inconsistently enough to skew the measurement model or that it is not a component of the structure under investigation (Linacre, 1999). Therefore, in the current work, when the Infit MNSQ score was less than 0.7 or larger than 1.3, and the Z score was less than 2.0 or higher than 2.0, items were deemed unsuitable. Furthermore, the separation and person indices as well as item reliabilities were also investigated in the present work. In Rasch modelling, the individual separation index and item separation index are employed to assess the test's reliability. Person and item reliabilities of greater than 0.7 are regarded as appropriate (see Boone & Noltemeyer, 2017), and the person separation index should be greater than 2.0 (Linacre, 1999). According to Andrich (1982), the reliability of separation is evaluated in the same way as Cronbach's alpha. Furthermore, the STEM application's construct unidimensionality was assessed utilising Rasch based principal component analysis of model residuals (PCA R). The measure was deemed unidimensional in this investigation if the Rasch factor explained more than half of the total variance in STEM application and the eigenvalue of the first contrast/first secondary factor was less than 2.0 (see Bravini et al., 2016; Chang et al., 2016). To assess the item difficulty of the STEM application, we employed a Wright map of Rasch analysis, which permits graphical analysis of participants and items on a map depicting the spread of responses.
To answer the research question (Is the adopted STEM application instrument valid and reliable for Indonesian context using Rasch modelling?), we assessed the instrument validity and reliability, unidimensionality, item fit statistics, and Likert rating scale.
When validating a questionnaire based on the Rasch analysis, three types of reported reliability are utilised (Adams et al., 2021). It is a mathematical model based on the linear relationship between an object and a person, which is based on latent features (Scoulas et al., 2021). The reliability of STEM application instruments in the Indonesian context employing Winsteps software for item reliability (0.94), person reliability (0.96) and Cronbach’s alpha (0.97) were adequate (see Table 2). Furthermore, the separation between the item and the person, should be greater than 1.5 to be regarded as appropriate (Suryadi et al., 2021; Tennant & Conaghan, 2007). The separation for item (4.67) and person (3.81) for the STEM application instrument in the Indonesian context was good. The excellent results of reliability and separation indicate great internal consistencies of the STEM application instrument (Iseppi et al., 2021).
Table
Cronbach Item Person Item Person
SAp ST 0.79 0.91 0.70 3.22 1.53 1262.71**
SAp SE 0.71 0.96 0.67 5.10 1.42 950.2**
SAp SM 0.80 0.93 0.75 3.51 1.75 799.57**
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SAp STE 0.86 0.89 0.84 2.84 2.27 734.78**
SAp STM 0.76 0.96 0.71 4.80 1.55 992.49**
SAp SEM 0.82 0.96 0.79 4.67 1.92 935.51**
SAp STEM 0.88 0.89 0.86 2.80 2.50 1114.03**
All 0.94 0.96 0.91 4.84 3.26 9582.18**
The capacity of an instrument to estimate what the researchers aim to explore is measured by its unidimensionality. Here the researchers aimed to explore the STEM application of Gen Z. The minimal raw variance explainedwas greater than 24% (Purnami et al., 2021). The Rasch model indicated unidimensionality via Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and local independence analysis. Nevertheless, the study only reported the PCA. The explained variance of the STEM application instrument for the Indonesian context surpassed the minimum score of 40%, meaning that the instrument was a valid instrument to measure STEM application constructs (see Table 3).
Table 3. Unidimensionality of STEM application instrument Explained Variance By item By person Total
SAp ST 36.3% 17.9% 54.1%
SAp SE 39.6% 19.9% 59.5%
SAp SM 49.5% 12.5% 62.0%
SAp STE 63.4% 8.3% 71.8%
SAp STM 43.7% 18.4% 62.0%
SAp SEM 46.7% 15.9% 62.2%
SAp STEM 57.1% 10.9% 68.0% Entire instrument 23.7% 24.8% 48.5%
The examination of item fit statistics, such as mean square (MNSQ) and correlation points (Pt Mean Corr), provides evidence of construct validity (Table 4). Mean square (MNSQ) indicated the size of the discrepancies (i.e., randomness) while correlation points (Pt Mean Corr) tested the partial correlation of each item with the total measure score, separation statistics and item reliability (Alkhadim et al., 2021). For MNSQ, a value of 0.5 1.5 was accepted, and for Point Measure Right, a score of 0.4 0.85 was accepted. (Boone et al., 2014).
Table 4. Item fit statistics of STEM application instrument
MNSQ ZSTD Point Mea Corr
SAp ST1 0.87 0.88 1.3 1.2 0.81
SAp ST2 0.96 0.96 0.3 0.4 0.80
SAp ST3 1.16 1.22 1.5 1.9 0.71
SAp ST4 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.1 0.77
SAp SE1 1.22 1.32 2.0 2.6 0.70
SAp SE2 0.90 0.90 1.0 1.0 0.84
SAp SE3 0.83 0.83 1.7 1.7 0.84
SAp SM1 1.00 0.99 0.00 0.1 0.84
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SAp SM2 0.96 0.96 0.3 0.4 0.87
SAp SM3 0.99 1.01 0.00 0.1 0.82
SAp STE1 1.17 1.17 1.5 1.5 0.85
SAp STE2 0.80 0.77 2.0 2.1 0.92
SAp STE3 0.98 0.99 0.1 0.00 0.89
SAp STM1 1.04 1.05 0.4 0.5 0.82
SAp STM2 0.82 0.84 1.8 1.6 0.81
SAp STM3 1.10 1.04 0.9 0.4 0.77
SAp SEM1 1.18 1.15 1.7 1.4 0.82
SAp SEM2 0.76 0.75 2.4 2.5 0.89
SAp SEM3 1.05 1.05 0.5 0.5 0.85
SAp STEM1 0.92 0.91 0.8 0.9 0.88
SAp STEM2 1.32 1.28 2.9 2.5 0.83
SAp STEM3 0.78 0.80 2.3 2.0 0.87
SAp STEM4 0.95 0.93 0.5 0.6 0.87
The STEM application instrument had five Likert scales (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree; Wahono & Chang, 2019b) to express Gen Z application when they took their roles as science teachers. This information was evaluated to allow the participants to comprehend and differentiate between the various categories (Adams et al., 2021). This analysis was useful in evaluating the precise number of Likert scale items to use; it is possible to modify the scale into a smaller or larger range (Ishak et al., 2016). To calibrate the scale, the current research pivoted on the Rasch Andrich threshold with a desirable value of 1.40 5.0 logit (Van Zile tamsen, 2019). The result of the analysis for each sub domain is presented in Table 5.
SApST SApSE SApSM SApSTE SApSTM SApSEM SApSTEM Entire instrument
Strongly disagree None None None None None None None None Disagree
3.86 3.54 4.09 6.39 2.38 4.00 5.98 2.03 Neutral 0.66 1.41 2.14 2.25 1.89 1.49 1.53 1.01 Disagree 1.00 1.31 1.22 2.22 0.86 1.61 1.85 0.76
Strongly disagree 3.53 3.64 5.01 6.42 3.42 3.88 5.66 2.28
The goal of this study was to investigate the adopted STEM application instrument (Wahono & Chang, 2019b) in higher educational levels in the Indonesian context using Rasch modelling analysis. Overall, the current study's results indicated that the adopted STEM application instrument is adaptable to different cultural settings. In response to the research question, the current work proved that the adopted STEM application instrument had an acceptable Rasch model characteristic in general. In accordance with the work of Wahono and Chang (2019b), all seven sub domains were unidimensional. The current findings were completely compatible with those of prior works (Parmin et al., 2020;
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Wahono & Chang, 2019a; Wahono & Chang, 2019b), and the current work found that the parallels between the current study and earlier studies on the adopted STEM application instrument stem from the greater education level of populations that demand sophisticated viewpoints Some scholars argue that the Rasch model is used to determine deviant answers, such as person fit statistics and item fit statistics (Widhiarso & Sumintono, 2016), person answers and quality of tool (Bond & Fox, 2015), and concentrates only on item fit statistics (Widhiarso & Sumintono, 2016). Moreover, since the current instrument employed the Likert scale, it was important to transform the data to a ratio or interval scale to get a more reliable instrument. Alnahdi (2018) indicates that the transformation from raw numbers to interval values is easy to comprehend because each modification in one component has comparable weight across the scale.
In the current work, the STEM application's fit, item difficulty, response scale appropriateness, and person and item separation indices were all examined using Rasch analysis. The adopted STEM application instrument for the Indonesian context could be used as a valid and reliable measure. Generally, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) andlocal independence analysis in the Rasch analysis imply unidimensionality. However, the current work reported only the PCA. The discrepancy between an actual and predicted score is known as the PCA residual value (Ishak et al., 2018). The explained variance of the STEM application instrument for the Indonesian context surpassed the minimum score of 40%, meaning that the instrument can be used as a valid instrument for measuring the adopted STEM application constructs. The separation for item and person for the STEM application instrument in the Indonesian context were 4.67 and 3.81, respectively. The great internal consistency of the instrument was demonstrated by the outstanding outputs of reliability and separation, implying that the instrument can effectively divide items and persons into some categories (Iseppi et al., 2021). Again, in this study, some items revealed high ZSTD scores, indicating a significant misfit, which was one type of measure other than MNSQ, point measure correlation, and separation. It may be worthwhile investigating whether deleting these elements improves the measuring qualities of the ZSTD scores in future investigations. However, the fulfilment of other measures suggested the neglect of the high ZSTD score (Alkhadim et al., 2021). In the adopted STEM application constructs, the Rasch modelling results likewise revealed a considerable dispersion of measures over the logit scale in item difficulty level. The study has contributed to a new body of knowledge in terms of validating teachers' applications of STEM for Gen Z in Indonesian classrooms during the COVID 19 pandemic.
A vital contribution of the current research is the validation of STEM applications for the Indonesian Gen Z generation using Rasch analysis. The findings of the current study revealed that each sub construct fulfilled a minimum of 0.65 for Cronbach's alpha, item, and person reliability, and most of them had more than 1.5 for person and item separation. At the same time, each item had a good score of the mean square, Z tolerated standard, and point measure correlation, indicating the fulfilment of the Rasch measurement model. The analysis also
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demonstrated the unidimensionality assumption and an excellent rating scale. This implies that the instrument could be a reference for universities and school principals to assess Gen Z teachers' STEM integration during their teaching.
Although the tools of STEM application are extensively used in Indonesia, and the measure has the potential to be utilised for research and practice in this environment, the current work acknowledges that this study had significant flaws Firstly, a limitation was the number of survey instruments (AKA) towards attitude, knowledge, and application on the STEM scale. However, the current study only involved the domain of application of STEM, including seven sub domains, because the current work focused only on the application of STEM among the Indonesian Gen Z generation. Secondly, because of the COVID 19 pandemic scenario, convenience sampling (a non probability sample) was used in this study, which was based on participant proximity and accessibility. This approach maynotprovide a complete picture of the individuals in the studyareas. Future research should trytocollect datafroma variety of sources Thirdly,female learners outnumbered male students. Because the current study explored the possibility of variability in respondents' replies based on location, this instrument can be used to investigate gender prejudice in rural and urban areas. Future research should explore the evidence from a variety of backgrounds.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 122 137, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.8
Received Mar 18, 2022; Revised Jun 13, 2022; Accepted Jun 28, 2022
Abstract. There has been an ongoing debate about the relationship between student athletes and their academic success. Some believe that student athletes can never excel with their academic studies, especially those who participate to a high level in sports. Hence, the aim of this study istoexamine the levelof sports participationand academic success among Malaysian student athlete. A cross sectional study with open endedquestionswasperformedon836student athleteswhovolunteered to participate in this study (Age, 21.13±1.23 years old; weight, 63.18±7.50 kg; height, 169.34±4.82 cm; BMI, 22.01±2.72 in score index). Data collection was executed through a web based online platform, namely Google Forms, whereas analysis of one way ANOVA was performed to analyze the differences in the level of sport participation towards academic success. Sports participation consists of involvement at the national, state, university, club and college levels, whereas academic success or performance was examined through Cumulative Grade Point Average(CGPA).Asaresult,themeanofCGPAamong respondentswas in category 3 which was between 3.01 3.33 points. Other than that, this study fails to reject the hypothesis (p > .05, F (4, 831) = .64) where there is nostatisticallysignificant difference amongstudent athletesintheir level of sport participation and academic success. It can be concluded that regardless of student athletes’ levels of sport participation, no difference detected in their academic success. As a recommendation, future studies can explore the extent of similarities in the student athlete’s academic success.
Keywords: academic achievement; athlete education; comparison study; learning environment; sport involvement
Students involved in sports and are representatives at any level of participation are called student athletes. ‘Student athlete’ is a term used principally to describe
* Corresponding author: jorrye@upnm.edu.my
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
students that enrolled in higher educational institutions like universities or colleges who participates in an organized andcompetitive sport. A student athlete must fill dual responsibilities; as a student and as an athlete (Gomez et al., 2018) Consequently, they have less free time as they have to attend classes, training sessions and competition. These required energy and determination in order to succeed. Therefore, at some point they are also called as scholar athletes to define students who want to develop a broad, holistic approach to education and committed to be successful high level sport performance (Cross & Fouke, 2019).
On the other hand, the advantages of being a student athlete that competing at the national or international level, they received financial and services support from higher education institutions (Gomez et al., 2018).Therefore, in the context of this present study, student athlete can be defined as full time, registered students who are representatives at any level of sport participation with or without financial support.
Due to dual responsibilities of student athletes, it could be challenging them to balance their time between classroom and training sessions. It is well known that the purpose of higher education is for academic excellence and preparing the next generation of scholars as well as encourages students to build character to become future leaders of the nation. Based on Self Determination Theory (SDT) by Rayn and Deci (2000), the motivation and personality highlighted important part of human for successful. SDT is typically linked to accomplishment and success aids for an individual. Hence, motivation and personality of student athlete need to higher academic and sport participation success.
Previous research disagreed that taking part in sports will leave negative effects on academic performance (Routon & Walker, 2015; Muñoz Bullón et al., 2017; Schultz, 2017; Guo et al., 2019). As stated by Robst & Keil (2000), involvement in sports inhibits students’ abilities to perform well in the classroom because of the practice and travel commitments that consume time and energy. Therefore, researchers began toengagein the debate regardingthe effects of student athletes’ engagement in sports on their academic success (Guo et al., 2019; Yarkwah & Agyei, 2020)
Research evidence showed that even though student athletes required to spend most of their time and energy in sports training, there was a positive effects of sports participation on students’ academic achievement. Yarkwah & Agyei (2020) reported the differences between student athletes and non student athletes academic achievements. They found there was no negative effect due to involvement in sports. In fact, sports involvement positively influences student athletes’ on their academic success (Abieraba et al., 2019) More evidence showed a positive association between sport participation and academic performance in several variables such as ethnic (Bang et al., 2019), athletic status and time spent doing sports (Rao et al., 2018), level of participation (Schultz, 2017) and gender (Dyer et al., 2017) In addition, it was reported that even at high school’s level, the involvement in sports did not affect their academic achievement even after the implementation of K 12 curriculum (Billonid et al., 2020). At this point, it can be concluded that there are several factors that contribute to the positive effects of
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sport participation on academic achievement. Sport training encourage focusing, repetition and memorization, these skills can be implemented and useful in the classroom environment (Rao et al., 2018). Other benefits include; increased physical fitness and mental health (Jakiwa et al., 2020; Andersen et al., 2019; Snedden et al., 2019), improved biological and psychological maturation (Malm et al., 2019; Jasni et al., 2022) and boost self confidence and self discipline (Robst & Keil, 2000). Each of these factors is very crucial to help student athletes in the classroom learning environment. Hence, parents and educators must encourage students to participate in sports by eliminating the perception that sports will worsen their academic success (Yarkwah & Agyei, 2020).
In contrast, some studies have reported negative effects of participation in sports on academic success. For instance, Robst & Keil (2000) reported that student athletes who played at National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) university Division III had a lower average academic success (CGPA) when compared to non student athletes. In line with this finding, Routon & Walker (2015) indicated that being involved in college sports can negatively affect academic success. However, Gadzic (2009) justified that participating in sports is not a main contributor to academic success; rather, it is affected by various factors such as self learning motivation and teachers’ assistance. Some of the negative effects on academic success include more hours of practice and preparation for the game (Grimit, 2014), spending more hours on partying, social activities and alcohol consumption after the training session (Routon & Walker, 2015), overtraining and lack of communication between athletes and coaches (Gomez et al., 2018) and exhaustion and fatigue (O’neill et al., 2017)
In the context of the National Defence University of Malaysia’s (NDUM) student athletes, levels of sport participation can range from intra varsity to national level competitions. Each level of participation requires a different demand for time and energy in training and competition. For national or high performance athletes, training and practice are highly demanding as they are required to follow the training schedule and work closely with their coaches. Now and then, they need to be away from the university due to representing the country, state or club. Typically, national level student athlete allocated more than 20 hours a week for training, practice, recovery and physical training sessions (Gomez et al., 2018). Meanwhile, the demand for training among student athletes at the state, university, club and college levels are relatively lower compared to national level student athletes (Schultz, 2017). These athletes are only entail to attend centralize training when there is a competition. Most of the time, they do not have any regular training and competition throughout a year. However, each student athlete regardless of level of sport participation has been involved in sports during their academic journey. Therefore, this study hypothesizes that there are no differences in academic success regardless of the level of sport involvement. Moreover, the objective of this study is to examine the influence of sport participation level on academic success among student-athletes
This study was conducted among university students at the National Defence University of Malaysia (NDUM) in 2020. The data of respondents were collected comprising 836 students (660 males and 230 females) who volunteered to participate in this study. The age of respondents ranged from 18 to 27 years old with the age mean of 21.13 ± 1.23 years old. In terms of physical characteristics (Table 1), respondents showed an average weight of 63.18 ± 7.50 kg, an average height of 169.34 ± 4.82 cm and an average Body Mass Index (BMI) of 22.01 ± 2.72 in score index. In order to increase the efficiency of participant selection, simple random sampling was performed. One of the crucial parts in random sampling is that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as a participant of the study (Sharma, 2017)
Table 1: Physical characteristics of respondents
Variables Height (cm) Weight (kg) BMI Age
Mean 168.08 62.35 22.02 21.13
SD 7.33 9.58 2.73 1.23
This study was conducted using a cross sectional design. Based on Wang and Cheng (2020), cross sectional design is an observational study that analyzes a population’s data at a single time by describing its characteristics, and is typically cheaper, easy to be carried out and most importantly, can be used to create an in depth research study. This cross sectional study was conducted through a survey which applied open ended questions to acquire a broad information about respondents’ level of sport participation and academic success.
Academic Success (CGPA)
Category 1: 3.68 4.00
Category 2: 3.34 3.67
Category 3: 3.01 3.33
Category 4: 2.68 3.00
Category 5: 2.34 2.67
Category 6: 2.01 2.33 Category 7: 1.68 2.00
Category 8: 1.34 1.67 Category 9: 1.00 1.33 Category 10: <1.00
Figure 1 showed the paradigm of the study with the important variables. There are two vital questions asked: 1) What is your highest level of participation in
sports? and 2) What is your current Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA)? In general, there are three sections of questions, namely respondents’ background information (section A), level of sport participation (section B) and academic success (section C). All questions were in Bahasa Malaysia as it is a native language of the respondents.
The collection of data was done from January to May 2020 through a web based online platform, namely Google Forms. Google Forms (https://docs.google.com/forms/u/0/) was used to assist in data collection due to its efficiency and user friendly system. As mentioned by Rayhan et al. (2013), Google Docs and Forms can act as a free and efficient platform for administering questionnaires to any population without downgrading the quality, security and reliability of data. Google Forms is also considered a powerful system for data collection with safety in big data storage because of its collaboration with cloud based documents (Hsu & Wang, 2017). Hence, characteristics such as unlimited survey, free system and easy accessibility have made Google Forms one of the most popular web based online platforms for research (Vasantha & Harinarayana, 2016).
In terms of questionnaire distribution, it was done online without any physical or face to face meeting with respondents due to the health crisis pandemic Covid 19. In this stage, the emerging issuewas the method of sharing the questionnaire’s link to respondents. Based on Vasantha and Harinarayana (2016), the questionnaire’s link can be shared through Facebook and e-mail. As for this research, the questionnaire’s link was shared mostly through WhatsApp and Telegram applications. The selection was due to students’ accessibility to these applications as an online communication method with each other.
The potential respondents received the questionnaire’s link and would decide whether to complete the questionnaire or not. Those who completed the questionnaire would indirectly agree with the benefits and potential risks of the study and they automatically became respondents in this study. Prior to responding, respondents were asked to answer the questionnaire with honesty and integrity. They were asked to answer the questionnaire without forces or pressures or follow their peers. It took about 10 to 15 minutes to fill the questionnaire The chances of respondents not responding to all questions were zero because all questions were set as compulsory. As mention to all students, those who were not agreed to any question may withdraw to become a respondent”
Results of the study are presented as means ± standard deviation (SD). The assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance of the data were analyze through Kalmogorov Smirnov tests. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) as an inferential analysis was used to determine the differences between level of sport participation and academic success among respondents. The statistical analyses were performed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 25.0 with the significance level set at P ≤ 0.05.
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As shown in Table 2, a total of 836 respondents with 606 (72.5%) male and 230 (27.5%) female was involved voluntarily in this study. 82.2% respondents (n=669) were aged between 20 to 22, 17.8% (n=167) were 18 19 and 23 27 years old. Three categories of respondents were involved in this study, namely cadets with 51.8% (n=433), PALAPES (Reserve Officer Training Unit) with 34.3% (n=287) and civilians with 13.9% (n=116). A majority of the respondents were doing bachelor’s degree comprising of 754 students (90.2%) followed by diploma students with only 79 (9.4%) of them. In terms of year of study, most of the respondents were in year 1, 2 and 3 with 260 (31.1%), 270 (32.3%) and 268 (32.1%) students respectively whereas only 4.6 % (n=38) students were in year 4 and 5.
Table 2: Respondents’ Profile (n=836)
Variables No. of respondents (n) Percentage (%)
Sex
Male 606 72.5 Female 230 27.5 Age 18 1 .1 19 46 5.5 20 227 27.2 21 257 32.9 22 185 22.1 23 75 9.0 24 16 1.9 25 7 .8 26 2 .2 27 2 .2
Category of respondents
Cadet 433 51.8 PALAPES 287 34.3 Civilian 116 13.9 Level of Study Foundation 2 .2 Diploma 79 9.4 Bachelor 754 90.2 Master 1 .1 Year of Study 1 260 31.1 2 270 32.3 3 268 32.1 4 34 4.1 5 4 .5
Table 3 showed respondent’s level of sports participations The most respondents representing at university level with a frequency of 415 or 49.6% students. Followed by the college and club level participation with a frequency of 199 (23.8%) and 100 (12.0%) students respectively. State level charted the second lowest participation with a frequency of 65 (7.8%) students. Meanwhile, the lowest level of participation in sports was the national level with only 6.8% (n=57) students.
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Table 3: Respondents’ Level of Sports Participation Level of Sport Participation n %
College 199 23.8 Club 100 12.0 University 415 49.6 State 65 7.8 National 57 6.8
The mean and standard deviation (SD) of academic success among respondents represented in Table 4. The club level produced better in academic performance with mean 3.27 ± 1.14 points followed by college level (3.25 points ± 1.14) and university level (3.20 ± 1.24 points). While, the lowest CGPA scored by student athlete from state level with mean of CGPA 3.03 ± 1.19 The overall mean of academic success among respondents was in category 3 which was a CGPA between 3.01 3.33. The findings revealed that students’ CGPA will not be affected by their level of sport participation.
Table 4: Respondents’ Academic Success Level of Sport Participation n Mean of CGPA’s Category SD
College 199 3.25 1.14 Club 100 3.27 1.11 University 415 3.20 1.24 State 65 3.03 1.19 National 57 3.08 1.14
The analysis of differences through one way ANOVA between level of sport participation and academic success is shown in Table 5. The significance value was set as p > .05, F (4, 831) = .64. Therefore, this study fails to reject the hypothesis and it can be concluded that there is no statistical significant difference between level of sport participation and academic success. It means that, regardless of student athletes’ level of sport participation, there is no difference in their academic success
Table 5: One way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) between level of sport participation and academic success
Sum of Square df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 3.59 4 .89 .64 .64 Within Groups 1178.65 831 1.42 Total 1182.24 835
To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study that investigates the differences in level of sport participation (national, state, university, club and college) towards academic success (CGPA). Even though there was a study regarding sport participation level by Schultz (2017), it was only limited to the level of
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participation intra university between senior and junior varsity athletes. Previous studies on sport participation and academic success were conducted by several other researchers such as Insler & Karam (2019), Dyer et al. (2017) and Yusof et al. (2013). Other than that, studies on sport participation had been done specifically in the contexts of linguistics and racial status (Bang et al., 2018), sex and socioeconomic status (Dyer et al., 2017), the black ethnic group (Harris, 2014), middle and high school students (Wretman, 2017), in and off season conditions (Schultz, 2017), athletes and non athletes (Abieraba et al., 2019) Therefore, this study is driven by the essential to gain evidence from different level of sport participation and the relationship to academic success.
The main objective of this study was to examine the differences between level of sport participation towards academic success among student athletes. Our main findings have indicated no significant difference between level of sport participation towards academic success. However, the mean of CGPA among student athletes were considered high, which was between 3.01 to 3.33 points. This result was much similar to the findings by Schultz (2017) in which it was stated that the CGPA of student athletes in and out of season was 3.04 points. Other than that, Routon and Walker (2015) stated that the CGPA of student athletes based on sports played was between 3.26 to 3.34 points. Also, in line with this study, Robst andKeil(2000) statedthat student athletes whoplayedin NCAA Division III had achieved a CGPA between 2.96 3.04 points. Therefore, representing or significantly involved in sports during university studies offers a good result to the CGPA success. This is in agreement with Surichaqui-Tiza et al. (2021) where positive and significant relationship was found between sport participation and academic performance among student’s soccer players. It showed that participating in sports is beneficial to student athlete in terms of teamwork, self discipline, leadership, exposed to rules and personal characteristics that can transform to classroom learning.
As with other research, the results of this study also confirm that different levels of sport participation require different demands for time, energy and intensities of training and practice. For those who are represented at the national level, they need to spend more time in training and competitions (Atan & Kassim, 2020; Burlow et al., 2018) compared to those that represent at the state level and below. The training commitment is relatively lower and not really demanding (Schultz, 2017). They only need to train and prepare when entering any competition. It means that they do not have any regular training throughout a year as compared to national level athletes. Nevertheless, this should take into account that regardless of level of sport participation, this student athlete has been involved in sports. Hence, they still need to spend hours of practice, preparation and attending competitions which would undoubtedly take a student athletes away from their studies (Grimit, 2014).
Regardless of level of sport participation that students engaged in, their CGPA results are almost similar. It means that whether student athletes represent the highest or the lowest level of sport participation, they will not differ in academic achievement. The similarities in academic success among student athletes were
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due to their involvement in sports which required the skills of focusing, repetition and memorization, which are very crucial to class learning (Rao et al., 2018; Azli et al., 2020, Diyaolu, 2021). Other than that, participating in sports results in a positive effect to physical and mental health which affect the way student athletes act and think (Jakiwa et al., 2020; Snedden et al., 2019) as well as social and psychological health that help student athletes in handling stress, making decisions and interacting with others (Andersen et al., 2019). Moreover, regular participation in sports will also increase the level of biological and psychological maturation (Atan & Kassim, 2019) which is very important in how individuals think and make choices (Malm et al., 2019). In addition, sports involvement may associate to boost self confidence and increase self discipline necessary for academic success especially for individuals who are not currently active in sports (Robst & Keil, 2000). Thebenefits reach farbeyondthe physical, this translate from active participation that teach skills of memorization (Khamees, 2016) andfocused (Foran et al., 2017) which can be helpful in academic growth.
In conclusion, the current study has found that student athletes who represent their country, state, university, club and college in sports did not show a difference in academic success. Participation in sports actually promotes a wide range of social, physical and intellectual skills that lead to better performance in the classroom. As explained by Self Determination Theory the personality and motivation is typically linked to accomplishment and success aids student athlete development. Therefore, it implicated that despite being involved as representatives at any level of sport participation during university studies, they would still gain benefits not only in mental, physical and social aspects but also in academic success. As a recommendation for future study, there is a requirement to understand the extent of similarities in the academic success and level of sport participation among student athletes.
This research is fully supported by GPJP grant, UPNM/2019/GPJP/1. The authors fully acknowledge Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) and National Defence University of Malaysia (NDUM) for the approved fund which makes this important research viable and effective.
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TAHAP PENGLIBATAN SUKAN DAN PENCAPAIAN AKADEMIK DALAM KALANGAN PELAJAR UNIVERSITI PERTAHANAN NASIONAL MALAYSIA" (Level of Sports Participation and Academic Success among National Defence University of Malaysia Students)
Borang soal selidik ini digunakan untuk mendapatkan maklum balas berkaitan dengan pencapaian sukan dan akademik pelajar. Ia bertujuan untuk menilai kesan penglibatan sukan terhadap pencapaian akademik dalam kalangan pelajar Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM). Oleh itu, saya mengharapkan kerjasama daripada anda untukmenjawabsoalselidikinisecaratelusdanikhlas. Segalaresponyangandaberikan saya dahului dengan ucapkan terima kasih (Thisquestionnairewasusedtoobtainfeedback related to students' sports and academic achievement. It aims to assess the impact of sports involvement on academic achievement among students of National Defence University of Malaysia (UPNM). Therefore, I expect cooperation from you to answer this questionnaire transparentlyandsincerely.Alltheresponsesyougivemeareprecededbyathankyou)
Soalselidikini mengandungiLima (5) bahagianutama, iaitu (Thisquestionnairecontains4 sections);
Bahagian A: Latar Belakang Responden (PartA:BackgroundofRespondent)
Bahagian B: Penglibatan Sukan (Umum) (PartB:GeneralSportParticipation)
Bahagian C: Penglibatan Sukan (Penyertaan Kejohanan Sukan) (PartC:Specific Sportparticipation)
Bahagian D: Pencapaian Akademik (PartD:AcademicAchievement)
Bahagian A: Latar Belakang Responden (PartA:BackgroundofRespondent)
Arahan: Sila jawab semua soalan pada ruangan yang berkenaan (Instructions: Please answerallquestions).
1. Jantina (Gender) Lelaki (Male) Perempuan (Female)
2. Kategori Pelajar (TypeofStudents) Kadet (Cadet) PALAPES (PALAPES) Awam (Civilian) 3. Umur (tahun) Age(Years) 19 20 21 22 23 24 Other: 4. Tinggi (cm) (PhysicalHeight) 5. Berat (kg) (BodyWeight)
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6. Peringkat Pengajian (LevelofStudy)
Asasi (Foundation)
Diploma (Diploma)
Ijazah (Degree) Master (Master) Ph.d
7. Tahun Pengajian (YearofStudy)
Tahun 1 (year1) Tahun 2 (year2) Tahun 3 (year3) Tahun 4 (year4) Tahun 5 (year5)
8. Semester Pengajian (StudySemester)
Semester 1 Semester 2 Semester 3 Semester 4 Semester 5 Semester 6 Semester 7 Semester 8 Semester 9 Semester 10
9. Tahun Memulakan Pengajian di UPNM (YearofbecomingasUPNMstudent) 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Bahagian B: Penglibatan Sukan (Umum) (PartB:GeneralSportParticipation)
Sila nyatakan penglibatan sukan tertinggi anda (Please state your highest sports participation)
10. Anggaran MASA BERSUKAN anda dalam SEHARI? (Estimationofyourminutesof sportparticipationinaday)
<30 minit 60 minit 90 minit 120 minit 150 minit 180 minit >180 minit
Tidak bersukan (notparticipatedinanysportsactivity)
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11. Anggaran jumlah hari bersukan anda dalam seminggu? (Estimationofyourdaysof sportparticipationinaweek)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tidak berkaitan (notapplicable)
12. Anggaran MASA LATIHAN SUKAN yang anda peruntukkan dalam SEHARI (latihan khas/pusat untuk kejohanan atau perlawanan sukan)? (Estimationofyour minutesoftraininginadayforcentraltraining)
<60 minit 91 minit 120 minit 150 minit 180 minit >180 minit
Tidak berkaitan (notapplicable)
Other:
13. Anggaran JUMLAH SESI LATIHAN anda dalam SEMINGGU (latihan khas/pusat untuk kejohanan atau perlawanan sukan)? (Estimationofyournumberoftrainingsessions inaweekforcentraltraining)
1 sesi 2 sesi 3 sesi 4 sesi 5 sesi 6 sesi 7 sesi > 7 sesi
Tidak berkaitan (notapplicable)
Other: Bahagian C: Penglibatan Sukan (Penyertaan Kejohanan Sukan) (PartC:SpecificSport participation) Sila nyatakan penglibatan sukan tertinggi anda (Pleasestateyourhighestsports participation)
14. Nama kejohanan sukan yang pernah anda sertai (semasa anda bergelar pelajar UPNM)? Nameofsportstournamentyouhaveparticipatedin(whenyouwereaUPNM student)?
15. Sila nyatakan sukan yang anda wakili? (Whatsportyouplayed?)
16. Bila (tahun) anda menyertai kejohanan sukan tersebut? (Whenyouparticipatedina competition?)
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
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17. Peringkat kejohanan sukan tersebut? (Leveloftournament)
Kolej (College)
Kelab (Club)
Universiti (University) Negeri (State) Negara (National) Other:
18. Pencapaian dalam kejohanan sukan tersebut? (Achievementinthecompetition?)
Johan (Champion)
Naib Johan (1strunnerup)
Ketiga (2ndrunnerup)
Separuh akhir (semifinal)
Suku akhir (quarterfinal)
Pusingan kedua (secondround)
Peringkat Kumpulan (groupstage) Other:
Bahagian D: Pencapaian Akademik (PartD:AcademicAchievement)
*PNGK (Purata Nilai Gred Keseluruhan) *CGPA(CumulativeGradePointAverage)
Arahan: Sila jawab setiap soalan yang dikemukakan (Instructions:Pleaseanswerall questions)
19. PNGK* (CGPA) semasa anda. (YourCGPA)
> 3.68 3.34 3.67 3.01 3.33 2.68 3.00 2.34 2.67 2.01 2.33 1.68 2.00 1.34 1.67 1.01 1.33 <1.00
20. Anggaran MASA DALAM SEHARI yang diperuntukkan untuk PEMBELAJARAN KENDIRI (selain daripada kelas/ kuliah)? (EstimatedTIMEINADAYallocatedforSELF LEARNING(otherthanclasses/lectures)?
< 30 minit 60 minit 90 minit 120 minit 150 minit 180 minit > 180 minit
Tidak berkaitan (notapplicable)
Sekian dan terima kasih di atas kerjasama anda semua. (Thankyouforcooperation)
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 138 159, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.9
Received Mar 23, 2022; Revised Jun 13, 2022; Accepted Jun 28, 2022
Kama
’ :
Asep Kurnia Jayadinata* Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung Indonesia
Abstract. The academics of higher education are required to write scientific papers in reputable international journals, which they find challenging in terms of English language skills and the lack of research skills, low literacy skills, and skills in accessing references. Thus, this study aims at exploring the framework for improving academics’ literacy competence for scientific publication activities. Action Research was employed as a design by involving 24 doctoral program students at one campus in West Java Province, Indonesia, who were lecturers at four universities in Indonesia. This research resulted in 7 stages as a critical reflection step in improving literacy competence. The seven stages are summarized in the acronym LITERAT as an extension of Literacy, Investigation, Writing Techniques, Exploration, Reflection, Actualization and Translating. This study concludes that these seven steps proved that 87% of academics’ literacy competences have increased. This study contributes by providing guidance for academics in improving literacy competence and boosting the number of scientific publications of each universityasamanifestationofacountry'sprideintheformofdiplomacy portrayed in the quality of education and science.
Keywords: literacy; scientific publication; value education; professionalism, action research
One of the industries attached to research and publication activities is higher education as a manifestation of the tridharma of education (teaching, research and community service) in Indonesia. With this inherent obligation, lecturers are
* Corresponding author: Asep Kurnia Jayadinata; asepkurniajayadinata@gmail.com
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
‘Abdul Hakam , Tatang Muhtar , Tedi Supriyadi , J. Julia Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung Indonesia
required to conduct research and have it published (Arizal et al., 2019). In Indonesia, strategic efforts to increase the number of publications in higher education as a form of diplomacy in the quality ofeducation andscience are stated in a circular from the Director General of Higher Education no. 152/E/T/2012 concerning the obligation of scientific publications for undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral students. In addition, the doctoral students were commanded to publish in reputable international journals indexed by Scopus. However, doctoral program students who are lecturers and are familiar with the world of research often experience difficulties. Publishing research results in reputable journals at the international level is challenging, as experienced by many Indonesian students. Besides the language ability factor, the weak ability to write and search for reference sources for doctoral students is an obstacle in accessing international publications in Scopus indexed reputable journals. This phenomenon has an impact on the length of study undertaken; because the conditions for completing the final study are not fulfilled, thus such conditions cause a domino effect on the image of the institution, with many students who did not graduate in time. This fact indicates the weak literary competence of the students.
The low reading literacy level causes it to be uncompetitive, due to the lack of mastery of science and technology, because of the weak interest and ability to read and write (Teguh, 2013). Therefore, strategic steps are needed to improve the literacy competence. This is important considering that the World Economic Forum states some of the skills that must be mastered, in order to face the 21st Century. These skills include literacy, competence, and character (Antoro, 2017)
Researches have been conducted related to competence in scientific publications For example, research in the UK shows that students’ perspectives stated that lecturers who already have scientific publications and have been published are considered more credible and would be able to more effectively link their research activities with their learning experiences (Camacho et al., 2017; Schofield & Burton, 2015)
Furthermore, Intan et al. (2019) explored the effect of publication requirements on work stress on academic lecturers in Indonesia, using the Job Demand Control Support (JDC S) model. The research employed 100 random lecturers in Indonesia. The research revealed that the distribution of stress levels, according to the data, tend to follow a normal distribution, and for most lecturers, stress levels are at an acceptable level. According to the JDC S theory, lecturer stress is mainly influenced by the demand and control related to work, rather than job support. The number of respondents’ ratings regarding research support in Indonesia is relatively low. However, the lack of support did not cause or significantly affect their stress levels.
Yulianti et al. (2020) analyzed the influence of organizational climate, punishment and reward, and competence on increasing lecturers’ capacity in writing scientific papers. By processing the data using SEM Amos, it was found that the organizational climate had an effect on capacity building, with CR 3.494> 1.96 in a significance of 0.00 <0.05 and a termination of 0.219. While punishment and
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reward affect the capacity development; and CR 2,740 <1.96, significance 0.006> 0.05 discontinued 0.240; competence affects capacity buildingwith CR 1.992> 1.96, significance 0.046 <0.05 and 0.175 terminations; Simultaneously, organizational climate, punishment, and reward, and competence affects the capacity of building with a regression coefficient of 0.518, and so on.
Those studies only describe the implications of lecturers who already have publications and the factors that affect lecturers’ activities in carrying out further scientific publication activities. In contrast to previous studies, this research is aimed at finding the strategic steps in increasing lecturers’ literacy skills needed for publishing scientific publications in reputable international journals. Therefore, in limiting this problem, this research is formulated in one research question: what are the critical steps needed for improving literacy skills through publication activities in reputable international journals?
In developing countries, the expression “publish or perish” has been cultured; and it has become a living guide for scientists and researchers (Wibawa & Wirawan, 2017). The publication is self actualization for academics and researchers in the development of science. Publications, especially at the international level, play a role in increasing a country’s self esteem in diplomacy,as regards the quality of education and science (Subekti, 2015). Research and publication are closely related. Without publication, a research finding would be meaningless and not impactful; since fellow scientists cannot value or even recognize it.
The tendency for scientific recognition of a research parameter’s findings is its publication in reputable international journals. Therefore, the ‘publish or perish’ culture can be understood; since an academic must conduct research and publish his research findings (Amelia et al., 2018; Dewi, 2013). Writing scientific papers for students is a necessary activity; since it is an academic culture (Husin & Nurbayani, 2017; Nasution, 2018; Persadha, 2016) To find something, to come up with new ideas, to develop the ability to organize and clarify various concepts or ideas, to practise an objective attitude that exists in a person, writing is the essential tool for academics to do research; and they therefore need to publish (Amelia et al., 2018; Dewi, 2013)
Reading scientific works is necessary, in order to find the ideas outlined in an article; because producing scientific work requires scientific reading. That is why literacy’s primary meaning is closely related to reading and writing activities (Barton & Hamilton, 2012)
Today, the barometer of scientific work is considered acceptable if the paper is published by credible and representative publishers, and in this case, reputable journals. A reputable international journal’s criteria are journals indexed by indexing institutions, such as ScienceDirect, ProQuest, EBSCO, Web of Science, Scopus, and others (Falagas et al., 2008; Meho & Yang, 2007; Mongeon & Paul Hus, 2016).
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Therefore, besides having writing skills, getting scientific references and publishing requires information, literacy skills and the mastery of information technology related to such scientific work (Julia & Isrokatun, 2019)
Budimansyah et al. (2019) stated that every component of society should master new literacy: data literacy, technology literacy, and humanitarian literacy. Data literacy is related to reading, analyzing, and thinking conclusions, based on the data and the information obtained. Technological literacy is related to understanding how machines work, applying technology, and working on technological products, in order to get maximum results.
Humanity literacy is the goal of data and technological literacy; because, essentially, a 21st century learner is a human resource; and to be able to use it for a more dignified life is important (Budimansyah et al., 2019).
Although literacy is closely related to reading and writing (Barton & Hamilton, 2012), it is not limited to these issues only, in order to understand information critically and analytically (UNESCO, 2003). Also, literacy skills are a person’ s socially functional skills, in order to contribute to their community (Keefe & Copeland, 2011) A community based effort is essential for the improvement of someone’s literacy It implies that literary skills also involve cognitive capacities and information processing (Webber & Johnston, 2000).
In the context of character education, literate humans are humans with character (Naibaho, 2007; Permatasari, 2015); because literacy is also an essential part of character education: the character of the learner, the character of curiosity, and the character of sharing knowledge (Hasfera, 2017; Lizawati, 2018). Literate people have creative, innovative, competitive power; and they develop collaborative attitudes (Afandi, 2017) For Indonesians, building a literate society is a necessity, especially for academics This is because the level of literacy of the Indonesians is shallow, in line with the UNESCO Survey in 2012, as quoted by Fitriyah et al. (2019). This indicates that the reading index of Indonesian society is 0.001. This means that for every 1000 persons, only one person has an interest in reading. While the 2009 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) reported that the Indonesian reading literacy test results are ranked 57, with an average score of 402 out of 500.
In 2012, Indonesia was ranked 64th ., with an average score of 396 out of 500 Even in 2015, Indonesia was ranked 69 out of 76 countries, with an average score of 397, out of an international average score of 500 (GLN, 2017)
Policies related to the obligation to publish an article in international indexed journals actually require academics to improve their literacy skills and tool mastery in carrying out publication activities, in addition to mastering an established research methodology. However, the efforts to improve these skills have not come to the attention of academics; thus, this has resulted in a low level of literacy and a minimum number of publications. Therefore, this study seeks to answer the question: What are the practical steps required in improving students' literacy skills, and for increasing the number of publications? This is believed to
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be important, considering: (1) the increasing numbers of publications is an important agenda for academics; and (2) the demands and challenges of policies related to publication obligations for students in pursuing final studies in their doctoral program; and (3) the opportunities in academic diplomacy activities for academics.
The contribution of this research is expected to be a practical guide in improving the literacy skills of academics in the higher educational environment.
To achieve this research objective, action research (AR) was chosen to conduct this research. Given its theoretical and principle roots, AR is often used to explore critical pedagogical issues (Gibbs et al., 2017). This is in line with this study’ s problems related to the lack of literacy competence for scientific publications. With this AR design, it can explore such problems, in order to find solutions (Creswell, 2002) Furthermore, this research design can help understand self practice, in order to improve every action (Kemmis et al., 2013; Kemmis & McTaggart, 2005; McTaggart, 1994).
One of the characteristics of action research design is the collaborative aspect that is applied as a process between researchers and practitioners (Bruce et al., 2011; Creswell, 2002; Ferguson Patrick, 2007; Jaipal & Figg, 2011; Leeman et al., 2018; Somekh, 2010) In initiating collaboration, researchers refer to the methods used by Heil (2005), what is needed, and who is interested in this project. When this project was announced, one professor with characteristic educational qualifications and head of the study program was interested in becomingg involved. One lecturer of civic education and the director of innovation at a state university and one English lecturer were already involved.
This collaborative team designed various needs for research, such as a solution for learning plans, developing indicators for formulating literacy competences, and determining what students should produce at the end of the project. We decided that students must have 21st . century literacy competence, as initiated by Budimansyah et al. (2019), including data literacy, technology literacy, and humanitarian literacy. Each student can produce articles submitted to reputable international journals. By referring to these three domains, in order to support the expected results from this study, we developed a rubric of information technological literacy, with mastery as a guide to the extent of the success achieved in this action research. This rubric was formulated and discussed in a focus group discussion with the collaborative team, as presented in the following Table 1.
1 Data Literacy Reading skill, comprehension skills and Concluding skill
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1. Analyzing issues
from the given informationanddata.
2 Technology Literacy The capability to comprehend how the program is functioned and working with it.
3 Humanities Literacy Related abilities to research publication and writing: communication, teamwork, critical thinking and creativity and innovation
2. Finding and collecting relevant references from reputable publishers.
1. Utilizing technology in tracing reference sources in reputable journals
2. Utilizing the reference manager application
1. Achieving similarity index fairness level for the paper.
2. Submitting articles to reputable international journals.
This research employed three stages. Firstly, there was the pre action analytical stage. At this stage, we try to map the initial literacy skills in students’ scientific publications, and to design the necessary steps. The second is the implementation of actions. The implementation of the action steps designed in the previous stage was applied, and the third is post action analysis.This stage is a series of activities, in order to evaluate the success of an action.
This research was carried out at one of the universities in West Java Indonesia. As for the participants, 24 people consisting of 12 women and 12 men, were involved. They are lecturers, who are currently pursuing a doctoral program in one study program in a state university in Bandung, Indonesia. These participants are the lecturers from two state universities, as well as private universities in Indonesia, with several professional backgrounds. They belong to the digital native group, the generation born in the digital technological environment; because they were born after 1980 (Prensky, 2001)
These participants benefitted this research activity; since they had obtained their training and materials on how to find references, cite, and add them to the research papers. They also experienced the real experiences in submitting and publishing a research paper to international indexed journals.
3.5.
Surveys collected the data, observations, and semi structured interviews. The survey was carried out by using the Google Documentary facility, and by using the Likert and Guttman scales (Allen & Seaman, 2007; Widhiarso, 2011) Google Documents have grown into a superb and simple survey software system that everyone can use (Chiu et al., 2016; Lin et al., 2016; Travis, 2010). This research utilizes interviews, and questionnaire instruments. Before the survey was administered, the students from one study program were asked to participate in this study; but there were only 24 students that were willing to take part in this
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study. They were asked to write a consent letter before the research activities began. The instruments were validated by judgement experts in the field of pedagogics, educational technology, and character education.
The data generated were in the form of numbers, which were obtained from survey result bys using the Likert and Gutman scales. These were analyzed by using the quantitative approach, especially when analyzing the comparison in the pre action and post action sections. The data that were not in numerical form, which were obtained from the results of semi structured interviews, were analyzed by using a qualitative approach. The qualitative analysis was carried out by using an inductive thematic method, with a content analytical approach. This is content analysis that allows researchers to carry out subjective interpretations of the content of text data through a systematic classification process, coding and identifying themes or patterns (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Erlingsson & Brysiewicz, 2017). What are the students' difficulties, obstacles; and what do they think and feel when doing publication activities?
4.1.
This stage is that of mapping the subject’s literacy abilities. A total of 24 participants were instructed to submit a draft of the article by way of an assignment. Observation and semi structured interviews were carried out at this stage. From this stage, a mapping of the subject literacy skills was generated, as in Figure 1:
Figure 1. Lecturers’ Literacy Ability
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These five publishers are a popular reference for academics in writing journals (Gadd et al., 2018; Larivière et al., 2015)
In the second indicator in the data literacy component, only 2 (8.33%) participants explicitly explained novelty and the article’s scientific contribution. This is important because previous studies’ novelty and differentiation indicated that one ’s article is worth being published (Julia & Isrokatun, 2019; Wekke, 2015)
In the aspect of technological literacy, based on the results of semi structured interviews, it can be concluded that the majority of the participants did not know how to browse reputable journals. This digital era trend is that the criteria for a reputable international journal are journals indexed by indexing institutions, such as ScienceDirect, ProQuest, EBSCO, Web of Science, Scopus, and others. (Falagas et al., 2008; Meho & Yang, 2007; Mongeon & Paul Hus, 2016)
Based on the interview results, only 2 (8.33%) of the participants knew the criteria for reputable journals and could trace them by using internet information technology. As for the citation technique, only 6 (25%) of the participants used one of the reference manager applications: Mendeley, Zotero, or Endnote; and all six of the participants used Mendeley.
In the humanities literary aspect, we checked the similarity of articles that had been compiled by using the Turnitin application. The similarity check results on the articles they compiled were only 5 (20.83%), which met the fairness threshold below 20%. The search results were based on semi structured interviews with all the subjects related to the publication experiences in reputable international journals. The majority answered that they had never published or submitted articles in reputable international journals.
Based on the mapping results, at this stage, it may be concluded that the average literacy level of doctoral students is 10.14%. This figure is obtained from the percentage of each indicator, divided by the number of indicators. Therefore, the proper steps are needed for increasing the literacy skills of the subjects.
This action implementation stage is an effort to improve the participants’ literacy. Based on the results of the pre action analysis, this resulted in 7 stages. The seven stages can be described as follows:
4.2.1.
At this stage, we introduced several tools needed in preparing a manuscript for publication. It took three steps to complete the stage. The first was preparing a working paper through Microsoft Office, and explaining the features frequently used by the participants The leading feature for arranging maps in writing systematics was the caption featured on the references menu to provide captions on tables or figures, including the numbering references in tables or figures. It is essential in writing to minimize any mistakes in numbering the lists of tables and figures.
The second was to explain one of the reference manager applications: Mendeley. This application was chosen; since one of the participants was already familiar
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with it. This Mendeley application also has relatively good accuracy in citation; and it is easy to use (Kratochvíl, 2017; Kusumaningsih, 2018; MacMillan, 2012)
We guided the participants through installing the program, explaining the features, and using themin this step We have created a manual and video tutorial for using Mendeley, in order to make it easier and more efficient. In this step, we also emphasize that each participant continuously checks the metadata that had been inputted in the Mendeley application; for example, the type, the author’s name, year, edition, volume, and DOI. If not completed, each participant was instructed to complete it.
In the third step, the participants are given skills in accessing reputable journals, by using one of the applications released by the Indonesian national library. The Participants were instructed to register by visiting the page http://keanggotaan.perpusnas.go.id After the participants were registered, and had received a membership number, they were instructed to access the site http://e resources.perpusnas.go.id and log into the site.
After that, the participants could search for the required references by entering keywords into the search engines, based on reputable publishers. This application is shown in Figure 2. In addition to using the application, the participants are also given the knowledge to access the links related to 5 reputable publishers, such as Taylor and Francis, Springer, Wiley, SAGE, and Elsevier.
In the fourth step, the participants were given insights to browse reputable journals. For this, we set the criteria for Scopus indexed journals, as targets for publishing the manuscripts. The selection of the Scopus indexed journal target and the Scopus indexed journal is a policy for almost all universities in Indonesia, as a requirement for completing their doctoral studies, including a requirement for lecturers’ promotion. Scopus indexed journals are equipped with several features, such as Citation, Networking, Research, and Score (Muriyatmoko, 2018;
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Siti, 2018); therefore, many researchers in Indonesia use Scopus indexed journals as targets and references in publishing their research.
Furthermore, the participants are directed to access the site https://www.scopus.com and to describe the features on the site, such as searching for authors on the author feature, or browsing journals by journal name, ISSN number, subject area on the source feature, and journal filtering, based on quartile 1 4, as well as selecting open access journals, or not. By accessing the site, participants get information on whether the Scopus indexing agency still covers the journal that is the target of publication, or not. In addition to setting targets in Scopus indexed manuscripts, this also makes it easy for the participants to visit the address of the intended journal and to read the research results published in the journal; so that it can be used as a reference source, as well.
In this step, we also directed the participants to select targeted journals, and to avoid potential predatory journals. For that, we directed the participants to access the site https://beallslist.net/standalone journals/ This site provides information or recommendations, in order to avoid a list of journals listed on the site.
After completing these four steps, the 24 participants were surveyed, in order to evaluate their effectiveness. The survey results are shown in Table 2:
Table 2. The Survey Result for participants’ knowledge of the information and technology
No Description Yes No
1 I know and understand how to prepare working papers to publish manuscripts in Microsoft Word, and I know some MS Word features required for preparing the publication.
24
2 IknowhowtooperateMendeley,asareferencemanager. 22 2
3
4
I know how to use E Resources from the National Library, as a reference search application for reputable publishers articles
24
I know howtoget informationrelated toScopus indexed journals. 24
Total Average 23,5 0,5
In Percentage (%) 97,92 2,08
Based on the survey results, it can be concluded that 97.92% of the participants already know and understand the information technology literacy needed to support the publication.However, this requiresfurtherverification; since itis only gained from the participant’s perspective. Furthermore, 2 participants stated that they did not know how to use Mendeley, as a reference manager. Based on further research, the two participants did not follow the material. Therefore, we provided an opportunity for the two participants to view the presented material’s video footage.
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4.2.2.
At this stage, we directed the participants to find five references related to the latest research from 5 reputable publishers. These references are related to the participants’ topic of interest. We set the five reference criteria, based on the publication year from 2018 to 2020. We aimed to do this, in order to investigate the empty research gaps, based on the previous studies. To make it easier for the participants to investigate some of the results of previous studies, we provided several rubrics, as in the following table:
Table 3 Abstract Analysis Rubric for the previous research No Study (Write the references)
Participants Context Design /Method Finding 1 2
Table 3 has guided the participants to analyze the previous research on abstracts, including several components: who and how many participants are involved, what the research context is, how the design or research is used, as well as the findings.
Table 4. Conclusion and Recommendations: Analysis in The Previous Research No References Conclusion and Recommendations Further research 1 2
After the participants had analyzed the abstract, the next step was to analyze the research’s conclusions and recommendations. Then, the participants concluded the necessary follow up. These conclusions were then made an issue by the participants and analyzed by using the rubric in Table 5.
Table 5. Issues’ Analysis for The Following Study
No Issue Issues’ Criteria
1 Actual : Eligibility : Problematic: Feasibility:
Issues’ Analysis (Scale 1 5) Prior ity (1 5) Urgen cy Seriousn ess Issue Growth Total Priority
Based on Table 5, each issue was analyzed on four review criteria: actuality, eligibility, problem, and feasibility. The participants assessed the issue on a scale of 1 5, based on three components: urgency, seriousness, and issue growth. The assessments were then added up, and the biggest score became the main priority to be appointed. Based on this stage, each participant had issues based on the analyses. This means that there are 24 issues as topics that would be used as material for the publication.
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4.2.3.
At this stage, we provided guidance related to the writing techniques in international journals. A systematic IMRAD CAR was used: Introduction, Methodology, Results and Discussion, Conclusion, Acknowledgments, and References. Each participant was explained in every section’s components. For example, the title must not reach more than 16 words. The abstract consists of 200 250 words, explaining the problems, objectives, methods, findings, and conclusions. The introduction must include the problems, previous research, objectives, emphasizing any novelties, and the research contributions. IMRAD CAR is the general writing style for a journal article. However, it is necessary to follow the guidelines of each targeted journal strictly. The participants may create a section in their working paper (e.g., Microsoft word), based on the IMRAD CAR systematics, by using the headings feature to make it easier to fill in each component, as they are arranged in Figure 3.
4.2.4.
At this stage, the participants were directed to explore the theories used by previous researchers and to find the supporting theories related to the issues raised. They were given another rubric, as in Table 6, as a guide in inventoring the theories that support the issues. Further, they paraphrased the sentence, based on their understanding, while still adhering to the Authors, as a manifestation of academic honesty.
Table 6. Supporting Theories Inventory Rubric References
The key sentences related to the used theories (write with the references)
(Re write the sentences using own words) 1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 2
Based on the observations, 24 participants could do it; and they did not encounter any significant obstacles. It also shows that the participants could easily access and render their understanding information. The results of this stage were used to prepare the theoretical framework for the manuscript.
4.2.5. Stage 5.
Reflection is widely regarded as a professional practice and process that supports learning through experience (Coulson & Harvey, 2013) Reflections can be approached from a different perspective (Brookfield, 2017); and they can be involved at varying degrees of depth, complexity, and criticality (Kreber & Castleden, 2009; Mezirow, 1992). This depends on experience, the desiredlearning outcomes, and the learner’s capacity for self analysis towards open mindedness (Paris & Winograd, 2003) As a reflection, we directed the participants to analyze the draft of their manuscript and made some improvements, based on the experiences they had gone through from stages 1 to 4. Through this stage, they could identify the weaknesses and strengths of the manuscripts. Some of the most dominant issues include: inconsistency between the styles in the body text and the reference list, even inconsistency with the bibliographical writing style. For example, some used a mix of Vancouver and APA 6th styles, or APA 6th and 7th APA styles.
Based on the interviews it wasdifficult for them to change the reference style, when one journal rejected the paper; and the participants then wanted to publish the paper in another journal, with a different referencing style. In addition, there were found to be many reference sources, some from unrepresentative references and inappropriate writing systematics.
4.2.6.
This stage is an effort to produce productive and creative actions from the participants, in order to continue the reflection stage. It aimed toimprove the draft text that had been prepared, based on the notes during the reflection stage. The process was carried out in the form of mentoring. After the improvement process was carried out and the criteria had been met by each targeted journal, we examined a form of peer review for possible improvement
4.2.7.
This stage is a follow up to the previous stage. After the improvement and peer review process had been carried out, the next step was to collaborate with the translator. For Indonesians, whose English was not their mother tongue, collaboration with a translator was needed, in order to transfer the ideas to an international language.
Furthermore, it was necessary to check the similarity, in order to ensure that the value was below 20%. The similarity check of the translated manuscripts is, on average, below 15%. The next step is to make adjustments, based on the targeted journal’s style, starting from the type of letter, the distance between the paragraphs, and others. After being fulfilled, the participants submitted the manuscript to the Scopus indexed international journal. The details can be seen in Figure 4.
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Most participants are interested in journals in quartiles 3 and 4. We tried to explore the participants’ reasons by conducting semi structured interviews with two of them. This relates to their decision to submit the manuscript to Q3 and Q4 Scopus indexed journals. The question is, “Why did you submit your journal to Q3 or Q4?”. The participants’ answers were almost the same: initial experiences only. As for some of the participants who submitted to the quartiles 1 and 2 Scopus indexed journal, the reason was: participant 1 stated that the initial target was Q4 journals, but after checking through the site https://beallslist.net/standalone journals/journal, it was listed on the site. According to participant 1, although the manuscript was rejected, the editor’ s input could improve the Paper’s quality.
The second participant mentioned the demand from one of the campuses in completing the final study by submitting it to the Q2 international indexed journal.
When this research was written, the status of the participants’ manuscripts in journals varied considerably. Some were under peer review status; some had been accepted with minor and significant revision status; some were still in the initial screening. The details can be described as follows:
Figure 5 shows that the submitted manuscripts by the majority had met the journal’s writing criteria; this was indicated by the existence of several
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manuscripts received with a note of improvement. The manuscripts that required major revisions were 4 (16.67%), for minor revisions there were 7 (21.17%). Meanwhile, 8 (33.33%) of the manuscripts are still in the reviewing process: this means that the editorial board has approved these eight manuscripts. The editor is still investigating 3 (12.5%) manuscripts. 2 (8.33%); some of the manuscripts have been rejected because they are out of the Journal’s scope. The participants need to be careful to ensure that the manuscript is following the targeted journal’ s scope
This stage is the final stage of the research series activities. Based on the action evaluation results, there were several improvements needed in the participants’ literacy skills. The increase is viewed from the comparison between the results of the pre action and the post action analysis. Some of these improvements can be seen in Figure 5.
Pre Action Post Action Enhancement
24 23 24 24 24 24 21 21 22 18 19 24
3 2 2 6 5 0
1. Taking References from reputable publishers
2. Explaining novelty and research contribution based on the current issues
1. Employing technology to search reputable articles
2. Utilizing a reference manager application
1. Producing acceptable similarity index
2. Submitting article to one of reputable journal
Data Literacy Technology Literacy Humanities Literacy 1 2 3
Figure 5 shows the increase in all indicators for each literacy component. There was an increase in the first and second indicators for the Data Literacy: 21 (88%). It increased by 22 (92%) for the first indicator and by 18 (75%) for the second indicator in the technology literacy component. The first indicatorwais changed to 19 (79%) for the humanities literacy component and 24 (100%) for the second indicator. Based on this increase, the average increase in the participants’ literacy competence was 87%.
The afore mentioned seven stages can be summarized in an acronym LITERAT: L = Literacy of Technology: This introduces the information technology needed for publication; I = Investigation: it explores and analyses the results of the latest research; T = Writing technique: it aims to understand how to compile a publication manuscript; E = Exploration: it explores to find and develop any supporting theories; R = Reflection: it aims to improve the quality of the text, based on the experience; A = Actualization: it is an attempt to produce productive
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and creative actions in compiling the publication manuscripts; T = Translation: it is the act of collaboration to transfer the ideas to targeted languages. Through LITERAT, the literacy skills were able to increase by 87%.
Maslow (1987), in Hierarchy of Needs, uses self actualization as the highest human need and achievement. Moreover, for an academic, scientific papers’ publication is no longer a requirement, but rather a necessity. It is a form of scientific actualization to disseminate knowledge, in order to increase a country’s self esteem in the diplomacy of the quality of education and science (Subekti, 2015). Therefore, ‘Publish or perish’ is a cultural value that needs to be cultivated for academics in general.
Along with the development of internet based information technology, the media for publishing scientific works in the form of online digital based scientific journals have been pervasive and easily accessible to all people around the world (Astuti & Isharijadi, 2019; Daive, 1997; Willinsky, 2005) for regional or international indexed journals. Journals are also the informational media for all academics, in order to trace and read their research results (Gould, 2010) It affects an intellectual dialectical process among scientists, developing people’s research results or filling in the research gaps that others have not done. Ideally, internet based publication media should be a meaningful lesson for academics, especially students, by expressingthe ideas or thoughts to the public or society.
In other words, through publishing scientific papers, a positive and creative mindset grows in writing scientific papers (Cronin, 2005; Hartley, 2008). Consequently, writing scientific papers is a tradition that is studied by students in every learning activity in higher education (Persadha, 2016)
Research and publishing results play a vital role, especially in universities and research institutions, because they are the university’s credibility or the research institute’s leading indicators. The progress of universities and research institutions is measured by how much high quality research is produced. The more research or scientific work produced, the better the campus image (Salam et al., 2017) Apart from the quantity, research is also assessed by how much the produced paper influences others: directly or indirectly.
This impact factor can be measured by looking at the number of citations, while the quality of the research results is also measured by the journal that publishes them (Istadi, 2015; Sellers et al., 2004). The current trend shows that quality journals are journals indexed by journal indexing institutions, such as ScienceDirect, ProQuest, EBSCO, Web of Science, Scopus, and others (Falagas et al., 2008; Meho & Yang, 2007; Mongeon & Paul Hus, 2016) In Indonesia, Scopus indexed journals are used to measure the quality of the research results. Therefore, many researchers in Indonesia have used Scopus indexed journals, as targets and references in publishing research results. However, there were case examples: undergraduate students who had received intensive guidance to publish their research results. They had gone through the publisher’s review process and were declared accepted; but they were unable to publish their work
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because they collided with a costly publication. This indicates an achievement for undergraduate students; because they have succeeded in submitting publications at reputable international levels that impact universities. However, because they did not get financial support, the research results could not be published. Factors like this need to be considered by the related institutions, in this case, the university.
In the learning context, increasing the number of student publications is described in this action research. It is closely related to developing and providing breakthroughs in learning and adapting and integrating technological developments in learning. Thus, educators need to progress even better. They need to stay on top of their knowledge, by constantly educating themselves. They must have basic literacy skills and are alwaysbe able to learn by reading various resources. For instance, research on and recommended discussion around professional learning paradigms (Castle, 2006; James & McCormick, 2009; Nisbet & Shucksmith, 1986; Novak & Gowin, 1984; Olson & Craig, 2001); how learning media are developing through time by technology assisted aid using computer games (Rahman & Angraeni, 2020), or even utilizing LMS for practical courses (Rahman et al., 2020)
The result of this research are intended to inspire and assist educators for their literacy endeavors, allowing them to use the theories to adapt the changing environment (Korthagen, 2010; Penlington, 2008). As such, the research has shown that this can only be accomplished by improving academics’ learning.
This study’s aims have explored the framework for improving academics’ literacy competence for scientific publication activities, by providing several stages through pre action, action, and post action planned stages. These stages are translated into an acronym of seven practical steps, namely: LITERAT: L = Literacy of Technology: It introduces information technology needed for publication; I = Investigation: It explores and analyses the results of the latest research; T = Writing technique: It aims to understand how to compile a publication manuscript; E = Exploration: It explores to find and develop supporting theories; R = Reflection: It aims to improve the quality of the text, based on the experience; A = Actualization: it is an attempt to produce productive and creative actions in compiling publication manuscripts; T = Translation: this is the act of collaboration to transfer ideas to targeted languages.
Through LITERAT, literacy skills were able to increase by 87%. It can be inferred that thesepractical stepsare promising forthe improvement in academics’ literacy competence for scientific publication.
However, this studyhas limitations; as it only focuses on highereducation in West Java, and in developing the literacy skills of doctoral program students. In addition, E-Resource Indonesia National Library was the only online application used to find references. The results of this study can be followed up by expanding the scope of its locus and targets, which are not only implemented for doctoral program students, but at all levels in higher education. The reference searches can
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be expanded to ‘Publish or Perish’ application from harzing.com or from major publishers, such as SAGE, ScienceDirect, Taylor & Francis and etc.
We would like to extend our gratitude to the Research and Community Service Institution of Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, which has provided financial support for carrying out this research. The results of this research are free from any conflicts of interest.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 160 177, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.10
Received April 7, 2022; Revised Jun 17, 2022; Accepted Jun 28, 2022
Sang Tang My*
Ho Chi Minh City University of Economics and Finance, Vietnam
Hung Nguyen Tien
University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Ha Tang My
Ho Chi Minh City University of Economics and Finance, Vietnam
Thang Le Quoc
Ho Chi Minh City University of Economics and Finance, Vietnam
Abstract. DuringtheCOVID 19pandemic,itwasnecessarytoimplement online courses so that teaching and learning would not be interrupted. While online courses cannot replace traditional forms of learning, this form of teaching and learning has been and is the most effective solution. How to effectively teach and learn online is still a question of interest to many.Thestudyaimedtodeterminetherelationshipbetweenfactorsthat promote learner satisfaction and e learning outcomes among online learners of nine private universities in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, from the learner's perspective. Because the model has an intermediate variable, the PLS SEM method is used. The study used the technology mediated learning (TML) approach. Independent variables in this study include student motivation, student self regulation, teacher student dialogue, student student dialogue, activities, course structure, technology quality, and LMS tools and features. The dependent variable in this study is e learning outcomes. Research shows that student to student dialogue, course structure, and technology quality have a positive and significant impact on learner satisfaction. The results also show that learner satisfaction correlates with learner outcomes. From the research results, we have proposed some solutions, such as teaching platform, accuracy in course design, selection of software and teaching aids. This research offers a new understanding of the relationship between learner satisfaction and the learning effectiveness of online education at private universities, and contributes online education solutions suitable for new conditions in Vietnam.
* Corresponding author: SangTangMy,sangtm@uef.edu.vn
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Technology mediated learning, e learning, satisfaction, learning outcomes, COVID 19 pandemic
The COVID 19 pandemic has forced educational institutions to shift from traditional face to face classes to online classes (Yahya et al., 2021). Despite the general population's acceptance and implementation of this setup, the students face a variety of challenges (Del Rosario & dela Cruz, 2022). Online education has benefits, but it also has disadvantages (Xie et al., 2020). Students who took online classes encountered a number of challenges in delivering information (Jaca, 2022) In Vietnam, the COVID 19 outbreak also began to spread to other provinces. As of April 8, 2020, all 63 provinces and cities across the country allowed students to stay at home. On April 1, 2020, Vietnam began implementing social distancing across the country to prevent the spread of the disease. The pandemic brought various challenges to Vietnam's education and training system (Nguyen, 2022).
Education and training changes gradually to adapt to a new trend as society's development changes. In the context of Technology 4.0, education systems have transformed from traditional structures to modern teaching methods. Teaching and learning are not limited to face to face courses; today's educational technology also enables learners to learn remotely and on mobile devices (Yahya et al., 2021). In addition, educational technology enables teachers and learners to interact at any time. Many educational institutions, such as universities, colleges, and training centers, have used online teaching methods and created virtual classroom environments to organize courses (Vanessa, 2020). Online learning allows learners to take classes in their free time, even if they have other jobs (Xie et al., 2020) Consequently, under the new trend, both teachers and learners have the opportunity to gain further teaching experience.
Modern teaching methods are beneficial to learners and provide many conveniences for teachers' teaching subjects, and the teaching environment may be more pleasant (Xie et al., 2020). Additionally, advancements in educational technology have pushed the boundaries of the classroom, ensuring learning is always available (Yahya et al., 2021)
The COVID 19 pandemic forced universities to switch to emergency online learning (Yahya et al., 2021). The complex and rapid evolution of the pandemic made it difficult for policymakers to devise appropriate solutions for the pandemic situation, especially for the education sector (Crawford et al., 2020) Organizing learning in new conditions is not easy for some countries, especially low and middle income countries where even physical facilities are still challenging.
E learning is affected by many other factors, so the quality of e learning is also a matter of concern (Saba, 2012). Similarly, satisfaction in this form of learning is also affected by many other factors, such as learner motivation, course structure, teacher qualifications and supporting factors (Baber, 2020)
To connect with students and ensure the continuity of teaching, universities shifted from face to face training to online learning. While online training has many benefits, its implementation also has certain limitations, especially at a time when many universities are just beginning to adopt this form of teaching.
A summary of previous studies shows that this is a topic of high urgency and research on this topic has recently begun to receive the attention of researchers. However, because online teaching in Vietnam only began after the pandemic, there had been no research on this topic. As a result, research is required to find solutions.
The goal of this study was to identify factors that influence learner satisfaction and the outcomes of e learning from the learner's perspective; propose appropriate solutions to help increase learner satisfaction, and increase learning efficiency in new educational conditions The findings can help university managers, government politicians, teachers, and students to improve the quality of online learning and enhance learner satisfaction and e learning outcomes.
2.1 Technology Mediated Learning (TML)
Technology mediated learning (TML) is a learning environment supported by a complex information technology system, in which teachers, learners, and learning resources can interact online. The term "information technology" refers to the convergence of computing, communication, and data management technologies (Islam Sarker et al., 2019). TML is an essential trend in education as it enables the advantageous inclusion of traditional and IT based learning activities. Consequently, TML's significance will grow as it empowers the creation of innovative, personalized, and resource efficient ways of education. Learners can learn from a physical workplace or a self contained, cloud based learning location
Despite its numerous advantages, such as growing business feasibility and increased student achievement, TML raises several fundamental problems due to its variability. For example, due to the complexity of TML, studies cannot fully capture the impact of synchronous and asynchronous learning elements on TML outcomes (Zhong et al., 2022).
E learning is the use of information technology to disseminate information and knowledge for education and training. This form of teaching and learning has become a model of modern education. E-learning involves using the internet to access information and update knowledge at any place and time (Aparicio et al., 2014). Al Fraihat et al. (2020) also define an e learning system as an information system that can integrate a variety of instructional materials (via audio, video, and text media) via email, live chat sessions, online discussions, forums, tests, and assignments. It is an internet learning ecosystem that connects various stakeholders to technology and processes.
E learning allows learners to have greater access to internet connected devices, such as mobile phones, computers, tablet devices, and laptops (Alraimi et al., 2015) In general, an e learning system is a collection of information systems, human activities (students, trainers, and managers), as well as non human organizations (learning management systems), that enable holistic learning communication (Andrade et al., 2019).
Cyert and March (1963) pioneered user satisfaction to assess the success of information systems. It was proposed in that review that if data systems meet users’ needs, their satisfaction will grow naturally. Satisfaction can be defined as feeling the result of comparing perceptions and experiences of perceived service with people's expected happiness or disappointment. According to Moore (2012), characteristics, including the use of learning strategies, learning challenges, peer interaction, capacity to apply data, and achievement of learning outcomes, all effect learners' satisfaction levels with e learning (Moore, 2012)
There are various instruments for measuring student satisfaction in an online context. Survey questionnaires, such as the course experience questionnaire, the national student survey, and students' evaluations of educational quality, are widely used to assess learner satisfaction.
E learning is a system composed of three elements, including learners, teachers, and a learner management system (LMS). This system will connect everyone to optimize learning outcomes and increase student satisfaction (Eom et al., 2006). There are two sorts of processes that result in learning satisfaction. The course structure and design specify the process that the instructor creates and manages In an e learning system, student satisfaction is an important question in understanding the success factors of any online learning. Student satisfaction is an important factor that creates the final learning outcomes and student achievements (Babushkina et al., 2017)
According to Eom et al. (2006), eight elements influence e learning satisfaction: student motivation, student self regulation, instructor student interaction, student student interaction, instructor activities, and course structure. Additionally, in the research of Kintu and Zhu (2016), technology quality and LMS tools and features were also found to impact on e learning satisfaction.
Learner motivation is regarded as a complex and difficult issue in education (Dewi et al., 2021). The five main factors that affect student motivation are students, teachers, content, method/process, and environment (Meşe & Çiğdem, 2021). The role of students in education is critical and should go beyond the traditional view of students as clients or recipients of knowledge. Students prefer teachers they like for their motivational benefits over ones they dislike.
Instructors are responsible for guiding the knowledge based on designed content, and supervising the learners and the learning environment. Instructors need to be empowered to take the initiative in assessment to achieve the desired goals
Besides, the content must be accurate, timely, relevant and valuable to a student's life.
The educational method should provide an environment conducive to optimal motivation, engagement, and learning, and assist students in developing tools that will allow them to be self regulated (Howard et al., 2021). A suitable atmosphere must be present and easily accessible; the environment can be both physical and mental, emotional, and spiritual. Students with high motivation will be more successful in online environment than students with low motivation (Hsu, 2019). The reason for dropouts from online courses is dissatisfaction with the learning environment.
In an e learning environment, the most important consideration is course structure. Course content should be carefully developed and taught in moderation (Gopal et al., 2021). Course design is how courses are structured so that they can be delivered through various communication media. It expresses the program's educational objectives, instructional practices, andevaluation methods' rigidity or flexibility (Foster Hartnett et al., 2022). This is how an education campaign can accommodate or respond to the unique needs of each learner.
In low transaction distance courses, learners are guided through the course structure and conversations with instructors. In more remote programs, learners must decide on their learning strategies (Yahya et al., 2021), so course structure is fundamental in e learning. The course structure includes course development, organization, design, curriculum, pedagogy and methodology, schedule, and master planning before, during, and after course instruction (Sadikin & Hakim, 2019). Eom et al. (2006) found that course structure has a strong impact on student satisfaction.
Self regulated learning strategies are “actions and processes aimed at acquiring information or skills that involve the learner's perception of agency, purpose, and tools” (Zimmerman, 1990). Self regulated studying is a loop of “self oriented feedback”. In teaching, self regulated learning has a framework that does not take into account students' internal states, but instead relies heavily on learners' self control styles (e.g. self mentoring, self evaluation, self support, self correction, and self instruction) (Batool et al., 2019). Ejubović & Puška (2019) found that student self regulation significantly influences satisfaction.
Lecturers and students are the human resources for initiating and maintaining interpersonal dialogue; theyact within structuredresources. Dialogue can be used to improve student comprehension, strengthen learners' analytic skills, or as an evaluation tool. In online classes, dialogue can take several forms. For any type of dialogue to be successful, it must be carefully integrated into the curriculum, including using e mail, bulletin boards, 'real time' chat, asynchronous chat, group discussion, and debate (Shoepe et al., 2020).
According to Simmons and Simmons (2020), if student interaction is not involved in the learning process, students will not participate voluntarily. The findings of the empirical study have revealed a variety of impact trends. According to Gopal et al. (2021), teacher student interaction is an important predictor of student satisfaction. The results of Eom at el. (2006) demonstrate a statistically significant positive relationship between instructor student interaction and users’ satisfaction
In the current study, dialogue refers to “communication, collaboration, and interaction between learners and their instructors, as well as learners among themselves, to improve learners' understanding and engagement with course content” (Abuhassna et al., 2020) Abuhassna et al. (2020) discovered that learners' cooperation with their classmates influences their reaction to that cooperation Only important interactions are considered. Meaningful connections directly impact on learners' knowledge acquisition, stimulate their curiosity, and assist them in engaging in constructive learning activities that have an immediate impact on their learning results
Eom et al. (2006) and Kintu et al. (2017) discovered that student student interaction predicts satisfaction with the delivery medium, which has a positive impact.
In a traditional classroom, instructors are the primary actors in education and are primarily responsible for students’ learning experiences. However, changes in the educational environment require a different approach from instructors, such as a scaffolding role or a coaching role. E learning instructors have combined two distinct pedagogies: students and the classroom climate. When students have problems in an online course, prompt guidance from the professor inspires them to continue their studies. Previous studies found that instructors' quick responses substantially impacted learners' satisfaction (Lee et al., 2018). An instructor's attitude in the teaching process has an impact on student satisfaction According to Gopal et al. (2021), teachers' views toward e learning considerably impact e learner satisfaction.
E learning involves learning and conversation through the use of other technologies such as video conferencing (Bari et al., 2018). Therefore, the quality of technology and the internet is crucial for e learning The quality and reliability of information technology systems have an impact on the learning performance of learners. Web dataloadingspeedis closely related to the hostserver. Thehigher the server quality, the faster the online interface loads. If students have no sign in or sign out issues, continuing to interact with the teacher will increase their satisfaction. According to several studies, the strength of digital technology has a serious influence on e learning satisfaction (Lam et al., 2021).
Today, a large number of universities around the world are equipped with LMS to aid in the provision of a rich online learning environment, as well as to use its
tools and functionalities to improve pedagogy and learning quality (Al Sharhan et al., 2020) LMS tools and features are one of the most important elements of an e learning system. LMS tools and features quality is related to whether LMS tools and features are error free and easy to use.
The quality of LMS tools and features affects learner satisfaction, especially those aspects that affect how learners use the system. These characteristics include ease of use, learnability, and friendliness. Therefore, learners will be more likely to use a system if it is simple to use, and this increased use will have a positive impact on their satisfaction.
Kintu and Zhu (2016) analyzed LMS tools and features for usability, navigation, published course content, and perceived usefulness. The results showed that learners made heavy use of the tools and resources, and found them valuable, leading to learners' satisfaction.
E learning outcomes are goals that must be met during the learning process (Kustono et al., 2021). This is an important factor when studying e learning, measuring whether students attain competencies in their e learning (Weinert, 2001) Evaluating e learning outcomes is critical because dissatisfied students become less likely to be enrolled in prospective e learning classes. E learning outcomes occur when participants acquire new knowledge through e learning programs.
E learning satisfaction is a significant predictor of student outcomes. It frequently represents the cognitive component of course outcomes and is thus critical to evaluate in an e learning environment In their research, Eom et al (2006) found that user satisfaction is an important predictor of student outcomes.
H1. Student motivation has a positive influence on e learning satisfaction.
H2. The course structure has a positive influence on e learning satisfaction.
H3. Student self regulation has a positive influence on e learning satisfaction.
H4. Instructor student dialogue has a positive influence on e learning satisfaction.
H5. Student student dialogue has a positive correlation with e learning satisfaction.
H6. Instructor activities have a positive correlation with e learning satisfaction.
H7. Technology quality has a positive correlation with e learning satisfaction.
H8. LMS tools and features have a positive correlation with e learning satisfaction.
H9: E learning satisfaction is significantly associated with e learning outcomes.
Figure 1 shows the article's hypothetical model showing the interrelationships between the variables of interest.
To answer the research question, we used partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS SEM) to analyze the data. The study employed quantitative research methods, including tests the model's fit, CFA analysis and SEM model analysis. PLS SEM is a powerful instrument used to analyze linear structural models under abnormal conditions (Latan, 2018)
The respondents for this study were students of nine private universities in Ho Chi Minh City, including Hutech University, UEF, Hoa Sen University, Hong Bang University, Van Lang University, Huflit, Van Hien University, FPT University, Sai Gon University The interviewees were economics students in their first to fourth years who are studying online. The questionnaire was available in Vietnamese, translated by the authors.
A group of 15 people each took part in face to face discussions for the pre test. The subjects selected for the pre test were students of two universities, UEF and FPT University. These were students who had online learning experiences during the pandemic
The goal of pre testing is to identify and eliminate potential problems with wording, topic, sequence, and question difficulty. The results of the pre test questionnaire provide important feedback and helped to improve the construct validity of the questionnaire (Cook et al., 2002)
In the research, we use the online data collection tool Google Forms. A total of 250 questionnaires were distributed via Google Sheets. A total of 223 valid answers were received, corresponding to a response rate of 89%. This is regarded as a high response rate, which reduced the possibility of response bias.
In PLS SEM, the sample size must be at least 10 times the number of structural routes in the structural model that are directed at a specific latent construct (Hair et al., 2019). Because there are nine possible paths, the sample group should be greater than 90. As a result, the sample size of 223 answers in this study met the PLS SEM minimum size criteria
We assessed all items using a five point Likert scale ranging from "1" ("strongly disagree") to "5" ("strongly agree"). All 10 construct measures of the 44 variables were adjusted Existing scales were used in the questionnaire to determine the content validity, which was modified from previous studies (Trochim et al., 2016) The scale for student motivation, instructor activities, student student dialogue, instructor student dialogue, course structure, student self regulation, and learning outcomes was adapted from Eom and Ashill (2016)
The scale for technology quality was adapted from Kintu and Zhu (2016) The scale for LMS tools and features was adapted from Kintu and Zhu (2016). All constructs and measures are shown in Table 1.
Student motivation (STUM) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
STUM 1 I prefer challenging teaching material in online courses like this so I can learn new things.
STUM 2 In this online course, when allowed the opportunity to choose class assignments, I choose those that will help me with my studies, even if a good grade isn’t guaranteed.
STUM 3 I do everything in my power to ensure that my assignments are completely perfect.
STUM 4 Even when I dislike a class, I work hard to get a good grade.
STUM 5 I want to do well in this online class so that I can demonstrate my abilities to my family, parents, and others.
STUM 6 I want to be one of the most well known students in my class.
Instructor Activities (INSA) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
INSA1 The instructor actively facilitated this online class
INSA2 This online class's instructor provided timely and useful feedback on assignments, exams, and projects.
INSA3 The instructor in this online class encouraged students to exert intellectual effort beyond what was required in face to face classes.
INSA4 In this class, the instructor was concerned about my learning.
INSA5 In this class, the instructor pays attention to all the interests of the learners.
Learner Learner Dialogue (STUD) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
STUD1 In this online class, I had a lot of good and constructive interactions with other students
STUD2 Online classrooms are built to foster student interaction
STUD3 In this class, my classmates taught me more than any other class at this university.
STUD4 Positive interaction between students in the class has helped me improve my academic results
Instructor Learner Dialogue (INSD) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
INSD1 In this online class, I frequently interacted with the instructor in a positive and constructive manner.
INSD2 In this online class, the instructor and students had a lot of positive and constructive interactions.
INSD3 Interaction between learners and teachers has helped me achieve better learning results
INSD4 Interactions between students and the instructor that was positive and constructive were an important part of the learning process.
Course Structure (COUS) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
COUS1 This online class's course objectives and procedures were communicated.
COUS2 The modules are simple and straightforward.
COUS3 This online class's course materials were interesting and piqued my interest in learning.
COUS4 This online class's course materials provided me with a diverse set of challenges.
COUS5 Learning outcomes have been linked to assignments, projects, and exams.
Learner Self Regulation (STUR) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
STUR1 I set goals and develop learning strategies to achieve the expected results
STUR2 I still try to finish my homework even though the study materials are boring
STUR3 I keep track of my grades in each course, and if one appears to be slipping, I prioritize that class in my studies.
STUR4 When I'm studying for a test, I try to combine information from class notes and the book.
Learning outcomes (LOUT) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
LOUT1 The quality of online and in person classes is the same during the pandemic
LOUT2 During the pandemic, this online class taught me just as much as the offline classes
LOUT3 During the pandemic, online classes taught me more than in person classes.
LOUT4 During the pandemic, the quality of the learning experience in online classes is superior to that of offline classes
User satisfaction (SAST) [Source: Eom & Ashill, 2016]
SAST1 Other students would benefit from having this instructor as a teacher.
SAST2 I will recommend this course to other students.
SAST3 I will continue to follow this school's online courses in the near future
SAST4 I am satisfied with this school's online course during the pandemic Technology quality (TECQ) [Source: Kintu & Zhu, 2016]
TECQ1 I believe that the information technologies used in e learning are simple to use.
TECQ2 I believe that the information technologies used in e learning serve a variety of purposes.
TECQ3 I believe that the information technologies used in e learning are adaptable.
TECQ4 I believe that the information technologies used in e learning are simple to obtain.
LMS tools and features (LMSF) [Source: Kintu & Zhu, 2016]
LMSF1 LMS tools and features are easy to use
LMSF2 LMS tools and features spawn interaction between the learners and instructor.
LMSF3 I can access resources via LMS tools and features
LMSF4 LMS tools and features give learners feedback on tasks
In qualitative research, we assess the model's fit, reliability, and validity by test composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE). Composite reliability is the lower constraint for internal consistency reliability, for all latent variables or constructs must be greater than 0.70 (Sahoo, 2019). The average variance extracted (AVE) metrics could be used to evaluate the convergent validity of the constructs, and an acceptable AVE is 0.50 or greater, suggesting that the construct explains at least 50% of its items' variance (Hair et al., 2019).
The outer loadings are used to assess individual item dependability. This ratio indicates the loadings of the reflective manifest variables in relation to their associated latent variables. A loading greater than 0.7 indicates that the item is reliable.
After confirming the measurement model, the research then estimates the structural model, which specifies the relationships between latent variables. The square root of the AVE indicator is used to assess discriminant validity; the construct must be greater than the approximate correlation between that conceptual framework and the other concepts (Sahoo, 2019)
The partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS SEM) method was used to analyze these studies. The multivariate data analysis technique has gained popularity among academics in recent years (Sahoo, 2019). PLS SEM can be used for smaller samples, but the nature of the population will dictate when small sample sizes are appropriate (Latan, 2018)
The study required confirming the measurement model's reliability and validity before performing a non iterative implementation of ordinary least squares regression to provide latent and manifest variable outer weights, loadings, and structural model linkages Finally, the bootstrap resampling method was used to determine the statistical significance of structural paths.
No data items were missing from the 223 questionnaires sent by email and received filled out by the respondents. The first step was to assess the measurement model, which included assessing the model's fit, reliability, and validity. The second step considered the results of outer loadings. The next step assessed discriminant validity
Table 2. The results from the measurement model estimation (weight, loading, CR value, and AVE)
Latent variable Manifest variable Outer weight Outer Loading CR value AVE
COUS1 0.204 0.747
Course Structure
0.898 0.638 COUS2 0.235 0.779 COUS3 0.301 0.851 COUS4 0.275 0.843 COUS5 0.230 0.767
INSA1 0.247 0.759
Instructor Activities
Instructor Learner Dialogue
LMS Tools and Features
0.871 0.576 INSA2 0.287 0.779 INSA3 0.282 0.795 INSA4 0.286 0.736 INSA5 0.214 0.723
INSD1 0.413 0.828 0.878 0.707 INSD2 0.349 0.820 INSD3 0.426 0.873
LMSF1 0.281 0.853
0.913 0.724 LMSF2 0.309 0.830 LMSF3 0.283 0.879 LMSF4 0.303 0.841
LOUT1 0.292 0.871
E Learning Outcomes
Learner’s Satisfaction
0.914 0.727 LOUT2 0.307 0.851 LOUT3 0.291 0.865 LOUT4 0.284 0.823
SAST1 0.274 0.774
0.884 0.656 SAST2 0.298 0.799 SAST3 0.317 0.809 SAST4 0.343 0.854
STUD2 0.392 0.818 0.863 0.678 STUD3 0.409 0.824 STUD4 0.413 0.829 Learner Motivation STUM1 0.683 0.846 0.783 0.644
Learner Learner Dialogue
Technology Quality
STUM5 0.557 0.757
STUR1 0.348 0.745
0.856 0.598 STUR2 0.362 0.792 STUR3 0.272 0.748 STUR4 0.311 0.806
TECQ1 0.304 0.825
0.894 0.678 TECQ2 0.313 0.854 TECQ3 0.288 0.801 TECQ4 0.310 0.811
According to the statistical findings shown in Table 2, the CR values in the models used in this study ranged from 0.863 to 0.914, exceeding the criterion (0.7). The results also include the estimated results of the measurement model, such as outer loadings. All outer loadings in this study, ranging between 0.723 to 0.879, were greater than 0.7. The AVE values in this study ranged from 0.576 to 0.727, which exceeds the threshold value (0.5) proposed by Fornell and Larcker (1981)
Following the validation of the measurement model, we estimated the relationship between latent variables Figure 2 shows the path coefficients and R squared of the endogenous latent variables *** ρ < 0.001; ** ρ < 0.05
The empirical results show that learner’s satisfaction associates significantly with e learning outcomes from the learner’s perspective. Where learner’s satisfaction (SAST) associates significantly with instructor student dialogue COUS (β = 0.263, p = 0.006), learner learner dialogue STUD (β =0.188, p=0.007), course structure TECQ (β = 0.257, p = 0.001), but does not significantly associate with learner self regulation STUR (β = 0.010, p=0.885), learner motivation STUM (β =0.090,
p=0.085), INSA instructor activities (β =0.101, p=0.191), LMSF (β =0.019, p=0.775), instructor learner dialogue INSD (β =0.06, p=0.407); (2) learner’s satisfaction SAST significantly associates with e learning outcomes LOUT(β = 0.829, p=0.000). The findings supported hypotheses H2, H5, H7, and H9, but not hypotheses H1, H3, H4, H6, and H8. This shows that learner motivation, learner self regulation, instructor learner dialogue, instructor activities, LMS tools and feature have not affected the satisfaction of learners at private universities in Vietnam. The findings also show that the square root of AVE on each conceptual framework (i.e., the diagonal elements in Table 3) is higher than the correlation between the construct and other constructs (i.e., those related off diagonal elements in Table 3.)
COUS INSA INSD LMSF LOUT SAS STUD STUM STUR TECQ
COUS 0.799
INSA 0.595 0.759
INSD 0.618 0.578 0.841 LMSF 0.569 0.504 0.462 0.851 LOUT 0.628 0.499 0.537 0.497 0.853 SAS 0.715 0.579 0.592 0.527 0.829 0.810
STUD 0.619 0.513 0.653 0.406 0.639 0.633 0.823 STUM 0.341 0.316 0.360 0.413 0.401 0.420 0.401 0.803 STUR 0.578 0.509 0.419 0.501 0.424 0.488 0.377 0.389 0.773 TECQ 0.748 0.577 0.557 0.628 0.610 0.702 0.561 0.389 0.526 0.823
In terms of the positive influence of STUD on SAST, the results show that encouraging student to student dialogue may improve learner satisfaction (Kintu et al., 2017b) One of the biggest barriers to online learning is students' lack of intimacy and interaction. Therefore, solutions are needed to improve student to student dialogue in the classroom and increase the efficiency of interactions. This may be because students are motivated to learn when they are in a group. They no longer feel isolated and benefit from the feedback of others. Our study is one of the few that enhances the growing literature by validating a model investigating the determinants of learner satisfaction and their impact on learner outcomes. This research also confirms that COUS is significantly associated with SAST. This information indicates that learners' satisfaction increases
Course structure plays a central role in a successful e learning ecosystem. If learners are not able to ask for help and feedback throughout the entire learning process, the desired results will not be achieved. More simply, learners cannot join the learning ecosystem, because they have no motivation and support. The findings are consistent with the research of Eom et al. (2006), that the course structure is more than just words on a page. There are links, images, and formatting. It is not just about designing a page. It is about designing a complete learning journey. Instructional designers need to recognize the importance of
content and visual design to provide learners with a better learning experience and make e learning a great success (Eom et al., 2006)
Consistent with findings in the literature, this study demonstrates that SAST receives a positive and significant influence from TECQ. When the quality of technology increases, learner satisfaction will increase. Similar results have previously been found by Sun et al. (2008) and Kintu et al. (2017a) Online learners face difficulties when using live online learning and other platforms requiring an internet connection. They face technical challenges not because they are unfamiliar with computer technology and applications. A fast and reliable technology connection can change the speed at which they can join classes and avoid missing live classes. So, if technology quality increases, the satisfaction of learners will increase.
In terms of learner's outcome, it is shown that SAST positively relates to LOUT. Learners' outcomes are driven by satisfaction, as has been proven in the literature of previous research (Eom et al., 2006). Satisfaction can bring happiness to the individual in the learning process, and thereby generate excitement and create conditions to stimulate, arouse and achieve high learning efficiency.
In the process of designing online classrooms, educational institutions need to consider overall factors such as policy frameworks, facilities and technology infrastructure, human resources, teaching methods, assessment, and content, and digital resources for teaching. In which, there should be solutions to promote learner learner interaction, classroom structure design and technology quality.
This study emphasizes key concepts related to the determinants of e learning satisfaction and e learning outcomes. According to the findings, student to student dialogue is positively related to satisfaction. Instructors need to add a social element to help online learners connect and feel connected to the entire group, creating a sense of authentic presence through interactions and discussions through web chat and direct messaging. Teaching platforms must be used to create online discussion groups.
The higher the level of satisfaction, the more complete the course structure. So, creating online course content requires extreme precision. Online courses need be both necessary and appropriate for learners. A key requirement for every lecture is a clear and coherent layout. With such a reasonable layout, online courses will be able to guide learners very effectively, and thereby improve the teaching quality of any online course.
Technological quality is also seen as an important factor in student satisfaction. Therefore, appropriate online learning software and teaching aids must be selected. Attention should be given to internet systems to best support connections between teachers and students.
Based on the above ideas, the authors propose the solution for the online classroom design process as follows:
Step 1. Create a plan. This is the first stage of the process of organizing an interactive course. It is necessary to identify the objectives of the course, the learning activities and methods that will best support student learning, the tasks students must complete, and the opportunities for students to demonstrate their academic achievement.
Step 2. Teach Design. When designing courses, instructors should pay attention to the determination of learning outcomes, the determination of learning content and resources, the choice of teaching methods, the choice of technology, the form of assessment and assessment methods.
Step 3. Organize implementation. The role of instructors in organizing the curriculum includes organizing online and in person learning activities, managing learners, supporting and sustaining learner learning, motivating and engaging learners, reviewing and evaluating learning outcomes.
Step 4. After-school assessment. The assessment of online teaching and learning is based on three main areas: pedagogy the learning activities that underlie teaching; resources the content and information provided to learners; and questions.
Step 5. Improvements. During the improvement phase, the design process, the course organization starts again to incorporate any changes made to improve the course into the next course.
The research also has several limitations. First, it has not yet compared the two periods before and during the pandemic. Second, the authors only conducted research on college students at private schools, and not on a group of public universities that invest in facilities according to national standards. Future research could expandthe comparison of the relationship before, during,andafter the pandemic. It is also possible to conduct a broad survey of all types of universities.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 178 193, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.11
Received Mar 15, 2022; Revised Jun 16, 2022; Accepted Jun 29, 2022
Abstract. The outbreak of Covid 19 and consequent school closures created a considerable challenge for educational systems around the world. Many countries have shifted to online learning and other digital alternatives to ensure continuity in education. Within this global and historical context of the Covid 19 pandemic, the present study aimed to explore teachers’ attitudes towards the use of online learning for young children in Saudi Arabia. A total of 346 early childhood teachers were surveyed during school closures and the concomitant shift to online learningandteaching.Theteacherswhoparticipatedwererecruitedfrom public and private kindergartens and early childhood centers. The respondents completed a survey consisting of two scales developed for the purposes of this study. The first scale explored teachers’ general attitudes towards using online learning strategies with young children (10 items). The second scale explored teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning with young children based on their professional experience during the Covid 19 pandemic (10 items). The findings indicated that the majority of the respondents held positive attitudes about the use of online learning as an alternative to regular schooling. However, some beliefs varied among respondents, for example, whether online learning is developmentally and educationally appropriate for young children, and whether it creates or lacks a learning atmosphere. In addition, chi square test results for both scales indicated statistically significant associations between teacher attitudes towards using online learning and years of teaching experience. However, no statistically significant associations were found for both scales between teacher attitudes and geographic area (urban/rural) or school type (public/private). Implications for teaching during and beyond the pandemic are discussed.
Keywords: Covid 19; online learning; Saudi Arabia; teacher attitudes; young children
* Corresponding author: AhlamA.Alghamdi,Abghamdi@tu.edu.sa
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The multidimensional impact of the Covid 19 pandemic has resulted in disruptions and real challenges for health, the economy, and education worldwide. The pandemic has caused the most extensive educational disruption that the world has ever witnessed (United Nations, 2020). Nearly 1.6 billion learners in more than 190 countries have been affected by school closures, constituting 94% of theworld’s student population (United Nations, 2020).Nearly 200 countries established strict regulations to lock down schools, from early childhood care centers to institutions of higher education (UNESCO, 2020). In early childhood education, as many as 40 million children around the world missed out on educational opportunities in their critical early preschool years (United Nations, 2020). Sustaining the continuity of education for children is a considerable challenge for education systems worldwide. In many countries, governments and education stakeholders have been under immense pressure to make immediate decisions to adapt and develop alternatives to regular schooling. The implementation ofan online learningformathas beennecessary.Using online learning and other digital devices has been the safest choice to maintain children’ s education when health considerations create physical barriers to prevent in person interaction, and consequently, online approaches have been applied (World Bank, 2020)
Different terminology have been used to refer to online learning, including virtual learning, e learning, and internet learning. Online learning is commonly known as a web-based learning mode that relies on internet use without the physical presenceof eithertheinstructororlearners(Nachimuthu,2020;Singh&Thurman, 2019). Online learning is a form of distance education that can provide asynchronous or synchronous learning experiences. Asynchronous learning does not require exact timing, and learners can access learning materials at any time. In synchronous learning, teachers and students meet virtually using computer screens and facilitate real time interaction (Anderson, 2008). During the difficult time of the pandemic, both asynchronous and synchronous modes of online learning were used, whether completely or in part, to cope with school closures (UNESCO, 2020)
The number of young children who are using online tools is rapidly increasing. Due to the advanced technologies resulting from the revolution in smart devices and touchscreen tablets, children have become more connected to the digital world than ever before (Livingstone, 2013) The use of digital technologies in the early childhood years is not a novel phenomenon and has been debated heatedly among early childhood professionals. In recent years, some scholars have raised concerns about the effect of young children using digital technology and have called for screen time to be limited (cf., Carson & Janssen, 2012; Elkind, 2007; House, 2012; Zosh et al., 2016), claiming that it limits the development of the social and emotional skills that children need for school. Other scholars have viewed technology and digital learning experiences as good avenues to extend learning and support children’s cognitive capacity (Plowman et al., 2012; Stephen & Edwards, 2017) Despite this controversy, the 2020 2021 school year was
exceptional. Educators have emphasized the need to maintain young children’s access and connection to digital and online resources to prevent school dropout and learning losses in the crucial early years of their lives (cf., Daniel, 2020; Kim, 2020; Vanderloo et al., 2020)
Teaching young children entirely online is beyond teachers’ technological and digital capacity. Teachers are more familiar with using technology and online materials to expand classroom learning and make meaningful connections to the real world. Technology has been viewed mostly as an effective supplement to teaching modes rather than a replacement (Donohue et al., 2020). The appropriateness of online learning experiences for young children has been viewed through the lens of the thoughtful and intentional use of proper technology and age appropriate digital content. The availability and accessibility of online resources for children in remote locations, as in the case of Covid 19, do not suffice for online learning to be adopted as an effective approach. As a result, teachers need to take on an additional role when teaching online (Kim, 2020). The competencies required for online teaching success include the ability to communicate effectively,managetechnology, deliver digital content, andmediate various active interactions (learner learner interaction, learner instructor interaction, and learner content interaction) (Roddy et al., 2017). From a developmental point of view, the use of technology has the power to bridge the physical divide between children and their peers but should not replace meaningful face to face interaction (National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 2020a)
The dramatic shift to online and virtual modes of teaching and learning activities has raised several concerns related to teachers’ digital attitudes, knowledge, and skills, and confidence in using technology as a vehicle for content in the online learning environment and an alternative to traditional face to face teaching. Teaching online has required teachers to be knowledgeable about information and communication technologies (ICTs) to continue instructing students when physical teaching has not been possible (World Bank, 2020) The necessity of ICT skills has proven to be a significant limitation of online teaching This has resulted in teachers with limited technological experience believing that they were not fully prepared to switch from a face to face learning system to an online learning system in which all the instructional components would take place via digital media and screens (Aliyyah et al., 2020; Carrillo & Flores, 2020; Kim, 2020). Trust and Whalen (2020) reported that teachers felt overwhelmed and unprepared to use online or remote teaching tools and struggled to adapt effective pedagogy for their students. Teachers did not have sufficient digital literacy in the skills needed for online communication with students. Teachers were also found to have difficulty maintaining stable internet access to offer regular communication with their students (Alea et al., 2020; Bird & Bhardwaj, 2020). All these issues have resulted from the unexpected shift to online based learning, which might in turn have impacted teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning with children.
The disruption caused by Covid 19 to education communities has been almost identical around the world. The massive spread of the virus was unpredictable,
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and immediate action had to be taken to find an alternative to in person teaching. In Saudi Arabia, major transformational decisions were made to support the continuity of education (Mann et al., 2020). After the World Health Organization (WHO) (2020) alerted the world to the outbreak of the virus, the Saudi Government immediately responded and suspended all in person meetings at schools, from preschools through to universities, in early March 2020. This was one month into the second term of the school year (Alshammari et al., 2020). The Saudi Ministry of Education (MOE) announced the urgent transition to online alternatives to sustain education and resume schooling remotely (Perveen et al., 2020). Two options wereavailablefor students and teachers. The first was massive open online courses (MOOCs), known locally as iEN satellite channels, which began airing lessons asynchronously for students in all grades on the 9th of March 2020. The second option was an established online platform, Madrasti [My School], which offered synchronized interaction between students and their teachers according to a daily schedule (Saudi Arabia. MOE, 2020)
For early education, the Saudi MOE created a virtual learning platform called Alrawdha Aliftradhiah [Virtual Kindergarten], in which children aged 3 to 7 could enroll under their parents’ supervision. Each child was assigned a teacher to guide their journey of joy, learning, and discovery. This virtual experience offered young children a variety of educational elements and content through 11 units in an interactive virtual environment. Children could level up according to the timeline of their progress and achievement. Two versions of Alrawdha Aliftradhiah (a website and a downloadable application) were launched in 2019, and 2020 recorded the highest level of enrollment by children. Children also had the opportunity to synchronize interactive learning with their teachers through another national online platform, Rawadati, which was first launched in January 2021. Teachers met with the children every day and presented lessons, activities, and stories using digital materials and resources provided by the National iEN Gate. Before the Rawadati platform, teachers used other digital platforms, such as Google Meet, Microsoft Teams, and Zoom, to meet virtually with preschool children based on their preferences. Although multiple options were made accessible to both teachers and learners during the pandemic, the experience of the sudden shift to online teaching created a range of challenges. Teachers had to move from face to face settings to online platforms and develop the digital literacy and skills needed for this transition, and moreover, they had to adapt to the transition within a matter of days.
There is a plethora of research on online learning in higher education at the university and college levels. However, it is not common to adopt distance learning and online courses for the early years of education (Donohue et al., 2020; Martin et al., 2021). The urgent shift to online learning for all learners due to Covid 19demonstratestheneedfor research on the possibilities of online teaching in early childhood education (Chen & Krieger, 2022; Goldschmidt, 2020; Kim, 2020). School lockdown decisions, followed by the transition to online learning, have been disruptive for all teachers. For many teachers, shifting classroom practices to a virtual environment in a short time period is considered a major transformational situation in their profession. There is an urgent need to explore
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how this unprecedented event has shaped early childhood teachers’ attitudes regarding online learning as major digital changes have occurred due to school lockdowns. Thus, this study aimed to explore teacher attitudes towards the use of online learning for young children during the difficult pandemic period. The following research questions guided this investigation:
• Research question 1: What are Saudi teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for young children?
• Research question 2: What are Saudi teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for young children during the Covid 19 pandemic?
• Research question 3: Is there a relationship between Saudi teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for young children and years of teaching experience, school type, and geographic area, respectively?
• Research question 4: Is there a relationship between Saudi teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for young children during the Covid 19 pandemic and years of teaching experience, school type, and geographic area, respectively?
A quantitative survey was used to explore teachers’ attitudes regarding the use of online learning for young children during the Covid 19 pandemic. Prior to starting data collection, the Committee of Research Ethics at the author’s university reviewed the tools of data collection and approved the study. Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was obtained. All ethical guidelines were considered and followed. Each respondent was provided with an electronic copy of the informed consent form before being provided access to the survey. Informed consent indicated that participation in the study was voluntary and that respondents knew their right to withdraw from the study at any time.
The instrument used for this study was a researcher made survey constructed to explore early childhood teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for young children during the Covid 19 pandemic. Two scales were developed for the purposes of this study. The first scale consisted of 10 items related to general attitudes regarding online learning for young children. The second scale consisted of another 10 items related to teachers’ attitudes based on their own professional experience using online learning during the Covid 19 pandemic. The content and context of the survey were academically checked by experts in the field one assistant professor and one associate professor to ensure that all the items were scientifically correct and relevant. All suggestions and corrections were made to the last version of the survey before distribution. The reliability of the survey was verified by calculating the value of Cronbach’s alpha, with a value higher than 0.60 considered statistically acceptable. The Cronbach alpha values for each scale and for both scales as a whole are statistically acceptable, indicating survey reliability (Table 1).
The internal validity of the survey statements was calculated with the Pearson correlation coefficient (correlational relationship) between the degree of each item and the total degree of the scale to which it belongs. Correlation coefficients
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between the degree of all items and the total degree of the scale to which they belong were statistically significant at a significance level less than 0.01 and 0.05, respectively. This indicates the coherence of these items and their validity for application to the sample.
Table 1: Validity results (between each scale and both scales as a whole)
Pearson correlation Scale Number
0.860**
Attitudes towards using online learning for young children 1 0.916** Attitudes towards using online learning for young children during Covid 19 2
** The correlation was significant at the 0.01 level (two tailed).
The target population of this study was early childhood teachers teaching young children in public and private kindergartens and early childhood centers. An electronic copy of the survey was distributed using digital multimedia (e mail, social media, and teacher groups on WhatsApp, Telegram, and Twitter). The data collection period lasted from October 2020 to March 2021, during the time when online learning was adopted due to the Covid 19 pandemic and schools were still in lockdown. Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement with each item of the survey on a 5 point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree). SPSS software was used to analyze the obtained data. A descriptive statistical analysis and chi square tests were performed to answer the research questions. To answer research questions 1 and 2,wecalculatedthemeansandpercentagesforself reportedmeasuresof teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for young children and teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for young children during the Covid 19 pandemic, respectively. To answer research questions 3 and 4, chi square tests were run to test the associations between each independent variable (years of teaching experience, school type, and geographic area) and each dependent variable.
A total of 346 teachers completed the survey (N = 346). All the respondents were female, as in Saudi Arabia only female teachers can serve at early childhood education programs and child centers. The demographic information of the study sample is shown in Table 2.
Characteristic N = 346 %
Years of experience
Fewer than 5 75 21.7
5 to 10 years 175 50.6
More than 10 96 27.7
School type
Public 252 72.8 Private 94 27.2
Geographic area
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Rural 67 19.4
Urban 279 80.6
Regarding teaching experience working with young children, 50.6% of thesample had 5 to 10 years, 27% had more than 10 years, and 21% had fewer than 5 years Regarding school type, 73% of the respondents worked in public establishments and 27% worked in the private sector. Finally, 81% of the sample worked in urban areas, while 19% worked in rural areas.
The first research question explored teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for young children. The survey statements (items) for scale 1 with their respective means and standard deviations are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Means and standard deviations for survey statements of scale 1
No. Statement
1 Online learning is needed for the new generation.
M SD
2.12 1.005
2 Online learning is more interactive for children and has a wider range of digital materials than traditional education. 2.10 1.034
3 Online learning allows parents to be effectively engaged in their children’s learning 1.81 0.772
4 Online learning costs children’s families less than traditional education. 1.57 0.848
5 Online learning is developmentally and educationally appropriate for young children 3.00 1.006
6 Online learning consumes more time and effort than traditional education. 2.87 1.189
7 Online learning helps children develop independence and decision making skills 2.42 0.921
8 Online learning mediates children’s interaction with technology and digital media effectively. 1.85 0.754
9 Online learning lacks a learning atmosphere for young children 2.18 0.951
10 Online learning causes stress for children’s families. 2.12 0.878
The majority of the sample (75%) believed that online learning is needed for the new generation. Furthermore, more than half of the sample (72%) believed that online learning is more interactive and has a wider range of digital materials than traditional education. In terms of parental involvement, although a large number of the respondents believed that online learning allows parents to be effectively engaged in their children’s learning (82%), they also believed that online learning causes stress for children’s families (70%). The respondents largely agreed that the cost of online learning is lower than that of traditional learning in regular schooling (90%), and that online learning effectively mediates children’s interaction with technology and digital media (85%).
Just over half of the sample (55%) believed that online learning helped children develop independence and decision making skills, while 32% were unsure or
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neutral about this item. There was noticeable variation among the respondents regarding whether online learning is developmentally and educationally appropriate for young children. Approximately equal proportions believed that it is appropriate (30%) and that it is not (29%); 38% were not certain about the appropriateness of online learning for young learners. Such variation was also found between respondents who believed that online learning consumes more time and effort than traditional education (40%) and those who did not (38%). Finally, more than two thirds of the respondents (68%) believed that a learning atmosphere is lacking in online learning.
The second research question explored teachers’ beliefs and attitudes regarding online learning for young children based on their professional experience during the Covid 19 pandemic. The survey statements (items) for scale 2, in relation to online teaching during the pandemic, and their respective means and standard deviations are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Means and standard deviations for survey statements of scale 2
No Statement M SD
1
I enjoyed the experiences of online learning and teaching during the pandemic 2.12 0.957
2
3
4
I had a smooth transition from a face to face learning style to an online learning platform 2.13 1.000
I had experience with online learning and teaching prior to the pandemic 3.40 1.175
I have experienced some difficulties with online learning (e.g., technical difficulties, internet access) that affect my teaching 1.95 0.981
5
I have received sufficient support and training during my experience with teaching children online. 2.20 0.956
6 I need more professional development like courses or workshops for online learning and teaching 1.92 0.809
7
8
I can interact with children and motivate them effectively through the screen. 2.21 0.897
I collaborate with children’s parents and families on some online activities and tasks during online learning 1.84 0.749
9 I have gained new skills and knowledge while teaching online 1.44 0.636
10 I am willing to continue using online learning and teaching in the future 2.05 1.017
Most of the respondents enjoyed the experience of online teaching (74%), and gained new skills and knowledge while teaching online (94%). Although more than two thirds of the sample had a smooth transition from face to face to online learning (71%), they also experienced technical difficulties (e.g., with internet access) while teaching virtually (84%), which they believed affected their performance. The majority of respondents (68%) also stated that they received sufficient support from IT units during their experience with online learning. A larger majority (85%) believed that they needed more professional development, such as courses or workshops, in online learning and teaching.
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The respondents were generally positive regarding their ability to interact with children and motivate them effectively through the computer screen (68%). They also reported collaborating with children’s parents and families on some online activities and tasks during their experience with online teaching (84%). Just over one quarter (28%) had had experience with online learning and teaching prior to the pandemic, while 68% of respondents reported no such experience. The respondents also demonstrated a positive attitude towards their experience with online teaching and their willingness to continue using it in the future (72%).
The third research question investigated the relationship between teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for young children and years of teaching experience, school type, and geographic area, respectively. To test this, chi square tests were performed for both scale 1 and scale 2 (Table 5).
Table 5: Chi square results for scales 1 and 2
Variable Scale 1 Scale 2
Chi square p value Chi square p value
Years of experience 97 093 0 026* 107 881 0 025*
School type 18 876 0 759 32 603 0 210
Geographic area 30 876 0 157 24 769 0 587
* Association found at 0.05 level of significance
Note. Scale 1: attitudes towards using online learning for young children. Scale 2: attitudes towards using online learning for young children during the Covid 19 pandemic.
The chi square test of associations for scale 1 revealed a significant association between attitudes towards using online learning for young children and years of teaching experience (p = 0.026). The test also indicated that there was no significant association between attitudes towards using online learning for young children and school type (p = 0.759) or geographic area (p = 0.157).
The fourth research question explored the relationship between teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for young children during the Covid 19 pandemic and years of teaching experience, school type, and geographic area, respectively. The chi square test of associations for scale 2 (Table 5) showed a significant association between attitudes towards using online learning for young children during the Covid 19 pandemic and years of teaching experience (p = 0.025). However, there was no significant association between attitudes towards using online learning for young children and school type (p = 0.210) or geographic area (p = 0.587).
This study aimed to explore teachers’ attitudes towards using online learning for young children during the Covid 19 pandemic. The analysis revealed overall positive attitudes towards online learning among the teachers in the sample. High percentages of respondents agreed with items representing beliefs that reflect an
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openness to the new innovation of online learning as they believed it is needed for the new generation. It is also economic, with respondents believing online learning costs learners’ families less than traditional education. Moreover, they believed that online learning effectively mediates children’s interaction with technology and digital media. On the other hand, respondents supported statements reflecting a negative attitude regarding limitations in using online learning in that it lacks a learning atmosphere. Respondents viewed online learning in family relationships negatively as they believed that online learning causes stress for learners’ families. There was variation across respondents’ beliefs regarding different attitudes about whether online learning is developmentally and educationally appropriate for young children. Additionally, respondents had varied attitudes regarding online learning as they believed it to consume more time and effort than traditional education.
Comparisons can be made between the findings from this study and those from other studies conducted during the pandemic. The results of the present study are similar to the results obtained by Alea et al. (2020) regarding Saudi teachers’ beliefs that online learning and teaching consumes more time and effort than traditional education. Alea et al. (2020) reported that during the Covid 19 pandemic, teachers faced challenges with time management in online classes and experienced stress meeting the requirements set by the school administration, which required extra effort. Teachers reported feeling frustrated with online teaching requirements, as they considered mastery of technology to be key to successful teaching (Alea et al., 2020; Dong et al., 2020; Kim, 2020). Teachers’ confidence with technology is critical and vital to making online learning successful for children (Hoq, 2020). In other words, technology alone cannot make online learning successful To keep learners effectively engaged, especially young learners, teachers need to be equipped with digital and pedagogical skills concerning technology functionality for educational purposes and online teaching (Hoq, 2020; UNICEF, 2020).
Respondentsinthisstudyalsoheldtheopinionthatonlinelearninghelpschildren develop independence and decision making skills. Likewise, Fox Turnbull (2019) noted that learning related to technology education promotes children’s sense of independent engagement with the technology and that technological literacy is a necessary competency for 21st century children to flourish. Chen and Krieger (2022) noted a valuable learning gain from interacting virtually as individuals and/or cooperatively as groups, that children will become more resilient and confident with their actions online. However, the level of independence involved in learning online does not translate into independent learning, especially for young children. Donohue et al. (2020) noted that independent learners in online or distance learning are not necessarily lonely learners and that there is a third party involved, specifically with young users. This third party are parents and other family members, who are involved as a means of support in distance learning to ensure that children are actively connected. This is because children need help with technology not only to log in or out of online resources but also to prepare materials for hands on activities at home (Kim, 2020).
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The respondents also believed that online learning causes stress for children’s families. This finding is consistent with an existing finding that parents were overwhelmed trying to keep up with their children’s new style of education while fulfilling their other responsibilities during the global pandemic (Garbe et al., 2020). Other documented negative beliefs and attitudes regarding children’s online learning among parents during Covid 19 are that online learning is inconvenient, challenging, time consuming, and generally less effective than traditional learning (Dong et al., 2020). On the other hand, the respondents in this study believed that parents and families have an important role in some tasks and activities with their children. Similar findings by Braslauskienė et al. (2021) showed that preschool teachers were constantly engaged in mutual communication with learners’ parents to provide them with instructional materials. Undoubtedly, the Covid 19 pandemic has created anxiety for children, families, and educators alike. However, the beneficial aspect of the crisis is that it has encouraged all adults engaged in duties involving young children to work individually and collectively to allow education to continue amid pressure and uncertainty about when life will return to “normal” (Daniel, 2020).
Although the majority of the respondents in this study agreed that online learning during the pandemic has had beneficial aspects, they also reported uncertainty about the developmentally and educationally appropriate way to teach young children. The dramatic increase in the use of online learning for young children during the pandemic has generated a new perspective on the appropriate use of technology for educational purposes. The technology used in online learning includes digital tools such as computers, tablets, apps, e readers, and smartphones, and the use of these technologies “results in the modification of the natural world to meet human needs and wants” (NAEYC, 2020b, p. 37). Amid the challenges of the pandemic, support for young learners across spatial and temporal boundaries has not been a choice as much as an obligation to “meet human needs and wants”, as the NAEYC stated. Consequently, the goal has shifted from providing overall development learning opportunities to keeping children connected to school life as consistently as possible (OMEP Executive Committee, 2020). In other words, online learning might not be the best choice to meet all children’sneedsdevelopmentally,but itwas the mostconvenientmethod during the crisis.
Lastly, in reflection upon the overall experience with Covid 19, researchers can observe that the crisis helped in reconceptualizing our thinking of the flexibility and adaptability of all education alternatives to better support children’s education and development. The disconnect between children and their school lives due to quarantine has created a sense of physical and social isolation. Technology and onlinelearning resourceshave provided someofthesocialization that children need and eliminated boundaries through the digital world (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020). Chen and Krieger (2022) proposed “learning gain” as an alternative perspective to the so-called “learning loss” during the pandemic They claimed that children’s potential learning gains are not necessarily assessed or recognized if they are not enrolled in academic subjects such as reading or mathematics. Rather, children’s well being as a whole should be prioritized in
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terms of learning to be more socio emotionally resilient and digitally confident and acquiring technological knowledge and skills through online connection (Chen & Krieger, 2022; Goldschmidt, 2020). The pandemic highlighted the potential of well designed online based programs to be considered a valid means of bringing more to the education of young children. This means that overemphasis on learning loss due to Covid 19 might lead educators to limited ways of thinking about children’s education during the pandemic rather than considering all the possible gains (Hargreaves, 2021; Zhao, 2021). The lesson learnedfrom theonline shift during Covid 19isthat even after thecrisis and when normal classes resume, all the possibilities of online oriented learning experiences and activities should still be used to enhance the education of young children to the greatest extent possible (Chen & Krieger, 2022)
The findings from the current study represent an initial exploration of how Saudi teachers felt about using online learning for young children in a time when an unprecedented and unexpected crisis hit the world with Covid 19. Considering the overall positive attitudes towards using online based learning and teaching, the respondents revealed an openness towards adopting online alternatives. A potential gain from the current findings is that it might inspire decision makers in the Saudi education system to consider online teaching as a part of teachers’ professional development. Given the uniqueness of early childhood education and the professional responsibility of early childhood teachers, we need to evaluate what is effective in delivering developmentally appropriate online learning for children. As a means of bringing more to the education of young children, the skills and knowledge needed to teach in an online format must be considered a part of teacher competencies (Foulger et al., 2017;Hicks& Bose, 2019; Trust, 2017)
More specifically, and within the Saudi early childhood education context, the crisis created a common ground where both teachers and parents can work hand in hand to keep children as connected to the school as possible. A valuable gain from the crisis within Saudi education is unprecedented cooperation in home school relationships (Saudi Arabia. MOE, 2020). The digital world reduced the educational divide in terms of the roles and responsibilities of all parties involved with children and their education (Hassounah et al., 2020). While the Saudi nation itself is well connected to the digital world and well equipped to switch to an online learning format, teachers and families of children need to ensure that the children’s online learning experiences are developmentally and educationally on target (Tanveer et al., 2020; Yezli & Khan, 2020).
This study represents an initial exploration and was limited to the data collected and analyzed quantitatively to measure how the respondents responded to the topic in question. For further explanation, qualitative data resources such as interviews would significantly help to provide a better understanding of teachers’ professional experiences, challenges, and potential gains regarding the Covid 19 crisis. Future areas for such research would include teachers’ post pandemic
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perceptions regarding the inclusion of online teaching as an alternative to traditional teaching. Other potential studies with a similar intent could include families as indispensable partners in this historical event, with a special focus on the parent teacher relationships during the prolonged lockdown.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 194 209, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.12
Received Mar 15, 2022; Revised Jun 16, 2022; Accepted Jun 29, 2022
Abstract. A learning portfolio entered the Lesotho classrooms between 2010 and 2012 as part of the reforms that were introduced by the 2009 Curriculum and Assessment Policy Framework. Before they were rolled outcountrywide,thereformswerepilotedinsomeschoolssomeofwhich were in the districts of Maseru and Berea. About 45 primary school teachers who participated in this study were purposely sampled from these schools. A questionnaire was distributed among these teachers to collect their perceptions about a learning portfolio as a teaching strategy in Lesotho primary schools All the questionnaires were filled out and returned. The results show that teachers’ perceptions are that a learning portfolio is not successful in Lesotho primary schools. These teachers identified their limited knowledge and experience and low confidence as factors responsible for the unsuccessful use of this strategy Even the training they received in preparation for the reforms has not been effective because it has failed to equip them with the knowledge, skills, and confidence they need for this strategy Knowledge, skills, and confidence appear in many studies as the key factors influencing unsuccessful reforms in Lesotho There is a need for a study that investigatesthepracticesthatareusedtoprepareteachersforthereforms in Lesotho.
Keywords: teachers’ perceptions; learner centred; constructivism; learning portfolio
The debate among scholars about how learners should be taught and assessed so that they are relevant in modern society is intensifying. These discussions have brought about many learning theories, which include constructivism (Pattalitan, 2016). Constructivism, the theory preferred the most in education, has influenced teaching and learning practices observed in many education systems. This theory suggests that because knowledge is individually and socially constructed by a learner, teaching and learning should view and engage learners as learning partners in the creation of knowledge (Bay et al., 2012; Narayan et al., 2013).
* Corresponding author: JuliaChereMasopha,juliachere@gmail.com
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences supports the constructivism theory. The theory claims that people have and exhibit different profiles of intelligence (multiple intelligences) that influence how each learner learns (Sajjadi et al., 2017) Hence, the teaching and assessment processes should be differentiated to match individuals’ learning styles and allow them to demonstrate their different profiles of learning. The constructivists believe that school graduates exposed to this type of learning environment are likely to exhibit independent and creative work practices in their communities and the workplace (Chere Masopha & Mothetsi Mothiba, 2022).
The Lesotho education system has undergone many curriculum reforms targeting the development of a teaching culture that is learner centred. The most recent curriculum reforms require primary school teachers to use a learning portfolio for teaching and assessment. This is because a learning portfolio strategy provides an opportunity for learners to reveal their different profiles and apply their preferred styles of learning. Even though some education systems have been quick to adopt this strategy, other systems, Lesotho included, have delayed adopting a portfolio for classroom use. For example, when Motlomelo carried out a study in 2008, a learning portfolio was not used in the classrooms in Lesotho and there was very little knowledge about it among teachers. Even in 2022, about 12 years after the reforms had been introduced, Chere Masopha and Mothetsi Mothiba (2022) reported a similar situation that knowledge, skills, and confidence needed to implement this strategy were still limited among teachers.
1.1 Introduction of a learning portfolio in Lesotho schools
Between 2010 and 2012, major curriculum changes were introduced in the primary schools in Lesotho through the Curriculum andAssessment Policy (CAP) of 2009. Some of these reforms were intended to change how learners are taught and assessed in the classroom. The reforms embraced the theories of constructivism and required teachers to use the teaching, learning, and assessment strategies that are preferred by the constructivists (Healey, Flint & Harrington, 2014) and that as enable learners to identify the right tools for information search and evaluation and to apply such information to solve their learning problems. These learning problems may include creating objects, evaluating, and making judgments and presentations. The reforms also require teachers to change their perceptions of teaching, learning, and assessment, and to view these processes as inseparable and integral to one another (Ministry of Education & Training [MOET], 2009). Díaz and González (2016) support this approach to teaching, learning, and assessment. Their view is that there should not be a clear separation of teaching, learning, and assessment activities in a classroom. Rather, assessment activities should be embedded and be integral to teaching and learning.
Before the 2009 curriculum reforms were introduced in the Lesotho education system, teachers in the primary schools used teaching methods that were more teacher centred and that distinctively treated teaching and learning and assessment as separate entities In this teaching approach, learner assessment was viewed as a separate entity that was implemented after teaching and learning had been completed. That is, assessments were viewed more as a process that
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evaluated the effectiveness of teaching. These assessments were mostly summative and in the form of tests and examinations (MOET, 2009) The results generated from these assessments were used to determine learners’ progression from one level of education to another, or to grade the learners’ general performance at the end of a programme (Chere Masopha & Mothetsi Mothiba, 2022; Khalanyane & Halahala, 2014). Learners who performed poorly in these assessments were forced to repeat classes or drop out of the school system (Chere Masopha & Mothetsi Mothiba, 2022). Consequently, Lesotho’s educational system experienced high rates of dropouts and grade repeaters.
The high failure and dropout rates in Lesotho schools stirred public discontentment, which led to the questioning of the nature and quality of education in the country. For example, according to school teachers who participated in the doctoral study conducted by Chere Masopha (2011), some parents pulled their children out of the school system even before they could complete primary education because of the concern that the school education was not equipping their children with survival and employable skills. This concern was triggered by the observation that after many years (maximum 12) of schooling, the school leavers were unemployable. These parents viewed factory jobs as more profitable than the education offered in Lesotho schools
The public was not only unhappy with the teaching and learning in the schools in Lesotho; the summative assessment practices that were mostly used were also heavily criticised. The general observation was that the summative methods used were insufficient to assess learners’ competencies and skills accurately, as outlined in the national curriculum documents (Chere Masopha & Mothetsi Mothiba, 2022). Khalanyane and Halahala’s (2014) view is that these methods pay very little attention to the national curriculum needs and standards. Instead, they sort, classify, reward, and punish the learners. The above claims are in line with Yan and Brown’s (2021) observation that in the education systems where summative assessments are utilised, they only tap into a subset of a curriculum and assess learners in terms of their performance for purposes of selection and accountability. In turn, the results of these assessments are often narrow and sometimes distort information about learners’ knowledge and skills.
CAP of 2009 proposes new ways of teaching, learning, and assessing learners in Lesotho schools The framework proposes practices that use constructivist strategies that make learners central to teaching and assessment These strategies focus on and use practical activities that develop and assess learners’ knowledge and skills that will make them relevant and functional in their communities. Also, the purpose of these assessments should be to produce information that informs the teachers about individual learners’ progress and development (MOET, 2009) That is, the assessments should generate the information teachers need toimprove their classroom practices and to monitor and support learners’ efforts to acquire targeted knowledge and skills The teaching and assessment strategies recommended by this policy are task oriented and include project based learning and learning portfolios. A portfolio specifically, its preference is based on the argument that it enhances learners’ experiences by providing them with a
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personal space to evaluate their own learning, process their thoughts and experience, and document their lives and learning in an authentic and meaningful way (Farrell & Seery, 2019). Farrell and Seery (2019) further ascertain that this strategy is capable of facilitating the learners’ development of critical thinking skills within a disciplinary context. The focus of this study is on a learning portfolio as a reform in the Lesotho classroom. It investigated the perceptions of primary school teachers about this strategy.
As early as 1997, Danielson and Abrutyn observed the increasing popularity of portfolio use in teaching and learning. This trend appeared to have been motivated by the constructivist view that a learning portfolio is not only capable of engaging a learner as an active partner but also integrates teaching, learning, and assessment activities effectively and seamlessly (Klenowski, 2002). Goodier et al. (2022) also view a learning portfolio as an opportunistic strategy that makes the learning process visible to teachers and learners by providing a space for evidence of learning, supporting self assessment and reflection, and enhancing collaboration.
Various concepts in the literature have been used to refer to a portfolio used in a classroom such as a learning portfolio, a portfolio for learning, a student portfolio, a portfolio assessment, a portfolio for learning and assessment, and/or a portfolio for teaching and learning (Chere Masopha & Mothetsi Mothiba, 2022; Lam, 2020). the purpose of this paper is not to argue about the appropriate name for a classroom portfolio A learning portfolio, as applied in this paper, refers to any portfolio that is used for purposes of teaching, learning, and assessment.
A learning portfolio is generally viewed by scholars such as Cronenberg (2020) as a collection of a learner’s work that has been documented in such a way that it demonstrates the learner’s progress in the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. As reflected in Himpsl Gutermann’s (2012) argument, in the development of a product, the documentation should logically show the learner’s engagement from the beginning to the end Thus, a learning portfolio should be viewed as a planned collection of a learner’s achievements, documented in line with the steps a learner has taken to get there. In line with this argument, Matsuba et al. (2012) contend that a learning portfolio should exhibit a process that reveals a collaborative effort between a teacher and a learner, and demonstrate deliberate and systematic planned teaching, learning, and assessment that are aligned accurately.
Even though Mueller (2014) argues that there is no consensus on how a learning portfolio should be constructed and implemented, he acknowledges that a learningportfolio shouldhave common elements such as a clearpurpose, learning goals that target a learner, the tasks that match the expected learning outcomes, the collection of a learner’s work that aligns with the learning goals and targeted learning outcomes, and logically documented work by a learner that shows the beginning of the development of a portfolio up to the assessment stage (Mueller, 2014). A learning portfolio should enable a teacher to collect and analyse information about the learner from various documented pieces of the learner’ s
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work. The results from this analysis should inform both the teacher and the learner accurately about the depth and breadth of the learner’s capabilities in the various domains A teacher should also be able to use the same information in the development of learning tasks and material that targets enhancing the learner’s performance.
Even though the importance of a learning portfolio has long been established, not many studies have investigated this strategy This is supported by Scully et al. (2018) who critically reviewed the literature about the use of a learning portfolio in higher education. Their findings were that, although the underlying theory of the use of learning portfolios is promising, there is still limited robust empirical evidence that supports its effectiveness. They also established that a portfolio as a learning strategy is rooted in a complex pedagogy, and its potential can only be realized if the underlying processes are properly understood by its advocates and users. They also observed a recurring tension between the developmental (process) and evaluative (product) conceptualizations of a learning portfolio
Other studies that have been reviewed for this paper include Köpeczi Bócz (2020), Eridafithri (2015), Tangdhanakanond and Wongwanich (2012), and Chere Masopha and Mothetsi Mothiba (2022).
Köpeczi Bócz (2020) carried out a one year higher education pedagogical experiment that replaced a submission of a thesis with a learning portfolio for assessment in a diploma course. The results of this study showed that a portfolio based assessment was more comprehensive and effective than a thesis assessment Köpeczi Bócz (2020) concludes by indicating that a learning portfolio is an essential innovation in learning and assessment and recommends it for training courses.
Other studies found that many teachers find it difficult to use this strategy in their practices. For example, Eridafithri (2015) investigated the perceptions of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers on the Indonesian English Curriculum reform, which required these teachers to use a learning portfolio in their classroom practices The study established that the teachers found it difficult to design the portfolio items such as learning oriented tasks and marking rubrics that could assess learners’ achievements accurately. Using a qualitative approach, Chere Masopha and Mothetsi Mothiba (2022) also investigated 20 primary school teachers’ experiences with a learning portfolio in Lesotho schools. The study established that teachers found the strategy challenging to use. As a result, they only used it in a limited way. Tangdhanakanond and Wongwanich (2012) also reported the same findings about Thailand teachers who were requested to use a learning portfolio as an assessment strategy in their teaching practice. Eridafithri (2015), Chere Masopha and Mothetsi Mothiba (2022), and Tangdhanakanond and Wongwanich (2012) observe that teachers’ limited use of this strategy was mainly influenced by their limited knowledge and skills.
Teachers are the ultimate implementers of the classroom curriculum. They can influence the success of any curriculum reforms introduced in the classroom.
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However, how teachers respond and commit to the curriculum reforms or any classroom change depends mostly on their perceptions (Krüger et al., 2013). Teachers’ perceptions influence professional behaviours and can dictate how they respond to the reforms As such, a deep understanding of how teachers perceive issues that relate to their profession, particularly classroom reforms, can assist to predict their response to the reforms and influence their preparation (Chere Masopha, 2018) Chere Masopha (2018) claims that teachers’ perceptions are teachers’ beliefs or views about curriculum issues, learners, peers, others, or the self. As such, teachers’ beliefs, particularly about their knowledge and skills, their classroom experiences, and their general views about what is important to their learners can influence how they work in the classroom or how they respond to classroom changes This view is supported by Krüger et al. (2013) who list teachers’ knowledge, experiences, and beliefs as key influencers of the way teachers teach and respond to educational and curriculum change. Thus, a deep understanding of teachers’ perceptions of a learning portfolio as a teaching, learning, and assessment strategy can be beneficial for the development and implementation of the programmes intended to support teachers to use this strategy successfully.
The purpose of this study was to establish teachers’ perceptions of a learning portfolio intended for teaching, learning, and assessment in Lesotho classrooms. The key questions that were asked in this study were about (1) teachers’ knowledge of a learning portfolio, (2) How teachers implement a learning portfolio in classrooms, and (3) teachers’ views about using a learning portfolio in Lesotho schools.
This study used a questionnaire survey to collect the perceptions of 45 teachers who were purposefully sampled from 15 primary schools in Lesotho. Most of these were located in the urban and peri urban areas of the Maseru and Berea districts. The schools had participated in the piloting of the curriculum and assessment reforms that were introduced through the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Framework of 2009. Therefore, teachers at these schools had been working with these reforms longer than teachers of the schools which did not participate in the piloting of the reforms. This study was not funded. Therefore, proximity and access to these schools were also considered in the selection of the schools.
All teachers who were recruited for this study were teaching in the lower classes (Grade 1 to 3). As the reforms had been rolled out from Grade 1 onwards, these teachers had had a long time working with the reforms than other teachers had Of the 45 (100%) teachers who participated in this study, 40 (89%) were females and 5 (11%) were males. Their ages ranged from 28 to 55 years, with the majority (n=36; 80%) in the group aged 35 to 45 years. Some teachers (n=10; 22%) had more than 30 years ’ teaching experience, with a minimum of 20 years of teaching in the lower classes of primary education.
A questionnaire that included objective questions such as Yes and No, Optional,
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and a Likert Scale was distributed, filled in, and returned by 45 teachers. Data collected by this questionnaire were analysed using Microsoft Excel to calculate frequencies and percentages, and measures of central tendencies such as mean, mode, median, or measures of variability. The results are presented mainly as charts, graphs, and tables.
The results are presentedin three broad themes: teachers’ knowledge of a learning portfolio; teachers’ implementation of a learning portfolio, and teachers’ views about using a learning portfolio in Lesotho classrooms.
5.1
Data collected about the teachers’ knowledge included teachers’ general knowledge of a learning portfolio and knowledge of the purpose for which a learning portfolio was introduced in Lesotho schools. The results generated from this data are presented as knowledge of a portfolio and knowledge of the purpose a learning portfolio was introduced in Lesotho classrooms.
In this section, the results include teachers’ knowledge of a learning portfolio, sources of their knowledge, and their confidence to use a learning portfolio The findings in this study indicate that the knowledge teachers claimed to have of a learning portfolio was very limited and could not enable them to use this strategy effectively in their classroom practices. For example, when asked to rate their knowledge and experience of working with a learning portfolio, more than half of these teachers (n=29; 64%) rated their knowledge and experience as of a beginner (n=24; 53%) or none existent (n=5; 11%). Fewer than half rated their knowledge and experience of using a learning portfolio at the intermediate stage (n=11; 24%) or at an advanced level (n=6; 13%). This information is displayed in Figure 1.
5.1.2
Many of these teachers (n=31; 69%) had acquired knowledge about a learning portfolio from various sources such as the teacher professional development training workshops they attended in preparation for the reforms. These workshops were organised and run by the National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) and the Examinations Council of Lesotho (ECoL). About 27 (60%) teachers claimed to have attended NCDC workshops, while 7 (16%) attended those that were run by ECoL. As the names indicate, the NCDC is a national body responsible for national school curriculum development and implementation while ECoL is responsible for curriculum assessment. These institutions are also responsible for the review and reforms of the school programmes and the training of teachers. Other teachers (n=11; 24%) indicated that they learned about a learning portfolio either from teachers who had attended the training workshops or by reading the CAP document. According to the findings of this study, all teachers were aware that they were expected to use a learning portfolio for teaching, learning, and assessment related activities. The results further indicate that even though the teachers had heard about a learning portfolio as a teaching strategy, and were expected to use it in their practices, they had never been exposed to the use of this strategy through training, mentoring, or peer observation. They claimed that the training that they attended focused more on other aspects of the reforms than a learning portfolio.
5.1.3
Many teachers (n=32; 71) rated their confidence as low. Only 29 percent (n=13) rated their confidence as average (n=7; 16%) or high (n=6; 13%). The results indicate that the 71 percent of teachers who rated their confidence as low included all teachers who rated their knowledge and experience as non existent, as of a beginner, or at the intermediate stage. Teachers (n=13; 29%) who rated their confidence as average or high rated their knowledge as intermediate or advanced. These results suggest a positive relationship between teachers’ views about their knowledge and experience with a learning portfolio and their confidence in using this strategy for teaching and learning. Thus, teachers who viewed their knowledge as low with limited experience, were likely to indicate that they had low confidence in the use of a portfolio, while teachers who viewed themselves as knowledgeable, were likely to claim to have confidence in implementing this strategy (see Figure 2).
Teachers' ratings on their portfolio knowledge, experience & confidence
71 16 13 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
64 24 6
LOW/ NONE /BEGINNING AVERAGE/INTERMEDIATE HIGH/ ADVANCED
and Experience
Figure 2: The relationship between teachers' perceptions about their knowledge, experience and confidence in using a learning portfolio
5.2 Knowledge of the purposeofa portfolioinLesothoclassrooms
Teachers were asked about their knowledge of why a learning portfolio was introduced in Lesotho classrooms. They were asked to respond to the question by selecting statements they believed matched their knowledge from a list of statements provided. The teachers’ responses to this question are shown in Figure 3.
Teachers' views on why they are requested to use a learning portfolio
To accumulate evidence to measure learner's…
To exhibit learners' academic achievements in…
To showcase only learners' best work
Just to keep the learners' work safe
To demonstrate leaners' learning progress and…
For teacher accountability
To make learner's academic progress visible
Don't know/not sure
Figure 3: Teachers’ views on why they were requested to use a portfolio in classrooms
The results show that all 45 (100%) participating teachers believed that they were requested to use a learning portfolio for purposes of keeping the learners’ work safe. This is followed by 42 (93%) who thought the portfolio was for teachers to account for how they spend their class time. A few teachers, representing 13 percent (n=6) believed that a learning portfolio was introduced to make learners’
academic progress visible. Further analysis of this result indicates that these teachers (13%) belonged to the cohort that claimed to have advanced knowledge and experience in using a portfolio. There was also another group of teachers (n=14; 31%) who was not sure or did not know why this strategy was introduced in Lesotho classrooms. This cohort comprised mostly teachers who rated their knowledge of a portfolio as that of a beginner or none existent
Teachers we asked about how they used a learning portfolio in their practices and how they constructed and implemented it. The results generated from these questions are presented as portfolio implementation and portfolio.
5.3.1
The participants were asked whether they were implementing a portfolio in their practice. Given that a learning portfolio is one of the strategies recommended by the Curriculum and Assessment Policy of 2009, it was expected that all participating teachers in the study would claim to be using a portfolio in their classroom. While the results indicated that the majority (n=40; 89%) of these teachers claimed to use a portfolio for teaching and learning, a small number (n=5; 11%) indicated that they were not using a learning portfolio for teaching and learning. From the results, there was no explanation why these teachers were not using a learning portfolio in their classroom practices. As a result, it is not known why these teachers do not abide by the policy requirement. The only explanation that could be provided may be that these teachers find a pedagogical concept of a learning portfolio too difficult
5.3.2
Regarding the question about the process they use to construct a learning portfolio, only 40 teachers, representing 89 percent of the participants, responded to this question Other 5 (11%) teachers did not respond to this question. Further analysis indicated that this was a cohort of teachers who claimed that they were not using a portfolio in their classroom.
The results also revealed that during the construction of a learning portfolio, teachers were not following the principles of a learning portfolio construction as recommended in the literature. For example, all participants indicated that they do not include the curriculum learning standards or outcomes, and are not involving the learners during the construction It was only 7 percent (n=3) of the teachers claimed that they engage their learners during the construction. This compares with the participants (n=2; 4%) who allowed their learners to decide on the work to document in the portfolio.
Table 2: How teachers implement a learning portfolio in their classrooms
How teachers engage learners in the implementation of a learning portfolio Yes No
1) I list and display in the learners’ portfolio the curriculum learning standards or outcomes on the learners’ portfolio
2) I match all the learning activities with the curriculum learning standards or outcomes
40 (100%)
40 (100%)
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3) Iengagemylearnerstoparticipateintheconstructionand implementation of the portfolio by:
a) deciding what to learn 40 (100%) b) deciding what to document 2 (4%) 38 (95%) c) reviewing completed portfolio items for self reflection. 3 (7%) 37 (93%)
Note: Percentages may not add up to 100% exactly due to rounding off Source: Computed from survey data
These results appear to complement the results that indicate that teachers’ knowledge of a learning portfolio is limited. For example, with limited knowledge, teachers will not be able to follow the principles of constructing and implementing a learning portfolio, as suggested in the literature by Matsuba et al. (2012) and Mueller (2014).
Teachers’ views on the use of a learning portfolio in Lesotho classrooms were explored. Teachers ‘were asked about the a) benefits of a learning portfolio in teaching and learning and b) the challenges of implementing a learning portfolio in Lesotho classrooms. The responses to these questions are presented in Tables 3 and 4
The majority of the teachers (n=32; 70%) believed that a learning portfolio was beneficial in many ways. For example, out of 11 statements that these teachers were asked to rate, 5 statements that were positive about the use of a portfolio scored more than 70 percent, and 4 above 50 percent (see Table 3) Only two statements scored below 25 percent. These statements suggest that a learning portfolio enhances cooperation among teachers and parents and that it changes a teacher’s role of being an instructor to a facilitator. Thus, even though most of these teachers had limited knowledge, experience, and low confidence in using this strategy, they appreciated this strategy and believed that it could benefit teaching and learning.
Table 3: Teachers’ views on the benefits of using a learning portfolio strategy
Belief statements
Agree Maybe Disagree
1) A learning portfolio strategy facilitates learning. 43 (96%) 2 (4%)
2) A learning portfolio strategy reveals the strengths and the weaknesses of learners. 41(91%) 4 (8%)
3) A learning portfolio strategy enables learners to apply knowledge and skills in various authentic environments. 35 (78%) 10 (22%)
4) A learning portfolio strategy enhances cooperation between a teacher, parents, and colleagues.
10 (22%) 14 (31%) 21(47%)
5) A learning portfolio strategy contributes to makinglearnerswork more activelyandbecome problem solvers. 45 (100%)
6) A learning portfolio strategy increases learners’ awareness of the importance of every piece of 25 (56%) 4 (9%) 16 (36%)
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work they are assigned.
7) Alearningportfoliostrategymakesteachingand learning fun. 25 (56%) 20 (44%)
8) A learning portfolio strategy enhances teachers’ pedagogical abilities. 30 (67%) 15 (33%)
9) A learning portfolio changes teachers’ role of being an instructor to a facilitator. 18 (17%) 23 (51%) 4 (40%)
10) A learning portfolio seamlessly integrates teaching, learning, and assessment activities. 28 (62%) 1 (2%) 16 (36%)
11) A learning portfolio promotes the integration of knowledge and concepts from various subjects (e.g. maths, English, etc.) 41 (91%) 3 (7%) 1(2%)
The challenges of using a portfolio in Lesotho classrooms as pointed out by the teachers are presented in Table 4 Teachers appear to agree that the challenges of using a portfolio in Lesotho classrooms are many. They include taking up much of teachers’ time (n=40; 89%); limited resources available for classroom activities (n=43; 96%); large classes that do not allow individualised learning required by this strategy (n=43; 92%); and teachers’ limited knowledge and skills required to implement this strategy (n=40; 89%).
Table 4: Challenges of using a portfolio in Lesotho classrooms Belief statements Agree Maybe Disagree
1. Portfolio takes time away from other important school activities. 40 (89%) 4 (8%) 1 (2%)
2. It is difficult to use a learning portfolio strategy in the schools in Lesotho because of the resources and time required. 43 (96%) 2 (4%)
3. A learning portfolio requires individualized attention for each learner and this is impractical in Lesotho because of the large classes 42 (93%) 1 (2%) 2 (4%)
4. It is difficult for teachers who are not well trained to implement this strategy 39 (87%) 7 (16%) 2 (4%)
5. A learning portfolio strategy requires a teacher who is well equipped with curriculum, pedagogical knowledge, and skills 40(89%) 5(11%)
This paper has presented the results of a survey of the perceptions of primary school teachers about a learning portfolio in Lesotho classrooms. Specifically, the study investigated teachers’ knowledge of a learning portfolio and how it is used in the Lesotho classroom. Their views of this strategy being used in Lesotho classrooms were also studied.
The teachers who participated in this study claimed to have been trained in preparation for curriculum reforms that included implementing a learning portfolio in their practices. They attended NCDC and ECoL’ s workshops. Those
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who were not able to attend these workshops learned from their peers or by reading a CAP document Despite this training, the results revealed that these teachers knew very little about a learning portfolio. They lacked the basic knowledge and skills that are required to successfully use a learning portfolio in a classroom. Their limited knowledge and skills also affected their confidence as they did not believe that their knowledge and skills could enable them to implement this strategy successfully.
Others such as Eridafithri (2015), Chere Masopha and Mothetsi Mothiba (2022), and Tangdhanakanond and Wongwanich’s (2012) have reported the same findings about teachers lacking the appropriate knowledge and skills for the successful implementation of a learning portfolio. Teachers in this study believed that the training they received in preparation for the reforms paid little attention to a learning portfolio strategy. This claim appears to support Scully et al. (2018) observation that, despite the promising underlying theory of the use of learning portfolios, the strategy is rooted in a complex pedagogy, and its potential can only be realized if the underlying processes are properly understood by implementers.
Another evidence that showed that these teachers had limited knowledge and understanding of a portfolio, they had differing views about why a portfolio was introduced in Lesotho schools. Many of these teachers appeared to be oblivious about why a learning portfolio was introduced in Lesotho classrooms. Some believed it was there for them to keep the learners’ work safe, demonstrate learners’ progress, display learners’ best achievements, and for teachers’ accountability regarding how they spend time with learners There were quite a few teachers (n=6; 13%) who associated the introduction of a learning portfolio with learner engagement in teaching and assessment processes
6.2
A well constructed learning portfolio should include curriculum learning standards or outcomes and the learning activities that match these standards. Learners should be involved from the beginning of the construction up to the actual implementation. These learners should be included in the decision making about what to learn, what to document, and the items to review and consider in self reflection (Mueller, 2014) In this study, teachers appear not to consider these principles in their construction and implementation of a learning portfolio. It became clear that their portfolios do not include curriculum learning standards or outcomes and the portfolio learningactivities didnotmatch these standards.Also, these teachers hardly engaged learners during the construction. Generally, these teachers were not using this strategy to enhance learner centred teaching but to continue to teacher centred practices.
Even though teachers in this study had limited knowledge and skills and low confidence to use a learning portfolio successfully in their classrooms, they acknowledged the benefits of using this strategy in Lesotho classrooms. Many of them believed that, if it is implemented properly, it can reveal learners’ strengths and weaknesses, facilitate authentic learning, and enhance collaboration among teachers. However, these teachers were also quick to point out the challenges of
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implementing a learning portfolio in Lesotho classrooms. Some of the challenges they listed included resources that are limited in the schools, teachers who are not well trained to use this strategy successfully, and the classes that are too large to allow individualised learning required by this strategy. These challenges are also reported by Chere Masopha and Mothetsi Mothiba (2022).
Teachers in this study believe a learning portfolio is not successful in Lesotho classrooms because teachers have not been well prepared for this strategy. The way teachers implement this strategy excludes the principles associated with it. They use a learning portfolio more as a documenting tool of learners’ work. Much as these teachers acknowledge the benefits of using a portfolio in the classroom, they also observe the challenges that hinder the successful implementation of this strategy. This study recommends that teacher education, in service training, and development programmes in Lesotho should focus more on the development of teachers’ knowledge and skills relating to the construction and implementation of a learning portfolio strategy. Also, teacher educators in the pre service and in service programmes should use this strategy in their professional practices to give teachers enough exposure and experience.
The limitations of this study are in the methodology. The study recruited teachers from the schools in the schools in the Maseru and Berea districts. Schools in the other eight districts wereleft out. Even in the districts where the study was carried out, a small number of teachers were involved. As a result, this study is too small to represent all primary school teachers in Lesotho in the Maseru and Berea districts. Another study that uses a large sample to represent all the primary schools in Lesotho and that uses more than one research method can provide a comprehensive picture of a learning portfolio in Lesotho schools.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 210 225, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.13
Received Mar 28, 2022; Revised Jun 20, 2022; Accepted Jun 29, 2022
Carolina Botha* North West University, South Africa
Carisma Nel North West University, South Africa
Abstract. The Covid 19 pandemic has affected the teaching practicum component of initial teacher education programmes in significant ways. School based placement could not take place, but teacher educators still needed to ensure that the teaching practicum component complied with policy. The aim of this study is to indicate how work integrated learning teacher educators created professional learning communities among an entire population of 7 041 student teachers enrolled for the Baccalaureus Educationis degree, the challenges they faced and how they managed these challenges. The professional learning community model of Hord (2009) was used as a conceptual framework for this study. In this qualitativemulti sitecasestudy,documentanalysiswastheprimarydata collection method. Journals and WhatsApp messages kept by the two work integrated learning teacher educators and the minutes of virtual work integrated learning meetings were analysed using narrative and thematic analysis The findings indicated four main challenges, namely constituting the professional learning communities and developing the alternative task, dealing with issues related to group demographics and diversity, connectivity, technology and collaborating in learning in a remote environment, and lastly, providing continuous feedback, support and guidance. Recommendations for future practice are discussed.
Keywords: collaborative learning; professional learning communities; student teachers; teacher educators; work integrated learning
The Covid 19 pandemic has had a severe impact on initial teacher education, and specifically the teaching practice component, in various ways (Donitsa Schmidt & Ramot, 2020; Flores & Swennen, 2020; Nel & Marais, 2021). The agendas of Faculty
* Corresponding author: Carolina.Botha@nwu.ac.za
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
of Education meetings also reflected the pandemic mode plans to ensure successful completion of the teaching practicum: Plan A, Plan B, and if all else fails, Plan C.
Work integrated learning, commonly known as “teaching practice”, is the trademark of initial teacher education and a required component of Baccalaureus Educationis (BEd) degree programmes (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015; Reyneke & Botha, 2019). As universities and schools throughout the country moved their instruction online to ensure that Covid 19 protocols, such as social distancing, were complied with, a crucial problem emerged for teacher training programmes: the disappearance of classrooms, namely school based placement, the main feature of collaboration between universities and schools. Work integratedlearning teacher educators at the university weretaskedto create alternatives to the traditional school based placement component that would still comply with the South African Department of Higher Education and Training policy (Nel et al., 2021). Several risk factors were considered during this discourse, includinga media briefing by the South African minister of Basic Educationwhere she stated that the department “highly discourage[d] people from visiting schools” (Motshega, 2020, p. 1) to curb infection. Communication from many of the almost 6 000 schools on the database of a South African university mostly indicated an unwillingness to host student teachers at these schools in 2020.
Communication from the Department of Higher Education and Training did not provide explicit guidance in terms of what would constitute acceptable alternatives for the required number of school based placement weeks in order to complete the four year BEd programme, as stipulated within the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications policy document (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015). It was clear that the onus would be on individual institutions to meet the requirements while still adhering to protocols and placing the safety of student teachers at the forefront of their decisions. After negotiations with the Department of Basic Education, the Department of Higher Education and Training, and university management, one university proposed a non school based project for first to third year BEd students for the second semester of 2020.
Student teachers need opportunities to learn and practise skills needed for their profession, including those of successful collaboration. Darling Hammond (2006, p. 305) states that “[p]reparing teachers as classroom researchers and expert collaborators who can learn from one another is essential when the range of knowledge for teaching has grown so expansive that it cannot be mastered by any individual” Furthermore, through learning about and experiencing collaboration during the preparation period, pre service teachers can avoid having to learn, unlearn, and relearn what teaching and learning look like. Teachers can thus be guided to collaborate by establishing professional learning communities (PLCs) to work together to improve their own careers as well as the whole educational system The purpose of this study was to address the following research questions:
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• What challenges did work integrated learning teacher educators encounter in, firstly, constituting student teacher PLCs, and secondly, emphasising collaboration as a process?
• How were these challenges addressed, if at all?
According to Barber and Mourshed (2007), teachers’ competence is regarded as one of the most important factors affecting learners’ learning and chances of success. Consequently, the growth of that competence is an important part of ensuringthatlearners’ achievementandsuccess are addressed. Research indicates that teacher collaboration is a crucial means by which this can be achieved (Carpenter, 2017). Initial teacher education programmes that are more practice based and aligned with the realities of teaching in a school prepare student teachers better for the challenges they will face in their first few years of teaching (Greenhill, 2010). According to Long et al. (2021), interaction with and support from colleagues is essential for promoting work satisfaction and retention among teachers. In this article, we view collaboration as a process, namely “a domain general skill that is important in its own right for work and life in society” (Evans, 2020, p. 5). The focus is on the nature and quality of the collaborative task and the interaction among the student teachers. By providing student teachers with opportunities to engage in collaboration within groups resembling PLCs, we hope to lay the foundation for student teachers’ professional growth (cf. Damjanovic & Blank, 2021; Long et al., 2021). Research indicates that this type of collaboration that is focused on addressing learners’ needs and success can be achieved in PLCs (Olsson, 2019; Reyneke & Botha, 2019)
In the Integrated Strategic Planning Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa (Department of Basic Education, 2011, p. 14), PLCs are defined as “communities that provide the setting and necessary support for groups of classroom teachers, school managers and subject advisors to participate collectively in determining their own developmental trajectories, and to set up activities that will drive their development”. In addition, the Department of Basic Education (2015, p. 4) states that “PLCs can make professional development more relevant and effective”. The importance of PLCs and collaboration is also emphasised in the Professional Teaching Standards document of the South African Council for Educators (2020), in which the following points are made: Teachers collaborate with others to support teaching, learning and their professional development.
2.1 Teachers conduct themselves in ways that earn the respect of those in their communities and uphold the dignity of the teaching profession.
2.2 Teachers understand that the wellbeing of learners and the support of their learning requires communication and collaboration between teachers, parents, caregivers, other professionals, and the community.
2.3 Teachers are responsible for their ongoing personal, academic and professional growth through reflection, study, reading, and research.
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2.4 Teachers participate in endorsed continuing professional teacher development activities/programmes organised by their subject associations, PLCs, higher education institutions, teacher unions and private providers.
2.5 Teachers provide supportive environments for the induction and mentoring of colleagues who are new to their school, as well as for pre service and newly qualified teachers.
2.6 Teachers actively involve themselves in educational debates, curriculum development initiatives, and educational issues that affect them.
The work of teaching and learning in schools in the 21st century differs from how it was done in the schools of the previous century, as the work has become more collaborative in nature. As initial teacher education programmes are to train teachers that can work collaboratively in PLCs in order to enhance learners’ learning and success, they need to be provided with opportunities to practise these skills. However, a study conducted by Dolezal (2008) indicates that there is hardly any use for PLCs in initial teacher education. Teacher preparation programmes have the challenge of engaging student teachers in learning the professional discourse and practices of primary and secondary schools. This statement reinforces Hollins’s (2011, p. 405) declaration that the practices in the preparation of teachers for quality teaching, “at the core, mirror those which candidates are expected to apply in PK 12 schools”.
We selected the PLC model developed by Hord (2009) as the conceptual framework for this study. This model identifies six dimensions, namely supportive and shared leadership, shared beliefs, values and vision, intentional collaborative learning and application of learning, supportive structural conditions, supportive relational conditions, and shared practice. PLCs can only be successful if there is supportive leadership from a person or persons in charge of the group. The leadership and ideas are shared in collaborative decision making. Teachers and student teachers working collaboratively share beliefs and a vision about ensuring that no learner is left behind and that success is within the reach of all learners. So, teachers and student teachers intentionally collaborate to ensure that their knowledge and teaching practice grow to ensure the continued learning of learners. PLCs can only be successful if both structural and relational conditions are addressed. Structural conditions refer to logistical aspects such as a place and time to meet and access to resources. Relational conditions refer to aspects such as building trust, learning to communicate respectfully, being supportive and caring, and learning to handle conflict (Hord & Tobia, 2012). The dimension of shared practice “involves the review of a teacher’s behavior by colleagues and includes feedback and assistance to support individual and community improvement” (Hord & Tobia, 2012, p. 26).
Research indicates that the implementation of PLCs is a successful strategy for addressing and sustaining the successful learning of learners (DuFour, 2007) However, many teachers continue to work independently and in isolation from their colleagues; hence, fostering collaboration in most schools is a challenge. DuFour and Marzano (2011, p. 1) point out that “no single person has all the
knowledge, skills, and talent to lead a district, improve a school, or meet all the needs of every child in his or her classroom”. Therefore, initial teacher education programmes need to play their part in providing student teachers with opportunities to practise collaboration skills within PLCs
As context was crucial, a qualitative case study approach was employed to examine the initiatives implemented within a BEd programme at one South African university. The case study allowed for the “exploration of a ‘bounded system’ or case” (Creswell, 1998, p. 61). Bounded systems are typically bounded by time and place, and a case may be a programme (Creswell, 1998). A case study “allows investigators to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real life events” (Yin, 2009, p. 4) Zeichner (1999, p. 9) notes that case studies in teacher education programmes provide “a close up and detailedlook at particular teacher education activities and show what a teacher education programme looks like from the inside, from the perspectives of students and faculty”. The perspectives of the challenges faced by work integrated learning teacher educators in trying to enhance student teachers’ collaborative skills by placing them in PLCs provide a richer, fuller “inside” perspective essentially, the study of the lived experience (cf Glesne, 2006)
The South African institution where this study was conducted is a unitary, integrated, multi campus university with three campuses (i.e., multi site) offering a BEd programme in a contact and open distance learning delivery mode. The total number of students taking part in the study included the entire population of first , second , and third year students registered for the work integrated learning module (i.e., teaching practice) in the second semester of 2020 (cf. Table 1).
Table 1: Number of students in the BEd programme
Qualification name BEd Year level 2 020 1 2 560 2 2 290 3 2 191 Total 7 041
In addition, 16 postgraduate students were appointed as facilitators to assist us (two work integrated learning teacher educators) with student teacher inquiries and monitoring the PLC progress. An administrative assistant was tasked with initially constituting the communities and managing the process of ensuring that all of the student teachers made contact with their community members. Ethical clearance was obtained from the ethical committee of the university, and gatekeeper permission was also attained from the university.
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Documents can be regarded as a valuable source of information within qualitative research, as they help researchers to understand the phenomenon at hand (Creswell, 1998). The standard approach to the analysis of documents focuses primarily on what is contained within them. Documents are viewed as pieces of communication between a writer and a reader that contain meaningful messages Document analysis can be understood as the study of existing documents, either to understand their substantive content or to illuminate deeper meanings that may be revealed by their style or coverage. For this study, the following documents and artefacts were collected: journals, WhatsApp messages and voice notes kept by us, and the minutes of work integrated learning meetings focused on discussing the alternatives to school based placement.
The data collected were analysed using both a narrative and a thematic analysis approach. Thematic analysis was used to identify themes in the data, and narrative analysis was used to examine how the themes were used in our narratives during meetings and on WhatsApp voice notes. Narrative analysis seeks to acknowledge the context and understand phenomena through the meanings that speakers assign to them (Cortazzi, 2014). Thematic and narrative analysis is often used together in research as complementary approaches not only to search for patterns and themes (thematic analysis) but also to interpret the meaning and reasoning behind the presence of those patterns and themes in context (narrative analysis).
An analysis of our journals, WhatsApp messages, and voice notes and the minutes of meetings indicated four themes highlighting the challenges we were facing during the study. The following themes emerged: constituting the PLCs; dealing with group demographics and diversity; connectivity, technology, and collaborating in an emergency remote environment; and providing feedback, support, and guidance.
4.1
The first challenge included aspects such as developing a meaningful task and the Protection of Personal Information (POPI) act As mentioned, the Covid 19 pandemic brought about unprecedented challenges for teacher education, one of which was that students not only had to learn in an online format but also communicate and collaborate with one another remotely. Teacher educators, therefore, had to adapt all existing course requirements. As student teachers could not be placed in schools for work integrated learning, teacher educators had to find innovative ways to bring the classroom to the student. This should ensure learning from practice in a situation where learning in practice would not be possible. The task below was an effort to employ PLCs to challenge student teachers to critically reflect on their current understanding of schooling and challenge the dominant discourses they upheld, while at the same time actively engaging with learning material for the course. Creating a meaningful task that would contribute to learning, as well as the development of their personal and professional identities, proved to be a significant endeavour.
The task that the student teachers were required to complete is provided in Table 2
Design the ideal school that brings together the philosophies and approaches to teaching and learning that you have been exposed to, as well as the practical considerations that you feel would be most effective and engaging to all stakeholders intheeducationalsystem.Indoingso,pleasemakesurethatyouaddressthefollowing:
• The basics (name, logo, etc.)
• The physical space
• The teachers
• The learners
• The learning
• The curriculum
• The activities
• The system
The motivation for your ideal school should also be a critique of the current schooling system in South Africa. You are welcome to use parts of the system that you consider to be effective, but be innovative and creative in the alternatives that you suggest!
A total number of 7 008 student teachers, spread out across the entire country, had to be divided into PLCs in 2020. In South Africa, the POPI Act (2020) regulates the sharing of personal information and sets conditions for the protection of personal data. This act spells out definite consequences should an institution not adhere to this law and freely share the personal information of student teachers. The implication of this for universities is that no email address or telephone number of a student teacher may be made available on public platforms such as learning management systems. This legislation created a challenge for this study which was aimed at enhancing collaborative learning among student teachers in PLCs Innovative thinking was, therefore, required to create a system where student teachers would be able to connect with one another and form PLC without violating the POPI Act. The learning management system of the university offers teacher educators the option of posting forum topics where student teachers can engage with one another. In order to address this challenge, we posted a list of student numbers and PLC numbers (thereby not sharing any personal information) on the forum. Each individual student teacher then had to post their email address or telephone number in the forum for their specific PLC. Once all six of the PLC members had willingly shared their contact information, one student teacher had to accept the leadership role and create a communal PLC on WhatsApp or Google Docs where they could work.
The students did not have the option of not sharing their detail, as they needed to complete this task in order to pass the module. Despite several attempts to motivate the students to make contact, an additional challenge was experienced, as some of the students did not reply to numerous requests to initiate contact with their PLC members. This prevented the PLCs from starting with their
collaborative task, as they were still waiting for some individuals to join. This challenge was addressed by appointing an administrative assistant who continuously monitored the PLCs. After the first due date for PLC constitution had passed, the assistant removed all students who had not made contact. A second set of PLCs was created for the initial non responsive student teachers to join. This action was repeated four times on a weekly basis to ensure that the PLCs could effectively progress with their tasks, while students who did not make contact still had the opportunity of joining a new PLC rather than joining their initial PLC late and possibly causing conflict and frustration among the community members. A due date was also set for the PLCs to submit contracts accepting their responsibility and committing to personal accountability in their collaborative task (cf. Table 3).
As a member of this professional learning community, I agree to:
• respect group members, demonstrate sensitivity, and encourage learning;
• be fully committed to the group task and the individual responsibilities I have been entrusted with;
• work according to the agreed timeframe;
• giveandreceivefeedbackaboutmyworkandparticipateingroupdiscussions;
• attend all meetings unless the group has been informed of anticipated absenteeism;
• agree to resolve conflict according to the group’s process as soon as it arises;
• ensure that all group members contribute equally to the task by addressing problems as they arise;
• agree to collectively read and edit the final group presentation; and
• provide contact detailsand respond to group communication whenand where required.
Name: _______________________ Student number: ______________________ Group number: _______________ Role: _________________________________
Colour you will be using in the Google Doc to indicate your contribution: ______
4.2
The second challenge included issues with regard to gender and race, campus and mode of delivery, age and level of study, language, teaching practice experience, socio economic circumstances, and educational background.
4.2.1
A total of 7 008 student teachers across the three campus sites and the open distance learning cohort had to be placed into PLCs. Table 4 gives an outline of the student teacher population in terms of gender and race per campus.
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Table 4: Gender and race per campus Qualification name BEd Year 2020
Gender Race Campus A Campus B Campus C
Female Unknown 2 African 1 052 904 779 Coloured 13 380 21 Indian/Asian 1 76 6 White 3 1 786 107 Total female 1 069 3 146 915 Male Unknown 1 African 669 312 392 Coloured 4 98 5 Indian/Asian 1 12 3 White 0 373 41 Total male 674 795 442 Grand total 1 743 3 941 1 357
4.2.2
Although the university is a unitary institution, teachers are very seldom given the opportunity of collaborating across the campus sites. This collaborative task within PLCs was the first time in which we grouped student teachers across the campus sites, as well as the open distance learning cohort, into PLCs to work together. Table 5 gives an outline of the number of student teachers per campus and mode of delivery.
Table 5: Number of student teachers per year group
Qualification Name BEd Year level 2 020 1 2 560 2 2 290 3 2 191 Total 7 041
4.2.3
Another challenge that presented itself was the age and year level of the members of the groups. Traditionally, the general trend is that contact students are younger students who tend to come to university directly after completing their schooling. The age of the contact students in this cohort ranged from 19 to 21 years old. Distance students tend to be older, and many of them are employed full time, either in education or outside of the education sector. The age of the group members could, therefore, vary greatly, which had implications for the life experience and perceptions that they brought to the PLC. Including first , second , and third year students in one PLC could also be a source of tension and difference within a PLC. The intention was for the more senior students to act in a mentoring role towards the first year students, but due to their varying ages and life experience, that was not always the case.
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4.2.4
Another obvious challenge that had the potential to create a lot of tension in PLCs involved the home language and language of instruction of the community members. At the university, two languages are offered as the medium of instruction, namely English and Afrikaans. The groups were constituted in random ways to promote multilingualism among the students and adhere to the language policy of the institution. A number of emails from students to us indicated that not all of the members felt at ease being in a community with members who spoke other languages. Table 6 gives an outline of the language distribution at the different campus sites.
Table 6: Number of students per language in the BEd programme
Language Campus A Campus B Campus C
Afrikaans 6 2 177 121 English 116 660 129 isiNdebele 18 15 10 isiXhosa 78 68 84 isiZulu 35 103 155 Other language 155 187 169 Sesotho 69 185 522 SesothosaLebowa 17 29 19 Setswana 1 116 469 75 siSwati 76 17 25 Tshivenda 9 5 11 Unknown 1 2 4 Xitsonga 47 24 33
Grand total 1 743 3 941 1 357
4.2.5
The students in the groups represented different year levels within the BEd programme. Therefore, these student teachers differed in terms of the time they had spent in school based placement; for example, second and third year students had been placed in schools for some teaching practice blocks prior to the pandemic, while the first year students had never experienced teaching practice placement. As the academic year starts in February, these students had barely been at university for two months when the pandemic hit South Africa. Whereas the second and third year students had a point of reference of being on the other side of a desk in a classroom, the first year students had only their own schooling to use as a very limited point of reference.
4.2.6
When student teachers go for their school based placement, we try to ensure that they are exposed to different and diverse schools, as stipulated within the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015). South Africa is a country with a vast array of school environments, from extremely prestigious private schools where monthly tuition exceeds the salaries of most South Africans and well resourced schools with the newest technology to under resourced schools with classrooms that have only the bare basics in terms of furniture and staff. Many of these schools have feeding schemes that provide learners with their only meal of the day Weather
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elements, such as flooding, affect the daily lives of the learners at under resourced schools Moreover, approximately 60% of the students enrolled at the university in question are able to study only because they have a government funded bursary, which means that many of them come from the above mentioned poorly resourced schools. Students tend to go back for teaching practice to the type of school where they completed their schooling (Goldhaber et al., 2021); however, it is crucial that they experience different contexts to sensitise them to the challenges most South Africans face in trying to receive quality schooling for themselves, or later, their children.
4.2.7
The challenge presented by the diverse educational backgrounds of the student teachers is that in one PLC, there might be students from very privileged backgrounds together with students who had never had any experience with or exposure to a well resourced school. The challenge in terms of educational background not only involved the schools where the students came from themselves or where they chose to complete their teaching practice but also referred to the resources they themselves had available to collaborate on the task.
4.3
This challenge posed issues of internet access and connectivity, access to data, and experience using technology.
4.3.1
Internet access in South Africa remains elusive to most people, and frequent access to the internet is restricted to a small part of the population (Dataportal, 2020). Wi fi is not freely available in public spaces, and the reality for this cohort of students was that many of them only had access to the internet or even access to devices when they were on campus and could use the computer rooms. These computer rooms were, of course, out of reach at the time due to campuses being closed. The collaborative task was thus designed to offer equal opportunities for both students who did have internet access and students who were struggling with connectivity. They were scattered all over the country, and even if they had the financial means to use internet cafés, these establishments were still closed due to the high level of lockdown, or the students could not afford to spend the hours there needed to collaborate with their fellow PLC members. As continuous collaboration was essential, once off or intermittent access to the internet would not suffice.
4.3.2
Although the university was committed to providing all students with data for the duration of the lockdown, many students did not have access to smartphones or laptops to use the data they were provided with. After deliberations with mobile phone service providers, the university learning management system became zero rated, and students could access this crucial platform without using any data. To add to the challenges many students faced regarding connectivity, prolonged periods of loadshedding prevented many students from collaborating on the task.
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4.3.3
In addition to challenges regarding the availability of internet access and data, many students had very limited knowledge of and experience in using digital technology for learning (cf. Al Ansi, 2021). The first year students only had one or two months of experience in using the university’s learning management system. Ways in which we tried to address this challenge included creating tutorial videos, using forums to make contact with the groups, and using the chat room to communicate with facilitators and other functionalities to access resources. In addition to a lack of experience with the learning management system of the university, students also experienced challenges related to the use of the Google suite of products (Google Docs, Google Forms, etc.). Some students also had only a very basic knowledge of using Microsoft Office products such as Word and PowerPoint. In order to address these challenges, postgraduate facilitators were appointed to assist with training via tutorial videos.
4.4
The fourth challenge includedissues of support and individual accountability and roles.
4.4.1
Providing continuous support for more than 1 400 PLCs remained a challenge throughout the process. Facilitators were appointed to assist with challenges with regard to technology, communication, and conflict resolution. However, the number of emails received soon made it clear that we had to put additional measures in place to address this challenge. A decision was made to provide the students with a section on frequently asked questions (FAQs) in order to address common and repetitive issues arising in the communication from the various PLCs. The FAQs section was added to a live Google Doc where questions and answers could be added as they emerged. This turned out to be a very helpful tool for both facilitators and students.
4.4.2
It was quite evident that PLCs would rather send an email to a facilitator or the work integrated learning teacher educators than watch the tutorial videos or reading the FAQs document. It was important to teach these students the responsibility of accepting ownership for their work and their role within their PLCs. They had to learn to follow prescribed steps and use the relevant communication channels. Conflict in the groups had to be dealt with first by the peacemaker and group leader (as per roles assigned at the beginning of the task) (cf. Table 7) before involving facilitators and teacher educators. During the first phase of the collaborative task, training was provided to the student teachers so that they could optimally fulfil these roles. Not only did this empower the students, but it was a pre emptive measure to address the challenges that were anticipated to occur during the duration of the collaborative task
Table 7: Preparing PLCs for their roles
Group leader: Spokesperson for the group. Communicates with the facilitator. Monitors the progress of individual members. Assists in allocating roles, responsibilities, and duties within the group.
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Ensures that all members have an equitable share in the project. Constantly checks that all members understand the expectations. Recognises conflict and addresses it in collaboration with the peacemaker.
Energiser: A dynamic, caring member of the group Sets goal dates in collaboration with the group leader. Makes adjustments where necessary Motivates and encourages the group.
Facilitates the process of group members getting to know one another. Promotes positive relationships among group members. Keeps discussions on track by monitoring progress. Has a good sense of when a topic has been sufficiently discussed and when the focus of the group should shift.
Reassures and supports members when they become stressed or anxious. Is a reflective thinker who can analyse the group dynamics and climate and promote a positive atmosphere.
Peacemaker: Encourages continuous communication among the members. Manages conflict situations Manages conversation to achieve an appropriate balance so that all members participate in a meaningful way. Should be invitational, rather than confrontational. Asks members for specific rather than general contributions. Works towards inclusion and celebrating diversity in terms of culture and abilities.
Wild card:
The innovative and creative thinker of the group who can be provocative and argumentative.
Can suggest new, creative, and alternative ways of looking at the assignment. Their plans are often impractical due to their highly creative nature, but their ideas can spark more practical and alternative thoughts in other members.
The “idea” person who communicates the thoughts on the big picture and provokes group discussions.
Seeks connections between past, current, and future discussions. Effective at sourcing a variety of resources.
Reality checker: Often the loner of the group who enjoys working away from the rest of the group. Listens to what others have to say and explains it back in their own words. Asks for more information and provides clarity on both content and process. Will ask questions to find factual evidence for group members’ opinions. Summarises what has taken place, points out departures from the plan, and brings the group back to pertinent issues.
Doublechecks data, resources, and bibliographies for accuracy.
Tech wizard:
Ensures a professional final product. Collects the content and produces artwork, sound, etc.
Collaborates with the wild card on the creative side of the project and with the reality checker on insuring that all components have been included.
Collaborates with the group leader on the quality of the content.
The greatest source of conflict seemed to be language issues, various opinions on work ethic, and resistance to collaboration. The complaints highlighted the student teachers’ lack of experience in and commitment to collaboration and sharing ideas on issues related to the completion of the task; individualism was at
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the forefront of most of the complaints. These complaints were addressed as far as possible by the intervention of the facilitators and teacher educators.
Before the onset of the Covid 19 pandemic, campus based students only had experience in face to face classes and had not been required to learn or collaborate in PLCs in an online format. Most of them had probably worked in groups before where they knew their group members. None of the students had ever worked collaboratively across campus sites and modes of delivery and with such diverse community members. The results clearly indicated a number of challenges in trying to get student teachers to collaborate on a task within PLCs Experiencing challenges is, however, not a reason to discontinue trying to offer student teachers the opportunity to practice professional skills in structures that will one day resemble what is required in their school working environment.
This study has indicated the value of PLCs as a pedagogical tool for enhancing the personal and professional development of student teachers. Recommendations for future practice include a proactive effort to anticipate challenges and identify areas where additional support may be needed. Using student facilitators can provide such support while at the same time freeing up teacher educators to focus on core academic requirements. Utilising technology such as live Google Docs to continuously communicate with students not only ensures that teacher educators remain on top of challenges as they arise but also creates more space to work towards reaching the aims of the collaborative task without spending too much energy on logistical matters. The success of creating PLCs lies within the fostering of a sense of individual accountability in student teachers. It is, lastly, recommended that an opportunity such as this is utilised to embrace, rather than avoid, diversity within communities of students working together. This not only reduces potential conflict situations but also creates a platform for student teachers to work towards meeting the graduate attributes of the institution, thereby preparing them to meet the professional standards of their chosen career.
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*
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 226 246, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.14
Received Apr 9, 2022; Revised Jun 20, 2022; Accepted Jun 28, 2022
Susanto* Pascasarjana Institut PTIQ, Jakarta, Indonesia
Evi Muafiah
Institut Agama Islam Negeri Ponorogo, Ponorogo, Indonesia
Ayu Desrani Sekolah Tinggi Agama Islam Sabili, Bandung, Indonesia
Apri Wardana Ritonga Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim, Malang, Indonesia
Arif Rahman Hakim Institute Agama Islam Negeri Ponorogo, Ponorogo, Indonesia
Abstract. This study aimed to investigate the use of technology in enhancing the quality of Islamic higher education in Indonesia. A mixed method approach, with a sequential explanatory design, was applied in this research The participants in the quantitative research were 608 students from 10 provinces in Indonesia, while those in the qualitative approach were 23 students. The quantitative data were collected using a questionnaire, and the qualitative data were collected through interviews. The quantitative data were analyzed descriptively, while the qualitative data were analyzed using the Miles and Huberman model, which included collecting, reducing and displaying the data, and drawing conclusions. The findings showed that students’ perceptions of the use of technology in improving the quality of Islamic higher education were categorized into three parts First, the technology used in enhancing the quality of delivering materials includes LMS (38%), Zoom meetings (30%), Google Meet (18%), and Google Classroom (14%). Second, the technology used in improving the quality of
Corresponding author: Susanto,susanto@ptiq.ac.id
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
monitoring or learning direction includes WhatsApp (55%), Telegram (25%), Line (9%), and Google Classroom (11%). Third, the technology used to improve the quality of learning evaluation includes Kahoot (9%), Quizizz (10%), Google form (48%), Turnitin (28%), and computer based tests (5%). In addition, the respondents gave a positive response to the use of technology in learning in Islamic higher education. The use of technology in Islamic higher education shows an increase. It eases the lecturers, students, and other stakeholders to provide a more outstanding quality of Islamic education.
Keywords: education technology, quality of education, students’ perceptions
Modern technology has been widely used in education, ranging from primary to tertiary educational institutions. It supports educators and students in facilitating a better teaching and learning process (Hassan & Hamada, 2017) Universities worldwide use smart devices to provide users with access to class content and materials. User numbers are also steadily increasing (Safsouf et al., 2020) Innovation and technological advances have changed pedagogy and approaches to facilitating and delivering content in higher education worldwide (Sharma et al., 2019). This has also happened in Indonesia.
Massive global developments demand that educational orientation is not limited to learning in classrooms, and students are directed to explore all educational information outside the classroom (Lai et al., 2018). To support this, the concept of intelligent learning or educational technology (EdTech) is promoted as one of the trends with very strong growth in higher education (Bozkurt, 2020). EdTech’s advantages involve its flexibility in using a computer or mobile device (smartphone or tablet) (Tobin & Hieker, 2021) By using the Internet, students can access resources anytime and anywhere. It may adapt to each learner’s learning needs and preferences(Safsouf et al., 2020).
The growing demand for technology learning drives massive growth for Indonesia’s leading EdTech platforms (Bhardwaj et al., 2020). Popular EdTech products offer learning management systems for teacher student collaboration and online teaching management, as well as interactive classroom tools to host hands on and interactive learning sessions, such as G Suite for Education, Microsoft for Education, Zoom, Google Meet, and Google Classroom (Basilaia & Kvavadze, 2020). However, not all students can access EdTech (Amo et al., 2019) because the Indonesian education system is not equipped to increase online learning rapidly (Churiyah et al., 2020)
EdTech is vital for higher education institutions, including Islamic higher education in Indonesia, to increase competitiveness (Au Yong Oliveira et al., 2018) As a result of utilizing EdTech, all of the information related to teaching and learning can be accessed easily and quickly by students, teachers, and the community who need it (Suryaman et al., 2020). In addition, EdTech is needed in higher education management (Castañeda & Selwyn, 2018) to manage academic, student, and administration personnel (Shaturaev, 2021)
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The potential of EdTech to increase student activeness in the learning process has long been recognized and the involvement of students in educational technology is a focus EdTech requires good planning and preparation (Foulger et al., 2019) because it can also potentially neglect students and hinder learning EdTech in online learning, where teachers and students have virtual meetings, may lead to students’ deviant behavior (Susanto & Hakim, 2021). Improving the teachers’ competence in using EdTech needs to be considered (Fernández Batanero et al., 2021). One of the problems in teaching and learning is the lack of teachers’ competence in choosing media and using educational technology as a learning facility. A teacher plays the role as a facilitator who guides a learner to knowledge (Wu & Nian, 2021)
Along with the development of education and technology issues, research on the use of EdTech increases daily. Some scholars and academics have conducted some research on the internalization of EdTech in the learning process in higher education, including Islamic higher education It has been found that students’ engagement in learning using EdTech grows rapidly when teachers use technology well (Bedenlier et al., 2020). Moreover, Sailer’s findings propose a contextual facilitators model as an EdTech based learning model for higher education with a distance learning system to understand the dynamics and factors that lead to successful learning (Sailer et al., 2021) Shen (2019) also states that EdTech in higher education is an innovation and disruption to conventional learning practices (Shen & Ho, 2019). Nikou’s findings emphasize the importance of the attention to the structure of the use of EdTech amid significant changes in higher education, so it provides benefits rather than being merely a symbol (Nikou & Aavakare, 2021).
EdTech can foster a comfortable and flexible learning ecosystem. It also helps students to access information and learning resources. Therefore, its utilization must be increased to obtain a better quality of learning. EdTech should be encouraged and developed, especially in teaching and learning activities in Islamic higher education. Although the use of EdTech has shown an encouraging trend, it must be ensured that such use not only follows the trend of technological developments but also provides interactive, effective, and good quality learning activities in terms of processes and learning outcomes.
This research explored the trend of using technology to improve the quality of teaching-learning activities in Islamic higher educational institutions in Indonesia, which was formulated in three research problems. The first problem is how technology is used to improve the quality of learning materials delivery; the second is how technology is used to improve the quality of monitoring learning activities; and the third is how technology is used to improve the quality of the implementation of learning evaluations. From these three research problems, the researchers obtained complete and comprehensive data regarding the use of technology today in improving the quality of teaching and learning in Indonesian Islamic higher educational institutions
It is crucial to make the best use of technology to enhance effective, communicative, and quality learning activities in the future. There are three reasons why this research is essential. First, improving the quality of Islamic higher education requires the adoption of technology and information. Second,
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to examine trends in the use of educational technology in Islamic tertiary institutions, it is necessary to have accurate data. Third, it is essential to investigate the perception of Islamic higher education students as users.
Educational technology (EdTech) is technology developed to support more efficient educational needs as well as e learning and home schooling. Everything that happens in the world of technology has a direct impact on education and learning systems (Bower, 2019) and has an impact on the efficiency of teachers, students, and the education system as a whole (Purnell et al., 2020). EdTech gives access to education to anyone, wherever they are (Ideland, 2021). These advantages help the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as outlined by the United Nations, to realize quality education (Mondejar et al., 2021). By including the role of EdTech, it is very possible that this global agenda will be achieved by providing access to all people to the same educational opportunities (Selwyn et al., 2020), especially with the opportunity to learn from the best teachers in the world (König et al., 2020)
The number of students in Indonesia continues to increase annually. Based on the data from the Indonesian Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology in the 2019/2020 school year, there were around 50.6 million students (Zhao et al., 2021). A total of 57.9% went to elementary schools, 19.9% to secondary schools, 9.9% to universities, and 12.1% went to vocational schools. There were around 8.3 million students that used technology. The number of young Internet users is also increasing (Park & Kwon, 2018)
Online platforms, smartphone applications, and new learning formats have massively increased access to education and improved the teaching and learning process itself, while online and cloud technologies have presented attractive standardization possibilities for learning content (Zhang & Min, 2020). Now, every school in rural areas can receive the same standards and levels of learning content as schools in urban areas (Hermino & Arifin, 2020). This connection happens not only inter schools and inter cities but also inter countries (Martín Cuadrado et al., 2021), because EdTech offers developing countries access to follow the education system in more developed countries, both in academic and professional learning activities (Teräs et al., 2020).
EdTech also creates stronger connections between what happens in the classroom and what happens outside the classroom (at home, work world, and so on), making teacher supported digital educational resources, such as assignments and exam preparation materials, available permanently (Hofer et al., 2022). This creates a structured circuit in the student learning experience.
There are several types of services offered by EdTech in Indonesia One types is e learning, selling learning materials online, delivered through interactive content, on demand videos, and online live tutoring (Gao et al., 2021). From a material point of view, the scope is diverse, ranging from courses for school students and foreign language learning content to strengthening skills, such as
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accounting and programming (Sepulveda Escobar & Morrison, 2020). Examples of startups in this field include Akademi, Bahaso, Bensmart, CodeSaya, Kode.id, Ruangguru, Vokraf, and Zenius.
E learning services in Indonesia mostly target general users, followed by K 12 (equivalent to elementary, junior high, and high school levels). Some also specifically present packaged materials for preschools (e.g., Playable, Smart Point), universities (e g , DQLab), and businesses (e g , Ringerlaktate). The concept of blended learning is also still being applied by EdTech to this sub vertical as an anticipatory step towards market readiness, namely by providing a program that combines online and offline (Goodyear, 2020).
Another EdTech service model is the learning management system (LMS) (Fearnley & Amora, 2020). In contrast to e learning, LMS is designed more to help plan learning activities. Previously, it was widely used institutionally but, over time, it was also designed for personal use. Some LMS platforms only provide an administrative management system for teaching and learning activities, while others also provide a learning material marketplace (Kant et al., 2021). From existing local startup products, LMS was developed to accommodate several market shares, including business (e.g., Codemi, HarukaEdu, RuangKerja), K 12 level (e.g., Kelase, Mejakita, Pintro), universities (e.g., Ngampooz), and the general public. (e.g., ZumiApp) (Shurygin et al., 2021)
A mixed method approach was applied in this study. The design used is the sequential explanatory design, where the research method combines quantitative and qualitative research methods sequentially, where the first stage of the research was carried out using the quantitative method and the second stage was carried out using the qualitative method. They were used to obtain more comprehensive data. The quantitative data were gathered from respondents who used EdTech in Islamic higher educational institutions in Indonesia. Then, the qualitative data depicted their perceptions about using applied technology.
The participants in the quantitative approach were 608 students of Islamic higher educational institutions in 10 provinces in Indonesia, who were established as the sample by using the cluster random sampling technique. The respondents in the qualitative approach were 23 students of Islamic higher educational institutions in Indonesia, who were established as the sample by using the purposive sampling technique The 23 students were active students studying at various higher education institutions in Indonesia. Below is the distribution of participants in each province.
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The instrument used for data collection was a questionnaire with several questions about educational technology used in learning in higher education. The questionnaire was tested for validity in learning technology by using SPSS (Version, 26.00). The questionnaire is divided into three parts: the first part deals with the technology to improve the quality of material delivered; the second deals with the technology to improve the quality of learning monitoring; the third deals with the technology to improve the quality of evaluation. The questionnaire contains 13 questions with yes/no alternative answers. The results of the validity and reliability measurement of the instrument was as follows:
Pearson correlation No Cronbach's Alpha if item is deleted
Technology to improve the quality of material delivery
a. Learning management system 0.377 .817 b. Zoom meeting 0.567 .804 c. Google Meet 0.574 804 d. Google Classroom 0.582 803
Technology to improve the quality of learning monitoring
a. Line Group 0.423 .816 b. WhatsApp 0.565 .803 c. Google Classroom 0.538 .807 d. Telegram 0.436 .810
Technology to improve the quality of evaluation
a. Kahoot 0.518 .812 b. Quizizz 0.560 .803 c. Google Form 0.641 .797 d. Turnitin 0.560 .803 e. Computer Based Test (CBT) 0.556 804
The table shows that all question items are declared valid, with rCount greater than rTable. The rTable, determined by the 608 respondents at the significance level of 0.05, is 0.080. This indicated that all items show more than 0.080, meaning the instrument was valid. Furthermore, the reliability of an instrument using the Cronbach alpha questionnaire is declared reliable when the Cronbach alpha is >0 6. The table shows that the value of the overall question item is >0.6, indicating the instrument is reliable.
The data were collected from January to February 2022. The quantitative data were obtained from the questionnaire distributed by Google Forms, while the qualitative data were gathered through telephone interviews. The questions dealt with the use of technology to enhance the quality of material delivery, learning monitoring, and learning evaluation.
The researchers analyzed the quantitative data obtained by using the questionnaire descriptively. Meanwhile, the qualitative data were analyzed using the Miles and Huberman model (Huberman, 1992) First, the researchers collected data based on the random distribution of respondents of 608 Islamic higher education students in Indonesia. Second, the researchers classified the data based on the predetermined research problem. In the third stage, the
researchers presented the data according to the specified research problem and then drew the findings. Based on the findings, the research analysis focused on the use of EdTech in Islamic higher education. The data were critically examined by following these three stages
4.1
The use of technology in education continues to develop along with the development of science and technology. Lecturers continue to adapt themselves to the use of technology in teaching processes to improve the quality of services in Islamic higher education. With supporting technology, the delivery of learning materials can be done online. In fact, with the rapid support of technology and information (ICT) today, Islamic higher education services can innovate to develop multiple virtual based services in learning, administration, community service, and other services needed.
Materials delivery by utilizing EdTech becomes more exciting and flexible because technology creates more interesting and effortless human activities. The utilization of learning media and technology is one of the breakthroughs that need to be developed and expanded to improve the quality of educational services. The findings of this study indicate that technology is being used in Islamic higher education to improve the quality of the teaching learning process with various types of platforms, which can be seen in the following figure.
Figure 2 shows the Islamic higher education in Indonesia has utilized educational technology through various alternative platforms to improve the quality of learning materials delivery. The percentage using LMS is 38% and Zoom as a face to face online tool is 30%. Meanwhile, 18% of the respondents at Islamic higher education said that they had taken advantage of the feature provided by Google Meet and 14% of the respondents use Google Classroom.
Furthermore, in interviews with respondents related to the use of technology to improve the delivery of the materials in Islamic higher education, a respondent said “To improve the quality or quality of learning activities, especially before teaching and learning activities take place, we as students are given socialization regarding the use of learning technology on campus, especially on the availability of LMS on campus” (interview with Fahril on January 16, 2022).
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Then, related to the use of technology in the delivery of the materials, another respondent stated that “The ability of students from the 2020 2021 class in using the LMS and operations is directed through zoom meetings before the start of the lectures for teaching and learning activities, for us as new students who are still new to the operation of the LMS, socialization is not only done once or twice, but socialization is also done by the lecturer who is competent in the subject” (interview with Mela on January 21, 2022).
The researchers asked the respondents whether or not using technology in lectures could improve the quality of learning materials delivery in Islamic higher education. One respondent confessed that “Using technology in delivering learning materials certainly makes it easier for us to obtain subject matter from lecturers, especially with the current learning situation, which is still online; technology is highly relied upon to obtain lecture materials for the sake of good continuity of learning” (interview with Iman on January 19, 2022).
Furthermore, another respondent also said, “With technology that is growing and getting better, of course, it is very easy for us as students to access learning materials and also not only learn from one reference, we are still allowed to access material from several other technology references under the direction of the lecturer” (interview with Tika on January 27, 2022).
Based on those descriptive data and the respondents’ views, it can be concluded that EdTech is needed to improve educational services in Islamic higher educational institutions in the learning materials delivery. Materials delivery can be improved and packaged by utilizing technology so that the quality of education services is better and adaptive to the needs of the times. Several platforms can be used for EdTech in learning materials delivery, whose use is different from one another in percentages. The highest user percentage is LMS, which is 38%, followed by Zoom (30%), Google Meet (18%), and the lowest percentage is Google Classroom (14%)
Examining the interviews shows that the use of EdTech in delivering learning materials with several types of platforms illustrates that the learning process can attract students’ interest because the series of learning activities are not limited by time and space In fact, it promotes flexible learning. In addition, the use of technology in learning material delivery also provides students with opportunities to seek and obtain various types of learning resources. It has also increased the quality of the learning process.
The readiness of higher education institutions to use EdTech is decisive. Therefore, Islamic higher educational institutions are required to be adaptive to technology based facilities. The use must be ensured to impact positively on the improvement of the learning quality and on the comfort of students in learning. The respondents’ acknowledgement confirms that the use of EdTech in higher education can foster a lively, interesting and varied spirit of learning; it makes students comfortable with learning because the use of technology makes for learning services that are innovative, and modern (interview with Lastri on February 5, 2022)
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Islamic higher education in Indonesia has utilized information technology based learning to monitor learning activities such as assignment submission, analysis, recording, reporting, and management information about the implementation of learning activities. The quality of learning process monitoring in Islamic higher education is shown in Figure 3.
Telegram Group 25%
Line Group 9%
Google Classrrom 11%
WhatsAp p Group 55%
Figure 3. Technology in learning monitoring
Figure 3 shows that WhatsApp is the platform most widely used by lecturers and students to improve the quality of the monitoring of the teaching learning process. As many as 55% of the respondents stated that they used WhatsApp Meanwhile, 25% of the respondents stated that they used Telegram to monitor their learning. Line was used by 9% of the respondents, and the remaining 11% used Google Classroom as a medium to improve the quality of learning monitoring in Islamic higher education. WhatsApp is the most crucial choice as it provides various features, such as telephone, voice notes, and video calls, even though the other platforms have almost the same features as WhatsApp does These features can support the implementation of digital based learning monitoring in Islamic higher education.
The respondents confirmed that using social media platforms, especially WhatsApp, was a medium to improve the quality of the implementation of learning monitoring. One respondent said, “From most of the existing technology social media, WhatsApp is an option for lecturers and students to communicate and monitor the implementation of having assignments, both outside and inside the teaching and learning activities” (interview with Fadli on January 27, 2022). Another respondent said, “The use of social media, including WhatsApp, telegram, and others, makes it very easy for lecturers and us as students to communicate anywhere and anytime, especially in the current COVID 19 pandemic which makes us unable to meet face to face” (interview with Annisa on January 27, 2022).
Based on the findings, various social media platforms are used to communicate between lecturers and students to monitor the learning process. It is used from the beginning of learning to the end through special groups for each course. The use of social media for monitoring online and offline learning activities involves distributing KRS syllabus and other learning tools. In addition, it is intended to be used for sharing Google Meet links, materials, and references for monitoring the learning process, and as a discussion forum between lecturers and students, as well as among students.
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The respondents from an Islamic university in East Java Province added that social media, such as Telegram, WhatsApp, or personal chats, provides accessible communication between lecturers and students or among students to discuss lecture materials and guidance and to share information related to services on campus (interview with Linda on February 25, 2022).
With regards to the data findings about the use of social media, it should also be noted that social media can bridge the need for information and communication with all parties related to lectures, such as academic staff and other stakeholders. Seeing the dynamics of digitalized education services, it is possible that teaching at Islamic universities in the future will experience very rapid development.
28%
5%
In addition to improving the quality of teaching and monitoring the implementation of teaching, EdTech is also used to improve the quality of the evaluation of learning outcomes. The results of this evaluation depend on the method and the media used. In learning evaluation activities, lecturers must pay attention to the method or media used to meet the quality standards of evaluation processes This is done so that the evaluation results have a high level of accuracy to reflect students’ abilities genuinely. Based on educational assessment standards, the assessment includes authentic assessment, self assessment, portfolio based assessment, daily test, mid semester test, end of semester test, competency level test, and competency level quality test. Some social media platforms are used to improve the quality of the evaluation process for student learning outcomes at Islamic higher education. The media platforms used are shown in Figure 4. 9% 10% 48%
Kahoot Quizizz Google form Turnitin Computer based test
Figure 4 shows the improvement in the quality of the evaluation of student learning outcomes by utilizing the five media platforms of Kahoot, Quizizz, Google form, Turnitin, and the computer based test (CBT). The most widely used media platforms to improve the quality of evaluation in Islamic higher education are Google Form (used by 48% of lecturers), Turnitin (28%), Quizizz (10%), Kahoot (9%), and CBT (5%).
These findings show that Google Form is the most widely used media platform in Indonesian Islamic higher education today, while the CBT platform is the least used
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As the most used platform, Google Forms is a medium that can collect information from users through personalized surveys or quizzes. The information is collected and automatically linked to a spreadsheet to group the scores or data from the evaluation. In addition, lecturers also use Quizizz to evaluate teaching learning activities in Islamic higher education. It is a website for creating interactive quiz games that can be used for classroom activities and learning evaluation. It can be accessed on the Playstore for Android users, making it more practical and mobile friendly. Meanwhile, Kahoot is a game based learning platform used as a learning technology in schools.
Turnitin is also widely used by several higher education lecturers to improve the quality of learning evaluation. Turnitin is a web-based software system that can identify plagiarism elements in scientific writing A respondent said that some lecturers used Turnitin to check the validity of student assignments. It is necessary as most lecturers give assignments to students to write papers or other scientific works (interview with Jauharul on January 27, 2022). For Islamic higher education that is advanced and adaptive to technological advances, Turnitin is expected to ensure the quality of student assignments and work.
One of the respondents said, “Using Turnitin is not only to correct assignments given by lecturers but also to see the originality of ideas, the text of our assignments. It is a requirement for the assignments. We are also encouraged to learn how to write and communicate ideas through scientific writings whose authenticity would be checked before they are submitted” (interview with Hasan on January 27, 2022). Another respondent also said, “The sophistication of this Turnitin used in learning positively impacts students not haphazardly plagiarizing or copying and pasting other people’s assignments and works” (interview with Robi on January 27 , 2022).
Finally, CBT is used by lecturers or teachers to evaluate student learning outcomes. It is the use of computers in the tests and assessments of student learning outcomes. The classifications used in assessing learning outcomes include diagnostic assessments, individual tests, and summative tests. CBT is usually used as objective tests for individual students. The presentation and selection of CBT questions are computerized. Each participant who takes the test gets a different set of questions. As shown in Figure 4, as many as 5% of the respondents stated that they used technology to improve the quality of evaluating student learning outcomes at Islamic higher education. Regarding fluency in using CBT, respondents from Islamic higher education in West Sumatra stated that before lecturers used the media to evaluate learning outcomes, students had received socialization and education on how to use it (interview with Nurul on February 27, 2022).
According to the Oxford Dictionary of English, perception is sensing and/or interpretation, which tends to be subjective. Based on this view, perception is a person’s response to a particular object based on sensing (Oktavianti & Ardianti, 2019). The study of Ivanaj et al. (2019) shows that the factors that influence the perception of e learning about service quality are motivated by some factors. They are the attractiveness of the e learning system, quality assurance to meet students' needs, and attention to users.
Based on the responses or perceptions of students as users of technology based teaching services, Islamic higher education still needs improvement and innovations in applying technology based teaching. Thus, Islamic higher education needs to make various breakthroughs and innovations to improve service quality so that technology based teaching services can be well received by students and provide convenience for learning processes and services. Through these, the quality of education can increase measurably.
The findings also show that Islamic higher education in Indonesia generally responds positively to the presence of EdTech to support the quality of education and teaching services. It is proof that Islam is very open to developing science and technology (Huda et al., 2020). Islam does not prohibit anything that benefits human life, and it even recommends that it be used for more significant interests. Islam emphasizes that every Muslim learns and adapts to the times and adopts technology to improve Indonesia’s quality of education services (Salehudin et al., 2021). Thus, theologically, Islam has guided its ummah (adherents) to become the best ummah, able to utilize science and technology for the benefit of humankind.
The use of technology can be a strategic support to improve the education service quality of Islamic higher education. Three things must be realized. First, lecturers and students must access technology and good quality Internet in classrooms and educational institutions (Ratheeswari, 2018). Second, educational institutions must provide quality materials, be up to date with the times, and be relevant to students’ current level of thinking. Third, educators, as learning facilitators, must have good skills in operating EdTech as a medium and source of learning to achieve quality academic standards (Karsenti et al., 2020). The more adaptive the Islamic higher educational institutions are to today’s technological advances, the more positive their potential to deliver a better quality of Islamic education output (Tolchah & Mu’ammar, 2019)
Based on the research findings, technology based learning can be accepted and recognized as facilitating students and lecturers in teaching learning activities: sharing and receiving learning materials, monitoring the learning activities, and evaluating learning. The positive responses to the use of technology to improve the quality of learning in Islamic higher education today will positively affect lecturers and students in supporting teaching learning activities. This is in line with what Abdullah (2017) found that the positive use of technology will have a positive impact on lecturers’ and students’ science and technology development. The use of the technology acceptance model (TAM) can improve the quality of higher education with technology-based strategic management. The design of the techno university concept can guarantee the quality of Islamic higher education (Jamaluddin et al., 2019).
In addition to using sophisticated technology, students can also have face to face interactions for an unlimited period (Lamri & Hamzaoui, 2018) Technology, which is not restricted to time between students and lecturers, can be utilized optimally in learning (Osman & Hamzah, 2017). Stakeholders can use technology as a learning tool in any situation. However, adequate preparation is
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needed to use technology for effective learning, including the importance of instructing students to use it properly.
The findings show that students and lecturers utilize media platforms that are already popular and familiar in teaching learning activities, including materials delivery, monitoring, and evaluation activities. This finding is supported by the results of a survey conducted by Sabzian et al. (2013) who found that students have a positive perception of the use of technology today. They are use technology media when they are guided and directed to use and choose the media based on the target competencies (Supriyanto et al., 2020).
Informed by the promising prospects of using technology in various parts of life, large companies, such as Apple, Facebook, Samsung, and Magic Leap, have increased their investment in technology development to improve their accessibility in the future (Howard & Howard, 2017). With technological advances being developed, educational institutions get better benefits because they can develop virtual learning services (Muehllehner, 1981). Therefore, although the findings of this study have shown that the use of technology in improving the quality of Islamic higher education has been implemented, it must constantly be improved upon to achieve a high level of success in supporting teaching and learning activities in Islamic higher educational institutions in Indonesia.
However, several studies comparing the effects of implementing digital learning in some traditional classes have not shown consistent and significant gains in digital learning (Bernard et al., 2004; Gilbert, 2021) In contrast, other research shows that digital classrooms and technology based learning can outperform traditional classroom learning services (Sevindik, 2010). Another study reveals that technology changes the role of teachers because technology can improve the quality of better learning (Suhr et al., 2010; Sabzian et al., 2013). Thus, the rapid development of technology today has facilitated educators at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Therefore, the spirit of increasing the intensity of the use of technology in improving the quality of the teaching and learning in Islamic higher education must be rekindled
Levin and Schrum (2013) stated that in schools with successful technology initiatives, there is a change in the way teachers develop curriculum and teaching practices (Glassett & Schrum, 2009) Technology can even change teaching routines, including access to learning resources and advanced learning content; it can improve the quality of learning; it can change the way teachers deliver learning materials (Levin & Schrum, 2013; Shapley et al., 2010).
In the improvement of the quality of Islamic higher education, technology can be applied in the entire educational and learning systems Technology can be applied through an educational system that combines digital competencies in curriculum and assessment. Furthermore, technology as a learning facility and formative assessment media will help digital literacy and address the complexities and dynamics of education in today’s society (Englund et al., 2017)
Various types of EdTech, both software and hardware systems, can be used as formal and informal learning media (Dijck & Poell, 2018). Some studies show that social media generally has the potential to encourage user participation
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(Hung & Yuen, 2010). It can be used to improve the quality of education services and it can also help establish seamless virtual professional communication (Zachos et al., 2018)
Teachers still worry about the safety of students, especially primary and secondary school students, because there are many spam, privacy, and information security issues in the use of technology. However, the use of technology to improve the quality of education in Islamic higher education must be developed. At the higher education level, social media can be used without concern for its users (Bates & Poole, 2005), because college students are generally quite mature in their thinking and they are able to use social media wisely. Moreover, information and telecommunication technology is now deeply rooted in the daily life of students and lecturers (Gumport & Chun, 2016). Thus, the use of technology is strategic to improve the quality of services and learning in higher education, including Islamic higher educational institutions (Rustan, 2021)
There are three interrelated elements for quality improvement in Islamic higher education. They are character education, character strengthening, and curriculum development in Social Era 5.0 However, these three elements cannot be separated from the support of educational technology. In the element of character education, the task of a lecturer is to build several programs that integrate the character into learning through media and technology. Meanwhile, the character is strengthened by implementing a curriculum consisting of models and learning strategies, evaluations, and assessments. Curriculum elements are developed through integrated planning that internalizes character strengthening with Islamic values in Social Era 5.0 (Susilawati & Supriyatno, 2020)
In addition, three main factors influence the successful use of technology based learning: organizational characteristics, instructors, and Internet support. Of these factors, the organization characteristics are the essential factor. Instructors’ perception of the benefits of learning technology and ease of access to the Internet support contribute to success (Siritongthaworn et al., 2006) However, the study by Santosa and Devi (2021) reported that the obstacles experienced by technology based learning included unstable networks and weak student enthusiasm for attending lectures. They often become inhibiting factors for technology-based learning to be effective. To overcome this problem, teachers or lecturers can create exciting and innovative learning innovations so that learning can run well based on the goals to be achieved (Santosa & Devi, 2021).
Based on the findings, students positively perceive the efforts to improve the quality of Islamic higher education through EdTech services and, therefore, it is necessary that Islamic higher educational institutions make various strategic breakthroughs. First, it is necessary to improve the quality of EdTech management on an ongoing basis according to current needs and challenges. Second, it is essential that Islamic higher educational institutions increase the innovation of EdTech services that are attractive to all students with various conditions. Third, it is urgent that Islamic higher educational institutions ensure adequate infrastructure quality assurance.
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Based on the findings and results of the analysis of quantitative and qualitative data, the following conclusions were made. First, Islamic higher education has utilized technology to enhance the quality of delivering learning materials. It employs some platforms of varying degrees of popularity: 38% use LMS, 30% use Zoom Meetings, 18% use Google Meet, and 14% use Google Classroom. Second, Islamic higher education has employed some social media platforms to improve the quality of monitoring or learning direction. They are WhatsApp (55%), Telegram (25%), Line (9%), and Google Classroom (11%). Third, Islamic higher education has applied EdTech platforms to improve teaching evaluation quality. The EdTech platforms, each of which has different percentage of users, includes Kahoot (9%), Quizizz (10%), Google forms (48%), Turnitin (28%), and CBT (5%).
The respondents positively responded to the use of technology in teaching learning activities in Islamic higher educational institutions. The use of technology in education has been escalated. It simplifies the work of the lecturers, students, and other stakeholders and it contributes to a better quality of teaching and learning.
This study recommends that other studies examine the overall application of EdTech used in universities in all provinces in Indonesia. It also requires an in depth study of how effectively this technology is used. Moreover, further studies should focus on the intense, sustainable, and effective application of EdTech in universities. Technology should be used for learning and as educational facilities by considering the readiness of human resources. This will ensure the effective and efficient implementation of EdTech.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 247 269, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.15
Received Mar 30, 2022; Revised Jun 20, 2022; Accepted Jul 2, 2022
Boj Bahadur Budhathoki , Bed Raj Acharya
Central Department of Education, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
Shashidhar Belbase College of Education, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Mukunda Prakash Kshetree , Bishnu Khanal , Ram Krishna Panthi Mahendra Ratna Campus Tahachal, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
Abstract. Mathematics anxiety in students seems to be one of the most common phenomena in mathematics teaching and learning worldwide. However, mathematics anxiety induced through the verbal behaviour of other people is an understudied area in mathematics education. This paper aimed to investigate the influence of the verbal behaviour of older people on the students’ interest and choice in studying mathematics. Ten grade nine students studying in a high school in Kathmandu participated in semi structured interviews. A descriptive qualitative research design, followed by a thematic analysis of the data through primary, secondary, and tertiary coding, identified four major themes related to the verbal behaviour of elders that induced mathematics anxiety in the students. These themes were discouragement, abuse, fear, and dilemma due to adults’ verbal behaviour when choosing mathematics as an optional subject in high school. The study results have educational implications in terms of the way teachers and parents express their viewpoints and interest in mathematics and related subjects may affect students’ interests and attitudes toward mathematics
Keywords: Mathematics anxiety; verbal behaviour; discouragement; fear of mathematics
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Mathematical anxiety seems to be a common phenomenon in mathematics education across schools in many parts of the world. It may negatively affect students' interests, attitudes, and choices of mathematics (maths) in higher grades. Therefore, parents and teachers should understand mathematics anxiety and support students in developing study habits that can help them overcome this (Mutodi & Ngirande, 2014). Anxieties and attitudes towards mathematics are common interests among mathematics teachers, students, and researchers (Belbase, 2013; Luu Thi et al., 2021). In this context, mathematics anxiety is considered a psychological status that manifests in students when dealing with mathematical content, whether in teaching and learning situations or in solving mathematical problems (Akbayır, 2019; Belbase, 2013). Those with a fragile self esteem may easily become distracted from concentration which can lead to mathematics anxiety.
Other factors, such as the unavailability of a good teacher when learning mathematics at an early stage and the lack of a suitable environment in which to learn mathematics may contribute to students’ mathematical anxiety (Smith, 2004). It is also a consequence of students’ inability to handle frustration, school absence, poor self concept, internalized negative parental and teacher attitudes towards mathematics, and learning through drills without fundamental understanding (Jain & Dawson, 2009). In the words of Stuart (2000), the development of mathematics anxiety often originates from a lack of confidence in situations to handle numerical information. The issue can further be linked to the lack of realistic mathematics connecting students’ learning to daily life (Banes, 2005). Recent studies have associated students’ mathematics anxiety with their working memory and performance in mathematics (Barroso et al., 2021; Korem et al., 2022). Such studies focused on the modelling of anxiety profiles with students' performance in mathematics to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Mathematics anxiety, considered a fear or phobia, produces a negative response specific to learning or doing mathematical activities that may interfere with students’ performance (Khan, 2019). Mathematics anxiety can affect individuals in varying ways, including a cognitive, affective, or physiological reaction, as most mathematics learners find that mathematics is complicated, abstract, and needs a great deal of rote memorization (Acharya et al., 2021) Owing to anxiety, fear, anger, feelings of loss or an emotional state when engaging in mathematical learning processes, students develop a range of subjective responses to the experience, which in turn are related to the physical and behavioural changes they may feel or experience, or express emotionally (Viver, 2021). Mathematics anxiety appears to have serious long-term consequences that negatively affect career choices, types of employment, and career development in adulthood (Caviola et al., 2019). A cognitive reaction may involve negative self talk, blanking out, and avoidance; an affective reaction may be characterized by distrust of ability, fear of being stupid, and loss of self-esteem; and a physical reaction may be evidenced by perspiring, increased heart rate, tenseness, or nausea (Desender & Sasanguie, 2019). The emotional feeling of helplessness, loss of confidence, fear of getting things wrong, abnormal breathing, sweating, shaking, biting nails, and frustration from trying to do mathematics and not
being successful are symptoms of mathematics anxiety (Finlayson, 2014). Other symptoms can be students’ feeling lost and not knowing where to start with questions or never getting the correct answer, being confused and just wanting to quit and go home, being very stressed before and during examinations, and beginning to shut down and stop listening in class (Finlayson, 2014). Mental stress and disorientation can be observed in their activities in classroom teaching, presentation, problem solving, and in examination time (Akkuss & Hand, 2010). There can be various factors leading to mathematics anxiety, and due to loss of confidence and interest in learning, mathematics anxiety may affect student achievement with low performance and avoidance (Preis & Biggs, 2001).
Verbal behaviour was technically introduced by Skinner (1957) in the context of language and literacy. However, we have conceptualized the life stories, tales, and life experiences shared by a person with other people to influence their actions and thoughts as verbal behaviour. These behaviours may be motivating or demotivating, and encouraging or discouraging to other persons. Many students in Nepal trust their elders, teachers, and friends in terms of what to do and not to do; and what to study or not in high school or afterwards. Based on what others have said and have heard, many students believe that subjects such as mathematics and science are complex, difficult, and only the talented ones can manage them. As a result, many of them may prefer not to study those subjects, believing that these subjects are difficult to understand.
On this basis, the available scholarly works in this area have related the periphery of mathematical anxiety and its effects, anxiety levels, and causes to students’ achievement. However, we have not been able to find adequate literature on mathematical anxiety arising from the verbal behaviour of adults. Therefore, this study is worthwhile. Despite some studies on students’ images of mathematics (Lamichhane & Belbase, 2017), students’ learning styles in mathematics (Khanal et al., 2021), and social justice issues in mathematics teaching and learning in Nepal (Panthi & Khanal et al., 2021), literature is scarce regarding how such verbal behaviours influence high school students’ interest in learning mathematics. The objective of the study was to explore the influence of adults’ verbal behaviours on high school students’ mathematics anxiety. To achieve this objective, the research question was: How does adults' verbal behaviour influence the mathematics anxiety of high school students? This research question is essential in order to understand how high school students decide about choosing mathematics as an optional subject and how their mathematics anxieties are related to the verbal behaviours of other people, mostly adults (elder siblings, parents, teachers, and other family relatives).
Several past studies have discussed students’ mathematics anxieties (Estonanto & Dio, 2019; Musa & Maat, 2021; Luttenberger et al., 2018). Musa and Maat (2021) reported that mathematical anxiety impacts students' emotions, thoughts, and actions. Their study emphasized secondary level students' mathematical anxiety with reference to their cognitive, environment, and behaviour based on their learning experiences. This study, conducted among seven Malaysian students who suffered from mathematical anxiety, developed five themes
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related to self conflict, external influences, the nature of mathematical content, the importance of mathematics, and mathematics learning strategies. Further, they found that mathematics anxiety was experienced by both high and low achievers. From this study, the researchers acquired an in depth understanding of how to diagnose and remediate students' mathematical anxiety through their perspectives based on their learning experiences.
In another study, Estonanto and Dio (2019) investigated various factors causing mathematics anxiety related to the calculus of senior high school students. The study found eight factors of mathematical anxiety, namely lack of self confidence, interest and study habits, the role of the teacher, fear of failure, pressure from parents and peers, pressured quizzes and tests, poor skills in analysis, and the abstract nature of mathematical concepts (Estonanto & Dio, 2019). Likewise, Luttenberger et al. (2018) described the phenomenon of mathematics anxiety, including information on its prevalence, how it differs from other forms of anxiety and which variables may influence the occurrence of mathematics anxiety. Luttenberger et al. (2018) found that there was a relationship between mathematics anxiety and moderating variables such as intrinsic motivation and positive influence on performance. There were numerous possibilities to support mathematics anxious individuals and reducing mathematics anxiety. Further, it was learned that countermeasures should ultimately be offered that were tailored specifically to each individual's personality, knowledge, and needs (Luttenberger et al., 2018).
Sometimes teachers' negative attitudes, inappropriate teaching methods, students’ negative classroom experiences, parents' unrealistic expectations, and high stake test pressure are responsible for creating mathematics anxiety in students (Mollah, 2017). Chávez et al. (2017) claimed that anxiety among high school students (both boys and girls) stems from nervousness and discomfort caused by mathematics as students face problems owing to a lack of self confidence. Such a complicated situation does not enable students to think rationally and clearly while working on mathematics problems (Chávez et al., 2017).
The majority of people nowadays are scared of mathematics and feel powerless regarding mathematical concepts (Henderson, 1981; Kuwar, 2021). Many people's images of mathematics are perceived to be difficult, abstract, cold, and in many cultures, primarily masculine (Sam, 1999). Furthermore, Sam (1999) claimed that there are mainly three public perceptions that mathematics is a complicated subject, mathematics is only for clever ones, and mathematics is a male domain. Frank (1990) suggested 12 myths in mathematics applicable to students and pre service teachers which resulted in mathematics anxiety and mathematics avoidance for some students and pre service teachers. Pupils commonly have negative views of mathematics connected to bad stories, while bad experiences in learning mathematics also support mathematics anxiety in learners (Hoyles, 1982). Owing to the generally negative societal image of mathematics, young students seem to be more anxious about learning mathematics in the classroom (Sam, 1999). Some people may have had negative mathematics experiences, such as embarrassment or humiliation at failure, feeling unsupported or uncared for, being influenced by negative attitudes
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toward mathematics from peers or family, and having difficulty with traditional rote learning with didactic memorization rather than understanding processes. Mathematics may trigger negative memories; therefore, many anxious mathematics students may avoid it. Poor preparation may lead to a poor performance, in turn leading to another negative mathematics experience that makes students more anxious as it reinforces their opinion that they are not good at the subject (Finlayson, 2014).
Therefore, the literature on mathematics anxiety emphasizes characteristics, consequences, and various causes or sources of such anxieties. The above brief review of literature shows that mathematics anxiety is an experiential phenomenon that affects students' cognitive, affective, and social aspects of mathematics learning. It also has a severe consequence on their choice of mathematics and mathematics related disciplines in their future studies that are also related to careers. In addition, such long term mathematics anxiety may spread to generations in the form of verbal behaviours that influence young students’ perceptions and practices of mathematics.
Motivation is an important concept in the learning of mathematics. Ryan and Deci’s (2000) self determination theory and Turner’s (1988) interactionist theory of motivation were used in this study to guide the entire work process. These theories state that human beings naturally strive for a state of high motivation and engagement through social interaction to determine what they are going to do There is an inherent positive human tendency to move towards growth through the paths that connect them with each other that may help in their self determination of what to study and how to go about it (Vansteenkiste et al., 2009). The self determination theory of growth is associated with autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Self-determination has been defined as a combination of an individual's attitudes and abilities that lead them to set goals and to take the initiative to reach them (Ryan & Deci, 2000). If a person is motivated enough to pay attention, motivation can reduce their anxiety about mathematics learning. Students are more motivated to persevere, produce a high quality effort, learn in depth, and perform well in the classroom and on standardized tests (Ng et al., 2016). On the other hand, individuals' actions and their choices of such actions may be influenced by others in a social context. According to Turner (1988), social interaction influences and reorganizes the behaviour of another person. In this sense, students' mathematics learning behaviour may be influenced by their peers, parents, and teachers. Therefore, students’ mathematics anxieties as triggered by adults’ verbal behaviour can be discussed according to the self determination theory and social interaction theory. These theoretical concepts may provide teachers and educators with a view of mathematics anxiety induced as a result of adult verbal behaviour through a relational lens, not as an absolute individual trait.
An interpretive constructivist research (Schwandt, 1998) was conducted from the viewpoint of nominalist ontology (Bryman, 2012), and subjectivist and relativist epistemology with research as a means to explore contextual reality based on
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individual experiences of the anxiety related phenomena (Cohen et al., 2011; Denzin & Lincoln, 2018). These assumptions in this study consider human knowledge as a subjective construction of meaning by the researchers through the interpretation of participants’ experiences of mathematics anxiety induced through adults’ verbal behaviour.
This study applied descriptive qualitative research designs with structures, processes, and strategies aimed at obtaining answers to research questions (Creswell, 2009). This involved the process of collecting and analyzing data, clarifying the premises and results, and linking their potential meanings with the existing data (Bryman, 2008) in order to achieve greater accuracy in understanding the influence of verbal behaviour on students’ mathematics anxiety (Brewer, 2005). A conceptual framework has been generated by connecting the verbal behaviour of adults to their perceptions and experiences of mathematics as a whole, and its impacts on learners (Figure 1). Figure 1 shows how a student's self determination and social interaction with adults may influence their beliefs and attitudes toward mathematics, leading to differential mathematics anxiety. The conceptual framework also shows the connection of data collection, analysis, and interpretations leading to the conclusion.
Ten students out of 50 from the same grade nine class of a community school in Kathmandu participated in the study Only ten students were selected purposefully because the verbal behaviours of their elders had a remarkable effect on their mathematical studies, of which the teachers had become aware. The inclusion criteria were that the students should have demonstrated mathematics anxiety, and that they had reported (to the mathematics teacher) that their elders talked about mathematics. They were selected for the study as research participants on the recommendation of their class teachers based on the inclusion criteria. For a qualitative study, a sample of ten is considered enough. So far, there was enough qualitative data to the level of saturation while generating themes (Cohen et al., 2011, Creswell, 2009). Among the ten participants, six were boys and four were girls. Male participants were given pseudonyms such as Suresh, Bishal, Anuj, Dinesh, Umesh, and Mukesh, while female participants were named Geeta, Bindu, Mona, and Ramita. Their real names, schools, and photographs were not disclosed to protect their identity owing to ethical concerns.
A semi structured interview was considered appropriate because of its flexibility and opportunity to ask questions based on participants’ responses. It was conducted with each research participant to understand the feelings, experiences, and their impacts on the participants’ mathematics anxiety and interest in studying mathematics (Husban, 2020). An interview guideline was prepared to guide the interview process. The research tool was designed with a few structured leading questions to be asked to all the participants. Additional prompts were used based on the participants’ views and considering their current experiences in mathematics learning (Flick, 2015). This allowed for less structured interview questions with more open and word based ones (Cohen et al., 2011). However, care was taken not to mislead the interviews owing to the addition of open, unstructured interview questions so that most of the required information could be collected from the participants.
The semi structured interviews included participants’ thoughts, feelings, beliefs about mathematics, verbal behaviours, and their interests in studying mathematics (Galletta, 2013). The head teacher was informed about the study beforehand. The researcher (the first author) asked the school principal’s permission to conduct the study with the students. The head teacher helped in the recruitment of ten students (six boys and four girls) from grade nine as research participants based on the referrals of class teachers and mathematics teachers to get students having mathematics anxiety and who have shared their adults' verbal behaviour about mathematics learning. The students were given a voluntary choice to participate in the study or not They were informed about the study, its purpose, and the time required for the interviews. Several students voluntarily wished to participate in the study. However, the head teacher helped in a purposive selection of ten students for the study from a grade nine class with the help of inclusion criteria set by the researcher. Each student was
interviewed for about 10 15 minutes. The interviews were audio recorded, transcribed, and translated from Nepali into English for further analysis and interpretation.
Qualitative interview data was analyzed by classifying and interpreting concepts about implicit and explicit meanings within thematic structures (Anderson, 2006; Flick, 2015). The data analysis was applied to determine conceptual issues in the participants’ experiences (Best & Kahan, 1999). In this research, the thematic data analysis process was applied to extract the essence of the experiences of the research participants by identifying patterns or themes within qualitative interview data (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Clarke & Braun, 2013). The first author coded the transcribed interview data into meaningful units based on the concepts they represented. Then, the codes were grouped into meaningful categories by relating them together based on their meanings or concepts. He then shared the codes and categories with the second and third authors to discuss the themes. The researchers agreed upon the codes and categories to align with four broad themes. Overall, the thematic analysis was consistent with the qualitative research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018) regarding the conceptualization of meanings from the participants’ voices and interpreting them in terms of the meanings they bring to them (Lochmiller, 2021). Therefore, the thematic analysis was carried out by clarifying the main concepts as codes and categories to recognize their utility, versatility, and ability to describe and inscribe the major themes (Braun et al., 2016) with repetitive patterns (Braun & Clarke, 2006) applying a range of theoretical and epistemological frameworks.
The quality criteria of the study were maintained with credibility, transferability, dependability, authenticity, and conformability (Korstjens & Moser, 2017). The credibility of this study was maintained by creating an environment of trust between the research participants and the researcher (interviewer) to obtain authentic data. The researcher visited the schools and the participants multiple times to establish a comfortable environment for the participants to take part in the interviews. Participants were initially informed of the aim of the study, and the fact that their participation was voluntary. The ethical aspects of the study approach were guided by informed consent, privacy, and data protection (Jameel & Majid, 2018). Therefore, the participants were also informed that their identity would be protected by changing their names and not revealing their pictures in the study reports. There was no impact of the power relation between the interviewer and the research participants. The participants were assured that they could leave the study any time they wished to without any penalty or consequence.
The credibility of the data was maintained by focusing the interview questions on participants’ experiences of adults' verbal behaviour and their impacts on mathematics learning and mathematics anxiety. The transferability criteria were applied to generate the themes that could possibly explain similar experiences of other students who were not the participants in the study. The dependability criteria were assumed with full responsibility to represent the participants'
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voices true to their words so that the themes fully depended on what participants said during the interviews. In this way, the criteria of authenticity were also maintained by listening to the audio interviews by the third researcher and looking at the interview transcripts and the thematic excerpts to present the data in the study, thus confirming the participants’ voices in the interpretations (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018; Thorne, 2022).
The analysis of interview data from ten participants yielded four major themes associated with discouragement, abuse, fear, and dilemma through the verbal behaviours of adults, parents, and teachers in relation to mathematics anxiety. Each of these themes has been discussed by presenting participants’ narratives, extracting major concepts from the narratives, and relating them to the relevant literature. While relating the themes to the relevant literature, social, intellectual, and psychological aspects have been considered in relation to adults’ verbal behaviours and their impact on students’ mathematics anxiety. In particular, the verbal behaviour of adults produced negative effects on the learners’ choice of mathematics as an optional subject in higher level studies. The thematic analysis of interview data extracted the four major themes. These themes have been discussed by connecting them with relevant theory and literature as follows.
Why do some students not have much interest in subjects such as mathematics? Why are other students interested in choosing this subject? Almost everyone advises that if someone really wants to study it, they choose the subject, otherwise not. The motivating and demotivating factors are highly rooted in every student’s choosing or not choosing a particular subject at the school level. Mathematics is widely known as a subject that many students hate (Swan, 2004). We often hear students say, “I hate maths class” or “Maths is too difficult”. Some students do not like mathematics because they think it is boring. They may view mathematics as an incomprehensible, abstract, and irrelevant subject relating to symbols and numbers. Those are the personal feelings of students about mathematics. Nevertheless, demotivating factors in Nepalese society expressed through verbal behaviour are remarkably significant. A student, Bishal, expressed his views about mathematics and how verbal behaviour negatively influenced his interest in studying mathematics as follows: We also discuss math in class and solve problems. That is right. All my friends have realized that mathematics is a complex subject, and everybody suggests not to study mathematics furthermore. I find math difficult. I don't understand why and when somebody understands it. I also have to understand, but it seems difficult for me. Mathematical formulas are harder to remember. My father always says, “If you feel mathematics is difficult, no need to study it. Only the study of mathematics does nothing, it is just a burden to you. Mathematics is a subject made only for creative students and you are not among them. You need to study only the easy subjects.”
Bishal’s narrative excerpt includes some key concepts related to demotivating factors for mathematics. For example, students realize that mathematics is difficult; they are not interested in continuing their study of mathematics; it is
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difficult to remember mathematics formulas; their fathers advise them not to study mathematics; mathematics is difficult; and mathematics is only for creative students. These views indicate that many of the students in the classroom talk about mathematics, and about solving mathematical problems, although they feel ‘mathematics is a difficult subject.’ Many students listen to their elders, namely parents and teachers, and if they are motivated or forced to take any subject, then they go for it. Otherwise, they do not. Some parents actively dissuade their children from studying a problematic subject as their optional subject. Other parents say that mathematics is tough and their children do not have the ability for it. Therefore, the children are afraid of selecting mathematics as a subject at the school level. When they progress to higher education, their image of mathematics is that of a difficult subject, and they do not study it at the college level either (Lamichhane & Belbase, 2017). According to Oxford Learning (2019), some students do not like mathematics because they think it is boring. Numbers and formulas are not so interesting to them; instead, they select history, science, languages, or other subjects that are easier for them to understand. They think that mathematics is abstract and irrelevant. Many students struggle with mathematics and find it difficult to remember all the rules and equations (Lamichhane & Belbase, 2017). It is hard to memorize everything in mathematics, and students have to repeat the same exercises until they find the correct answer, which can be frustrating (Sullivan et al., 2014) Frequently, wrong answers can damage their self confidence and lead them to drop out of the subject.
There are several reasons why children find certain subjects difficult, for example mathematics, because they are inherently weak in a particular field, have knowledge gaps, or may need more time or practice to complete specific tasks The verbal behaviour of adults is also one of the demotivating factors (Sullivan et al., 2014). Repeated failure in a particular subject will eventually cause negative associations with the subject that may lead to a lack of motivation to learn (Wong, 2021). To find the best possible solution, it is essential for adults to talk to the child and help them determine the reason for their difficulty in learning the subject. If children find the topic meaningless or useless, they may encounter learning difficulties. To motivate children to study, parents usually look for a simple explanation. Learning will bring good grades, and good grades are necessary for success in life (University of Tübingen, 2017). This is meaningful for parents because children do not have the same life experience and do not necessarily understand why success is so important.
Nepal is the first country to criminalize the corporal punishment of students in schools in South Asia, and it was reported to be the 54th country globally to do so (Kamat, 2018). In 2006, the Supreme Court of Nepal issued a judgment calling the government to take reasonable and practical measures to prevent corporal punishment and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment of children. Despite the legal framework, teachers across the country continue to beat students with fists, feet, sticks, and even terrible shisnu (stinging nettles), exerting inhumane pressure on them (Ghimire, 2019). Article 39 of the new Constitution of Nepal adopted in 2015 prohibits any form of abuse and violence against children in the home, school, or community. Finally, the new Children's Law was passed in
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September 2018, which guarantees all children the right to be free from all forms of violence, and physical or mental punishment. Moreover, it imposes a fine of up to 50,000 rupees and one year's imprisonment for those who carry out physical or psychological punishment or conduct disrespectful behaviour at home, school, or elsewhere (Nepal Law Commission, 2018).
Maintaining a positive and educational classroom environment is challenging, especially in classrooms that require frequent intervention due to disruptive student behaviour (Panthi & Acharya et al., 2021). Punitive disciplinary measures are usually ineffective when responding to a student’s disruptive behaviour (Dhaem, 2012). Although the punishment neither improves students' study habits nor improves the classroom environment, teachers frequently punish students or use verbal abuse. Our participant, Bindu, expressed her experience of being punished, which affected his learning of mathematics.
One day, there was a class test when I was in grade 5 at a private school. I got 16 marks out of 20. The math teacher beat me very bitterly for not getting full marks. I could not sleep for the whole night remembering this incident. Since then, I had promised myself I would never go to school to study. But a few days later, I felt easy and continued my study. But one of my classmates dropped out of school. He stayed at home for a whole year and was admitted to another school the following year. His parents were also illiterate and did not pay much attention to his study. Time and again, they would say, “You will feed yourself by carrying a heavy load (as a porter) like us, why don't you study it now?" Now, I am pretty good at mathematics. This is due to the fear of mathematics teachers. The teacher misbehaves when I make any mistakes in math. However, sometimes he supported me in mathematics learning.
The narrative excerpt by Bindu included some important concepts, for example, performance in mathematics, punishment by the mathematics teacher, worry about mathematics, improvement in mathematics, student dropout, parental role, negative reinforcement, and positive outcome of negative verbal behaviour. The teacher had beaten (physically punished) a student because she could not achieve full marks in a class test of mathematics. Teachers' negative actions in the classroom can adversely affect the students’ psychology and thinking or images towards teachers or the subject taught in the classroom. For some students, the negative behaviour of the teacher may lead to a change in their learning when they improve and study hard to achieve better results to avoid such punishment. However, it is not a common practice. She thought that she would never go to school again. Nevertheless, she did not quit school; instead, she studied hard to achieve better scores in mathematics tests.
In many cases, owing to the inappropriate behaviour or violence of teachers, students abandon their mathematical studies forever (Wagley, 2012). Teacher stress leading to inappropriate behaviour is a concern in the educational community. It has many negative short and long term consequences for students, such as depression as well as psychological and social problems (Lewis & Riley, 2009). Students who lack proper guidance and motivation are likely to fail their examinations owing to various reasons, the most prominent of which is teacher behaviour and the school environment (Wagley, 2012). Failure in school can have severe consequences if left untreated. Students who fail in mathematics
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may lose confidence, become depressed, lose motivation, and are more likely to fail again (Kamal & Bener, 2009; De Juanas et al., 2020)
One of the research participants, Anuj, shared his experience during the interviews: I find mathematics a challenging subject. I don't remember a single moment when someone praised my work in mathematics. My father is a bus driver. He talks more about his job than my studies. My parents cannot support me in mathematics assignments and other activities. Ever since I started going to school, neither my parents nor teachers have talked to others about my positive attitude. When someone comes into our room and talks about the children's studies, I often hear my mother saying, "My son is an idiot and never performs well in his studies”, or my father saying to others, “My son is khatam (bad) and his study is jhan khatam (worse) ” My parents mistreat me for the same reasons. When my parents meet with teachers in my school to talk about my study, the teacher always tells my parents that I cannot study well and I will never pass the grade On the same issue, my parents scold me very bitterly. When the math exam reports are out, whatever the outcome may be, my parents and teachers start abusing me for getting a bad result with a low grade. Now, I know that no one talks well (positively) about my studies. When I get a low score on math test, my father always scolds (verbally abuses) me and tells me not to go to school and not to waste his money in vain. I always worry about getting low score on a math test and being scolded after each test.
Some key concepts from Anuj’s narrative are: no appreciation of mathematics learning, no support from parents, verbal abuse at home, discouraging comments from the teacher, low performance in mathematics, and belief that mathematics is difficult. Research studies have reported parents' neglect and psychological abuse of their children in Nepal (Neupane et al., 2017). In a developing country such as Nepal, most uneducated parents think that their child's test scores are everything for assessing student performance and are used to measure student progress as a whole. Society believes that low academic performance is an indicator of the negligence of students; this then can be a trait of children based on their performance. Achieving high scores on the standard test is seen, by most parents, as a way to achieve professional and academic success. If their children get poor grades, parents worry about their academic and career success. After seeing the poor mathematics performance of their children, parents often blame them (children) for the root causes of improper homework assignments, lack of diligence, or poor preparation. In Nepali society, many parents still seem to think that if their children read books for a long time, they are doing well.
Misbehaviour, whether verbal abuse or physical maltreatment from parents and teachers, cannot improve the study of students; however, such behaviour can dampen students’ interest in the subject, and they may likely become further disappointed, fearful, and uncooperative. Most parents punish their children physically or mentally, or both (Kandel et al., 2017) by simply viewing their test results in a negative way or making negative comments without examining the root cause of their failure. Sometimes, to avoid punishment from their parents
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while performing low in math, children try to hide their poor test results, as they may feel guilty and fearful of showing the results to their parents. Just because a child did not study well or performed poorly in a test, disciplinary action can have the opposite effect. Moreover, poor instruction cannot improve ratings but can only worsen the situation. In this regard, Edelman (2018) suggested that students learn better when they are not afraid to take risks and make mistakes. Fear can be disastrous to teaching and learning mathematics (and other subjects).
Teachers can motivate students by praising their efforts, relating their experiences to daily life, and telling stories about successful personalities in mathematics and related subjects Students would subsequently be motivated to work hard for the teacher. They may feel that the teacher is doing [the best] for me and I should do [the same] at any cost (Hewson, 2018). An experienced and motivated teacher transforms their students’ attitudes from "I can't do it" to "I can do it.” Children develop attitudes towards learning during these early years that subsequently affect their school and future life. When teachers and parents provide the proper support, an open, adventurous learning environment, and encouragement throughout these years, students will be more creative and adventurous learners throughout their lives than children who do not receive this support (Nesbit et al., 2021).
5.3 Fear of Verbal Behaviour
Mathematics is a necessary subject for all people throughout their entire lives, from solving daily life issues to more complex problems in science, technology, engineering, economics, accounting, and the like. Unfortunately, many students experience stress and anxiety when faced with this subject. The difficulty with mathematics can affect a student's ability to interpret and apply knowledge, and it can subsequently affect their adult life. Criticism and punishment by teachers may negatively affect children's interest in learning mathematics and cope with the difficulty in mathematics problem solving, leading to giving up and quitting the class (Lewis & Riley, 2009; Acharya et al., 2021). The negative verbal criticism that can be used to threaten or mentally torture children can be termed verbal abuse. Emotional and verbal abuse can have severe negative consequences, just as serious as those of physical abuse. One of the female participants, Mona, said that she did not study the extra mathematics owing to fear of verbal abuse from others.
My upper class friends (seniors) used to tell me that extra math is very difficult and that there are many formulas to memorize. Even if someone asked the teacher about something in the math problem, the teacher would scold, saying, “If you are not capable of studying additional mathematics, why did you choose it?” When I went to attend an extra math class, the teacher said that ‘If math is difficult for you, choose another subject’, but in the middle of the session, I could not hear that extra math is difficult. Listening to everyone, I didn't think I could continue studying the extra math. Then I gave up the idea of studying extra mathematics and studied another subject.
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The narrative by Mona includes some key concepts, namely extra mathematics is difficult, too many formulas, discouragement from the teacher, and giving up and taking another subject. Upper class students (seniors) usually talk about their experiences in different subjects to the students in the lower grades (juniors). When students reach the upper grades, at a time, their subject choice is influenced by teachers, the hearsay of other students in that class, the syllabus, and former students who share negative experiences of mathematics
Mathematics serves as a gatekeeper for many students to allow them access to or prevent them from taking further mathematics and related subjects at a higher level (Martin et al., 2010). Here, the upper class students (seniors) tell the lower class students (juniors) that the extra math is too complicated, the formulas are too difficult to memorize, and the teacher scolds (verbally abuses) those who choose extra mathematics, although they are weak in mathematics. This seems to have created fear in the lower class students (juniors) towards extra mathematics, thereby creating a barrier. When one of the students went to the extra mathematics class, she found the subject teacher's behaviour unhelpful, as the previous class students had warned. She decided not to study extra mathematics and chose another subject. She would thus lose the opportunity and benefits of learning mathematics and related subjects in her future studies and career. In such a way, the verbal behaviour of upper class students and teachers is sufficient for a student to abandon a particular subject, such as extra mathematics.
The next participant’s (Ramita’s) experience is also a fearful one: As soon as I reached home from the examination hall, my big brother saw the mathematics question paper and asked me about my exam. I said that I could not do well. My brother scolded me in front of my parents that the mathematics paper was elementary, and I spoilt the exam due to carelessness in the study. Since then, I have always been afraid of getting scolded by my brother and parents, so I quickly tear off the mathematics test paper as soon as the exam is over. Many students are afraid of their family members, such as older brothers and sisters, parents, and grandparents, because they ask the students about preparing lessons, home assignments, and examinations. It would be better if the family members could help the students. Nevertheless, if the family members criticise the students instead of helping and encouraging them, the students are afraid of their family members making negative comments about them leading to adverse consequences in their mathematics learning. Instead, family members, including parents, can engage students in many mathematics related activities at home to support them in learning and development in mathematics (Jay et al., 2018).
However, when a family member (especially an adult) shows a negative attitude toward students' efforts and gives a negative reinforcement in the form of criticism, the student may hide the facts about his or her studies, and the situation may worsen One of the participants expressed that she tears up every mathematics test paper as soon as the examination is over owing to the fear of being scolded (verbally abused) by her family members. The lack of family members’ understanding of the problem or support of the student, as well as
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their negative comments may likely force the student to hide her problems with mathematics learning. Family members sometimes may not know how to support the student, and they also may not know enough about school mathematics to be able to help their children at home. Therefore, they become frustrated (Jay et al., 2018). Students who are good enough in mathematics may also become nervous during an examination and be fearful of its result. Therefore, mathematics teachers should promote a positive learning environment to help students develop positive self esteem toward mathematics that may reduce their anxiety toward mathematics (Koca, 2018). They may create such a conducive environment for mathematics learning through group work and other creative activities (Koçak et al., 2009).
Most people communicate with others about their interests, emotions, and experiences by means of verbal behaviour and try to motivate others regarding the matters of their interest (Durksen et al., 2017). Thus, people’s verbal expressions may convey important information about another person's intentions, and this information may possibly modify or influence the behaviour or decisions of other people. The interpretation of a verbal communication affects the social perception and behaviour of others (Stouten, 2009). The verbal behaviour of adults in Nepalese society is taken as the key factor in students’ decisions in subject choice (Yadav, 2012). Some suggestions may likely turn into a pathfinder for the young students so that they can make the right decision for their future study and career. These suggestions most likely help in either solving their social dilemmas or else they make their choices even more difficult.
In this context, Anderson (2006) suggests various reasons for encouraging students to choose mathematics. These reasons should be smarter, economically prosperous, have access to higher education in the STEM field, live in the global world, cope with changes, and be creative. However, many students may not realise these and other potential values of learning mathematics in their lives They are, unfortunately, influenced by the negative verbal comments of others about terrible mathematics experiences and subsequently find themselves in a dilemma. In our research process, some of the participants said that they were fraught with indecision after the verbal comments of the adults in their family. One of the informants, Dinesh, had a different experience: My grandfather did not get any opportunity to study in schools and colleges. He says, “Education at present is useless. This education spoilt everyone. After having some education, people started leaving their village and moving toward the city. The village is going to be an empty place. The farms are turning to barren lands. The educated daughters in law have no respect for elderly people and other in laws in the family. If you become a foreigner to your place after being educated and become a stranger in your hometown, how is that education anymore better? We did everything in jour job without a formal education. In our time, the fields (farm lands) were fully cultivated with crops and vegetables. We had several cattle in our farms. We were perfect in maintaining farms and raising cattle. What do today’s educated people do? They only misuse the fertile agriculture land in the name of roads and other constructions. Besides, when I was uneducated, I used to sell the crops,
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ghee, goats and chicken Whereas, your father is somewhat educated Now, he buys everything to survive. How can I say that his education did anything better? If a person becomes dependent on education without work or practical skills, he does not become self reliant and independent. Such education is useless ” Listening to my grandfather's words, I sometimes feel that I should leave school. I should go to the village to cultivate and raise cattle. Again, my father says that people at the present time are useless without education. Therefore, you should study well.
The above narrative of a participant Dinesh has some vital elements such as the generation gap, the transition from rural to urban life, the neglect of the villages, the neglect of the traditional occupations, the negative attitude toward education, the mismatch between modern education and the expectations of elderly family members, and the motivation to continue education. One of the participant's grandfather was completely illiterate, and he was not concerned about being illiterate because he had no problem with his hand to mouth existence in the village. Although illiterate, he seems to have earned enough with a high income from the farming and raising livestock. He seemed unhappy with those who went to the cities after being educated and did not return home, and left their village lands uncultivated. He is disappointed that educated people seem to have forgotten their culture more than illiterate people have. He is worried about buying the foodstuffs he used to sell at his age. Therefore, he tells his grandson that it is better not to have an education and that it is not good to strugglet with difficult mathematics. On the other hand, Dinesh’s father and teachers motivated him to study mathematics.
The participant, Dinesh, was faced with the dilemma of being motivated to study mathematics on the one hand and being discouraged from doing so on the other. This points to a clear generational difference in attitude towards education. Along these lines, Bishara (2018) claims that social and ethical dilemmas are practical. Faced with social and ethical dilemmas, one has to decide how best to deal with them among the options available to them that are mutually exclusive. For example, a dilemma may be related to values, beliefs, ethics, and behaviour such as generosity, decency, honesty, respect for life, or obeying the law. Social and ethical values may affect the resolution of such dilemmas, and there may not be a single clear approach. Even though people have lived uneducated lives in the past, formal education is important in today's scientific age. In today's world, the adults in society and the teachers in the schools can create a positive environment for the children to learn (Vibulphol, 2016). Young children learn from everything they do and experience owing to their natural curiosity, exploring and discovering things in their environment (Piaget, 1990). During these early years, children develop attitudes towards learning mathematics or other disciplines that may likely affect their later school life and career.
Therefore, educators, parents, and teachers should emphasize the importance of learning mathematics with greater intrinsic motivation in children's early years. The generational gap in a family should create new opportunities for young students with diverse ideas and knowledge rather than regarding these as a
barrier to modern education. Education should transform lives and quality of life in terms of a better and healthier environment, food, and lifestyle. Family education can be an option for avoiding such dilemmas regarding different voices related to education due to a generational gap that might have created differences in work ethics and respect for each other (Adcox, 2021), besides issues of education in general and mathematics in particular.
This study explored the connection between students' preference for mathematics, mathematical anxiety, and the verbal behaviour of adults in Nepalese society. The study's findings showed how verbal behaviour could discourage, abuse, cause fear, and lead to a dilemma among students regarding mathematics learning and their interest in continuing mathematics in higher levels or grades. These findings further showed that adults’ expressions of like or dislike toward mathematics in front of their children or students could affect students' interest in and choice of mathematics as a subject. Dislike of mathematics may result in having negative perceptions of the subject, and even eventually giving it up. Therefore, meaningful and effective teaching practices are called upon for improving the image of mathematics among the young adolescent students (Ukobizaba et al., 2021). The images, perceptions, and experiences of the mathematics teaching and learning shared by the adults may either motivate or demotivate the young adolescent students when learning mathematics and developing their perceptions towards selecting mathematics as their major in high school. Therefore, the study's findings have pedagogical implications because of the way teachers and parents express their views of and interest in mathematics and related subjects Students may consider their verbal behaviour as a reference in forming their opinion and developing their attitude toward mathematics accordingly. Parents and teachers should not express their negative anxieties, frustrations, and lack of ability to deal with mathematics or mathematics related issues in front of their children and students. Instead, they should help in generating curiosity, wonder, and excitement in learning mathematics (Knuth, 2002). A positive discourse in the mathematics classroom may also help reduce students' mathematics anxiety (Suh et al., 2008).
In Nepalese society, the adults in the family and society are considered to have more knowledge and experience in a specific field. They can guide and provide suggestions to young adolescent students. The same is expected in education, especially regarding the choice of subjects at the school level. Before selecting the subject of their choice, students listen to the adults in the family, society, teachers, and other senior students from the upper grades. People's verbal behaviour may be either motivating or demotivating to the children when selecting particular school subjects, including mathematics Inspiring stories and the experiences of adults can incentivise young adolescent students to choose mathematics as their major at the upper level of high school. It may provide students with self belief, self esteem, and willpower in deciding mathematics as their major without any anxiety or fear. However, conflicting and negative stories and experiences can demotivate, intimidate, and create dilemmas for the students regarding decisions to take mathematics as a major. It is concluded that teaching activities with carefully planned strategies can play a vital role in mitigating students' mathematical anxiety (Mollah, 2017). Understanding the
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causes and consequences of mathematics anxiety is vital for improving the teaching and learning of the subject (Metje et al., 2007).
This study has limited generalizability due to the small sample of participants in one school. Therefore, further research in the field of verbal behaviour of adults relating to young adolescent students in choosing subjects at the high school level is necessary. The findings of such studies will help determine the possible impacts on the students’ cognitive, affective, and social aspects of learning mathematics. Future studies can focus on the following research questions: What kind of verbal behaviours of adults regarding young adolescent and teenage students can trigger positive motivation in mathematics learning? How can adults help reduce young adolescent students' mathematics anxiety through verbal behaviour? What are the social, cultural, and historical factors of adults' verbal behaviour that influence students' anxieties, attitudes, and beliefs about mathematics?
The authors would like to thank the research participants for their voluntary participation in the study. Also, they would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive feedback on the manuscript.
The authors declare no conflict of interest in publishing this manuscript.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 270 285, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.16
Received Mar 30, 2022; Revised Jun 20, 2022; Accepted Jul 2, 2022
Abstract. Despite the global popularity of entrepreneurship education in higher education, concerns persist about its heterogeneous, broad, and ambiguous objectives and curricula. Many research studies and papers have highlighted these weaknesses and offered remedies for addressing them. Not much is known about how teachers (who are their primary interpreters and users) actually experience the objectives and curricula. This study addresses this gap by exploring teachers’ lived experiences of the entrepreneurship education objectives and curricula for insights regarding their nature from the perspective of teachers in order to identify more appropriate solutions to enhance them. Adopting the qualitative single case study research approach, primary data was collected from face to face interviews with four teachers at a Ghanaian institution offering entrepreneurship education. The data was supplemented by secondary data from course study documents and then analysed using the interpretive and case study analysis methods. The findings indicate that (1) teachers perceive the entrepreneurship education objectives and curricula as heterogeneous, broad, and ambiguous, (2) this placed certain limitations on teaching and learning, and (3) despite their shortcomings, the objectives and curricula were fitting for achieving entrepreneurship education’s broader aims of creating awareness of entrepreneurship, fostering the enterprise culture in students and developing entrepreneurial skills. Teachers indicated that institutional interventions such as continuous teacher education, increased resources, and more credit hours could address the perceived shortcomings. The findings underscore the need for further research on the nature of the objectives and curricula from the lenses of teachers and students in order to enhance policy and practice.
Keywords: entrepreneurship education; entrepreneurship education objectives; entrepreneurship education curriculum; entrepreneurship education drawbacks; entrepreneurship teachers; higher education; Ghana
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Since its emergence in higher education in the mid 20th century with the aim of creating entrepreneurship awareness, promoting the enterprise culture, and developing students’ entrepreneurial skills, entrepreneurship education as an academic subject area has gained global recognition (Blundel & Lockett, 2011; Hardie et al., 2020; Liguori et al., 2018; Weiming et al., 2019). Several studies assert that it is a vehicle for fostering entrepreneurial attitudes and competencies for socioeconomic growth (Drucker, 1985; Greene & Saridakis, 2008; Hardie et al., 2020; Harrison, 2014; Nabi et al., 2018). Entrepreneurship education offers knowledge, skills and the tools for nurturing the entrepreneurial personality for business start ups, their management and their growth (Joshi, 2014; Neck & Corbett, 2018). It is often used interchangeably with `entrepreneurship training’ (Azim & Al Kahtani, 2014) and `enterprise education’ (QAA, 2018). There are different genres of entrepreneurship education in higher education, ranging from single course modules to stand alone degree programmes.
The objectives and curricula of entrepreneurship education are alleged to be diverse with variations from one country to the other, and from institution to another, even in the same country (Fayolle, 2013; Kuratko, 2005; Schramm, 2014; Weiming et al., 2019). For instance, the aims of entrepreneurship education of the USA differ from those of Europe. Whereas the USA aims to develop traits and skills germane to entrepreneurship and for planning and analysing business issues (Sá et al., 2014), in Europe the emphasis is on the development of functional management skills and entrepreneurial mindsets for establishing and managing start ups, and increasing worker productivity (Lackéus, 2015; QAA, 2018). In contrast, South Africa, a developing country, chooses to address its high unemployment levels with entrepreneurship education by focusing on the development of entrepreneurial skills and attitudes for fostering self employment (Ras & Pretorius, 2007). In a similar vein, China’s entrepreneurship education prepares students to consider self employment as an alternative source of employment by encouraging and equipping them with a foundational knowledge of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial skills (Valerio et al., 2014). Ghana, likewise, focuses on theoretical and business management topics such as ‘introduction to entrepreneurship, ‘creativity and innovation’, ‘marketing research’, and ‘business plans’ (Dzisi, 2014; Gyamfi, 2013; Mordedzi, 2015). According to Ras and Pretorius (2007), these variations in focus are due to the differences in the environmental, economic, and socio cultural contexts of the countries concerned.
The entrepreneurship education objectives and curriculum are also perceived as wide-ranging, broad, and ambiguous (Kigotho, 2014; Kuratko 2005; Neck et al., 2014; Schramm 2014; Sirelkhatim & Gangi, 2015).). This situation has been ascribed to several reasons. An example is the study of Weiming et al. (2019) who attribute this to the lack of agreement on the paradigms and theories of entrepreneurship. Another is Sirelkhatim and Gangi’s (2015) ascription to the existing variations in the definitions of concepts such as ‘entrepreneur’, ‘entrepreneurship’, ‘enterprise’, and ‘small businesses’. Alberti et al. (2004) and Neck and Corbett (2018) also believe that the divergent stakeholders’
expectations and understandings of entrepreneurship education, and the over exuberance of entrepreneurship education providers to satisfy their different needs have contributed to this state of affairs. For instance, governmental and public institutional interest in entrepreneurship education is driven by the search for alternative avenues for employment, poverty reduction and rapid socio economic growth (Acs et al., 2018; Bögenhold, 2019). On the other hand, students’ motivation for entrepreneurship education is largely influenced by their varied present and future career and professional aspirations, their academic backgrounds, and specializations. Thus, the interests of management and economics studies students may be fuelled by the need for enhanced managerial and innovation skills, whereas those of students or aspiring entrepreneurs would be for the skills and the tools required for business venture creation (Ras & Pretorius, 2007).
These variations and ambiguities in the objectives and curricula of entrepreneurship education have attracted the attention of several researchers (Dzisi, 2014; Fayolle, 2013; Gyamfi, 2013; Mwasalwiba, 2010). Most of these research studies, largely quantitative and analytical, have concentrated on highlighting the weaknesses of the objectives and curricula, and suggesting ways to improve upon them (Dzisi, 2014; Gyamfi, 2013; Neck et al., 2014). A few studies have also been conducted on entrepreneurship education classroom dynamics (Neck & Corbett, 2018), and their effect on students’ learning (Supramaniam & Aumugam, 2012). The role of entrepreneurship education on students’ entrepreneurial intentions has also inspired many research studies (Musetsho & Lethoko, 2017). There is, however, a knowledge gap in teachers’ perceptions and actual experiences of the entrepreneurship education objectives and curricula. This study contends that since teachers are primary communicators and users of these objectives and curricula, a logical approach for addressing their shortcomings would be firstly, to explore teachers’ experiences of the objectives and curricula, and then secondly, to use the insights to inform revisions or changes in them.
This research was therefore meant to address this knowledge gap by highlighting teachers’ experiences of the objectives and curricula they use for teaching and learning at a Ghanaian higher educational institution in order to use the insights gained for improvement. Motivation for this study was driven by the researchers’ interest in entrepreneurship education and the search for strategies to enhance policy and practice, as well as contributing to entrepreneurship education research. The research was framed by the research question: How do teachers experience the entrepreneurship education objectives and curriculum?
The qualitative case study approach, based on the interpretivist constructionist research paradigm, was adopted for this study owing to the following considerations: Primarily, it facilitated the collection of the rich data that was
sought from the research participants (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). It also offered a direct engagement between the researcher and participants, and the opportunity to collect first hand information on the participants’ individual and common realities, perceptions, thoughts, and sense making of the phenomenon from within their lived natural contexts (Mohajan, 2018; Rubin & Rubin, 2012; Shaughnessy et al., 2012). This approach also supported the production of a detailed descriptive narrative of how the teachers themselves experienced the entrepreneurship programme objectives and curriculum at the study institution and the unearthing of some political, socio economic, and cultural underpinnings. Being an entrepreneurship education teacher, this approach thus ensured that the researcher’s personal experiences and views were held in check. It also facilitated the conduct of diligent, disciplined, systematic, and public research from multiple data collection sources to enhance credibility and trustworthiness (Creswell, 2008; Mohajan, 2018).
The study was conducted in a Ghanaian higher educational institution, purposefully chosen because of its history of mainstreaming entrepreneurship education into its undergraduate programme. The institution introduced entrepreneurship education in response to the then emerging global trends and the Ghanaian government’s invitation to higher education for interventions for addressing the escalating graduate unemployment. The institution has four campuses in the southern part of the country offering day time and evening undergraduate and graduate academic study programmes to students from varied backgrounds, including high school leavers, diploma holders, workers, business owners, and bureaucrats.
At the institution, entrepreneurship education is offered in two forms as a core module for its undergraduate programme, and as a stand alone undergraduate degree programme. The objectives of the modular entrepreneurship education programme were threefold, namely to promote entrepreneurship as an alternative career path, foster entrepreneurial mindsets, and develop students’ entrepreneurial skills for business start ups. The curriculum consisted of study topics which matched the objectives. These were the nature and role of entrepreneurship; creativity and innovation; opportunity and ideas generation; market assessment; business model and business plan; new venture creation; entrepreneurial venture team formation; founders’ issues; types of business ownerships; entrepreneurial finance; business ethics; family business; franchise; and the entrepreneur.
Entrepreneurship education was taught by a heterogeneous set of part time and full time teachers from academia and practice. A wide range of pedagogical approaches and methodologies, such as lectures, guest entrepreneur visits, classroom discussions, group learning, group project work, case study analyses, quizzes, and examinations were used for the programme. The compulsory modular entrepreneurship education programme was the focus of the study.
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Since the study was seeking teachers’ insights on the entrepreneurship education objectives and curriculum, the study’s population consisted of nine past and present entrepreneurship education teachers at the selected institution. These two groups of teachers were included in the study because of their common background as teachers of entrepreneurship at the study institution and their familiarity with the objectives and curriculum, as well as facilitating the study’s search for theoretical generalizability (Vasileiou et al., 2018).
Sampling was based on Yin’s (2011) approach for first selecting the case for a study, followed by the selection of its potential data sources and Patton’s (2015) typologies of purposive sampling strategies. Consequently, the purposive non probability sampling approach was used at two levels to select the study institution, the research participants, and secondary data sources. The study institution was selected because of its over 15 year history of mainstreaming entrepreneurship education in its undergraduate degree programmes. Participants’ selection, on the other hand, was based on their perceived capacity to provide appropriate answers to the research question (Creswell, 2014).
In view of the small size of the population, the purposive complete target population sampling method was first considered for selecting the entire teacher population as research participants for the study (Patton, 2015). However, owing to challenges in locating all of them, this method was revised to the purposive homogeneous and maximum variation sampling methods to select a smaller sample based on their shared backgrounds as entrepreneurship teachers, and their diverse characteristics respectively for this purpose. This resulted in the selection of four teachers (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Maxwell, 2012; Patton, 2015; Yin, 2011). These sampling methods ensured that those who possessed the characteristics germane to entrepreneurship teachers indicated in theory and literature, and were capable of providing relevant answers to the research question were included in the research study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Palinkas et al., 2013). Four teachers were consequently selected for the study. They consisted of one full time teacher from academia and one part time teacher from practice; both were then teaching at the study institution during the data collection process. Two former part time teachers from industry were also selected.
Primary and secondary data were collected in the study. The primary data was collected through face to face interviews to elicit the detailed rich information and knowledge of the four research participants. A total of four face to face interviews were moderated by the researcher using a two part semi structured interview schedule. The interviews lasted between 60 and 75 minutes. The structured section of the interview schedule consisted of a core set of closed questions that were asked in a systematic order to elicit demographic data on the respondents’ formal entrepreneurship educational and entrepreneurial experience backgrounds. The unstructured part of the interview schedule, on
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the other hand, contained unstructured open ended questions that sought insights on the teachers’ experiences of the discipline’s objectives and curriculum. The open ended questions enabled participants to give as much detail as was possible that enriched the data (Ogden & Cornwell, 2010). The wording and order of questions during the unstructured part of the interview varied from one interview to the other according to the dictates of the emerging data. The interviews were audio recorded with the full knowledge of the participants to ensure the sanctity of the data. The recordings were supplemented by hand written notes of observed non verbal and verbal communication by the researcher. This backup prevented the loss of valuable information. Prior to every interview session, the times and venues were agreed upon by the researcher and research participants.
Artefacts such as course outlines, teachers’ notes, textbooks, and extant documents provided additional data that served as methodical triangulation. They helped to clarify and authenticate the data collected from the interviews, thereby enhancing the validity of the data collected (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010).
The researcher’s role in research is crucial for its rigour and validity. For a this study, the researchers served as the data collection and data analysis instrument and were therefore responsible for moderating and audio recording all the face to face interviews, reviewing extant documents, and analysing all the data. Measures such as allowing respondents to tell their own experiences, the verbatim presentation of their stories, and subjecting the research to peer review were adopted to prevent researcher bias in view of the researchers’ close association with entrepreneurship education.
In conformity with the dictates of the research design, the absence of a unitary formula for transforming qualitative data into findings, and owing to the large volume of data generated from the data collection processes, several qualitative data analysis methods were used to analyse the data. The data was analysed manually by the researchers. This ensured a close interaction with the data and avoided the loss of valuable data. A major approach adopted was analysing the emerging data simultaneously with the data collection process. It involved the verbatim transcription of the data recorded in the researchers’ hand written notes and audio recordings into narrative data after every interview. This was followed by an initial reading of the transcripts by the researchers, after which they were clarified and authenticated with the participants, thus maintaining the data’s integrity (Akinyode & Khan, 2018; Cohen et al., 2011). The final transcripts were processed using content analysis, interpretive phenomenological analysis, and thematic and case oriented analysis (Babbie, 2011; Braun et al., 2019). These methods helped to reduce and organise the data into identifiable codes, themes, categories, relationships and causalities for their relevance to the theoretical dimensions of the study (Akinyode & Khan, 2018; Creswell, 2014). It also provided a holistic view of the data for its subsequent presentation, interpretation, and discussion (Creswell, 2014; Yin, 2011). The use
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of these data analysis methods ensured the preservation of valuable information and the reporting of participants’ own voices in their purest form (Akinyode & Khan, 2018; Creswell, 2014; Long, 2014; Sutton & Austin, 2015).
Measures were adopted to maintain high ethical standards and the integrity, validity, and trustworthiness of the entire research process and the data. They included ensuring due diligence in the selection of the study site and research participants, the data collection and the data analysis processes, and safeguarding the anonymity of research participants’, the research institution and the researchers. A high level of assiduousness was attached to the accurate interpretation and presentation of the respondents’ views (William & Morrow, 2009). Permission was duly sought for and granted by the study institution, while the respondents were given the opportunity to give their informed consent to participate. The time and venue for each interview were agreed upon by the respondents and the researchers before each session. The identities of the four respondents were protected by the use of the alphabetical codes T1, T2, T3, and T4.
The data collected on teachers’ experiences of the entrepreneurship education objectives and curriculum yielded the following findings:
5.1 The teachers had diverse backgrounds as illustrated in Table 1
It was observed that all the teachers had practical experience in entrepreneurship and had at different times either worked in family businesses or founded their own business start ups such as farms, trading, transportation and consulting services. Their entrepreneurial experiences included failures, challenges and successes. TI, for instance, had operated a number of businesses intermittently with different degrees of success over the years. She recounted that:
I have done so many things…I set up a game centre. And then I went to school…so there was problem with supervision, so I closed it…I set up a distribution business…water distribution. I had to go back to school...that one too, I close it down…now I have ventured into plantation farming.
Childhood entrepreneurial experience was common to T2, T3, and T4. In the case of T2, this dated back to his primary school years when he helped his mother to sell foodstuff at home and on the streets. He revealed that: …in primary school, my mother used to sell foodstuffs in our house. Sometimes I did the selling in the house, other times I hawked in our area….currently, I have a transport business.
A slight deviation on teachers’ childhood entrepreneurial experience was T4’s disclosure that his encounter with business was a deliberate decision to make extra money for his own personal needs as a school boy. According to him:
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When I was growing up, I actually engaged myself in all sorts of trading. At one point I used to pluck mangoes and sell them after school. It was my own business. I currently own a consulting business
With regard to academic background in entrepreneurship education, the data showed that only T1 had formal qualification in entrepreneurship education. Coupled with her practical entrepreneurial background, she was therefore the ideal entrepreneurship education teacher.
According to the literature, having practical experience in entrepreneurship enhances teaching because it provides opportunities for the sharing of real life insights on challenges, failures and successes of entrepreneurship. In addition, it fostered students’ confidence in the teacher’s abilities to teach entrepreneurship theory and practice (Bosma et al., 2012). In spite of this, it is also argued that the ideal entrepreneurship education teacher ought to have a combination of both practical and academic competencies in entrepreneurship. The data confirms that entrepreneurship education teachers consist of practitioners from both industry and academia. It also supports the viewpoint that formally qualified entrepreneurship teachers are in the minority, a situation considered inimical to the development of the discipline (Carlson et al., 2012).
T1
Full time Formal Own businesses
T2 Part time No formal Parents’ and own businesses
T3 Part time No formal Parents’ and own businesses
T4 Part time No formal Own businesses
5.2 The entrepreneurship education objectives and curriculum were considered diverse and broad, and some study topics ambiguities
All the teachers maintained that the objectives and curriculum were quite broad, containing many diverse topics to be covered in one semester. They were also of the opinion that some of topics in the curriculum were vague. Specifically, T1 indicated that “‘innovation’ and ‘creativity’ lacked clarity, and either conflicted or overlapped with each other”. T2, on the other hand pointed to topics such as ‘marketing’ and ‘creative thinking’ as being “too open and difficult to interpret”…by ‘marketing’, are we looking at principles? If it is ‘creative thinking’, which aspect should be emphasized?”
5.3 There were drawbacks associated with the diverse, broad, and ambiguous nature of the objectives and curriculum
One drawback was the low topic completion rates of the objectives and syllabus. This was evident from T4’s revelation that “the time was too short to cover all the topics“. This was corroborated by T1’s assertion that “the large volume of topics to be covered made it extremely difficult to teach all of them in one semester. I think only about 70% of the content is covered by the end of the semester.” Another challenge was the superficial teaching and learning of theories and skills in view of the
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time constraints imposed by the loaded nature of the objectives and curriculum. Teachers also had difficulties with interpreting and differentiating between some of the topics in the curriculum owing to their vagueness or overlapping with each other. This finding corroborates the observations of Neck et al. (2014) and Sirelkhatim and Gangi (2015) that teachers often had to grapple with the ambiguities and similarities of some of the topics. Furthermore, high levels of stress in trying to cover the greater part of the objectives and curriculum were experienced by teachers such as T3 who disclosed that the lack of standardization made “it difficult and stressful designing lesson notes and teaching”. In addition, there was a lack of uniformity in what was taught and learned because of teachers’ arbitrary selection of topics to cover. This is reflected in T2’s explanation that ‘I think some topics are not clear…so what we do is left to you the lecturer’s discretion. This means that people will be teaching different things and the students will not have the same knowledge”. , thus resulting in variations in teaching and learning of content and a lack of depth in what was taught (Neck et al., 2014; Sirelkhatim & Gangi, 2015). A further drawback was the neglect of some topics that could have enhanced students’ learning of entrepreneurship theories, skills and mind sets. An additional problem was the large number of topics which hampered in depth teaching and learning.
5.4 The entrepreneurship education objectives and curriculum were considered relevant for fostering entrepreneurial behaviour in students Teachers maintained that the objectives and curriculum were essentially necessary for an in depth and holistic understanding of entrepreneurship and for motivating students to develop entrepreneurial skills and mindsets for embracing self employment. To illustrate his point, T4 argued that: If I am training somebody to be a driver, the objective is that after the training, the person should be able to drive a car. So if I am training somebody to learn how to start a business then after the training that person should be able to start and run his or her business if the person wants to do that…In my opinion, I think all the relevant topics are captured in the curriculum.
Teachers similarly indicated that the objectives and curriculum topics enhanced students’ efficiency, creativity, and productivity despite their broad range and vagueness. In support of this observation, and based on his encounters with some of his past students, T2 disclosed that Some walk up to me on campus or outside to tell me about the businesses they have started. Just recently, a former student told me she had started the delivery of fresh and frozen foods thanks to the course. She said she was making gradual progress and was about to have her business legally registered.
Similarly T3 found it reassuring that Even though it is impossible to create the real life business experience within the semester long course…for me, I think the entrepreneurship education objectives and topics as they stands now is the way to vamp up student’s interest in entrepreneurship and business start ups and create entrepreneurially minded individuals for the work place.
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The teachers were also of the view that the heterogeneity and broadness of the objectives and curriculum helped to address the divergent needs of the heterogeneous students, and were hence necessary as reflected in T2’s views that
“I think the objectives are okay because they cut across the needs of the students, because some are entrepreneurs who want tips for their businesses, and others only need skills to enhance their creativity in their offices.”
These views were indicated by Neck et al. (2014) and Weiming et al. (2019) and hence were also relevant.
One such strategy adopted by T1 was attempting to complete all the objectives and topics of the curriculum within the stipulated one semester duration of the programme.
To address time constraints, some teachers also selected and prioritised teaching certain aspects of the objectives and curriculum that they felt were more important in achieving the aim of entrepreneurship education. T2, for instance, explained that “I focus on the topics that I think develop an awareness of entrepreneurship as a socio economic activity, and also the stages of the entrepreneurial process.” T1, on the other hand, disclosed that his emphasis was “on the entrepreneurial personality, entrepreneurial mindset, and innovative behaviour.”
Other strategies reported by the teachers were mentoring and coaching of students outside classroom sessions to address the inadequacy of credit hours for teaching. To circumvent the ambiguities in some of the topics in the curriculum, all the teachers once again clearly indicated that they relied on their own interpretations and discretion. In the words of T4, “I did not go strictly according to the curriculum…I did not use the normal structure…I used my own which I knew would achieve the goals of the course outcome”.
5.6 Teachers’ proposed institutional interventions for addressing the drawbacks of the entrepreneurship education objectives and curriculum
The first was the call for the standardization of topic definitions to address the ambiguities associated with some topics, thereby bringing clarity to them. This was elucidated by T2, “if we are talking about ‘innovation’ we will know whether it is about the system or the types.” Doing so, according to them, would provide some guidance to teachers and students alike regarding the true nature of the curriculum topics and the objectives. T1 noted that
I think the school will have to get the topics to be clearly defined. They should be standardized. If they are standardized, everybody will know this is what we are going to do and teach. Or this is the book we are going to use….The standard description of the topic will guide the lecturer on what to do.
Another proposed intervention was the teachers’ appeal for more credit hours to make it possible to cover all the objectives and curriculum topics which they had indicated were essential for in depth teaching and learning of entrepreneurship. They argued that this would support the development of students’ entrepreneurial skills and mindsets. As noted by T1: …the current one semester programme doesn’t help students to really understand the theory and practice of entrepreneurship. It is too short to learn theories and come up with a business project. Two semesters will help them to come up with prototypes at the end of the first term. Then during the vacation, they can go out and test them in the market. By the time they come back for the second semester, they will know if their businesses were viable…When they have done this, then they can say they have learnt some entrepreneurial skills.
The teachers also proposed regular meetings by the entrepreneurship teachers at the study institution for the exchange of ideas and best practices. In support of this intervention T3 proposed that: There should be collaborations among the teachers so that there is agreement on definitions and answers. I think this will reduce the situation where we, the teachers, use our own discretion and interpret the course in our own way.
Similarly T4 stated that: I would advocate for collaboration between entrepreneurship lecturers at the school. There are a lot of areas that we can learn from each other like as how to introduce innovation in the way we teach entrepreneurship for the benefit of everyone.
A final intervention proposal by the teachers was introducing in service entrepreneurship education training for teachers to ensure uniformity in the teaching of the different topics.
In the literature, the objectives and curriculum of entrepreneurship education are described as heterogeneous and ambiguous, and their contents as lacking consensus and therefore a source of concern and a challenge to the programme. These points were corroborated by the findings of the study, as presented above. However, despite their drawbacks, the teachers also found some merits in the objectives and curriculum. The measures they had devised and the institutional interventions they proposed for addressing the drawbacks of the objectives and curriculum have implications for policy and practice.
The implications for practice are that the findings provide clear examples of the challenges teachers encountered with the objectives and curriculum as well as the measures and strategies they adopted for addressing them in their work as facilitators of learning. They also point to the resultant lack of uniformity in the instructional methodologies used and in what was taught. The institutional interventions proposed by the teachers themselves appear to be more effective ways of addressing the drawbacks. For instance, the introduction of faculty
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programmes for teachers to facilitate networking and interact with each other, share ideas and experiences, and work in teams would introduce standardisation in the interpretations of course objectives and the ambiguous topics in the curriculum. This would, in turn, reduce the variations in what was taught and learned. It is evident from the study that such an institutional intervention would boost morale in view of the difficulties encountered in using their own remedies.
The differences in understanding of the objectives and curriculum among the teachers (who are major stakeholders of entrepreneurship education) stem from the absence of clear definitions and standardisation in the programme guidelines, as well as their varied backgrounds in entrepreneurship education and industry. Therefore, providing standard definitions and clear guidelines to teachers could easily remedy this situation through regular staff meetings and in service teacher training. These meetings would provide the platform for discussions on difficult topics, as well as strategies and methodologies for teaching the different topics. The variations in understanding topics also highlight the need for collaboration with other institutions providing entrepreneurship education, and other stakeholders such as the business community within the wider entrepreneurship system.
Entrepreneurship education, as with every educational programme, demands certain necessities for its success. An implication for policy from the teachers’ experience of the objectives and curriculum is an obligation by the institution to resource the programme with teaching and learning resources, and in service teacher training. From the study, the loaded nature of the curriculum had become an issue because of the inadequate credit hours and resources for innovative teaching and learning projects, and not because they considered some topics irrelevant. By the teachers’ reckoning, successful entrepreneurship was supported by a deep understanding (awareness creation), the learning of skills (developing entrepreneurial skills and mindset), and recognising the different stages of the entrepreneurial process (fostering entrepreneurship). This implies that introducing more credit hours or increasing the number of semesters for entrepreneurship education as suggested by the teachers would ameliorate this challenge rather than reducing the number of objectives or topics in the curriculum, as suggested by some researchers. Increasing credit hours would also guarantee the in depth teaching and learning of the theories, as well as sufficient time for practice projects. Therefore it is not enough for critics to refer to the packed nature of the objectives and curriculum without linking it to the failure of policy makers and programme managers to resource the programme with the requisite inputs such as textbooks, internships, funded practice projects, and sufficient credit hours. More funding and resources could also support the development of textbooks the content of which reflects the local socio economic and cultural entrepreneurship context by including local cases and examples. This would ultimately motivate teachers to strive to cover all the topics in the objectives and curriculum.
The study’s findings point to the need for further research on stakeholder perceptions and experiences of the objectives and curriculum of entrepreneurship education. The teachers exhibited certain behaviours, such as deliberately choosing certain topics over others due to their perceived relative importance. In addition, there were time constraints that led to differential teaching and learning. This can be investigated further to identify the real impact of the drawbacks of the entrepreneurship education objectives and curriculum on teaching and learning. Similarly, additional research is needed to replicate this study on a wider scale in the study institution, as well as in other institutions, to enhance theory.
This study investigated teachers’ experiences of the heterogeneous, broad, and ambiguous objectives and curriculum of entrepreneurship education. It contributes to knowledge by providing insights into teachers’ varied experiences of theses, and how they try to address some of the challenges imposed by them.
The study findings affirm the viewpoint in the entrepreneurship education literature that the objectives and curriculum of entrepreneurship education are heterogeneous, broad, and ambiguous. The study likewise found that the ambiguities in some aspects of the objectives and curriculum resulted in differences in teachers’ interpretations that led to variations in what was taught by the teachers and ultimately in what students learned. The findings also indicate that, despite their limitations, the teachers perceived the study topics and objectives to be necessary for achieving entrepreneurship education’s aims of creating awareness about entrepreneurship, developing entrepreneurial skills and mindsets, and creating business start ups. This observation by teachers should be taken seriously and explored by provider institutions with the support of additional resources and increased credit hours. The study suggests that, rather than being fixated on their drawbacks, researchers, practitioners, and policymakers should focus on how best to maximise their usefulness in their present form. The findings indicate that designing entrepreneurship courses to conform to prevailing global standards or trends ought to be accompanied by adequate resources, funding, teacher training, and teacher collaborations and networking.
Though limited in scope, this study extends the knowledge on the objectives and curriculum of entrepreneurship education through the lenses of teachers by affirming their limitations, and pointing to their appropriateness for meeting the goals of entrepreneurship education if the requisite funding, resources, teacher training, and the time allocations are increased. It offers direction for future research and policy interventions for improving the quality of the objectives and curriculum of entrepreneurship education.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 286 303, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.17
Received Apr 23, 2022; Revised Jun 9, 2022; Accepted Jul 6, 2022
University of Rwanda College of Education, Rwamagana, Rwanda Jean
François ManirahoUniversity of Rwanda College of Education, Rwamagana, Rwanda
Michael
TusiimeUniversity of Rwanda College of Education, Rwamagana, Rwanda
Abstract. Using technology for learning geometry has been found to have a positive impact on students’ skills and attitudes. GeoGebra software is effective in encouraging teachers to employ technology as a supporting tool to improve student potential in their learning of mathematics. However, GeoGebra software has not yet been formally introduced into the teaching and learning of mathematics in Rwanda. This research aimed to ascertain Rwandan upper secondary school students’ attitudes when learning geometry with GeoGebra. A total of 84 participants from four schools were purposively sampled and categorized into two quasi experimental design groups. A group of 44 students was the control group, and 40 students formed an experimental group Attitude scales were administered to both groups pre and post intervention. Students in the control group were taught geometry in the traditional way, and students in the experimental group studied 3D geometry using GeoGebra software as a supporting tool. To collect data, we used a standardized attitude scale. The results reveal a statistically significant difference between the groups and, therefore, confirm the effectiveness of GeoGebra in improving students' attitudes when learning 3 D geometry. However, a correlation analysis did not find a high correlation between students' performance and attitude. Based on the results, the researchers recommended integrating GeoGebra software at different levels of education in Rwanda, in mathematics curricula generally, and in geometry in particular.
Keywords: GeoGebra; Geometry; Mathematics; Rwandan secondary schools; student attitudes
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Mathematical ideas, procedures, patterns, and rules are fundamental to every aspect of our day to day actions. Since mathematics is now a part of daily life, it has become crucial to include mathematics instruction from an early age in our schooling (Mollah, 2017).Mathematics is regarded as the mother of all sciences, and the universe cannot move without mathematical knowledge and skills (Mollah, 2017). At the same time, mathematics has proven to be a complex subject for secondary school students in different countries (Mukuka et al., 2021; Niyukuri et al., 2020) not only in Rwanda (Ukobizaba et al., 2019). This difficulty is evident in the challenges that have been observed in teaching and learning mathematics at different levels of education in different contexts. Globally, students from many countries, excluding some East Asian countries, such as China, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea, have struggled to perform at or above international benchmarks in most of the international assessments that have been administered to date (Echazarra & Radinger, 2019; Gronmo et al., 2016). According to Mollah (2017), students face failure and difficulties in mastering mathematics content. These difficulties affect students' attitudes toward mathematics and the nature of mathematics negatively, discourage them from learning, their enjoyment of mathematics (Jackson, 2008), and the teaching approaches used (Oberlin, 1982) Brady and Bowd (2005), in a study on mathematics anxiety, prior experience, and confidence of pre service education students to teach mathematics, claim that students struggle to understand because they are taught mathematics with inappropriate methods; therefore, teachers should create a good teaching environment by applying practical ways of teaching and learning mathematics (Brady & Bowd, 2005)
Length (2013) and Majerek (2014) in their studies argued that geometry has been found to be an interesting and valuable branch of mathematics. This in agreement with Le and Kim (2017) and Ibrahim and llyas (2016 ) whose study findings confirmed the importance of geometry in our daily life and this deals with the properties of lines, angles, curves, shapes, and so on. Geometry helps students associate patterns in mathematics and equips them with the ability to apply the acquired knowledge when solving real life problems (Kutluca, 2013). Traditionally, geometry concepts are taught using chalk, pencil, and paper, resulting in students finding it difficult to produce geometrical representation correctly (Sariyasa, 2016). The traditional teaching approach has been found lacking in providing opportunities for students to develop their understanding of geometry concepts and develop a positive attitude towards geometry (Jelatu, 2018). As a result, the traditional approach is less effective in helping students to develop their level of thinking. For instance, students recall geometry experiences as unpleasant and often consider geometry to be a challenging topic in mathematics (Le & Kim, 2017). This was also revealed by Uwurukundo et al. (2022) when conducting a study on students’ achievement and attitudes toward geometry (Niyukuri et al., 2020). GeoGebra has been recognized as one of the teaching and learning tools that offers support for enhancing students’ understanding of geometry related topics (Doğan & İçel, 2010; Hanč et al., 2011; Murni et al., 2017)
In accordance with current Rwandan education policies, information and communication technologies (ICTs) are considered important tools for improving students’ attitudes and performance at all levels of education (Rwanda Education Board [REB], 2016). ICT tools and software have changed the ways people communicate and have enhanced significant transformations in a variety of fields, including industry, agriculture, medicine, and many other sectors. The REB (2016) recommends that ICT tools are integrated into the learning of mathematics in secondary schools, due to the importance of mathematics for several technology and science domains. In a review of literature, Uwurukundo et al. (2020) explain that mathematics domains include geometry, algebra, calculus, and trigonometry, and argue that students can explore the software and acquire mathematics knowledge more independently than students who are subjected to traditional learning methods. The expectation is that exposing students to new technology for teaching and learning of mathematics improves their competencies and achievement, both in the classroom and in their daily lives (Mathevula & Uwizeyimana, 2014)
GeoGebra, which is rapidly gaining popularity in education worldwide, has been found effective in enhancing the teaching and learning of mathematics. Almost two decades ago, GeoGebra was already available in 52 languages, used in 190 countries, and downloaded 300,000 times a month (Hohenwarter & Lavicza, 2003). Abu et al. (2010) found that GeoGebra increased students' confidence in mathematics; students become motivated when they used GeoGebra while learning mathematics. GeoGebra can help students grasp experiments, solve mathematics problems, and do research, either in the classroom or at home. Similarly, GeoGebra can develop visualization and understanding of different mathematical topics, including geometry (Akkaya et al., 2011; Majerek, 2014) Using a computer algebra system and an interactive, dynamic geometry system is likely to enhance students' cognitive abilities and interest in learning mathematics (Bye et al., 2007; Diković, 2009; Uwurukundo et al., 2020).
Insight into students' attitudes and beliefs is important if teachers are to understand the learning environment of mathematics, which has been affected by the introduction of computers and other technologies (Ukobizaba et al., 2019). GeoGebra has the potential to shape learners' knowledge acquisition and change teachers' teaching practices teachers need to accept learners' autonomy (Uworwabayeho, 2009). In line with this perspective, teachers' awareness of students' attitudes towards geometry is useful, as teachers can identify those students who have negative attitudes towards geometry and take adequate precautions (Aktas & Aktas, 2012)
Saha et al. (2010), in a study that examined the effects of GeoGebra on the learning of coordinate geometry by students, found that the use of GeoGebra increased students' performance, and they argue that using GeoGebra might influence students to have positive attitudes towards the subject. For this reason, integrating ICT tools in the teaching and learning of mathematics using computer software (Fančovičová & Prokop, 2008), such as GeoGebra, appears to
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motivate students to access their resources, construct new ideas, and improve their competencies, thereby overcoming the challenges inherent in traditional teaching methods. As an example of a mathematics instruction technology tool, GeoGebra software has different effects on students' achievement, depending on how it is integrated into teaching and learning (Uwurukundo et al., 2020). Uwurukundo’s study (2022) focused on the effect of GeoGebra software on secondary school students’ achievement in 3 D geometry and found using GeoGebra improved students’ performance. Therefore, there is a need to evaluate students’ attitudes and the correlation between attitude and performance when learning with GeoGebra.
Because of the emphasis on the need to integrate ICT in the teaching and learning of mathematics, and other subjects, Nzaramyimana (2021) conducted a study to explore the effectiveness of GeoGebra for enhancing students’ active learning, performance, and interest in learning mathematics In turn, Uwurukundo et al. (2022) investigated the effect of GeoGebra software on secondary school students ‘achievement in 3 D geometry no other studies conducted in Rwanda have attempted to establish (statistically) the effectiveness of ICT tools such as GeoGebra on improving students’ attitudes towards 3 D geometry in Rwandan secondary schools, or determine teachers‘ views on using GeoGebra when teaching mathematics. In that respect, the present study sought answers to the following research questions: How does GeoGebra software affect students’ attitudes about learning geometry? Is there a correlation between learners’ performance and attitude scores?
This research adopted a quasi experimental research approach and a non equivalent group design (Fraenkel et al., 2012). A total of 84 students participated in the research and were allocated to either a control or experimental group. We purposively selected four schools: two in Northern Province (one boarding and one day school), and two in Kigali city (one boarding and one day school). We wished to conduct the research in schools with Mathematics Physics, and Computer (MPC) and Mathematics, Computer and Economics (MCE) subject combinations, because we wanted to include students with ICT backgrounds and who, thus, learned mathematics as their main subject. The schools that were selected had common characteristics. A second reason for selecting these four schools was that we had limited time and money to conduct the research. We decided to conduct the research with these subject combinations, as we wanted to control certain variables, including student ICT background. Intact classes were used, to avoid inconveniencing the schools’ academic programs. Before data collection, the researchers submitted the research proposal to the University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE) and was accepted and approved in relation to ethics by the research and innovation unit. The ethical clearance was used to seek permissions at the district level; letters were provided for presentation to selected schools.
The researchers administered a questionnaire for an attitude test, which comprised 34 statements answered by a 5 point rating scale (Strongly disagree, Disagree, Undecided, Agree, and Strongly Agree). The questionnaire was adopted from various articles and books (Abdullah & Zakaria, 2011; Andamon & Tan, 2018; Baya’a & Daher, 2013; Ndibalema, 2014; Semerci & Aydın, 2018), and modified. Researchers at university level and mathematics teachers at secondary levels provided their their inputs, and it was piloted with students at other schools with the same characteristics as those selected for the study Collected data were entered and analyzed using SPSS 23.0 to determine reliable validity. A principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted to assess the number of factors to be extracted. An Eigenvalue of 1 was set as the minimum cut off point for extracting several factors. Prior to PCA, an assessment was conducted to qualify the data for PCA. Kaiser Meyer Olkin of sampling adequacy (KMO) indicated that the sample size was not sufficient (0.318). However, Berlet’s test of sphericity was significant (Chi square=496.878, df=435, Sig.=0.021), indicating that the data were fit for PCA with an unrotated solution.
Varimax solution was then used to extract five factors with a minimum loading value of 0.30. All the items except item 14 met the minimum loading value, ranging from 0.311 (item 13) to 0.839 (item 25). Internal reliability consistency was then determined using Cronbach’s alpha of coefficient and corrected item total correction. An item is considered to be reliable if it meets minimum values of Cronbach’s alpha of 0.70 or higher, and a corrected item to the total correlation of at least 0.30. Four additional items did not comply with reliability levels, and they were removed from further analysis. In addition, factor 5 had the lowest reliability value, suggesting that it needed further investigation. After checking for instrument validity, we made some modifications based on the analysis done on the attitude questionnaire. We remained with 30 statements that were used to collect data on students' attitudes towards the learning of geometry, their interests, and the benefits of using ICT tools before and after learning 3 D geometry. The study was conducted from December 2020 to June 2021.
A researcher determined whether all schools that were selected had the same characteristics, such as availability of computer labs, internet connection, and teachers who could use computers in the teaching process, especially at the schools in the experimental group, and a calendar that was flexible enough so that 3 D geometry could be taught. After checking these variables, questionnaires for the pre and post attitude tests (assessment) were administered in English, which is the language of instruction in the Rwandan education system. After giving the pre assessment to all students from both groups, the control group was subjected to conventional teaching and learning methods, such as blackboard and chalk, and groupwork and discussion by students, while the experimental group integrated the use of GeoGebra in the teaching and learning process of 3 D geometry, using computers and projectors The first author presented a four day workshop on the use of GeoGebra for
teaching 3D geometry. After completing the workshop’s activities, we requested all teachers of the experimental group to start teaching the 3 D geometry.
During the intervention, the corresponding author assisted teachers in the experimental group to download and install GeoGebra software and to conduct an introductory session to let students feel welcome; the students’ first reactions to the tool were observed The researchers visited both groups to observe how the process was proceeding, and to ensure that the methodology to be used for particular groups had been mastered. After the experiment, the post assessment questionnaire (the same instrument as the pretest) was administered for both control and experimental groups, to determine whether the methodology used during the teaching process of 3D geometry had affected student attitudes and performance. This study formed part of a large project that was undertaken for the first author's doctoral research. This article represents a follow up of a previously published performance based article (Uwurukundo et al., 2022) Thus, the present study reveals the attitude enhancement due to GeoGebra integration; the previous article had revealed its effect on student performance. Readers are referred to Uwurukundo et al. (2022) for a detailed description of the performance test that was used.
After gathering data with a 30 item attitude scale, we reanalyzed the items and removed ten items that were duplicates or which investigated the same construct. This helped us to present valid and reliable data. The final twenty items were analyzed by grouping items or statements, and eight themes were formulated: Prerequisite knowledge (one item), Enjoyment in learning geometry (one item), Confidence (four items), Teaching method (four items), Resources (one item), Learning supporter (two items), ICT (four items), and Real life (three items). Then, four factors were formulated from these eight themes. Pre requisite knowledge, Enjoyment in learning Geometry, and Confidence formed the Confidence (with six items) factor. Teaching method, Resources, and Learning supporter formed the Learning support (with seven items) factor. ICT and Real life remained as they were as themes (see Table 1).
Table 1: Four factors and their corresponding items
Attitude statements Strongly disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly agree
Confidence 1 My foundation in mathematics in primary school affects my performance in secondary school 2 I enjoy learning geometry 3 I am sure that I can learn geometry better 4 I feel confident when studying geometry 5 I can get good grades in geometry 6 It is very difficult to perform other mathematics topics except for geometry
Learning support 7 Teaching methods of geometry contribute to my performance 8 Memorization helps in the learning of geometry 9 I do solve geometry problems at home because there is somebody to guide me 10 In the classroom, we have mathematical instruments and tools for drawings in geometry 11 My teacher is competent in teaching geometry 12 Students should be more involved in practical work than theoretical work 13 Working in groups improves my performance in geometry
ICT 15 The use of computers in the teaching of mathematics affects my performance positively 15 Interactive websites make me perform better in geometry 16 Geometry is better when taught using ICT tools like software, computers, projects, the internet, etc 17 ICT can facilitate me to learn geometry
Real-life 18 Geometrical topics in schools are related to real-life situations 19 Knowing geometrical concepts will help me earn a living 20 I study geometry because I know how useful it is
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We used an MS Excel 2016 spreadsheet to record and analyze data. In the first phase, we cleaned the data by removing records of students who did not complete both pre and post assessments. We also matched each student on performance to attitude scores, since we needed to collate the attitude results to our previously published performance scores (Uwurukundo et al., 2022). Thus, three students (one on the performance test and two on the attitude scale) in the control group were removed from the analysis. Similarly, two students in the performance test and four students on the attitude scale were filtered out of the experimental group. Therefore, this analysis comprises 84 students: 44 in the control and 40 in the experimental group.
In the second phase, we computed descriptive statistics, such as the percentage of students who chose a certain scale. COUNTIF functions were used to determine who had selected each response on the Likert scale. Table 2 presents the results of the geometry learning attitude scale. The table has four main columns: The first column has four factors depicted in the scale; the second column shows the number of items (from 1 to 20), and the third shows the number of students in the control group (as percentage, %) who selected one of the five Likert scale responses (strongly disagree, SD; disagree, D; undecided, U; agree, A and strongly agree, SA). The fourth main column shows the number of students in the experimental group who agreed or disagreed with the attitude statements. Both control and experimental columns have two columns that present the number of students at pre and post attitude assessment. All numbers of students on each scale (from SD to SA) are rounded to add up to 100%. For instance, on item_1 [My foundation of mathematics in primary school affects my performance in secondary school], 7% of students in the control group strongly disagreed with the statement at the pre assessment stage, 16% disagreed, 14% were not sure (undecided), 35% agreed, and 28% strongly agreed with the statement.
Table 2. Results of the attitude scale for two groups (control and experimental) on pre and post assessment
Factors Items Control group Experimental group
Pre assessment (%) Post assessment (%) Pre assessment (%) Post assessment (%) SD D U A SA SD D U A SA SD D U A SA SD D U A SA
Confidence 1 7 16 14 35 28 9 14 5 58 14 18 10 5 44 23 18 10 5 44 23 2 21 28 14 28 9 0 2 2 57 39 18 35 28 20 0 3 10 0 43 45
3 7 0 30 48 16 2 7 5 45 41 5 3 8 40 45 5 3 5 40 48
4 20 25 20 23 11 14 25 18 32 11 18 53 15 10 5 0 8 3 39 50 5 18 23 18 30 11 11 16 14 39 20 13 28 40 20 0 0 8 10 30 53
6 30 39 11 16 5 7 20 11 43 18 23 13 10 28 26 23 13 10 28 26
Learning support 7 18 45 2 27 7 0 0 7 61 32 15 18 23 30 15 0 0 3 48 50 8 14 57 11 14 5 5 16 11 48 20 0 20 23 40 18 3 10 5 45 38
9 20 43 18 14 5 9 50 9 27 5 13 18 3 46 21 10 21 3 46 21 10 27 27 16 25 5 20 20 7 43 9 10 33 33 20 5 10 10 5 43 33 11 2 11 18 34 34 5 0 9 34 52 10 30 28 23 10 3 5 3 43 48 12 2 7 5 44 42 5 5 5 39 48 8 40 20 28 5 0 13 8 33 46 13 5 20 16 23 36 2 2 0 51 44 0 0 3 33 65 0 0 3 33 65
ICT 14 41 23 16 20 0 32 39 5 11 14 23 33 23 18 5 23 5 0 20 53 15 36 41 16 5 2 25 41 14 9 11 13 58 30 0 0 0 0 5 63 33 16 44 42 5 7 2 43 27 11 14 5 25 38 23 13 3 18 8 0 28 48 17 25 30 18 18 9 43 27 18 7 5 25 35 30 10 0 5 10 10 20 55
Real life 18 9 9 20 45 16 7 12 21 58 2 10 10 15 35 30 10 10 13 35 33 19 5 16 32 32 16 7 14 20 39 20 5 0 8 61 26 5 0 8 61 26 20 9 25 25 30 11 7 9 16 47 21 0 8 5 58 30 0 8 5 55 33
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In the third phase of analysis, we wanted to answer the first research question about whether GeoGebra enhanced students’ attitudes towards learning geometry. First, we averaged strongly disagree and disagree into a single disagree theme, undecided remained an undecided theme, and agree and strongly agree were combined into an agree theme. Secondly, we analyzed control and experimental groups regarding attitude factors, such as confidence, learning support, ICT, and real life. We then checked the pre and post assessment of each group and computed the differences. This difference allowed us to generate inferential statistics between these two groups. Thus, we first averaged the scores along with all 20 items for each of the students; then, we measured the difference between post and pre attitude scores in the control and experimental groups. The experimental and control groups were exposed to a pre attitude questionnaire before the start of the treatment to ascertain whether the students who had been selected to participate in the study had comparable characteristics before the study. The independent samples t Test was used to analyze whether there were significant differences in the mean attitude scores of the experimental and the control group. Before measuring this significance, we first presented a descriptive analysis.
In the fourth and last phase, we took average scores from each student's performance test and attitude scale and then computed the correlation between pre tests (performance versus attitude) of control and experimental groups and between post tests of the same groups.
Figures 1, 2, and 3 present the number (in %) of students who fall into three categories of an attitude scale. Figure 1 shows two parts, the left side shows results from pre assessment (before learning geometry) and the right side shows results from post assessment (after learning geometry using the traditional teaching method). For instance, on item_2 [I enjoy learning geometry] under the confidence factor, the attitude score increased from 37% to 95% of students from the pre to the post assessment.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Real- life
ICT
Learning support
Confidence
19
17
15
13
11
9
7
5
3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 1
Pre-assessment [Disagree]
[Undecided] Pre-assessment [Agree]
[Disagree] Post-assessment [Undecided] Post-assessment [Agree]
Figure 1. Percent of students in the control group from pre to post assessment
Figure 2 also comprises two parts. The left side shows results from the assessment before learning geometry, and the right side shows results from the assessment after learning geometry using GeoGebra software. For instance, the attitude toward learning on item_3 [I am sure that I can learn Geometry better] increased from 85% to 88% of students from pre to post assessment under the confidence factor.
ICT Real- life
Learning support
Confidence
Pre-assessment [Disagree] Pre-assessment [Undecided] Pre-assessment [Agree] Post-assessment [Disagree] Post-assessment [Undecided] Post-assessment [Agree]
Figure 2. Percent of students in the experimental group from pre to post assessment
Figure 1 and Figure 2 seem to indicate a similar number of students who agreed and disagreed with the attitude items in both groups before learning. However, after learning, both groups of students seem to shift from disagreement to
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agreement. Although both groups seem to shift to agreement with statements, which indicates improved attitudes toward learning geometry, the two figures display a difference on most items, especially relating to the ICT factor, in favor of students who learned with GeoGebra. For instance, in Figure 1, on items 14, 15, 16, and 17, control group students still disagreed with the statements, even after learning. This proves that GeoGebra enhances students’ attitudes towards learning geometry.
Figure 3 conglomerates all 20 attitude items into four factors. The figure has two sides; the left side shows pre assessment, while the right side shows post assessment. Each factor is presented by six bars: the first three bars are pre assessment, while the last three bars present post assessment. Except for the ICT factor, other factors show a more positive attitude, as students agreed with statements after learning (green color). Sixty nine percent (69%) of students in the control group exhibited a negative attitude (disagreed) that ICT (yellow color) could enhance the learning of geometry.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Confidence Learning support ICT Real-life Confedence Learning support ICT Real-life Control group Experimental group
% Pre-assessment [Disagree] Pre-assessment [Undecided] Pre-assessment [Agree] Post-assessment [Disagree] Post-assessment [Undecided] Post-assessment [Agree]
To establish whether these differences in attitudes between the control group and the experimental group are significant, an independent samples t-Test was performed. Results displayed in Table 3 confirm that there was a significant difference in students’ attitudes between the experimental and the control groups [t (59) = 3.85, p < .001, d = .89], in favor of the students who learned via GeoGebra.
Table 3. Results from t Test of Two Sample Assuming Unequal Variances attitude scale
Sample Mean SD Df tStat tCrit p D
Control group 44 9.59 11.75 59 3.85 1.67 <.001 .89 Experimental group 40 17.07 4.99
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Table 3 shows that the difference between mean scores of the experimental group in post and pre assessment of attitude was (M=17.07), with a standard deviation (SD= 4.99), while the difference between post and pre assessment attitude scores of the control group was (M=9.59) with a standard deviation of (SD=4.99). This demonstrates that the groups' attitude means were different, and this difference was statistically significant. This indicates that using GeoGebra had greater effects on students’ attitudes toward geometry than the conventional teaching method had, as the effect size (d) was large (.89).
We finally checked the correlation between students’ performance and their attitudes towards learning geometry through either traditional or GeoGebra software. The results in Table 4 show that the correlation was low before and after learning geometry in both control and experimental groups. Students in the experimental group showed a negative correlation in pre assessment, though this was low.
Table 4. Correlation between performance and attitude scores Pre assessment Post assessment
Performancevs.Attitude Performancevs.Attitude
Control group 0.060 0.166 Experimental group 0.015 0.004
Integrating technology in the teaching process of mathematics has been found to be effective. Using dynamic software such as GeoGebra is recommended as a supporting tool to facilitate the teaching and learning of mathematics, especially in geometry, algebra, and statistics (Tamam & Dasari, 2021; Khoza & Biyela, 2020; Ocal, 2017; Saha et al., 2010). This is in line with the findings of Murni et al. (2017), who found that students who are taught using a discovery learning model with GeoGebra media develop greater problem solving abilities and more positive attitudes toward mathematics than students who are taught using a traditional learning model Teaching senior five (S5) students with GeoGebra for learning geometry was found to be effective (Uwurukundo et al., 2022), and the present study proved that students' attitudes improved, although their attitudes did not correlate strongly with improved performance. It is likely that, if students perform well in a certain subject, they will then have a positive attitude toward it, or vice versa. However, our unique finding is that students performed well due to GeoGebra, and improved their attitudes due to GeoGebra, but the scores were not correlated. The finding may be the result of the nature of the performance test used (see Box 1 in Uwurukundo et al., 2022) or the attitude scale used (see Table 1 in the methods section). The corresponding author recommends that more studies are conducted to determine whether there is a strong relationship between improving performance and, at the same time, attitude when GeoGebra is integrated in teaching and learning.
For the confidence factor, attitude items exposed a link between the foundation of mathematics acquired in primary school and students' performance in
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secondary school, their enjoyment of learning geometry, their confidence regarding learning geometry in a better way and getting good grades, and their performance in geometry and the difficulty of other mathematics topics. Students who were taught using the traditional teaching method gained 70% while those who were taught using GeoGebra gained 78%. Thus, 8% of students enhanced their confidence attitude due to GeoGebra. Regarding learning support, such as teaching methods (memorization, problem solving, drawing tools, practical work, groupwork), and support from elders, parents, and teachers, students reported feeling more supported in the experimental class. This is shown in Figure 3, which indicates that only 73% of students in the control group agreed with given statements (positive attitude) against 84% of students in the experimental group. Similarly, for the real life factor, only 62% of students in the traditional agreed (had positive attitude), compared to 81% of students in the experimental group. Therefore, whether geometry topics taught in schools are related to real life situations, whether knowing geometry concepts will help students earn a living, and whether students studied geometry because they realized how useful it was, students taught via GeoGebra lead to a more a positive attitude than teaching students in the traditional way did. Eventually, regarding the ICT item (investigating whether the use of computers in the teaching of mathematics affected students' performance positively, whether interactive websites helped them to perform better in geometry, whether learning geometry is easier when it is taught using ICT tools such as software, computers, projects, internet and so on, or whether ICT can help them to learn geometry) students in the experimental group responded more positively, and this indicates that GeoGebra as an ICT application enhances students’ attitudes towards learning.
Our study also reveals similar results regarding students’ attitudes toward confidence, learning support, and real life attitude factors. Results show that GeoGebra is extremely effective in improving students' attitudes toward learning geometry using ICT. However, this improvement may depend on the teaching method. This finding is in agreement with Arbain and Shukor (2015), Mathevula and Uwizeyimana (2014), Niyukuri et al. (2020), Ocal (2017) and Uwurukundo et al. (2020), whose studies found that ICT, in general, could improve the way students perform in geometry, and that GeoGebra software is effective in improving students’ achievement and attitudes towards geometry. In this study, the ICT factor had improved attitude scores in the experimental group, because the teachers of this group used GeoGebra in lessons, while the traditional class did not use this ICT based software and showed no improvement in attitude. Future research could investigate this finding further. Authors such as Edmunds et al. (2012) and Zhang and Liu (2016) confirm that the usefulness and ease of use of ICT are key dimensions of students’ attitudes towards technology. Research by Saha et al. (2010) found that students who had learned coordinate geometry using GeoGebra performed significantly better than students who had learned the traditional way. Nzaramyimana et al. (2021) conducted research on the effectiveness of GeoGebra on students’ active learning, and their performance and interest in learning mathematics in Rwandan secondary schools using a quasi experimental method, and found
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GeoGebra was effective in boosting students' active learning, performance in, and enthusiasm for mathematics.
The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of GeoGebra software integration on students' attitudes towards 3D geometry. We involved 84 students from four schools in Rwanda. We assigned 44 students to a control group and asked their teachers to teach using traditional teaching methods; the other 40 students were assigned to an experimental group, and we asked their teachers to teach geometry with GeoGebra. Students studied 3D geometry, and their attitudes were measured before and after they had been taught. We found a statistically significant difference in attitudes in the two groups, in favor of the group taught by GeoGebra. We conclude that GeoGebra has the potential to improve students’ attitudes towards learning 3D geometry, although the correlation between students’ performance in geometry and their attitudes towards learning it through either traditional methods or GeoGebra software was low. Therefore, we recommend that educators adapt their teaching methods to GeoGebra, not only in S5, but at all levels of secondary school, and not only for geometry, but also for other domains of mathematics. The Rwanda Basic Education Board should train teachers to use ICT tools such as GeoGebra in the education system. Since our sample size was limited, further studies could investigate the effects of gender differences, school environments, student achievement, and teachers’ appreciation of the use of GeoGebra.
Our special thanks go to the students who participated in this study. The study received financial support from the African Center of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS).
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 304 323, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.18
Received Mar 15, 2022; Revised Apr 18, 2022; Accepted May 30, 2022
Abstract. This paper reports on introducing a techno blended model for science teaching in South African senior secondary schools. Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework was used as a lens for the interpretation of pre service science teachers' use of the GammaTutor tool in the classroom for collaboration and creativity. The study employed an interpretivist multi case design that purposefully sampled ten pre service science teachers. Data were collected through non participatory classroom observation and interviews. Data were then analysed qualitatively using deductive approaches with a modified version of TPACK as an analytical framework. The study found that pre service science teachers were enthusiastic about using the GammaTutor tool because they believed it engaged their learners in the teaching learning process and facilitated the assessment of tasks. The pre service teachers felt that the GammaTutor tool enhanced their instruction by expanding their access to teaching learning resources and personalising instruction. Additionally, the pre service teachers discussed their concerns, particularly in assisting underperforming learners and effectively utilizing inquiry based instruction using the GammaTutor tool. Notwithstanding certain apparent drawbacks, the study contributes to our understanding of how the TPACK concept might be employed as a framework for analysis in a particular situation. More crucially, teaching and learning are founded on the thorough integration of technological tools in day to day classroom activities.
Keywords: GammaTutor tool, pre service, science teachers, secondary schools, techno blended tool, TPACK
*Corresponding author: SakyiwaaBoateng,sboateng@wsu.ac.za
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Learner performance in physical sciences over the years has not been encouraging. Both the National Senior Certificate Examination (NSC) and the international Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS) have evidence of the poor learner performance in this subject (Department of Basic Education [DBE], 2018, 2019). Studies by Danso (2020), Mosiane (2019), Ogegbo and Ramnarian (2022) and Ramnarian and Hlatswayo (2018) have identified many factors that may hinder the performance of learners. These factors include teachers’ teaching styles (Orhun, 2012), gaps in teachers’ content knowledge (Mosiane, 2019; Sondlo & Ramnarain, 2019), learners’ learning styles (Danso, 2020), teachers' lack of competency in the use of information and communication technology for teaching and learning, values and attitudes that influence their choice of instructional strategies (Jarosievitz, 2017; Ramnarain & Hlatswayo, 2018) and learners’ attitudes towards physical science (Aslan, 2017). However, the teachers’ ability to translate their content knowledge into a learning experience for students to learn effectively using technology is crucial (Van Driel & Berry, 2010; Luft et al., 2015). Specifically, the teachers' professionalism (Anderson & Barnett, 2011; Reddy et al., 2012) includes teachers' subject content knowledge, teacher effectiveness, teacher competence through teacher instructional strategies and teachers’ proper execution of laboratory activities (Ogegbo & Ramnarain, 2022). Therefore, the teachers' role in teaching and learning is crucial to addressing learners' poor physical sciences performance.
The use of techno blended methodologies has been extensively reported in science education literature (Fernandes et al., 2020; Walan, 2020) as a powerful tool that articulates and portrays aspects of the implicit, inherent, effective and individualised component of teachers' professional knowledge. According to Bingimlas (2017) and Waghid and Waghid (2018), numerous studies have reported positive outcomes in education using a technological tool for teaching and learning. A cursory review of the literature indicates that technological tools in education motivate learners, improve teachers' skills and promote collaborative and creative teaching (Postholm, 2007; Baidoo et al., 2022; Gershon, 2017). Al Balushi and Al Hajri (2014) contend that these assist learners in visualising abstract scientific phenomena and provide them with meaningful contexts which improve their retention and academic achievements.
Chao et al. (2016), Hochberg et al. (2018), Walan (2020) and Zhang et al. (2015) agree that there are numerous studies about the integration of technological tools in science education literature; however, there have been few studies that specifically use science technological tools as a teaching resource to foster creative and collaborative teaching. In addition, few studies have reported on how science teachers, specifically pre service teachers, used and reflected on the use of innovative software in science teaching in science classrooms when teaching is entirely techno blended based (Santos & Castro, 2021)
Hence, this study aims to implement a techno blended tool in the physical science classroom and further investigate how pre service teachers reflect on their teaching when implementing an innovative technological tool in their physical sciences classrooms during teaching practice.
The following research questions guided the study:
1. How do pre service science teachers reflect on the use of GammaTutor in the physical sciences classroom during teaching practice?
2. What are the challenges experienced by pre service teachers when using GammaTutor in the physical sciences classroom during teaching practice?
2.1 The use of a technological tool in teaching and learning
There has been considerable debate in education regarding integrating technological tools into daily practice. The necessity of employing technological tools in teaching and learning has been widely publicised (Koopman et al., 2020; Santos & Castro, 2021; Walan, 2020). According to Goldin and Katz (2018), technological tools enable learners to work at an appropriate level for their learning needs and cooperate more efficiently. Goldin and Katz (2018) further assert that learners become empowered in a technological environment because they are isolated from teachers and less fearful of social interaction. This implies that technological tools are helpful in the teaching learning process because they enable learners to organise information into distinct cognitive structures. As Abboud and Rogalski (2017) mentioned, technological tools directly influence learners' attention, motivation, autonomy, and academic achievement. However, other studies show that using technological tools in education does not continuously improve teaching and learning processes (Cope & Kalantzis, 2009; Pineida, 2011). Nevertheless, technology can positively impact the teaching and learning process if used appropriately. Finger et al. (2013) and Sweeney and Drummond (2012) state that it is necessary to consider teachers' pedagogies, knowledge, and beliefs in instruction when examining the integration of technology in the classroom.
Pre service teachers’ preparation for classroom technology use has long been a priority of teacher education institutions in several countries (Agyei & Voogt, 2011; Robinson & Aronica, 2015). In South Africa, the Higher Education White Paper 3 (1997), the National Plan, the National Research and Development Strategy (2002), and the Foresight ICT report (1999) emphasise the importance of information and technologies (ICTs) for education, particularly for teaching and learning. These documents relate the need for ICT related graduate competencies to economic change in an information economy. However, there is a lack of coordination regarding ICTs in higher education across relevant policy papers, which leaves the door open for critical issues to be disregarded while other relevant issues are prioritised (Czernjewicz et al., 2004)
Despite this, research shows that technology receives scant emphasis in teacher education programmes, either as a tool for secondary education or support for pedagogy in teacher education programmes (Chien et al., 2012). Bekele (2021) states that there has been a rise in technology integration in higher education due to the Covid 19 pandemic. Recent demands indicate that to enhance pre service teachers' knowledge of technology integration effectively, teacher
education programmes must assist them in connecting their knowledge of technology, pedagogy, and content (Sun et al., 2017). Koehler and Mishra (2009) suggest that teachers must be competent in all three domains of knowledge to be able to incorporate technology effectively. However, more significantly, they must integrate technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge to enhance classroom instructions. While pre service teachers in some South African institutions appear to have adequate technological abilities acquired through their first year university modules and personal lives, they demonstrate minimal access to computers and occasionally ineffective use of technology in the classroom (Jerrim, 2018). The reason was that their expertise was limited to the operation of technology rather than integrating these technologies into the science classroom instructions Santos and Castro (2021) argue that there is a critical need for equipping pre service teachers to be able to integrate technology within a pedagogical context and in accordance with the subject they teach. Moreover, research (Walan, 2020) has demonstrated the value of collaborative teaching techniques to increase classroom instruction by teachers who utilise technological tools to encourage active and collaborative learning.
The GammaTutor device was developed by the Govan Mbeki Mathematics Development Centre (GMMDC) at Nelson Mandela University in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. It comes pre installed with customised software that includes the complete TouchTutor® Mathematics and Sciences interactive digital package for learner support (Grades 8 12) (see: https://mbeki maths dev.mandela.ac.za). It is introduced as an educational project using the GammaTutor software package that runs on the Gamma Android teaching and learning device, a plug and play pocket sized gadget. It is a complete mathematics and science teaching and learning centre that may be connected to a data projector, television, or screen. The GammaTutor can help teachers, learners, and homeschoolers alike. It contains the entire South African mathematics and science curricula presented in animated PowerPoint presentations, videos, and tutorials. Moreover, it does not require a connection to the Internet Aimed at non native English speakers in the country, it provides a wide range of support services for both teachers and learners (Engineering News, 2020). This research is based on pre service teachers' comments on the GammaTutor training program and how they used the device in the classroom, as well as observations of pre service teachers' teaching methods during school based experiences (SBEs).
This study is situated within the broad field of the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge model of TPACK by Valtonen et al. (2017). This model (TPACK 21) focuses on presenting a validated instrument for measuring pre service teachers' TPACK based pedagogically on twenty first century skills, as Voogt and McKenney (2017) mentioned in their work. TPACK is a theoretical framework for documenting and studying teachers' professional knowledge. According to Koehler et al. (2013), TPACK consists of three components, namely content, pedagogy, and technology, and is the core of effective teaching. The
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TPACK framework is based on Shulman's (1986) framework for pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). PCK refers to the body of knowledge required for teaching, which requires a combination of content and pedagogical skills, as described below (Shulman, 1987):
• Content knowledge (CK): This relates to understanding the central theories and concepts of the concepts being taught. In addition, CK demands a comprehension of the nature of the knowledge and the means through which it is acquired in the field (e.g., physical sciences).
• Pedagogical knowledge (PK): This refers to a comprehension of learning processes and the ability to exert control over those processes and direct the learning environment. PK is a generalised form of information concerning cognitive, social, and developmental learning theories
Technical pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) adds a technological layer to the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) framework. TPACK denotes knowledge of ICT applications suitable for use in teaching in terms of pedagogy and content (Koehler et al., 2013). Koehler et al. (2013) describe the following as components of TPACK:
• Technological knowledge (TK): This refers to an understanding of the capabilities and limitations of technology and the abilities necessary to utilise technology effectively. Knowledge of technology also implies an interest in tracking the progression of emerging technology.
• Technological content knowledge (TCK): This relates to an understanding of the relationship between content and technology and how content and technology impact and constrain one another TCK refers to understanding the technologies utilised within the content field (e.g., physical sciences).
• Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK): This is an understanding of the nature of teaching and learning using technology in the classroom. It comprises utilising technology and gaining knowledge of the advantages and downsides of various technologies for specific pedagogical practises
Based on these elements, the TPACK framework describes the seven areas of teacher knowledge that serve as the core of effective teaching (Koehler et al., 2013). According to Dietrich (2018, p. 9), "TPACK refers to the knowledge and competencies at work within the complex teaching profession, examined through the lens of the Technological, Pedagogical and Content Knowledge infrastructure". In other words, TPACK is a theory developed to explain the set of knowledge that teachers need to teach their learners effectively and use technology (McGraw Hill, 2019).
Hence, in this study, the TPACK framework is used as an analytical tool to explore how pre service teachers reflect on their teaching in authentic physical science lessons with the GammaTutor tool in senior secondary schools during the school based experience (SBE).
This study originated from a research project undertaken by the Mathematics Education and Research Centre (MERC) team in a rural higher education institution (HEI) in the Eastern Cape. This paper reports GammaTutor as an
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emerging technological tool for teaching and learning physical sciences. The study is situated within the interpretivist paradigm and employs a multi case qualitative research design (Yin, 2018) to determine the behaviours, interpretations of situations, and viewpoints on specific subjects as well as exploring the use and integration of technology (GammaTutor) tools in physical sciences classroom instruction.
Purposeful sampling was used to select ten pre service teachers majoring in physical sciences and mathematics who have an in depth knowledge of the GammaTutor tool (Kumar, 2019). The pre service science teachers were in the undergraduate programme in physical science education at a rural South African HEI. These pre service teachers entered the four year Bachelor of Education (BEd) programme to become physical science teachers in secondary schools across South Africa.
Data were collected using in depth semi structured interviews and classroom observation schedules documented with field notes to describe all relevant aspects of the use of GammaTutor in the physical science classroom. This enabled the authors to participate in an engaging discourse with the participants. Eleven open ended items with probes constituted the interview questions. The questions were developed following a review of related literature and were validated by experts. The open-ended questions allowed the participants to share additional information from their perspectives within the context of the study.
A twelve section observation guide (schedule) was created from the model of TPACK (Valtonen et al., 2017) to collect data. The observation schedule was prepared using the TPACK construct.
Ten pre service physical science teachers on SBEs (teaching practice) participated in the study. Each participant was observed twice during the study for five weeks during SBE. A pre observation interview was held before the actual classroom observations, and the participants were instructed on constructing a lesson plan and teaching in the classroom. The purpose of the pre observation interview was to orient the pre service teachers and determine their degree of comprehension regarding integrating technology (GammaTutor) in the classroom. Classroom interactions, pre service teacher activities, and learner behaviours, including using technology (GammaTutor) in the classroom, were documented as field notes.
Semi structured interviews were also conducted with the participants after the classroom observation. The one on one interviews lasted approximately 45 minutes. Intermingling, questioning, probing, listening, writing and audio recording data were used to engage participants (Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017)
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Data triangulation was performed using two data sources to establish a complete understanding of the phenomena. All instruments for data collection were piloted. This helped clarify the research concept and improved the observation schedules and techniques. The use of semi structured approaches improved the validity of the content, as participants were unrestricted in their discussion of concerns and constraints. Validity was ensured by gathering data from ten pre service teachers in ten different schools and using the same tool. All transcribed interview data were returned to participants for member checking.
The study was authorised by the Walter Sisulu University Human Research Ethics Committee (Ethical Clearance Number: FEDSRECC001 06 21). As a result, all participants signed a written informed consent form, which included permission to capture audio data during the research procedure. To establish the participants' trust, issues of anonymity and confidentiality were addressed.
All transcripts were captured and coded manually. The transcribed interviews and classroom observation data were deductively analysed. The data were read and reread to understand the data and establish a coding scheme in an Excel spreadsheet. To track general classroom interactions, engagement, and interventions, the coding scheme was established using a priori codes (Johnson & Christensen, 2019). The components and codes for TPACK are listed in Table 1:
Table 1: TPACK components and codes
TPACK
Pre-service science teacher's knowledge of GammaTutor
PK How the pre service teacher handles the lesson
TCK Overall classroom interactions/engagement and intervention
TK Challenges of using GammaTutor
TPK
The description of how student teachers mediate learning with GammaTutor
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5.1 Pre service teachers’ use of GammaTutor in the physical science classrooms
The demographic characteristics of the pre service science teachers (PSSTs) are presented below (n=10):
Table 2: Demographic characteristics of pre service science teachers Subjects Gender Age Grades Taught No of Learners in Class
PSST 1 male 22 10 20
PSST 2 female 22 11 50
PSST 3 male 21 10/11 41
PSST 4 male 31 10/11 50 PSST 5 male 22 10 41
PSST 6 male 27 10 54
PSST 7 female 21 10/11 44 PSST 8 female 22 10 65
PSST 9 female 24 10 59 PSST 10 female 22 10/11 46
Table 2 reveals that, of the 10 pre service physical sciences teachers who participated in the study, 50% were males and 50% were females. All these pre service teachers taught Physical Sciences with the GammaTutor tool.
It was observed that the pre service science teachers used the GammaTutor tool daily in their classrooms. In addition, participants gave clear instructions during lessons and promoted interaction with learners in the classroom. One pre service teacher narrated as follows:
“I was trained to teach Physical Sciences with a special tool known as the GammaTutor device and I use it every day in my physical sciences classroom instructions. This tool enhances my interaction with my students and engages them actively in the lesson” (PSST 2).
The pre service physical science teachers received training on GammaTutor tool integration in their classroom instructions before they embarked on the SBE. As a result, these pre service science teachers were motivated to use the tool in their respective classrooms for assessment purposes. This finding is in line with the finding of a study conducted by Pima (2019), namely that teachers in high schools are ready to use ICT in teaching and learning.
It was observed that the pre service teachers used the GammaTutor tool to facilitate their instructions, ensuring that their learners understood the concepts taught in the classrooms. Thus, the GammaTutor is mainly used for content delivery and assessment. This supports the reasons for using a technological tool given by Lim and Hang (2003), who found that science teachers use technological tools for curriculum and assessment, as learning resources, for teachers' development, and as physical and technological infrastructure. In
South African classrooms, the pre service teachers also used the GammaTutor tool for assessment purposes. One pre service teacher commented as follows: “Using the GammaTutor for assessment motivates learners to set their own goals and evaluate their work. One thing that is so fascinating about the assessment resources is that every question given has procedures to solve the question. In addition, there are so many different forms of assessments that you can give your learners. For example, there are higher order questions and low order questions.” (PSST 1).
This means learners were exposed to a variety of assessment strategies which presented them with different kinds of information to build their confidence in the challenging concepts.
The outcome in the TPACK model is required for pre service teachers to operate the GammaTutor tool with confidence to engage learners collaboratively (Santo & Castro, 2021). Evidence from the classroom observations established that the participants were technologically competent (TK). They never struggled with controlling the projectors and the whiteboards they used to project their lessons during the teaching and learning of physical sciences to promote collaboration and creativity. According to Ghavifekr and Rosdy (2015), one of the most critical variables in technology based teaching and learning effectiveness is teachers’ being well equipped with ICT tools and facilities. They frequently augmented the technology (GammaTutor) tool with additional resources and practical exercises to aid in acquiring a particular content (TCK).
A mix of presentations, individual and group work, group discussions, and practical questions were part of the classroom instructions. The authors observed that the participants engaged their learners in various tasks to increase learner retention and achievement in the subject. As a result, learners were offered the opportunity to work with tasks of varying difficulty. They appeared to be inspired to seek out answers about the content relating to the tasks, thereby accelerating learners' learning in physical science.
5.2 Pre service teachers’ perspectives on their reflections on the use of GammaTutor in the physical science classroom
5.2.1 Perspective on technological knowledge
Several sub themes arose from this perspective, including attitudes toward technology and the time it takes to learn and prepare lessons. All pre service teachers said they possessed a high degree of technological understanding and were enthusiastic about their classroom instructions, including the use of the GammaTutor tool. Hence, they had no difficulty navigating the GammaTutor’s technical capabilities. Two pre service teachers narrated as follows:
“
I am familiar with and proficient in the use of this interactive technology. I have no difficulty operating this equipment” (PSST7).
“
I received training on how to utilise the GammaTutor tool in my classroom instructions, and I must say that teaching with this technology is much more fun. It alleviates the stress associated with
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lesson preparations and notes written on the chalkboard during the teaching learning process.” (PSST5).
A few participants mentioned initial technological difficulties; however, these were solved within a few minutes of the start of the first lessons. This sentiment is shared by one pre service teacher who said: “I initially encountered some technical difficulties, possibly because I could not return to the main application after opening it and navigating through the other lessons” (PSST2).
The participants knew that navigating the resources and searching for other items to augment the planned lesson take time. One pre service teacher had this to say: “While it takes time to navigate the GammaTutor tool, it is still helpful to have all resources handy, and while preparations with additional resources take time, I save a lot of my time when I have all those resources I will be using in my classroom for my lesson” (PSST10).
When asked whether the use of the GammaTutor tool necessitates more preparation by participants prior to entering the classroom, one pre service teacher shared this sentiment: “Indeed. I needed more preparation before entering the classroom. Sometimes, I practise the entire lesson in my room…just you know. to be sure of myself…hahaha…if I would be able to deliver my lesson. I even practise solving all the learner practice activities to ensure that I do not miss anything” (PSST3).
When data were triangulated, two sub themes arose, namely available time and the social milieu of the classroom. The pre service teachers asserted a high level of technical and pedagogical knowledge and were critical of their use in classroom instruction. It was observed that all learners were active and involved in the teaching learning process since using the GammaTutor tool supported a particular pedagogical principle. However, evidence from the classroom observations shows that little time was available to the pre service teachers to assist each learner in the classroom. One participant corroborated this: “The GammaTutor assisted me a lot in my instructions. Indeed, most of my learners love this teaching method, especially when simulation videos assist them in understanding a particular concept which often seems too abstract to grasp” (PSST10).
When the participants discussed the consequences of the social milieu in the classroom, one pre service teacher had this to say:
“Most often, I put learners into mix ability groups so that they could interact with each other as they share ideas and thoughts. However, I do not do much group works. Still, I was considering the possibility of making learners work alone sometimes. I fear that if I let my learners work alone, there will be fewer social interactions” (PSST2).
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The authors observed this perspective in the classrooms and during the interviews. The GammaTutor tool was beneficial for both participants' instruction and learner comprehension of the physical science content given by pre service teachers during the study. The GammaTutor tool's planned exercise was sufficient to engage learners in inquiry based problem solving activities as described in the Curriculum and Assessment Policies Statement (CAPS) guidelines for physical sciences. Two pre service science teachers contended as follows:
“
GammaTutor is my everything. To be precise, all the information on the GammaTutor tool is very detailed and covers the content of the CAPS curriculum. All the practice activities are aligned with the examination guidelines and the content” (PSST2).
“
The GammaTutor's study material is quite fully packed…My learners are always engaged in the projected activities, making my work as a teacher quite easy. This assists me in reflecting on my lesson and knowing how individual learners are progressing” (PSST1).
The authors observed pre service teachers as they taught lessons, incorporated instructional strategies, and managed their classrooms. Evidence from the lesson observations indicates that participants possess a high level of expertise in guiding learners' discussion in classroom activities. Most of the participants observed showed an in depth knowledge of using differentiated instruction in their classroom. Additionally, it was observed that pre service teachers assisted learners in developing their problem solving aptitudes and motivated them regarding steps to take in approaching a problem in physical sciences. This indicates that pre service teachers have a firm grasp of fostering learners' problem solving abilities through their classroom instruction, which is widely recognised as a crucial component of pre service teachers' pedagogical knowledge development.
To capture learners' interest in the teaching learning process, the pre service teachers varied their teaching strategies and activities, making their lessons more learner centred as they managed their classrooms.
The sub themes under this perspective are pre service teachers' preparation prior to lessons, learners' comprehension, and learners' assessment. This point of view was also emphasised in the interviews. Concerning the pre service teachers’ preparation for teaching before going to deliver each lesson, two pre service teachers reported as follows:
“
My lesson plans are often completed prior to the actual lessons with my learners. I make certain that I have all the materials necessary for the lesson. I prepare additional notes as my lesson summary which I provide [sic] the learners during the lesson. I practise my lesson notes with the
GammaTutor tool and go over all the activities before going to my class” (PSST8).
“I devote much of my time to planning well before my lesson. I ensure that everything needed during my lesson is included in the preparation book ahead of my lesson” (PSST6).
In response to the issue of whether GammaTutor improves learners' comprehension of content, pre service teachers stated that the tool increased learners' creativity in the teaching learning process, connected learners' conceptions to the topic, and helped them rejuvenate their attitude. One pre service teacher narrated as follows:
“I begin my lesson by recapping the previous lesson, creating links between learners' previous knowledge and real world experiences, and inviting them to share their views during the teaching learning process and how it relates to the content” (PSST 3).
The authors observed that learners often responded admirably throughout the teaching learning process and their responses were quite creative.
Regarding whether GammaTutor supports the assessment of learner knowledge, pre service teachers expressed optimism about how the integration of the GammaTutor tool supported the assessment of learner knowledge of the content. One pre service teacher had this to say: “Assessments are so much easier to manage now that I am not required to sit down and create questions for learners to practice with. Each concept I teach in the classroom has its own set of prepared activities that encourage learners' creativity and teamwork. Additionally, learners receive feedback much more quickly. Just a flip into the next slide…and there we are... solutions to all the activities” (PSST2).
The authors’ views were shared by some participants. Indeed, the integration of GammaTutor in classroom instruction was unquestionably beneficial to both the pre service teachers and the learners at large.
5.3
This research question sought to ascertain the difficulties faced by pre service physical science teachers when implementing the GammaTutor tool in physical sciences classrooms. The pre service teachers acknowledged that they initially encountered difficulties with the tool, while the challenges stem from school level and classroom level challenges.
5.3.1
Some of the challenges experienced at the school level included limited access to projectors and computer monitors. One school had only one data projector placed in the laboratory. This laboratory is used as a classroom under the same arrangement. As a result, pre service teachers needed to negotiate with other teachers before using the data projector. One pre service teacher complained: “Even though I now possess this GammaTutor tool, I must still negotiate with other teachers to teach using this technology. This is
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because my school only has one data projector placed in the laboratory. Also, the laboratory serves as a classroom. I am continually negotiating with other teachers to relocate their classes to my classroom so that I can bring my learners to the laboratory for my lesson” (PSST 8).
Similarly, pre service teachers' reflections highlighted that some pre service teachers had to borrow data projectors or computer monitors from another school to enable them to use the GammaTutor tool in their classroom pedagogies.
Support constraints were another challenge that surfaced from the field notes and interviews. The pre service teachers commented that during the early stages of the commencement of SBE, they needed technical support simply to use the GammaTutor tool, which might have been avoided had educational institutions provided technology and information technology experts. One pre service teacher expressed regret: “Occasionally, I wanted to flip back to the previous slide in the classroom, or I needed to close the screen and proceed to the slide…" labelled activities... However, navigating to other activities becomes difficult, and this alone waste my time since... occasionally, I grab my phone from the staffroom and call a peer from another school to assist me in navigating to the content I desire” (PSST 2).
Another challenge identified in the field notes was an intermittent electrical power supply. The pre service teachers expressed regret that they sometimes prepared thoroughly for their lessons only to discover that there was no electricity available, forcing them to revert to traditional teaching methods. The following is the comment expressed by one pre service teacher: “… Due to power interruptions, I was unable to utilise my GammaTutor tool for three consecutive periods. When I organised my lesson on Tuesday, I was able to acquire all the additional resources I needed. I entered the classroom for my lesson and immediately noticed that the electricity had gone out...I was very disappointed” (PSST 10).
The challenges included time and large class sizes at the classroom level. Similar constraints were also reflected in the field notes derived from observations. It was revealed that pre service teachers were not time conscious in ensuring that their lessons were completed within a given period. One pre service teacher lamented:
“I actually do not have enough time in the day for me to complete my lesson… My lesson is not well planned. There is always the possibility that my lesson will extend into the following period. Teachers are constantly at the entrance of my classroom, waiting for me to leave so they can conduct their own lessons” (PSST 7).
Another pre service teacher, on the other hand, believed that the activities undertaken by the learners were time consuming. He recounted:
“It takes time to prepare assessment activities and worksheets for learners to complete in class. I'll need to schedule additional time for the learners to finish these activities” (PSST 9).
This means that pre service science teachers required additional time to create handouts, print assessment activities, mark learners' exercises and provide feedback to learners.
A further challenge encountered by pre service teachers was the huge class sizes in most practising schools. Pre service teachers claimed that too many learners in their classrooms made it impossible for them to provide equal opportunity to all learners, perform learner activities, and provide timely feedback on learners' assessments. In other words, they were unable to provide feedback on some assessments since it took an excessive amount of time to complete the marking before they could provide feedback to the learners.
One pre service teacher had this to say: “It's quite tough for me to provide timely feedback and comments on my learners' assessments. My time is completely consumed by marking of learner's activities which often take more than the one hour allocated to me ” (PSST 3).
The outcome of this study indicates that large class sizes have a detrimental influence on the effectiveness of physical science instruction. This is consistent with Commeyras’s (2000) study which revealed that successful teaching appears impractical for teachers with large class sizes.
This research study aimed to determine how pre service physical science teachers use technology in the classroom. The observation and semi structured interview showed that the pre service teachers had a good level of technological knowledge, and they were excited about using the GammaTutor technological tool in the classroom lessons. The results also demonstrated that pre service teachers had a high degree of technical and pedagogical understanding and were critical users of the technological tool (Gamm Tutor) in the classroom. In addition, the GammaTutor tool's information is extensive and covers the entire CAPS curriculum Therefore, the GammaTutor tool was found to be helpful for both participant instruction and learner comprehension of the science topics presented by pre service teachers (Engineering News, 2020). These results encourage and develop the pre service teachers' TPACK to integrate technology such as GammaTutor in their classroom.
This finding aligns with Martin's (2018) conclusion that endless possibilities for technology integration in teacher preparation programmes could improve, hence increasing the chances of successful technology integration in teacher education settings. Therefore, Thompson and Mishra (2007) posited that in order to be a superior teacher, every teacher should have a strong command of technology knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge, technological pedagogical knowledge, technological content knowledge,
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pedagogical content knowledge, and technological pedagogical content knowledge According to Joo et al. (2018), TPACK indirectly influenced teachers' intentions to use technology since high TPACK teachers spent more time dealing with learners' unexpected behaviour than performing an anticipated role in a technology integrated class. Furthermore, for teachers to integrate continuous technology teaching, teacher educators must look into strategies to support and model the use of technology in the classroom for pre service teachers. This will aid teacher educators in assisting our country's teachers in moving beyond familiarity with and utilisation of technology into full integration of technology into classrooms so that 21st century learners can benefit from the full impact of current technologies (Smith & Greene, 2013).
The findings also indicated that pre service teachers encountered difficulties in using technology (GammaTutor) in the physical sciences classroom. The survey showed that projectors, whiteboards (or smart boards), and computer displays are in short supply. There is inadequate technical assistance and peer support, poor electricity supply, and large class sizes. Furthermore, according to Joshi (2017), technical factors are one of the elements that affect ICT (GammaTutor) integration in teaching and learning. The researcher went on to say that constructivist teaching and learning beliefs have a considerable beneficial impact on class computer use.
In contrast, traditional views have a detrimental impact on integrated classroom computer use. In their study, Smith and Greene (2013) found that pre-service teachers did not have access to the appropriate ICT tools. Dalal et al. (2017) learnt that teachers are concerned about Internet access issues, insufficient technology resources such as laptops and projectors, and weak network signals. However, teachers' ICT skill development has a favourable impact on ICT tools (GammaTutor) integration in teaching and learning (Joshi, 2017) According to Thompson and Mishra (2007), teachers' experience, pedagogical and technological knowledge, pedagogical beliefs, access to resources, institutional support, institutional culture, curriculum and assessment requirements, perceived abilities, motivation, and behaviours of students, preservice education programme, practicum, and professional development of teachers all influence how useful the ICT tool (GammaTutor) is when used in teaching.
The TPACK of pre service teachers in physical science has been influenced by the inclusion of GammaTutor in their teaching. The findings demonstrated that pre service teachers' use of the GammaTutor device in the classroom was associated with learners' content comprehension (TPACK). This indicated that the pre service teachers could successfully implement the teaching strategies and manage the classroom (PK). Incorporating GammaTutor also signifies interactive technology and engagement to help learners understand physical science concepts (TCK). Furthermore, the integration of the GammaTutor tool in science teaching (TK) mediates learning and supports specific pedagogy for a specific situation in the science classroom (TPK). Pre service teachers can obtain fresh insights into planning and organising, pedagogical strategies, content
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delivery, content knowledge, and classroom management by incorporating GammaTutor into physical science classes. Moreover, pre service teachers were inspired to learn more about using various applications and new teaching strategies in technology integrated classes because of their use of GammaTutor
Therefore, this study recommends that incorporating technology into classroom practices will allow pre service teachers to address the learners' needs effectively, increase learners learning, better prepare learners for future studies in science related fields and further prepare learners for digital society in their future practices.
The findings have implications for both student teachers and teacher educators in HEIs. Both should be able to integrate technology into their classroom teaching. In depth research should be carried out with a more significant number of student teachers since teaching and learning science with technology is rapidly gaining attention.
The findings from this study are not generalisable owing to the limited number of physical science student teachers who participated in this study. The study was conducted in a rural province, which might have contributed to some of the difficulties the pre service teachers encountered while using technology (GammaTutor) in the physical sciences classroom
GammaTutorTM is an innovative, recently introduced mobile presentation system for education. It consists of a mini PC device called Gamma and accompanying mathematics and science software developed by the Govan Mbeki Mathematics Development Centre (GMMDC), Nelson Mandela University, Eastern Cape, South Africa. The research team in the Mathematics Education and Research Centre gratefully acknowledges the innovative GammaTutor device developed by the GMMDC. More research is being carried out and it is also acknowledged that the collaborative partners are publishing articles based on the device. In addition, the generous funding from the Walter Sisulu University is gratefully acknowledged for the purchase of the GammaTutor devices.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 324 344, June 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.6.19
Received Mar 29, 2022; Revised Jun 27, 2022; Accepted Jul 3, 2022
Abstract. Continuing professional development (CPD) is widely regarded as extremely important in a university's life, contributing to both professional and personal development and improving teaching and learning. This study looks at the CPD availed by the teacher education faculty, their motives for doing so, and the challenges they have faced in CPD programmes. The researchers designed a questionnaire survey following the New NBC1 461 CCE2 Guidelines for the 222 teacher education faculty. The questionnaire included the following sections: the CPD pursued, their reasons for obtaining the CPD programmes, and the challenges encountered. The modified NBC 461 CCE Guidelines provided the basis for the point system. This study employed a mixed method. The study findings are as follows: engagement among teacher education faculty members is still low; though there may be law mandates for all professionals to avail themselves of CPD units, the faculty remained unresponsive in their CPD engagement; more participation is expected from teacher education faculty members with higher academic ranks; teacher education faculty members believe that CPD will help improve their academic status, knowledge, and financial stability; and finally, personal issues hamper the CPD of a faculty. The study calls for the participation of the faculty in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of the CPD programmes.
Keywords: challenges; development
1 NBC National Budget Circular
2 CCE Common Criteria for Evaluation
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Brilliant educators produce brilliant students. One essential school related factor that stimulates student achievement is an inspired and informed educator. It is therefore critical how state universities and colleges (SUCs) support and train both novice and experienced teachers for their continuing professional development (CPD) (Beşken Ergişi, 2021).
A current critical challenge for educational institutions is ensuring that students acquire the skills and competencies required to prosper in today's society. This endeavour is challenging in the fast changing world, where labour instability, mobility, demographic transition, and the globalized economy continuously redefine society's needs and aspirations (Ahmad et al., 2021). In the face of these changes, teachers must constantly validate and update their abilities to assist students in becoming capable, competitive, and socially integrated individuals (Valiandes & Neophytou, 2017). Education systems have attempted to help their teachers by developing, administering, and promoting various types of CPD (Paliwal, 2016).
Competent faculty significantly influence student achievement throughout the school year and beyond life (Middleton & Perks, 2014). However, educators in low and middle income nations frequently lack the necessary abilities to teach students effectively. Across seven African nations, some educators fared appallingly poorly in pedagogical expertise their ability to plan a course, create questions that successfully extract student knowledge, and perform in the classroom (Bold et al., 2017). An inspired and informed educator is an essential school related factor that stimulates student achievement. It is therefore critical how SUCs support and train both novice and experienced teachers for their CPD (Elayba, 2020).
CPD was defined in the 2013 PRC Resolution No. 2013 774 series as installing innovative knowledge, competencies, and professional ethics in a post licensure specialized or inter or multidisciplinary field of study for integration into professional practice, self directed research, and lifetime education. The CPD's overarching aim is the improvement of the community's common welfare and the interest in offering professional services for that purpose. CPD will make every effort to improve the performance of the Philippines' pool of registered practitioners by keeping them up to date on the current educational, technological, ethical, and other related trends in the regional and global exercise of the professions for the greater good of the country and global affiliation and innovativeness.
According to Glatthorn et al. (2018), through the escalated experience in one's role in teaching, educators automatically acquire more experience in their professional development by developing their skills and facilities in teaching. Seminar workshops and other conventions related to education are also considered as part of the CPD undertaking. CPD is extensive since the progress happens throughout the educators' professional cycle. In addition, CPD is
created to nurture the progress of the educators, which may be valuable for their further professional advancement.
CPD and other forms of educators' advancements are based on the evolution in teaching practices; thus, educators across all disciplines are expected to comprehend and apply the finest instructional strategies, materials, and methodologies that lead to the best results in teaching. Even though faculty members at the university level are labelled as experts in their field of specialization, many may not have been competent in teaching effectively. They may be experts but do not know how to impart their knowledge or upgrade their teaching skills. Faculty members' coaching and mentoring are disregarded in higher education. However, many faculty members admit to their struggle with their classroom teaching. The creation and assessment of CPD in the universities may benefit the development of better instructional practices. They may improve the capability of the faculty in dealing with the barriers to imparting knowledge to the students. Facilitating the faculty members to understand their roles as educators and boosting their confidence that they can be effective educators are the fundamental aspects of CPD (Spoors, 2018).
The faculty’s credentials, skills, and proficiency are essential to quality education. Given the educators’ significant role in driving positive results in education, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) stipulates that faculty at the higher education level acquire a master's degree in their field of specialization as a minimum teaching requirement, as stated by its CHED Memorandum Order (CMO) No. 52, s. 2007. However, temporary appointments are provided until the requisite master's degree is met or satisfied within a year if there are no available professors in the region, place, or locale, as attested by the appointing authorities. The temporary appointment made in the absence of a competent faculty member may be renewed only five times, beginning with issuing the first temporary appointment (Civil Service Commission, 2016).
The CPD is essential for constructing a solid base for an educational institution to achieve quality education. CPD has constantly appeared as an urgent concern in past and present research. The Philippines are incapable of competing with other Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) heading to offering innovative programmes and state of the art technology unless the country capitalizes on generating a pool of education experts (Education issues in the Philippines: The ongoing struggle, 2021). This group of specialists will then be able to impart knowledge and prepare the students for notable and rewarding careers internationally. Based on the 2018 Programme for International Student Assessment, the country ranked last in reading comprehension (340) and second lowest in mathematics (353). Among socioeconomically challenged students, the country has the highest rate of low reading and mathematics achievers (PISA, 2019). Currently, the faculties of more than 70,000 higher educational institutions (HEIs) need to enhance their credentials and competencies to upgrade the quality of teaching. Most student populations are taught by faculty who have no more than the degree of qualifications they are
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pursuing. Logically speaking, if the faculty credentials are low, it creates below academic achievement standards among the students.
According to the LKMco and Pearson poll, the potential of making a difference in the lives of students inspires 92 per cent of teachers to continue in the classroom; thus, any additional opportunities to engage in refining and expanding their CPD to maximize their effect in the classroom are likely to be welcomed (Menzies et al., 2015). It was during the assessment year (AY) 2011 2012 when the CMO No. 52, s. 2007 was fully employed. This CMO mandates all HEI faculties to have a master's degree as a minimum requirement in teaching. Therefore, it is necessary to encourage and assist the faculty in their obtaining this CMO requirement.
Furthermore, the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) of the Philippines reinforces the CPD of CHED. In 2016, the requirement of CPD for the renewal of Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) licenses was implemented. This new recommendation is based on the approved Republic Act (RA) 10912 or CPD Act of 2016, which requires all PRC regulated license holders to earn CPD units before ID renewal (PRC, 2016). The CPD seeks to upgrade the credentials and skills of licensed professionals continually to sustain their competencies in their field of expertise (Philippine Business School, 2018).
Even though the objective of the provision is excellent, there has been weight to utilize CPD as an instrument to ensure that faculty adopts the governmentinitiated reform. What educators are expected to perform as state employees, on the other hand, frequently contradicts concepts of teaching as a profession connected with academic independence, ethical norms, and shared knowledge. One source of the issue is the disparity between educators' teaching philosophy and government regulation (Umil, 2017).
There is a petition in the House of Representatives and the Senate of the Philippines by the Alliance of Concerned Teachers (ACT) to abolish Republic Act 10912 or the CPD Law. The petition is in support of "The Act Repealing Republic Act 10912. The appeal was filed in Congress in February 2018 (Teachers Push for Abolition of CPD Law, 2018). The group intensely appeals to the urgent extraction of the CPD Law for several sensible arguments that mirror professionals' intelligent judgment, especially educators. Primarily, the group claims that CPD is an unessential law. There is no need to fix something that is not broken. Abolishing the CPD Law will immediately return things to a better state. Backlogs in the PRC central office are time consuming. There are high fees for CPD accreditation applications and exorbitant expenses for self directed CPD activities. The CPD Law merely facilitates the system of renewing licenses more costly (Casayuran & Terrazola, 2018).
Teachers must do significantly more work related preparation before being employed. Over regulation may hamper the educational system. The senators and members of Congress must focus on more critical problems of the country. The additional assignment of the PRC to examine CPD activities is a misuse of
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government funds. Most of the time, CHED and the Department of Education regulate seminars and training for teachers without any charge.
Some Canadian states, such as Alberta and Manitoba, the state of New Jersey in the US, and Hong Kong, grant teaching licenses without requiring necessary CPD paperwork or processing costs to approve CPD activities. Their governments justify that CPD activities are already part of the educational system, which is true in the Philippines (San Juan et al., 2020). If the Philippine government seeks quality education, the Senate and the Congress must consider the following: higher salaries for teachers to appeal to more qualified teachers; adequate funds for teacher education and institutionalization; and enhanced systems for teacher engagement in curriculum development, budgeting, and the appointment of administrators and officials, among others, from the ground up (Rabacal et al., 2020).
According to the researchers, little attention has been dedicated to this profession, and little empirical information is directly concerned with the professional learning of 'this distinct occupational group' (Murray & Harrison, 2008). Teacher educators build and create their professional learning opportunities and activities as part of their self initiatives for CPD. Several variables negatively impact teacher educators' attitudes and ability to undertake CPD activities. These are the reasons why the current study sought to investigate teacher educators' self initiative in CPD and the problems they confront along the way.
2.1
Systems for facilitating data collection were planned based on the study's objective and scope. The descriptive study method was used to collect relevant data from respondents using a validated and reliable questionnaire to determine the teacher education faculty's CPD activities. The method is thought to be reasonable for characterizing the nature of the phenomena using the observed state and status of a few simple observable scenarios (Miksza & Elpus, 2018). The descriptive cross sectional design was used explicitly in the study. Marks (2020) stressed that descriptive cross sectional design entailed gathering data to answer questions about the subject's current status.
The Teacher Education faculty in Region 3 of the Republic of the Philippines during the AY 2018 2021 was taken as the study population. There were 521 teacher education faculties in the eleven (11) state universities and colleges used in the study. The researcher employed Slovin's formula to identify the sample size. With a 5% margin of error and 95% confidence level, 222 teachers became the research respondents. The following are the numbers of respondents grouped according to their ranks.
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Table 1: Distribution of the respondents according to their academic ranks Category N %
Academic Ranks Instructor 94 42.3
Assistant Professor 73 32.9 Associate Professor 55 24.8
Gender Male 98 44.1 Female 124 55.9 Ages 20s 15 6.8 30s 65 29.3 40s 75 33.8 50s 59 26.6 Over 60s 8 3.6 Total 222 100.0
Following the New NBC 461 CCE Guidelines, the researchers created a questionnaire survey. It is subdivided into three areas of investigation, and the respondents were asked to rate the statements using a rating scale. Related literature and studies also served as guides in developing the research instrument. The variables in the New NBC 461 CCE Guidelines gave pertinent and significant information that shed light on the study. The survey's questions were appropriately structured in order for it to be both trustworthy and valid. Questions were worded in straightforward, easy to understand sentences. Answers to the survey were confirmed and enriched through informal interviews. Three experts validated this. The first validator has a doctorate in Educational Management and has been a part of the administration of a university for ten years. The second validator taught in academia for 30 years and holds a full professor academic rank. The last validator has been assigned to evaluate the NBC of faculty members internally in their university.
The questionnaire's sections were as follows: the CPD pursued or availed by the teacher education faculty; the reasons for pursuing or availing the CPD programmes; and the challenges encountered by the teacher education faculty on the CPD programs. In addition, the point system in the new NBC 461 CCE Guidelines for Professional Development (Department of Budget and Management, 2012) was adopted as follows:
Table 2: CPD programme points
Category N Point
1. Innovations and inventions
2. Book publication part
Educational 7 Technical 7 Scientific 7
Cultural value 7
As original author 7
As reviewer 4
As editor 3
As co author 3
As translator 4
3. Scholarly research publications
As compiler 2
International 5 National/Regional 3 Local 2
4. Development of instructional manual and audio visual materials 1 5. Training course with at least one year duration
International 5 National/ Regional 3 Local 2
6. Participation in conferences seminars, and workshops
7. Short term consultancy or expert services in an activity of an educational, technological, professional, scientific, or cultural nature sponsored by the government or other agencies
8. Coordinator, lecturer, resource person, or guest speaker in conferences, workshops, and training courses
9. Adviser to dissertation and thesis candidates
International 0.6 National/ Regional 0.4 Local 0.2
International 5 National/ Regional 3 Local 2
International 5 National/ Regional 3 Local 2
Doctoral dissertation 1 Master’s thesis 0.5 Undergraduate thesis 0.25
Board of Directors 1 Technical Committee 1 Consultant group 1 11. Service in trade skill certification 1
10. Services in accreditation work membership
13. Membership of relevant professional organizations
14. Scholarship/Fellowship degree
Learned Society 1 Honours Society 1 Scientific Society 1 Professional organization 0.5
Doctorate (National/ Regional) 3 Master’s (National/ Regional) 2 Non degree 1
International 5 National/ Regional 3 Local 2 16. Participation in community outreach or extension programme 1 17. Professional examination
15. Awards of distinction in recognition of achievement in areas of specialization
Teacher’ s board 5 Other trade skills certificate 1
The researchers asked the help of the deans and department chairpersons to administer the instrument to the respondents. An online survey was conducted among the faculty, and a total of 230 copies were distributed. A total of 222 copies, excluding questionnaires with missing values, were used for analysis. The data for the investigation was analyzed using the SPSS 22.0 statistic software. Likewise, a one way analysis of variance was performed to examine
the difference in CPD points according to frequency analysis and teacher education faculties' academic ranks.
The respondents' consent was obtained, and the necessary authorization was sought to use their provided data. The confidentiality of the replies was strictly protected to safeguard the privacy of personal data. In addition, using any secondary data from any source was recognized with proper reference. As a result, the ethical element of the research was closely adhered to in this study.
This section presents the data gathered through the faculty's questionnaire responses. Data were tabulated, analysed, and interpreted according to the statements of the problem.
CPD refers to developing extensive knowledge, ethical standards, and further competencies in a post licensure specialization for professional practice integration, self directed research, and lifelong learning. CPD programmes, on the other hand, pertain to a range of undertakings recognized by the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) that mandates all regulated professions, including the teacher profession, to earn CPD units before renewing a professional license following Section 10 of the Republic Act No. 10912. According to the regulation, all qualified educators should obtain 45 credit units per three (3) years.
The NBC 461 Guidelines for Common Criteria for Evaluation (CCE) cites examples of CPD programmes, namely innovations and inventions; book publication; scholarly research publications; development of instructional manual and audio visual materials; training courses; participation in conferences, seminars, and workshops; short term consultancy or expert services in a government and perhaps other agency sponsored academic, technical, professional, scientific, or cultural initiatives. In addition, CPD programmes also include being a facilitator, lecturer, or resource person at conventions, seminars, and training events; being an adviser to dissertations and theses; rendering services in accreditation works; service in trade skill certification; being a coach, sports trainer or adviser to academic papers; providing assistance with accreditation projects or with trade skill certification; and being trainer, sports coach, or adviser to a student association; affiliation in pertinent professional societies. Furthermore, CPD criteria also include scholarship or fellowship; awards of distinction in acknowledgement of accomplishments in areas of expertise; participation in community outreach or extension programmes; and professional examination (Department of Budget and Management, 2012).
3:
CPD Programmes Instructors Assistant Professors Associate Professors f Rank
Participation in conferences, seminars and workshops 477 417.6 394 1288.6 1
Professional examination 521 456 311 1288 2
Scholarly research publications 237 300 489 1026 3 Book publication 138 390 330 856 4
Participation in community outreach or extension programme
282 219 165 666 5
Membership in relevant professional organizations 157 78 93 328 6 Adviser to theses 53.25 77 129 259.25 7
Coordinator, lecturer, resource person or guest speaker in conferences, workshops and/or training courses
0 108 108 216 10
40 56 126 222 8.5 Services in trade skill certification 33 141 48 222 8.5 Awards of distinction in recognition of achievement in areas of specialization
Scholarship/fellowship 0 63 21 84 11 Training course with at least one year duration 0 0 9 9 12
Among all the CPD programmes for teacher education faculty, the most frequently availed activities are participating in conferences, seminars, and workshops with a total frequency of 1288.6. Second in rank is the professional examination which obtained a 1288 frequency. Scholarly research publication is also an area of high participation since it ranked third in the availed CPD programmes.
However, opportunities to be recognized for the respondents' achievements in their areas of specialization were scarce with only 216 frequencies. The respondents did not take the risk of throwing their dice in scholarship or fellowship. They are afraid of not finishing on time and suffering the consequence of payback should their education not be completed in the given time frame (Podolsky et al., 2016). Finally, the least popular among the CPD programmes is a training course for at least one year. Growing professionally but apart from their family is not one of their priorities (Tyagi & Misra, 2021).
3.2 Difference of the Teacher Education Faculty Members' Persistence in Pursuing Continuing Professional Development among the Academic Ranks Table 4 presents the overall summary of the result in pursuing or availing CPD among the teacher education faculty.
Table 4: Summary of the difference in persistence to avail CPD among the academic ranks by ANOVA CPD Programme Academic Ranks N M SD F (Sheffe) p
Book publication
A 94 1.47 3.36 19.946 (A<B,C) .000 Significant B 73 5.34 5.94 C 55 6.00 5.48
Scholarly research publication
Participation in conferences, seminars and workshops
Coordinator, lecturer, resource person or guest speaker in conferences, workshops, and/ or training courses
Adviser to dissertation and thesis candidates
Service in trade skill certification
A 94 2.52 3.32 52.920 (A<B<C) .000 Significant B 73 4.11 4.10 C 55 8.89 3.70
A 94 5.07 1.09 34.2053 (A<B<C) .000 Significant B 73 5.72 0.69 C 55 7.16 2.52
A 94 0.43 1.27 21.8245 (A,B<C) .000 Significant B 73 0.77 0.98 C 55 2.29 2.77
A 94 0.57 0.83 33.4981 (A,B<C) .000 Significant B 73 1.05 1.47 C 55 2.35 1.64
A 94 0.35 0.48 41.4620 (A<C<B) .000 Significant B 73 1.93 1.45 C 55 0.87 1.38 B 73 3.00 .00 C 55 3.00 .00
A 94 1.67 .60 5.9930 (B<A,C) .003 Significant B 73 1.07 1.29 C 55 1.69 1.81 Scholarship/ fellowship
Membership of relevant professional organizations
Awards of distinction in recognition of achievement in areas of specialization
Participation in community outreach or extension programme
Professional examination
A 94 .00 .00 16.6219 (A,C<B) .000 Significant B 73 0.86 1.43 C 55 0.38 1.01
A 94 0.00 0.00 30.0014 (A<B,C) .000 Significant B 73 1.48 1.56 C 55 1.96 2.77
A 94 3.00 .00 0 Not Significant B 73 3.00 .00 C 55 3.00 .00
A 94 5.54 0.91 13.7097 (A,C<B) .000 Significant B 73 6.25 0.66 C 55 5.65 1.11
Note: A: Instructor, B: Assistant Professor, C: Associate Professor
The research found significant differences among the academic ranks and in most of the CPD programmes they have pursued. Furthermore, the highest computed F value is 52.9198 in terms of the scholarly research publications. In this programme, it was found that the number of publications significantly increased in the order of associate professor, assistant professor, and instructor. Among those CPD programmes with a significant difference, the lowest computed F value is 5.9930, namely membership of relevant professional
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organizations. Only two CPD programmes do not have a significant difference among the academic ranks. They are coaching, sports training or advising student organizations, and participating in community outreach or extension programmes
3.3 Reasons for the Teacher Education Faculty’s Pursuing Continuing Professional Development Table 5 reveals the teacher education faculty members’ reasons for pursuing CPD programmes. From the twelve (12) cited reasons, four (4) statements stood out. They are that CPD programmes will enable the enhancement of their employability; will promote people's confidence in individual experts and the sector overall; will lead to better preservation and quality of life, the ecology, stability, ownership, and commerce; and will allow them to renew professional license to practice their academic profession. The teacher education faculty members considered that these are the most essential reasons why they pursue various different CPD programmes.
Table 5: Reasons for the Teacher Education Faculty for pursuing or availing continuing professional development
Continuing professional development will… F Rank enhance my employability. 222 2.5 increase my public confidence and professionalism 222 2.5 contribute to improved protection and quality of life, the environment, sustainability, property, and the economy.
222 2.5 allow me to renew my license to practise my profession. 222 2.5 ensure that I and my knowledge stay relevant and up to date. 206 5.5 help me to stay interested and interesting. 206 5.5 maintain and enhance the knowledge and skills I need to deliver a professional service to my students and the community.
202 7 allow me to make meaningful contributions to my institution. 186 8 deliver a deeper understanding of what it means to be professional, along with a greater appreciation of the implications and impacts of my work.
176 9 enable me to evaluate my learning and recognize its real value. 155 10 help advance the body of knowledge and technology within my profession. 115 11 ensure my capabilities to keep pace with the current standards of others in the same field. 112 12
CPD is an investment in career and development as a professional. Applying a “return on investment” attitude to planning CPD is significant because it
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concentrates the faculty's thinking on the possible returns in terms of career benefits from an investment of time, effort and funding. Keeping pace with standards is a challenge. By correctly understanding and applying standards, the group can face opportunities to create and uphold a competitive gain in the educational sector.
However, it could be gleaned from the results that the least among the priorities of the teacher education faculty members are the use of technology and pressure to keep pace with the current standards of other fellow educators. One factor that contributes to the skills gap for instructors is age. There is a substantial disparity in how many recently trained instructors utilize ICT when matched for anyone over 35. Compared to 68%of instructors over 45, 92% of post primary educators under the age of 35 reported using technology for planning. Teachers are inhibited from enhancing their digital abilities for various reasons, including age and a paucity of everyday practice. The obstacle might stem from a lack of confidence in utilizing ICT for learning. This deviates from one of the critical benefits of ICT skills for educators: the capacity to conduct classes more effectively via digital tools.
Nevertheless, not all instructors agree that it may be beneficial to teaching. The classroom has been slower to adapt to technological changes than other sectors. Puttnam (2015) once stated that if one takes a brilliant surgeon from 1913 and places him in an operating theatre today, there is nothing he could do but contribute from his skill base. However, if a school places a 1913 educator in a modern classroom, he or she could deliver something people will indeed all acknowledge as a lesson throughout many areas of study (Comi et al., 2017).
The challenges experienced by the faculty of teacher education are categorized in four areas: challenges in the quality of CPD, work related challenges, personal challenges, and financial challenges.
Table 6:
Challenges in the Quality of CPD % Mean Verbal Description
Lack of high quality external expertise
Limited authorized CPD providers
Poorly designed professional development programmes
Too many one off activities
Too much listening/ no collaboration
70.61 2.82 Moderate challenge
72.97 2.92 Moderate challenge
49.89 2.00 Minor challenge
53.94 2.16 Minor challenge
61.15 2.45 Minor challenge Grand Mean Average 2.47 Minor challenge
Table 6 presents the challenges of the teacher education faculty members regarding the quality of the CPD component. The limited number of authorized CPD providers reflected the highest mean of 2.92 (72.97%), with a verbal description of the moderate challenge. The same verbal description applies to
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the lack of high quality external expertise among trainers of the CPD programmes, the mean of which is 2.82 or 70.61 %. The rest of the statements under this area appeared to be minor challenges to the teacher education faculty members. Overall, this component seems to pose a slight problem for the respondents, for they only obtain a grand mean of 2.47 which represents a minor challenge.
Professional growth is sporadic rather than consistent. This is typically due to lack of qualified instructors, insecurity, and logistical difficulties. It might result from policymakers’ misperception of who educators are and how they must advance professionally. Educators with broad teaching experience might take it out. Not coincidentally, instructors frequently believe the CPD is of poor quality and unimportant to be endured instead of appreciated.
Work Related Challenges
% Mean Verbal Description
Conflicts with work schedule 100.00 4.00 Serious challenge
Lack of information dissemination about the CPD in the institution 46.62 1.86 Minor challenge
Accountability pressures 50.68 2.03 Minor challenge
Lack of employer support 72.30 2.89 Moderate challenge
Bias of officials during the selection of participants 74.44 2.98 Moderate challenge
Grand Mean Average 2.75 Moderate challenge
In work related challenges, the 222 teacher education faculty members (100%) consider conflicts with work schedules a severe challenge in pursuing CPD. However, the least among the challenges is the lack of information dissemination about the CPD in their institutions. This garnered a computed mean of 1.86 or 46.62% with a verbal description of the minor challenge. Another difficulty for CPD for inclusive education in inclusive schools is a heavy workload. Excessive duties in school restrict educators from the opportunity to provide inclusive education. Teachers have much administrative work apart from their role of teaching.
Personal
% Mean Verbal Description
Not enough time for professional learning 100.00 4.00 Serious challenge
Conflicts with family responsibilities 100.00 4.00 Serious challenge
Feeling of drawbacks to change 45.95 1.84 Minor challenge
Obstacle on how to practically make the change 52.59 2.10 Minor challenge
Lack of self motivation in career plan 52.25 2.09 Minor challenge
Grand Mean Average 2.81 Moderate challenge
Table 8 depicts the personal challenges of the teacher education faculty members. This area consisted of two challenges that are considered severe by the respondents. The insufficient time for professional learning and conflicts with
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family responsibilities are issues that prevent them from pursuing CPD. It is correct to claim that time is "free," though it is challenging to have. Demands imposed by different roles result in time conflict. Conflict emerges from role friction when the stress caused while executing one task affects how a person meets the demands of other responsibilities. Workplace stress can impact family life at home and vice versa. Researchers recognize the connection between work and family and consider two forms of conflict, namely work family conflict and family work conflict. Despite being associated, the research findings reveal that each has its causes and consequences. According to Mansour and Tremblay (2016), individuals feel more work family conflict than family work conflict. As a result, professional duties significantly impact family life more than family life being affected by work demands. Defining features in the workplace may conflict with the demands of families. The challenge of adjusting to these many expectations might lead to conflict.
Financial Challenges
% Mean Verbal Description
Costly registration fee 94.48 3.78 Serious challenge
Costly transportation expense 59.80 2.39 Minor challenge
Costly accommodation expense 47.41 1.90 Minor challenge
Lack of source of subsidy 72.18 2.89 Moderate challenge
Additional cost for PRC’s evaluation of certificates 47.75 1.91 Minor challenge
Grand Mean Average 2.57 Moderate challenge
Financial challenges are discussed in Table 9. The number one problem that the teacher education faculty experienced is the costly registration fee of the available CPD programmes with a 3.78 computed mean (serious challenge). Accommodation expense is a lesser concern as it only gained a mean of 1.90 or 47.41%.
Respondents unanimously agreed that teachers' salaries should be addressed as a vital component of the reform programme while examining the issues of teacher professional development. The respondents reported that fundamental survival requirements were not being satisfied, which harms the quality of education they offer and ultimately undermines teaching sustainability. The government spoke much about the education reform plan. Teachers, on the other hand, were totally neglected (Lynch, 2020). Their concerns, anxieties, and struggles went unnoticed. The financial situation of teachers is a complex one. students have negative perceptions of the education sector when they watch educators go hungry and look physically unattractive. Teachers do not intend to remain in the profession because of low compensation the way in which the profession is demeaned (With, 2017). Owing to this, most instructors are seeking new careers and prospects. The objective of developing schools will not be accomplished until the government reassesses the remuneration package for teachers and provides economic and physical support to them. If teachers’
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wages are lower than those of other government employees, it is difficult to recruit better applicants for the teacher education programme.
Table 10: Summary of challenges encountered by teacher education faculty in continuing professional development programmes
CPD Challenges Mean Verbal Description Challenges in the Quality of CPD 2.47 Minor challenge Work Related Challenges 2.75 Moderate challenge Personal Challenges 2.81 Moderate challenge Financial Challenges 2.57 Moderate challenge
As revealed in Table 10, the most troublesome among the challenges of the teacher education faculty members pursuing CPD are the personal challenges which obtained a mean of 2.81. This was followed by work related challenges with a mean of 2.75. The financial challenges came in at the third place the mean of which is 2.57. All three areas were verbally described as moderate challenges. On the other hand, the CPD programmes' quality is only a minor challenge to the respondents. It only obtained a computed mean of 2.47. In 2015 the National Teacher Enquiry Network received CPD practice audits and shared the same issues with the present study. Their respondents complained about the inadequate time for professional development, lack of collaboration with school officials, and lack of qualified experts (Weston, 2015)
Table 12 presents the action plan that may be used to address the teacher education faculty's challenges in the CPD programmes.
Table 11: Action plan to address challenges encountered by Teacher Education Faculty with continuing professional development programmes
Objectives Strategies
Persons Involved Expected Outcomes/ Benefit Challenges in the Quality of CPD
➢ To elevate the quality standards of external experts
➢ Categorize the needs of the audience ➢ Identify speakers who have spoken at similar seminars and check their curriculum vitae well ➢ Watch recordings of their talks and compile a list of ideal options
➢ CHED ➢ SUCs ➢ CPD providers
➢ Improved quality standards of external experts
➢ To increase the number of educational institutions qualifying as authorized CPD providers
➢ Offer online format CPD courses ➢ Encourage more CPD providers to localize their training and seminars ➢ Post on the CHED website not only the
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➢ CHED ➢ SUCs ➢ CPD providers
➢ Increased the number of educational institutions as authorized CPD providers
➢ To strategize the schedule for work and CPD
topics, venue, and dates of the CPD programmes but also the cost of the activity for options of the teacher education faculty
➢ Assign the teachers a maximum of two preparations in teaching their subjects.
➢ Lessen/Reduce? paper work of the faculty members
➢ Avoid giving tasks to be accomplished in a short period (i.e., preparation for accreditation)
➢ CHED ➢ SUCs ➢ College of Education Deans and Chairpers ons ➢ Faculty members
➢ Strategized schedule of work and CPD
➢ To create ways on how SUCs will support their faculty in their pursuit of CPD
➢ Recognize and take pride in the efforts of the faculty pursuing or availing of CPD programmes.
➢ SUCs ➢ College of Education Deans and Chairpers ons ➢ Faculty members
➢ Evident support of the SUCs in the faculty's pursuit of CPD
➢ To eliminate bias among officials during the selection of participants
➢ Create institutionalized CPD programme policies in consultation with the faculty members for equal access for everyone ➢ Design innovative feedback mechanisms
➢ SUCs ➢ College of Education Deans and Chairpers ons ➢ Faculty members
➢ Impartial selection of participants
➢ To gain time for professional learning
➢ To avoid conflict with family responsibilities in pursuit of CPD
➢ Electronic online of delivering CPD courses ➢ CHED ➢ SUCs ➢ Appropriated time for professional learning
➢ Provide child care centres among the institutions ➢ Management of work schedules ➢ Plan and do things in advance
➢ SUCs ➢ College of Education Deans and Chairpers ons ➢ Faculty members
➢ Balanced work and family responsibiliti es
➢ To eliminate the costly ➢ Deliver CPD in a flexible form through online ➢ CHED ➢ Reasonably priced
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registration fee learning
➢ Decrease the number of required CPD credit units ➢ Establish or strengthen professional development services programme in the institution and provide training and consultations free of charge
➢ To find source of subsidy ➢ Reinforce solicitation from established institutional linkages
➢ SUCs ➢ College of Education Deans and Chairpers ons ➢ Faculty members
➢ SUCs ➢ College of Education Deans and Chairpers ons ➢ Faculty members
registration fees
➢ Increased subsidized CPD opportunities
CPD is an essential mechanism through which all new plans must work effectively to become rooted rather than superficial. The traditional notions of CPD and the contemporary preparations for categorizing and assessing the programmes must reinforce the emergent compromise about the nature of a proactive and up to date profession where faculty are considered one of the essential resources in sustaining the professional development of their colleagues.
The main target of CPD is to ensure that faculty are effective in their classroom teaching to improve the students' learning outcomes. CPD is also necessary to respond to the changing needs of the community. Based on the research of Melesse and Gulie (2019) heightened professionalism among teachers through CPD increases their overall morale as their teaching competence is enhanced. The school administrators and CPD organizers must consider focusing on the potentisal benefits of collaboration as they try to meet the demands and needs of indifferent and discouraged faculty. Correspondingly, CPD must suit the interests of the faculty to develop personalized learning. Ensuring collaboration is present in curriculum planning and opening opportunities for team teaching and debriefing are a few suggestions the administration may study.
The SUCs may want to evaluate CPD plans and prospects to safeguard the opportunities among their faculty. After all, the success of the faculty is the success of the institution. CPD is effective when the accountability is collaborative. The initiative and the desire to learn continually must begin with the educators themselves. Of all the professions, the educators must be the principal advocates of lifelong learning, whether or not continuing education is required.
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The following conclusions were developed based on the study findings. Firstly, the participation of teacher education faculty members remains short in advancing professionally. Secondly, although there may be law mandates for all professionals to avail themselves of of CPD units, the faculty remained unresponsive in their CPD engagement. More participation is projected from teacher education faculty members with higher academic ranks. Thirdly, teacher education faculty members believe that CPD will help improve their academic status, knowledge, and financial stability. Finally, personal issues hinder a faculty from advancing professionally.
The research implicates CPD's positive outcomes to the attitudes of the teacher education faculty to regular evaluation of their profession on a sustained basis. The research has shown that the faculty must be trained as educators. However, many felt unprepared regarding field expertise, funding restrictions, and evaluation of the efficacy of the CPD programmes. Where possible and appropriate, the bulk of requirements and expenditures must be assessed so that the faculty will not feel that complying with CPD is an additional burden. The faculty with little or no interest in availing themselves of CPD should consider creating opportunities to work with colleagues to participate in CPD programmes. The buddy system is an excellent resource to encourage others to improve professional development. The SUCs should consider harnessing the available opportunities and resources in school for professional learning.
Research about CPD and associated interventions should consider integrating and structuring pedagogy and CPD literature. Research in a similar field must assess the programmes of the CPD and focus on the nature of the alterations in pedagogic practices and the processes in CPD to provide research users with the data required to operationalize the conclusions and recommendations. Furthermore, the accountability of the programmes of the CPD should be collective among all stakeholders.
First, this study was difficult to generalize because it targeted only the state universities and colleges of Region III. As a result, broadening the area of study in follow up studies is essential. Second, this study focused on the actual situation of professional reinforcement of faculty and staff. In a follow up study, it is necessary to verify the differences in expertise according to the demographic characteristics of the study subjects. Furthermore, it is necessary to conduct a comparative study on the professional development of university faculty and staff in each country in the follow-up study.
This study is significant since it examined the CPD of the teacher education faculty. Thus, it is recommended to have a specific CPD programme execution plan. Quality improvement should be a key focus and a core component of any CPD programme. Teachers are continually improving their practice to optimize
new technology and knowledge. CPD should allow them to evaluate their practice (preferably using their practice data), make improvements based upon standard practice guidelines or best evidence, and implement remedies to identified needs into their everyday practice. The entire CPD process should attest to the satisfactory maintenance of all core competencies deemed necessary for an individual to practise as a specialist in education. Ultimately, it should attest to the teacher's commitment to improving practice and professional responsibilities
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Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of
Dr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir Benmostefa
Dr. Giorgio Poletti
Dr. Chi Man Tsui
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Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna
Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh
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Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot
Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez
Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela
The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, educators, teachers, trainers and other practitioners on all aspects of education to publish high quality peer reviewed papers. Papers for publication in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research are selected through precise peer review to ensure quality, originality, appropriateness, significance and readability. Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, original surveys and case studies that describe significant advances in the fields of education, training, e learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit papers to this journal through the ONLINE submission system. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated by IJLTER.
