International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 9 (September 2022)
Print version: 1694 2493
Online version: 1694-2116
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 9
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Editors of the September 2022 IssueExploring International Post Graduate Students’ Speaking Experiences in an English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) Context 1 Ma Huiling, Lilliati Ismail
Promoting Self Directed Learning as Learning Presence through Cooperative Blended Learning .......................... 17 Chantelle Bosch, Dorothy J Laubscher
Academic Satisfaction of Pedagogy Students Regarding Learning in Virtual Mode 35 Fabián Muñoz, Juan Carlos Beltrán, Regina Alves, Fabián Rodríguez
Socio Cognitive Awareness of Inmates through an Encrypted Innovative Educational Platform 52 Hera Antonopoulou, Athanasios Giannoulis, Leonidas Theodorakopoulos, Constantinos Halkiopoulos
Mapping the Efficacy of Artificial Intelligence based Online Proctored Examination (OPE) in Higher Education during COVID 19: Evidence from Assam, India 76 Afzalur Rahman
The Roles of Mediators and Moderators in the Adoption of Madrasati (M) LMS among Teachers in Riyadh 95 Hamad Alharbi, Habibah Ab Jalil, Muhd Khaizer Omar, Mohd Hazwan Mohd Puad
Economic and Management Sciences as the Ground Rule for Grades 10 to 12 Accounting Learners in South Africa 120 Motalenyane Alfred Modise, Nombulelo Dorah Jonda
Opportunities to Stimulate the Critical Thinking Performance of Preservice Science Teachers Through the Ethno Inquiry Model in an E Learning Platform 134 Saiful Prayogi, Sukainil Ahzan, Indriaturrahmi Indriaturrahmi, Joni Rokhmat
Reliability and Construct Validity of Computational Thinking Scale for Junior High School Students: Thai Adaptation 154 Meechai Junpho, Alisa Songsriwittaya, Puthyrom Tep
Impact of a Digital Repository on Producing e Courses for Mathematics Teachers 174 Essa A. Alibraheim, Hassan F. Hassan, Mohamed W. Soliman
Factors Affecting Teachers’ Pragmatic Knowledge Incorporation into Thai EFL Classrooms 197 Somboon Pojprasat, Somchai Watcharapunyawong
The Smartboard in Chemistry Classrooms: What is Its Effect on Chemistry Teaching and Learning in Selected Topics in Grade 11? 217 Abdou L. J. Jammeh, Claude Karegeya, Savita Ladage
Inquiry Creative Learning Integrated with Ethnoscience: Efforts to Encourage Prospective Science Teachers’ Critical Thinking in Indonesia........................................................................................................................................... 232
Ni Nyoman Sri Putu Verawati, Ahmad Harjono, Wahyudi Wahyudi, Syifa’ul Gummah
An Investigation on the Speaking Constraints and Strategies Used by College Students Studying English as EFL Learners 232
Like Raskova Octaberlina, Afif Ikhwanul Muslimin, Imam Rofiki
Spicing up Undergraduate Collaborative Writing Course through Feedback Dialogues 250 Abdulrahman Nasser Alqefari
The Development of a Guideline in Assessing Students’ Creation Video Based Project in Programming Subject 274
Jamilah Hamid, Haslinda Hashim, Saira Banu Omar Khan, Nor Hasbiah Ubaidullah
Teachers’ Perceptions of School Readiness Among Grade 1 Learners in Lesotho Schools: The Case of Roma
Valley.................................................................................................................................................................................... 291 Julia Chere Masopha
Instructors and Students’ Practices and Behaviours during a Quantum Physics class at the University of Rwanda: Exploring the Usage of Multimedia 309 Pascasie Nyirahabimana, Evariste Minani, Mathias Nduwingoma, Imelda Kemeza
Effectiveness of Learning and Teaching the Appreciation of Ethics and Civilization Course from the Perspective of the Educators and Students in the University of Malaysia Kelantan (UMK) 327 Ateerah Abdul Razak, Siti Fathihah Abd Latif, Fairuz A'dilah Rusdi, Amanina Abdul Razak @ Mohamed, Yohan Kurniawan, Lukman, Z. M., Ruzaini Ijon, Nur Azuki Yusuff, Asma Lailee Mohd Noor
Ergonomic Perceptions and Practices among Students in E learning during COVID 19 348 Huny Bakry, Noha A. Alrasheed, Shahad M. Alqahtani, Reem M. Alshahri, Ghada S. Alburaidi, Fatmah Almoayad
Correlation of Self regulated Learning on Blackboard and Academic Achievement of Islamic Studies Students 370 Ibrahim Al Dawood
The Effects of Connected Speech Instruction on Second or Foreign Language Learners’ Perceptive Skills and Connected Speech Production: A Systematic Review of the Literature (2000 2021) 389 Najma Momen Omar, Zahariah Pilus
The Influence of Lighting, Noise, and Temperature on the Academic Performance of Students amid Covid 19 Pandemic 415 Phuong Nguyen Hoang, Maisoon Samara, Sami Shannawi, Johnry P Dayupay, Hani Jarrah, Cheryl F Olvida, Eddiebel P Layco, Alfe M Solina, Sanny S Maglente, Alson Rae F Luna, Leonilo B Capulso, Cinder Dianne L Tabiolo, Sixto N Ras
Investigating the Role of Digital Learning in Enhancing Educational Values: Online Socialization and Its Effect on Peer Learning, Collaborative Skills and Knowledge Construction 441 Rohaila Yusof, Khoo Yin Yin, Norlia Mat Norwani, Noor Lela Ahmad, Zuriadah Ismail
EFL Students’ Perceptions of Online Flipped Classrooms during the Covid 19 Pandemic and Beyond 460 Luu Nguyen Quoc Hung
The Influence of English Literacy on High School Students’ Academic Achievement 477 Xiaoxia Tian, Guangchao Zhang, Kyung Hee Park
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 232 249, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.14
Received Jun 19, 2022; Revised Sep 10, 2022; Accepted Sep 17, 2022
Like Raskova Octaberlina*
English Education Department, Faculty of Education and Teachers Training, Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, East Java, Indonesia
Afif Ikhwanul Muslimin
English Education Department, Faculty of Education and Teachers Training, Universitas Islam Negeri Mataram, NTB, Indonesia
Imam Rofiki
Mathematics Department, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Negeri Malang, East Java, Indonesia
Abstract. Learning English is essential nowadays because of the widespread use of the language all over the world. In Indonesia, students have the opportunity to learn English language from elementary school, all the way to university. However, this does not imply that Indonesian students studying English at universities are proficient in the language, particularly when it comes to speaking English, when they often face an overwhelming number of challenges, both linguistically and psychologically This study aimed to analyze the challenges that students experience while speaking English and to discuss the students' actions to address the difficulty. A mixed method research was employed by collecting qualitative and quantitative data. The research's instruments were observation, questionnaires, and interviews. This study's participants include 45 second semester English literature students at a state university in Malang, Indonesia. The findings of the study revealed that several students had psychological difficulties while speaking English, such as anxiousness, low confidence, worries about making errors, and being mocked It was also noted that they have uncertainty about word order in English, a lack of grasp of grammar, and difficulty selecting appropriate vocabulary. Inadequate practice in speaking was considered one of the difficulties encountered by students. The students used Rebecca Oxford’s StrategiesInventoryforLanguageLearning(SILL) learning strategies to overcome issues in speaking English
* Corresponding author: LikeRaskovaOctaberlina;likeraskova2004@gmail.com
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Keywords: EFL learner, learning strategies, speaking difficulties, Strategies Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)
Learning English is essential in this day (Al Jarf, 2022; Nhac, 2021). English is a worldwide language that is used most often by a variety of nations. Considering the number of individuals who speak it inside international organizations, English has the potential to become a language spoken all over the world (Hidayati, 2017). The study of English is found in Indonesian educational institutions ranging from basic schools to universities. This is being done because the government of Indonesia has the goal of elevating the quality of the younger generation so that they can better compete globally. Since learning English is beneficial to the growth of the next generation of Indonesians, it needs to be a mandatory subject in schools (Mappiasse & Sihes, 2014).
Whilst English is taught initially in elementary school, this does not guarantee that students who continue their education at a university level will understand the language, particularly when it comes to conversing in English. When speaking English, one must consider a great deal of information, including vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, fluidity, and understanding (Sha’Ar & Boonsuk, 2021). Students may have trouble expressing their thoughts owing to the lack of vocabulary they possess or due to their inability to speak and comprehend English fluently, if even one of the elements is not mastered. Students need to be capable of speak English fairly well to have conversations and communicate with one another since speaking is an interactive activity that creates meaning via the production, reception, and processing of information (Sayuri, 2016).
According to the findings of various research, students who have difficulty speaking in English are anxious about the possibility of making errors and worry about being criticized (Ali & Anwar, 2021; Amoah & Yeboah, 2021; Chien et al., 2020; Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002; Liau & Teoh, 2021).
Students do not always feel comfortable speaking up in front of the class, even when they have something to say. When it comes to speaking English, they feel embarrassed by the attention of other students (Leong et al., 2017). In addition, students could be afraid of being criticized if they mispronounce words or use improper language. It is indisputable that students in a language lesson might feel nervousness and fear due to the environment of the classroom (Littlewood, 1981). Another issue that arises while speaking English is that students have difficulty responding to the questions posed by their instructors since they do not fully comprehend the material being presented in class. When students are asked by their instructors to explain things in a foreign language, it is difficult for them to respond since they have a limited vocabulary of the topic to talk about in that language (Uchihara & Clenton, 2020; Uzer, 2017). Before the start of class, it would be beneficial for the instructor to provide students with an overview of the material that will be discussed so that students understand the vocabulary that is often used in the particular topic.
Other studies discovered that students' reasons for having difficulty speaking English included not only a lack of awareness of pronunciation, grammatical structure, vocab, fluidity, and understanding, but also personal issues including nervousness to speak, insufficient self assurance, insufficient speaking exercise, less time efficiency, and lack of speaking resources, and interaction issues (Abrar et al., 2018; Daud et al., 2019; Derakhshan et al., 2016). When it comes to speaking English, students often experience several negative emotions, including fear of causing errors, difficulties with the correct use of tenses, anxiousness, and a feeling that they have nothing to say (Sayuri, 2016).
From this, we may conclude that there are two aspects contributing students having difficulties with their speech. First, there is the issue of language. The students' lack of proficiency in grammatical structures, vocabularies, and pronunciations causes them to have trouble communicating orally. Those are issues that lay within the category of linguistics issues (Fitriani et al., 2015; Zainurrahman & Sangaji, 2019). Second, psychological issues interrupt individuals’ ability to maintain their emotional and physical wellness. These psychological issues maymanifest in a variety of ways, including anxiousness and inadequacy of self confidence. This idea of self confidence refers to a sense of self assuredness in one's own judgment, skill, strength, which may occasionally be displayed in an extreme manner (Fitriani et al., 2015; Zainurrahman & Sangaji, 2019).
In a study which used university students as participants, students who majored in English at Syiah Kuala University found that the most common challenge they faced was a limitation of vocabulary mastery, which led to a fear of making errors, which caused them to choose not to speak English (Heriansyah, 2012). As a result of these issues, students chose not to participate in class discussions.
Students studying English as a second language at Al Quds Open University highlighted several problems, including feelings of nervousness, anxiousness, and lack of self confidence as some of the challenges they faced when speaking English (Al Nakhalah, 2016). Most college students cited their fear of being misunderstood by others unfavorably as the primary reason for their hesitancy to talk English as a foreign language (Wang & Roopchund, 2015).
An investigation of the English proficiency of 148 EFL upper level students and juniors in Taiwan was carried out using a Likert type scale with five levels. The findings indicated that psychological issues (such as anxiousness, worry of making errors, and inadequacy of self confidence) were the main cause of obstacles in English speaking; accompanied by linguistic issues (such as a poor vocabulary); and environmental issues (such as a lack of language instruction for English communication). The results also indicated that linguistic issues were the third most common cause of English speaking challenges (Shen & Chiu, 2019). Similarly, those difficulties are experienced by university students majoring in English language (Al Nakhalah, 2016; Heriansyah, 2012; Zainurrahman & Sangaji, 2019).
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In this sense, this study's primary objectives were to 1) investigate the challenges that EFL students in an English Education Department at an Islamic state university in Indonesia had with speaking English and 2) describe the efforts that these students made to overcome their difficulties with speaking English
Since people are trained to talk before they learn to read the written form and then begin writing, one may conclude that humans engage with language more verbally than through written expression. Speaking is one of the activities that individuals employ most often in their day to day lives. Researchers in the field of language acquisition have presented several definitions of what it means to speak. The Oxford Online Dictionary defines speaking as conveying information or expressing one's thoughts via words. The construction of meaning in speaking is an interactive process that includes production, reception, and information processing (Brown & Lee, 2015).
Rahmawati (2017) stated that complex and varied cognitive abilities are required for speakers to make sounds and as a meaningful group of words and gestures that listeners may comprehend, whether directly or implicitly. Speaking is the most important and necessary of the four linguistic abilities (which are reading, listening, writing, and speaking). It is the ability that is most directly related to one's ability to communicate effectively (Alzamil, 2021). Students who wish to become fluent in English should put in the effort to develop their speaking skills so that they can engage in conversation effectively with other students who are also learning English or even with native speakers. Speaking has a significant impact on the relationships between individuals. Thus, the capacity to communicate in English is a vital skill that students need to acquire to measure their competence when learning the language.
Several prior research concluded that students learning English as a foreign language often struggle with speaking the language due to issues such as linguistic difficulties. The field of linguistics includes the study of vocabulary, grammatical structures, and pronunciation (Sha’Ar & Boonsuk, 2021). When it comes to learning a new language, one of the aspects that individuals should focus on is broadening their vocabulary because having a wider vocabulary makes it much simpler to become fluent in a language. The process of acquiring a new language is hindered when there is a lack of vocabulary to choose from. This is because learning any new language is fundamentally related to knowing its vocabulary (Khan et al., 2018). A limitation of vocabulary knowledge is a significant barrier to the effective communication of students learning English as a foreign language (Ghalebi et al., 2021).
The second component is grammar, which refers to the rules that organize a language. This is because grammar is recognized for its ability to build sentence constructions. A phrase is correct if it follows the proper structural format.
Students will have the ability to better organize their thoughts and communications with the assistance of grammar (Kusumawardani & Mardiyani, 2018). In addition, the grammar of each language is distinct from that of the others; hence, it is only feasible to talk successfully in a native speaker's language if that language's grammar is used. The last factor to consider is a language's pronunciation, which may be defined as the format in which a word is spoken. Whenever students pronounce a word, they need to give thought to its intonation, emphasis, rhythm, and accent, since listeners are likely to be confused if they get the pronunciation incorrectly. Kusumawardani (2018) added that speaker of a foreign language must have sufficient vocabulary knowledge and the ability to apply it correctly to communicate fluently and accurately.
In addition to language issues, psychological issues also contribute to the difficulties that students have with speaking English. Worrying about making an error is one of the major reasons why students are hesitant to speak English in class. This may occur due to their fear of being rebuked by the instructor or embarrassed by their peers. In addition, it is preferable to inform students who making errors when learning English is not a negative thing (Zainurrahman & Sangaji, 2019). The second one is shyness, which occurs when in the presence of another individual. A person may have feelings of unease, worry, discomfort, and inhibition when they are ashamed. Students often experience feelings of humiliation because of being forced to communicate in English. One of the most widespread fears that students have is that of public speaking, and the accompanying sense of embarrassment causes them to either become speechless or forget what they were about to say (Zainurrahman & Sangaji, 2019).
The next psychological difficulty is anxiousness; students who are anxious will have difficulty speaking English, as seen by an absence of clear articulation. Anxiety can have a negative impact on the quality of an individual's spoken language, giving the impression that they are less fluent in the target language than they actually are (Al Nakhalah, 2016). Because of this, it is the responsibility of instructors to cultivate learning environments that place students in situations that are conducive to comfortable learning activities.
The last issue is insufficient self confidence. Students often experience a lack of self confidence once they recognize that their interlocutor has a greater vocabulary than they do, to the point where they are unable to comprehend other speakers. Students have a decreased sense of self assurance since they are unable to correctly pronounce words or make use of the right grammar (Fitriani et al., 2015). Therefore, students are under the assumption that their English is poor and do not want to communicate in English.
In addition to linguistic issues and psychological issues, the learning atmosphere can also be a factor in why students have challenges speaking in English. This can be caused by factors such as uncertain English conversation, a learning atmosphere with less assistance, inadequate exercise and material, and low class participation (Shen & Chiu, 2019). Supportive learning environments,
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characterized by sufficient material and psychological support are able to boost learners’ language attainment (Lin, 2013) Learners should be free from any physical and psychological threats, such as physical punishment and verbal bullying, to avoid their language production degradation (Chitsamatanga & Rembe, 2020).
Cabaltica and Arcala (2021) stated that students’ frequency of language production should be increased through various exercises in a conducive learning environment. Moreover, all the efforts to create conducive English learning environment will not impact positively on students’ language production without their active engagement and practice (Ginting, 2021).
Students always have their own strategies of their choice in the process of learning a foreign language so that they may become proficient in that language. There are a few different approaches to solving English speaking problems. The approach to learning a language is subdivided into two primary categories, and within each of those primary categories are various sub categories. These are the direct approach and indirect approach (Saputra & Subekti, 2017):
1. The direct approach includes memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensatory strategies A memory strategy is meant to assist students in storing new knowledge in their memories and retrieving it when it is required of them (Saputra & Subekti, 2017). Students are given assistance in memorizing new words and grammar via the use of this memory strategy. Students may find it helpful to memorize words via the use of phonetic spelling. In addition to that, students may make use of organized reviews as a strategy for learning English grammar as part of this memory strategy. Cognitive strategies are strategies that modify or change language in a variety of different ways. Students' cognitive strategies may be implemented via consistent practice, which will ultimately result in students developing their skills and experience. For instance, if students wish to enhance their English speaking skills, they must practice saying phrases and sentences in English repeatedly to increase their ability to retain these words and utilize them in real world situations when they interact with native speakers. Students adopt cognitive strategies when they have a lot of expertise in overcoming issue patterns, which comes from having a lot of practice addressing those issue patterns.
Students often use something called a compensation strategy to address the knowledge gaps that they have. It indicates that the students' minimal understanding has no impact on their ability to comprehend or produce new language. Students have the option of using gestures or pantomime to convey the meaning of words from the target language with which they are not familiar. For instance, if the student does not recognize the target language for ‘open the door’ then he or she might utilize body language to convey the message to the person who is being requested for assistance.
2. Conversely, the indirect approach includes metacognitive, emotional, and social strategies. A strategy that is utilized to regulate the learning process of
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students, such as planning and monitoring students’ progress towards communicative proficiency, is called metacognitive (Saputra & Subekti, 2017). The purpose of this strategy is to provide students with directed objectives in their goal of learning new things. For students who want to become more fluent in English, for instance, the first step is the formulation of a timetable for the performance of speaking exercises in English. The next phase is to evaluate the students' speaking skills and determine how much the students' speaking skills have improved since the previous step.
The term "affective strategies" refers to pedagogical approaches that may be used to assist students in better managing or to develop their feelings. It is crucial for a student to maintain control of their emotions since this can impact the student's ability to learn in a way that is both beneficial and enjoyable. This is especially important for students who are learning a new language, which can cause a great deal of anxiety while they are doing so. The nervousness that these students are feeling may be overcome by using emotional strategies, such as taking a few slow, deep breaths before communicating. When students are learning a new language, affective strategies may also inspire them to think positively about their mistakes, even if they are extremely embarrassing. Even if learning a new language might be challenging for them, they will still have a positive attitude about it. They will feel as if they are doing what is natural to them even if they make errors since they are still struggling to learn.
In addition, the social strategy is a method that involves other people in the process of language acquisition by the students. Interacting with others, particularly native speakers of the target language, is the social strategy that has the best chance of improving students' skills to talk in the target language. In this approach, it is proposed that students understand how their speech is; how to comprehend grammatical concepts; how to ask any questions; and how to analyze the feedback delivered by native speakers.
Regarding the aims of the research, a mixed method was applied in this research by combining a qualitative and quantitative approach. Qualitative research might be used to answer a research problem in which the researchers do not need the variables but must study them (Creswell, 2013). The quantitative research focuses on scrutinizing the issue from the lens of numerical data (Aliaga & Gunderson, 2002). This study was categorized as descriptive research since the emphasis of this study was on the challenges that students have while speaking English and the strategies that students take to overcome those challenges. The study that takes a descriptive approach analyzes a phenomenon in its existing form, as it is at the moment. This kind of research belongs to the primary studies category.
The participants in this research were 45 students in the second semester of the academic year 2021 in the English Literature course at Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, East Java, Indonesia. These students were
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enrolled in two speaking classes (class A and B) where they were learning a topic focused on formal conversations. The reasons to choose these participants were based on the principle of accessibility to manage the research in the selected classrooms and the participants willingness to join the research. It was quite difficult to invite participants from different cohorts in the same department or others since the researchers did not have full classroom access and they were not sure of their ability to speak in English language. Therefore, this research suggests further investigations in a similar research focus
The researchers did a short observation and interview to gather qualitative data as the preliminary study to determine this topic, at which time several issues were identified as being suitable for this study. This led to the selection of this topic.
The researchers in this study employed observation, questionnaires, and interviews as instruments in data gathering procedures. Using a Google form, the researchers distributed a questionnaire form that was rated on a Likert scale and was designed to collect quantitative information regarding students' challenges with speaking English.
In addition, the researchers conducted interviews of around 15 20 minutes through WhatsApp calls regarding the pandemic situation. Based on the results obtained from the questionnaire, the interview was conducted with five students who responded from six to eight questions regarding their English speaking difficulties and the strategies that the students applied to overcome them. This instrument was used to get a more in depth understanding of the students' strategies for overcoming challenges in speaking English (Creswell, 2012).
The researchers conducted an analysis of the data obtained from the questionnaire and the interview, which included data reduction, data presentation, and a generating conclusion (Miles & Huberman, 1994). To be more specific, the quantitative data obtained from the questionnaire was analyzed statistically using SPSS 24 version and the qualitative data gathered through interview and observation were scrutinized thematically. The qualitative data were used to confirm the quantitative data obtained. The themes which were similar were grouped into the issues raised in the research questions. By sorting and grouping the data, the categories were identified (Ezzy, 2002). Finally, the data were simplified and organized into specific concepts and themes and they were accordingly interpreted.
The purpose of the study was to determine the approaches and challenges faced by EFL students when speaking English in the classroom. During the process of observation, the researchers discovered that certain students experienced struggles in expressing their thoughts in English. Thus, they switched to using the Indonesian language when they did not have the word in English. In addition, some students restated the statements they intend to express because they do not understand the systematic structure of the words, which caused them to restate
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the words. For instance, when students intended to say "I didn't necessarily agree with you" but instead say "I do not agree with you", they make a grammatical error.
In addition to this, it was also noted that certain of the students merely remained silent while in class and did not participate actively in speaking classroom discussions. As a result of this observation, it may imply that certain students struggle from a limitation in their vocabulary, lack of grammar comprehension, worry about making errors, or lack of confidence when it comes to speaking English. Furthermore, the findings of the study revealed three challenges that the participants usually encountered while speaking in English language. These are linguistic difficulty, psychological difficulty, and environmental factor.
4.1.1
The findings of the study showed a wide range of answers in relation to linguistic difficulty. The respondents gave the following information through questionnaire responses and interviews, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Linguistic difficulties
Students have inadequate variety of vocabularies
Students have inadequate sentence structure and order.
Students have inadequate grammatical structure
SD (%) D (%) N (%) A (%) SA (%)
2.2% 17.8% 37.8% 42.2% 0%
4.4% 8.9% 33.3% 40% 13.3%
2.2% 11.1% 40% 33.3% 13.3% Students have inadequate pronunciation acquisition 4.4% 11.1% 51.1% 28.9% 4.4%
The findings of the questionnaire made it very clear that inadequacy of vocabulary is the primary factor contributing to the issue. It was shown that 19 respondents, or 42.2%, out of 45 participants, answered that they agreed. There were 17 respondents (37.8 %) who selected neutral, eight respondents (17.8%) selected disagree, and 2.2 % said strongly disagree. As a result, it may imply that students' limited vocabularies hamper their ability to communicate effectively in English, which addresses one of the challenges associated with it.
Students suffer from a lack of vocabulary since they are unable to identify the place of the vocabulary, namely whether that is a verb, a noun, or an adjective. If an EFL student's vocabulary knowledge is weak, they may have difficulties speaking English; they may pause before speaking English; or they may even choose not to start talking English. This is what will happen if their vocabulary knowledge is lacking. Students of English as a Foreign Language who have a large vocabulary but are unable to comprehend the meaning of the words might also have difficulties while choosing appropriate vocabulary. For this reason, it is necessary for students to comprehend the meaning of the words they add to their verbal repertoire.
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Learners are expected to have a comprehensive understanding of all levels of meaning, from the most surface level to the most profound and complex, as well as to grasp not only the content but also the structure of words as well as how to appropriately apply them in any given setting (Dewi & Jimmi, 2018).
The second statement denotes a lack of adequate sentence structure. According to the findings, six respondents (13.3% of the total) said that they strongly agree, and 18 respondents (40%) answered that they agree. The number of students who selected neutral in response to this statement was 15 participants (33.3%). The other four participants (or 8.9%) went with the disagreement option, while the remaining two respondents (or 4.4% of the total) said that they strongly disagreed. As a result, the study concluded that inadequate sentence structure in English might be an indication of students' difficulties in communicating in English (Zainurrahman & Sangaji, 2019).
The students' difficulty may be attributed to an inadequate structure of their sentences. According to the findings of this research, the usage of word order in the EFL students' original languages, Indonesian and English, is rather different. When using different tenses in Indonesian, such as now, yesterday, and tomorrow, the verb does not modify its form in any way. In contrast to English, the meaning of the verb might shift depending on the context of the sentence. It is also possible that students have trouble speaking English since they do not completely grasp how to utilize tenses, which might lead them to have trouble organizing their sentences properly.
Regarding the statement of inadequate grammatical structure, the findings indicated that 13% of the respondents (six people) claimed to highly agree, whereas 33% of the respondents (15 people) agreed. While 18 respondents (40 %) chose the neutral option, the remaining participants declared disagreement (11.1%), and just one participant (2.2%) chose the strongly disagree option. As a result, it was determined that this statement proved that most of students confessed to agreeing that inadequate grammar is the source of their English speaking difficulty.
When students are learning English, one of the elements that must be taken into consideration is grammar, as is common knowledge, because having a good knowledge of grammar enables students to construct accurate sentences, whether they are speaking or writing. Grammar is not an easy subject for students to master since there are many different rules. Whenever they are speaking, many people who are learning English find that the rules of grammar are quite difficult to understand (Sayuri, 2016).
The last statement, which was regarding the inadequate acquisition of pronunciation, revealed that one respondent (2.2 %) really agreed, and 11 respondents (24.4 %) answered that they agreed with the statement. In addition to this, among the respondents who selected neutral, there were as many as 20 respondents(44.4%); 12 respondents, or 26.7% of the total, said that they disagreed with the statement, while one respondent, or 2.2% of the total, stated that they
strongly disagreed. The data thus suggested that many students selected neutral in the inadequacy of pronunciation as their primary speaking issue. The ability to correctly pronounce words is an essential component of good speaking skills. The way a word is pronounced has a substantial impact on how well it is understood by others, both while the speaker is saying it and after they have finished speaking (Yudar et al., 2020).
4.1.2
Besides the linguistic difficulties faced by students, there is psychological difficulties that also hamper students in performing their speaking skill.
Students worry of making errors
SD (%) D (%) N (%) A (%) SA (%)
11.1% 13.3% 31.1% 28.9% 15.6%
Students feel intimidated 17.8% 17.8% 22.2% 35.6% 6.7%
Students feel anxious 6.7% 6.7% 22.2% 37.8% 26.7%
Students have lack of self confidence 6.7% 4.4% 26.7% 37.8% 24.4%
As shown in Table 2, in response to the question "worry of making errors", seven respondents (15.6%) selected the strongly agree option, 13 respondents (28.9%) selected the agree on option, and 14 respondents (31.1%) selected the neutral option. Meanwhile, there were six respondents who opted to disagree with the statement (13.3% of the total), and five people (11.1% of the total) declared they strongly disagreed. In accordance with the above statement, the study concluded that EFL students said that one of the challenges associated with speaking English was the worry of making errors, which is first obstacle students confront. Students who make errors when speaking English experience embarrassment and lack the confidence to continue speaking the language since they worry about being labelled as unintelligent by their peers (Wahyuningsih & Afandi, 2020). Worrying about seeming stupid in front of others is the fundamental cause of students' worry about making errors.
Moreover, based on the statement about the sense of being intimidated while speaking English, 16 respondents (35.6% of the total) agreed, and three respondents (6.7%) selected strongly agree. Regarding the neutral choice, there were 10 respondents (22.2 %), eight respondents (17.8%) indicated disagreement, and the same number of respondents (17.8%) selected disagreement with the researchers’ remark.
It may be concluded that students are of the same opinion that one of the reasons they have difficulty speaking English is because they feel intimidated. However, intimidation is also one of the difficulties students confront while speaking English in class. This issue contributes to the worry of making errors while speaking English (Hamouda, 2013). Furthermore, students are afraid of making
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errors. Students are concerned that their classmates would ridicule them and give them poor reviews if they spoke English incorrectly.
Anxiety is the next psychological factor to be considered. From a total of 45 participants, there were a total of 12 respondents (26.7 %) who claimed to strongly support that idea. The next most popular response was "agree," which was selected by 17 respondents (37.8%). While 10 respondents, or 22.2% of the total, selected "neutral," three respondents each selected "strongly disagree", "disagree", and "neutral", respectively (6.7%). Therefore, it is possible to conclude that the participants provided support for the findings of the researchers’ argument that they struggled to speak English when they were anxious.
Most students mentioned anxiety as their primary issue in this investigation, according to the researchers' findings. This anxiety may be caused by a lack of practice in speaking English and the worry of receiving a negative reaction if students speak inappropriate English or have insufficient experience speaking English in front of others (Leong et al., 2017). Moreover, according to several prior research, anxiety has a detrimental effect on the oral performance of students. Anxiety affects the language competence of English speakers.
The last statement in this section relates to the inadequacy of self confidence. A total of 11 respondents (24.4%) selected strongly agree; 17 respondents (37.8%) selected agree in response to this statement; 12 participants (26.6%) identified as neutral; two respondents (4.4%) as disagreeing, and the remaining three respondents (6.7%) as strongly disagreeing. According to the previously mentioned statistics, an inadequacy of self confidence includes students' difficulties speaking English.
The last issue students confront is an inadequacy of confidence while speaking English. If students conduct interactions with their peers, it may be because they are conscious of their inadequate English abilities. Because of their limited English proficiency, students will believe they will not comprehend what is being stated and will feel humiliated. When students discover that their interaction partners do not understand them or even other speakers, they often lose confidence. They prefer to remain mute while others speak, indicating that they lack the courage to communicate (Caron & Mitchell, 2022).
In addition to linguistic issues and psychological issues, the learning atmosphere can also be a factor in why students have challenges speaking in English (Shen & Chiu, 2019).
According to the information presented in Table 3, the statement about inadequate practice revealed that six respondents (13.3 %) indicated highly agreed, and 18 respondents (40.0 %) claimed to agree with the statement. Students who selected neutral as their response to this statement made up 15 of the total respondents (33.3%). The other four individuals (or 8.9 %) said that they
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disagreed, while a further two people (4.4% of the total) said that they strongly disagreed.
Table 3: Environment factors
Environment Factors
SD (%) D (%) N (%) A (%) SA (%)
4.4% 8.9% 33.3% 40% 13.3% Inadequacy of support
Inadequacy of English practice
Limited English language use
0% 17.8% 46.7% 35.6% 0%
2.2% 26.7% 44.4% 24.4% 2.2%
These results may imply that it may be difficult for students to organize their schedules, there may not be adequate facilities available, or the students may be too anxious to practice speaking English since they are surrounded by people who do not speak English. All these factors may contribute to a lack of practice for students. Shen and Chiu (2019) provided evidence that supports the hypothesis that the fewer opportunities people must speak English, the higher their level of anxiety. As a result, the study concluded that inadequate practice in English might be an indicator of students' difficulties in speaking English.
Many of the responses to the questionnaire statement on "inadequacy of support" were impartial. The results showed that out of 45 respondents, 21 students (46.7% of the total) claimed to be neutral. None of the respondents chose strongly disagreeing, rather 17.8 % of them said they agreed with the statement. Despite this, 16 of the respondents (or 35.6%) responded that they agreed. The results of the survey showed that none of the respondents either agreed or strongly disagreed with the statement. As a result, one might reach the conclusion that one of the factors why students have difficulties speaking English is not a lack of adequate support.
The last question considered the limited use of the English language, and the results indicated that one participant (2.2 %) strongly agreed, while 11 individuals (24.4% of the total) answered that they agreed with the statement. In addition to this, among the respondents who selected neutral, there were as many as 20 respondents(44.4%). 12 respondents, or 26.7% of the total, said that they disagreed with the statement, while one respondent, or 2.2% of the total, stated that they strongly disagreed. The findings are not significantly different from those of the earlier statement. It was determined that most students identified their speaking difficulty as being neutral in limited English language use. This finding was supported by Suchona and Shorna’s (2019) study.
Oxford (2003) established a Strategies Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) which summarizes the numerous sorts of language learning techniques used by learners to assist them in acquiring a new language. These include memory, cognition, compensatory, metacognitive, emotional, and social language acquisition mechanisms (Hardan, 2013). Based on the findings of this research's interviews, the researchers discovered that five of the six SILL techniques were
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used by the participants to overcome English speaking difficulties. The students’ transcribed responses revealed their applications of the strategies. The students did not apply compensatory strategy as it was not mentioned by students either explicitly or implicitly during the interview.
The finding shows that students’ speaking difficulty is caused by a limitation of vocabulary by learning new words. Students may learn new vocabulary through reading papers and books in English and enjoying movies in English. If they do not understand the definition of a word, they may look it up and remember it. Furthermore, students add the acquired word to their vocabulary notes so that they may study it later. This method may assist students in overcoming speaking difficulties caused by a limitation of vocabulary.
Furthermore, the memory method involves the students' approach to learning new words. Memory methods are often employed to memorize words. Revisiting vocabulary or grammatical content on vocabulary or grammatical notes is a kind of memory strategy. This strategy assists learners in storing and retrieving new knowledge by grouping, forming associations in the mind, implementing visual and sound, reviewing, or using action (Shi, 2017).
Additionally, the student's technique for overcoming the inadequacy of grammar is by accessing the grammar notebook that was studied earlier. If there are a few students who do not comprehend the subject that they have studied, the students will watch videos on YouTube or find information about grammar. The next issue is poor pronunciation. Participants in this study overcame this challenge by trying to imitate and repeating English phrases that they saw in movies or on social media portals such as YouTube, Instagram, or TikTok, which provide content on how to pronounce English words properly. In other words, they watched English words or phrases and then imitated and repeated what they saw.
One example of a cognitive approach that students used in this research were the creation of a grammar or word notebook. One of several sets of cognitive methods that are beneficial for English learners to develop a framework for outputs and inputs includes students who are producing this notebook. Another method that assists in the development of all four abilities is the creation of a structure for outputs and inputs. Note taking, summarizing, and highlighting are the three methods that are included in these groupings (Chilmy et al., 2020). Students will be able to examine the material, which will assist them in overcoming obstacles in communicating in English.
Besides, one of the students' techniques for overcoming the worry of making errors, the inadequacy of confidence, and pressure while speaking English is to practice expressing English with peers and be optimistic. Additionally, students' challenge in addressing speaking difficulties caused by anxiousness is to relax by taking a deep breath and gently exhaling. Another method is to attempt to believe everything will be acceptable, even when mistakes are made. Students may overcome their anxiousness in this manner.
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If it is considered a cognitive strategy for students to "practice" speaking English with their friends, then the action of students engaging with their friends is social strategy. Learners are encouraged to interact with native speakers of the language they are attempting to master via the use of social methods. The students in this research used the emotional technique of trying to persuade themselves that they should have greater confidence (Chilmy et al., 2020; Dewi & Jimmi, 2018; Shi, 2017).
The result of the research leads to the following conclusion: psychological issues are difficulties that a considerable percentage of the students in this research face while speaking English. To be more specific, these psychological issues include inadequacy of confidence in speaking English with a more intelligent person, a worry of making errors when speaking English, and a worry of being mocked when speaking English imprecisely.
When speaking English, students in this research had linguistic challenges, such as difficulty, with word order in English, a lack of grasp of grammar, and uncertainty regarding the use of appropriate vocabulary. Inadequate practice also becomes one of the speaking problems that students confront in the environment issue aspect. The results show that those challenges still exist and are interconnected to each other in the EFL learning context at an English education department in university, supported by some previous studies (Ghalebi et al., 2021; Sha’Ar & Boonsuk, 2021; Zainurrahman & Sangaji, 2019).
In addition, the strategies that students use to overcome difficulties in speaking English make use of a variety of learning strategies developed by Rebecca Oxford. These strategies include memory strategies, cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies.
When it comes to this research, the researchers discovered that one of the strategic resources that students utilized to deal with difficulties in speaking English was the utilization of social media platforms as learning media to improve their English speaking abilities to a higher level. These social media platforms included YouTube, Instagram, and TikTok, amongst other applications
Given the current study's limitations, which covered a small number of participants, further research is needed to comply with more participants by occupying various data collection techniques and different research approaches.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 250 273, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.15
Received Jun 19, 2022; Revised Sep 10, 2022; Accepted Sep 17, 2022
Abstract. Dialogic feedback, as opposed to unidirectional feedback that positions English language learners as mere receivers, is argued to be effective in promoting learners' self regulated learning and active roles in feedbackinterpretationand negotiation.Despitetheemphasisondialogic feedback, empirical research on the how? question related to the processes of dialogues in feedback settings is limited. This paper, therefore, being positioned as part of this dialogic feedback approach, aimed to explore how feedback dialogues on the writing of fifteen pairs of undergraduates joining a writing class in a Saudi Arabia university are constructed. The data wascollected fromrecordsof oralface to face (F2F) dialogues and digital or online written and audio interactions. The dialogues were analysed using an interactional analysis guided by several conceptual frameworks from previous research. Findings illustrated that dialogues are promoted and constructed within a four dimensional process of cognitive, metacognitive, socio affective, and structural activities. The assessment questions, hand written codes and Google Docs based highlights of errors in learners' drafts played a role in initiating F2F learner learner dialogues which were extended to teacher learner dialogues and to online dialogues. The study encourages writing instructors' shift to dialogic feedback in order to foster learners' active engagement with feedback and to motivate them to look for more effective strategies in promoting feedback dialogues with learners.
Keywords: dialogic feedback; teacher learner; learner learner; oral dialogue; online interaction; writing
Teacher and learner feedback, which is evaluative information to inform learners of their performance in a particular task, has been intensively practised and researched from a unidirectional approach. Such an approach, however, leaves no opportunity for learners to interact and communicate with the sender over the received feedback (Adie et al., 2018; Li & Vuono, 2019; Nicol, 2010; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020). It positions learners as mere receivers of feedback and neglects the communicative and interactive processes of dialogic feedback (Carless, 2006; Higgins et al., 2001). As a result, learners may rely heavily on explicit feedback
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without judging and interacting over it (Yang & Carless, 2013) and may fail to understand its intent appropriately or use it effectively in revising their written texts (Schillings et al., 2019; Winstone et al., 2017). In addition, providing feedback without dialogues may lead to a teacher's misunderstanding of the author's intention in writing (Merkel, 2018).
In view of the above mentioned issues and weakness of the unidirectional feedback approach, some researchers have called for a shift to a bidirectional or even dialogic approach (Carless, 2006, 2020a; Guasch et al., 2019; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020). Learners' success in acting upon the received feedback depends significantly on their understanding of feedback (Guasch et al., 2019; Winstone et al., 2017) and other factors such as the nature of feedback and types of issues detected or addressed in learners' texts (Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020). Therefore, this dialogic approach to feedback emphasizes interactions as the central element in the process of feedback (Blair & McGinty, 2013; Carless, 2006, 2020a; Guasch et al., 2019; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020)
Despite this argument supporting the efficacy of the dialogic approach to feedback, empirical research on dialogic feedback processes in writing classrooms is still limited (Adie et al., 2018; Guasch et al., 2019; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020) or has not been undertaken significantly so far (Dann, 2015; Green, 2019; Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017). Such research will increase our understanding of how feedback dialogue is constructed at the cognitive and socio relational levels (Urquhart et al., 2014). Therefore, the current study attempts to enhance feedback practices in an English as a foreign language (EFL) context as well as addressing this gap in the literature by exploring the dialogic processes of feedback in teacher and peer feedback sessions in an undergraduate writing course in a Saudi university.
2.1 Theoretical
This study addresses this research question: How are feedback dialogues constructed between teacher and learners and between learners in this writing course? The concept of dialogue refers to verbal conversations or communication between two or more parties, and involves any type of teaching or learning that is based on interaction and communication (Rojas Drummond et al., 2020). Feedback dialogue is a collaborative conversation between learners and teachers or learners themselves (Blair & McGinty, 2013) that engages learners in interpretation of the received feedback, negotiation of its meanings and clarification of their expectations (Adie et al., 2018; Carless, 2013). As an interactive process, dialogic feedback activates the individual's learning through the contributions of others (Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017). According to Bakhtin (1994), the dialogic utterances of speakers are the outcome of their interaction in particular social situations or contexts, which implies that duologues include the relationships constructed and negotiated by speakers (Yang & Carless, 2013).
Dialogic feedback is rooted in the constructivist and sociocultural views of learning and knowledge construction (Blair & McGinty, 2013; Dann, 2015; Guasch
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et al., 2019) as well as self regulation (Merkel, 2018; Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017). Within the sociocultural view (Vygotsky, 1978), as learners engage in dialogue or interaction, they negotiate meanings and develop their cognitive skills, such as critical thinking (Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017). Dialogic feedback plays an important role in fostering learners' roles as active respondents to feedback (Blair & McGinty, 2013; Espasa et al. , 2018; Guasch et al., 2019; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020). The use of language in feedback dialogues becomes an important means to understanding how participants construct their interpretations of feedback and maintain dialogues (Dann, 2015).
The current study offers a comprehensive conceptual framework which is developed based on several models of dialogic or interactive feedback in recent research conducted in EFL contexts (Ajjawi & Boud, 2017; Guasch et al., 2019; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020; Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017; Yang & Carless, 2013). These conceptual models were merged in the current study to guide the analyses of feedback dialogues, which are further discussed in the method section.Dialogic feedback is an interactive process of cognitive, metacognitive, socio affective and structural dimensions. Thecognitivedimension of dialogic feedback is manifested in question response exchanges that demonstrate learners' interpretation of feedback, critical reflection on it, articulation of their understanding or misunderstanding of it, negotiation and clarifications of its meaning (Ajjawi & Boud, 2017; Guasch et al., 2019; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020).
The metacognitive dimension refers to those strategies employed by learners in facilitating their cognitive process of feedback, planning and organizing their tasks (Guasch et al., 2019). The socio affective dimension refers to the linguistic features of dialogues (e.g., using "we" instead of "I" to reduce the gap in power relationships), using positive and supportive words and phrases to encourage learners and socio emotionally support them (Ajjawi & Boud, 2017; Guasch et al., 2019; Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017). The structural dimension refers to how feedback is structured and organized (e.g., using prompts to initiate dialogues) and what tools and materials are used in providing feedback (Ajjawi & Boud, 2017, 2018; Yang & Carless, 2013).
Several studies on dialogic feedback have focused on teacher learner dialogues. For instance, teacher learner dialogues were found to reflect cognitive (e.g., question asking and replying, meaning negotiating, feedback interpreting), social-affective (admitting learner's emotional responses, and offering social support) and structural features (e.g., prompt questions and the online journal that extend such dialogues) (Ajjawi & Boud, 2017; 2018). This is partially similar to findings of other studies on how learners' online interaction around teacher feedback via Google Docs triggered learners' feedback interpretations and negotiations (Guasch et al., 2019; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020). In addition, such interactions promote learners' use of metacognitive strategies, such as planning and monitoring (Guasch et al., 2019).
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In another study (Merkel, 2018), teacher learner dialogic interactions allowed the tutee to develop her awareness of audience and content and engaged her in oral revisions through which she could interact, clarify and verbalize her ideas and thoughts with the tutor. Moreover, Steen Utheim and Wittek (2017) illustrated that dialogues contained teachers’ and learners' social and emotional support, such as exchanging positive feedback, encouragement and use of emotional responses. Dialogues were initiated by the teacher through questioning and learners contributed to the dialogue by minimal responses. Nevertheless, such minimal responses to teachers’ feedback are indicators of their understanding a previous utterance and attempts in maintaining the dialogue. Another study (Jones et al., 2006) revealed that face to face (F2F) and online dialogues were controlled and guided by the tutors through questioning. Qualitative and quantitative analyses by Adie et al. (2018) revealed how teachers invited learners to dialogues through questioning and how both sides contributed to dialogues through short responses, evaluation and giving feedback to self.
From the above studies, there is a consistent finding supporting the role of teacher feedback formulation, such as questions in promoting interactions or dialogues with learners. Despite its potential for enhancing learners' cognitive and self regulatory learning skills, the dialogic approach to feedback, especially teacher learner dialogue, is not without limitations or weaknesses, including the imbalanced power in teacher learner relationships that may impede learners' roles and contributions to dialogues (Blair & McGinty, 2013; Merkel, 2018; Williams & Severino, 2004). This issue may seriously affect learners' emotions, such as confidence in taking part in teacher learner dialogues, especially in cultural settings which entail an imbalance in teacher learner relationships as indicated in other studies conducted by Merkel (2018) and Yang and Carless (2013). Another issue is that teacher learner dialogues, especially one to one F2F dialogues, may not be practical, especially in classes with large numbers of learners as they consume much time and are hard work (Blair & McGinty, 2013). Therefore, teachers are advised to follow a collaborative approach (Williams & Severino, 2004) and also engage learners in peer or learner learner dialogues as discussed below.
Peer peer or learner learner dialogues refer to conversational interactions between learners. Engaging learners in small groups or pairs will help in promoting peer dialogues (Espasa et al., 2018; Gikandi & Morrow, 2016; Gikandi et al., 2011). It is also one of the new ways of effective feedback delivery (Orsmond et al., 2013) and strengthening the socio relational or socio affective aspects of dialogic feedback (Yang & Carless, 2013). As good promoters of dialogues, learners act as both providers and receivers of feedback (Espasa et al., 2018). In a review study of dialogic feedback (Schillings et al., 2018), peer to peer dialogue is argued to promote learners' roles as both seekers and givers of feedback. As for feedback providers, they can evaluate their peers' work, and for receivers, they can respond to their peers' feedback (Zhu & Carless, 2018). Learner learner
dialogue does not only engage learners in deeper learning, but it also supports learners' language skills (Engin, 2017).
Moreover, in large classes comprised of more than 50 learners, instructors can also encourage peer dialogues around feedback to understand such feedback and interpret its messages (Schillings et al. 2019). Technology enables teachers to promote peer interactions through questions or prompts and by using technology (Alghasab et al., 2019). According to Carless (2020b), teachers can promote peer feedback dialogues through digital affordances, such as digital commentary and asynchronous discussions. Google Docs is one of these interactive tools that promotes teacher learner interactions (Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020) and learner learner interactions (Ishtaiwa & Aburezeq, 2015)
The current study used a qualitative case study approach which focuses on a detailed investigation of a research topic from individual( s) in a particular and unique context or institution or programme (Simons, 2009). This approach was used since it offers the researcher an in depth insight into the researched topic. It is useful to capture the detail and uniqueness of dialogic feedback in contexts where the researcher acts as a collaborative partner. Furthermore, it is applicable to dialogues that empowers teacher learner relationships (Merkel, 2018). The author was one of the instructors who taught the course and planned and designed the research activities. He also took part in these dialogues as a collaborator and advisor.
The current study was conducted among 30 learners joining an undergraduate writing course in a Saudi Arabian university during the second semester of the academic year of 2019 2020. The subjects of the study were aged between 19 to 25 years old and were enrolled in an English programme at the university level. The writing course was taught by the author, who is an Assistant Professor in Applied Linguistics and has over five years of experience in teaching writing to EFL learners. The course introduces learners to essay writing of different genres: descriptive, narrative, comparison and contrast, and argumentative essays. However, the focus of the research activities in this study is on descriptive essay writing. As part of their continuous assessment in the course, the learners were assigned descriptive essay writing in pairs. The final drafts were only given grades; however, learners' participation in the feedback dialogues was voluntary in order to enable them to improve their writing through dialogues with peers and an instructor.
Prior to the study procedure of peer writing and dialogic feedback activities, the learners were instructed on these activities and were informed of their purpose. They also gave their written consent to their participation in the dialogic feedback activities. The seven week writing and feedback procedure was initiated by assigning learners into 15 pairs and their writing a four paragraph descriptive
essay on one of the topics provided (Figure 1). Then, the instructor read these 15 first drafts (paper based writing) and coded the flows and errors using a red pen (e.g., circles, underlining, question marks) (Picture 1, Figure 2). One week later, three F2F dialogic feedback sessions started (each of two hour sessions on Wednesdays covered discussions of the first drafts of five pairs of learners). Therefore, in each session, the learners discussed their first coded drafts and compared them against the assessment questions or prompts
During each session, each pair was asked to look at these assessment questions and the hand written codes on their drafts, discuss them and revise the first draft accordingly. They were also asked to record their conversation on mobile phones. These messages would later be sent to the WhatsApp group. Teacher learner dialogue sessions lasted approximately 40 minutes Therefore, all pairs were engaged in learner learner and teacher learner dialogues (Table 1). Each F2F session ended with the five pairs of learners uploading or submitting their second draft to their Google Docs Page.
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Table 1: F2F recorded dialogues
Pair number Length of dialogue records by minute Date Learner learner Teacher learner
Pair 1 19.22 4.8 November 20, 2019
Pair 2 16.45 4.51 November 20, 2019
Pair 3 15.14 6.5 November 20, 2019
Pair 4 22.18 4.25 November 20, 2019
Pair 5 13.39 4.28 November 20, 2019
Pair 6 18.15 5.9 November 27, 2019
Pair 7 24.12 6.24 November 27, 2019
Pair 8 18.43 4.36 November 27, 2019
Pair 9 23.4 5.48 November 27, 2019
Pair 10 17.15 4.27 November 27, 2019
Pair 11 22.2 5.7 December 4, 2019
Pair 12 19.41 8.7 December 4, 2019
Pair 13 19.26 6.9 December 4, 2019
Pair 14 19.40 5.21 December 4, 2019
Pair 15 16.32 6.19 December 4, 2019
After the end of each session of the F2F feedback with five pairs of learners, the instructor read the second draft of each pair in their Google Docs and coded the errors using the highlighting function of Google Docs (Picture 2, Figure 2). Each pair was also asked to discuss these highlighted sections at home after school. They were told to feel free to discuss these highlights either through the commentingfunctions of Google Docs or on the WhatsApp. Therefore, all learners interacted with each other online to discuss these highlights. In addition, they interacted with the course instructor to seek clarifications, explanations and confirmation of their understanding of the Google Docs based highlights. However, in their learner learner and teacher learner online interactions, these pairs differed in their use of tools for interactions: some used only the written comments of Google Docs (Picture 1, Figure 3), some pairs used only WhatsApp voice and written messages (Picture 2), while others used a combination of both for online interactions.
The last stage involved all these pairs revising their Google Docs based second drafts using the highlights and suggesting edits of their second draft based on the online learner learner and learner teacher interactions. This stage ended with the final drafts of assignments on the Google Docs pages. The data was collected from the F2F dialogues and online interactions. Both types of data were organized into two folders and prepared for transcription and analyses.
The data was analyzed following several steps. First, the authors transcribed the recordings of F2F dialogues as well as WhatsApp voice messages. Transcription of these audio records had been initiated earlier during the research activities. The second step involved both researchers in comparing these transcriptions with their related audio records of the F2F dialogues.During this step, both researchers read the data and discussed how the data would be coded.
The third stepfocused on coding the dataandanalyzingit. The current study used an interaction analysis which is an interdisciplinary approach to analyzing and understanding dialogues or interactions (Ajjawi & Boud, 2017, 2018). This approach was selected because of its view of knowledge and actions as basically embedded in social and material contexts (Ajjawi & Boud, 2017, 2018; Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017). Therefore, it enabled the researchers to better understand what was taking place in these dialogues and how meaning and its implication were constructed in such dialogues (Ajjawi & Boud, 2018)
The researchers coded the F2F dialogues and online interactions using a feedback loop, which is an interactional exchange between a teacher and learner that leads to further interaction as a unit of analysis (Ajjawi & Boud, 2017). However, in the current study context, the feedback loop is defined as an interactional exchange that is not only between the instructor and learner( s), but also between a pair of learners. This was carried out by identifying these feedback loops as occurring in interactions and contexts (Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017) in order to understand how meaning is constructed. These loops were coded based on the definitions and dimensions of feedback dialogues in earlier research (Ajjawi & Boud, 2018; Guasch et al., 2019; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020). These dimensions and their definitions were further operationalised by looking at features of feedback
interactions in other studies on both F2F dialogues (e.g., (Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017) and online interactions (Guasch et al., 2019; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020) This assisted in adding the metacognitive dimension (Table 2) to the framework developed by Ajjawi and Boud (2018)
Refers to interactional exchanges showing how learners and or learners and teachers’ question, respond to questions, process, interpret, understand or misunderstand, clarify, elaborate and critically evaluate feedback or even their tasks.
Socio affective
Refers to interactional exchanges showing how participants make attempts in evaluating, planning, monitoring and regulating their mental or cognitive efforts and learning.
Refers to dialogic exchanges showing how participants act in relation to each other, exchange social roles, express positive and or negative emotions, encourage, support or use supportive words and phrases, value one another's work and acknowledge one another's responses or emotions.
Refers to how the way the feedback is structured, designed and given to learners inviting learners to dialogues and giving them opportunities for furthering their dialogues with the instructor by seeking feedback or clarifications.
The feedback dialogues were extended from learner learner to teacher learner dialogues and from F2F dialogues to online interactions. Based on this, the findings are presented under four main themes indicated below with sample excerpts from the dialogues as an illustration of how the cognitive, metacognitive, socio affective and structural features of feedback are interwoven in dialogues.
The F2F learner learner dialogues were initiated by the assessment questions and hand written codes on the first draft. As in Excerpts 1 and 2 in Table 3, both pairs were invited to dialogues through the assessment questions and codes. The cognitive dimension is manifested in learners' conversational and informal question response exchanges functioning as seeking confirming, understanding or even failing to understand such feedback codes, seeking clarification, clarifying and interpreting these codes. The metacognitive strategies, such as planning, mixing Arabic, evaluating their proposed revisions and organizing their revision task facilitate their cognitive processing of the feedback codes. The socio affective features include the use of informal conversational words (e.g., OMG), the use of the pronoun "we" several times to indicate their roles as two learners working and revising together as well as expressing feelings that fluctuate from worries about the coded errors and grades to a sense of humour or laughter and support.
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Table 3: Sample F2F learner learner dialogues
Excerpt 1
S1P1: Ok so what do you think about the ideas?
S2P1: I see they are fine. But OMG we have many red colours!
S2P1: You understand them?
S1P1: Wait. The thesis statement is not good?
S2P1: I think so. What if we change it like this? Re writing the sentence.
S1P1: It sounds better and specific.
S2P1: What the doctor means by this?
S1P1: Oh we should add s to this verb.
S2P2: Why s?
S1P1: مسا لعافلا دصقا دودعم ريغ = I mean it is an uncountable noun.
Excerpt 2
S2P6: Oh see here. Maybe he wants us to add more details.
S1P6: But this paragraph is bigger than the others.
S2P6: Hhhhhhyes it is bigger.
S1P6: Are these sentences not related?
S2P6: I don’t think so. Maybe he wants us to move this sentence up, but not sure.
S1P6: I am really worried about our marks.
S2P6: Do n’t worry because the five grades only for the final draft. So we start writing the second draft in the Google Docs by mobile. Right?
S1P6: Right and you enter our page and write and will help you.
Because of all pairs' failure to understand some hand written codes on their first drafts, they shifted the F2F dialogue to the instructor. Table 4 presents four excerpts of such dialogues, which are initiated by the instructor (Excerpts 3 4) and by the learners (Excerpt 5 6). As the dialogue evolves, the instructor keeps on questioning learners rather than giving them explicit or direct feedback till they provide correct responses. From theses excerpts, such question response exchanges reflect the cognitive (e.g., evaluation, clarification, understanding or lack of understanding) and metacognitive features of dialogues (e.g., reading aloud) though learners' responses are short and there are minimal utterances in teacher learner dialogues. The socio affective features appear in the teacher's use of the “ we” pronoun and hedges, such as modal verbs (e.g., can) rather than imperatives as well as acknowledging learners' responses to reduce the gap in teacher learner power relationships and establish a friendly and relaxed atmosphere. Although the manual codes, as part of the structural dimension, seemed to play a role in shifting the F2F dialogues to the teacher, the short time and the spoken language (especially for learners) seemed to restrict their contributions to dialogues to short and minimal exchanges.
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Table 4: Sample F2F teacher learner dialogues
Excerpts 3 & 4
T: I love your essay, but what 's wrong?
S1P2: Sorry Dr. But we could n’t get this.
T: Are you sure about this "have been"?
S2P2: Mmmmm not really.
T: Why "have been"? And you stated "five months ago". Right?
S1P2: Yes.
T: So what should it be here?
S2P2: I think "It had been".
S1P2: The past "was".
T: Great for you and better to use the past.
Excerpts 5 & 6
T: How did you find it?
S2P7: Not really difficult. This one Dr.
T: Ok you said here "it products"
S1P7: Yeah.
T: Can you check your dictionary later and fix it?
S1P7: Reading the sentence loud.
S2P7: It produces.
T: Ha. Yup "produces". Very good. And something is missing here. What's it?
S1P7: Oh sorry yes "is".
T: Good.
T: So which ones did you find difficult?
S1P6: Sorry Dr. why you put a line here?
T: So what do you feel about it?
S1P6: Just little worried. I think it is correct.
T: We know it is grammatically correct, but where do we use such sentence?
S2P6: Yeah Dr. I got you. It sounds like in talking.
T: How?
S2P6: I mean when we speak.
T: Bravo. This should not be used in writing. So what should we do then?
S2P6: If we say "It is one of the cities…".
T: Yeah good for you.
S1P10: What's wrong with it?
T: Reading the sentence loud. Don’t we need to elaborate it? What message and to whom?
S2P10: I think. Mmmm
T: Hhhhhh. Come on. Of course, I am sure you know this.
S1P10: Hhhhhhhh. Oh sure message to humans.
T: Yes smart. So can you add these missing details? No worry. You will improve and you just need to practice.
S2P10: Ok. Thank you Dr.
The feedback highlights of learners' Google Docs based drafts extended the feedback dialogues to online. As learners were notified that the instructor was highlighting their
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draft, they started interacting with each other over these feedback highlights. Excerpts 7 8 inTable 5 illustrate howlearnersinPair 9 and Pair11 react tosuchhighlightsand engage in discussing these highlights and planning their edits through Google Docs. They used Google Docs comments and WhatsApp audio and written messages, respectively.
These two excerpts reveal how online interactions promoted learners' cognitive and metacognitive engagement with feedback highlights, as implied in their question response exchanges, evaluation, interpretation of feedback meaning, articulation of their understanding and failure to understand feedback highlights as well as planning and organizing their discussions, reading and editing. It appears that these technological tools also serve to establish a friendly environment where learners can foster their socio emotional aspects, such as exchanging social roles as editors and evaluators and supporting each other, especially when having negative feelings as a result of their failure to understand particular feedback highlights and then praising each other when understanding them and successfully editing their texts.
Table 5. Sample online teacher learner dialogues. Excerpt 7 Google Docs Excerpt 8 WhatsApp
S1P9: Mmm. Frustrated because of these highlights.
S2P9: Wait. We will discuss one by one. Again why this question mark
S1P9: We should talk about traveling in general in the introduction.
S2P9: I think we should make it 3 4 sentences.
S1P9: Yes I think 3 4 sentences is enough.
S1P9: Adding a new sentence: Travelling allows you to…………and meet new people.
S2P9: Wow I like this one added by you. Great you are my friend.
S1P9: Thank you.
S1P9: Why bold here? Maybe not related.
S2P9: No. It is linked to the sentence before it.
S1P9: Oh I got it now. We forgot the full stop.
S2P9: Yes true it is run one sentence.
S1P11: Hi, your Google Docs is open now?
S2P11: Yes and you saw our mistakes? So bad for us.
S1P11: Yes I saw. But many of them I don’t know what the doctor wants.
S2P11: Sending an audio message in Arabic: = We will read and discuss here, and one or both will edit.
S1P11: Yes So in the introduction, we have only two colours.
S2P11: Yeah one about this sentence: Reading the sentence loud.
S1P11: We can change it. Learner edits it: We are left with no options only to admire them.
S2P11: يرقبع= Genius! I admire it more now.
S1P11: I really did n’t get it. It is a noun so "childhood, teenage and adult".
S1P11: I got it and changed it "adulthood".
S2P11: Sending audio: Yeah I saw it. Great and I am happy now. Anything else?
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Because of the difficulty in understanding all feedback highlights, all pairs of learners initiated online interaction with the instructor to seek his support. Excerpts 9 10 in Table 6 demonstrate how learners' failure to understand some highlights leads to learners' initiation of online interactions with the instructor through Google Docs and WhatsApp, respectively. Although the teacher did not keep questioning them in responding to their questions as he sometimes provided them clear or explicit instruction on what they should do, such interactions show how online teacher learner interaction facilitates learners' metacognitive strategies,such as editingandsocio emotionallysupportedthemthrough positive evaluation, praise and sense of humour.
Table 6: Sample online learner initiated interactions with the instructor Excerpt 9 Google Docs Excerpt 10 WhatsApp
S2P9: Dr. What about this one?
T: No if you remove it, you should put after acceptable without as ! And you can use neither ....nor here. Got me?
S1P9: Hi Dr.Yes I did.
S1P9: Revising the sentence structure. So whatdo you think nowDr.? Itshould look better now!
T: yes now great and what I meant by academic writing is that words should be in its full form (it is ) but not contractions!
S2P3: Sorry Dr. Shall I say "attracted" instead?
T: Great for you my wonderful learner. I like your experience in this essay.
S2P3: Thank you great Dr. you should put after acceptable without as ! And you can use neither ....nor here. Got me?
S1P3: Yeah Dr. Thank you.
The current study attempted to explore how dialogues are constructed in F2F and online feedback sessions. Findings provided evidence on the interactive features of dialogic feedback under four dimensions: cognitive, socio affective and structural proposed in a previous model (Ajjawi & Boud, 2017, 2018) as well as other featuresof dialogic feedbackextractedfrommodels in other relevant studies (Guasch et al., 2019; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020; Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017) in addition to mate cognitive (Guasch et al., 2019). It also contributes to previous research in two ways: first, the conceptual model merges all these interactive features of dialogic feedback in these previous proposed models under four interwoven dimensions of dialogic feedback discussed in detail below. Secondly, it provides evidence of these features from both modes of dialogues: F2F and online and from learner learner and teacher learner dialogues.
Dialogic feedback is a cognitive process that entails learners' interactional or dialogic exchanges which are initiated and promoted by feedback prompts
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(assessment questions), hand written codes and online highlights as well as teacher and learners. Cognitive engagement of dialogic feedback is manifested through question response exchanges, such as interpretation of feedback meaning, clarification, confirming their understanding and or failure to understand such feedback, explanation of feedback codes and highlights. This supports the evidence on prompts as a good strategy in initiating or inviting learners to peer dialogues (Ajjawi & Boud,2017, 2018; Macklin, 2016) though these studies focused on teacher learner dialogues only. It also supports the role of questioning in promoting learners' reflection on feedback (Ajjawi & Boud, 2017, 2018; Guasch et al., 2019; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020; Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017). As an interrogative type of feedback, questions are effective initiators of dialogue formation as they invite learners to talk or comment on the feedback (Ajjawi & Boud, 2018; Carless, 2020a).
6.2.
Dialogic feedback is an interactive process that engages learners in using metacognitivestrategiesthat facilitate their understanding, regulate their learning and continue their dialogues. This study adds to this dimension according to Guasch et al. (2019) by revealing more strategies, such as task organizing, reading aloud, planning future revisions or edits and even talking about procedural challenges. Interpreting this finding from other studies on learners' engagement with feedback (Han & Hyland, 2015; Zheng & Yu, 2018; Zheng et al. , 2020), meta cognitive engagement reflects learners' attempts in regulating their cognitive processing of feedback. What is interesting is the use of Arabic code mixing in dialogues in order to facilitate learners' successful cognitive processing of feedback in teacher learner dialogues. Code mixing possibly also fills the gap owing to the learners’ levels of language proficiency in English and lack of certain vocabulary in learner learner dialogues.
6.3.
Dialogic feedback is a socio affective process that engages learners in acting in relation to others, expressing their negative and positive emotions and exchanging social and emotional support. Several researchers, such as Ajjawi and Boud( 2017, 2018), Engin(2017), Guasch etal.(2019) andSteen UtheimandWittek (2017), have argued that this socio affective or even socio emotional dimension is necessary for cultivating and maintaining dialogic feedback practices. The availability of the instructor is also important for socially supporting learners (Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017), especially when learners fail to understand feedback.
Despite the teacher's attempts at minimizing the teacher learner power imbalance perceived by learners and creating a friendly atmosphere (Blair & McGinty, 2013; Merkel, 2018; Williams & Severino, 2004), most of the pairs responded to the teacher through minimal responses in F2F teacher learner dialogues as opposed to learner learner dialogues. Factors such as learners' linguistic knowledge, language proficiency, knowledge about the content of their texts (Engin, 2017) as well as cultural factors that impose on learners to respect and view teachers or even older people as models, authoritative and more knowledgeable as well as
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the insufficient time might have restricted their contributions to F2F teacher learner dialogues. Nevertheless, such minimal responses are important components of F2F feedback dialogues as they encourage speakers or teachers to continue the dialogue (Steen Utheim & Wittek, 2017)
The present study remains useful for its inclusion of learner learner dialogues as an effective strategy in fostering the socio relational or socio affective aspects of dialogic feedback (Yang & Carless, 2013). In this study, learners acted as peers who are socially balanced and who exchange editor evaluator roles (Espasa et al., 2018; Schillings et al., 2018; Zhu & Carless, 2018) in feedback dialogues. They also acted as initiators of teacher learner dialogues, especially in the online setting.
6.4.
Dialogic feedback as a structural process refers to the way feedback is structured or organized and provided to learners, including the materials, digital tools and modes used. In this study, the assessment questions, hand written feedback codes and Google Docs based highlights initiated and extended feedback dialogues, which corroborates earlier studies (Ajjawi & Boud, 2017, 2018).
The opportunities for feedback dialogues seemed to be facilitated firstly, by the structural features of Google Docs, including its commenting function and secondly, by those affordances of WhatsApp synchronous and asynchronous audio and written messages. Learners were able to exchange lengthier and more elaborative written comments and audio messages than their F2F dialogic exchanges. This is consistent with results of earlier research on the potential of Google Docs as an effective tool that facilitates interactivity of feedback (Alharbi, 2020; Ishtaiwa & Aburezeq, 2015; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020). Such interactions can be also initiated by learners seeking clarifications from the instructor (Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020) However, because most of the Google Docs based interaction with the instructor is asynchronous, learners resorted to WhatsApp messaging in order to get prompt responses. This, however, should not be viewed as negative because it triggers teacher learner synchronous interaction through WhatsApp. As opposed to the views of Jones et al. (2006), in this study, online interaction did not appear to be teacher centred as most of it was initiated by learners; therefore, it can be called "learner teacher interaction".
Owing to the limitations of the unidirectional feedback approach (Carless, 2006; Higgins etal., 2001), the current study proposed a dialogic feedback approach that engages learners in constructive dialogues with each other and with the course instructor. The strength of the current study lies its interactional analysis of dialogic feedback in both F2F and online settings and in both learner learner and teacher learner dialogues. Although teacher learner dialogues tend to be teacher centred, they nevertheless provide learners with opportunities to respond to and initiate dialogues with teachers. However, this study demonstrates how to minimize this issue by engaging learners in peer dialogues. In addition, as F2F dialogic feedback might be a burden for teachers, especially with a large number of learners and a heavy workload (Crimmins et al., 2016; Saeed & Al Qunayeer,
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2020), it becomes important to engage learners in learner learner dialogues beyond the classroom time. In this regard, using technology can help in assigning feedback activities that promote learners’ interactions online.
This study has useful implications for writing instructors. Since dialogue is the essence of dialogic feedback, it is important to provide learners with ample opportunities to interact with each other and with the instructor. The study encourages writing instructors' shift to dialogic feedback in order to foster learners' active engagement with feedback. It also motivates them tolook for more effective strategies in promoting feedback dialogues with learners.
Despite the above findings, there are several limitations that should be addressed for future research. Although learners' culture can be one of the main factors affecting their dialogues with teachers, no clear evidence on this issue has been reported in this study. Therefore, future research may look at this issue in depth using follow up interviews with learners or oral reports as reflection on feedback dialogues. Another limitation is that the current study is more process oriented as it focused on the process of dialogic feedback rather than its effect or output. Future studies can assess the effect of such dialogues on learners' uptake or the use of feedback in revising their texts by assigning them to two groups: dialogic and non dialogic feedback groups. This can be achieved by comparing the scores of final drafts against those of the first drafts.
Moreover, since there were thirty learners who worked in fifteen pairs in this study, it was impossibleto compare amongindividual learners orindividual pairs in relation to how dialogues are constructed. Finally, the purpose of this study was not to compare between F2F and online or between learner learner and teacher learner dialogues, but they were discussed as part of the findings on the potential of technology in extending and cultivating feedback dialogues beyond the classroom time. However, future studies can compare feedback dialogues in terms of the mode: F2F and online and the source: learner learner and teacher learner.
The researcher would like to thank the Deanship of Scientific Research at Majmaah University for supporting this research under project No. R-2022-221.
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Table
Pair number
Length of dialogue records by minute Date Learner learner Teacher learner
Pair 1 19.22 4.8
November 20, 2019
Pair 2 16.45 4.51 November 20, 2019
Pair 3 15.14 6.5 November 20, 2019
Pair 4 22.18 4.25 November 20, 2019
Pair 5 13.39 4.28 November 20, 2019
Pair 6 18.15 5.9 November 27, 2019
Pair 7 24.12 6.24 November 27, 2019
Pair 8 18.43 4.36 November 27, 2019
Pair 9 23.4 5.48 November 27, 2019
Pair 10 17.15 4.27 November 27, 2019
Pair 11 22.2 5.7 December 4, 2019
Pair 12 19.41 8.7 December 4, 2019
Pair 13 19.26 6.9 December 4, 2019
Pair 14 19.40 5.21 December 4, 2019
Pair 15 16.32 6.19 December 4, 2019
Cognitive
Refers to interactional exchanges showing how learners and or learners and teachers question, respond to questions, process, interpret, understand or misunderstand, clarify, elaborate and critically evaluate feedback or even their tasks.
Refers to interactional exchanges showing how participants make attempts in evaluating, planning, monitoring and regulating their mental or cognitive efforts and learning.
Socio affective
Refers to dialogic exchanges showing how participants act in relation to each other, exchange social roles, express positive and or negative emotions, encourage, support or use supportive words and phrases, value one's work and acknowledge one's responses or emotions.
Refers to how the way the feedback is structured, designed and given to learners invites learners to dialogues and gives them opportunities for furthering their dialogues with the instructor by seeking feedback or clarifications.
Excerpt 1 Excerpt 2
S1P1: Ok so what do you think about the ideas?
S2P1: I see they are fine. But OMG we have many red colours!
S2P1: You understand them?
S1P1: Wait. The thesis statement is not good?
S2P1: I think so. What if we change it like this? Re writing the sentence.
S1P1: It sounds better and specific.
S2P1: What the doctor means by this?
S1P1: Oh we should add s to this verb.
S2P2: Why s?
S1P1: دودعم ريغ مسا لعافلا دصقا= I mean it is an uncountable noun.
S2P6: Oh see here. Maybe he wants us to add more details.
S1P6: But this paragraph is bigger than the others.
S2P6: Hhhhhhyes it is bigger.
S1P6: Are these sentences not related?
S2P6: I don’t think so. Maybe he wants us to move this sentence up, but not sure.
S1P6: I am really worried about our marks.
S2P6: Don’t worry because the five grades only for the final draft. So we start writing the second draft in the Google Docs by mobile. Right?
S1P6: Right and you enter our page and write and will help you.
Excerpts 3 & 4
T: I love your essay, but what's wrong?
S1P2: Sorry Dr. But we couldn’t get this.
T: Are you sure about this "have been"?
S2P2: Mmmmm not really.
T: Why "have been"? And you stated "five months ago". Right?
S1P2: Yes.
T: So what should it be here?
S2P2: I think "It had been".
S1P2: The past "was".
T: Great for you and better to use the past.
Excerpts 5 & 6
T: How did you find it?
S2P7: Not really difficult. This one Dr.
T: Ok you said here "it products"
S1P7: Yeah.
T: Can you check your dictionary later and fix it?
S1P7: Reading the sentence loud.
S2P7: It produces.
T: Ha. Yup "produces". Very good. And something is missing here. What's it?
S1P7: Oh sorry yes "is".
T: Good.
T: So which ones did you find difficult?
S1P6: Sorry Dr. why you put a line here?
T: So what do you feel about it?
S1P10: What's wrong with it?
T: Reading the sentence loud. Don’t we need to elaborate it? What message and to whom?
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S1P6: Just little worried. I think it is correct.
T: We know it is grammatically correct, but where do we use such sentence?
S2P6: Yeah Dr. I got you. It sounds like in talking.
T: How?
S2P6: I mean when we speak.
T: Bravo. This should not be used in writing. So what should we do then?
S2P6: If we say "It is one of the cities…".
T: Yeah good for you.
S2P10: I think. Mmmm
T: Hhhhhh. Come on. Of course, I am sure you know this.
S1P10: Hhhhhhhh. Oh sure message to humans.
T: Yes smart. So can you add these missing details? No worry. You will improve and you just need to practice.
S2P10: Ok. Thank you Dr.
S1P9:Mmm.Frustrated because of these highlights.
S2P9: Wait. We will discuss one by one. Again why this question mark
S1P9: We should talk about traveling in general in the introduction.
S2P9: I think we should make it 3 4 sentences.
S1P9: Yes I think 3 4 sentences is enough.
S1P9: Adding a new sentence: Traveling allows you to…………and meet new people.
S2P9: Wow I like this one added by you. Great you are my friend.
S1P9: Thank you.
S1P9: Why bold here? Maybe not related.
S2P9: No. It is linked to the sentence before it.
S1P9: Oh I got it now. We forgot the full stop.
S2P9: Yes true it is run one sentence.
S1P11: Hi your Google Docs is open now?
S2P11: Yes and you saw our mistakes? So bad for us.
S1P11: Yes I saw. But many of them I don’t know what the doctor wants.
S2P11: Sending an audio message in Arabic: = We will read and discuss here, and one or both will edit.
S1P11: Yes So in the introduction, we have only two colours.
S2P11: Yeah one about this sentence: Reading the sentence loud.
S1P11: We can change it. Learner edits it: We are left with no options only to admire them.
S2P11: يرقبع= Genius! I admire it more now.
S1P11: I really didn’t get it. It is a noun so "childhood, teenage and adult".
S1P11: I got it and changed it "adulthood".
S2P11: Sending audio: Yeah I saw it. Great and I am happy now. Anything else?
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S2P9: Dr. What about this one?
T: No if you remove it, you should put after acceptable without as ! And you can use neither ....nor here. Got me?
S1P9: Hi Dr.Yes I did.
S1P9: Revising the sentence structure. Sowhat do you think now Dr.? It should look better now!
T: yes now great and what I meant by academic writing is that words should be in its full form (it is ) but not contractions!
S2P3: Sorry Dr. Shall I say "attracted" instead?
T: Great for you my wonderful learner. I like your experience in this essay.
S2P3: Thank you great Dr. you should put after acceptable without as ! And you can use neither ....nor here. Got me?
S1P3: Yeah Dr. Thank you.
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 274 290, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.16
Received Jul 18, 2022; Revised Sep 19, 2022; Accepted Sep 24, 2022
Abstract. Currently, many video based assessments of students’ practical and clinicalworks inseveralsubjects, especiallyinthe medicalfield, have been widely studied. However, studies that focus on such assessments of student learning of programming subject are seriously lacking. To make matters worse, there are no guidelines for teachers to implement such an assessment. Premised in this context, this research was conducted to develop a guideline for assessing students’ video based creation in programming subject. This study was based on a qualitative methodology comprising two phases. In the first phase, a structured interview involving ten computer science (ASK) teachers, who were randomly selected from a Malaysian public school, was carried out to help determine the essential components and subcomponents of the guideline.Theresultsof the firstphasewerereviewedandrefinedduring the second phase, which involved a focus group discussion with seven experts from four relevant fields: computer science, information technology education and assessment, educational technology, and assessment, and multimedia. The five previously identified components were validated based on their expert judgement, and a number of new subcomponents were also identified, bringing the total number of subcomponents for the proposed implementation guideline up to 21. In practical terms, programming teachers can utilise this new guideline to evaluate their students' learning performance in programming subject based on their video creations in programming classes
Keywords: assessment; guideline; video based assessment; programming subject
In today's academic environment, it is required of every student to gain the necessary skills and knowledge to enable a smooth transition into the working
* Corresponding author: JamilahHamid;hjamilah@fskik.upsi.edu.my
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
world. This calls for comprehensive academic curricula in which assessments are a crucial part of curriculum design that have a big impact on the teaching and learning process. This is consistent with the Malaysian Ministry of Education's 2016 plans, which introduced the New Classroom Assessment (Pentaksiran Bilik Darjah PBD) to replace the old School Assessment (Pentaksiran Sekolah PS), with the former placing a greater emphasis on the growth of students' learning progress while also assisting teachers in improving their teaching methods (Pentaksiran Bilik Darjah, PBD, 2022) In essence, the major goal of such assessments is to gauge how well pupils comprehend the material they have learned (Abujaja & Abukari, 2019). In this regard, Rivera & Heinrich (2016) assert that an assessment that focuses on students’ learning outcomes based on their learning experiences that can help improve their skills in problem solving, interpersonal communication, and conflict management, which are a necessary part of an effective teaching and learning process.
As a result, carrying out a precise and authentic assessment is crucial to the teaching and learning process. Additionally, using competency based assessments has grown more important in today's educational environment since it requires students to show they have achieved the required learning outcomes. In this respect, the European Commission emphasises the need to create new evaluation techniques that can gauge students' active participation in and awareness of their learning, which encourages them to take ownership of their education (Neumann et al., 2019).
In this regard, a proper, systematic selection of assessment instruments is necessary to monitor students' progress toward meeting learning objectives. More crucially, regardless of the subject matter, such an evaluation should consider students' learning experiences that contribute to the achievement of the learning outcomes in addition to the prerequisites to accomplish those outcomes. Additionally, educators must think about how to carry out an evaluation that emphasises students' abilities to evaluate, analyse, create, and use these abilities to cope with new challenges and find and evaluate new solutions.
To date, there are no systematic guidelines for the assessment of student learning based on video, especially in the programming subject or course. Given this scarcity, this study, which was based on a qualitative approach, was carried out to address the following research objectives:
(a) To identify the components of a proposed guideline for assessing student learning in the programming subject based on video.
(b) To validate the appropriateness of components of the proposed assessment guideline.
Correspondingly, two research questions were formulated to help answer the above research objectives as follows:
(a) What are the main components and subcomponents of the proposed guideline for the video-based assessment of student learning in the programming subject?
(b) Are the identified components and subcomponents of the proposed guideline deemed appropriate?
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For the purpose of evaluating student learning, a number of technology based assessments have been developed and deployed (Bārdule, 2021; Kapsalis et al., 2019; Kiersey et al., 2018; Neumann et al., 2019) Their use has recently increased as a result of the Covid 19 outbreak, which affected nearly all countries worldwide and forced them to turn to online teaching and learning activities. Malaysia is no different, as the country's Ministry of Higher Education has made it mandatory for all learning courses to be fully implemented online by the end of 2020 (Hafidzul Hilmi, 2020). Teaching and learning are gradually returning to the pre pandemic levels as the pandemic has turned into endemic and regular physical classrooms are making a comeback. The epidemic has taught teachers, among other things, that they must be psychologically and physically fit in order to perform their tasks under any circumstances. In today’s educational realm, virtually all students are particularly fond of and accustomed to the use of technology, so teachers must be digitally knowledgeable to help improve their teaching techniques. According to Baleni (2015) and Febriani & Abdullah (2018)such a use can encourage student centered learning by getting students involved in meaningful learning activities.
In terms of assessment, Timmis et al. (2016)highlight eight distinct areas of opportunity that current digital technologies can innovate student learning assessment as follows: (i) New forms of representing knowledge and skills, (ii) Crowd sourcing and decision making opportunities in assessment, (iii) Increasing flexibility, (iv) Supporting and enhancing digital collaboration, (v) Assessing complex problem solving skills, (vi) Enhancing feedback to students, (vii) Innovation in recording achievements, and (viii) Exploiting digital learning analytics locally and nationally. Also, based on a systematic review carried out by Kiersey et al. (2018), technology enhanced assessments in higher education can help bring in the following benefits: (i) Fostering collaborative learning, (ii) Stimulating reflective learning, and (iii) Scaffolding student learning through structured tasks. Although Keirsey’s research was focused on tertiary education, the same benefits can be gained by secondary school students.
Different technologies have been employed in student learning evaluation over the past few years, and right now video based assessments are becoming more and more common (Amin et al., 2021; Lewis et al., 2020; Malisius, 2018; Mat Tahir et al., 2019; Rivera & Heinrich, 2016) This is not surprising given that numerous studies have demonstrated how using video based assessment tools can help students better understand the ideas they are learning by allowing them to analyse real world issues and develop and assess novel solutions (Gama & Barroso, 2013; Morgan, 2013). Video-based assessments are strong, high-impact educational approaches that can help increase student learning assessment, as stressed by Rivera & Heinrich (2016). While Mat Tahir et al. (2019) claimed that evaluation through student created videos is receiving more attention and that his research suggests students have a favourable opinion of this assessment, However, up to this point, the majority of video based assessments have been used primarily for practical training courses or subjects, such as medical training (Codreanu et al., 2020; Lewis et al., 2020; Súilleabháin & Cronin, 2017; Wiens et al., 2020), to record
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students' practical performances or simulations that teachers can access. Students' creation of videos is another way that such assessments can be used (Malisius, 2018; Mat Tahir et al., 2019; Rivera & Heinrich, 2016). It is true that this type of innovative assessment has not been used much in STEM classes or subjects like programming. Because it may be used to assess complicated problem solving abilities, it is crucial that the usage of student created video based assessments be extended to programming courses.
According to the literature, most students find programming to be a challenging subject to understand, which has prompted numerous studies to concentrate on teaching strategies to improve students' comprehension and motivation to learn this subject (Chakraverty & Chakraborty, 2020; Efecan et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2021; Jamilah et al., 2022; Malik & Coldwell neilson, 2017). Thus far, there have been not many studies that concentrate on programming student learning assessments. In this regard, a review by Chakraverty and Chakraborty (2020) revealed that most programming assessment techniques are based primarily on automated systems that can track and evaluate students' learning performances, such as Drop Project automated assessment tools or systems (Cipriano et al., 2022). Students are typically required to either submit their work assignments to the evaluation systems for review or engage with those systems directly to receive pertinent feedback on whether their works have met the requirements of the assignment. It is obvious that both methods, which let students assess their work based on comments, are essentially the same. A survey of the available literature revealed that there are currently no studies that focus on video based assessments of student learning in the programming subject
In the Malaysia’s lower secondary school curriculum, a classroom based assessment has been implemented for all school subjects, including Fundamental Computer Science (Asas Sains Komputer ASK). Such an assessment has been described as an authentic assessment involving several methods, such as observations, quizzes, tests, and portfolios, which teachers can use as deemed appropriate in their classroom teaching(Kurikulum, 2016). Based on a preliminary study conducted by the current authors involving 27 ASK teachers, who were randomly selected from several schools in several states in Malaysia, only 22 percent indicated that they hadused video based assessments for the ASK subject. Surprisingly, the same respondents indicated that there were no relevant guidelines provided by the relevant ministry and other resources that they could refer to when conducting such an assessment. Apparently, their feedback highlights the lack of guidelines for video based assessments provided by relevant agencies. It is, therefore, vital for various stakeholders to develop such guidelines to help teachers to implement such a novel assessment in their teaching practices. The same study also revealed that a small minority (14%) of the respondents were not aware that such an assessment could be conducted in their classrooms.
According to the literature, developing a framework for creating videos will generally entail four steps: planning, recording, editing, and publishing (Bārdule,
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2021). In theory, a guideline such as this is designed to assist teachers or educators in creating videos for educational purposes only not for assessment.
In the past, Bergmann & Sams (2012) suggested 11 guidelines for producing educational videos. The guidelines and principles are specifically intended for creating films as instructional materials rather than for use in video based assessments. Furthermore, neither this principle nor guideline includes the crucial elements that are thought to be pertinent to assessment, such as aligning assessment with learning objectives, technique of problem solving, and type of evaluation. Against such a backdrop, this research was carried out with the main aim of developing a guideline for assessing student learning in the programming subject based on video.
This study employed the qualitative methodology to gather information regarding the experiences, opinions, and viewpoints of the respondents in a more detailed fashion (Gläser Zikuda et al., 2020) Such an approach can offer greater insights into teachers’ teaching and students’ learning experiences that are difficult to be described quantitatively. According to Golafshani (2003), researchers can use the triangulation technique in a study that involves several investigators or researchers to help validate the research data. As such, this study was carried out in two phases to gather all the relevant information. The first phase involved a series of structured interviews and a literature review, while the second phase involved a focus group discussion involving several relevant subject matter experts to help develop the guideline. The following sub sections provide the detailed discussions of the participants, research instruments, data collection methods, and procedures involved in this study. Figure 1 shows the research framework to address the research objectives.
The purposive sampling method was used in this study to choose the experts and participants. This method, according to Cresswell & Plano (2017), is appropriate for a study involving a population made up of people or groups of people who have particular expertise in or experience with a topic of interest. Interviews were conducted with 10 ASK teachers in the first phase who had used video based assessment and had more than five years of experience teaching the ASK subject. Due to data saturation at this point, only ten subjects were interviewed during this phase.
A panel of seven experts, made up of lecturers in computer science (programming), multimedia, educational technology and assessment, and information technology education and assessment, was chosen for the second phase. The number of experts in the focus group was deemed adequate because it was between the recommended range of six and eight people for such a study (Mishra, 2016). The experts’ demographic profiles are given in Table 1. Except for expert ‘E5’, who had only six years of working experience as a lecturer, practically all experts had more than ten years of teaching experience.
Table 1: Experts’ demographic profiles
Respondent Designation Field Working experience
E1 Associate Professor Computer Science (Programming) 18
E2 Senior Lecturer Computer Science (Programming) 15
E3 Senior Lecturer Educational Technology & Assessment 25
E4 Senior Lecturer/Ex teacher
Educational Technology & Assessment 20
E5 Senior Lecturer Multimedia (Video Technology) 6
E6 Lecturer Multimedia (Video Technology) 15
E7 Expert Teacher Information Technology Education & Assessment 20
Reviewing the literature on the components and subcomponents of assessment guidelines from various sources, including journal articles, technical reports, and organisational websites, was the first step in the process of generating the implementation guideline. For example, relevant keywords such as "assessment," "formative assessment," "digital assessment," "alternative assessment," "video based assessment," "video in education," "teaching and learning programming," and "assessment for programming" were used to search the Internet for information on such components Through this search process, 5 main components and 17 subcomponents were identified for further analysis.
In order to help validate the assessment components of the research instrument for the development of the proposed assessment guideline, a pilot study was conducted with the participation of three experts with extensive experience in computer programming, multimedia, and assessment. The experts offered various recommendations during this pilot study to further enhance the instrument by rearranging the presentation of the assessment subcomponents and their justifications. Likewise, by taking their recommendations into consideration, their professional judgement also assisted in raising the reliability of the research instrument.
To guarantee that the data acquired would be reliable and pertinent, it was critical that the focus group discussions and interviews be conducted in a systematic manner. As a result, the focus group discussions and interview sessions (which were conducted in the first and second phase of the study, respectively) were carried out based on the recommendations made by Johnson & Christense (2014) and Mishra (2016). The chosen teachers were requested to freely express their professional opinions regarding the relevant elements of the video based assessment during the structured interviews, which lasted about an hour each. Their spoken responses to the interview questions were recorded and later accurately transcribed.
The focus group discussion, which lasted around five hours, was facilitated by the researcher in a meeting room. The components and subcomponents of the video based assessment guideline, which were identified based on the teachers’ feedback, were provided to each expert. The moderator opened up the discussion by describing the goal of the study as well as the main and supporting elements of the proposed guideline. The experts responded by giving ideas and recommendations, such as recommending new components or subcomponents that they believed were significant after each component and subcomponent of the guideline had been elaborated in full. As a result of the discussion that took place within the focus group, the explanations or descriptions of all the proposed guideline's subcomponents were revised for clarity.
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The proposed guideline has 5 main components and 17 subcomponents that were determined using the interviews with the chosen teachers. Table 2 summarizes the main components and their respective subcomponents of the proposed guideline identified through the interviews.
Table 2: Components and subcomponents of the proposed video based assessment guideline
No. Main Component
construction
Sub-component
As was mentioned in the preceding section, the focus group discussion was held with a panel of experts made up of academicians and instructors to examine in depth the main components and subcomponents of the proposed guideline.
The goal of a focus group discussion was to extend and clarify the results of data obtained through other approaches, as stressed by Mishra (2016), as well as to produce fresh ideas. The focus group discussions that were held in this study were essential in confirming the appropriateness of the main components and subcomponents of the proposed guideline. The experts deliberated each major component and its subcomponents during the discussion to make sure the proposed guideline would have all the necessary requirements to guide teachers on how to implement the proposed video based assessment. As shown in Table 2, there are five main components of the proposed guideline, namely Question Construction, Video Content, Video Content Presentation, Technology Requirement, and Assessment Rubric, which were identified through the interviews. Table 3 shows the finalized main components and subcomponents of the proposed guideline and their explanations
• The questions should be able to assess the student's learning outcome.
Topical learning outcomes
Question Construction
Instructions
• Learning domains can be cognitive, psychomotor, affective, or a combination of the three.
• Bloom's taxonomy or any other learning taxonomy should be used to determine learning achievement levels.
• The approach or method used to solve a problem.
• Instructions must be clear and precise, including the steps students must take to create video content that includes the following components: (a) Video Components, (b) Video Content Presentation, (c) Technology Requirements
• To ensure that students understand the elements that will be assessed, an assessment rubric should be created and distributed to them.
• Students must provide a brief explanation of how they would respond to the questions and propose solutions.
• Students must describe each step of a specific problem solving method used to solve a problem, such as writing pseudo codes, drawing flowcharts, programming, and debugging.
• As proof of their problem solving activities, students should provide relevant photographs of systematic problem solving activities.
Credit
• The knowledge that students have learned through the process of problem solving must be briefly described.
• At the conclusion of the video presentation, students must include some sort of acknowledgement that accords credit to relevant parties.
Content and flow of presentation
• A video should be between five and seven minutes in length.
• The contents of the video must be presented in a logical, clear sequence.
• The video contents must be relevant to a given problem.
Presentation Creativity
Communication Element (Verbal and Non verbal)
Overall presentation quality
• To create engaging and entertaining video presentations, students must exercise imagination.
• The language used must be suitable and unambiguous.
• Live video presentations from the students are required.
• Presentations as a whole must be delivered with professionalism and clarity.
Video development guidelines for students
• Give students a manual outlining the procedures for making videos, either in print or on video.
Video development tools
• Students can download videos using their own devices, such as smart phones, digital cameras, or tablets, and use presentation software, such as Microsoft PowerPoint, iMovie, or KineMaster.
Video uploading platform
• Students should be provided instructions on how to submit videos to various platforms, including Wiki, YouTube, Google Drive, and other social
media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter.
Teacher based Assessment
A mixture of two or more assessment methods.
• The teacher can use a specific rubric to assess the students
• Students may be assessed by their peers using the rubrics provided by their teacher
• Students can grade themselves using a rubric provided by their teacher
• Two or more assessment methods can be combined to complete an evaluation.
The first main component, Question Construction, and its subcomponents were all deemed relevant by the experts. Expert ‘E1’ argued that in order to make sure that students are aware of the components that will be examined, an evaluation rubric should be presented to them. The other experts agreed with the expert's suggestion to include this as a second subcomponent to the first component. Such a claim is consistent with those made by Amin et al. (2021) and Chowdhury (2019), who caution that inadequate explanations for learning assessments will result in lacklustre performance from students. Students would readily understand the evaluation requirements if they were given a pertinent assessment rubric, which would help them produce high quality assignments. However, the moderator suggested that the rubric should be included in the last component of the guideline, namely the Assessment Rubric Meanwhile, expert ‘E3’ asserted that the questions should be in line with both the taxonomic level of the cognitive domain and the learning outcomes as well. The other experts completely agreed with him, so both criteria were added to the subcomponent of the topical learning outcome as new components. Finally, the experts highlighted the significance of clearly communicating instructions to students so that they would understand how their work would be assessed, as had also been advised by some researchers. (Al Mahrooqi & Denman, 2018; Amin et al., 2021; Súilleabháin & Cronin, 2017).
When the second component, Video Content, was being discussed, expert ‘E4’ suggested that one of its subcomponents should be video format. The focus group was nevertheless told by the moderator that this component was already a part of the fourth component, which was the Technological Requirement. In the same discussion, expert ‘E5’ pushed for the need that students introduce themselves at the start of the video presentation. Given the brief time frame of a video, some of the content experts politely rejected the proposal. After extensive deliberation, it was decided to substitute the student introduction with some form of acknowledgement at the end of the video to provide credit for their contribution. Experts ‘E1’ and ‘E6’ made another suggestion for the Video Content component,
pointing out the requirement for supporting materials, like pictures of pupils completing a task, as proof for the subcomponent of problem solving. Such a suggestion is in line with the claims made in a number of research on video based teaching and learning (Caratozzolo et al., 2022; Malisius, 2018; Morgan, 2013; Namin et al., 2021)
Expert ‘E5’ suggested that one of the subcomponents should be video quality, but the other experts disagreed, arguing that the assessment does not specifically focus on video quality. They also asserted that using expensive technology to produce a high quality video would be out of reach for most students. Similar worries were previously voiced by Al Mahrooqi & Denman (2018), who stated that it is important to consider students' access to and comfort with technology, especially those who live in developing nations and rural areas, and those who come from lower socio economic backgrounds.
The other members also determined that self reflection should be made a subcomponent of conclusion or explanation, notwithstanding expert ‘E3’ recommendation that it be a subcomponent of video content. There was some dispute among the panellists as to whether the video should be five or seven minutes in length. In this regard, the moderator drew attention to a number of studies that mention video lengths of 6.5 7 minutes (Namin et al., 2021), less than 6 minutes (Brame, 2016), 4 minutes (Malisius, 2018), and 3 5 minutes (Mat Tahir et al., 2019) After careful consideration based on the prior research, all the experts came to the conclusion that the video should be between five and seven minutes in length, arguing that anything less would not be enough for students to produce high quality videos.
All of the experts concurred that the components listed earlier should be included in the third main component of the guideline, which is the presentation of video content. Furthermore, experts ‘E5’ and ‘E6’ argued that in addition to sound and activity photos, students' faces should be included during a video presentation to help improve their confidence and communication skills. Expert ‘E3’ agreed with them and made a strong case for the need for the video to highlight both students’ verbal and non verbal communication. Apparently, they seemed to agree that the quality of video presentation also relies on students’ physical appearance and oral skills, a contention that concurs with that of (Malisius, 2018; Namin et al., 2021)
Given that the content of presentation should be stated clearly in the guidelines and rubric, the name of the subcomponent ‘flow’ was changed to ‘flow and content presentation’. Expert ‘E2’ also suggested the following description: "The content of problem-solving steps of the problem-solving method that has been learned should be presented orderly" This viewpoint is crucial given that learning programming requires the proper use of appropriate problem solving techniques (Adila et al., 2020; Jamilah et al., 2022). For the subcomponent "creativity”, all the experts eventually came to the conclusion that it would be better for the students to create their presentations based on their creativity, as the assessment would be focused more on the content of the students' answers than on creativity per se. Additionally, they agreed with the subcomponent of this main component, which
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is the quality of the video presentation. Finally, they came to the conclusion that the guideline for creativity should be made general.
Technology Requirements, the fourth main component, are broken down into platforms and development tools as its subcomponents. The proposed guideline, according to experts 'E4' and 'E5', should specify the precise kind of hardware and software needs. The remaining experts, however, opposed it, claiming that it would restrict students' freedom to use any software or hardware they have access to. Furthermore, they claimed that it would be impractical to set such requirements because technologies are always evolving. This claim is consistent with de Lange et al. (2020) assertion that when giving students video based tasks, the technical constraints must be carefully considered. If the hardware and software requirements are not limited, students would have more freedom to use the available technologies. As a compromise, all the experts agreed that general technology requirements would be deemed more practical.
Given that not all students have the essential knowledge or abilities, expert 'E1' recommended in the same discussion that students be given access to a video instruction that demonstrates how to create a video. This recommendation is similar to one of the steps that was taken in the study by Amin et al. (2021)when developing students' video presentation. As a result, the experts suggested adding a new sub component that would offer instructions in either written or video form for producing videos. The same expert also advised, in addition to such a rule, that students' outstanding videos be displayed; however, the other experts did not agree with this idea, stating that it would be counter productive.
The Assessment Rubric (Marking System), which is the final main component of the proposed guideline, is composed of four subcomponents: self assessment, peer assessment, teacher based assessment, and mixed assessment. Two experts opposed the inclusion of self assessment during the discussion of this component, arguing that students would tend to overrate themselves. They were challenged by the other members, claiming that such an assessment would be advantageous because students could objectively evaluate their work based on the assessment criteria listed in the assessment rubrics.
To harmonize the discussion, the moderator pointed out the systematic literature review conducted by (Tumpa et al., 2022a) who found that peer assessments have been widely investigated, but not self assessments. Thus, she contended that self assessments should, therefore, be explored further to understand the dynamics of student learning. As a caution, Tumpa et al., (2022b) assert that peer assessment should be incorporated in the group assessment process to deter freeloading and bias among students. Finally, after balancing the advantages and disadvantages, all the experts came to the conclusion that self assessment would be included in the guideline, highlighting the importance of giving teachers the freedom to select the kind of assessment they believe is suitable In this respect, Amin et al. (2021) underscores the significance of such a rubric and the need for every student to be aware of it while addressing the development of rubrics. Therefore, it was seen reasonable to include this component in the proposed guideline.
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In the same discussion, experts 'E5' and 'E6' proposed that students post their videos on social media, with the views and "likes" they accrued being factored into the assessment. These experts reasoned that this would encourage students to produce high quality videos. However, the other members politely rejected their suggestion, particularly expert 'E7', who stressed that such indications are a gauge of popularity rather than quality. After lengthy deliberation, all the experts agreed that such a suggestion has no strong basis to be included in the guideline.
As previously discussed, the explanations or descriptions of all of the proposed guideline's subcomponents were revised for clarity as a result of the focus group discussion. The various activities carried out helped identify the five main components of the proposed guideline, namely question construction, video content, presentation of video content, technology requirements, and assessment (marking scheme), as well as 21 subcomponents. The detailed descriptions of the subcomponents are shown in Table 3. Teachers can use this novel guideline as an effective tool to assess students' learning performance in the programming subject based on videos that have created.
Interestingly, two of the teachers emphasised some technical aspects of internet accessibility and video quality that students should consider. The researchers agreed that the first component is critical because good internet access is required during the uploading and downloading of documents and videos. As such, teachers must keep this factor in mind when implementing video based assessments. Because of the students' financial constraints, the experts agreed that video quality would not be considered as a sub component for the second component.
However, if the students can afford it, the teacher can encourage them to use add on hardware such as a tripod, drawing tablet, and ring light during the video recording process. Furthermore, one of the teachers fervently advocated for the use of video based assessments, citing the pervasiveness of novel technologies dominating the current socio cultural landscape, which has influenced virtually all segments of today's societies, particularly the younger generations.
To establish the effectiveness of the proposed assessment guideline, more research is required. A follow up study, for example, could be carried out to investigate the extent to which the use of such an assessment guideline can assist programming teachers in accurately assessing their students' level of understanding of the topics covered in programming classes. A similar study can be conducted to assess the levels of acceptance and utilisation of the proposed guideline among teaching practitioners. Clearly, the findings of additional research can provide a better understanding of its effectiveness in guiding programming teachers to assess their students' learning performances.
Children of Generation Z and Alpha have grown up with early access to the internet and digital technology. Accordingly, the current assessment methods
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used in the education system must be enhanced or supplemented with new, novel assessment methods that are also technologically compatible. This paper provides an insight into a new guideline to assist teachers in effectively assessing student learning of the programming subject or course at the secondary level through video based creations, which is made up of five main components and twenty one subcomponents. Particularly interesting, such an assessment method can be extremely useful in emergency situations, such as the outbreaks of dangerous diseases, where conventional assessment methods are ineffective. Arguably, the proposed video based assessment guideline can be used to assess student learning under any scenarios. To investigate the full impact of this guideline on student learning assessment, more research is therefore required.
This paper is based on the research project entitled Pembangunan Garis Panduan Alat Pentaksiran Berasaskan Video Untuk Kursus Pengaturcaraan The authors would like to thank Sultan Idris Education University for funding this research through the University Educational Based Research Grant (code:2020 0073 107 01).
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 291 308, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.17
Received Jun 10, 2022; Revised Sep 16, 2022; Accepted Sep 24, 2022
Abstract. The study investigated teachers’ perceptions of school readiness among children who start Grade 1 in government primary schools in the Roma Valley in Lesotho. Compared to the privately owned schools, the three government schools from which teachers were recruited for this investigation had limited infrastructure, facilities, and resources In addition, these schools practised static teaching and each had only one teacher who had experience of working with children who start formal schooling for the first time. In a way, the teachers who participated in this study were self selective. A qualitative approach that used semi structured interviews was used to explore the perceptions of these teachers Data collected were analysed using a thematic approach. According to the teachers participating in this study, most children in Lesothostart formalschooling unprepared and without any foundational education background. They associated children’s lack of readiness among these children with a lack of foundational education. As a result, thesechildrenstruggletoadapttotheschoolenvironment.Theseteachers further pointed out that factors such as age, disability, gender, and socio economic background can influence the speed at which the children adapt to school life and culture This study recommends that the government should find strategies that support the implementation and monitoring of a policy on children and foundational education. Further, there should be programmes that educate parents about foundation education and that support teachers to work with children who do not have a background of foundational education when they begin formal schooling.
Keywords: school readiness, foundational skills, learner preparedness, teachers’ perceptions, formal schooling
The global view is that education is a universal human right and a powerful weapon for eradicating poverty and improving the health, status and socio economic conditions of individuals, families, communities, and societies. As such, there has been a lot of emphasis on improving the young generation’s access to
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free quality education that is not disadvantaged by gender, race, or socio economic status (Sachs, 2012). Some of this emphasis focuses on the preparation of children for formal schooling in order to increase their chances of academic success. The general argument is that school readiness bridges a gap between the home and school environment and enables children’s smooth transition from home to school. For example, Heerden et al. (2017) has observed that on the very first day of formal schooling, children who have been prepared and are ready for schooling integrate and work well with school authorities, teachers, and other learners. School readiness has also been associated with learners’ academic success in the advanced levels of education and post school career life. Because of these observations, there has been a push to prepare children for formal schooling through foundational education. Foundational education has been viewed as a strategy that successfully equips children with the necessary skills to start formal schooling. Janse van Rensburg (2015) attests that foundational education develops a child holistically (cognitively, socially, emotionally, physically, and morally) and has far reaching positive effects on a child’s future academic and adult life and living conditions. Foundational skills enable children who start formal schooling to cope with the school culture and demands that are new to them (Heerden et al., 2017).
2. Efforts to make foundational education accessible to all children
Ensuring that “no child is left behind” relates to access to quality foundational education, and governments have been investing in foundational education programmes in many ways. Some focus on adult and professional programmes that aim to develop parents’ and teachers’ knowledge and skills necessary for preparing children for formal schooling. Some of these programmes target teachers and parents who work with children from socially and economically disadvantaged backgrounds. For example, the European Getting Ready for School (GRS) is a government funded programme with the intention to develop early literacy, maths, and self regulatory skills of preschool children from socio economically disadvantaged families (Marti et al., 2018). This programme has school and home components. The school component is implemented by teachers in a school like setting and the home component is supported by parents in a home setting. As a result, the programme trains both teachers and parents to develop the knowledge and skills they need to assist children while at school and at home. The parents and teachers receive training through workshops and printed materials that have instructions on how to work with children (Marti et al., 2018). In the United States of America, governments fund programmes that enhance easy access to foundational education for vulnerable children and those coming from disadvantaged socio economic backgrounds. An example is the Head Start Program (HSP), which targets children living in America and whose families are migrants and are socio economically disadvantaged, and thus are likely to have limited opportunities to access quality foundational education for preschoolers (Gottfried & Kim, 2015). On the other hand, the Malaysian education system has taken a route that forces parents to enrol their children in foundational
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education programmes. The system subjects every child to a readiness assessment before they are admitted into basic education (Majzub & Rashid, 2012).
The Lesotho Government, which is also committed to ensuring that by 2030, all children living in Lesotho have access to quality foundational education, integrated foundational education into the formal education system structure in 2009. The government also introduced a policy that directs the integration of foundational education programmes into mainstream education (Morojele, 2017). This policy, similar to the South African, directs primary schools to attach a one year reception programme for children who are about to start formal schooling. The intention of this policy is to create a facility that prepares and provides 5 year olds with a one year pre school experience before they join Grade 1.
Before these reforms were introduced, there was very little emphasis on children’s readiness for formal schooling in Lesotho. Many children started formal schooling without any foundational education or preparation. A child’s school readiness was measured only in terms of age, and parents were discouraged from sending their children to school before they were six years old. The main argument for this practice was that children below the age of six years were too immature to start school. Age was the only scale that was used by schools, parents, and governments to measure school readiness among children. This means that, before foundation education reforms were introduced in the Lesotho education system, many children began formal schooling without any preparation. Therefore, introducing reception classes in the education system was a way of remedying this situation and ensuring that every child had basic exposure to foundational education before starting with formal schooling However, and despite these efforts, the government reports indicate that very few primary schools in Lesotho have established reception classes. For example, according to 2004 and 2015 reports (these were the latest reports available when this study was carried out), out of a total of 1 478, only 243 primary schools have reception classes attached to them The reports further show that many parents continue to keep their children at home until they are six years old and that children’s enrolment in the foundational education programmes in Lesotho declines every year. As such, many children still start formal schooling without any foundational education (Ministry of Education and Training [MOET], 2004 & 2015).
School readiness could be viewed as a multi dimensional construct that incorporates the readiness of a child, a community, and the a school that a child is about to join. Because of its multidimensional nature, this concept is often defined differently by different scholars. Concerning a family, a community, and a school, readiness is about the preparedness of these institutions to support a school beginner (McGettigan & Gray, 2012). With a family or a community dimension, the focus is on a child’s family and/or community readiness to support a child who is about to start formal schooling. Regarding a school dimension, the focus is on the school’s preparedness in terms of the facilities and resources that support a child who is about to begin formal schooling (Lynch & Smith, 2016). Concerning a child, school readiness refers to a child’s possession of
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the skills necessary for school life (Marti et al., 2018; McGettigan & Gray, 2012; UNICEF, 2012). This paper focuses on the dimension of a child
A child’s readiness for formal schooling refers to how well a child is or has been prepared to transition into formal schooling. This kind of readiness is about the skills a child has who starts schooling. These skills enable a child to participate and integrate easily into school activities (UNICEF, 2012). According to UNICEF (2012), child who is ready for schooling is able to participate in school activities that are cognitive, affective, linguistic, social, or physical (psychomotor) with limited difficulty The UNICEF observation is supported by Hasan, Hyson and Chang (2013), who contend that children who are ready to begin formal schooling should be able to carry out school tasks that require them to get along and cooperate with others; demonstrate self confidence; express themselves using language (the ability to use words or say names and things); respond to the messages that are communicated through language (ability to understand what is said by others), and follow the rules. As explained by Janus and Gaskin (2013), a child who has been prepared for formal schooling should possess the capabilities needed to meet the cognitive, physical, and social demands imposed by school life
From Janus and Gaskin’s (2013) viewpoint, child readiness could be viewed from the aspects of physical readiness, cognitive readiness, and socio emotional readiness. Physical readiness is a child’s ability to hold or handle tools and equipment used in a school such as pens, pencils, and crayons. Physical readiness means a child has developed fine motor skills, physical maturity, and gross motor skills (Janus & Gaskin, 2013). On the other hand, socio emotional readiness is about a child’s developed soft skills. It refers to a child’s ability to form close relationships with others, and to be able to regulate self and express his or her emotions in accepted social and cultural ways Cognitive readiness refers to a child’s literacy, numeracy, and conceptual skills that are needed to carry out school cognitive tasks. These skills require of children to use their working memory and attention span to participate effectively in school life (Hsin & Xie, 2017). These skills, also known as hard skills, are essential for a child’s school readiness and are often measured by test scores.
Many scholars have been interested in children’s school readiness and have investigated children’s school readiness from various angles. Some focused on the relationship between school readiness and a child’s academic performance; others on child readiness and adaptation to the school environment factors, and a few on teachers’ interpretation of school readiness. Pan et al. (2019) investigated the relationship between child readiness and a child’s academic performance. They established that there is a strong relationship between school readiness and learner academic performance. Their study suggests that children who start formal schooling prepared are likely to perform academically better than those who have not been prepared The studies that have investigated child readiness and adaptation to the school environment focus on the factors influencing factors. They discovered that factors that influence a child’s readiness and adaptation to
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the school environment could be related to a learner, a community, a family, and a school.
Learner related factors: Aslan and Cikar (2019) found that age and gender influence how a child copes with the demands of formal schooling. Their study established that under aged children are usually not able to cope with these demands On the other hand, Brock and Curby (2016), Ensar and Keskin (2014), McCartin (2016), and Son, Lee, and Sung (2013) discovered that gender also influences how children adapt to the school culture. For example, Son et al. (2013) observed that, compared to girls, boys delay to develop cognitive skills and socio emotional skills, and display lower academic achievement at school. On the other hand, girls significantly outperform boys in early reading, social and academic skills Hatcher, Nuner, and Paulsel (2012) found that learners’ health, attention, confidence, and learning interest could also influence learner readiness and adaptation to the school culture and environment
Community/Family related factors: Bailey (2014) and Majzub and Rashid (2012) established that the community andfamily socio economic statuses influence how children participate in the foundational programmes and ultimately their readiness. They observed that children coming from disadvantaged families and communities such as rural and low socio economic backgrounds, often do not participate in foundational education programmes. As thus, compared to those who participated in these programmes, these children do not adapt easily to the culture and demands of a school.
School related factors: these factors are related to a school as an institution and its community. Janse van Rensburg (2015), Pan et al. (2019) investigated how the preparedness of a school influences a child’s adaptability to its environment. They discovered a relationship between school preparedness to accommodate a child and a child’s adaptability. They observed that a child easily adapts to a school environment that has facilities and resources that support a child to acclimatise quickly to the school environment. Similarly, where the facilities and resources are limited or are not appropriate for a school beginner, a learner struggles to adapt.
Teachers’ perceptions: Literature consistently indicates that teachers’ professional behaviour, commitment to work, selection of teaching strategies and materials, and the efforts they put into making learning successful are mostly influenced by their perceptions Teachers’ perceptions are the beliefs and views teachers have about their world of work; what they are confronted with, whether it is about curriculum reform or a classroom situation. Teachers’ aspects such as knowledge and skills, and experiences, which often contribute to their attitudes, shape teachers’ perceptions. For example, where teachers believe that their efforts are likely to benefit their learners, teachers are likely to put an extra effort into what they do. On the one hand, they are likely to put very little effort into what they do not believe in. Thus, teachers’ perceptions of child’s readiness have an influence on how they work with children who begin formal schooling for the first time (Kartal & Guner, 2018; Kakia, Popov & Arani 2015; Ohle & Harvey, 2017; Serry et al., 2014). For example, Kartal and Guner (2018,) Serry et al. (2014), Kakia et al.
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(2015), and Ohle and Harvey (2017) investigated how teachers’ perceptions of child school readiness influence their professional approach to children whom they do not consider ready for schooling. Firstly, Serry et al. (2014) and Kakia et al. (2015) observe that in their interpretations, teachers often consider a wide range of aspects of readiness of a child. These include the child’s cognitive, social, self care, emotional and language maturity, health, attention span, confidence, and learning interest. These studies further discovered that how teachers perceive child readiness influences the extent to which they are prepared to support a learner.
In Lesotho, the importance of learner readiness to start formal schooling is beginning to be considered. The government policies encourage schools to include programmes that provide access to foundational education for children who are to start formal schooling. However, and as indicated earlier in this paper, many schools have not responded well to this government effort The records further show that even at the schools that have responded to the government’s efforts and are providing these programmes, the children’s enrolment declines every year. The assumption in this study was that the situation might even be worse in rural areas where many parents themselves are not educated wellenoughto appreciate learner preparedness, and schools are not porperly resourced with qualified teachers and learning materials. The main quest of this study was to establish how teachers at these schools deal with children who have not been prepared for formal schooling.
The main purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of Grade 1 teachers in the Roma Valley about working with children who are not prepared for formal schooling. During data collection, the following questions were asked: (1) How do Grade 1 teachers in Lesotho schools interpret school readiness?; (2) What are teachers’ experiences of working with children who have not been prepared for schooling?; and (3) What are teachers’ views on the factors that influence children in Lesotho to start formal schooling unprepared?
This is a qualitative study that used a case study design. The case in this study was three government schools in situated in Roma Valley. Roma Valley is a small, rural community that has three government schools and a few privately owned primary schools. The choice of government schools was based on their shared characteristics in terms of infrastructure, facilities, resources, and curriculum practices. For example, most government primary schools practise grade static teaching, where a teacher is positioned to teach a specific grade only. This type of teaching gives teachers ample experience of many years of teaching at this level.
Because this was a case study, the teachers who participated in this study were self-selective. For example, there were only three government primary schools in the Roma Valley, with one Grade 1 teacher at each school This means that only three teachers in the Roma Valley were suited to participate in this study. All three these teachers had more than 20 years’ teaching experience.
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Data were collected using semi structured interviews. Each participant was subjected to an hour’s interview where they were guided with questions to talk about their perceptions about working with children who start formal schooling unprepared
Data collected were analysed using a thematic approach that was based on a six phase model or a six step by step framework of Braun and Clarke (2013). In the process of this analysis, the information was coded, cleaned, analysed, and interpreted. The coding system included naming the participants as Participant 1, Participant 2, and Participant 3. The naming of these participants was based on the order in which the participants were interviewed. The information collected from these participants was coded, analysed, classified and interpreted into three major themes: teachers’ interpretation of school readiness, teachers’ experiences of working with children who have not been prepared for schooling, and teachers’ views on the factors that influence children in Lesotho to start formal schooling in Lesotho. The results from this process are presented hereafter.
The results of this study are presented as teachers’ interpretation of school readiness, teachers’ experiences of working with learners who have not been prepared for schooling, and teachers’ views of the factors that influence children in Lesotho to start formal schooling unprepared
In this study, teachers interpreted school readiness in terms of a child’s possession of foundation skills that include the ability to communicate, developed psychomotor abilities, cognitive maturity, and ability to socialise.
Ability to communicate: The teachers considered the developed communication skills of a child as one of the indicators that a child is ready for schooling. According to these teachers, the child’s communication skills should enable him to listen effectively to understand and follow the teachers’ instructions, to communicate his or her needs and concerns, and to answer simple questions with complete sentences. One participant mentioned a child being able to listen attentively and able to follow the teachers’ instructions, while all three of them believed that a child who starts schooling should be able to express his/her needs and concerns, and answer simple questions about themselves and their parents. Participant 2 explained this by saying, I understand learner readiness as a child’s ability to communicate effectively, especially at the beginning of the year. The children should be able to respond in complete sentences to the questions that inquire about them and their family members. For example, when asked about their names with a question, ‘what is your name?’ A child should be able to say, ‘My name is Peter’ (where the name of a child is Peter). They should not just say, ‘Peter’. I regard such learners as ready for Grade 1
In support of this, Participant 1 pointed out the importance of assessing a child’s ability to communicate in the language a child knows and is comfortable using. This is how she put it,
Where there is more than one language used, a child’s ability to communicate should be assessed in a language used at home. Their communication skill should be assessed on how they identify and greet different categories of people in their environment and address them accordingly as fathers, mothers, sisters, and brothers in their language.
On the other hand, Participant 2 and Participant 3 emphasised the importance of the child’s ability to follow instructions at the start of Grade 1 They pointed out that following instructions is part of the everyday life of a child. For example, Participant 2 said, “learners are required to follow instructions in a home or a school setting, they are often given some duties to perform and these duties are communicated through instructions” . Participant 3 also made the same observation in her explanation, Examples of the instructions that a child may be given by a schoolteacher or at home could be, ‘Peter, bring me a pencil’ , ‘bring me stone’ , or ‘give me ten buttons’ . If a child is able to listen effectively, follow these instructions and respond appropriately; and it is not his or her first time seeing a teacher in a school setting, she or he is ready.
Other communication skills that were mentioned to be important for a child who starts schooling included being able to seek permission, not speaking out of turn, and being able to interact with other children. All the participants in this study believed that the importance of developed communication skills of the children who start schooling is crucial and surpasses other foundation skills. They pointed out that these skills make a child’s transition from home to school smooth and easy. In support of this view, one participant pointed out that, contrary to other skills that they often consider in the second quarter of the year, such as reading and writing, a child’s ability to communicate is tested on the very first day of formal schooling They all pointed out that children whose communication skills (speaking and listening) are not well developed when they begin school often struggle to participate fully in the learning activities. For example, Participant 1 observed in her explanation that “children who lack communication skills are often shy to speak and not able or reluctant to seek permission. They spend their school time miserable and crying all the time” .
Developed Psychomotor abilities: Teachers in this study considered children’s development of psychomotor skills assimilarly important for a child’s readiness for formal schooling. They argue that children joining Grade 1 should be able to hold pencils, crayons, and other educational materials like a pair of scissors appropriately. The children should demonstrate the ability to turn books and hold pencils correctly. Where they are not able to do this, they should be able to follow and imitate the teacher’s demonstration.
Cognitive Maturity: Cognitive maturity was also viewed by all the participants as one crucial aspect of readiness. They argued that, regardless of foundation educational background, children should demonstrate some level of independence in whatever they do when they start schooling For example, they should be able to start and finish assigned tasks independently. According to these participants, cognitive maturity is somehow linked to developed
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communication skills. They pointed out that when children’s communication skills are well developed and have cognitive maturity, they listen attentively, and with limited guidance, they follow instructions. They again explained that attentive listening is a sign of a good attention span, which in turn is a representation of cognitive maturity. Further, they believed that a child’s cognitive maturity could be demonstrated by a child’s recognition and naming of familiar objects and people in his or her environment. Participant 3 explained this by saying, “As real objects, or images, a child should be able to identify and name familiar objects that are found in their environments such as birds, people, plants, and animals. ”
The use of language, which was also linked to developed communication, was mentioned as another aspect of cognitive maturity a child should exhibit The participants claimed that a cognitively mature child uses proper language to name objects, report incidents, and express concerns while those who use vulgar language may be demonstrating cognitive immaturity Being able to work independently and able to finish their work was also mentioned as a sign of cognitive maturity of a learner by these teachers.
The participants linked the development of literacy and numeracy skills to cognitive. Their view is that children’s literacy and numeracy skills should be developed before they start schooling. They view preschool centres and homes as the best places to assist children to develop these skills. These teachers pointed out that they expect children to have a developed understanding of the concepts of reading, counting, writing, and drawing. Their explanation was that a child should at least be able to make sense of and respond to the teacher’s instructions that require of them to draw, count, read or write. This was emphasised by Participant 2 who said, Children should be able to count up to five objects when they join the first grade. When they are asked how many birds are in the picture, a child should be able to count using fingers: ‘one, two, three, four, and five
Ability to socialise: In this study socialisation was another aspect of readiness that was viewed as important. For example, Participant 3 explained that children should be able to interact and play with their peers and teachers. While doing so, they should be able to observe a school and a home as controlled environments in which they are expected to behave according to the rules. They should not bully others or take others’ belongings. They should be able to differentiate between right and wrong and expect to be disciplined when they have misbehaved From the viewpoint of these teachers, a child who is unprepared for schooling does not follow any school rules and does not like to be disciplined.
7.2 Teachers’ experiences of working with children who have not been prepared for schooling
Teachers in this study indicated that they mostly work with children who had not been prepared and are not ready for formal schooling. For example, Participant 3 indicated that all 17 learners who were in her class joined Grade 1 unprepared. This participant explained that their foundation skills were not well developed to the level where they could be considered ready for schooling. This teacher pointed out that while 11 of them were able to catch up by the end of the first quarter of
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the school year, the other six were not able to. The skills of these six learners had not improved in the third quarter of the school year and the teachers suspected that they were likely to remain the same until the end of the school year (data collection for this study was done at the beginning of the fourth quarter)
Other participants (Participant 1 and Participant 2) supported this claim by indicating that very few children possess foundation skills when they join Grade 1 and often those would have foundation educational backgrounds. They purported that learners with foundational educational backgrounds are familiar with school culture and demands and know what is expected of them when they are at school, and behave accordingly
From the explanation of the teachers in this study, children who join Grade 1 without any foundational education are of two types The first type can regurgitate numbers, alphabets, and school language without any understanding. When this cohort is asked to count, they recite numbers up to 5, yet they are unable to demonstrate their understanding of counting either by using fingers or objects. They cannot recognise numbers and what they represent (Participant 1). As observed by Participant 1, “they are not able to identify a number corresponding to real objects or those in a picture” . The other group of learners who come to school unprepared dos not know anything about counting and reading. They are unable to respond to any instruction that requires of them to count and read (Participant 1).
All the participants were in agreement that children who have not been prepared for schooling, “are not able to listen attentively when they first come to school. Most of them misbehave, speak out of turn, leave a class without permission, and cannot read or count” (Participant 2) Other signs exhibited by the children who have not been prepared for schooling mentioned by the participants include crying and refusing to talk when given instructions; not being able to take care of personal belongings such as books and stationery; not understanding the concept of writing; writing from the right to the left, not recognizing letters and numbers, and not observing the workbook margins and lines; and not being able to sort objects according to the size, colour, and shape.
7.3 Teachers’ views on the factors that influence children in Lesotho to start formal schooling unprepared Teachers in this study believed that factors that appear to influence children in Lesotho to start formal schooling unprepared are age, gender, disabilities (diagnosed and undiagnosed), non participation in the foundation education programmes, and families’ non involvement.
Age: Teachers indicated that some children are brought to school while they are still underage and are not able to cope with the demands of school. From their viewpoint, poverty forces parents or guardians to send children to school. As they explained, foundational education is not free like primary education in Lesotho Parents are expected to pay school fees and buy books, stationery, and uniforms. However, because some families cannot afford these costs, they keep their children at home until they are school age appropriate, or they send them to start formal schooling before they reach an appropriate age. Supporting this claim, Participant 1 said,
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There’s this child in my class who is underage and whose mother has passed away. The relatives sought special permission from the principal to be admitted into Grade 1 because they could not afford to pay for the preschool education.
The participants expressed their concerns about children who are sent to school before they are school age appropriate. They indicated that these children are not able to cope with classwork and are often kept in Grade 1 until they reach the right age.
Gender: Gender was also mentioned as one of the factors that influence children’s lack of readiness for schooling. The participants believed that comparatively, boys and girls display differences in readiness when they join Grade 1 They pointed out that at the point of school entry, girls appear to be cognitively more mature than boys are. They further explained that even where both lack foundational skills, girls’ skills develop quicker than those of boys. These teachers believed, as explained by Participant 2: Before schooling, girls are with their mothers at home almost all the time, they are constantly supervised and have a better chance of learning some skills from their mothers Contrarily, boys receive very little supervision, they are always away from home, playing with clay in the dongas while looking after the animals.
As further observed by Participant 2, the cultural practice that exposes boys to very little supervision before schooling results in boys struggling to adapt to the school environment. The boys are mostly the ones who display silly behaviour such as playing, making a noise, pinching one another, and laughing during class time. Furthermore, they are not able to take good care of themselves and their belongings.
Disability: Disability was also identified to be influential in this study. The participants claimed that some of the children whojoin Grade 1 display some mild or serious cognitive problems. They observed that such children are not able to follow instructions and do not observe the school rules. They explained that working with children of this nature is very challenging as there is hardly any progress in the development of their foundational skills. This is how Participant 2 explained, There is this child ma’am, who would seek permission to go out to the toilet but will never come back, he would be seen playing with the pre schoolers around the schoolyard. If he is asked about going back to class to do his work, he would simply reply by saying, yeees … Madam and he will just continue playing
As pointed out by this participant, such children do not understand the concept of formal schooling. To these children, school is a place to go to play and get food.
None participation in foundation education programmmes: All the participants in this study indicated that most of the children who join Grade 1 at their schools had not participated in the foundational education programmes in preparation for
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schooling. In that regard, they lack many foundational skills, which include counting, writing, reading, copying, and drawing.
Family’s non participation: The participants in this study also claimed that many families do not want to support the education of their children. According to these teachers, most parents at their schools believe that it is the teachers’ responsibility to educate children. They leave the whole responsibility of teaching their children to the teachers. They, the parents, appear not to care about how their children spend their time at school and they do not like to assist their children with homework. They always complain about teachers shifting their responsibilities.
7.4
The results of teachers’ experiences of working with learners who lack foundational skills include how teachers support these learners and the challenges they encounter.
7 4.1 How teachers support learners who lack foundational skills
When asked about how they support learners who have not been prepared for schooling, the viewpoint of the participants was that, even though they had been teaching Grade 1 classes for many years, they did not believe that they were trained adequately to deal with children who have not been prepared for schooling. As they claimed, they use various strategies until they find those that work. They further explained that sometimes they do team teach with other teachers as a way of sharing the responsibility. To make team teaching easy, they group learners according to their abilities so that one teacher works with a group of learners that have foundational skills while the other focuses on a group that lack foundational skills. The teachers explained that while these groups would be taught the same content, they try remedial teaching with the group that lacks foundational skills. For example, they incorporate the foundational content, where necessary, to ensure that they have the right foundation for the content taught. As these teachers further explained, sometimes they form small groups of learners who lack foundational skills to ensure that each learner receives individualised attention. Where learner disability is suspected, the teachers claimed that they focus more on teaching the learners life skills rather than wasting time with the recommended curriculum. Participant 3 explained this by saying, With some learners it is not only about lacking foundational skills, they also exhibit signs of disability such as not being able to talk or showing signs of mental retardation. With these learners, we only focus on teaching them life skills that would enable them to live in their communities.
Asked about how they are supported by the school to work with learners who are not ready for schooling, the teachers claimed that they receive support from the school and very few parents. They pointed out that sometimes the principals in their schools provide additional learning materials and resources needed to support the learners In addition, their principals usually call parents’ meetings in which they encourage parents to be involved in their children’s education by assisting with homework and other school requirements that support learning.
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Other teachers at their schools provide support by sharing their experiences of working with unprepared children and suggesting strategies they had used in the past and find effective Regarding the parents, the participants claimed that there were very few parents who were willing to support teachers to educate their children. This was explained by Participant 1 who said, There is no support from parents When they are called for teacher parent meetings to share concerns about their children, they don’t come. Parents are bitter. They say teachers abuse their children when teachers report their children’s learning disabilities. Some parents are really bitter, especially when the children are not coping They say whatever they like to teachers, they do not want any advice from teachers
Participant 2 also echoed the same sediments. She pointed out that, Parents are not aware that educating a learner, especially young ones, is a three legged pot that involves a parent, learner, and teacher. They think a teacher is the only figure who has to shoulder the responsibility of teaching a child. Even when learners are supposed to be helped at home, parents do not play their role.
According to these participants, the parents have an attitude of not being committed to their children’s learning These teachers explained that they learn this from their learners who sometimes report how their parents respond when they ask for assistance with homework. Participant 3 gave an example of a learner who once said about his parent’s response, “My mother said she is not a teacher, she cannot do your work. She asked whether you want her to teach for you ” From the viewpoint of these teachers, this attitude demonstrates parents’ limited understanding of their involvement in their children’s education.
The challenges reported by teachers in this study, of working with children who are not ready for schooling included learners’ lack of motivation; working with classes of mixed ability; lack of parental involvement, lack of appropriate teaching and learning resources, and teachers’ lack of skills to deal will children who are not ready for formal schooling
These teachers claimed that learners who have not been prepared have low motivation because of the learners’ limited understanding of the purpose of school and its culture. This limited understanding frustrates such children and often leads them to dodge school or some classes, or simply refuse to go to school, but prefer to look after the family’s animal stock
Teaching a class that comprises learners who lack foundational skills is a challenge in many Lesotho classrooms, because there are limited resources and facilities to support these learners. For example, these teachers pointed out that the teaching and learning materials they use to teach these learners are not colourful and attractive. They claimed to use plain books, stones, and sticks to teach these children. Thus, from their viewpoint, the materials are unattractive and fail to attract learners’ interest and motivate them
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Teachers in this study also pointed out that even though they had many years’ experience teaching Grade 1, they lack the skills that are required to work with children who lack foundational skills and need remedial teaching. Participant 2 explained this by saying, Learners who lack skills and are also disabled can be very distractive in class, they beat other learners, make a noise, and do many other unacceptable things. They need teachers who have remedial teaching and special education skills. We do not have such skills.
The other challenge that teachers in this study mentioned was parents’ attitude and non involvement. From their observation, parents believe that a school and the government is responsible for children’s education. According to the parents’ argument, the government should provide learning materials for their children and the school should ensure that children are taught The teachers believed that the parents’ attitude is a result of a limited understanding of education. They supported their view by explaining that even where the government provided children with books and stationery, parents do not ensure that children bring these learning materials along to school This is what Participant 3 said when clarifying,
When these learners are given books or crayons to practise at home, their parents do not allow them to use them because they believe they are playing with them. Some of the parents even keep these materials at home for fear that their children would lose or damage them More than often such materials never come back to school. This is frustrating because even if they are replaced the story repeats itself, learners leave their books and stationery at home.
There was also an observation among these teachers that sometimes when parents think they are doing what is good for their children they cause damage to their children’s education. Participant 3 clarified this by saying, Where we consider the ability of each learner and assign them different tasks, to parents is like we abuse learners who lack foundation skills. They complain that we undermine the intelligence of their children and threaten to complain to the Ministry of Education if we keep on discriminating against their children. They do not understand differentiation as a teaching strategy
This study investigated Grade 1 teachers’ perceptions of working with children who have not been prepared for formal education. Lesotho governments have made efforts through policies to encourage schools to establish facilities that prepare children who are about to start formal schooling. However, these government efforts have only been realised by very few schools and children are still kept at home by their parents for various reasons, which include not affording to pay for foundational education, and having a limited understanding of the importance of foundational education. As a result, many children start formal schooling unprepared. When they start formal school, these children struggle to adjust to the school environment, because they do not understand the school environment and culture. Most of them perform poorly academically and as a result, they are not able to progress to more advanced levels of education. They
are often made to repeat classes, pushed to the next level of education which they are not ready for, or leave school in frustration to find other means of life that make sense to them, such as tending animals.
The other observation made in this study is that there are various factors that influence how children who are not ready for formal schooling cope in the school environment. These factors include age, gender, socio economic background, the availability of appropriate school facilities and resources, teachers’ ability to deal with this calibre of children and parents’ attitude towards supporting their children’s education.
School readiness is very important for children who start formal schooling (Heerden et al., 2017). It has a positive influence on the future life of a child who has been prepared for every level of education (Pan et al., 2019). The future lives and careers of these children are predicted to be successful. This is usually different for children who are not prepared for the different stages of education. Their success in education, and life in general, could be unpredictable. This is why readiness has become a very important topic in the field of education. Children should be prepared before formal schooling by families or centres that offer foundational education programmes.
Many children leave education early because they are not prepared for schooling before they start school Schools and parents do not offer any effective support to these children. As a result, some of these children are often promoted to the next level without a good foundation, have to repeat classes, or forced to drop out at this early stage of education out offrustration.All of thesehave devastatingeffects on the individual lives of these learners, their families, and their communities. In their individual lives they are likely to become adults who do not understand and appreciate formal schooling; who are unable to support the education of their children because of their limited understanding; who have low prospects of employment; and who are likely to perpetuate the state of poverty their parents experience. Other consequences include high rates of illiteracy, unemployment, poverty, crime, and other negative behaviours that are often influenced by the lack of good quality education in a community.
It is important that children are prepared for formal schooling before they start school. Therefore, the Government of Lesotho should address the issue of school readiness among children who are about to start formal schooling as established in this paper. The Government of Lesotho, through the Ministry of Education, should strengthen and monitor the implementation of early childhood education policies. Schools should be supported with facilities and resources that support children who start formal schooling. The curriculums of teacher education should include content aimed to equip teachers with the knowledge and skills that will enable them to support children who have not been prepared for formal schooling. Also, the government and other stakeholders in education in Lesotho should develop and offer educational programmes for parents that would
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motivate and enable parents to enrol their children in the foundational education programmes and to be involved in their children’s education.
The limitations of this study is in the methodology. Firstly, the number of teachers who participated in this study was very small; therefore it cannot be taken to be representative of all Grade 1 teachers working in the public schools in Lesotho. Excluding the private schools in this study is another weakness, because the study does not provide a comprehensive picture of readiness among children who start formal schooling in Lesotho schools.A study that uses a larger size of participants, and be inclusive of all types of schools offering primary education is necessary.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 309 326, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.18
Received Jul 31, 2022; Revised Sep 20, 2022; Accepted Sep 28, 2022
Pascasie Nyirahabimana*
University of Rwanda College of Education (UR CE), African Centre of Excellence in Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), Republic of Rwanda
University of Rwanda College of Education (UR CE), African Center of Excellence in Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), Republic of Rwanda
Mathias Nduwingoma
University of Rwanda College of Education (UR CE), African Center of Excellence in Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), Republic of Rwanda
Imelda Kemeza
Mbarara University of Science and Technology (MUST), Republic of Uganda
Abstract. This study was aimed at exploring the usage of multimedia during a quantum physics class. Five instructors and 385 undergraduate studentsattheUniversityof Rwanda,College ofEducation(UR CE)were observed and surveyed. Thus, the study employed experimental and survey designs. A standardized classroom observation protocol for undergraduate STEM (COPUS) and a validated online survey were used. Classroom observation data were analysed quantitatively using an M.S. Excel spreadsheet, and interpreted descriptively. Likewise, survey data were analysed qualitatively using a note pencil, and interpreted narratively. The class in which a multimedia method was used, showed more active learning compared to one in which lecturing was used The findings indicated that instructors (lecturers) were guiding students, and the students were working in the multimedia class In the lectured class, instructors were found presenting the content to students and students received information passively. Instructors identified the mathematical
*Corresponding author: Pascasie Nyirahabimana, pnyirahabimana@gmail.com
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
background as the trigger to students’ negative attitude towards learning quantum physics when they were encouraged to learn through animations, PhET simulations, and YouTube videos. The study recommends the use of multimedia technologies in teaching quantum physics related concepts.
Keywords: Classroom practices; multimedia tools; quantum physics; instructor perceptions; university students’ perceptions.
The educational system in Rwanda strives to improve quality education by ensuring inclusiveness and equitable education, promoting education for all, and lifelong learning in a country led by a knowledge based economy (Ministry of Education [MINEDUC], 2018). To achieve quality education, a key strategy such as the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in teaching and learning by augmenting smart classrooms and ICT devices, implementing the new competency based curriculum (CBC), and promoting Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) across all educational levels is in place (Republic of Rwanda, 2017)
Multimedia and a variety of instructional tools play a significant role in teaching and learning physics. For that reason these tools should be well designed to enhance students’ retention of physics concepts (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2020a) Studiesconductedby Nzaramyimana etal. (2021)andOliveiraandOliveira(2013) showed that students’ performance increased when they started learning independently through dynamic interactive software. In this context, the use of multimedia in teaching and learning positively impacts students’ performance. Thus, students understand more when multimedia, such as audio and visual representations, are used (Kareem, 2018).
Observing classroom practices to assess the effect of instructional methods on students’ academic achievement is vital in teaching and learning (Mukagihana et al., 2021). The way sciences, in general, and physics, in particular, are taught do not motivate students to learn actively. As a result, students perform poorly in physics subjects due to inadequate practical skills (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2022). In Rwanda, secondary school teachers mastered applying adequate interactive teaching approacheswhereby they integrateexciting activities, a variety ofevents, and relevant visualizations that boost learners’ confidence to express their ideas and link learning content to real life experiences (Nyirahagenimana et al., 2022). Indeed, Nkurikiyimana et al. (2022) argue that students are motivated and are able to understand physics concepts when strong interactive activities and multimedia are used. However, Ndihokubwayo et al. (2020b) found that teachers do not fully exploit the use of PhET simulations and YouTube videos which are likely to sustain students’ interest in learning. Hence, it was recommended that teachers incorporated these instructional tools since they contribute effectively to teaching and learning some physics concepts.
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Due to the policy of having sufficient human capital in the workforce, many undergraduate students were enrolled in STEM subjects to complete undergraduate majors in these subjects. However, during their studies, students experienced uninspiring introductions to these courses, as teaching in these subjects still is dominated by traditional lecturing (Akiha et al., 2018). While conducting a campus wide investigation of clicker implementation emphasizing peer discussion in STEM classes, for example, Lewin et al. (2016) observed that instructors used clicker demonstrations but did not allow peer discussions following clicker questions. The authors argued that failure to use peer discussions might affect students’ reasoning, collaboration, and ability to share thoughts among group members. Similarly, at the University of Maine, Smith et al. (2014) did not manage to classify lecturers either into traditional lecturers or instructors who teach interactively since lecturers exhibited a variety of instructional behaviours on the continuum between these two classifications. This is explained by the fact that even if instructors with large classes are likely to lecture, some instructors were observed using interactive teaching methods in STEM courses. However, in a study conducted at the University of Technology and Arts of Byumba (UTAB), Rwanda, Mukagihana et al. (2021) found that lecturing and animation based instructions dominated, together with small group laboratory activities that promoted learner centredness and achievement
Literature shows that methods used in higher education institutions are diverse and include techniques such as real time data logging, Socratic guided inquiry, interactive computer simulations, and structured problem solving. These methods strongly encourage “learning from peers, emphasize rapid feedback, and guide students to express and reflect on their reasoning processes in learning physics” (Meltzer & Thornton, 2012, p. 495). Some years ago, science courses, particularly physics in higher education, faced problems such as lack of motivation and failure, which resulted in some students dropping out. The most mentioned probable reasons were the poor interaction between instructors and students, and poor instructional settings (Oliveira & Oliveira, 2013). Research conducted on the teaching and learning of quantum physics showed that its abstractness was reported to make this content difficult for undergraduate students (Bouchée et al., 2021) While undergraduate courses play a critical role in STEM retention, little is known about the type of instruction students receive after completing their post secondary STEM courses (Akiha et al., 2018). In addition, instructors still rely more on textbooks and syllabi, which leads to a lack of awareness about multimedia use, such as PhET simulations and YouTube videos in physics classes (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2020b). Most university lecturers still use traditional methods without minding the 21st century innovations. However, the literature shows that multimedia impact students’ achievement in physics (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2021; Ugwuanyi & Okeke, 2020). Thus, the current study was worth being conducted to assess the effects of multimedia usage on learners’ practices and behaviour in mastering quantum physics.
Instructors and students value the integration of ICT in their instruction. For instance, Kohnle et al. (2015) reported that students perceived simulation as a
helpful tool that enhanced their conceptual understanding and active learning. Similarly, Laosethakul and Leingpibul (2021), while capturing students’ perceptions about using these three teaching methods, found that students perceived instruction through video based tutorials as enhancing their understandingand the ease of following the lesson. Thestudyconducted to assess students’ attitudes towards physics in the Nine Year Basic Education in Rwanda showed that many participants had a negative attitude towards learning physics in general (Mbonyiryivuze et al., 2021). Therefore, in this study, we specifically documented university instructors’ and students’ perceptions of the usage of multimedia during teaching and learning quantum physics to supplement classroom practices.
Traditional instructional methods provided insufficient opportunities for undergraduate students to construct meaning. However, the use of multimedia such as texts, audio visual and audio content, cartoons, images, and interactive content in teaching and learning physics positively impacts students’ learning achievement, (Kareem, 2018). Using multimedia in teaching physics enables lecturers to transmit the content differently to enhance students’ environment to be conducive to learning (Ibrahim, 2011). Thus, this study is significant, since the findings of this study will positively affect instructors’ practices and behaviour toward students’ performance and interests during quantum physics teaching at the University of Rwanda.
This study was based on the cognitive learning theory (Ibrahim, 2011), since multimedia in teaching physics will enable lecturers to transmit the content differently to enhance students’ learning. Cognitive learning infers developing students’ thinking abilities through interacting with the environment and building on students’ prior knowledge. Through this theory, human cognition interacts with oral and nonverbal contents and events since there is a referential connection linking verbal and nonverbal clues (Ibrahim, 2011). Knowledge is easilyacquired andstored in memorywhen it is presentedin different forms, such as verbal and visual representations (Wigham, 2012). Thus, this study was aimed at:
• Assessing instructors’ and students’ classroom practices while using multimedia in quantum physics.
• Exploring instructors’ and students’ perceptions after multimedia and lecture usage in teaching quantum physics.
In this study both experimental and survey designs were used (Fraenkel et al., 2012). Participants were randomly assigned to two groups, where one group was taught using a multimedia aided approach, and another group was taught using the lecture method. During these two interventions, both classes were observed and surveyed. The aim was to assess whether the multimedia intervention used met the pre determined specifications for solving the research problem and to generate recommendations for future work.
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The study targeted physicist educators and students from the University of Rwanda College of Education (UR CE), Department of Mathematics, Science and Physical Education (MSPE). In this department, five physics instructors, teaching quantum physics, and 385 second year students studying quantum physics modules were purposively selected to participate in the study. The participants, undergraduate students from Mathematics Physics Education (MPE), Physics Chemistry Education (PCE), and Physics Geography Education (PGE), were randomly assigned to a control group (n = 192) or lecture class and an experimental group (n = 193) or multimedia class. Regarding instructors’ experience, all lecturers involved in this study were senior lecturers, and they were briefed by the first author on the intervention they needed to deliver. The studywas conducted over a period of six weeks between January andMarch 2022. The control group (lecture class) was instructed by means of PowerPoint slides, a whiteboard, and markers, while in the experimental group (multimedia class) animations, PhET simulations, and YouTube videos were used
Two instruments were used to assess the effect of multimedia usage on teachers’ and student practices and behaviour in quantum physics teaching and learning in Rwandan higher education institutions. Thefirstwas a classroom observation and the second was a survey. We used a Classroom Observation Protocol for Undergraduate STEM (COPUS) to observe instructors and students in multimedia and lecture classes. Smith et al. (2013) developed the COPUS to describe classroom teaching practices and student behaviour. This protocol is a new instrument to characterize university STEM classroom practices. It was designed to capture the teaching and learning activities done by STEM instructors and learners during each portion of two minute time intervals after a short 1.5 hour teaching period to reliably characterize how instructors and students spend their time in the classroom (Smith et al., 2013, 2014). COPUS has 28 codes of activities, including 12 for the instructor, 13 for students, and three for student engagement. The validity of the COPUS tool was established during its development process. The Kappa statistics were employed to ensure the agreement between the two rates on this tool. Student codes generated a .652, instructor codes generated a .805, while student engagement codes generated a .625 Kappa value. These are considered very high values regarding interrater reliability.
Likewise, a survey was administered online to document instructors’ and students’ perceptions during multimedia and lecture instruction implementation. Instructors were asked four questions, while students were asked one major question that needed a detailed description (see Table 1). University lecturers validated these items for trustworthiness before data collection.
➢ How were students motivated during quantum physics classes?
➢ What main challenges have you experienced when teaching the quantum physics module?
➢ Have you used any ICT teaching tools in quantum physics lessons? If so, which ICT teaching tools?
➢ What do you think makes the quantum physics module interesting for students?
➢ Do you consider the existing teaching practices (teaching methods used by your lecturer) efficient enough for you to understand quantum physics concepts?
o If yes, explain your answer.
o If no, explain your answer.
The research project successfully passed through URCE (Ethical Committee) by following the established ethical process: (1) presentation of the research proposal, (2) submissionof theapplication andtools tobe usedforethical research clearance, and (3) review and approval of the application by the ethical research committee. The researchers also obtained a formal informed consent form approved by the University of Rwanda College of Education Ethical Committee and filled out by each student and instructor participating in the study.
Trained research assistants from the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) collected the data obtained from classroom observation. In this study, the COPUS tool was used to describe the instructor and student actions in the quantum physics class. In order to effectively use this tool, three steps were followed: pre classroom observation training session, classroom observation practice, and post classroom observation reflection session.
During pre classroom observation training, a group of four research assistants (master’s students in science education at ACEITLMS) was trained to use the COPUS sheet and on COPUS code description. The training was conducted for two hours, and its purpose was to help observers to understand and become familiar with the code and its descriptions. In the training process, the researchers displayed the student and instructor codes and discussed with the observers what each behaviour typically looks like in the classroom.
For classroom observation practice, all four trained observers were given paper versions of the coding sheet and code descriptions sheet, and noted Down in coding what the students and the instructor did during each portion of two minute time intervals in the physics classroom. They used cell phones to count the time to keep the observers synchronized and to ensure that they filled out a new row in the observation protocol at identical 2 minute intervals. This exercise was done individually for 40 minutes and in pairs for another 40 minutes.
A post classroom observation session was conducted with all observers and the first author. First, each observer presented his/her code and then compared his/her codes with partner pairs codes, and then the whole group discussed the student and instructor codes for each of the 2 minute segments of the 40 min period. To select research assistants whoconducted classroom observation during our intervention period, we examined the agreement between pairs of observers, and two of them were selected. Their interrater reliability was higher when compared to the rest. Selected observers were appointed to conduct classroom observations; one in a class that was taught quantum physics using multimedia aided technologies (demonstration using animations, PhET simulations, and YouTube videos), and another one in a class taught quantum physics by using lectures (using PowerPoint or notes slides) over six weeks (from January to February 2022). Each week, four periods of 40 minutes were observed.
Data were analysed descriptively. We used an M.S. Excel spreadsheet to analyse the classroom observation data, and a note and pencil method to analyse the survey data. Results were interpreted descriptively and narratively. For COPUS data, the average of each instructor or student code was summed up, and its average was computed (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2021). Thus, each activity percent contributed to the accumulated percentage. Since COPUS developers advised to collapse or combine some codes for easy visualization and interpretation, we followed their approach to present our results. We analysed the data on paper for survey findings and used a pencil to group thoughts. We presented these findings using a narrative mode (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2019) by describing the respondents’ thoughts and depicting some quotes for representation.
The graphs on this sheet show how frequently a given activity code was marked compared to the sum of all codes marked in all time intervals during the class session, expressed as a percentage. Because a given activity may not occupy the full two minutes of a time interval, and because multiple activities may occur simultaneously (e.g., the instructor might be moving and guiding [M.G.] and having a one on one [1o1] interaction at the same time), these percentages do not represent thefraction of time devoted to each activity. Rather, they are the fraction of activities calculated separately for the instructor’s and students’ activities.
Table 1 presents the overall results of control and experimental groups in all COPUS codes. On the students’ side, listening (L) dominated the class in the control group (with 181 out of 365 counts of responses, or 50% of responses), while multiple activities (such as thinking [Ind], clicker discussion [C.G.], answering questions [AnQ], and other group [O.G.]) dominated in the multimedia class. Likewise, both lecturing (Lec) and writing (RtW) dominated other instructor activities (with 129 out of 384 counts of responses, or 34% of responses for each activity) in the lecture class. In contrast, multiple activities (such as follow up [Fup], one on one [1o1], clicker questions [C.Q.], and demo/video [D/V]) dominated in the multimedia class.
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Table 1: Activity as a percentage of all activities in lecture and multimedia classes (Note: Each colour adds to 100%, within rounding error)
Lecture Class Multimedia class
Activity Count of responses % of Responses Count of responses % of Responses Students Listening (L) 181 50% 33 10% Answering (AnQ) 76 21% 43 14% Asking (S.Q.) 23 6% 0 0% Whole Class (W.C.) 3 1% 0 0% Presentation (S.P.) 5 1% 4 1% Thinking (Ind) 26 7% 70 22% Clicker Discussion (C.G.) 22 6% 46 14% Working Group (W.G.) 2 1% 23 7% Other Group (O.G.) 2 1% 41 13% Prediction (Prd) 0 0% 32 10% Test/Quiz (T/Q) 5 1% 20 6% Waiting (W) 5 1% 6 2% Other (O) 15 4% 0 0%
Total Responses: 365 318 Instructor Lecturing (Lec) 129 34% 13 4% Writing (RtW) 129 34% 37 10% Demo/Video (D/V) 6 2% 43 12% Follow up (Fup) 31 8% 102 28% Posing Question (P.Q.) 2 1% 0 0% Clicker Question (C.Q.) 3 1% 57 15% Answering Question (AnQ) 5 1% 29 8% Moving (M.G.) 1 0% 19 5% One on One (1o1) 58 15% 67 18% Administration (Adm) 8 2% 2 1% Waiting (W) 2 1% 0 0% Other (O) 10 3% 0 0%
Total Responses: 384 369
By narrowing down visualization and collapsing some codes, we still got a high percentage of receiving (50% of other combined activities) on the side of students in a lecture class. Similarly, the instructor dominating collapsed code was presenting (69% of other combined activities) in lecture class (see Figure 1).
Receiving
Talking to Class Working Other (Student) Presenting Guiding Admin Other (Inst)
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
50% 29% 16% 5% 69% 26% 2% 3%
Instructor activities Presenting = Lec, RtW, D/V, Guiding = FUp, PQ, CQ, AnQ, MG, 1o1 Admin = Adm Other (Inst) = W, O
Student activities
Student activities Receiving = L Talking to Class = AnQ, SQ, WC, SP Working = Ind, CG, WG, OG Other (Student) = O, W
Figure 1: Activity as a percentage of all collapsed codes in lecture class (Note: Each colour adds to 100%, within rounding error)
Despite the instructor centred mode or passive learning observed in a lecture class, we had a different situation in the multimedia class. Figure 2 shows that working collapsed code was dominant at 73% of other codes on the side of students while guiding dominated (74%) other codes on the instructor's side. It can be seen that multimedia aided instruction helped students learn in an active learning mode which is conducive to learning, while during the lecture they were passive.
Receiving
Talking to Class Working Other (Student) Presentin g Guiding Admin Other (Inst)
10%
Student activities Instructor activities
Instructor activities Presenting = Lec, RtW, D/V, Guiding = FUp, PQ, CQ, AnQ, MG, 1o1 Admin = Adm
Student activities
Receiving = L Talking to Class = AnQ, SQ, WC, SP Working = Ind, CG, WG, OG
Figure 2: Activity as a percentage of all collapsed codes in the multimedia class (Note: Each colour adds to 100%, within rounding error)
Instructors’ perceptions
Instructors that used multimedia testified that the students were motivated. One instructor from a multimedia class said, “When multimedia is used, students are motivated”. However, instructors in lecture classes realized that some students were discouraged by the high level of mathematics in the course. It seemed like multimedia omitted providing mathematical background. However, mathematics was needed in both classes. The main challenges experienced when teaching quantum physics/modern physics modules were outlined by the instructors of both multimedia and lecture classes. One of the lecture class instructors noted that less mathematical background was provided to the students. For instance, he claimed that “ getting used to Dirac notation was low for students” Another claimed that due to big classes, a lack of experiments or other tools to illustrate quantum physics concepts arose. It seemed that when multimedia were used, the problem of the big classes was resolved.
When asked whether instructors used ICT teaching tools in quantum physics/ modern physics lessons, they all confirmed that they used PowerPoint presentations with a computer and projector. However, those in lecture classes used these tools to present the theoretical content, while those WHO used multimedia, used computers and projectors to manipulate simulations and watch YouTube videos. We finally asked instructors whether they proposed something that could make the quantum physics module more interesting for students. They all agreed that animation and/or simulation could be used. One instructor said, “The use of demonstration and multimedia aided technology can help students learn well” Strong and accurate mathematical demonstrations, results simulations, and plotting of the orbitals were also articulated as supporting modes to smoothly raise students’ interest in learning modern physics.
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Asked whether they considered the existing teaching practices efficient enough to understand quantum physics concepts, 78% of the students in the multimedia class said “ yes ” to multimedia instruction, while 45% in the lecture class said “yes” to lecture instruction (see Figure 1).
Students in multimedia classes: Students testified that multimedia helped them understand abstract concepts in quantum physics. For instance, one student said: Yes, my lecturer used simulation and animations. This helps me better understand quantum physics, especially the photoelectric effect, Compton effect, and black body radiation. It is enough because what she taught us concerned with the thing which cannot be observed using naked eyes (it is microscopic).
Another student testified that the method helped him to make meaning by observing abstract concepts; therefore, he could understand everything. He confidently mentioned that he now could solve new problems because of that method.
Students took multimedia usage as various events that could bring insights and engage them in learning, while stimulating them to explore real life environments. For instance, one student said, “Yes, my lecturer used more examples using simulation, demonstration, a different event that helped me to understand quantum physics better and see where it is applied in real life.”
Students perceived multimedia as a learner centred approach and a tool that enhanced scientific thinking. They were confident that they could teach quantum related concepts themselves. For instance, one student said, “The method used includes some video animation, simulation, and some demonstration which make us think scientifically.” Another student said, “This is a learner centred approach, it helped us provide our ideas, and the lecturer acted as facilitator. It was a good method because I now can teach concepts found in this module.” Students confirmed that they were attentive and that there was a change in their behaviour because of the interesting method used. They said the method was efficient because they understood the different phenomena used in quantum physics and related experiments better
Some students who answered “no” to the method, claimed that exercises were insufficient. For instance, one student said, “No, because I try to do some exercises, I try to do well some of them, but I see others are difficult. Our lecturer, please help me to be able to do all questions on quantum physics; thank you.”
Another student claimed that there was a lack of technology, such as computers for the learners that would help them to practise more and more. He mentioned thatthere should be sufficient computers available so that they could repeat what the instructor had taught them in the classroom. Some students who neither answered “yes” nor “no” said that the method used was insufficient because this module requires practical work to understand more. He said that although observation through animations is real as it appears; however, fieldwork is necessary for more information.
Students who said “no” to the method, and even those who appreciated it, requesred more exercises and clarification of mathematical expressions. One student said, “Yes, since she was using animation, it was better for me to understand. If possible, she can continue to facilitate me in another part that involves mathematical expression and operators in Schrodinger equations.” Another student responded, “Yes, it helps, but more explanations and exercise (in class) are needed.”
However, students appreciated how the instructor gave them more assignments and were keen to revise the content themselves. One student said, “In fact, the lecturer used more effort to explain us, but the lesson is too hard to understand where students are also required more effort to revise. It will be helpful if all physics lecturers can teach using ICT as she did.”
Students in lecture class: The lecture method was appreciated by some of the students. They said that the method used made them feel comfortable with quantum mechanics; however, most of them suggested that there was a need for improvements. One student said, “Yes, because the lecturer used different
methods to explain very well and allowed collaboration with learners, but the teacher may try to give more exercises and corrections to students.” Others testified that the methods used by their lecturer were sufficient for them to understand quantum physics concepts. One student provided an example: “Yes, the method he uses helps to develop the questions and the way of solving them, which helps us to think critically and solve the problems very quickly.” However, the student recommended that the lecturer should have prepared the lesson on mathematics about Schrodinger before delivering the module, which would have helped them to understand more. He said, “When we were learning, he tried to help us to understand the concept very well, except the Schrodinger equation It is very difficult because it is mathematics.” Other students claimed that the module contained too many chemistry terms. One student said, “Yes, because it has many chemistry terms and is a mathematics module.”
Students who were against the lecture method, provided many reasons. Some claimed lectures were not efficient enough, because the class was large, the lecturer did not use demonstrations such as simulation and animation, quantum is one of the most difficult modules, during lectures practical demonstrations were not used, a shortage of material existed, the time to cover the module was too short, and the method was teacher centred. One student said, “No, because I didn’t understand quantum physics, the method was not enough for me; if possible, he may use both demonstration and multimedia methods to make it more understandable.” Another student said, No, it was not efficient because my lecturer used the lecturer centered method, and time for doing or showing an example to solve quantum physics was limited, so the lecturer must use many examples and let students do those to get a great understanding.
Other students claimed they did not get an opportunity to see how things work and were not given a chance to do some research. Therefore, they suggested that they needed more exercises related to the module, and the lecturer should have used concrete examples to explain the content. Others suggested that it would be better if their lecturer showed some related videos or helped them to conduct some experiments.
Instructors’ and students’ classroom practices during the application of multimedia in quantum physics
In this study we compared instructor and student activities during lecture and multimedia classes. In general, students’ activities were dominated by listening (L) in the lecture class, equivalent to 50% of responses, while the listening (L) activity was reduced to 10% in the multimedia class. The fact that the listening activity was reduced shows how much students were involved in other activities such as answering,thinking,andpredicting,which also got high scores.However, the general observation reveals the students’ passive learning during the lecture class.
We also found that writing (RtW) dominated instructors’ activities, as indicated by 34% of the responses of students in a lecture class, which decreased to 10% in
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the multimedia class. However, in the lecture class, the instructors’ activity was mainly characterizedby doing follow upwork, accordingto 28%of theresponses. That instructors did follow up work s in the multimedia class indicates that instructors facilitated students in their activities. These findings also show how the teaching and learning of quantum physics are dominated by the teacher and talk approach, during which students are mainly copying notes from their notebooks.
The general pre determined results are not different from the results found after merging some of the activities in both lecture and multimedia classes. In the lecture class, students’ activities were dominated by the receiving activity (50%), while the instructors’ activity was mainly presenting (65%). As discussed previously, this implies a teacher centred learning pedagogy where it seems that students learn quantum physics passively. However, some changes were noted while merging the lecture class activities with the teacher centred learning pedagogy, but the students’ dominance during activity working was rated at (73%), while the instructor dominated guiding (74%). The implications of these results are that students are actively engaged in learning during the multimedia class as their instructors assist them.
Instructors should be interactive in ways that give students room to learn actively. Within this context, instructors should not spend much time writing notes while students only copy. Instead, students should be allowed to think, work in groups, and present, among other activities. Ndihokubwayo et al. (2022) also found that teachers and learners spent much time lecturing and listening to physics instructions. In addition, Ndihokubwayo et al. (2020b) found that lecturers still relied on using syllabi and textbooks, which resulted in them forgetting about multimedia integration while teaching physics. These observations were not only found in physics instructions, but also in other STEM subjects. For instance, Mukagihana et al. (2021) found that lectures and small group laboratory based activities dominated the main teaching of biology more than animations did. While using COPUS in chemistry instruction, Byusa et al. (2020) argued that although teachers put students in groups, students were still learning passively since teachers simply moved around the groups without encouraging the students to complete the given activities.
Instructors’ and students’ perceptions of multimedia and lecture usage in teaching and learning quantum physics
After exposure to multimedia and lecture teaching methods, we collected instructors’ and students’ perceptions. Instructors reported on their observation of ways in which observed students perceiving multimedia and lecture based instruction. Our findings show that students were satisfied with the use of multimedia since they were allowed to interact during PhET simulations and YouTube videos. However, students in the lecture class were discouraged by the numerous mathematical computations that learning quantum physics entails
The findings of the instructors’ responses are not different from those of the students. Both the students in the multimedia and lecture classes were adamant about the effectiveness of these two learning methods since they all were learning
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collaboratively. However, multimedia potentially may reduce the abstractness of quantum physics, as reported by 76% of students in the multimedia class. This is because students could use simulation and animations and observe some phenomena they could not observe in real situations with the naked eye. In addition, the use of multimedia promotes a learner centred approach, as was also observed in the physics classroom observation. Indeed, with multimedia, students are exposed to interactive multimedia, whereby the instructors can let them explore to develop their critical thinking. Although students in lecture classes may have gained in learning, they lacked some content clarifications since the instructors did not manage to conduct the demonstrations as clearly as it was displayed by multimedia.
Because quantum physics is more abstract, instructors should integrate multimedia into their teaching through animation, simulation, and watching YouTube videos (Bouchée et al., 2021), which encourage and result in students’ conceptual understanding and performance (Ibrahim, 2011). The active learning promoted by being exposed to multimedia would result in students becoming interested in using this technology (Nzaramyimana et al., 2021; Oliveira & Oliveira, 2013). Online videos that are more interactive, containing tasks, questions, and quizzes, which enhance students’ active learning, are recommended to support the teaching and learning of quantum physics (Richtberg & Girwidz, 2019).
Students encountering difficulties in calculations are a major issue for some undergraduate students. For instance, Johansson et al. (2018) argue that students do not have the required abilities to be good at quantum physics since they are hampered by the many mathematical calculations that are found in learning quantum physics, and which may result in negative consequences for students who are disinterested in the topic. Thus, a need exists to investigate the way in which students acquire knowledge through different forms of content representation, since knowledge is easily acquired and maintained when presented in different forms, such as text, verbal and visual representations (Wigham, 2012)
The unique finding of this study was attained through the use of classroom observation and student lecturer surveys to document the extent multimedia plays a role in learning quantum mechanics. This adds knowledge to the existing small quantum study literature, higher learning, and the Rwandan context.
This study focused on a public higher education institution. It did not study the situation of learning quantum physics in secondary schools or private higher education institutions. The study only focused on quantum physics. It did not look at other modules to ease the comparison of branches of physics taught at the university level.
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This study was aimed at exploring university instructors’ and their students’ classroom practices and perceptions when implementing multimedia and lecture instruction in Rwanda. We had two objectives with the study: The first was to document classroom practices including COPUS, while the second was a survey to determine how participants perceived instruction. Four instructors and 385 students participated in this study, and data collection was done at the beginning of the 2022 academic year at the University of Rwanda College of Education (UR CE). The study results showed that multimedia classes enhanced students’ active learning more than lectures. Also, the observed instructors testified that students were motivated to learn through multimedia, although some students needed a mathematical background. Likewise, students who were taught through multimedia revealed a positive attitude toward learning quantum physics and appreciated the usage of animation, computer simulation, and YouTube videos. Therefore, we recommend that lecturers at UR CE should use multimedia related tools in their classes. Although the study employed a sufficient sample, the findings may not be applicable in other modules; therefore, we recommend the same study to be conducted in other modules taught at UR CE, or other higher learning institutions in Rwanda or abroad.
We highly appreciate the participation of the lecturers and students at the University of Rwanda College of Education in this study. We also thank the research assistants that conducted classroom observations. The first author also acknowledges the funding from the African Center of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science.
The authors declare no competing interest.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 327 347, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.19
Received Jul 20, 2022; Revised Sep 22, 2022; Accepted Sep 28, 2022
Ateerah Abdul Razak* , Siti Fathihah Abd Latif , Fairuz A'dilah Rusdi , Mohd Zain Mubarak , Burhan Che Daud
Amanina Abdul Razak @ Mohamed University of MARA Technology, Malaysia
Yohan Kurniawan University of Malaysia Kelantan, Malaysia
Lukman, Z. M. University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia
Ruzaini Ijon , Nur Azuki Yusuff , Asma Lailee Mohd Noor University of Malaysia Kelantan, Malaysia
Abstract. The Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) has introduced several courses classified as a General Subject [Mata Pelajaran Umum](MPU) to instil essential skills among Malaysian students. The Appreciation of Ethics and Civilization [PenghayatanEtikadanPeradaban], also known as PEP, was introduced in 2019. The course aims to educate students on the concept of good ethics in daily life and to help them appreciate the variety possible in society among Malaysians. However, there are some issues related to the PEP content which needs further review. This study tries to identify the elements that contribute to the effectiveness of the course, focusing on the content of the course from the university student and educators’ perspectives. The study used a combinedquantitativeandqualitativemethod involving1,837bachelor’s degree Malaysian students. For the qualitative study, a focus group discussion wasconducted involving eighteducators For the respondents
* Corresponding author: AteerahAbdulRazak,ateerah@umk.edu.my
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
who were students, four groups who had learnt about the course were selected to participate. The study reveals that the PEP course is less effective compared to the Philosophy and Current Issues [FalsafahdanIsu Semasa]FIS course.Italsoshowsthattheredundantandvaguesub topics should be omitted so then the course can be precise. This shows that it is necessary to revise the content of the PEP course to ensure that the learning objective will be better digested by the university students. This study is significant in terms of analysing the quality of the learning content so then essential skills can be developed, particularly among university learners.
Keywords: ethics; effectiveness of learning; effectiveness of teaching; higher education; students perspective
Education is a crucial part of producing high quality human wellbeing. The Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) has introduced several related subjects such as Ethnic Relations [Hubungan Etnik] (HE) and Islamic and Asian Civilization [Tamadun Islam dan Tamadun Asia] (TITAS). Several years after introducing these courses, other related courses have been established as a replacement, specifically PEP and FIS. Since PEP has only just been introduced to Malaysian university students, there is scarcity of related research analysing the PEP content itself Thus, this study is important to identify some of the issues that may require addressing to improve the course and make it relevant to learn from. In addition, this study also aims to identify the perceptions among the different ethnicities in Malaysia regarding the PEP course. This is to ensure that the learning content suits to all races, and this will reduce the issue of discrimination in society.
Globally, it is agreed that the component of ethics is a crucial element when seeking to form good human characteristics. In Kenya, it has been emphasised that ethical values should be taught at all levels of learning. “Ethical training has been one of the core functions of culture through proverbs, sayings, rituals and various practices. All this underscores the importance of ethical education in society, hence, the need to extend the same to institutions of higher learning” (Isaboke, 2021, p. 33). It is understood that ethics shape the identity of society so then they can practise a righteous character in life. In addition, society also consists of multiple ethnicities, cultures, and backgrounds. It is proven that people should have good ethics in life and that this requires a good level of implementation at university.
Consequently, the PEP course is very relevant to be teach in universities in Malaysia. The sub topics are organised based on a certain related theme. PEP discusses some of the issues related to the patriotic aspect as well as the values of ethics and civilization around the world. In addition, it emphasises the importance of tolerance in a diverse society to produce a harmonious relationship among the diverse ethnicities in Malaysia. For the FIS, it encourages the students to engage critical thinking and to develop essential skills in daily life. Other than
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that, MPU has also been introduced to implement the concept of nation race [Konsep Negara Bangsa] among the university students (Ng & Iswandi, 2017).
The course of PEP is acknowledged to instil the spirit of patriotism and practise good ethics in daily life. It is focused on university students in Malaysia. In addition, it also contains a similar concept that has been discussed in Ethnic Relations [Hubungan Etnik]. Several related issues such as ethnic conflicts also occur among Malaysians which influences the acceptance of diverse ethnicities, especially on this course. It also contains elements of virtues that are implemented in the course of TITAS.
However, there are some issues with the current content in PEP. It is argued that certain themes and explanations are difficult for the students to understand. Other than that, it is understood that the Institute of Ethnic Studies (KITA) at the National University of Malaysia [Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia] has introduced a digital module to assist the students in comprehending the content of PEP. Nevertheless, the students also face difficulty comprehending and relating it in a daily context. This is because the aspect of appreciation of ethics and civilization is too broad, making it hard to complete and practice within one semester. This required the researchers to conduct a study to identify the level of effectiveness of the PEP course. This study is also necessary to be conducted to avoid a similar phenomenon of what happened among some students who learned about civilization and mentioned that "the subject being too much" (Elban, 2017, p. 130).
1.1. An overview of the content in the PEP course PEP has nine main topics altogether and it is arranged based on several components. It has also been written about. One example is the book written by Mohd Azhar et al. (2020) which contains the main components of ethics and civilization. It also includes some related theories of ethics which can help students to deepen their comprehension of the element of ethics in daily life. The book is good and well written. However, it is proposed for the main theme to be simplified so then it can be digested and applied at the university student level.
The first topic introduces the concept of ethics and civilization generally, while the second topic explains the theoretical concept of ethics based on both Western and Eastern perspectives. The third topic describes the diversity of ethics and civilization and the existence of plurality in Malaysian society. Topic four discusses the concept of unity and it classifies the level of unity process in Malaysia. For topic five, it clarifies the concept of strengthening national unity [majmuk] It also describes the formation of the nation race [Negara bangsa] as well as a brief concept of the Malay Archipelago [Melayu Nusantara] history. Topic six interprets the formation of integration and the principles of the Malaysia Federal Constitution.
Topic seven encourages the students to apply good ethics when using social media. In addition, it also introduces a functional method for communication and the cultural context. Topic eight analyses the element of social responsibility and
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the role of ethics and civilization when practicing the concept of social responsibility. Topic nine discusses the challenges of sustainability regarding ethics and civilization to date and it also provides some examples of the crises in Malaysian society.
The division of the topic shows the variety contexts in the discussion. This course helps the students identify several related concepts of ethics and civilization. However, some vague terms also need to be revised because they result in difficulty when it comes to understanding, especially for first year university students. In addition, the sub topics should be arranged to make sure that they are discussed in a more precise and practical way. This is because the syllabus needs to identify other important elements so then the students will apply the concept of ethics in their daily life.
Based on the above discussion, this study aims to analyse whether the content of the PEP course provides an effective learning outcome among university students. In addition, it also identifies several of the issues faced by educators as well as the learners when dealing with the PEP course. Regarding the nine topics, it shows that the main topic is relevant to be taught at university level. However, the subtopic is seen of as unfriendly because of the unsystematic sub topic arrangement. This study will determine the predicaments present, if any, so then the applicability of this course will provide a huge benefit for the students.
2.1. The functions of ethics and civilization in a university students’ life The framework of ethics and civilization are related to each other. Ethics is obviously attached to spirituality, society, and culture (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1991). In terms of the concept of civilization, this refers to the refinement of social culture, well governed justice, and authority in life (al Attas, 1978).
The related theoretical framework for building ethics in society and instilling a spiritual concept has been discussed in previous studies. For example, a concept of mutual respect among society was introduced by El Awaisi (2014). It contains several components that are necessary to be applied in society for there to be proper ethics including the implementation of mutual respect, the preservation of human dignity, and fostering diversity and plurality. These aspects will boost the use of ethics and application of civilization among society and this content is necessary to be implemented among university students.
Ethics have been discussed in detail many years back and it is still a crucial component today. It is a legion issue. This is because there are thousands of crises related to human ethics. For example, it includes the issues of corruption, bad governance, abuse of public trust, value less lifestyles, unethical behaviour, conflicts of interest, and insider dealings, nepotism and mediocrity (Singh & Stückelberger, 2017). This urges the necessity of educating people in practising good ethics as a part of regular activities in society.
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The component of civilization is related to ethics. This is because higher education needs to educate learners on the significance of ethics and provide examples from ancient civilizations for them to follow. This will guide the younger generation in forming better characteristics. In the same vein, it is stated that: If young people are not taught about the past and tradition, they shall have a future without guidance and may grow up either unbalanced or sceptical. In educating the youth, the past is presented within the context of life where experience speaks for itself. For emphasis, therefore, education must be critical. The young student must be exposed to the past through the experience that can propose that past and justify it through life experience. This is what ethics in higher education seeks to achieve. (Singh & Stückelberger, 2017, p. 20)
The statement above proves that the influence of ethics and civilization are very powerful when it comes to shaping someone to have an honourable human character. Furthermore, the diverse society in Malaysia needs to be aware of the importance of good values such as tolerance, teamwork, a celebration of differences, and no hatred among them. This is because historically it has been proven that Malay land has birthed a great warrior and that students should learn how they can be resilient and loyal when defending their country from any intruders
2.2.
Regarding the related research analysing the learning outcomes of the PEP course, several related studies have been conducted in terms of ethics and civilization such as the effectiveness of the PEP course organised online. It was reported that even though the objectives of the study were attained, online learning regarding the PEP course is less effective than the physical lessons (Esa et al., 2021). This is due to the fact that online learning also requires several components that should be addressed such as the interactions that are student content, teacher content, and student teacher (Al Rawashdeh et al., 2021). Thus, it is proven that virtual and physical learning should be given balanced attention to obtain the more comprehensive and effective learning goals
Then, a study was conducted to identify the level of unity among the university students after learning the PEP course. It has been shown that the sense of unity is at a moderate level yet they still have the spirit of patriotism among them (Nor Hayati et al., 2021). This shows that even though the values of patriotism and unity can be felt through this course, other elements should be revised to make sure that this course is more impactful compared to other subjects such as Islamic and Asian Civilization (TITAS) as well as Ethnic Relations (HE).
Other than that, the study has been organised to identify the challenges and strategy of empowerment regarding the values and appreciation of ethics and civilization. It is proven that the values can be obtained from the culture of knowledge, spirituality, and social activism (Norhaslina & Aiezzatul, 2022). This
can guarantee the sustainability of a righteous life and the respectfulness for civilization in human morality. Based on the studies, it indicates that there are some gaps that require further investigations in the PEP course. It is agreed that the concept of Malaysia's history, the significance of the federal institution has been included, but it should be polished so then it will become more relevant to practise without having a conflict of interest with any of the institutions.
The effectiveness of learning is an important factor when identifying whether the learning objective is attained or not. This component is vital to be practised during physical and virtual learning environments. For example, the components such as e learning facilities, materials, technical equipment, the educator’s attention, and good interactions with the students will boost the effectiveness during the learning process (Sankar et al., 2011). It shows that these elements will assist the students in grasping the learning objectives and the interactions between educators and students. This, in turn, will create constructive feedback on certain courses.
It is also agreed that the concept of e learning also should be taken into account in order to reach effectiveness during the lessons (Fatoni et al., 2020). A good network, active interaction in e learning, and organising face to face classes for practical activities are included. Thus, it is understood that the participation of the students also contributes to the effectiveness of the learning process. This process requires good content on the subject so then they can practise and perform well either virtually or physically. This is because the impactful content also leads to the encouragement of active learning and enhances various skills as well as the adoption of desirable values and attitudes in the students (Bušljeta, 2013).
To create effectiveness when learning a certain subject, it is also suggested to improve the activities of learning and teaching. This will also increase their self esteem and help to build a better social attitude among them (Xu et al., 2021). In addition, the concept of it being student centred should be combined with the teacher centred approach so then the effectiveness of the learning process will be obtained. Furthermore, the readiness among the teachers and students also influences the effectiveness of the learning process. Other than that, the passion for teaching among the educators plays an important role in helping the teachers become effective facilitators (Bidabadi et al., 2016).
Regarding the discourse on effectiveness in learning and teaching, it is shown that several components should be considered to obtain the learning objectives whether during online teaching or as part of the physical learning process Obviously, the content of certain courses has become a main component to be emphasised. In addition, it also contributes to satisfaction and the students also can reflect on themselves after learning a certain course. The current study focuses on the component of ethics and civilization which is crucial part to impart on the students. This is because this course will train the essential skills that can be practised among the learners throughout their life.
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This study employed a mixed method approach as part of a combined quantitative and qualitative design. The qualitative study answered the research question: “How can the content and the method of assessment of PEP be improved to achieve the learning objectives and provide more effective lessons to the learners?” The nature of qualitative methods assists researchers in comprehending the respondents’ feelings, thoughts, values, and beliefs (Abu Hassan Shaari & Waller, 2022). For the quantitative method, this study applied a questionnaire to allow the researchers to analyse the relationships present and compare the data (Coghlan & Brydon Miller, 2014). The quantitative aspect was used to answer the research question: “After completing the PEP and FIS courses, do they give a highly effective lesson to you?”
The current study used convenience purposive sampling techniques to recruit the participants. This technique is suitable since the respondents are among the learners who have enrolled on the PEP courses. This is as well as the educators who have been teaching PEP subjects. In addition, this type of respondent can provide information related to a certain study (Nyumba et al., 2018). The first author, who had experience teaching PEP for more than three semesters, explained the objective of the study to the participants involved in both research methods, quantitative and qualitative. For the qualitative study, a focus group discussion was conducted to identify the perspectives of both educators and learners.
For the participants involved in the qualitative methods, it encompasses the students who were divided into seven groups. They shared their experiences of learning the PEP course. The structured interviews were also conducted among some of the lecturers who had been teaching the PEP courses via Zoom meetings They consisted of eight lecturers at the University of Malaysia Kelantan (UMK), Malaysia and they were willing to share their experiences and feelings while teaching the course.
For the quantitative method, the participants were among the students who have learnt the PEP and FIS courses, totalling 1,837 altogether. The respondents answered the related questions via a Google Form. The FIS students are selected to analyse the comparison of the level of effectiveness of learning those subjects.
Table 1. illustrates the information of participants in the currents study. Quantitative study Qualitative study (students) Qualitative study (educators)
Male 472 15 4 Female 1365 15 4
Age 21 24 years old 21 24 years old 35 50 years old Level of education Bachelor’s degree Bachelor’s degree Doctor of Philosophy
Table 1 depicts the demographic background of the respondents. Most of the university students were between 21 24 years old and they were bachelor’s degree students. Regarding the educators, they consisted of lecturers who held the degree of Doctor of Philosophy while all of the participants were from the University of Malaysia Kelantan.
3.4.
The qualitative data was collected through focus group discussions and interviews among selected participants. The online focus group method was applied because it was intended to trigger more casual interactions between the respondents and the hosts (Nyumba et al., 2018). The researchers led the focus group discussion which lasted about 120 minutes. During the discussions, every participant had a chance to share their experience. Their right to comment on each other was also observed. This enhanced the group interactions and the research exploration in detail (Abu Hassan Shaari & Willer, 2022).
The interviews were conducted through online to replace the face to face technique (Tümen Akyıldız & Ahmed, 2021). Moreover, this technique also provides a deeper understanding of society (Mohajan, 2018). The interviews were organised based on a certain schedule that had been arranged beforehand. After that, the interviews were audio recorded and transcribed in the Malay language since the participants used the Malay language during the interview.
As for the quantitative data, the researchers distributed the questionnaire via a Google Form. It took about 20 minutes for the respondents to complete the related items. After completing the form, the data was analysed using SPSS version 26 to obtain the t test value of the data. An independent t test was used to identify the comparison of the mean between certain groups (Kim, 2015). In this study, the t test was specifically used to identify the comparison of the level of effectiveness of the PEP and FIS courses after they had been taught
3.5.
The current study as approved by The University’s Institutional Review Board.
The rigor technique in the quantitative study was used to determine the precision and accuracy of the quantitative technique (Marquart, 2017). For the qualitative study, it was mentioned that the rigor technique was used as a reflection and
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experience for the researchers during and after conducting a certain study (Maher et al., 2018).
For the qualitative study, four techniques were applied. Firstly, the focus group discussions were video recorded. This assists the researchers in replaying the recordings during the translation and transcription process. This technique allows the researchers to identify the passive and dominant participants as well as the group agreement. Secondly, the thoughts and observations were recorded which included a systematic description of certain studies (Chowdhury & Shil, 2021). Thirdly, for the peer review, the researchers discussed the memos after the interviews. This was to identify reliability and avoid bias due to the use of one coder. Fourthly, the validation process has been conducted using member checking and this will assist the researchers in resolving any misunderstanding of the data.
For the quantitative study, the items used in the questionnaire were developed by the researchers. For the item’s reliability, the items provided in Appendix 1 have been undergone testing for reliability In addition, it has been validated by experts in the field of social science. After performing a pre test of the items, the questionnaires were revised to obtain an acceptable range of reliability and validity. The real data collection was then conducted and the data was analysed using SPSS software version 26. Table 2 explains the values of reliability for all related items that have been used in this study.
Table 2: The value of Cronbach’s Alpha for the developed questionnaire Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items .973 15
Table 2 illustrates the value of the reliability statistics according to the computation of the Cronbach’s Alpha It is proven that the values of Cronbach’s alpha exceeded 0.7 as highlighted in table 2. Coherently, the value of Cronbach’s alpha is in an acceptable valid range as recommended by Hair et al. (2017), thus the values are valid.
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Seven groups of students and eight lecturers participated in the interviews in different sessions Based on the data gathered from the interviews, the themes appear from the findings regarding the educators’ perspectives as listed in Table 3.
Table 3: List of themes, sub themes, and related quotes from the respondents Themes Sub theme Representative quotes
Syllabus arrangement Redundant topics
It appears in two topics, which is topic four and six as well.”
Certain concepts are too broad not focus specific.
“For the first topic, it seems that in the first topic,itencompassesa lot of concepts of ethics.”
Unsystematic terms Complicated terms in the assessment “After I got feedback from students, they asked me to revise the concept of theories and laws.”
Arduous historical concept “It's quite hard for me to comprehend though because we need to identify all related components of historical chronology even during ancient times.”
Table 3 shows the main themes that appeared following the qualitative study. It shows that the issue of the redundant topics as well as the broad concept of the sub topics should be improvised to assist the learners in gaining more of an understanding of the PEP course. In addition, the complicated terms that have been used to explain the assessment hinder the student’s ability to reach the quality learning goal. This proves that thorough revisions should be conducted in both aspects, either in the content itself or in the assessment procedures.
Based on the results, the respondents mention that the redundant topic that has been provided in the sub topics makes it difficult to explain to the students. “Based on my experience of teaching PEP for about three semesters, actually it took a long time for me to understand what has been provided by MOHE. The slide is too long, and it is hard to digest before we impart it to students. Yes, we are provided with the PEP module, but it is still hard to fully understand because the module strictly follows the syllabus arranged in the MOHE slide” (Lecturer 1).
From the respondent above, it shows that the unfriendly slide results in too many difficulties in terms of the educators sharing the PEP content. In addition, the module also contains some problematic sub topics that should be revised. This finding also is supported by the previous research conducted by Ruzaini et al (2021) who mentioned the issues of the PEP course among the university students. In addition, this is also in line with the statements made by the other respondents who identify similar problems.
“In terms of positive aspects, actually I am really interested in teaching PEP course. The concept of ethics is imperative to be included in syllabus in higher education level because it plays an important role in forming a harmonious society and nation” (Lecturer 2)
The respondents share the viewpoint that there is a positive impact due to the PEP course. It shows the relevance of introducing this course at the university level. As discussed before, the element of ethics is a crucial component to ensure that the students can survive in the real world today. However, it is suggested to revise the course so then the content and learning objectives will be taken on by the university students.
“However there are some improvements that should be taken into action for this course. For example, the discussion of ethics and civilization. It is better if there is a wider discourse of ethics. This is because, in terms of sub topics, we can embed the aspect of ethics in every sub topic. For example, the discussion of ethics in the component of science and economy. And I admit that the ethics in using science and technology is inserted in topic seven. But the more aspects of ethics in every sub topic, the better, I think. Then, the first topic seems to encompass a lot of concepts of ethics. There are ethics, etiquette, ethos, morality, etc. So, it would be better if more space in another sub topic is given to discuss those things related to the concept of ethics. So, we will be more creative to elaborate it based on our students’ backgrounds. So, I think this course will be more effective” (Lecturer 3)
From the interview, it is understood that the concept of ethics should focus on a more specific area of discussion. This is to obtain a comprehensive understanding among the students so then they can understand the concept well. Understanding the learning process is important to assist the students in developing new skills and changing their attitudes toward becoming better students (Sequeira, 2012). “Then in terms of syllabus arrangement, if we refer to the slide, it looks like the redundant topic is discussed from different chapters. For example, the foundation of integration. It appears in two topics, which are topics four and six as well. So, I believe that it is better to compact it to only for one topic and no need to repeat the same thing in different topics” (Lecturer 4).
“Similar to the discussion of the concept of civilization. I know that we need to guide students to understand the process of the formation of civilization. We have Malay, the eastern as well as Western civilizations.
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But the topic of civilization looks scattered all over every topic. The topic of civilization is included in topic 2, and then topics 4 and 5. Sometimes
I wonder why I need to say the same thing to my students. So it is better to be compacted into one chapter. Consequently, the module arrangement also will be more systematic. This is because the issue in the PEP module is that we highlight the same thing in different topics. So we can also avoid the issue of long slides in certain topics, which is surprisingly 70 slides” (Lecturer 5).
From the view of the respondents, it also shows that the syllabus arrangement is obviously problematic in relation to the PEP course. It is understood that civilization is a broad topic. Thus, it is proposed that the content of the PEP course should be revised so then only the selected elements of civilization are inserted in certain topics. Moreover, the concept of ethics is already wide enough to be discussed in detail. Other than that, the revision will also help the educators to improvise certain related topics in the PEP module as edited by Ateerah et al., (2020). It is proven that the editors should take into consideration the feedback given by the respondents to make sure that the learning objective of the concept of ethics and civilization can be comprehended by the university students.
For the second theme, it also relates to the assessment method that contributes to the confusion among the students. It is further mentioned that the term has been used in the assessment guidelines of the PEP course.
“For the assessment of the PEP course, I think the assessment is quite different from other universities who offer the PEP course. For me, I think I have problems with the essay assignment. After I got feedback from students, they asked me to revise the concept of theories and laws. This is because they don’t know how to write the theoretical concept. They don’t really understand, for example, the theory of positive psychology. Students actually face difficulty because they don’t have background knowledge in psychology and most of them are first year students. For my students, they are from a pure science stream and they face problems dealing with this assessment. In terms of law, they still can relate with the Islamic perspective of certain ethics in the given assessment” (Lecturer 6).
From the interview statement above, it is proven that besides the syllabus arrangement, the assessment should be revised as well. The complicated terms used in the assessment should be simplified so then the students can achieve the objective of conducting the assignment. In addition, the course learning outcome (CLO) should also be improvised so then it suits all backgrounds at the university level. Additionally, it has been stated that there is a lack of understanding regarding the significance of assessment quality in relation to the teaching structure and the provision of systematic support during the learning period (Cheng et al., 2015).
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“I think this subject is OK but it is quite hard to understand at the end of the topics. For example, when discussing the federal constitution in topic 6, it’s quite hard for me to comprehend though because we need to identify all related components of historical chronology even during ancient times. Also, we need to memorise all sorts of historical dates based on certain memorable events in the context of Malaysia’s history. So I think the end topic should be compressed so that the issue would not be too broad to be understood” (Student 1).
According to the interview statement above, this lengthy topic makes it difficult for the students to understand the PEP course. This is because the program learning outcome (PLO) is plotted in relation to PLO 11 which relates to ethics and professionalism. It is understood that the component of knowledge and understanding should be moderated and not be a burden for the students to memorise per se.
“In my opinion, it would be better if we could discuss the real political crisis in Malaysia so that the younger generation will realise what is happening around them and this will also guide students to learn the administration in the country” (Student 2).
This shows that the learners are also aware of the current political trouble in their country. In addition, the urgency to implement better morals and ethics among the political leaders is important to result in a better governance system (Kamal, 2021). In addition, the urgency to include morality and ethics in certain related courses will assist the educational organisation to better obtain improved learning and teaching quality in the future.
For the quantitative results, the independent t test showed that there is a significant relationship between the mean score for the PEP and FIS course [df=834.48, t=(1836), (2.870), p=.004 The mean score of FIS was higher [6.14±0.82] compared to the PEP course [6.01±0.93] as shown in Table 4
Table 4: The differences in the mean score of the PEP and FIS courses among 1,837 students
Courses N Mean SD t df sig.
Falsafah & Isu Semasa (FIS) 443 6.14 0.82
Penghayatan Etika & Peradaban (PEP)
1394 6.01 0.93
2.870 834.476 0.004
From the figure shown in Table 4, it depicts that there are some flaws in the PEP course that require amendment. It can also be implied that the students experience a less effective impact due to the PEP course compared to the FIS course. This
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urges a further analysis of the content and assessment method so then this problem can be solved. This is because the components of the ethics and civilization course are correlated with each other. However, said components should be simplified to become more friendly and flexible content.
The findings also identify that there are obvious different perceptions among the different ethnicities of the students. The results also show that the Chinese group specified that the PEP course is less important to learn in the university [DF 4,1832=13.559, p<0.05] as illustrated in Table 5. This is followed by the perspective of other ethnicities, specifically Bumiputera [6.11±0.76], Indian [6.18±0.91], and Malay [6.08±0.88].
Table 5: The different perspectives on the level of importance of the PEP course among various ethnicities
Ethnicities N Mean SD F Sig.
Bumiputera Sabah / Sarawak 82 6.11 0.76 13.559 0.000
China 171 5.56 1.06 India 101 6.18 0.91 Others 22 6.07 1.00 Malay 1461 6.08 0.88 Total 1837 6.04 0.91
DF=4,1832
Table 5 depicts that Chinese students consider the PEP course to be less impactful compared to other ethnicities. It is understood that the content of PEP also discusses the element related to the concept of a social contract, for example. It describes the speciality of every ethnicity and this might contribute to the discomforting sense for certain ethnicities. It is also shown that there is a critical issue among different ethnicities in Malaysia because Malaysians are facing a plurality of religion, culture, and economic crisis (Alias et al., 2014). It is suggested that the PEP content should identify several elements that can reduce the issue due to ethnicity. It is further necessary to include the element of tolerance as the sub topic. This study also proves that the perception of different ethnicities of this course provides a new agenda to improve the PEP course, especially among Malaysians
Referring to research question one, it is understood that the content of the PEP course should be improved to attain learning objectives. This study proves that the syllabus arrangement plays a vital role in guiding the students to
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comprehending certain topics. This is because learning the content is not merely about choosing a particular syllabus type. It also requires selecting what suitable syllabi will work with the students (Joy, 2013). This study reveals that the redundant content and complicated terms in the PEP course should be altered to make sure that the students can discern the significant content of ethics and civilization in the PEP course.
Regarding the issue of political crisis as mentioned by the students, it is stated that the political crisis also influences the arrangement of the curriculum in the national educational system. It is argued that the political agenda should be avoided when developing certain learning material that could lead to student misconceptions. In addition, it is agreed that the issue of hypocrisy among politicians in Malaysia is well understood by the people. In addition, it is also proven that “The political uncertainty engendered by rampant party hopping and the naked drive for power” (Tayeb, 2021, p. 105). This leads to a divergent impact among Malaysians. It is also shown that students need to have a new view of the political world. As revealed in the study, the relevance of the PEP syllabus discusses the real world of political administration in Malaysia.
In terms of research question two, the PEP course can be made more effective if the element of humane value is included. Furthermore, the normative value of ethics is a ‘living’ component that seeks to ensure that the students will know how they should be as human beings (Singh & Stückelberger, 2017). It would appear that the content of the PEP course should focus on the foundation component to form a righteous attitude that is suitable for the university students. On the other hand, the assessment method should also be considered. This is because it is used to evaluate whether the learners understand the content that they are learning Moreover, it is also used to analyse whether a student has reached a certain level of competence in a certain learning period (Umar, 2018). It is also important to identify related components that should be highlighted in the assessment process such as the social, cognitive, and facilitatory elements (Rapanta et al., 2020). This can assist the students in developing skills that can be applied in their lifetime.
Another finding is that the inseparability of religion and ethics should be highlighted in the learning process. For example, it is stated that the learners’ keenness when studying Islamic education contributed to the learning performance of Islamic education among the students (Ubale et al., 2015). Thus, it is proven that the religious element also leads to an impactful learning process and associated outcomes. It also should be in line with the rapid progression of e learning which has become the main medium of the learning process. The embedded concept of foundation in religion should be suited to the strength of the students who use e learning as a daily means for their reference.
Based on the findings of this study, it can be summarised that the learning content is imperative when seeking to obtain a quality learning outcome. In addition, this revision also contributes to a continuous quality improvement of the element of the learning and teaching process (Antoney et al., 2018). This study also identifies
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that the findings are in line with the previous findings who mention the issue of less effective outcomes for the PEP course as stated by Ruzaini et al. (2021) and Ateerah et al. (2021). It also proves that the requirement of getting feedback from the students and educators is important to enhance the learning quality, especially for the MPU courses at the Malaysia university level.
Furthermore, this study is beneficial when it comes to improving the learning and teaching quality since it provides both the perception of the learners as well as that of the lecturers. The limitation of this study is that this study was conducted among UMK students only. This study was also conducted during an online learning period and therefore did not cover the learning and teaching of the PEP course during face to face sessions.
The findings reveal that the quality of the PEP content is less effective and needs further improvement. It is important to revise the content of the PEP course to implement more focused themes in the course. This is to aid the students in getting more of an understanding of the course. It is proposed to restructure the vaguer terms and replace them with an understandable component. In addition, it is necessary to amend the reference book entitled Penghayatan Etika dan Peradaban edited by Ateerah et al. (2020), and rebuild the necessary components of ethics and unity in the course. It is also suggested that university leaders also should play a role in developing ethical values and virtues. In addition, the integrity and ethical character present in certain institutions, as well as the curricula of higher education, are both essential when it comes to shaping trustworthy and credible professionals.
It is proposed to approach other students who have taken the PEP course to identify whether there are similar issues to increase the quality of the teaching and learning, particularly at the university level. Furthermore, it is important to note that the factors of excellence and the success of educational institutions include choosing the right individual to become an educator and developing them to become effective instructors. This is as well as providing a system that is able to impart the most appropriate learning process for learners in the future (McKinsey, 2007). Thus, it is concluded that the study of ancient civilizations can enhance the human character because they can engage with the components related to great minds and humanity (Constantin & Baias, 2015).
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Appendix 1
1. Aktiviti dan penyampaian kursus adalah menarik/ The activity and the delivery of the course is interesting.
2. Kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang digunakan berkesan untuk membina peribadi saya/ The method of teaching and learning employed is effective at nurturing my personality.
3. Kaedah penilaian dan tugasan kursus mengukuhkan lagi kefahaman saya terhadap topik topik yang diajar/ The method of assessment in this course consolidates the understanding of the topics taught in the course.
4. Saya dapat mengamalkan apa yang dipelajari dalam menghadapi pelbagai situasi dan cabaran kehidupan/ I can practise the knowledge learned to face challenges in my life.
5. Isu isu yang dibincangkan dalam kursus sesuai dengan keperluan masyarakat dan negara/ The issues that have been discussed are relevant to society and the nation’s needs.
6. Kursus ini bermanfaat dan wajar diteruskan pada masa hadapan/ This course is beneficial and should be retained for use in the future.
7. Kaedah penilaian dan tugasan kursus mengukuhkan lagi kefahaman saya terhadap topik topik yang diajar/ The assessment method and course assignment strengthens my understanding of the topics delivered.
8. Kandungan kursus ini membincangkan perkara perkara yang diperlukan dalam kehidupan saya/ The course content discusses the essential requirements of my life.
9. Kandungan kursus ini sesuai dengan objektif yang ingin dicapai/ The course content is in line with its intended objective.
10. Objektif kursus ini penting untuk membentuk keperibadian saya/ The course objectives are essential in shaping my personality.
11. Saya memahami objektif kursus ini dengan jelas/ I understand the course objectives clearly.
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12. Pembelajaran dalam talian sepanjang tempoh pandemik berjaya mengekalkan kualiti pengajaran kursus ini/ Online learning during the pandemic successfully retained the quality of the course.
13. Kursus ini memberi kesan positif kepada kehidupan saya/This course has a positive impact on my life.
14. Kursus ini membentuk diri saya menjadi insan yang seimbang dalam aspek jasmani, emosi, rohani dan intelektual (JERI) serta mencintai negara/ This course shapes me by helping me to become a well balanced person physically, emotionally, spiritually, and intellectually as well having love for the nation.
15. Kursus ini berupaya memupuk semangat toleransi dan hormat menghormati antara pelbagai kaum dan agama / This course can encourage the spirit of tolerance and respect between diverse races and religions
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 348 369, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.20
Received Jul 13, 2022; Revised Sep 2, 2022; Accepted Sep 24, 2022
Huny Bakry
Department of Health Sciences, College of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences
Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Noha A. Alrasheed
Department of Health Sciences, College of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences
Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Shahad M. Alqahtani
Department of Health Sciences, College of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences
Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Reem M. Alshahri
Department of Health Sciences, College of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences
Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Ghada S. Alburaidi
Department of Health Sciences, College of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences
Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Department of Health Sciences, College of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences
Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Abstract. The sudden shift to e learning during the pandemic has challenged the students in setting up proper work areas with available space and resources. However, itisunclear whether these spacesconform to good ergonomic standards, which apply to information about human behaviour, abilities, limitations and other characteristics to the design of tools, machines, tasks, jobs and environments for productive, safe, comfortable and effective human use. This study was conducted, in order
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial Non Derivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
toassessthe ergonomicperceptionsand practicesine learningduringthe COVID 19 pandemic among the Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University students. An analytical cross sectional design was used with a convenience sample of 384 students from January to April 2021. A self administered online questionnaire was used for the data collection. A descriptive data analysis and a Pearson chi square test were done, using JMP Version 14. The results indicated positive ergonomic perceptions. With regard to practices, most desktop laptop users applied good ergonomic practices (80.7%). In contrast, 50.5% of laptop without desk users and 47% of smartphone/tablet users engaged in poor ergonomic practices. Furthermore, the findings showed that there were no significant associations between ergonomic practices and ergonomic perceptions. The study recommends the provision of health education programmes to encourage the application of correct ergonomic practices. Inadditiontoapplyingflexiblebreaksduringclasses,thestudyadvocates the adoption of practices that avoid
Keywords: ergonomic; perception; practice; e learning
The global COVID 19 pandemic has affected the education of approximately one billion students worldwide,: since 120 countries have suspended face to face learning (Shahzad et al., 2021) As a result, the educational process has shifted dramatically towards e learning, whereby teaching has been conducted remotely and virtually through digital platforms (Alqabbani et al., 2020). Due to this sudden shift, students can now access online lessons at home by using electronic devices, such as laptops, tablets and smartphones. This has required setting up a work area with the space and the resources that they had at home, such as a dining room table and chairs, or another makeshift desk with no external monitors or input devices. These home work spaces may not suit students ergonomically (Davis et al., 2020) According to Dul et al. (2012): Ergonomics is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to the design, in order to optimise human well being and overall system performance (Dul et al., 2012)
Ergonomics is influenced by many factors, including body posture and environmental factors (Dul & Weerdmeester, 2003). The purpose of ergonomics is to reduce injuries, such as musculo skeletal disorders (MSD), which can affect productivity and performance (Dianat et al., 2016)
Environmental ergonomics can be defined as the scientific study of the effects of ambient environmental conditions on human comfort, performance and health (Dianat et al., 2016). People spend 80% 90% of their time indoors at work (Vimalanathan & Babu, 2017). Indoor environmental quality is a critical requirement for improving productivity. An indoor environment is affected by many factors, such as temperature, humidity, air quality, illumination and ventilation (Dianat et al., 2016). During the COVID 19 crisis, the education process shifted to e learning and away from classrooms that are commonly designed to
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meet set ergonomic standards; and this requires a change in the focus of ergonomic practices. As a result of sudden changes in the educational process, students may encounter ineffective ergonomic environmental factors in their home workplace, which may affect their health, comfort and academic performance (Soltaninejad et al., 2021).
Noise is one of the ergonomic problems associated with online learning that has negative effects. Noise has been shown to be detrimental not only to an individual’s health, but also to the cognitive ability and the learning performance (Diaco, 2014)). There should be a balanced range of ambient noise in a student’ s environment during learning, in order to make comfortable learning possible without any distractions.
Nevertheless, as students will attempt to eliminate extraneous noise by closing doors and windows, this in turn, can negatively affect ventilation. A study conducted in Denmark suggests that the learning process of students can be enhanced by an elevated ventilation rate (Haverinen Shaughnessy & Shaughnessy, 2015) Inadequate ventilation and elevated indoor temperatures were found to be associated with a lack of student comfort, which negatively influenced academic performance. In contrast, a cool room temperature was found to be associated with enhanced academic performance (Soltaninejad et al., 2021) In general, learners should have control (or input) regarding heating or cooling equipment, so that adjustments may be made, according to their needs.
Lastly, proper lighting in a work area, in which learning occurs, is important to improve and increase a student’s perception of the information. The quality and direction of light are also important, in order to avoid reflection and glare and to protect the eyes. Natural light is preferred in a learning environment, in order to increase a student’s performance. Due to the COVID 19 pandemic, the performance of students may be negatively affected: because classes may be held in spaces where the lighting is not designed for educational purposes; and it is not suitable (Soltaninejad et al., 2021)
Research has shown that poor lighting in a learning environment is a critical problem; and it has an adverse influence on students’ performance. Inappropriate lighting may also affect a student’s safety and health, and not merely their performance (Samani & Samani, 2012).In brief, a good and suitable environment stimulates workers, in this case students, so that they can perform better. Many people spend most of their time in work and learning environments, so this is consequently an important issue.
Ergonomics can have a wide range of effects on health, both physically and psychologically. A widespread series of physical disorders that result from poor office ergonomics is musculo skeletal disorders (Choobineh et al., 2012). Musculo skeletal disorders can be defined as the presence of discomfort, disability or persistent pain in the joints, muscles, tendons and other soft body parts, caused or aggravated by repeated movements and prolonged awkward or forced body postures (Harutunian et al., 2011). Musculo skeletal disorders include a wide range of conditions, such as tendonitis, carpal tunnel syndrome, muscle strains, trigger finger, lower back injuries and back pain (Barr et al., 2004).
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A study conducted to assess the prevalence of computer related musculo skeletal complaints in female college students showed that 80% of the participants experienced nusculo skeletal discomfort related to their computer usage (Hamilton et al., 2005)
Similarly, a study carried out to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of musculo skeletal symptoms among office workers showed that there were high prevalence rates of musculo skeletal symptoms in the shoulders, neck and back. These symptoms were attributed to long hours of prolonged sitting and typing and to a lack of breaks taken (Mahmud et al., 2011). Poor ergonomic factors have also been related to visionary issues associated with using electronic devices during online learning for students.
Research has shown that a few factors can play a role in visionary issues, such as lighting, reflections from the screen and posture (Mashige et al., 2013) These can lead to eye strain, a burning sensation and redness that would negatively affect a student’s health and concentration. In addition, ergonomics influences an individual’s psychological state. Heat, lights and noise factors in the workplace are associated with stress and depression (Makhbul et al., 2013). Therefore, these issues must be prevented; as they would have an impact on students’ abilities and productivity.
Perception can be defined as the way an individual thinks about something and their idea of what it is like (Qiong, 2017) The social cognitive theory shows how individuals are influenced by their experiences, other people’s actions, as well as by the environment. This theory can be applied in different settings, including educational ones (Bandura, 2011). Schools must use effective approaches created, in accordance with ergonomic guidelines, in order to create suitable studying environments that influence students’ perceptions and practice. The use of ergonomic approaches would encourage students to learn, to apply these approaches to their environment and to acquire better awareness of ergonomic issues (Koca & Kaya, 2018)
A crucial aspect of practising good ergonomics is maintaining a natural body posture: it is a position of ease for the body to maintain for a prolonged period of time, a position that supports the natural curves of the spine and one that maintains one’s body in good alignment, in which the stress on the musculo skeletal system is reduced (Genaidy & Karwowski, 1993) It includes the maintenance of different parts of the body in correct alignment, such as the wrists, elbows,neck,shoulders,backandlowerextremities, includingthe knees,hipsand feet.
A study conducted in Egypt to assess the practice of ergonomics among dental students highlighted that 95% of the students had a poor practice of ergonomics. It was reported that while working, only 8.6% of the participants maintained a neutral posture, in comparison to 37.8% who did not (El sallamy et al., 2018). A natural body posture can be preserved through a couple of adjustments to office equipment, such as the monitor, chair, workstation, mouse and keyboard.
An appropriate monitor height is one arm or slightly further away, with the top of the screen at eye level. According to one study, it was estimated that 59% of the participants had the screen at face level (Altalhi et al., 2020). As also reported by the United States Department of Labour, the optimal viewing distance is around 20 40 inches (50 100 cm) (OSHA, 2015). Therefore, students can avoid health issues related to their eyes, when practising proper screen ergonomics. However, research has shown that, due to the small screens of some devices, the ergonomic properties of viewing content on laptops and smartphones can be very poor (Zovkić et al., 2011).. This means that students may face challenges in studying uncomfortably online with difficulty, due to the devices they use.
Likewise, a keyboard and mouse are office equipment that students should pay attention to while engaged in online learning. When using a keyboard, the elbows must be at the same height as the keyboard’s middle row of keys when typing. Many ergonomists recommend a keyboard with a basic position no higher than 30 mm above the work desk, in order to achieve flatness of the wrist. In addition, the mouse must be placed on the side of the keyboard’s front edge, with space for movement. Students should be able to hold the mouse without straining the palm or altering the fingers’ position (Zovkić et al., 2011). Thus, the correct ergonomic practices during online learning with these two pieces of equipment, can prevent any unnecessary straining of the hands or back.
The study environment and workspace are important elements for students. Ergonomically sound elements should improve students’ health, comfort, concentration and motivation during learning. For instance, students’ chairs and desks should provide comfort and enough space to perform school activities. Research has shown that furniture from manufacturers, in general, are designed traditionally and provides one size fits all desks and chairs without consideration of ergonomic standards; thus, they are not suitable for all students, resulting in a lack of concentration, abnormal postures and health issues.
The cause of most health issues related to the student’s environment, as shown by many studies, is a mismatch between it and the anthropometric dimensions of the student (Al Hinai et al., 2018) In addition, sitting on a bed or floor while studying may cause health problems because of the wrong body postures used.
An ergonomically adjusted workstation and equipment alone will not promote good ergonomic practices by individuals. Another aspect that should be consideredis employing ergonomic techniques, such as preventing prolonged use of the same position for hours. One study recommends that every two hours of consistent computer work should be followed by a 15 minute break (Shikdar & Al Kindi, 2007) Thereare various techniquesto prevent theuse of a static posture, while working on digital devices.
One of these techniques is takingshort breaks of two minutes, or performing other tasks, and not exceeding thirty minutes of continuous computer work. A study conducted in Jeddah revealed that among the least applied ergonomic practices among students was the taking of breaks while using digital devices: only 66% of the participants reported taking breaks (Altalhi et al., 2020)
Students of various ages face the risk of developing injuries and disabilities that are associated with poor ergonomic practices during virtual learning
Despite the fact that the burden of the COVID 19 is reducing (Murray, 2022), the integration of e learning within an educational system is expected to grow (Almuwais et al., 2021). This study was crucial; because the assessment of ergonomic perceptions and practices in e learning in this setting would help to provide scientific evidence that could be used in future studies, interventions and policy development. This could contribute to the prevention of the associated health risks of poor ergonomic practices among university students who attend virtual classes. To the best of the researchers’ knowledge, there have been no other findings on the international and national levels that investigated the prevalence of ergonomic perceptions and practices among students in e learning during the COVID 19 pandemic.
This paper aimed to assess the ergonomic perceptions and practices in e learning during the COVID 19 pandemic among Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University students. The objectives of the study were: (a) To examine the ergonomic perceptions and practices in e learning during the COVID 19 pandemic among Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University students. (b)To assess the relationship between ergonomic perceptions and practices in e learning during the COVID 19 pandemic among Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University students. The authors hypothesised that there would be a relation between ergonomic perceptions and practices in e learning, as measured during the COVID 19 pandemic among Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University students.
2.1
An analytical cross sectional study design was used to conduct the study among Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University students over a period of three months (January to April 2021). The study population comprised students from Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University from health and non health colleges. In this research, the participants were recruited through a convenience sampling method. The study population was 38000 students ranging from level one to level twelve. The sample size was calculated to be 384, based on a population size of more than 10,000; the confidence level was set to 1.96, and 0.05 was the degree of accuracy, while 50% was the prevalence of the factor under study.
The questionnaire was adopted from previous tools designed by the National Institutes of Health (NIH, 2020) and North Carolina State University (NCSU, 2010). Approval to use those questionnaires was obtained from the copyright holders. The online structured survey consisted of three sections. The first one assessed the characteristics of the participants; and it contained five questions that assessed socio demographic variables and the personal use of electronic devices, precisely age, the level of study, the type of device used and the length of time using the device generally, and also for educational purposes.
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The second section assessed the ergonomic perceptions; and it included six questions using a three point Likert scale. The questions specifically assessed the perceptions of the influence of the workstation, prolonged sitting and maintaining a good posture of the musculo skeletal system, perception of the effect of room lighting on the eyes, the effect of room temperature on concentration, and finally, the effect of ventilation on the students’ performance.
The last section assessed ergonomic practices, with three assessment sub sections that were directed to the users of different devices, in addition to a final sub section that assessed the space of their environment. The first sub section of the ergonomic practices assessment section was directed at the users of office computers/laptops; and it contained three further sub sections that assessed the user ’s office chair (four questions), the mouse and keyboard (five questions), and the monitor (six questions)
The second sub section was directed to the users of laptops without a desk; and it contained five closed ended questions. The third sub section was directed to the users of tablets and phones; and it contained nine questions.
The last sub section of the ergonomic practices assessment section was the assessment of the space of their environment, which contained six questions. Finally, the last section was one question for assessing their health complaints during e learning. The survey was distributed through online platforms by using Google Forms Students from outside Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University were excluded from the survey. A pilot study was conducted, with 20 students from the university, in order to check the clarity of the questionnaire and any modifications that were made accordingly.
The data were analysed by using the JMP Version 14. To tackle the first objective, descriptive data of ergonomic perception and practice in e learning were presented in the form of numbers and percentages. To tackle the second objective, a Pearson chi square test was used to find the association between ergonomic perception and practice in e learning.
The perception of ergonomics was categorised into three groups: negative perception, neutral perception and positive perception. Cut offs were taken at quartile 1 and quartile 3. Ergonomic practice was categorised into two groups: poor and good. A cut off point was taken at 50%.
The study receivedapproval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University. The purpose of the research was clarified to potential participants in the online questionnaire, and it was clarified that their data would be anonymous. Informed consent was obtained and recorded, as part of the online questionnaire.
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Table 1 shows that about half of the sample were 21 years or older (51%), and most of these were non health college students (62%)
Table 1: Characteristics of participants Number (N) Percentage (%) Age
Less than 21 years old Equal/more than 21 years old 186 198 48% 51% College
Health college Non health college 145 239 38% 62% Total 384 100%
Among the study participants, 35% reported using devices for 3 5 hours for educational purposes. Approximately, 32% of the students used devices for 7 8 hours; 24% used devices for more than 8 hours; and 9% of them reported using their devices for less than 3 hours for educational purposes. The devices used by the students for the e learning process were as follows: 43% of the students were using laptops; 30% were using tablets; and 25% were using smartphones.
Table 2: Ergonomic perceptions
Questions Agree Neutral Disagree Total
I believe prolonged sitting will influence musculoskeletal system issues
I think maintaining a good posture while sitting will protect your musculo skeletal system.
I think studying at a workstation other than an office, such as a couch, bed or the floor does not influence the musculo skeletal system.
I believe a room’s lighting can lead to eye strain in reading.
I think a room’s temperature influences one’s concentration.
I think a room’s ventilation influences one’s performance.
(N) (%) (N) (%) (N) (%) N %
352 92% 24 6% 8 2% 384 100%
275 72% 70 18% 39 10% 384 100%
67 17% 105 27% 212 55% 384 100%
315 82% 49 13% 20 5% 384 100%
303 79% 64 17% 17 4% 384 100%
316 82% 52 14% 16 4% 384 100%
The first objective of the study was to examine the ergonomic perceptions and practices Table 2 presents the ergonomic perceptions. Approximately 72% of the participants agreed that maintaining a good posture, while sitting, would protect their musculo skeletal system. As for questions regarding the perception of the work environment, 82% of the participants agreed that room lighting can lead to eye strain; and similar numbers agreed that room temperature (79%) and ventilation (82%) can influence concentration and performance. However, only
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55% of the participants correctly indicated that studying on a workstation, other than an office, such as a couch, bed or floor, influences the musculo skeletal system.
Table 3: Ergonomic practices of desktop laptop users
Questions
Are your feet fully supported by the floor when you are seated?
Does your chair provide support for your lower back?
When your back is supported, are you able to sit without feeling pressure from the chair seat on the back of your knees?
Do your armrests allow you to get close to your workstation?
Is the keyboard positioned directly in front of and at a distance from the edge of the desk that feels comfortable and supportive for the arms/shoulders?
Are your wrists almost flat (10 20 degree extension) whilst keying, not leaning on the desk creating a sharp upward angle at the wrist joint?
Are brief pauses (every few minutes) taken from continuous keying work?
Yes No Total (N) (%) (N) (%) N %
36 43% 47 57% 83 100%
45 54% 38 46% 83 100%
53 64% 30 36% 83 100%
47 57% 36 43% 83 100%
55 66% 28 34% 83 100%
28 34% 55 66% 83 100%
65 78% 18 22% 83 100%
Is your mouse at the same level, and as close as possible to your keyboard? 64 77% 19 23% 83 100%
Is your upper arm vertical, lower arm horizontal, with a 90 95 degree bend in the elbow, while using the mouse?
33 40% 50 60% 83 100%
Is your monitor positioned directly in front of you? 58 70% 25 30% 83 100%
Is your monitor height slightly below eye level?
47 57% 36 43% 83 100%
Is your monitor positioned at least an arm’s length away? 49 59% 34 41% 83 100%
Are your monitor and work surface free from glare? 44 53% 39 47% 83 100%
Do you have appropriate light for the reading or writing of documents?
Are frequently used items located within the main work area; and are items that are only used occasionally available adjacent to the work area?
71 86% 12 14% 83 100%
77 93% 6 7% 83 100%
Table 3 presents the ergonomic practices of desktop users. It was found that 54% of the participants used an ergonomic chair to support their lower back. Approximately 66% of the participants positioned the keyboard properly at a distance from the desk edge to feel comfortable and to support their arms and
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shoulders. Also, 77% of the desktop laptop users positionedthe mouseat the same level and close to the keyboard. Approximately 30% of the participant’s monitors were not positioned directly in front at eye level. The participants who reported taking brief pauses from continuous work represented 78% of the sample. The portion of the participants who had appropriate light for reading and writing amounted to 86%.
On what surface do you place your laptop?
(N) (%)
• Inappropriate surface (bed, sofa or ground) 24 67 26.4% 73.6%
• Appropriate surface (desk or table)
What is the brightness level of the device?
• Appropriate (moderate)
• Inappropriate (low/high) 52 39 57% 43%
What is the viewing distance between your eyes and the screen of the laptop you are holding?
• Appropriate (more than 40 cm)
• Inappropriate (less than 40 cm/between 21 31 cm/between 31 40 cm)
Do you use an external mouse when using a laptop?
4 87 4% 96%
• Yes
• No 8 83 9% 91%
Is the screen elevated to slightly below eye level?
• Yes
• No 56 35 62% 38%
Total 91 100%
Table 4 shows the ergonomic practices of laptops without desk users. Approximately 73.6% of the students placed the laptop on an inappropriate surface, such as a bed, sofa and the ground. In addition, 96% of them had an inappropriate viewing distance between their eyes and the screen, while 57% had an appropriate brightness level.
On what surface do you place the touchscreen device?
(N) (%)
• Inappropriate surface (bed, sofa or ground) 83 127 40% 60%
• Appropriate surface (desk or table)
How do you hold your device?
• Appropriate (at neck level)
• Inappropriate (below/above neck level) 44 166 21% 79%
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At what brightness level is your device?
• Appropriate (moderate)
• Inappropriate (low/high) 123 87 59% 41%
What is the viewing distance between your eyes and the touchscreen when you hold it?
• Appropriate (more than 40 cm)
• Inappropriate (less than 20 cm/between 21 31 cm/between 31 40 cm)
What is the screen size of your device?
6 204 3% 97%
• Appropriate (medium)
• Inappropriate (small/large) 135 75 64% 36%
Do you support the arm holding the smartphone/tablet,or with your other arm or any object, such as a pillow?
• Yes
• No 141 69 67% 33%
Do you hold your phone in one hand and type with the thumb of the same hand?
• Yes
• No 133 77 63% 37%
Do you support your smartphone using your little finger curled under the bottom edge?
• Yes
• No 156 54 74% 26%
Do you alternate between a sitting and a standing position when using your touchscreen device?
• Yes
• No 126 84 60% 40%
Total 210 100%
Table 5 presents the ergonomic practices of smartphone/tablet users. Approximately 60% of the students placed their smartphones/tablets on an inappropriate surface, such as a bed, or the ground. In addition, 79% of them held their device below/above neck level, and 97% had an inappropriate viewing distance between their eyes and the screen. Approximately 63% held the device in one hand and typed with the same hand, whereas 74% of them supported their device by using the little finger. While using the device, 60% of the students reported alternating between sitting and standing positions.
Yes No Total
(N) (%) (N) (%) N %
Can your room light be adjusted? 320 83% 64 17% 384 100%
Can your screen be seen easily; and is it free from reflections? 289 75% 95 25% 384 100%
Is your surrounding environment free from noise? 202 53% 182 47% 384 100%
Is the ventilation comfortable and sufficient? 340 89% 44 11% 384 100%
Is the temperature comfortable and sufficient? 343 89% 41 11% 384 100%
During the e learning, do you have a private area? 224 58% 160 42% 384 100%
Table 6 shows that among the study participants, 83% reported that their room light could be adjusted, 89% had sufficiently comfortable ventilation and temperature, and 75% had a reflection free screen. Approximately 53% of the participants had an environment that was not noisy, and 58% had a private area for e learning.
Health complaints Number (N) Percentage (%)
Neck pain
Lower back pain
Upper back pain Wrist pain
Eye strain Shoulder pain Headache Anxiety Bone pain Distraction
Ear pain
Lack of sleep Laziness Leg pain Stress Tinnitus
255 215 142 126 291 220 18 85 1 2 1 1 1 2 88 1
66.4% 56% 37% 32.8% 75.8% 57.3% 4.7% 22.1% 0.3% 0.5% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.5% 22.9% 0.3%
Table 7 illustrates the health complaints during e learning The most reported health effect experienced by participants was eye strain (75.8%) Among the other health effects, musculo skeletal symptoms had the highest percentages: neck pain was the most experienced symptom (66%), followed by shoulder pain and lower back pain (56%), followed by upper-back pain (37%) and wrist pain (32%). Among the psychological effects, stress and anxiety were the most prevalent symptoms among the participants (22%).
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Total X2 p value Neg. ( ) Neutral Pos. (+)
Desktop laptop users
Good practice N 3 3.61 24 28.92 40 48.19 67 80.72 1.724 0.4224 % Poor practice N 1 1.20 3 3.61 12 14.46 16 19.28 %
Total N 4 4.82 27 32.53 52 62.65 83 %
Laptop without desk users
Smartphone/ tablet users
Good practice N 3 3.30 16 17.58 26 28.57 45 49.45 1.048 0.5920 % Poor practice N 2 2.20 21 23.08 23 25.27 46 50.55 %
Total N 5 5.49 37 40.66 49 53.85 91 %
Good practice N 4 1.90 53 25.14 54 25.71 111 52.86 0.510 0.7750 % Poor practice N 3 1.43 43 20.48 53 25.24 99 47.14 %
Total N 7 3.33 96 45.71 107 50.95 210 %
The second objective of the study was to assess the relationship between ergonomic perceptions and practices. The hypothesis was that there would be a relation between ergonomic perceptions and practices in e learning as measured during the COVID 19 pandemic among Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University students. Table 8 presents the distributions of the sample, according to ergonomic practices and perception. For desktop laptop users, almost half had good practices and positive perceptions (48.19%). Regarding the chi square test, there was no significant association between these two variables, x²(2, N = 83) = 1.724, p > 0.05. For the users of laptops without a desk, 28.57% reported having good practices and positive perceptions, whereas 25.27% had poor practices, but positive perceptions. Regarding their chi square test, there was no significant association between these two variables, x²(2, N = 91) = 1.048, p > 0.05. Finally, for smartphone/tablet users, 25.71% of the students reported having good practices and positive perceptions; while 25.24% had poor practices and positive perceptions In addition, among the sample, 25.14% had good practices with neutral perceptions. According to the chi square test, there was no significant association between these two variables, x²(2, N = 210) = 0.510, p > 9.05).
This study sought to examine the ergonomic perceptions and practices in e learning during the COVID 19 pandemic. Firstly, in regard to perceptions, the results showed that more than half of the participants indicated that they knew that studying somewhere, other than an office setting, such as a couch, bed or the floor influences the musculo skeletal system. This might be attributable to the participants’ experiences with an inappropriate workstation that resulted in a
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musculo skeletal symptom that made them perceive this behaviour negatively; and they associated it with musculo skeletal problems. In addition, a majority of the students showed a positive perception of the importance of temperature and lighting. This could be the result of experience and the adoption of previous practices during e learning, which led them to form a positive perception regarding a proper learning environment; as it resulted in enhanced productivity, comfort and minimal injuries.
Secondly, in regard to practices, desktop laptop users showed a huge difference between those who practised short pauses every few minutes from continuous keying work, and those who did not. The majority of the participants took breaks from continuous keying work. This could be attributed to the long hours of studying during classes. This is contrasted with the research findings froma study conducted in Jeddah, which revealed that, among students, the practice of taking short pauses, while using devices, was amongst the most poorly practised ergonomic practices: just more than half of the participants took breaks (Altalhi et al., 2020)
The majority of the students reported placing the mouse at the same level, close to the keyboard. This could be attributed to recognising the need to avoid unnecessary stretching and puttingstrain on the arm. Research has described how the mouse should be placed at the side of the keyboard to prevent straining the palm or fingers (Zovkić et al., 2011) Nearly half of the students who participated in the current study used an ergonomic chair to support their lower back and to avoid health issues related to improper sitting. This result shows a desire to support proper posture. As described previously, most health issues are related to thestudents’ learningenvironment and themismatch between chair design and students’ anthropometric dimensions, which affects their health and performance (Al Hinai et al., 2018).
Furthermore, almost two thirds of the participants answered that their monitor was positioned at least an arm's length away, which is what has been previously described as an appropriate monitor height (Altalhi et al., 2020) Incorrect positioning of the screen may cause students discomfort and pain, and they seem prepared to avoid this.
Moreover, for the ergonomic practices among laptop without desk users and smartphone/tablet users, approximately three quarters of laptop users and three fifths of smartphone/tablet users stated that they used an inappropriate surface The reason for this may be a lack of prior preparation for remote study. A majority of students used an inappropriate viewing distance between the eyes and screen, which was less than 40 cm. This is contrary to the reported optimal viewing distance, which is approximately 50 100 cm (OSHA, 2015) This finding could be attributed to the placement of the devices on an inappropriate surface, such as a bed, or the ground.
This might also have been influenced by the small size of their screens and the brightness of the devices. In addition, it was found that more than half of the participants in this study adjusted the brightness to avoid vision issues. Prior research has shown the influence of inappropriate light on proper vision. Other
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factors, such as lighting, reflections from the screen, screen glare and brightness, can also impact one’s vision Inappropriate lighting has consequences, such as those leading to eye strain, a burning sensation and redness that negatively affect a student’s health and concentration (Mashige et al., 2013)
The majority of the participants stated that their room light could be adjusted. According to recent research, due to the COVID 19 pandemic, students’ performance might have been negatively affected, because classes had to be held in spaces where the lighting was not suitable or designed for educational purposes (Soltaninejad et al., 2021). One reason could be economic differences between learning locations. More than half of the participants reported having a private area to study during e learning; this factor was the least practised environmental factor.
This finding might be attributed to the fact that when family members attend work or school remotely, households might face inconveniences in providing every member of the family with a proper private area. Also, approximately half of the students reported that their environment was free from noise; thus, they were able to concentrate on their classes. This is important, as research has shown that noise affects learners’ performance and cognitive abilities (Diaco, 2014).
Musculo skeletal symptoms were reportedly experienced by a majority of the participants. More than half of them experienced neck, lower back and shoulder pain. These findings were similar to those of a previous study, in which a majority of students experienced musculo skeletal symptoms in the shoulder, neck and back (Mahmud et al., 2011). This could be attributed to prolonged sitting and inappropriate postures while studying. In addition, three quarters of the participants in the current study experienced eye strain during e learning This was probably caused by prolonged sitting in front of a screen for e learning activities, or poor practice regarding adjusting the screen brightness.
Some environmental factors might also cause eye strain, such as poor room lighting, glare and reflections on the screen. These factors have been cited in prior research as causing vision problems among students (Mashige et al., 2013) Almost a quarter of the students in the current study reported that they were suffering from psychological effects, such as anxiety and stress. This could be attributed to the lack of availability of a private area for e learning, in addition to technical problems related to their devices, or their internet connection.
The study also sought to assess the relationship between ergonomic perceptions and practices in e learning. The hypothesis was that there would be a relation between ergonomic perceptions and practices in e learning, as measured during the COVID 19 pandemic among Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University students. The findings led to rejecting the hypothesis, as there were no significant associations between perceptions and ergonomic practices among the three types of device users: users of a desktop laptop, a laptop without a desk, and smartphone/tablet. This is aligned with social cognitive theory, which states that individual health behaviours can be influenced through an interplay between individual experiences, the actions of others and environmental factors (Bandura, 2011).
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Perception can be addressed as an individual experience. The findings of our study rejected an association between perceptions and ergonomic practices; however, the other part of the theory regards the influence of environmental factors and the actions of others, which might better explain the observed behaviour.
Ergonomic practices were not found to be significantly associated with ergonomic perceptions. The findingsrevealed that the practice of ergonomics among desktop laptop users was good; whereas the practice among those who used smartphones/tablets and laptops without a desk was poor. In addition to a positive perception of ergonomic practices among students at Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, negative health effects that were experienced during e learning were found to be prevalent among more than half of the students. It is recommended that health education programmes should be provided for students and their parents.
This would encourage the students to apply the correct ergonomic practices in affordable and convenient ways, in order to reduce or prevent health problems. This would be particularly helpful to students with more limited resources. In addition, enough time should be provided so that the students can take flexible breaks during class, in order to avoid problems related to sitting in a static posture for a long period of time.
Alimitationofthisstudywasthat,duetotheCOVID 19pandemic,theparticipants were recruited through non probability convenience sampling; consequently, the results cannot be generalised to the population as a whole. Further research on ergonomic perceptions, practices and the relationship between them is needed. In addition, further research with representative samples involving both males and females from different universities should be pursued. Studies are also needed to validate the research tool.
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Appendix 1
Characteristics of participants
1. What is your age?
a. 17 20 b. 21 25 c. Above 26
2. At what college do you study? a. Health college b. Non health college
3. What type of device do you frequently use for e learning? a. Office computer b. Laptop c. Tablet d. Smartphones
4. On average, how long do you use your devices for educational purposes?
a. Less than 3 hours b. 3 5 hours c. 7 8 hours d. More than 8 hours
5. On average, how long do you use your devices per day? a. Less than 5 hours b. 5 7 hours c. 8 10 hours d. More than 10 hours
1. I believe prolonged sitting will influence musculoskeletal system issues
A Agree B Neutral C Disagree
2. I think maintaining a good posture while sitting will protect your musculoskeletal system.
A. Agree B. Neutral C. Disagree
3. I think studying at a workstation other than an office, such as a couch, bed or the floor, does not influence the musculoskeletal system
A. Agree B. Neutral C. Disagree
4. I believe a room’s lighting can lead to eye strain in reading.
A. Agree B. Neutral C. Disagree
5. I think a room’s temperature influences concentration
A. Agree B. Neutral C. Disagree
6. I think a room’s ventilation influences performance.
A. Agree B. Neutral C. Disagree
Ergonomic assessment of office computer\laptop
The office-chair
1. Are your feet fully supported by the floor when you are seated? Yes/No
2. Does your chair provide support for your lower back? Yes/No
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3. When your back is supported, are you able to sit without feeling pressure from the chair seat on the back of your knees? Yes/No
4. Do your armrests allow you to get close to your workstation? Yes/No
1. Is the keyboard positioned directly in front, and at a distance from the edge of the desk that feels comfortable and supportive for the arms/shoulders? Yes/No
2. Are your wrists almost flat (10 20 degree extension) whilst keying, not leaning on the desk creating a sharp upwards angle at the wrist joint? Yes/No
3. Are brief pauses (every few minutes) taken from continuous keying work? Yes/No
4. Is your mouse at the same leve,l and as close as possible to your keyboard? Yes/No
5. Is your upper arm vertical, lower arm horizontal with a 90 95 degree bend in the elbow while using the mouse? Yes/No
1. Is your monitor positioned directly in front of you? Yes/No 2. Is your monitor height slightly below eye level? Yes/No
3. Is your monitor positioned at least an arm’s length away? Yes/No 4. Are your monitor and work surface free from glare? Yes/No 5. Do you have appropriate light for reading or writing documents? Yes/No
6. Are frequently used items located within the main work area and items which are only used occasionally available adjacent to the work area? Yes/No
1. On what surface do you place your laptop? a. Desk b. Table c. Bed d. On the ground e. On a sofa
2. What is the brightness level of the device? a. Low b. Moderate c. High
3. What is the viewing distance between your eyes and the screen of the laptop that you are holding?
a. Less than 20 cm b. 21 31 cm c. 31 40 cm d. More than 40 cm
4. Do you use an external mouse when using a laptop? Yes/No 5. Is the screen elevated to slightly below eye level? Yes/No
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1. On what surface do you place your touchscreen device? a. Desk b. Table c. Bed d. On the ground e. On a sofa
2. How do you hold your device? a. Below neck level b. At neck level c. Above neck level 3. At what brightness level is your device? a. Low b. Moderate c. High
4. What is the viewing distance between your eyes and the touchscreen when you hold it? a. Less than 20 cm b. 21 31 cm c. 31 40 cm d. More than 40 cm
5. What is the screen size of your device? a. Small b. Medium c. Large 6. Do you support the arm holding the smartphone/tablet with your other arm or another object, such as a pillow? Yes/No 7. Do you hold your phone in one hand and type with the thumb of the same hand? Yes/No 8. Do you support your smartphone using your little finger curled under the bottom edge? Yes/No 9. Do you alternate between a sitting and standing position when using your touchscreen device? Yes/No
1. Can your room light be adjusted? Yes/No 2. Can your screen be seen easily, and is it free from reflections? Yes/No 3. Is your surrounding environment free from noise? Yes/No 4. Is the ventilation comfortable and sufficient? Yes/No 5. Is the temperature comfortable and sufficient? Yes/No 6. During e learning, do you have a private area? Yes/No
Since practising e learning, have you suffered from the following:
1. Neck pain? Yes/No
2. Lower back pain? Yes/No
3. Upper back pain? Yes/No
4. Wrist pain? Yes/No
5. Shoulder pain? Yes/No
6. Eye strain? Yes/No
7. Other (please specify):___________
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 370 388, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.21
Received Jul 7, 2022; Revised Sep 8, 2022; Accepted Sep 15, 2022
Ibrahim Al Dawood
Department of Education and Psychology, College of Science and Humanities, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Hawtat Bani Tamim, Saudi Arabia, e.ebrahim@psau.edu.sa
Abstract. Focusing on learners’ active roles has brought Self regulated Learning (SRL) to attention. Since its introduction in the mid eighties, research has discussed several models and conceptual frameworks pertaining to SRL. Yet, more studies are required to explain how students achieve SRL and how it associates with academic achievement. Additionally, the potential of modern learning tools such as the Blackboard Learning Management System LMS and their role in promoting SRL are highly valued. To this end, the current study adopted a 27 item questionnaire based on different SRL models. It surveyed a sample of 165 students regarding their use of SRL strategies while they were engaged in online courses through Blackboard. The correlation between students’ use of such strategies and their academic achievement was ultimately calculated. It was found that students with higher academic performance apply a broader range of SRL strategies. Also, a variance can be seen in the type of strategies used. These findings are traced back to the features afforded by Blackboard, which result in SRL if they are appropriately deployed. Accordingly, teachers are called to utilise LMSs to promote SRL strategies and train their students in their use.Theseresultsareconsideredsignificantasmostpreviousresearchhas focused on the SRL concept rather than its effect on academic achievement. However, further empirical research on LMS features and their impact on developing SRL is recommended
Keywords: Autonomous Learning; Learner Autonomy; Learning Management Systems; Learning Strategies; Self regulation
Modern advancements in pedagogical approaches and learning environments entail competencies and skills known generally as twenty first century learning skills. At their utmost objective, these competencies foster lifelong learning, reinforcing the learning how to learn, personal management and well being skills.
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Accordingly, students are expected to utilise a set of processes and skills “to initiate, sustain, and assess their learning towards goal achievement”(Gafaro, 2022, p. 64) These processes and skills are called self regulated learning (SRL) It has been widely agreed that SRL enhances students’ performance Consequently, it has been considered “one of the ultimate goals of the educational process for a long time” (Nguyen & Thi, 2021, p. 12) that helps to support lifelong learning (Hyppönen et al., 2019)
Moreover, these transformations in the requirements of learning approaches are accompanied by a massive technological advance reflected in all aspects of life. The advent and development of e learning have presented greater opportunities for students to perform SRL skills and practice learner autonomy Consequently, many research studies have explored the effect of this advance in technology on students’ learning practices and outcomes. Generally, it is believed that “online learning environments may be conducive to the development of this autonomy considering they provide students with access to self directed learning” (Cárcamo & Pérez, 2022, p. 449). This is reflected in a positive impact on the students’ self regulation strategies (Al Hawamlehet al., 2022) as well as students’ higher attainment and improvement in learning skills (Albogami, 2021), combined with positive attitudes towards learning (Zhu et al., 2020)
Among the features that mark the new development of e learning is the use of Learning Management Systems (LMSs). Existing research has found that LMSs foster learners’ self regulated learning skills (Nguyen & Thi, 2021) as they increase the frequency of behaviours related to taking charge of their own learning process (Cárcamo & Pérez, 2022), thus creating a productive learning environment (Mehmet, 2016) However, few studies investigate the correlation between these behaviours and student achievement, as most have focused on the characteristics of learners’ SRL or students’ perceptions of it. Accordingly, the current study attempts to explore this point by utilising a structural analysis approach that computes the correlation between SRL skills and Islamic Studies students’ academic achievement reflected by their GPA. The study seeks to test the following hypotheses:
H1. Self organisational skills significantly correlate with higher academic achievement levels of Islamic Studies students.
H2 Cognitive skills significantly correlate with higher academic achievement levels of Islamic Studies students.
H3. Self evaluation skills significantly correlate with higher academic achievement levels of Islamic Studies students.
The hypotheses are based on the assumption that SRL skills and academic achievement are associated in that the independent variables (SRL skills) affect the dependant (academic achievement). Accordingly, the study aims to explore these variables by outlining strategies that can comprise SRL over the Blackboard LMS. To achieve this, these strategies can be classified into 1) Cognitive, 2) Organizational, and 3) Self evaluation strategies. Although no clear cut
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boundaries can be assumed between these sets of strategies, they can be adopted as a guide to building a scale to measure students’ application of SRL.
It has been widely supported that students who self regulate their learning know how to apply cognitive strategies. Models of SRL development are typically grounded in a social cognitive perspective (Effeneyet al., 2013), including memorisation, elaboration, rehearsal, and organisation (Zimmerman, 1989) Referring to Zimmerman and Moylan’s (2009) model, cognitive strategies are deployed in the forethought phase, where students strategically plan, set their goals and analyse tasks (Vilkova, 2019). Students also apply different cognitive strategies during the performance phase to manage timing and control tasks.
Organisational strategies are interrelated strategies that can contribute to different phases of SRL. They can be considered major cognitive strategies (Pintrich, 2000). They are also required throughout the whole process of SRL as different behaviours and actions need to be organised and controlled to cope with each phase of the learning process.
The third category of strategies is concerned with self evaluation. This type of skill is found to be crucial in SRL (Toering, 2011), as it is continually applied to adapt to goals and set new ones. However, as with other strategies, self evaluation overlaps with other SRL skills as it “depends on such personal processes as self efficacy, goal setting, and knowledge or standards, as well as self observed responses ” (Zimmerman, 1989, p. 334). These skills are applied in all phases of the SRL process. Subsequently, it was found that higher ranked students use self evaluation strategies more effectively (Effeney et al., 2013), verifying the importance of this category.
To fulfil its aims, the paper firstly outlines the theoretical foundations of SRL and learning through LMSs and reports on the methodological approach followed. Then, the generated results will be reported, followed by a discussion of their implications and suggestions for further research The urgency of the study topic stems from the transformation of learning and the orientation to strengthen the competencies of educational agents. The currently adopted pedagogical framework entails that “students can successfully learn with minimal direct support, supervision and micromanagement” (Mapuya, 2022, p. 65). Accordingly, students nowadays urgently need to develop robust and combined knowledge of how to be, how to do, how to act and how to live together and enhance autonomous learning (Hernández et al., 2021). These findings are assumed to be novel as using LMSs, in general, is a relatively contemporary practice, hence investigating its correlation with and impact on SRL is unprecedented and wide ranging. Accordingly, it can contribute to developing instructional design on the Blackboard and teachers’ and students’ practice while using LMSs.
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Because SRL is investigated from many psychological, social, and educational perspectives, there are many definitions to it. Nevertheless, it is agreed that SRL, directly and indirectly, affects the learning process (Karaca & Bektas, 2022) At its basic level, SRL can be defined as a set of skills that enable students to be “metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviourally active participants in their own learning process” (Zimmerman, 1989, p. 329) Similarly, Pintrich (2000) defined SRL as a constructivist process whereby students first set their own goals and objectives for learning and then regulate their cognition and behaviours to control these. Yet, a more detailed definition is that it is: A form of acquiring knowledge and skills in which the learners are independent and self motivated. Learners independently choose their own goals and learning strategies that will lead to achieving those goals. It is through evaluating the effectiveness of one’s learning strategies comparing one ’s current state with the target state that learning can be modified and optimised (Goetzet al., 2013, p. 126).
As this definition suggests, the decisive factor of successful SRL lies in selecting and implementing appropriate skills that suit each stage of the learning process and further monitoring the effect of these strategies on learners’ performance and adapting them when necessary Zimmerman and Moylan (2009) suggested a cyclical model that includes introductory, performance, and reflective stages, as shown in Figure 1 below.
Performance Phase Self Control Time management Self Observation Metacognitive Monitoring Self recording
Forethought
TaskAnaysis Goal setting Strategic planning Sel Motivation Outcome expectations Goal orientation
Self-judgement Self Evaluation Causal attribution Self-reaction Self satisfaction/adaptive
Figure 1: Zimmerman and Moylan’s cyclical Model of Self-regulation, Note Adapted from “Self Regulation: Where Metacognition and Motivation Intersect, ”by B. Zimmerman and A. Moylan, 2009, In D. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of Metacognition in Education. Routledge. https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203876428.ch16
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According to this model, students’ personal feedback informs them of how and to what extent they are achieving their learning goals. Accordingly, they can adapt their learning strategies and skills. This metacognition process incorporates two sets of activities related to learners’ awareness of the cognitive strategies they should use and how to regulate these activities (Gafaro, 2022). Therefore, a repertoire of skills is needed to achieve independent goal setting and strategy selection. Some of these required competencies are suggested by Goetz et al. (2013) to confirm handling these activities. Examples of these competencies include the ability to set reasonable goals, diagnostic skills that enable the learner to monitor and evaluate attainment, and cognitive skills that reduce the gap between students’ current level and the target level (Winne, 1995)
Over the past decades, many research studies have explored students’ SRL utilisation. The problem, however, was the absence of an agreed upon scale of how to measure SRL practices and skills. Yet, some attempts were made to construct a theoretical model to facilitate the design of an assessment instrument for SRL. For example, Pintrich (2000) suggested areas for SRL that are summarised in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Areas for Self Regulated Learning Phases Cognition Motivation/Affect Behaviour Context
Forethought planning and activation
Target goal setting Prior content knowledge activation Metacognitive knowledge activation.
Goal orientation adoption Efficacy judgments Ease of Learning judgements Perceptions of task difficulty Task value activation Interest activation
(Time and effort planning) (Planning for self observations of behaviour)
(Perceptions of task) (Perceptions of context)
Monitoring
Metacognitive awareness and monitoring of cognition
Awareness and monitoring of motivation and affect
Awareness and monitoring of effort, time use, need for help Self observation of behaviour
Monitoring changing task and context conditions
Control
Reaction and Reflection
Selection and adaptation of cognitive strategies for learning, thinking
Cognitive judgments Attributions
Selection and adaptation of strategies for managing motivation and affect
Increase/decrease effort
Persist, give up Help seeking behaviour
Affective reactions Attributions Choice behaviour
Change or renegotiate task Change or leave context
Evaluation of task Evaluation of context
Note. Adapted from “Multiple goals, multiple pathways: The role of goal orientation in learning and achievement,” by PPintrich, 2000, Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(3), 544 555. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022 0663.92.3.544
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This model suggests four phases for regulating learning which are 1) Planning, 2) Monitoring, 3) Control, and 4) Reflection. Each of these phases includes four areas: 1) Cognition, 2) Motivation, 3) Behaviour, and 4) Context. Through these stages and enabling such activities, students are believed to plan for setting goals, monitor their performance, evaluate their achievements and adapt their goals accordingly.
Relying on similar models, researchers have attempted to compose a reliable instrument for measuring the self regulation of learning as a disposition. For example, Toering (2011) composed a scale to measure SRL processes. His scale comprises six sub scales: planning, self monitoring, evaluation, reflection, effort and self efficacy. After implementing this with a sample of 1201 participants, the confirmatory factor analysis showed that his SR scale was reliable and valid.
Another example of such an instrument is the SRL questionnaire (Oz & Sen, 2018) It is a five construct questionnaire that incorporates 38 items. The composing factors are 1) Studying Method, 2) Self Evaluation, 3) Receiving Support, 4) Time Management and Planning, and 5) Seeking Information. Similarly, the confirmatory factor analysis conducted on a sample of 688 students supported the reliability and validity of the instrument.
Similar instruments were used to test students’ perspectives, attitudes, and other related research variables. Among the earlier studies in this strand is that by Zimmerman and Pons (1990), who investigated student differences in SRL After investigating 90 gifted students and a similar number from regular schools for their use of 14 self regulation strategies, it was found that gifted students surpassed their counterparts in SRL strategy use. Also, it was found that 11th grade students exceeded 8th graders, who in turn outperformed 5th graders A more interesting result is that students who applied SRL effectively had higher verbal and mathematical efficacy and adopted more positive perceptions towards it.
Recently, many empirical studies have investigated the effect of SRL on different learning aspects. For example, Aladl and Polpol (2020) investigated the impact of SRL strategies utilising an experimental method of two 4 student groups. They found that the experimental group had developed robust creative thinking and academic self efficacy after applying such techniques. Also, Qi (2021) explored the effect of SRL on students’ reading literacy. The research sample was composed of 15 year old students from Shanghai. The researcher measured those students’ cognitive strategies (elaboration and memorisation), metacognition, and motivational beliefs. The findings showed that both elaboration and memorisation were highly correlated with the control strategy. Moreover, a positive correlation existed between motivational beliefs, cognitive strategy and metacognition.
Another study has descriptively investigated variables related to SRL, such as sources of strategies (Effeneyet al., 2013). This study found that high SRL use originated at home and from early habit forming experiences. Teachers were also
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essential for SRL strategies, especially during the first three school years. Also, the correlation between SRL and academic achievement has been investigated by many studies (e.g. Sardarehet al., 2012). The study examined 82 students’ use of SRL strategies and their correlation with academic achievement. The findings revealed a strong correlation between the two variables.
Moreover, it was found that female participants outperformed males in both strategy application and academic achievement. A similar study, conducted by Hyppönen et al. (2019), examined 230 university students’ self regulation concerning their academic achievement in a Flipped classroom learning context. The study revealed that high self regulation was related to high learning achievement. Additionally, highly self regulating students reported high time management, low lack of regulation and low task avoidance.
Based on the above review, it can be observed that most previous literature on SRL has focused on either the taxonomy of SRL strategies or on developing tools for measuring it. These findings are insightful since they provide significant implications for teachers, course developers and learners. Nevertheless, they raise further questions related to SRL’s correlation with students’ academic achievement, especially in an online environment and for Islamic Studies students. LMSs provide the broad potential for employing SRL, which entails comparable research, and Islamic Studies courses are rarely studied in terms of students’ behaviours while learning.
The importance of SRL has increased with modern teaching methods and styles adopting Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) LMSs There are two main discussion points in relation to this. First, the web based instruction environment, likely to isolate learners, requires students to regulate their learning more effectively (Kumar et al., 2016). Second, new tools and technologies provide better features for students to use SRL strategies and hence realise an active role within their online learning environments (Avcı & Ergün, 2022)
One of the recent significant developments in web based teaching and learning is using less. Using such systems has made teaching and learning more effective because it primarily “promotes both synchronous and asynchronous interactions between faculty and students” (Onodipeet al., 2020, p. 4). They are also found to be “a lot more practical, exciting and innovative in higher education” (Dulkman & Ali, 2016, p. 37) Many features have been acknowledged in the previous literature as advantages of LMSs, including more significant interaction with teachers and peers, more effective course delivery, and the availability of synchronous and asynchronous communication. However, the relevant LMS characteristic of the current study is its capability to foster SRL (Dabbagh & Kitsantas, 2013; Steiner et al., 2013; Egan & Sadera, 2018; Onodipe et al., 2020) Some of the reasons to claim that LMSs promote SRL strategies lie in the features they provide to students that are relevant to strategies suggested by previous SRL conceptual models. Table 2 summarises some of these features and explains their association with SRL strategies.
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LMS Component
Collaborative & communication tools
Content creation & delivery
LMS Feature
• discussion forums
• chats • wikis
• Course & assignment resources
• Feedback uploads
Administrative tools • administer quizzes
Assessment tools
Learning tools
• tracking and journaling
• quiz tools
• self assessment tools
• Search Features
• web links
SRL Strategy
• Goal setting
• Time management
• Tasks (rehearsal, elaboration and organisation)
• Self monitoring
• Help seeking
• Self evaluation
• Self monitoring
• Task strategies (rehearsal, elaboration & organisation)
Note Adapted from “University Students’ Perception on the Usefulness of Learning Management System Features in Promoting Self Regulated Learning in Online Learning,” by E. Araka, E. Maina, R. Gitonga, R. Oboko, and J. Kihoro, 2021, International Journal of Education and Development using InformationandCommunicationTechnology(1), p. 49, http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1285531.pdf
The mentioned components and related features cover all stages and aspects of SRL, making LMS a good candidate for investigating its direct effect on students’ learning practices and associated behaviours Previously, LMS has been found to be impactful on students’ motivation through self assessment and forums (Steiner et al., 2013). It was also agreed that LMSs are significant metacognitive tools that aid students’ learning performance (Dabbagh & Kitsantas, 2013). Ultimately, LMSs contribute effectively to promoting students’ high academic achievements (Mehmet, 2016), though this impact is not always apparent in their information literacy (Avcı & Ergün, 2022).
The current study utilises these features as a platform to investigate students’ use of SRL strategies and its effect on their academic achievement.
The present study adopted a descriptive design to investigate its variables. The selected design is deemed suitable since the research data is quantitative and was observed cross sectionally.
The study sample incorporated 165 participants selected randomly from three colleges of Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University (PSAU), Saudi Arabia. The researcher used a stratified sampling technique to select the proper sample size. Following the method, the researcher firstly assigned three colleges where the targeted courses (Islamic Studies) are taught, and the teaching technique (Blackboard) is fully adopted. Table 3 reports the participants’ statistics.
Table 3. Characteristics of the Participants
Gender College 1 College 2 College 3 Total
Male 0 65 0 65
Female 58 0 42 100
Total 58 65 42 165
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All the participants were junior or senior students majoring in Islamic Studies (no first year students included). This standard was applied to guarantee that they have a cumulative GPA and that they had studied for at least two semesters through the Blackboard LMS during the partial or total lockdown of the COVID 19 pandemic. It was confirmed prior to the study that all the participants used the Blackboard for different learning activities. During and after the COVID 19 lockdown, PSAU university adopted a Blackboard course template for the courses, which includes modules for course content, communication, assessment, and feedback; accordingly, it is presupposed that the participants are fully aware of the strategies and skills in question.
After obtaining the necessary consent from the administration of the colleges and the participants, they were briefly informed of the purpose of the survey. They were also coached about the meanings of questionnaire constructs, i.e. cognitive, organisational, and evaluation skills.
To set the structural model of the study, the researcher reviewed the previous literature on SRL and set the conceptual framework that learning in an online environment provides an opportunity for students to foster their SRL (Dang & Robertson, 2010). As it was hypothesised that this capability could create a good opportunity for high academic achievement, the structural model adopted a classification of the skills incorporated in different SRL models. After reviewing previous studies (e.g. Zimmerman, 1989; Winne, 1995; Sardareh et al., 2012; Effeney et al., 2013; Goetz et al., 2013;; Mehmet, 2016; Al Hawamleh et al., 2022; Gafaro, 2022; Karaca & Bektas, 2022), the researcher grouped the necessary skills that formulate SRL over LMS into three constructs: cognitive and monitoring, organisational, and self evaluation skills. Each of these constructs is hypothesised to contribute to raising academic achievement and thus reveal the impact of SRL on academic achievement. Finally, the structural model of the present study and its hypotheses are displayed in Figure 2 below:
To test the study hypotheses, the researcher composed a 3 construct questionnaire incorporating 27 items (9 items for each skill category). The items were intended to measure students’ practice of such skills on the Blackboard LMS. Each item
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requires the respondents to describe their use of a specific skill related to a feature of the Blackboard LMS. The questions were built in a method that pertains to the Blackboard template applied in the university. For each type of strategy, respondents were asked how often they apply it by using the corresponding Blackboard feature. The answers were designed in a five point Likert scale ranging from Always to Never. The questionnaire also collected data regarding students’ GPAs as an indicator of their academic achievement. To validate the questionnaire, it was published through Google Forms to six referees who specialise in education, curriculum design, and teaching methods (three full, one associate and two assistant professors). The referees suggested a few amendments to the wording and structure of the items The final version was administered to a sample of 30 students who were not included in the study sample. The results of this study were tested for internal consistency using SPSS. The Cronbach’ s Alpha for the survey was α = .84, which suggested good reliability of the questionnaire and hence it was administered to the research sample. The survey was administered manually to guarantee more accurate responses, hard copies of the questionnaire were distributed in parts of regular classes, and the generated data were entered manually in the data analysis software. See the appendix for a copy of the study questionnaire.
The obtained data were analysed using SPSS through three stages First, the R squared (R2) value was computed to realise the proportion of the variance for the dependent variable (GPA) which is explained by the independent variables (the three skill categories). Second, the significance value of the overall model in explaining the students’ GPAs was computed. Finally, the coefficient of each of the independent variables on the participants’ GPAs was calculated to test the research hypothesis and account for the primary research query. All were computed through linear regression analysis
The data analysis generated the following results.
Table 4. Model Summary
R R square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin Watson .635a .404 .393 .508 2.11 a. Predictors Organizational, Cognitive, Evaluation Skills
In general, the results show that the model could explain 40.4 % of the variation in the dependent variable, i.e. student GPA. This result indicates the model’ s ability to generate trustworthy findings regarding the predicting variables of the GPA. With regard to the usefulness of the model in explaining students’ GPA, the ANOVA results are presented in Table 5 below.
Table 5. ANOVA of the Model
Model
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 2.8.19 3 9.39 36.33 .000 Residual 41.64 161 .259 Total 69.84 164
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The findings demonstrated that the overall model is significantly useful in explaining students’ GPAs, �� (3, 161) = 36.33, ��< .05.
To account for the research hypotheses, the coefficient of each of the independent variables on the participants’ GPA was computed. Table 6 below displays the results of this stage.
Table 6. The Significance of the Effect of the Independent Variables Model Unstandardised coefficients Standardised Coefficients t Sig.
B Std. Error Beta
1 constant 1.86 .293 6.37 .000 Org. .141 .060 .161 2.35 .020 Cog. .525 .060 .575 8.81 .000 Eval. .167 .052 .207 3.19 .002
The results show that all the suggested variables significantly affect the dependent variable, i.e. GPA. Organisational skills have a significant effect on GPA, t(161)= 2.35, ��< .05. Cognitive skills have a significant effect on GPA, t(161)= 8.81, ��< .05, and evaluation skills have also a significant effect on GPA, t(161)= 3.19, ��< .05. These results indicate that cognitive skills are the most correlated to SRL, followed by Evaluation skills and organisational skills respectively.
Overall, the results are as expected and in line with the previous hypotheses and theoretical work on SRL. The model of the study was found to be capable of predicting the students’ academic achievement to 40%, which is a reasonable percentage. This result can be justified mainly by the components of the questionnaire, which are directly related to SRL, which is, in turn, found to be relevant to academic achievement. Furthermore, the subsequent analysis of the variance of the results means (ANOVA) supported the usefulness of the adopted model in explaining the students’ GPAs This suggests that the results of testing the study hypotheses can be safely assumed.
The correlation of the three independent variables in the model (i.e. the organisational, cognitive, and self evaluation skills) with students’ GPA was significant. Moreover, the magnitude with which each of the three independent variables impacts the dependent variable (i.e. students’ GPA) is also substantial Remarkably, the results suggest that with one unit increase in organisational skills, the student’s GPA increases by 14, which is a significant effect. They also suggest that with one unit increase in cognitive skills, the student’s GPA increases by .53, which is found to be a substantial change. Regarding the evaluation skills, it was found that with one unit increase here, the students’ GPA increases by .17, which is also a significant change. These results validate the research hypotheses, and effectively demonstrate that the three factors are impactful in improving achievement. The most effective aspect of autonomous learning skills in the approach is cognitive skills, followed by evaluation skills, and then organisational skills.
These results are consistent with the previous studies They are in line with Zimmerman and Pons (1990), who found that gifted students apply SRL more
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effectively and that this application is correlated to more verbal and mathematical efficacy. They also support the results of Sardareh, Saad, and Boroomand (2012)’s study, which found a strong correlation between students’ SRL and academic achievement, and that of Aladl and Polpol (2020), which demonstrated that applying selected SRL techniques improves academic self efficacy. The results also match previous findings on the effect of the learning method used by LMS on applying SRL techniques. As Dabbagh and Kitsantas claimed, LMSs provide an appropriate environment to use different SRL techniques, affecting students’ academic achievement (Mehmet, 2016).
As for the detailed strategies applied, the results also coincide with the previous literature. They are in line with the study by Qi (2021), which established that using cognitive strategies is highly correlated to control strategy and higher output, i.e. better reading literacy. However, the relatively low value of the contribution of other types of strategies is not supported similarly. Since most previous literature claimed equal or similar contributions of different SRL techniques in academic performance, this finding can be contradictory and needs further validation Primarily, it can be justified by the nature of the student’ s major, i.e. Islamic Studies, which may entail more cognitive strategies related to memorisation and elaboration compared to organisation or evaluation techniques. More research on the probable effect of discipline on the types of SRL employed can prove or eliminate this justification.
The results also support the previous findings on the impact of LMS, i.e. Blackboard, on students’ academic achievement. All the strategies applied were conducted using features that were available through the system. The results are compatible with those of Onodipe et al. (2020), which found a positive impact of LMS on SRL. They also coincide with the findings of Avcı and Ergün (2022) and Steiner et al. (2013), which revealed that LMSs can play an essential role in student academic performance and engagement by helping students use SRL strategies, including cognitive, metacognitive, organisational and evaluation strategies Such results can be interpreted by arguing that students have learned in an interactive electronic environment that enables them to be active learners. Subsequently, they obtain meaningful learning through their integration in activities, dialogues, discussions, projects and searching for information, rather than being passive recipients of the information. They also suggest that the Blackboard LMS contains tools and capabilities that help provide continuing education for students and create an environment in which a set of tools and learning resources are combined effectively. These capabilities help provide the required flexibility in learning and at the appropriate time and place for learners. Examples of these tools are forums where students are required to participate in a discussion about specific topics. As they get feedback from their teachers and peers, students are likely to set their goals, manage their time, and organise their participation to achieve satisfying results. Other tools, such as My Grades, are believed to provide students with ongoing feedback to monitor their progress, evaluate their work, and adapt their future performance Students can also organise their learning tasks with tools such as To Do, My Tasks, Alerts, Needs Attention and What’s Due.
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Another argument for interpreting the results is that employing SRL skills through the Blackboard LMS entails the consideration of individual differences among students. Learners’ progress in their education is highly correlated to their abilities, capabilities and learning speed, i.e. their SRL Therefore, distinguished learners utilise the capabilities of the Blackboard system in the educational process, which is reflected positively in their academic achievement. Also, it is understood that Blackboard LMS helped provide students with feedback through the self evaluation tools that it provides. Therefore, it allows them to monitor and strengthen their progress through the courses, causing them to develop their learning process, and impacting their academic achievement.
The implication of this study for teaching Islamic Studies courses, and other related disciplines, can be summarised by promoting cognitive strategies that foster academic achievements. Moreover, as the organisational and evaluation strategies were found to be applied to a lesser extent, it is implied that more training is required to enable students to utilise the full potential afforded by Blackboard LMS. Accordingly, the researcher suggests continuous training on how to use the Blackboard and its features. These training sessions will be of more value if they adopt an SRL approach that targets learners’ adoption of different strategies.
The findings of this study contribute to the existing literature that supports employing SRL strategies for better academic performance. They also support the positive impact of LMS tools on fostering such strategies when employed appropriately. As far as the research gap is concerned, the findings raised a significant point regarding the supremacy of cognitive strategies over the other types in determining students’ high academic achievement in Islamic Studies courses. The nature of the discipline is a possible justification for this finding, as more memorisation and comprehension of concepts are required. Further research is necessary to investigate the impact of SRL on various disciplines
Two limitations of the present study may prevent generalising its results. First, the study sample is limited to students in Islamic Studies departments, which may affect its outcomes since students’ GPAs in this major are relatively high. Second, the study is conducted on a descriptive and cross sectional basis. A longitudinal experimental study may present more credible results by comparing students who have not performed SRL or have achieved it only in a face to face environment. To account for such limitations, the researcher suggests that future researchers may consider experimental longitudinal approaches and incorporate a diverse sample. These studies can address research topics such as the correlation between SRL on Blackboard and different academic disciplines. Another interesting study would be to design an e course through Blackboard based on SRL and measure its impact on raising academic achievement.
The shift toward a learner centred approach to learning entails learners being more active and capable of adopting various strategies to get the maximum benefit from the learning content and organise their learning behaviours. Accordingly, many SRL models have been introduced containing different strategies and phases. Previous literature has addressed measuring students’
perceptions of SRL in classic learning environments and has attempted to describe and explain its techniques and stages. Nevertheless, relatively few studies have considered its incorporation in LMSs and its correlation with students’ achievement. To this end, the present study has attempted to fill such a gap by adopting a questionnaire based on the previous modelling of SRL to survey students on their use of the SRL strategies. Furthermore, the correlation between students’ adoption of such techniques and academic achievement was computed.
The study’s findings revealed that the assessment model could predict a considerable part of the dependent variable, i.e. students’ GPA. Such a finding supports the steadfast claim that SRL is directly related to student achievement and that students with high self regulating strategies perform better than their counterparts, which is reflected in their learning outcomes. It was also found that cognitive strategies are the most influential factor for students’ achievement The nature of the student’s major, i.e. Islamic Studies, can be adopted as a probable justification for this finding; accordingly, further research questions about the effect of the discipline in SRL implementation can be raised. It is possible that while some subjects require memorisation, elaboration and rote learning techniques, other disciplines may not be fully internalised with such cognitive processes. After all, investigating students’ application of metacognitive, personal management, and flexibility strategies can provide meaningful insights into the effect of SRL on both types of disciplines.
These results indicate that the Blackboard has considerable potential to foster SRL. It is evident that the incorporated tools can, directly and indirectly, promote SRL strategies. Accordingly, it is recommended that teachers adopt it to a greater extent and train students to use it more effectively. Moreover, as there is variation in the interpretation of each type of strategy for academic achievement, teachers must evaluate their course design and adapt it in conjunction with their students’ needs. Different tools and techniques are suitable for different students and disciplines Nevertheless, the Blackboard has been proven to provide the proper tool for most of the required tasks. It is hoped that this research will provide a motive for applying such capabilities to enable students to use their SRL strategies successfully and thus improve their academic achievement. It is assumed that implementing such suggestions can foster students’ autonomy and increase their attainment. Since the use of LMSs such as Blackboard has become the norm in today’s world, harnessing their potential to achieve SRL is considered an added value to online learning.
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Please write your latest GPA in this format [0.00]
Please read each element thoroughly, think of it carefully, and then select the option that best describes what you do to learn your courses in Blackboard.
Organisational Skills
Item Always Usually Occasionally Rarely Never
1 I define my learning goals by reviewing the CourseGuide posted on Blackboard.
2 I follow up the learning process at times and places that suit me using Blackboard.
3 I organise my time and priorities using the Course CalendarandRetentionCenter on Blackboard.
4 I plan the learning process using Announcement and WhatisNew tools on Blackboard.
5 I review the past lessons and see subsequent lessons through the CourseContents and ToDo tools on Blackboard.
6 I organise and arrange the topics to be studied using the Tasksand Alertstools on Blackboard.
7 I use the Email and DiscussionForums tools to communicate and discuss with my colleagues and faculty members.
8 I organise my study of the selected topics by reviewing the lesson objectives, the content, and the assessment.
9 I organise the content I want to study by downloading, saving and editing the files.
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Item
1. I memorise relevant information and concepts by viewing content on Blackboard.
2. My comprehension of the subjects of the courses I studied through Blackboard is increased by using Blackboard tools.
3. I link ideas and information between different Islamic studies courses using Blackboard learning tools.
4. I summarise and paraphrase the course topics posted on Blackboard
5. I analyse, observe and select the correct information through learning tools on Blackboard (e.g., Contentand DiscussionForums)
6. I participate in asynchronous activities on Blackboard such as Forums, Quizzes, and Assignments.
7. I look for more information related to the topics of the courses posted via Blackboard.
8. I check the notification panel on Blackboard regularly.
9. I am always aware of the due dates, assignments and tasks
Self
Item
1. Blackboard allows me to choose the appropriate assessment tools.
2. I monitor my progress and development in courses via the MyGradestool on Blackboard.
3. I monitor my mistakes and identify them through the assessment grades tools and on Blackboard.
4. I use the feedback from Blackboard to guide me
Always Usually Occasionally Rarely Never
Always Usually Occasionally Rarely Never
towards the desired performance.
5. I adjust my learning methods in light of the self evaluation results provided by Blackboard.
6. I evaluate myself through the homework and activities tools on Blackboard.
7. I can determine my weakness and strengths in the light of the self evaluation results on Blackboard.
8. I self evaluate my learning via Blackboard before I get the correct information from the course instructor.
9. I can measure the extent to which I have achieved my learning goals using Blackboard’s monitoring and evaluation tools.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 389 414, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.22
Received May 30, 2022; Revised Sep 16, 2022; Accepted Sep 24, 2022
International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Zahariah Pilus*International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract. This systematic review paper attempts to present the current database on the effects of explicit connected speech instruction on English as a Second Language (ESL) or English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ perceptive skills and connected speech production. 22 studies were gathered across the digital database through selective searching of key terms. Using the format of the review by Thomson and Derwing (2014), the following information was tabulated: participants’ demographics, theoretical paradigm, scope of training, training input, duration of instruction, nature of assessments, and whether or not there was a significant improvement in learners’ perceptive skills and connected speech production. The findings have generally shown a consensus among the studies that explicit instruction of connected speech was effective and had positively contributed to the improvement of learners’ perceptive skills and connected speech production. This paper adds to the corpora of literature on connected speech in ESL and EFL contexts and raises awareness of the significance of connected speech instruction in ESL or EFL learning contexts.
Keywords: explicit instruction; connected speech; second/foreign language learners; perceptive skills; connected speech production
Although many phonologists believe that connected speech is not a feature that non native speakers of English need to have in their speech, the need to learn it is imperative (Alameen, 2014). Having some knowledge about connected speech
* Corresponding author: Zahariah Pilus, zahariahp@iium.edu.my
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
processes (CSPs) helps English as a Second or Foreign Language learners understand competent or native speakers’ speech better and enable them to also communicate more fluently.
The way in which English is written on the page can mislead learners who go through formal learning of the language. Wong (1987) contends that learners of English often learn with their eyes rather than their ears, and this consequently causes language learners to believe that words should be pronounced as they appear in the written form, that is, words ought to be separated by blank spaces. However, this is not the way that competent or native English speakers converse in real communication.
Competent or native speakers use connected speech. The difference between the ways competent and native speakers, and language learners speak could potentially cause misunderstandings. Researchers, teachers and linguists need to highlight this gap and explore avenues to help learners to listen, comprehend and communicate more effectively. Perceiving and understanding connected speech are important in learning a language without which acquiring the language and speaking it fluently will be difficult.
Although connected speech has a crucial role in effective communication, CSPs have received little attention in ESL and EFL pedagogy literature (Alameen, 2014) and this includes studies that systematically review the state of the literature. It was the lack of systematic literature review (SLR) studies in this field of research that has urged the researchers to review the literature in this area. Generally speaking, literature review papers play an important role in obtaining updates and understanding the issues and research gaps in a particular field. They also help in saving researchers’ time and effort in the search for the literature on the topic (Elrowayati et al., 2020). Therefore, this paper aims to fill the gap and search for studies on connected speech in the ESL and/or EFL context to find out what has been researched. Specifically, this paper conducts a literature review on the studies carried out on the effects of explicit connected speech instruction on English as a Second or Foreign Language learners’ perceptive skills and connected speech production published between 2000 and 2021.
Thomson and Derwing (2014) stress the importance of answering research questions and identifying the gaps in research methodologies while reviewing the literature. Accordingly, this paper summarises studies on the effects of explicit connected speech instruction on ESL or EFL learners’ perceptive skills and connected speech production to find out the answers to the following research question: What has been researched on the effects of explicit connected speech instruction on ESL or ESL learners’ perceptive skills and connected speech production?
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To obtain the answer, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) checklist was used. PRISMA provides an updated checklist of 27 items to specifically guide how systematic reviews and meta analyses are to be developed. The guide specifically helped in collecting, organizing and analysing the articles.
The search for relevant articles was done digitally. The study focused on digital libraries that included Web of Science (WOS), Pro Quest, SCOPUS, ERIC, Science Direct and JSTOR. In addition, EndNote and Google Scholar were also used for collecting and gaining comprehensive lists of related articles.
Several keywords were employed in the search process. The keywords ‘suprasegmental phonemic features’ or ‘connected speech’ or ‘listening comprehension’ (AND) ‘explicit instruction’ were used for the search. For the digital libraries, the keywords were used with Boolean (AND) and (OR) to connect the keywords and their alternative synonyms. Initially, this method of searching produced many relevant and interesting articles which also included duplicated items. In order to avoid duplication during the selection process of articles, all gathered articles were filtered using the inclusion and exclusion criteria shown in Table 1. After filtering the articles, the obtained list of articles was considered the final list that included the most relevant articles without overlapping or duplication.
In this paper, three criteria had been used for paper selection. Firstly, the scope of this review was limited to published research and studies on the effects of explicit connected speech instruction on ESL or EFL learners’ perceptive skills and connected speech production. Secondly, the time scope of this SLR paper covered research studies published from 2000 until 2021. Thirdly, a search for journal articles was conducted using university databases and Google search engines as mentioned in the previous sub section.
Papers published in journals or theses. Unpublished papers or papers published in a conference proceeding
Related to teaching one or more features of connected speech as part of suprasegmental features, or covered both segmental and connected speech features.
Studies in which L2 learners were provided with connected speech instruction. The studies presented an evaluation and a discussion of the explicit instruction of connected speech.
Related to English as a Second Language or Foreign Language.
Related to teaching segmental features only with no reference to connected speech.
Studies without connected speech instruction. The studies did not present an evaluation or discussion of explicit instruction of connected speech.
Not related to English as a Second Language or Foreign Language.
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As a result of the selected searching strategy and the selection criteria, 22 studies were obtained. Figure 1 shows the flow chart demonstrating the selection of studies suitable for inclusion in the review.
Initial search through database (N = 4902)
Based on title and keywords (N = 35)
Articles were filtered after scanning the abstract (N = 22)
Excluded (N = 4867)
Excluded (N = 13)
Figure 1: Flow chart demonstrating the selection of studies
Table 2 specifies the demographic backgrounds of the selected studies.
Table 2. Selected studies based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria
No. Author(s) Year Title Reference type Country of study
1 Abe, H. 2015 Effects of Form Focused Instruction on the Acquisition of Weak Forms by Japanese EFL Learners
2 Ahmadian, M., & Matour, R. 2014 The Effect of Explicit Instruction of Connected Speech Features on Iranian EFL Learners’ Listening Comprehension Skill
3 Alameen, G. 2014 The Effectiveness of Linking Instruction on NNS Speech Perception and Production
4 Ashtiani, F. T., & Zafarghandi, A. M.
2015 The Effect of English Verbal Songs on Connected Speech Aspects of Adult English Learners’ Speech Production
5 Carreira, J. M. 2014 How Can We Enhance EFL Learners’ Listening
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Doctoral dissertation Japan
International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 3(2), 227 236
Iran
Thesis, Pro Quest Publications Iowa, U.S.A.
Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 6(1), 212 226.
Iran
In T. Muller., J. Adamson., Japan
Fluency? Teaching Connected Speech to Japanese University Students Using Songs
6 Cho, H. 2019 The Effects of Teaching Linking in Korean EFL Listening Class
P.S. Brown., & S. Herder (Eds.). Exploring EFL Fluency in Asia (pp. 297 311). Palgrave Macmillan: London.
KOAJ Korean Open Access Journal: 음성음운형태론연구, [StudiesinPhonetics, Phonologyand Morphology], 25(2), 273 297
Korea
7 Couper, G. 2003 The Value of an Explicit Pronunciation Syllabus in ESOL Teaching
8 Couper, G. 2006 The Short and Long Term Effects of Pronunciation Instruction
9 Demirezen, M. 2016 Assimilation as a Co articulation Producer in Words and Pronunciation Problems for Turkish English Teachers
10 Euler, S. S. 2014 Assessing Instructional Effects of Proficiency Level EFL Pronunciation Teaching under a Connected Speech Based Approach
11 Gokgoz Kurt, B. 2016 Attention Control and the Effects of Online Training in Improving Connected Speech Perception by Learners of English as a Second Language
12 Hamouda, A. 2017 Saudi EFL English Majors’ Speech Comprehension and Production: Does Explicit Instruction in Connected Speech Features Makes a Difference?
13 Jang, J., & Lee, J. 2015 Comparing Two Types of Explicit Pronunciation Instructions on Second Language Accentedness
14 Khaghaninezha d, M. S., & Jafarzadeh, G.
2014 Investigating the Effect of Reduced Forms Instruction on EFL Learners' Listening and Speaking Abilities
15 Kuo, F. L., Kuo, Y., & Lee, J. T. 2016 Effects of Communicative Instruction versus Explicit Instruction on Taiwanese
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Prospect, Vol. 18, No. 3 New Zealand
Prospect, Vol. 21, No. 1 New Zealand
Kuram Ve Uygulamada Egitim Bilimleri Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16(2), 477 509.
Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4(4), 665 692.
Turkey
Germany
Thesis, Pro Quest Publications U.S.A.
JournalofEducation, Assiut,33(2.2), 1 63. Saudi Arabia
Linguistic Research, 32, 15 32. Korea
English Language Teaching, 7(1), 159 171.
International Journal of Language and Linguistics, 3(2), 101
Iran
Taiwan
EFL Junior High Students’ Word Recognition of Connected Speech
16 Kuo, Y. 2010 Using Partial Dictation of an English Teaching Radio Program to Enhance EFL Learners’ Listening Comprehension
17 Mirfatemi, F., Sadeghi, A., & Niyazi, M. P.
2020 Impact of Supra Segmental Features on Reading Comprehension in First and Second Language: A Comparative Study of Iranian EFL Learners
18 Musfirah, S. 2019 Improving Students' Listening Comprehension by Teaching Connected Speech
19 Ngoan, B. T, & Giang, B.T. 2021 The Explicit Instructions on Connected Speech to the First Year English Major Students’ Perception and Production at School of Foreign Languages Thai Nguyen University
20 Nokes, J. 2018 Whaddya Call That Again? Materials for Teaching Connected Speech
21 Rahimi, M , & Chalak, A 2017 The Effect of Connected Speech Teaching on Listening Comprehension of Iranian EFL Learners
22 Suwartono, T., & Mayaratri, P. 2019 Songs Helped Them Learn the English Connected Speech
111.
Asian EFL Journal Professional Teaching Articles, 47, 4 29.
Language Teaching Research Quarterly, 20, 19 42.
Taiwan
Iran
Englisia, Vol. 6, No. 2, 64 74 Indonesia
TNU Journal of Science and Technology, 226(03), 72 79.
Thailand
Second Language Studies, 36(2), 27 153.
Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 4(8), 280 291.
Jurnal Bahasa Lingua Scientia, 11(1), 59 68.
Hawaii, U.S.A
Iran
Indonesia
Table 2 shows that most studies on connected speech instruction were conducted in Iran (five studies), the U.S.A (three studies), followed by Japan, New Zealand, Indonesia, Taiwan and Korea (two studies each); and Thailand, Turkey, Germany and Saudi Arabia (one study each). It is worth noting that most studies were conducted in the last decade (from 2010 2021), while only one study was conducted in 2003 and one in 2006. This is an indication that the number of publications on connected speech has increased in the last eleven years.
To answer the research question, ‘What has been researched on the effects of explicit instruction of connected speech on ESL or EFL learners’ perceptive skills and connected speech production?’, the content of the studies was summarised. Adapting a format by Thomson and Derwing (2014), data from the 22 experimental studies were tabulated based on the following: participants’ demographics, theoretical paradigm, scope of training, instruction type (traditional or computer based), duration of instruction, nature of assessments and whether or not there was a significant improvement in the learners’ skills. In
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addition, this study also tabulated the proficiency level of the participants and the sample number as part of the demographic information, which were not included in Thomson and Derwing (2014).
To understand the research landscape of the studies on explicit connected speech instruction, the demographic backgrounds of the studies were collected and compiled according to several themes.
The following table shows the frequency and percentage of studies based on the age groups of the participants.
Table 3. Frequency and percentage of studies based on age groups of participants Age groups Frequency Percentage
Teens 7 32%
Adults 13 59%
Both teens and adults 1 4.5%
Not stated 1 4.5% Total 22 100
As indicated in Table 3, 32% (7) of the studies involved teens (12 17 years old), while 59% (13) of the studies involved adults (18 50 years old) as the participants. One study involved both groups of age range while one study did not state the age group.
The following table shows the frequency and percentage of studies based on the gender of the participants.
Table 4. Frequency and percentage of studies based on gender of participants Gender Frequency Percentage
Both 9 41%
Not stated 9 41%
Male 3 13.5% Female 1 4.5% Total 22 100%
As shown in Table 4, 41% (9) of the studies involved both male and female learners, but 41% (9) of the studies did not mention the gender of the participants. Meanwhile, 13.5% (3) of the studies researched male learners only and 4.5% (1) of the studies focused on female learners only.
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3.1.3
The following table demonstrates the frequency and percentage of studies based on the first language of the participants.
Table 5. Frequency and percentage of studies based on participants’ first language
First Language Frequency Percentage
Chinese 7 32% Korean 6 27% Persian 6 27% Japanese 5 23% Arabic 4 18% Turkish 3 14% Thai 2 9% German 2 9% Hindi 2 9% Serbian 2 9% Polish 2 9% Malay 2 9% Spanish 2 9% Portuguese 2 9% Finish 1 4.5% Swedish 1 4.5% Italian 1 4.5% Nepali 1 4.5% Vietnamese 1 4.5% Tamil 1 4.5%
Table 5 shows that 32% (7) of the studies studied Chinese speakers of English. 27% (6) of the studies studied Korean and similarly, 27% (6) of the studies studied Persian speakers of English. 23% (5) of the studies studied Japanese, 18% (4) of the studies studied Arabic and 14% (3) of the studies studied Turkish speakers of English. Each of these L1s was investigated by 9% (2) of the studies: German, Hindi, Serbian, Polish, Thai, Malay, Spanish and Portuguese. 4.5% (1) of the studies each investigated these L1s: Finnish, Swedish, Italian, Nepali, Vietnamese and Tamil. Chinese, Korean and Persian speakers seem to have been studied more than the other L1s. 27% (6) of the studies were conducted on different nationalities rather than focusing on one nationality.
3.1.4 English as a Second or Foreign Language
The following table shows the frequency and percentage of studies based on the L2 variety of the participants.
Table 6. Frequency and percentage of studies based on the L2 variety of the participants
English Language Variety Frequency Percentage
ESL 6 27% EFL 14 64% Not stated 2 9% Total 22 100%
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A total of 64% (14) of the studies examined the importance of explicit instruction of connected speech in English as a Foreign Language and 27% (6) examined English as a Second Language. 9% (2) of the studies did not state the English language variety.
3.1.5
The following table shows the frequency and percentage of studies based on the proficiency level of the participants in the experimental studies.
Table 7. Frequency and percentage of studies based on the participants’ level of proficiency
Elementary 2 9%
Pre intermediate 2 9%
Intermediate 8 36%
Upper intermediate 2 9%
Pre intermediate, intermediate, and upper intermediate 2 9%
Advanced 1 5%
Not stated 5 23% Total 22 100%
In relation to proficiency level, the studies focused on mostly intermediate (36%, 8), followed by upper intermediate (9%, 2), pre intermediate (9%, 2), elementary (9%, 2) and a mixture of pre intermediate, intermediate and upper intermediate learners (9%, 2). Approximately 5% (1) of the studies focused on advanced learners, while 23% (5) of the studies did not state the proficiency level of the learners.
3.1.6
The following table shows the number of participants in the experimental and control group, the total number of participants in each study, the range of the number of participants and the frequency and percentage of studies with the same range of the number of participants.
Table 8. Distribution of participants during experimentation
No. of participants
Author(s)
Experimental Control
Total no. of participants Range of no. of participants
No. of studies with the same range of no. of participants
Percentage of studies with the same range of no. of participants
Euler (2014) 10 4 14 14 30 4 18% Couper (2003) 15 15 Musfirah (2019) 30 30 Mirfatemi, Sadeghi, & Niyazi (2020)
15 15 30 Kuo (2010) 31 31 31 40 7 32%
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Carreira (2014) 35 35 Demirezen (2016) 38 38
Ahmadian & Matour (2014) 20 20 40
20 20 40
Cho (2019) 40 40 Ashtiani & Zafarghandi (2015)
Ngoan, & Giang (2021) 20 20 40
Nokes (2018) 41 41 41 50 4 18%
Alameen (2014) 15 15 15 45
50 50
Hamouda (2017) 24 24 48 Khaghaninezh & Jafarzadeh (2014)
Rahimi & Chalak (2017) 25 27 52 51 100 5 23% Gökgöz Kurt (2016) 33 25 58
Abe (2015) 60 60 Jang & Lee (2015) 21 19 22 62
Couper (2006) 21 50 71 Kuo, Kuo & Lee (2016) 33 36 32 101 > 100 1 4.5%
Suwartono & Mayaratri (2019) Not stated 1 4.5%
Total 22 100%
Table 8 shows the number of participants. The studies were grouped into six based on the number of participants: 18% (4) of the studies had 14 30 participants, 32% (7) of the studies had 31 40 participants, 18% (4) had 41 50 participants, 23% (5) had 51 100 participants, 4.5% (1) had 101 participants and 4.5% (1) of the studies did not state the number of participants.
A total of 14% (3) of the studies had more participants in the experimental group than the control group; 14% (3) of the studies had more participants in the control group than the experimental group, while 27% (6) had equal number of participants in both groups. However, 9% (2) of the studies did not provide the exact number of participants in the two groups but only mentioned the total number of participants in the studies.
Alameen (2014), Jang and Lee (2015), and Kuo, Kuo and Lee (2016) had two experimental groups and one control group. The two experimental groups were exposed to two different teaching methods. This may have increased the possibility of obtaining different results for the different groups.
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The following table shows the frequency and percentage of studies based on the different research designs.
Table 9. Frequency and percentage of studies based on the research designs
Research Design Frequency Percentage
Experimental design (with a control group) 7 32%
Experimental one group design and survey 5 23%
Experimental design (with a control group) and survey 4 18% Quasi experimental design (with a control group) 3 13.5%
Mixed Method (qualitative analysis of questionnaires and quantitative analysis of the literature) 1 4.5%
Mixed Method (explanatory sequential design) 1 4.5% Experimental one group design 1 4.5%
Total 22 100%
The reviewed studies adopted different varieties of research design. Table 9 shows the research designs employed by the researcher(s) of each study. A total of 32% (7) of the studies used an experimental design (with a control group), 23% (5) used an experimental one group design and a survey, 18% (4) used an experimental design (with a control group) and a survey, 13.5% (3) used a quasi experimental design with a control group and 9% (2) used a mixed method design. One of these two studies analysed two questionnaires qualitatively and the literature on the topic quantitatively. The other study used an explanatory sequential design by conducting a quantitative analysis of the data followed by a qualitative analysis for further explanation. 4.5% (1) of the studies used an experimental one group design.
As many as 68% (15) of the studies used a control group while 32% (7) of the reviewed studies did not use a control group.
The following table shows the frequency and percentage of studies using a particular theoretical paradigm.
Table 10. Frequency and percentage of studies using a particular theoretical paradigm
Theoretical Paradigm
Frequency Percentage Nativeness + accentedness 2 9% Intelligibility + comprehensibility 20 91%
Total 22 100%
Not many studies stated a clear theoretical point of view. For this reason, a method of assessment was used to determine the theoretical designs of those studies. This review study adopted a framework by Thomson and Derwing (2014) in which the theoretical paradigm is defined based on two factors: nativeness and intelligibility. When the goal of the study is to make learners
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speak as semi native speakers, the study is categorized as a nativeness study. On the other hand, if the study focuses on measuring second language speech comprehensibility or intelligibility, the study is classified as an intelligibility study. According to Thomson and Derwing (2014), comprehensibility comes under the intelligibility category. As illustrated in Table 10, 91% (20) of the studies focused on intelligibility and comprehensibility of speech, and only 9% (2) of the studies adopted nativeness and accentedness as their theoretical paradigm.
The following table shows the frequency and percentage of the studies based on the scope of training.
Table 11. Frequency and percentage of studies based on the scope of training
Scope of Training Frequency Percentage
Suprasegmental features 17 77% Segmental and suprasegmental features 5 23% Total 22 100%
As shown in Table 11, 77% (17) of the studies dealt with suprasegmental features of connected speech, while 23% (5) of the studies examined connected speech as well as segmental features of speech. It is noted from the review that whether the study focused on one feature of connected speech or several of them, the feature taught had an effect on the type and duration of instruction.
3.4.1
Table 12 shows the input type used in the training.
Table 12. Input type used in training
Segmental Phonemic practice, minimal pair practice Suprasegmental Intonation: stress, tone, pitch, rhythm, rhythmic language, prosody accents and intonation
Stress: word stress, sentence stress, syllables
Connected Speech Processes: contractions, assimilations (coalescent assimilation, regressive assimilation, assimilation of place of articulation, assimilation of voicing, word boundary palatalization, co articulatory information, sounds and positional variation), reductions, strong and weak forms of English and elision patterns
Linking: vowel to vowel linking (V V), r linking and r intrusion, consonant to vowel linking (C V), consonant to consonant linking (C C), consonant to glide linking (C G). Resyllabifications. Not stated (5 studies)
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The following table shows the frequency and percentage of studies based on suprasegmental input.
Table 13. Frequency and percentage of studies based on suprasegmental input Input Type Frequency Percentage
One feature of connected speech 5 23%
Connected speech and other suprasegmental features 12 54%
Connected speech features only (features not specified) 5 23%
Total 22 100%
In reviewing the input of the intervention in the targeted studies, some notes need to be recorded. 23% (5) of the studies focused on one feature of connected speech. 54% (12) of the studies focused on a number of connected speech and other suprasegmental features while 23% (5) of the studies focused on a number of connected speech features only. These studies merely mentioned ‘connected speech features’ without stating which features were included in the training.
For the studies by Ashtiani and Zafarghandi (2015), and Suwartono and Mayaratri (2019), the input was songs and any connected speech features that exist in the songs were included in their findings.
The following table shows the frequency and percentage of studies based on the instruction type.
Table 14. Frequency and percentage of studies based on the instruction type Instruction Type Frequency Percentage
Traditional classroom 18 82%
Computer assisted pronunciation training (CAPT) 3 13.5%
Not stated 1 4.5%
Total 22 100%
As illustrated in Table 14, the majority of the studies (82%; 18) used the traditional approach, while 13.5% (3) of the studies adopted computer assisted pronunciation teaching (CAPT). However, 4.5% (1) of the studies did not state which type of instruction was used.
The following table shows the frequency and percentage of studies based on training duration.
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Table 15. Frequency and percentage of studies based on training duration Training Duration Frequency Percentage
1 week 0 0% 2 weeks 4 18% 3 weeks 1 4.5% 4 weeks 1 4.5% 5 weeks 2 9% 6 weeks 1 4.5% 7 weeks 2 9% 8 weeks 3 14% 9 weeks 0 0% 10 weeks 1 4.5% 11 weeks 0 0% 12 weeks 1 4.5% 13 weeks 0 0% 14 weeks 0 0% 15 weeks 2 9% 16 weeks 1 4.5% Not stated 3 14% Total 22 100%
Despite the significant improvement that many studies mentioned, most of them had relatively short training duration (2 8 weeks) which may have negatively affected learners’ learning output. However, 23% (5) of the studies had a longer duration of training (10 16 weeks). The study by Khaghaninezh and Jafarzadeh (2014) continued for 10 weeks. Hamouda (2017) states the “first semester” to refer to a 12 week period of training. The study by Couper (2003) roughly implied a 16 week period but this was not clearly stated in the paper. Studies carried out by Carreira (2014) and Euler (2014) lasted for 15 weeks, which can be considered as a satisfactory period of time for improvement to take place. However, in both papers, the details about how the weekly learning input was presented to the learners were not clearly provided by the authors. 9% (2) of the studies had a relatively long period of evaluation (Kuo, 2010 4 months and Abe, 2015 two months) although the period of treatment lasted for eight weeks in the former study and four weeks in the latter. This was because both studies had an immediate and a delayed post test. On the other hand, 14% (3) of the studies did not provide details regarding the duration of traditional instruction of connected speech which may make it difficult for prospective researchers or teachers to adopt their methods.
The following table shows the frequency and percentage of studies that stated or did not state the number of training sessions and duration of the sessions.
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Table 16. Frequency and percentage of studies that stated or did not state the number of training sessions and duration of sessions
Statement on the number of training sessions and duration of training Frequency Percentage
Number of training sessions stated 16 73%
Number of training sessions not stated 6 27%
Total 22 100%
Duration of session stated 15 68% Duration of session not stated 7 32% Total 22 100%
As many as 73% (16) of the studies stated clearly the number of sessions in the instruction period, but 27% (6) of the studies did not provide such information. The duration of every single session was clearly stated in 68% (15) of the studies, but was not stated in 32% (7) of the studies. The minimum number of instructions given was three sessions, while the maximum was 32 sessions. The duration per session was between 25 minutes to 3 hours.
3.8.1 Types of Assessments
Table 17 shows the frequency and percentage of studies using the different types of assessments.
Table 17. Frequency and percentage of studies using different types of assessments Assessments Frequency Percentage
Both listening and speaking 5 22.5%
Listening comprehension, dictation and speaking 2 9%
Reading aloud and speaking 2 9%
Reading comprehension and listening comprehension 1 4.5%
Listening comprehension and dictation 3 14%
Listening comprehension and cloze test 2 9%
Attitude questionnaire and survey of the literature 1 4.5%
Listening 3 14%
Reading aloud 1 4.5%
Speaking in a mixed method study 1 4.5%
Pronunciation task (the exact task not specified) 1 4.5%
Total 22 100%
Studies above that used a survey in addition to the other tasks 10 45%
The nature of the assessment varied in the reviewed studies. Many studies employed a combination of tasks while the rest depended on one task to assess the learners’ learning outcome. 22.5% (5) of the studies utilised listening and speaking tests to assess both the perception and production abilities of the
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learners. A speaking task was also used with listening comprehension and dictation in 9% (2) of the studies. A reading aloud test was used with a speaking test in 9% (2) of the studies and a reading comprehension test was used in combination with a listening comprehension test in 4.5% (1) of the studies. A dictation task accompanied a listening comprehension test in 14% (3) of the studies. 9% (2) of the studies employed a cloze test accompanied by a listening comprehension test to evaluate learners. 4.5% (1) of the studies used a questionnaire to analyse teachers and learners’ attitudes towards connected speech instruction and to examine the frequency and percentage of articles on pronunciation, pronunciation and suprasegmentals, suprasegmentals and technology to find out researchers' attitudes towards these topics. A few of the studies employed only one assessment tool: listening in 14 % (3), reading aloud in 4.5% (1) and speaking in 4.5% (1) of the studies. 4.5% (1) of the studies also used a pronunciation task, but the exact test was not specified. In addition to the tasks mentioned above, 45% (10) of the studies also conducted a survey in order to examine learners’ perspectives on connected speech instructions.
3.8
The following table shows the frequency and percentage of studies based on who the assessors were.
Table 18. Frequency and percentage of studies based on assessors Assessor(s) Frequency Percentage
Researcher(s) 14 64% Researcher(s) with software 2 9% Researcher(s), an assistant and software 2 9% Researcher and an assistant 1 4.5% Researcher and native speaker 2 9% Assistant and native speaker 1 4.5%
Total 22 100%
In most of these studies, the researchers themselves taught the learners during training and assessed their abilities. In the rest of the studies, the researchers taught the learners and assessed their abilities with the help of a software and/or an assistant or a native speaker instructor. However, in 4.5% (1) of the studies, the researchers were not themselves the teachers of the instruction or assessors of the tasks.
Another result that this systematic review seeks to report is the effectiveness of explicit connected speech instruction in improving learners’ perceptive skills and connected speech production in the ESL/EFL context. Results from the collected studies were hence examined and summarised. The following table shows the frequency and percentage of studies based on the effectiveness of explicit connected speech instruction.
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Improvement in perceptive and productive skills 7 32 % Improvement in perceptive skills 9 41% Improvement in productive skills 5 22.5%
Improvement in learners and teachers’ attitudes towards connected speech instruction 1 4.5%
Total 22 100%
Improvement in learners’ perception and awareness of connected speech (in the studies above that used a survey in addition to the other tasks)
10 45%
All studies claimed that explicit instruction of connected speech was effective and positively contributed to the improvement of learners’ perceptive skills and/or connected speech production. 32% (7) of the studies evaluating learners’ perceptive and productive skills found that training led learners to improve in both skills. 41% (9) of the studies which focused only on the learners’ perceptive skills showed that the learners improved after training. 22.5% (5) of the studies which focused on productive skills found improvement in learners’ productive skills after exposure to connected speech instructions. 4.5% (1) of the studies, which surveyed teachers and learners’ attitudes towards connected speech instruction, found that both perceived connected speech as an important topic to be taken into consideration in the teaching and learning materials. This study also found that researchers had an interest in doing research on pronunciation. Finally, all studies which surveyed the learners in addition to other tasks found that their perception and awareness of connected speech improved after training and they had positive attitudes towards explicit instruction of connected speech.
The discussion of the findings of this review and the gaps in research methodologies are presented below.
This section discusses the demographic information of the participants in the reviewed studies. In terms of age group, most studies on connected speech focused on adults while a lesser percentage involved teenagers. This may be because many studies employed ESL or EFL learners who are university or college students as participants whose ages averaged 19 25 years old. It is recommended to prospective researchers to study younger ESL or EFL learners.
The majority of the studies examined both male and female participants but did not compare them. Future studies may be keen to compare male and female learners to examine the claim that females tend to produce more connected speech than males and gender could be a significant feature in perceiving and producing connected speech. According to Fant (1997: pg. 35), “There are several
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minor components in the production process that add towards a seemingly chaotic detail pattern preserving. It tends to be greater for females than for males”.
As for the first language of the participants, Chinese, Korean, Persian and Japanese speakers, who are foreign language learners had been studied quite extensively. More studies investigating foreign language learners from other L1s or the same L1 that has been studied but with a different dialect are needed. This kind of research not only benefits language learners but can also indicate patterns of cross linguistic development with respect to language learning and culture specific issues. Most of the studies reviewed here examined EFL learners and very few studied ESL learners; hence, there is a need for more studies on ESL learners.
On language proficiency, most studies examined English learners at an intermediate level. This could be attributed to the features of connected speech that can be difficult to master for beginners and elementary level learners, and at the same time unchallenging features to be learned by advanced level learners. For example, Kurt, in her study (2016), states that “For the purposes of the study, the lowest and the highest proficiency levels were not included in the study as the target content would be either too hard or not challenging enough for them to study” (p. 61). Whereas, the pre intermediate, intermediate, and upper intermediate levels are the appropriate levels to learn suprasegmental features for ESL/EFL learners
In terms of the number of participants, on average, the studies involved 31 40 learners. There were some studies that were restricted to a smaller number of participants. In 27% of the studies, the number of participants in the control group and experimental group was equally distributed. This may lead to a fairer comparison between the groups. More learners in each group are preferred to add to the validity of the findings (Creswell, 2012). An issue that was encountered in reviewing the studies is the lack of information about the control group in some studies.
Most researchers adopted an experimental research design with or without a control group in conducting the studies. This is an indication that this kind of research design is the most preferred to study the effects of explicit instruction on learners.
A control group is a very important component in an experimental study to find out to what degree the intervention has had any effect on the participants in the experimental group. Not all studies had a control group although they provided lengthy training on connected speech. In this case, it would be difficult to decide if a significant improvement happened as a result of connected speech instruction or otherwise. The learners may have improved regardless of connected speech instruction. Although the use of a control group in an experiment might pose an ethical dilemma as some learners are deprived of
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instruction owing to being assigned to the control group, it is recommended as it can provide deeper insights into the phenomenon.
With regard to theoretical paradigms, the speech learning model (Flege, 1995) and perceptual assimilation model (Best, 1995) highlight the importance of second language speech theory; however, when it comes to classroom context, many studies examined lacked a clear theoretical stance. Thus, following Thompson and Derwing (2014), the current paper took into consideration the intelligibility and nativeness factors for analysing the theoretical foundation of the reviewed studies.
The number of studies that were classified as intelligibility or comprehensibility studies dominated, while only a few studies can be classified as nativeness studies. This essentially indicates the fact that the priority of language teachers is to make second language speech understandable and easy for the listeners to comprehend rather than make them speak as native speakers although the latter is a desirable target for many teachers (Ahmadian & Motour, 2014; Levis & Pickering, 2004). Future studies can also examine whether a study is concerned with intelligibility/comprehensibility or nativeness or both.
As for the scope of training, the findings showed that more studies focused on suprasegmental features only, while fewer studies dealt with both segmental and suprasegmental features. In other words, there seemed to be a slightly greater focus on teaching suprasegmental features in particular rather than on both segmental and suprasegmental features. Most studies on connected speech examined a number of its features such as reduction, assimilation and elision probably because these features usually occur in combination in speech so they are preferably taught together to give the best results in improving learners’ perception and production skills.
In discussing the training input, except for a few studies like those by Carreira (2014), and Ngoan and Giang (2021), which described interesting activities that can be used in a connected speech training course, many studies lacked details about the input of their instruction. A few studies provided explanations about the assessment or a sample lesson plan while others gave brief explanations for the lessons and the supplementary materials used in their different types of instruction. Some studies did not mention what features of connected speech were taught which means that the actual teaching of connected speech was not made explicit. Lacking the details about the specific features of connected speech that were included in the instruction made it difficult to identify the learning steps that learners had gone through during the intervention period. This also made it difficult for future researchers to replicate the studies. Inadequate details on the instruction also posed challenges to language teachers if they plan to apply the given information in the context of their classroom. Hence, future researchers should consider providing more details about the instruction so that potential researchers or teachers can benefit from their findings. Many studies (among others, Couper, 2003; Kuo, 2010; Mirfatemi, Sadeghi, & Niyazi, 2020;
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Euler, 2014; Hamouda; 2017), focused on combined features of connected speech in their materials.
Most studies used traditional classroom instruction, while a few studies utilised computer assisted pronunciation training (CAPT). However, several issues were highlighted in the studies with regard to CAPT such as the use of technology in non novel ways. Therefore, traditional classroom instruction was still the most utilised type of instruction with the use of technology as audio visual aid in some studies.
As for the duration of instruction, it is a challenge to determine the length of instruction EFL/ESL learners need to receive. Essentially, the scope of instruction influences the duration of instruction. The more segmental and/or suprasegmental features are taught, the more time is needed to get effective learners’ output. Inadequate time allocated for the instruction can affect the progression of the learners’ improvement which would take place gradually over a period of time. However, some studies only trained the learners for two weeks, although in many cases, it took longer to help learners to effectively improve their intelligibility skill and listening comprehension in connected speech (Couper, 2003; Thompson & Derwing, 2014). Kuo et al. (2016) mention that for their study, “six weeks of communicative instruction was inadequate to attain significance, future studies with longer teaching periods are suggested (e.g., 12 16 weeks)” (p. 107). In addition, some studies did not mention the duration or number of sessions for instruction. Mentioning such details can help future researchers to replicate these studies and teachers to understand more about how input is presented to the learners. Although the duration and number of sessions allocated for instruction varied across the different studies, all researchers claimed that there was a significant improvement in learners’ perceptive and productive skills after the intervention.
Many studies utilised both listening and speaking tests to assess both the perception comprehension and production abilities of learners. However, there are some studies that used only one type of data assessment method such as a listening test or a reading test. For speaking assessment, it was found that reading aloud was dominantly used to assess the intelligibility and nativeness of learners’ pronunciation. Any task may have its disadvantages. For example, reading aloud may not represent learners’ production fully as it may not show their grammar and vocabulary retrieval nor does it provide natural evidence of speakers’ pronunciation. A spontaneous speech sample may have to be used to reassess the impression gained from the analysis of the reading task (Celce Murica et al., 2010).
Another concern that researchers should pay attention to is the validity of the tests. As observed by Thompson and Derwing (2014), some assessments lacked ecological validity; for example, improvement in the reading aloud test might not indicate improved pronunciation in the context of the real world. Although
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this does not mean researchers should not use reading aloud tasks, they ought to be more careful in interpreting and generalising the results.
Most studies had a pre test and post test, but very few studies used a delayed post test. A delayed post test can be administered to find out the long term retention associated with specific connected speech intervention. This is to make sure that the learners’ improvement lasts for a long time and that they start using the new knowledge by practising it. However, a delayed post test is not always easily done. Since actual delayed assessment is not always feasible, Euler (2014) suggests getting learners to conduct self assessment of their further development through emails and current instructor’s comments on their pronunciation. However, any improvement in learners’ pronunciation at this stage might not be a consequence of their previous learning of connected speech. Thus, using a pre test and post test seems to be the minimum required to investigate learners’ improvement in the production or perception of connected speech.
There is also a concern about the types of questions in pre and post tests. Most studies used the same questions in both tests. This is probably because comparing learners’ answers to the same questions during different periods of time (before and after the intervention) can provide us with more reliable results for the studies.
In some instances, the researchers’ way of measuring learners’ improvement in pronunciation was not that clear. The notions of ‘correct vs. incorrect’ were not well defined. To help determine correct or incorrect production, Euler (2014), for example, prepared printed transcriptions of all speech samples with probable CSPs labelled. However, some connected speech features may not occur in real speech. Asking someone to speak into a microphone also creates an unnatural environment for connected speech features such as assimilation to occur though some other features like vowel reduction and linking may still happen (Euler, 2014). Khaghaninezhad and Jafarz (2014), for example, rated the learners' speech based on the number of reduced forms they produced. Because there are no necessarily correct or incorrect responses, these methods of assessment were also possibly unreliable.
Another issue that arose was that some studies did not report inter rater reliability although they were multiple raters for the listening tasks. The assessment could also be subjective. For example, some raters in Euler’s (2014) study considered hesitation as a discourse phenomenon, while others considered it speech deviation; some others did both in varying degrees. Interrater reliability and clearer criteria in assessing the learners should be considered in future studies.
In most investigations, the researchers themselves carried out the intervention. This can create bias in the results. Getting an instructor who is not involved in the study is a better option to avoid bias.
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Thomson and Derwing (2014) note that individual differences are not prominently featured in the literature on second language pronunciation. The same was observed in this review. Individual performance was not discussed in the reviewed studies. However, as Thomson and Derwing (2014) state, “individual differences could play an important role since the mean learning trajectories for a sample concerned may not reflect a single language learner of the sample” (pg. 8). Therefore, developing an understanding of how individual differences affect learning trajectories can make the results more translatable and generalisable to new contexts and learners.
The findings of the reviewed studies indicate that explicit connected speech instruction is quite effective and leads to improvement in learners’ perceptions and productions of connected speech. However, there are a number of issues that need to be considered for future investigation. Firstly, the number of connected speech features to be taught should be considered. Some studies reviewed in this paper dealt with a limited number of connected speech features which was reasonable since great improvement usually occurs when learners focus on a limited number of features. Teaching many features of connected speech to the learners takes time and the learners too need time to practise to be able to produce intelligible and comprehensible language. Thus, when more phonological features are included, the length of training needs to be considered in designing a study. Secondly, for the studies that used the nativeness paradigm, the effect seen was in the improvement of accent. It is not clear to what extent the instruction assisted in the improvement of intelligibility. Since intelligibility and comprehensibility are also important in communication, improvement in intelligibility and comprehensibility should also be considered in studies on nativeness (Thomson & Derwing, 2014). In general, all studies reviewed showed the importance of connected speech instruction in improving EFL or ESL learners’ perceptive and productive skills.
This paper reviewed 22 articles on the research landscape and effects of explicit connected speech instruction on EFL or ESL learners’ perceptive skills and connected speech production. The review is motivated by a specific research question and adopted the framework proposed by Thomson and Derwing (2014).
To answer the research question, the paper summarises the following: demographic information of the participants, theoretical paradigm, scope of training, training input, instruction type, duration of instruction, nature of assessment given to the participants and whether or not there was a significant improvement in the learners’ language skills. The demographic information reveals, among others, that the studies had been conducted mostly on adults rather than young learners and EFL learners rather than ESL learners. The most employed design was experimental research design, either with or without a control group. Most studies examined suprasegmental features rather than a combination with both segmental features and features of connected speech.
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Most of the reviewed studies examined both perceptive and productive skills. The traditional classroom approach was more often employed while a few used the CAPT method. Regarding the effectiveness of explicit connected speech instruction, the review shows that all studies that examined learners’ language skills found explicit instruction of connected speech benefitted learners’ perceptive and productive skills.
Following the findings of the reviewed studies, a few gaps are worth highlighting. These include studies that did not employ any theoretical framework although they had been categorised based on the ‘nativeness’ or ‘intelligibility’ paradigm (Thomson & Derwing, 2014) in this paper. Many studies did not have a control group which made finding out the efficacy of a teaching method difficult. Some studies had a very short training session which may not be helpful to the learners. Although some studies lasted for a long time, no detailed information was reported regarding the training given while some did not provide details of the assessments. These made it difficult for other researchers to replicate the studies and for teachers to implement the suggestions in their classrooms.
Consequently, a few conclusions can be drawn. Firstly, in the last eleven years, explicit connected speech instruction has not been a totally neglected area in second language teaching and research setting. The review shows that the field is growing rapidly and has become an area of interest. Secondly, the topic has been researched on both adults and young learners in both EFL and ESL contexts. Thirdly, the focus on suprasegmental features and the assessment of both perceptive and productive skills in most studies show that researchers are aware of the importance of suprasegmental features and how perceptive and productive skills are interrelated. However, researchers may like to refocus their attention on a number of other issues such as the methodology of conducting and reporting the research. Incorporating a research paradigm can help a researcher orient his or her research in which ‘nativeness’ and ‘intelligibility’ are two notions that may be considered. Adding a control group is also necessary for a reliable finding of the efficacy of a teaching method. To ensure effective instruction, the length of intervention should also be taken into account based on the type of input and instruction. Although the traditional teaching method has been sufficient for teaching connected speech, the integration between traditional classroom teaching and the use of computers could be considered as CAPT offers certain opportunities such as access to individual learning and native speakers’ accent which can be difficult to get otherwise. In terms of reporting, details regarding the connected speech training and assessments can assist future researchers in designing their studies and teachers in obtaining pedagogical ideas.
The review indicates that there are differences in the way studies were conducted including the instruction used. While these in themselves do not pose a problem in generalising the findings, notable variability in the reporting standards of empirical studies, as noticed in the reviewed studies, may limit the replicability of the studies. However, this review can confidently conclude that
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explicit instruction of connected speech can lead to improvement in the perception, comprehension and production of connected speech. Since this review is limited to 22 studies and might not represent the whole body of literature on explicit connected speech instruction, further reviews with the inclusion of more studies on connected speech are suggested.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 415 440, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.23
Received Jun 15, 2022; Revised Sep 8, 2022; Accepted Sep 15, 2022
Phuong Nguyen Hoang Vietnam National University Hochiminh City, Vietnam
Maisoon Samara Al Ain University, United Arab Emirates
Sami Shannawi The Regional College, Al Jaleel, Israel
Johnry P. Dayupay
Cebu Technological University, Cebu, Philippines
Hani Jarrah Al Ain University, United Arab Emirates
Cheryl F. Olvida Apayao State College, Philippines
Eddiebal P. Layco
Don Honorio Ventura State University, Philippines
Alfe M. Solina Cavite State University Imus Campus, Imus City, Cavite, Philippines
Sanny S. Maglente Masbate Colleges, Philippines
Alson Rae F. Luna Department of Education, Sta. Rosa City, Philippines
Leonilo B. Capulso Beyond Books Publication Colorado Global Schools, Pampanga Colleges, Philippines
Cinder Dianne L. Tabiolo Jose Rizal Memorial State University, Philippines
Sixto N. Ras Jr Cavite State University Imus Campus, Imus City, Cavite, Philippines
Abstract The Coronavirus outbreak disrupted the global economy and human social activities, including schooling. Because of the worldwide school closure, face to face lessons have been stopped. Students desire to participateinreal time onlinelearningwasnotwellunderstood whenthe Coronavirusoutbreakoccurred.Despitethis,therehasbeenaprogressive return to face to face education accompanied by online learning after more than two years of the COVID 19 pandemic. This international survey assessed students' readiness for live online learning using technology rather than the more traditional online/internet self efficacy scale ThisstudyisneededbecauseoftheCOVID 19outbreak(dependent variable). Three hypotheses were substantiated with the partial least square method todevelop a structuralequation model containingallfour variables. Students' grades were shown to be directly influenced by
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The Influence of Lighting, Noise, and Temperature on the Academic Performance of Students amid Covid-19 Pandemic
factors such as temperature, lighting, and noise. Three distinct elements influence university students' long term viability (human resources). Males and females were found to have no statistically significant differences. We contend that during the Coronavirus pandemic, the gender disparity in learning was minimized because students were pushed to take greater responsibility for their education. Educators utilizing live online learning, particularly those educating students at various educational levels, can benefit greatly from this research. Students pursuing lower level degrees should be encouraged to engage in more virtual activities and student to student relationships.
Keywords: Covid 19 pandemic; academic performance; online class; factors; students
It is essential to ensure that the socioeconomic component of human well being (i.e., security, health, and education) is spread equally across all socioeconomic classes and demographic groups. To put it another way, a good working environment is vital for maximizing productivity. In addition, an efficient design helps individuals preserve their physical and psychological components (knowledge, motivation, creativity, and social skills). As a result, human capital may be continuously developed. Using ergonomics theories, concepts, information, and methods may improve human well being and system performance. Ergonomics aims to keep people healthy, comfortable, and safe at work and home. Employees are more productive while working in a healthy and safe environment. Workplaces poorly designed, both ergonomically and environmentally, put workers at risk by creating conditions that make it difficult for them to do their jobs well. Inadequate workstation design may lead to musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). As a result of promoting human performance via ergonomic workstation design, workplace sustainability is improved. An ergonomic workstation design is crucial to increasing workplace sustainability and physical health, according to Mohezar and colleagues (2021). Workstations that are ergonomically designed may last longer, which improves sustainability. To maximize the efficiency of human resources, ergonomic design is essential.
For the most part, ergonomics studies are geared toward the workplace. Other occupations, on the other hand, may be jeopardized if the ergonomic design is not used. There is a comparable issue in education, where some conditions put people and students (teaching staff, administrators, directors) at risk. People with poor posture and sitting for a long time are more likely to develop musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). Taifa (2022) examined the consequences of not considering ergonomics when designing student friendly furniture and environments. Around 69% of students reported physical ailments, including 23% with hand and elbow discomfort and 19% with headaches. Another group of studies revealed that environmental factors might put students in harm's way in terms of ergonomics. In addition, studies found a connection between academic success, student health, and school climate (Cabacang, 2021, Vakalies et al, 2021, Magulod, Jr, 2018, Magulod Jr, Capili & Pinon, 2019, Obispo Magulod Jr, & Tindowen, 2021)
. Student's academic performance and attendance in online classrooms may be
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adversely affected if they are subjected to poor ventilation, extreme heat, or excessive noise (even in a quiet room). On top of the already mentioned negative effects on academic achievement, students in online classes may be subjected to uncomfortable and unsafe circumstances.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2020), this outbreak has officially been declared a pandemic (Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2020). So many individuals are obliged to work from home for various reasons. Several industries need workers to work remotely. The US has 149,000 educational institutions, 34 million students, and 2 million instructors (Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2020). All students will be obliged to take online courses before the end of the school year in March 2020. And as the post pandemic era has approached, many universities and colleges have embraced hybrid or blended modes of education (Singh et al., 2021). This kind of training combines on campus sessions with flexible online learning. Students can enjoy face to face and online learning, as well as planned and self paced classwork with hybrid and blended training (Singh, 2017, Magulod Jr, 2019). This type of instruction can become the new standard because it allows instructors to reinvent and revise content, particularly in disciplines where instructors have struggled to provide engaging learning experiences for students through an online medium of instruction (Rodriguez, 2020). Students have adjusted their habits to deal with the new realities of online education. Environmental, technological, and psychological factors are all evaluated. New circumstances may impact student health, safety, and academic progress. Noise, temperature, and illumination may distract them. If students want to get the most out of their new study area, they must interact with it. First, these uncomfortable positions may cause physical discomfort and suffering in the back, neck, and limbs, which may develop into MSDs.
Regarding psychological issues, online education might increase mental effort and tiredness. Online learning's speed may now be utilized. Exemplifying this includes learning and utilizing new technological tools (such as Classroom) to complete classwork or chores provided by teachers. Online class environmental elements, including noise, temperature, and light, are little researched. We would want to know how lighting and noise impact online students' results. It consists of six parts: Second, the study assesses COVID 19 and environmental variables (lighting, noise, temperature). Section 3 examines how the environment affects online students' academic progress. Section 6 summarizes the research results.
Since the pandemic breakout forced schools to adopt a new learning modality, many studies have already investigated the effects of online learning on students’ academic performance (Arcinas, 2022, Han & Ellis, 2021; Mandasari, 2020; Oducado & Estoque, 2021, Rad et al., 2022). However, few studies consider the environmental factors behind students’ virtual learning, such as light, noise, and temperature, as significant contributors to students’ intellectual development. Additionally, most ergonomics research focuses on the workplace (Bailey et al., 2021; López García et al., 2019; Marmaras & Nathanael, 2021). A productive environment is essential for students’ boosting output. Additionally, an effective environment aids people in maintaining their psychological and physical
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components. Therefore, there is a need to conduct studies on the effect of the mentioned variables on students’ school performance, especially since many schools still prefer using online modalities as a part of learners’ experience even after the pandemic.
This study assumes that temperature, light, and noise directly impact how well students perform academically when studying online. As a result, it is anticipated that environmental factors will cause a change in a student's performance. The study's independent variables are the light, noise, and temperature in the learners' homes, while the independent variable is their academic performance. Thus, this study has established a causal relationship.
COVID-19's Effect on University Students' Academic Achievement
Researchers have studied COVID 19's impact on college student's grades. The implications of COVID 19 limitation on pupils' capacity to study freely, according to Kim et al. (2020). These investigators used an experiment in which 458 students were split into two groups for control and experimentation purposes. Students who were confined to their homes were included in the study. Students learning processes and productivity were both enhanced by confinement, as found by Subirats et al. (2021). Gonzalez and colleagues studied college students' views on online education during the COVID 19 outbreak (2020). These researchers conducted a survey of undergraduate and postgraduate students for their study. According to students, online courses are ineffective in developing nations such as Pakistan since the majority of students lack an Internet connection. As a result of the COVID 19 outbreak, children must deal with several difficulties, including a lack of normal classroom interaction and a lack of direct instructor involvement. As part of their research, Shahzad et al. (2020) surveyed COVID 19 students on their overall happiness. Students' satisfaction with online learning and their adaptation to the new environment was assessed using an online poll conducted by the authors. The findings showed that most students favor online education, even though they had to pay large fees for slow Internet connection.
Accordingly, Demuyakor (2020) studied students' mental health during the COVID 19 epidemic in an online classroom technology research. For this study, researchers devised a two part survey. Academic accomplishment was one of the five key components in Section 2. A total of 775 students were surveyed via snowball sampling. Facing their peers in person, 59.5 percent of students stated that it is essential to their academic success, while 55.5 percent claimed that the sheer volume of e-learning tasks causes stress and hinders their learning. Haider and Al Salman (2020) investigated students' impressions of the impact of the COVID 19 pandemic on a variety of global issues affecting their lives in their dissertation. Students in this study favored public relations and instructional staff support at the respective universities. The pupils' inadequate computer abilities and inaccurate picture of their workload made it hard for them to perceive their increased academic achievement in the new classroom. Afro Asian pupils were
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also dissatisfied with their academic achievement compared to other socioeconomic groups
The outbreak of COVID 19 was also examined by Tang et al. (2021) in terms of its impact on student academic performance. The authors conducted semi structured phone interviews with three academics throughout his inquiry (Heads of the departments of mathematics and natural sciences). They also studied college students' performance (2021). The author used semi structured phone interviews with three academics for his investigation (Heads of the departments of mathematics and natural sciences). His analysis shows that if COVID 19 is not fixed quickly, fewer pupils will pass math tests. If the COVID 19 pandemic is not handled immediately, his results show that the percentage of students who pass math exams may decrease.
Lighting's Effect on Academic Performance Among University Students
Test scores or marks from instructors are used to determine whether a student has mastered a certain subject. Students' academic success is closely linked to their school's lighting level. According to Mudenda et al. (2021), a lack of light induces discomfort and worse academic performance. Pupils' grades may be affected by the illumination in their classrooms. Abbasi et al. (2021) investigated this to see whether lighting and ventilation in the home influenced children's grades. Ninety two 10 to 12 year olds participated. Researchers collected data on children's processing speed, focus, reasoning, and problem solving abilities over four weeks. However, another study compared the effect of light on academic achievement. Warm 2900 K 450 lux increased students' learning speed, focus, and math abilities. Still, dynamic cool 4900 K 750 lux was found to improve all three of these factors simultaneously, resulting in a 6.6% improvement in student performance at p 0.001. (11.8 percent, p0.006).
Bluyssen et al. (2021), for example, looked at how solar powered school supplies affected student achievement. According to the findings, solar illumination initially boosted student attendance, but that trend quickly faded. Academic results did not improve despite more time spent studying and attending class more often. Lighting color temperature was discovered to influence the academic performance of first graders in comparable research as well. In order to examine the hypothesis that academic achievement is linked to cognitive and behavioral responses, they performed three physiological tests. In studies on easy, normal, and severe workouts, the ideal heart rates were found to be 3500 kHz, 5000 kHz, and 6500 kHz. In another study, ORIBO (2021) looked at the effects of classroom illumination on 738 students in the same classroom. The Testo 545 lux meter was used to assess classroom illumination, and the d2 Test of Attention was used to gauge students' academic performance in terms of speed and accuracy while writing and reading. The authors administered a questionnaire to measure students' impressions of classroom illumination. According to the results, students' attention and academic performance increased considerably (p 0.05) when exposed to illumination settings ranging from 250 to 500 lux. Study results showed that classroom illumination significantly influenced primary school pupils' intellectual growth, which was confirmed by Singh et al. (2020). This
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research was built on a sample of 210 students chosen at random. Other than student interviews, researchers used accomplishment, motivation, and a self created questionnaire to gather information (an observation checklist to assess physical components of the learning environment lighting level). Classroom illumination in this study significantly affected elementary school pupils' academic performance (p 0.05). According to Hypothesis H1, this is how it works: Hypothesis 1 (H1). While taking online courses during the COVID 19 epidemic, illumination significantly influences academic achievement.
Several scholars have undertaken studies on the effect of noise on academic achievement. Acoustic questionnaires, such as He et al. (2022)'s, were utilized to examine the correlations between academic work and noise disturbance. Around 38% of students were distracted by background noise and discussion when doing cognitively demanding tasks like studying, reading, or writing. Sibley et al. (2021) investigated the influence of voice and effects of background noise on ADHD students' academic performance and ability to score tasks. (The number of participants is 52). An oral count technique was utilized to track how much time was spent reading. Writing correctness and essay word counts were also used to assess students' writing abilities in the classroom. Writing accuracy does not seem to be improved by white noise in the classroom. Pupils at two elementary schools were polled by Braat Eggen et al. (2020) on noise levels, their effects, and their ability to manage it (a public and a private school). A 20 item questionnaire was sent to over 400 pupils, and classroom noise levels were measured. At recess, students complained of excessive noise, yet measurements showed that noise levels at private schools were on average 74.56 decibels (dBA) and in public schools were on average 82.18 dBA.
Students' well being and achievement were studied by Wood (2020). A survey of 327 college students was utilized to determine current noise exposure. The Student Well Being Process Questionnaire is used to calculate GPA, course assignments, and assessments to gauge students' well being. The author's conclusion was that student noise levels had nothing to correlate with academic success. High pitched noise has been shown to impair pupils' cognitive capacities, which are linked to academic success (Ruiz Alvarado, 2020). Students from three primary schools were studied: 135 males and 133 girls. In addition, students were divided into two groups and tested psychologically (background noise versus additional noise). A lot of noise affected the Stroop and Color Trace results. Finally, it was discovered by Caviola et al. (2021) that pupils who attended schools near a busy city street fared worse. For further information, see Thompson et al. (2022) and Nazneen et al. (2022; as a result, H2 is presented as a hypothesis. Hypothesis 2 (H2). The noise level negatively impacts on campus students' academic performance during the COVID 19 epidemic.
The Impact of Temperature onUniversity Students’ Academic Performance Noise, light, and temperature all impact student performance. Baafi (2020) claims that classroom temperature influences student performance. So, according to López Chao et al. (2019), cold temperatures confuse and agitate pupils, priming them to respond. They operate better in cool environments but not as well in
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hotter ones. On average, Realyvásquez Vargas et al. (2020) found that pupils' grades improved as the temperature rose. The seasons also mirrored student performance. To measure students' achievement in both seasons after the third year, Ko et al. (2020). It was shown that the first and third years significantly impacted student performance, but not the second.
Kumar and Singh (2021) also looked at the influence of gender on heat perception and academic performance As the temperature increased, women's academic performance would rise, while men's academic performance would fall. Gender and 24 SAT style questions were used to evaluate previous assumptions on the Google form. An association between heat perception and academic achievement was seen for three days in the same classroom (p = 0.049). There was no gender difference in how well men and women performed academically, whether it was hot or cold. Two experiments were done this summer by Browning and Rigolon (2019). The air temperature varied significantly for a week depending on whether the split cooling units were running or idle. Students' views of their surroundings and symptoms were then gathered using visual analog scales that depict various components of schooling. According to the findings of two arithmetic and two language based evaluations, students' performance increased significantly when the temperature was lowered from 25 to 20 degrees Celsius. Students' grades rose significantly when the outdoor airflow was increased from 5.2 to 9.6 L/s per square foot. Barker et al. (2019) evaluated a district of 70 elementary schools and 140 fifth grade classes for their study. In the previous study, academic achievement was correlated with temperature. The researchers found that when temperatures dropped from 25°C to 20°C, students' average arithmetic scores climbed by 12 13 points. Finally, students' academic performance benefits considerably when they are comfortable in the classroom. According to Earthman's research, optimal temperature ranges exist in the literature connected to thermal quality and educational results. This source suggests keeping classroom temperatures between 20°C and 24°C to enhance student learning and comfort (68F and 74F, respectively). As a result, here's Hypothesis H3. Figure 1 shows the hypothetical causal model from the present study. Hypothesis 3 (H3). The temperature at home impacts college students' academic performance during the COVID 19 outbreak.
Figure 1. Hypothetical causal model
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A cross sectional survey was used in this study. The three aspects of the method are questionnaire development, questionnaire delivery, and statistical analysis of the results.
Student's classroom performance has been affected by various environmental factors (lighting, noise, and temperature). There have been several studies that have relied on questionnaires to gather data. Researchers in Newman et al. (2022) used a questionnaire with three components. The emotional and physical well being of students was the subject of Section 1. On classroom design, there were eight questions in the second portion (temperature, air sensation, air quality, noise, lighting). Headaches and attention troubles were among the topics covered in the third episode. An eight part questionnaire, three of which focused on classroom temperatures, noise levels, and light levels. This technique was also used to analyze the design of learning spaces in various university courses. Using surveys, (Müezzinolu et al. 2021) studied the impact of illumination, noise, and temperature on academic performance. As a result of the widespread outbreak of COVID 19, environmental variables for these surveys were unable to be collected (lighting, noise, and temperature). The QEOC is created, as previously indicated. Here are the parts of the QEOC: Our first topic of discussion will be the effects of online education on students' mental and physical health. Research in this area aims to determine how environmental factors affect student academic achievement. A comprehensive literature review was conducted to discover research that examined the relationship between the dependent variable (lighting, noise, and temperature) and student performance. Several words spring to mind while thinking about these elements, including academic success, school, and students. The initial survey's findings were double checked for accuracy using a literature review. After that, items are built for use in online classrooms where students study from the comfort of their own homes. Table 1 lists the altered elements and references.
Table 1. Reference for questions on the Questionnaire of the Effects of Online Classes on Students' Health and Academic Performance (QEOC).
Variable Item Reference
Lightning My study area's lighting helps me to see well and focus while taking online courses.
Changing the lighting in my study environment is one of the perksoftakingcollegecoursesonline(forexample,openingand shutting shades, and curtains, having a table lamp, and having dimmers within reach).
Visual comfort is aided by the quantity of illumination in my study area, including lights and computer screens.
[63] [64] [65]
Noise When I take courses online, my study space is completely private. [66]
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Icanconcentrate,takenotes,andhearmylecturersandstudents because of my study space's background noise (from devices, discussions, and other sources).
I can regulate the temperature in my studies, for example, by opening and closing doors and windows.
Temperature My study room's temperature helps me focus and relax when completing online courses.
It's simple to adjust the temperature in my online study space, for example, by opening and shutting windows and turning ventilators on and off.
My study area's air quality is suitable for taking online programs.
I can complete all my activities effectively by attending online courses.
[67] [64]
[67] [64] [66]
Academic Performance
Byattendingcoursesonline,IcanplanmyschedulesothatIcan complete all the tasks assigned to me by the professors. My grades have improved because of taking online programs. I've gained more information through attending online courses.
I enhanced my communication abilities by attending online programs.
By attending online programs, I've increased my teamwork abilities.
My activity improves because of taking online courses.
I am pleased with the results I achieved from attending online programs.
[68] [68] [68] [69] [69] [69] [70] [70]
On a Likert scale of 1 to 5, responses to the QEOC must be given on the following five point scale: never; rarely; occasionally; sometimes; often; constantly. This scale has been selected because of recent and similar research. Drafted questions were submitted into Google Forms when they had been completed.
In order to attain the objectives of the study, the researchers made use of a total of 222 university students from 12 universities. Convenience sampling was used to select the respondents. It is the process of choosing a sample's participants based on their easy accessibility (Bhardwaj, 2019). In the study's case, only the students who took online courses and fulfilled the requirements for the application of the QEOC online were selected as respondents. For the profile characteristics of the respondents, the majority were aged 20 30 (72.37%), males (58.85%), and 185 (90%).
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First, the researcher asked permission from the university administrators, IRB, and other authorities to conduct this investigation. Second, after receiving permission from the authorities, students from 12 different institutions who took online courses during the COVID 19 epidemic were required to complete the QEOC. The students might be either undergraduates or graduates. To apply for the QEOC online, the following actions were required: Finding university instructors: A teacher might be contacted through email if their name and email address were published in publications such as conference proceedings, periodicals, and book chapters, or other sources. Following the acquisition of a list of academics with institutional email, an email detailing the project's purpose was sent. Also included was a link to the QEOC, which they may share with students and teachers within the university or even across the country. Some people were contacted through Classroom, while others were contacted through Facebook. The data gathered from the questionnaires were subjected to tabulation, organization, data cleaning, and appropriate statistical analysis with a statistician's aid. The researcher rigorously followed the ethical research considerations. Finally, the result from analysis, interpretation, and report writing was done.
The following ethical consideration was applied to perform this study: First, the study included obtaining permission using informed consent forms and letters of authorization from the school administrators of the respondent schools and other authorities Second, before the respondents answered the questionnaires, the researchers ensured that they had enough information regarding the study's goals and agreed that the information they would share would be used as data for this study And lastly, to abide by the data privacy act, the privacy of the respondents was observed by not mentioning names. And lastly, the Covid 19 health protocols were observed throughout the conduct of this study.
Statistics are used to validate QEOC results and determine whether certain variables are related. There is strong evidence to support the three hypotheses made in Section 2.
Since the data were gathered on an ordinal scale, the median was replaced by outliers or missing values in the SPSS 24® program (Likert scale). Each QEOC variable is statistically verified using an appropriate Cronbach's alpha value of 0.7 as a minimum threshold. For this reason, only variables having correlations greater than or equal to 0.70 should be included in the analysis. Discriminant and convergent validity may both be assessed using the extracted average variance (AVE). A substantial p value is required for each variable's AVE, which must be more than 0.5. The VIF index is used for each variable to determine if they have collinearity. This value must be less than 3.3. A non parametric measure of predictive validity (Q2 > 0.2) is computed using an ordinal sort of data and a measurement of the Q2 coefficient. The Q2 coefficient can be found only in
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endogenous latent variables. A student's latent performance on a test is the explanatory latent variable.
Table 2. Socio demographic characteristics of the surveyed students. Socio Demographic Characteristics of Surveyed
Students Age Number (%)
>18 20 45 (22.35%)
>20 30 148 (72.37%)
>30 40 14 (7.89%)
>40 50 5 (3.45%)
Gender
Male 119 (58.85%) Female 92 (47.30%)
Marital Status
Single 185 (90%)
Married 15 (8.35%)
Free Union 12 (7.45%)
Other 4 (5.43%)
Table 3. Surveyed students per university. University
Students Involved in the Survey A1 B2 C3 D4 E5 F6 G7 H8 I9 J10 K11 L12 95 90 13 10 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
Figure 1 may be examined using WarpPLS 6.0® software to determine the relationships between the variables (SEM). This program's partial least squares option comes in handy when data are ordinal and represent a small sample that does not match normalcy requirements (PLS). It is possible to get a deeper understanding of this model by using accuracy measures such as the average path coefficient (APC), average R squared, and adjusted R squared (ARS) (AARS). All collinearity and average block VIFs must be less than 5 to meet the criterion (AFVIF). The Tenenhaus index (GoF) must also be greater than 0. 25. Additionally, an SEM must examine the factors' direct, indirect, and total impacts. Figure 1 shows that direct effects (arrows) may verify the model predictions. Another way to think about it is that indirect effects look at the relationship between two variables by examining the segments of a latent variable that connect the two. Overall impacts include both direct and indirect effects. Due to the short number of segments between independent and dependent variables, indirect effects are
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not apparent in Figure 1. Using a p value to determine if a variable to p value relationship is statistically significant, one of the most known instances of direct effects is represented by the symbol S, which represents standard deviations. Finally, the size of each influence's impact is computed. The SE recognizes this capacity to classify an independent variable's influence on each dependent variable.
Descriptive Analysis of the Data
Table 4 lists the variables that are both dependent and independent, as well as the components that make up each. Most students responded 3 = Occasionally, 4 = Usually, or 5 = Always for the three independent variables. However, the most common response for the dependent variable academic achievement was 3 = Sometimes. This finding implies that home settings are not optimum and that other factors influence academic achievement.
Variable Item Answer Frequency (0%) Mean Median Standard Deviation
A good amount of light in my study environment helps me see well and focus when taking online courses.
1 2 3 4 5
2(1%) 5(2.4%) 49(23.8%) 91(44.2%) 59(28.6%)
3.97 4 0.843
Lightning
Changing the lighting in my study environment is one of the perks of taking college courses online, for example, opening and shutting blinds and curtains, having a table lamp, and having dimmers within reach.
When taking online classes, the quantity of illumination in my study environment (lights and the computer screen) provides me with visual comfort.
1 2 3 4 5
10(4.9%) 10(4.9%) 34(16.5%) 60(29.1%) 92(44.7%)
4.04 4 1.117
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1 2 3 4 5
2(1%) 16(7.8%) 49(23.8%) 78(37.9%) 61(29.6%)
3.87 4 0.959
Noise
I have complete privacy in my study space when taking an online class.
1 2 3 4 5
I can concentrate, take notes, and hear my teacher and other students because of the low noise level in my study environment (caused by electronic devices, discussions, and other outside influences).
I can manage the amount of noise in my study environment, for example, by opening and shutting doors and windows.
1 2 3 4 5
20(9.7%) 34(165%) 50(24.3%) 46(22.3%) 56(27.2%)
13(6.3%) 34(16.5%) 74(35.9%) 66(32%) 19(9.2%)
3.41 3 1.306
Temperature
I can adjust the temperature in my study space while taking online classes by opening and shutting windows and turning on and off ventilators
My study space has enough air quality for taking the class online.
1 2 3 4 5
18(8.7%) 36(17.5%) 53(25.7%) 57(20.4%) 42(20.4%)
3.21 3 1.038
1 2 3 4 5
3.33 3 1.229
1 2 3 4 5
I can do all my tasks by attending online programs.
12(5.8%) 17(8.3%) 36(17.5%) 73(35.4%) 68(33%)
3.82 4 1.154
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1 2 3
4(1.9%) 12(5.8%) 51(24.8%) 67(32.5%) 72(35%)
3.93 4 1.002
12(5.8%) 23(11.2%) 67(32.5%) 3.47 4 1.103
Academic Performance
I can plan my time by taking classes online and ensure I do all the work my instructors provide.
4 5 64(31.1%) 40(19.4%)
1 2 3 4 5
My grades have improved because of taking online programs.
1 2 3 4 5
By attending online courses, I have increased my knowledge.
1 2 3 4 5
By attending online courses, I was able to strengthen my communication abilities.
1 2 3 4 5
11(5.3%) 25(12.1%) 67(32.5%) 56(27.2%) 47(22.8%)
13(6.3%) 27(13.1%) 72(35%) 62(30.1%) 32(15.5%)
27(13.1%) 54(26.2%) 68(33%) 39(18.9%) 18(8.7%)
27(13.1%) 48(23.3%) 65(31.6%) 23(20.9%) 23(11.2%)
3.50 3.50 1.129
My creativity grows thanks to online courses.
1 2 3 4 5
I'm pleased with the outcomes I've gotten from attending courses online.
29(14.1%) 49(23.8%) 62(30.1%) 43(20.9%) 23(11.2%)
3.50 3 2.395
2.84 3 1.143
3.05 3 2.167
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1 2 3 4 5
3.03 3 2.177
28(13.6%) 33(16%) 68(33%) 42(20.4%) 35(17%)
3.24 3 2.370
The QEOC questionnaire was well tested internally and content wise (Table 5). In the QEOC, removing a variable lowers the Cronbach's alpha. As a result, everything was transferred to the QEOC. Figure 2 shows the indexes' results that support the conclusions of this investigation's dependent and independent variables. The revised R2 and R2 were more than 0.2, demonstrating predictive validity. Following validation results, an SEM might be used to analyze these factors.
My study space's illumination makes it easy to see what's happeningaround me and helps me concentrate when taking online classes.
By opening and closing curtains and drapes, using a table lamp, and having dimmers within reach, I can control the amount of light in my study environment when taking online courses.
A good amount of illumination (from lamps and computer screens) helps me to focus when taking online classes.
I can concentrate in peace since I am taking lessons online.
It's easier for me to concentrate, engage in class, and hear my lecturer and other students because of the noise level in my study environment (from devices, discussions, and other sources).
Cronbach’s Cronbach’s Alpha if the item is removed from QEOC
0.776 0.698 0.726 0.643
0.816 0.743 0.766 0.712
I can regulate the volume of noise in my study space (for instance, by opening and closing doors and windows).
Temperature 0.871 0.787
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Being able to regulate my body temperature while taking online classes is essential for my concentration and well being.
I can regulate the temperature in my study space while taking courses online (for example, by opening and shutting windows and turning ventilators on and off).
My study space has adequate air quality for taking online courses.
0.843 0.816 Academic Performance
Attending online classes allows me to finish all my tasks efficiently.
I'm able to manage my time better since I'm taking classes online and not in a traditional classroom setting.
The online classes I've taken have helped me improve my grades.
The classes I've taken online have helped me learn more.
I've improved my communication skills by taking online classes.
My ability to work with others has improved because of taking online classes.
My creativity is enhanced by taking online courses.
IampleasedwiththeoutcomesIhavereceived from attending online classes.
0.831 0.759 0.760 0.751 0.751 0.776 0.756 0.791 0.738
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Figure 2. Validation of variables
Figure 3. Model evaluation
These are shown in Figure 4. The results demonstrated that each index meets the methodology's minimal and maximum parameters. Aside from collinearity difficulties, this means that the model can accurately predict future outcomes.
For each direct impact, the () value is shown, along with the corresponding p value, in Figure 5. The significance level was set at a p value of 0.05 or below. Since H2 and H3 have p values less than 0.05 and H1 has a p value greater than 0, it is decided to accept H2 and H3. Students taking online courses during the COVID 19 outbreak reported worse grades, and this was shown to be most strongly correlated with the noise variable's effect on the dependent variable.
Figure 5 portrays the results of each hypothesis, where the following was obtained: H1: It seems that during the COVID 19 epidemic, an increase in the standard deviation of illumination level correlates with improved academic success among students taking online courses from home.
H2: Academic performance improves by 0.21 units when students take online courses during the COVID 19 outbreak.
H3: Given that the temperature standard deviation rises by one unit during the COVID 19 pandemic, it is statistically shown that the temperature standard deviation increases by 0.32 units.
This indicates that the independent variables (lighting, noise, and temperature) accounted for 45 percent of the dependent variable (academic performance), with noise accounting for 26.8 percent, temperature for 11.3 percent, and lighting for 6.7 percent.
This study's findings show that environmental circumstances at home during the COVID 19 epidemic might impair pupils' academic performance, which is consistent with earlier research. In terms of illumination, these findings are similar to previous writers. For example, Gil Baez et al. (2021) state that illumination directly influences pupils' academic performance. In fact, these writers state that pupils cannot learn without proper illumination. This includes online students. A decent amount of illumination and sufficient ventilation can increase student academic performance, according to e Silva et al. (2021). According to Kudo et al. (2019), increases in indoor illumination are inadequate to enhance pupils' academic performance. The researchers found that 250 and 500 lux are optimal for improved school performance, as stated by Schlittmeier and Marsh (2021). Based on the evidence provided in this work, it is feasible to suggest that academic performance is significantly affected by adequate illumination and sufficient ventilation. Therefore, educational facilities should be able to address the environmental factors present in learning areas and provide students with the necessary materials and adequate lighting to foster success in their intellectual development.
The idea is the same for the noise variable as well. Lenz et al. (2021) found that noise disrupted students' concentration while doing cognitive tasks like math. Online students have the same challenges, owing to the increased level of background noise and other distractions at their residences. In this way, the study's conclusions are further supported. Nevertheless, Sibley et al. (2021) demonstrate that noise levels impact students' reading/writing abilities and hence their academic achievements. A positive school climate, according to Brink et al. (2021), is beneficial to student's academic development. As a result, excessive noise interferes with their ability to learn. As a final note, the results of this research resemble those of Phan (2021) in that both investigations discovered that student academic performance is negatively impacted by noise intensity. Therefore, higher sound levels can potentially affect university students' cognitive development in their online learning. Higher noise levels will lead to lower academic performance as the learners cannot concentrate on their lesson, which is caused by distraction. In order to prevent getting distracted by the sounds of their
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laptops and other electrical gadgets, students taking online classes should have a quiet location at home.
Finally, the findings of this study agree with prior studies in that temperature affects students' academic performance. In recent research, Mohamed et al. (2021) discovered that classroom temperature influenced academic performance. These findings coincide with Tian et al. (2021). This is because the authors discovered that cold and hot surroundings severely impact pupils' academic performance compared to thermally neutral conditions. Similarly, Phan discovered a link between temperature awareness and academic achievement. This is in line with Kabirikopaei's (2021) findings that student performance increases when the temperature lowers from 25 to 20C (77 to 68F). Al Kumaim et al. (2021) discovered that temperatures between 20 to 24C (68F to 74F) are appropriate to improve student comfort and academic performance. All these past investigations conceptually corroborate the findings of this study, which were also statistically supported. The prior research did not include a sample of schoolchildren during a pandemic. Based on the findings and previous research, it can be inferred that a learning environment with high or low temperatures could decrease the students' cognitive ability. It may be implied that the student's performance may differ by the classroom or home temperature that is being maintained. Students and institutions may benefit from a well designed online classroom with climate controlled spaces in terms of sustainability.
The terms sustainability and students are studied in some research. This research focuses on how colleges teach sustainability and students' grasp of the issue. For example, Sáez de Camara et al. (2021) explored whether or not students in Melbourne and Singapore had a distinct understanding of what sustainability education entails. On the other hand, Martinez Martn and Lozano Martn, (2021) assessed present student commitment to sustainability and its impact on future intention to use sustainable development concepts. This paper proposes three parameters to measure the economic sustainability of college graduates (Galleli et al., 2021). Using participatory ecological learning, Ulfiani Rahman (2021) investigated the impact of self efficacy and self concept on student sustainability. For the educational community to acquire professional competencies in student sustainability, Garca Rico et al. (2021) suggest that all members must be involved. To promote sustainable education, these writers proposed many teaching learning competencies. Regardless of the outcomes, none of the prior investigations used an ergonomic approach to include environmental influences. This underlines the study's uniqueness and shows the breadth of research on online students' ergonomics and sustainability.
For the limitations of the current study and future research directions, this paper solely focuses its scope on the three variables, namely light, noise, and temperature, as the variables affecting the academic performances of students utilizing online interventions as their tool during their learning. Aside from the variables mentioned, future studies could consider involving other variables that could affect students’ performances in their online courses. The performance of
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the respondents in their online learning should also be investigated further with the integration of the other personal profile aspects of the respondents.
For the COVID 19 epidemic, three hypotheses needed to be tested statistically. The environment has an impact on online students' academic achievement, attention, and comfort. This might affect their grades, education, and ambition to finish school. Making sure learners are happy is critical to getting the most out of them (such as study area design). Here, an unregulated study area design affects university students' academic performance. Students' academic performance also relies on factors other than how much time they spend studying or how well they remember the content. Therefore, institutions should encourage students to attend lessons in a pleasant atmosphere with regulated lighting, noise, and temperature. When it comes to homework, for example, teachers should not be doing it. Student computer time is reduced as a result. Mental strain and time spent in adverse environments are both reduced because of this. More participatory courses are encouraged. Game based learning may be used to inspire students to study while also engaging them and improving their level of interest in the subject matter at hand. Students taking online classes should have a quiet area at home to avoid being distracted by the noises of their computers and other electronic devices. All these scenarios may prevent university students from achieving optimum learning and hence sustained human resource development. The following theoretical and managerial implications were addressed based on the direct influence of three environmental factors on academic performance analyses. Academic success at university is not just dependent on time spent studying or recalling knowledge. A private environment may assist in reducing student noise perception, which may enhance academic performance when taking online courses at home. A well designed online classroom with quiet areas and climate controlled rooms may help students and institutions to be more sustainable.
The COVID 19 epidemic has reportedly hampered online students' academic achievement. Other elements like illumination, noise, and temperature might also impact academic achievement. These factors include the student's desk/table and chair design, their technical gadgets (tablet, phone, computer), and the time they spend using them. Non ergonomic furniture and equipment might cause students back and neck pain. These variables may also cause tension, anxiety, and headaches in learners. All these factors may affect children's academic performance and motivation, and the QEOC questionnaire covers all these topics. However, the COVID-19 epidemic has afflicted not just students but also faculty and staff at higher education institutions, affecting their capacity to survive. It is possible to combine both university students' and instructors' opinions in future research.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 441 459, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.24
Received Jul 20, 2022; Revised Sep 20, 2022; Accepted Sep 30, 2022
Abstract. This study aimed to examine the advantages of online socializing and digital learning for the growth of interpersonal, peer learning and collaborative skills The impact of these three skills on knowledge construction was evaluated The Salmon five step e moderation model has been used to explore the many phases of learning in a digital environment. This study examined the first stage of the e moderation model, which is the respondents' internet accessibility, and the stage of knowledge construction in digital learning. The respondents of this study were 402 undergraduate students from four universities who have completed four semesters of online study. A stratified cluster sampling technique was employed in choosing the samples for this study. The instrument for data collection from the respondents was a 40 item questionnaire. Google Forms was utilized as the medium for data gathering. The main findings show that online learning involves a lot of interpersonal, peer learning, and collaborative activities, which are correlated to knowledge construction. The three abilities of peer learning, collaborative skills, and knowledge construction, as indicators of educational values, are positively correlated. The results suggest that a carefully designed online learning session that promotes group activities can deliver beneficial educational values. The common online socializing and information sharing activities seen on social network sites (SNS), such as Facebook, Telegram, Twitter, etc., have strong educational components that should be included in digital learning, which is the future of education
Keywords: digital learning; collaborative learning; peer learning; online socialization; knowledge construction
Education should play a vital part in establishing good values in society as an underdeveloped country gets closer to being a developed and sophisticated
*Corresponding author: RohailaYusof,rohaila@fpe.upsi.edu.my
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
nation. To be excellent in a global online learning endeavor is one of the long term goals set in the Malaysia Education Development Plan 2015 2025 by the Ministry of Education, Malaysia The COVID 19 pandemic is currently driving digital education globally, providing the chance for a dynamic, sharing environment in teaching and learning. Being able to access high quality digital learning resources may reduce educational costs, enhance the learning experience, and provide several other benefits, as more learning institutions use digital education (Wahid, 2020). Due to its adaptability, digital learning has grown in popularity. Common issues, such as technological infrastructure, connectivity, and devices, are being taken care of continuously. Additionally, users’ adaptability struggles, self motivation, learning outcomes and achievement itself are other challenges that require further planning by educators.
Digital learning is playing a bigger role in knowledge transfer than ever before and there is a growing need for high tech solutions. It is crucial to identify the most efficient learning techniques in the age of education digitalization. As traditional face to face training is examined, the question of whether online education can offer students the same level of learning and skill development arises.
Teachers are encouraged to undertake spontaneous teaching activities for online learning that are appropriate for a course ’ s learning goals, usually with the help of the IT staff, but with minimum training, especially in lesson design There is a concern about retaining transferable skills, such as interpersonal skills, through online delivery in professional programs, such as accounting (Ng & Harrison, 2021). Educational values refer to both the acquisition of knowledge and general skill development such as interpersonal, collaborative, and peer learning skills. These are examples of transferable skills that are increasingly included as learning outcomes in most courses offered in higher education. These ideals should be consistently embedded in digital learning, resulting in holistic graduates. Educational values are crucial in enhancing the positive outcomes of digital learning (Hamdani, 2021).
Digital learning, refers to learning that takes place through various social network system (SNS) platforms such as WhatsApp, Telegram, Twitter, and others used on the usual online classes such as Google Meet, and Webex, etc. Social network systems (SNS) are online platforms that people use to build social networks or relationships with other people with similar interests. Examples of SNS are Facebook, Instagram, Telegram, Twitter and WhatsApp, which all have characteristics that can foster social groupings and provide information to improve communication and group cohesiveness. SNS provide platforms that can support students’ interaction with content and increase knowledge construction (Knezek et al., 2012). The electronic educational platform provides multiple capabilities in presenting the subject topic in various forms, that helps in developing students’ motivation to learn (Almaleki et al., 2021). Students' engagement in learning activities
supplied on social media is also tracked by social learning networks. (Dafoulas & Shokri, 2016).
According to Syafril (2019), one of the drawbacks of digital learning is that digital facilities are not evenly distributed. Inevitably, cases of poor internet connections, lack of devices, and other challenges impede learning, especially for students from remote regions, and make the adoption of online teaching and learning more challenging, especially for educators (Abdullah & Amran, 2021; Bahrom, 2020).
There is a cultural shift in how society uses technology such as mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and computers; the fact is that community relationships are transferring online, and this was most notable during the COVID 19 outbreak (Afrizal et al., 2020). Mobile devices have become especially significant in defining sub domains of digital learning and readiness, owing largely to steady growth in their use (Blayone, 2017). Combining cultural and social values as educational principles is essential for minimizing the disadvantages of digital learning while maximizing its benefits (Hamdani, 2021).
SNS have many advantages in facilitating teaching and learning. Lessons should be planned to cultivate educational principles in developing students' personalities or characters so that they may accept and use digital technologies to study and grow. Without a question, the digital era has improved human lives, particularly in the field of education Digital learning has a human component; it emphasizes morals and values (Ndraha & Tangkin, 2021). The digital era, especially in the world of education, brings benefits that make the learning process easier Unfortunately, it also may cause pupils to become egocentric, ignore other aspects of their lives, and ignore others (Ndraha & Tangkin, 2021). Important learning outcomes, such as interpersonal, collaborative and peer learning skills, which are often formed through face to face encounters, should now be fostered through online socializing Students' interpersonal skills could improve with experience, practice, and time spent in an online setting (Lindsey & Rice 2015).
People who are good at interacting with others do better at work and in social settings. The traditional method of teaching and learning involves face to face classes, which are currently combined with the medium of e learning technology, commonly known as blended learning, hybrid learning, or even full online learning (Mufidah & Tahir, 2018). In contrast to a typical classroom environment, social media allows students to communicate more efficiently, learn more, express themselves more easily, and enjoy the learning process. This makes learning more dynamic.
There, are many studies on the benefit of the digital classroom (Amadin et al., 2018) and students’ initial perceptions of Google platforms, such as Google Classroom as a mobile learning experience (Heggart et al., 2018).
Dafoulas and Shokri (2016) showed the potential of using SNS in specific learning activities, as well as the overall effect of introducing a social learning network in the classrooms. Social networks, such as email, Facebook, Wiki, and Skype, provide a way for students to collaborate and share knowledge about their studies outside the classroom (Hiew & Hoon, 2014). According to Wheeler (2012), learning using technology is different from learning through technology because the former suggests that technology is used as one method among many, whereas the latter suggests that technology is the only channel through which the student receives instruction and interacts with his instructor. A study on readiness for digital learning seems to divide its focus between two distinct complexes, namely digital competencies and learning characteristics variables (Blayone, 2017).
This study is in favor of the latter: learning through technology which focuses on learning behaviour This study intends to investigate the educational values that students obtained through digital learning. To achieve the research objective, three research questions are generated. The following research questions will be addressed in this study:
1. What is the level of internet connectivity and device accessibility the students have to engage in digital learning?
2. How much do interpersonal, collaborative, peer learning skills, and knowledge construction skill development benefit from social learning through digital learning?
The popularity and accessibility of social media have facilitated information sharing and improved group cohesion (Dafoulas & Shokri, 2016), and this has an impact on how students engage with one another (Bozanta & Mardikyan, 2017), particularly in collaborative learning, where brainstorming assignments can trigger group debate via comments. Guided by the Malaysia National Philosophy of Education in 1996, Ishak and Mohammad (2021) listed that educational values are moral values, such as kindness, physical and mental cleanliness, honesty, diligence, cooperation, simplicity of gratitude, courage, rationality, sociability, freedom of justice, love, respect, generosity, and self reliance.
Yakovleva (2022) expounded that in e courses and digital learning platforms, teachers and students interact not only "person to person" but also in "person intellectual system" paradigms. This causes digital values humanization to emerge, making educational values such as a sense of duty, self control, responsibility, good manners, cheerfulness, and independence important in the context of online learning.
Wheeler (2012) defined “e learning” (electronic learning), or recently known as “digital learning”, as a set of technology mediated methods that can be applied to support student learning and can include assessment, tutoring, and instruction elements. Laptops and tablets are the devices normally students use for online learning (Afrizal et al., 2020; Kerssens & Dijck, 2021).
Over the past few years, digital learning has slowly played a leading role in different industries’ education. Technology discourse is becoming commonplace in 21st century educational environments, and an essential component of distributed teaching and learning by allowing a more active mode of communication (Knezek et al., 2012). Technology has brought tremendous advancements in online education, spurring transformation in online pedagogical practices by making online learning more active, collaborative, and meaningful with the tools available today (Murugaiah & Thang, 2010).
Digital learning provides opportunities for insights, reflection, cognitive context, calling for active and interactive education, and promoting self learning strategies and developing practices (Manea, 2019). Collaborative learning in social media is a driver for university undergraduate students’ academic performance in Malaysia (Al Rahmi & Othman, 2013). Many social online learning environments have become synonymous with students at higher learning institutions who engage actively in learning through virtual online learning communities that provide collaborative interaction in a free and non threatening environment, such as Facebook, Edmodo, Twitter, and others (Marimuthu et al., 2017).
Peer learning is defined as “students' shared learning from each other” (Ab Jalil, 2011; Ab Jalil & Noordin, 2010) and is an outcome of collaborative activities enhanced through online socialization. The collaborative study is feasible to be replicated in future research, such as students’ perception of the collaborative learning process (Law et al., 2017). Norlizah et al. (2015) reviewed previous research and found that studies that related to online peer learning are few and recommended expanding and investigating online peer learning in future work.
Social media serves as a dynamic tool to expedite the development of a learning environment by encouraging cooperation and communication among students, which reinforces their learning behavior and performance (Sarwar et al., 2019). Due to the borderless and global world wide web and drastic changes in digital learning, users or students must be able to analyze, update, and adapt information according to their different circumstances. Developing and re creating knowledge and information is even more important in cross border, cross country, and cross culture dissemination (Wahid, 2020).
SNS’ s role in education yielded some general positive outcomes when Dafoulas and Shokri (2016) investigated Facebook activities and SNS’ s role using Salmon’s e moderation model. Multiple variants of learning platforms that available for students to enhance their learning experience. The use of SNS can trigger a significant increase in students’ participation in learning activities via Facebook (Dafoulas & Shokri, 2016). They also discovered that students’ grades were positively inspired by the complementary use of Facebook in their course study. System quality and users’ intention to use an e learning system directly and positively connect (Salam & Farooq, 2020).
Salam and Farooq (2020) highlighted that web based collaborative learning enables teachers and students to interact, collaborate and actively participate. Students have a clear value of technology in promoting collaborative and quality digital learning experiences (Heggart & Yoo, 2018). Ruzmetova (2018) discovered that Salmon’s e moderation model was able to provide good contribution to active online and traditional learning, and satisfaction interaction among the learner and instructor.
During the pandemic period, students used digital technology, such as phones, tablets, laptops, and computers, through online applications, such as Google Meet, WhatsApp, and others, to make sure online learning at home ran smoothly (Afrizal et al., 2020). Bahrom (2020) found that students appeared unable to adapt fully to the virtual classroom because the atmosphere was different from that of a traditional classroom. Digital learning encourages a distinct learning culture that is still mostly alien to students, such as virtual learning (cybergogy), self directed learning (heutagogy), and peer oriented learning (paragogy). Learning techniques must adapt to this relatively new learning culture, especially during the COVID 19 pandemic when there was less physical interaction. Several social online learning environments help undergraduate students succeed academically by facilitating cooperative engagement in a welcoming and unrestricted setting (Marimuthu et al., 2017; Al Rahmi & Othman, 2013).
Education principles such as teamwork and peer learning are extra qualities in digital learning that go beyond simply presenting lesson content to enhance learning and accomplishment. To accomplish a specified learning objective, a small group of students engage and share their knowledge and abilities through collaborative learning (So & Brush, 2008). Collaborative learning through social media supports university undergraduate students’ academic performance in Malaysia (Al Rahmi & Othman, 2013). Through virtual online learning communities, such as Facebook, Edmodo, Twitter, and others, that enable collaborative engagement in a cost free and non threatening environment, students actively participate in their education (Marimuthu et al., 2017).
Kümmel et al. (2020) found a relationship between social interaction, such as peer learning, and collaborative skills, which promote learning. Learning (as an individual process) and knowledge construction (as a collective process) depend on knowledge related activities that arise through socio cognitive conflicts between these two systems. Thus, communication and social interaction may trigger learning and knowledge construction.
This study examines the degree to which educational ideals are ingrained in the learning process through digital learning using Salmon's e moderation model (2003) as a guide. Salmon's e moderation model, which consists of five stages, describes how learning occurs on digital platforms:
1. Stage one is individual access, and the ability of respondents to use online platforms are essential prerequisites for learning participation.
2. Stage two involves online socialization and interpersonal skills practice by establishing and finding others with whom to interact.
3. Stage three is information exchange and collaborative skills practice where cooperation occurred by giving each other information relevant to the course.
4. In Stage four, the interactions produce shared understandings that support knowledge construction.
5. Lastly, in stage five, the respondents look for more benefits from the system to help them achieve personal goals and reflect on the learning process.
Figure 1 presents the five levels of Salmon’s e moderation model.
Adopting the stages in Salmon's e moderation model, this study explores educational ideals (peer learning, interpersonal skills, and collaborative skills) through socializing in digital learning. In stage 1 students need to have internet access, device, and data consumption. The peer learning variable was used to assess students' online socializing in stage 2, which included their input on their interactions with peers during the digital learning process. In stage 3, information exchange that necessitates collaboration occurred because of students' collaborative skills, ensuring that the information exchange stage takes place as required by Salmon's e moderation model. Then, in stage 4, knowledge construction was evaluated using knowledge construction questionnaires to identify whether understanding is shared during the digital learning process and knowledge construction takes place. In stage 5, students are encouraged to seek out additional system benefits to further their pursuit of individual objectives and self reflection The research aim did not include stage 5 and, hence, stage 5 is not measured in this study.
A survey method design was employed in this study to achieve the research objective. The population for this study is all students from the faculty of Management and Economics in higher education institutions (HEIs) in Malaysia. Students from four HEIs were the target population of this study and respondents were identified from them.
Courses were identified that encourage cooperation through online learning and utilize social network systems (SNS) as part of teaching and learning delivery, which include Facebook, WhatsApp, Telegram, Google Meet, Webex and Microsoft Teams The course identification process was done by a representative from each institution For corresponding purposes, only the departments of business, management, economics and accounting were involved. A total of 402 undergraduate students from the four institutions, who were majoring in accounting, business, and economics, and had completed four semesters of digital learning, served as the study's samples
Using a stratified cluster sampling technique, 50 students from each university were selected. The samples chosen were all first and second year students who had enrolled in online courses The respondents’ age group was between 18 24 years old, and 78% or 314 students were female. In terms of academic programs, 43.2% were from business and entrepreneurship programs; 29.3% from management and economics; and 27.5% from accounting programs.
The instrument applied in this study was a 40 item, close ended questionnaire with five Likert scales measuring the educational values expected from digital learning as depicted in the e moderation model. The items were divided into four skills: interpersonal, peer learning, collaborative skills, and knowledge construction. These items were validated by two content experts for content validation. A reliability test was run in a pilot study involving 35 first year students. The reliability test shows a Cronbach alpha reading of 0.81.
Digital learning platforms in this study are common SNS used by students, such as Facebook, Telegram, WhatsApp, Google Meet, Webex and others. The courses selected were those that encourage cooperation through online learning. Information on class activities was collected through department representatives before the administration of questionnaires. Students were required to answer the online survey created using Google Forms.
The first and second year students happened to be studying online for four semesters during that time due to the pandemic. These samples were chosen because they had more experience with digital learning than their seniors did. This stage is carried out to regulate the homogeneity of samples with the assumption that group projects were necessary for most business faculty courses. There were 28 target courses for sampling from the four institutions.
The representatives of each institution were given links to distribute questionnaires using Google Forms. The Google Forms link was included in 500 emails, of which 402 of them received responses.
The efficiency of internet based learning was impacted by several issues during the COVID 19 disaster, including internet connectivity, lack of devices, and adaptability The study started with a descriptive output on the accessibility of the internet among the students. Access to the internet and computer availability among students are fundamental in digital learning. The findings of the study showed that most undergraduate students have moderate access to the internet in their digital learning; when they were asked to rate 1 (difficult) to 5 (easy), more than half of the respondents (66%) chose 4 and 5. Only 3% of respondents chose 2 and 31% chose 3 out of 5. The internet connection disparity was shown to be influenced by location, favoring students who live in urban areas
According to the background data collected from the respondents, 55% of students in this survey use home Wi Fi; 41% use phone data; 1% use broadband; and 1% use public Wi Fi to access the internet. These findings are supported by Bahrom 2020, who discovered that one of the challenges Malaysian educators face in fully implementing online learning methods is that some students arrive late to the virtual classroom due to internet problems, and others are unable to download the lesson materials from Google Classroom because their data plans have run out.
The results revealed that 50% of students use online platforms Google Meet, Webex, Microsoft Teams, and Zoom; 23% use Facebook learning platforms; 12% use Telegram; 12% use WhatsApp; and 3% use other platforms as their digital learning platforms. This result is in line with Bahrom (2020), that the online learning platforms commonly used are Google Classroom, YouTube, video, WhatsApp, voice message, Google Meet, and email.
In terms of devices, 81.09% of the respondents use laptops, 18.41% smartphones, and 0.5% use tablets in digital learning. In contrast, a study in South America by Asio et al. (2021) found 96% of the respondents used smartphones in contrast with tablets (2%), laptops (12%), and personal computers (3%)
The summary of the respondents’ background related to the internet connectivity, devices, and SNS platform used in their digital learning is shown in Figure 2
The participants responded to a 40 item, close ended questionnaire with five Likert scales measuring the educational values developed from online socialization in digital learning. The scales measured four skills: interpersonal, peer learning, collaborative skills, and knowledge construction. The reading on the items showed a moderately high reading on a scale of five, such as interpersonal skills, students “can communicate effectively when using social media” (mean 3.69, s.d. 92), and “learn more when they seek information on things they want to learn” (mean 4.04, s.d. .82). They did quite well on collaborative skills, for examples, “feel a sense of community when they learn through social media” (mean 3.62, s d 88); “increase my participation in classes when I am allowed to contribute through social media” (mean 3.68, s.d. .89); and “I can post information that might be of interest to other people” (mean 3.72, s.d. .91).
Collaborative learning may begin when learners feel a sense of community and start to participate, exchange, gain and develop new knowledge and skill through the process. Peer learning took place in online socialization with many respondents providing positive responses such as “able to get faster feedback from my peers when using social media” (mean 3.72, s.d.94); and “When using social media, I can connect with peers more easily than face to face” (mean 3.60, s.d.1.02).
Knowledge construction, as one of the expected outcomes of the learning process, scored high means on items such as “When using social media, “I am able to get faster feedback from my instructor” (mean 3.62, s.d. .95); “I use Internet communication technology to keep current on topics related to my field of expertise” (mean 4.03, s.d .78); and “ more classroom learning should include interactive communication technology experiences“ (mean 4.05, s.d. .77). The list
of items and the respective means in the four dimensions of skills is provided in Appendix 1.
The levels of the four skills are listed in Table 2. The table shows the level of interpersonal skills (M = 3.79, SD = 0.65); collaborative skills (M = 3.77, SD = 0.71); peer learning (M = 3.73, SD = 0.77), and knowledge construction (M = 3.96, SD = 0.70) at a moderately high level where the mean value are more than 3.33, which is considered a high level.
The interpretation guideline applied is low (1 2.34), medium (2.34 3.67) and high (3.68 5.00) The results are in line with Altinay (2017), where participants are comfortable with technology, online groups and being reflective in their online learning process. The skills were developed when the students were encouraged to question and discuss issues in groups using collaborative learning strategies. The results were supported by Davidovitch and Belichenko (2018), who found that learning through Facebook groups can facilitate communication between students and foster a positive social climate with creating dialogue and sharing learning materials among group members. Students who are afraid to talk are more likely to join in online conversations, according to research by Murugaiah and Thang (2010). This indicates that online learning improves students, especially in their social interaction and teamwork
The findings showed there was a significant positive relationship between peer learning and level of knowledge construction [r (402) = .711, p = .000]. There was a significant positive relationship between level of collaborative skill and level of knowledge construction [r (402) = .745, p = .000]. These findings are supported by Kummel et al. (2020), who found both individual learning and communal knowledge building are dependent on knowledge related activities and, thus, social engagement and communication can lead to learning. The findings are supported by Aladsani (2021), who found SNS, such as Telegram, provide unlimited space for cloud storage and are found useable to enhance students’ educational interaction.
When people connect specialized information from a variety of sources around them, digital learning occurs. People frequently rely on web browsers, search engines, Wikipedia, online news, discussion, and social networks, all of which can significantly enhance the learning experience. Through readily available, high quality content, students will be able to comprehend, navigate, recognize, and make decisions based on the information provided (Wahid 2020). These findings are supported by Dafoulas and Shokri (2016) who found the use of a social learning network triggered a significant increase in student participation in learning activities delivered over Facebook. Consistent findings by Bozanta and Mardikyan (2017) revealed peer interaction and course engagement have a positive significant effect on collaborative learning. Similarly, So and Brush (2008) indicated that student perceptions of collaborative learning have statistically positive relationships with social presence and satisfaction perceptions. Students with a high level of collaborative learning tended to be
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more satisfied with their distance courses than those with low collaborative learning levels
The summary for the means of IPS, CS, PL, and KC is listed in Table 1. Table 1. Summary level of students’ KC, PL, CS, IPS Levels of interpersonal, collaborative, peer learning and knowledge construction Level M SD
IPS 3.58 .56 CS 3.77 .71 PL 3.73 .77 KC 3.96 .70
*(IPS Interpersonal skills, CL Collaborative skills, PL Peer learning, KC Knowledge construction)
The results of multiple regression analysis in Table 2 showed that, for this sample size (n = 402), interpersonal skill, collaborative skill, and peer learning were significant predictors [F (3, 398) = 212.35, p <.05] for knowledge construction. These three predictor variables accounted for 61.5% (r = .79) of the variance in the criterion variable (R = .615), of peer learning (β = .27, t = 5.11, p<.05), interpersonal skills (β = .17, t = 3.42, p<.05), and collaborative skill (β = .41 t = 7.91, p<.05). The result is consistent with the findings of various research which stated that it is possible to achieve student satisfaction in online learning by positive online teacher learning activities (Baloran & Herman 2021). The results concur with Dafoulas and Shokri (2016), who found a positive impact of social learning, where 78% of FEI students stated they could cooperate with others, and 85% of students said using social media improved their feeling of social involvement and belonging on a specific project
Humans learn via encounters, according to thinkers like Piaget and Vygotsky. Online socialization encourages students to work together in teams to share information and provide their personal views on situations. Previous research findings supported the social learning theory elements of social networking, peer support (Mohammed et al., 2015), and peer community (Zher et al., 2016). These values inspire and add value to learning when technology is applied (Zher et al., 2016). These results are supported by Kümmel et al. (2020), who indicated that knowledge construction is a collective process depending on knowledge related activities that arise through socio cognitive conflicts between learning (as an individual process) and knowledge construction (as a collective process). Thus, communication and social interaction may trigger learning and knowledge construction
Table 2. Multiple regression results PL, IPS, CS toward KC
Variable Beta t Sig. R2 F Sig. F
PL .268 5.105 .000 0.615 212.35 .000
IPS 172 3.419 .000
CS 414 7.907 .000
Observations on the overall digital learning provide interesting insights and findings on digital learning. Firstly, accessibility to the internet and devices among students for digital learning is an issue that is being addressed
continuously. More than 90% of students in the universities have access to the internet and devices. It can be challenging for those in rural areas; thus, the university students’ affairs unit takes care of this situation by giving the students from rural areas the option to stay on campus. Accessibility to the internet and devices is supported by the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) which has begun several approaches and solutions to help students who are experiencing connectivity challenges.
Secondly, the development of the three important skills of interpersonal, collaborative and peer learning is highly related to the teaching and learning activities and the types of supporting materials used during class. The use of audio visual aids, such as photos, videos, graphical images and diagrams, encourages students’ participation and improves the skills and values in digital learning. This active participation leads to knowledge construction through digital learning. These results are supported by Mohammed et al. (2015), that online peer learning has a strong influence on the use of technology, which leads to greater academic achievement.
Students at higher education institutions are frequently associated with a variety of social online learning settings. Students are urged to share their ideas and work with others, which helps to increase communication between them and their professors, while also minimizing paperwork. Students posting their thoughts and ideas on social media is normal. Digital learning eliminates geographic borders and saves time, allowing for immediate connection and feedback. With the use of interactive communication technologies, students may easily study, explore, and get quick, direct information from their instructors. SNS offers an effective platform of social learning which far exceeds the capacity of online learning. Effective learning happens through information and experience sharing, which leads to knowledge construction. Activities that require students’ interaction and sharing of ideas can promote a deeper level of learning.
According to this study, students at higher education institutions have reasonable access to internet connectivity and devices. The platforms that educators utilize to offer teaching and learning in higher education are highly diverse. Given their popularity and the environment they provide for social learning, SNS are quickly evolving into educational tools. Online socializing is proving to be a successful method of learning that promotes the growth of critical abilities, including interpersonal, collaborative, and peer learning skills. Information exchanges prove to be crucial contributors to knowledge construction
According to the literature, SNS's involvement in education has produced some generally favorable results. Thus, SNS's role and activities should be further investigated. These findings point to the need for universities to further investigate strategies to leverage widely available digital technologies to promote students' digital learning, and achieve exceptional results in their
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studies. Digital learning plays a vital role in the current learning environment and mechanism.
Peer learning is a type of learning that takes place among peers and involves the use of social media to help and exchange knowledge. Learners may utilize social media to interact with their peers more efficiently and cost effectively. There are few studies on online peer learning and, thus, more research is needed to broaden and better understand this concept. To enhance their teaching and learning, educators might take advantage of social networks' specific features and complementing aspects. Higher education institutions may consider offering faculty professional development programs to help lecturers build abilities that would enable them to cope with activities, as online education and technology learning may be challenging. The common online socializing and information sharing activities seen in SNS have strong educational components that should be included in digital learning, which is the future of education. Particularly, the digital era is inextricably linked to the field of education and has accelerated its advancement.
This study has been supported by University Pendidikan Sultan Idris Research Grant Kod Projek / Project Code: 20200297.
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Mean s.d.
IPS1 (Interpersonal Skill) [When using social media learning becomes interactive.] 3.73 .897
IPS2 (Interpersonal Skill) [I can communicate effectively when using social media.] 3.69 .923
IPS3 (Interpersonal Skill) [I learn more when I regulate my own learning experience on the things that I want to learn about.] 3.84 .850
IPS4 (Interpersonal Skill) [I learn more when I seek information on things that I want to learn about.] 4.04 .819
IPS5 (Interpersonal Skill) [I use Internet communications for self expression.] 3.78 .894
IPS6 (Interpersonal Skill) [I use other technology tools for self expression.] 3.70 .938
IPS7 (Interpersonal Skill) [I would like to be a participating member of an online community.] 3.70 .837
IPS8 (Interpersonal Skill) [I learn best in a traditional classroom setting.] 3.82 .899
CS1 (Collaborative) [When using social media, I feel a sense of community.] 3.62 .886
CS2 (Collaborative) [I increase my participation in classes when I am allowed to contribute through social media] 3.68 .899
CS3 (Collaborative) [I post information that might be of interest to other people.] 3.72 .907
CS4 (Collaborative) [Collaborative learning experience in the computer mediated communication environment is better than in a face to face learning environment.] 3.28 1.091
CS5 (Collaborative) [I felt part of a learning community in my group.] 3.68 .871
CS6 (Collaborative) [I actively exchanged my ideas with group members.] 3.91 .866
CS7 (Collaborative) [I was able to develop new skills from other members of my group.] 3.95 .828
CS8 (Collaborative) [I was able to develop new knowledge from other members of my group.] 3.98 .838
CS9 (Collaborative) [I was able to develop problem solving skills through peer collaboration.] 3.94 .803
CS10 (Collaborative) [Collaborative learning in my group was effective.] 3.84 .822
CS11 (Collaborative) [Collaborative learning in my group was time consuming.] 3.71 .909
CS12 (Collaborative) [Overall, I am satisfied with my collaborative learning experience in this course.] 3.90 .861
PL1 (Peer Learning) [When using social media posting questions to my peers helps me understand my reading better] 3.86 .826
PL2 (Peer Learning) [I am able to get faster feedback from my peers when using social media] 3.73 .942
PL3 (Peer Learning) [I like to share interests online.] 3.70 .928
PL4 (Peer Learning) [I like to share reflections online.] 3.65 .920
PL5 (Peer Learning) [When using social media, I am able to connect with peers more easily than face to face] 3.60 1.024
PL6 (Peer Learning) [I learn many things by interacting with other Internet users.] 3.88 .857
KC1 (Knowledge Construction) [When using social media, I am able to get faster feedback from my instructor.] 3.62 .951
KC2 (Knowledge Construction) [I use Internet technology to explore topics of interest.] 4.09 .765
KC3 (Knowledge Construction) [I like to take classes from good professors.] 4.04 .875
KC4 (Knowledge Construction) [Internet technology helps me be successful in my college classes.] 3.98 .792
KC5 (Knowledge Construction) [I like to enroll in classes to continue my education.] 3.94 .833
KC6 (Knowledge Construction) [I use Internet communication technology tools when I want to learn about something new.] 4.05 .788
KC7 (Knowledge Construction) [I use Internet communication technology to keep current on topics related to my field of expertise.]
4.03 .782
KC8 (Knowledge Construction) [More classroom learning should include interactive communication technology experiences] 4.00 .777
KC9 (Knowledge Construction) [The things I need to know are taught by instructors in the classroom.] 3.89 .825
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 460 476, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.25
Received Jul 9, 2022; Revised Sep 18, 2022; Accepted Sep 28, 2022
Abstract. The online flipped classroom has been a growing trend in education, particularly since the Covid 19 pandemic, and now, in the new normal, online learning has become the dominant alternative to traditional learning In this model of learning, students can prepare new materials through reading or watching lesson videos at home, and then, in the physical or virtual classroom, they have time for active discussions. Although the flipped classroom model has been popular for several decades, the implementation of the flipped classroom in online based teaching and learning in the context of teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) has not been widely researched. In this study, an online questionnaire with both closed ended and open ended questions was administered to 120 EFL students at a public university in Vietnam, with the aim of understanding EFL students’ perceptions of online flipped learning. The results reveal that students have a relatively positive perception of online flipped learning, although a number of typical challenges can have a negative influence on the effectiveness of this type of instruction. Many suggestions for improving the online flipped classroom were also presented.
Keywords: Covid 19 pandemic; perceptions of EFL learners; effectiveness; online flipped classroom; online learning
Flipped pedagogy has been popular in STEM education, for teaching science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, and these flipped classrooms proved to improve student retention of knowledge, content understanding, student engagement, and student–teacher interaction (Tang et al., 2020). The most prominent advantage of flipped instruction is heightened flexibility of teaching, and switching the roles of teachers and students. Students are more active and self directed when they participate in class activities (Haghi, 2020) For the past two years, as a response to the Covid 19 pandemic, most education institutions had to make the transition from onsite to online teaching and learning. Flipping a fully online class has been suggested as an effective way to improve traditional face to face learning by developing important skills, such as critical thinking, problem solving, and collaborative learning (Aljaraideh, 2019). Unlike the
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traditional flipped classroom, which requires learners to prepare class assignments by watching videos or reading material before attending class meetings, in online flipped classrooms, teachers and students do not meet physically, but via virtual lessons, which are appropriate for maintaining social distancing protocols in the new normal.
Although online flipping of the classroom has increased and has been a highly effective teaching method during the Covid 19 pandemic, very little research has focused on this teaching approach in the context of English as a foreign language (EFL), particularly in Vietnam. A study examining students’ perceptions of the online flipped classroom is important, as the insights from this study can be useful for both students and teachers to obtain the optimum benefits of online flipped learning. This study used an online survey to examine the perceptions of online EFL students on flipped online learning during the pandemic.
2.1
The term “flipped classroom”, coined in 2007, represents an e learning methodology that employs technology to switch the traditional roles relating to classroom activities (Sakulprasertsri, 2017). Since its inception, the characteristics of the flipped classroom have evolved, and it has been known by various names, such as “flipped classroom”, “flipped learning”, “flipped instruction” or “flipped teaching”. In this paper, these terms will be used interchangeably.
Technology and task based learning are two key characteristics of the flipped classroom in an online based learning model. The central principle of flipped learning is to apply technology in a teaching context, so that direct instruction in the lesson can be reduced; instead, teachers focus more on group work and task based learning via a variety of activities. Flipped instruction aims to maximize interaction time in the classroom Both teachers and students are encouraged to interact more, and spend more time on more meaningful learning activities
Flipped learning has prominent advantages, including encouraging active and collaborative learning, encouraging students to increase their engagement in the course, improving interaction between teachers and students, and accommodating differences between students (Akçayır & Akçayır, 2018). Although the model of flipped learning has weaknesses, it also has many advantages.
For EFL teachers, assigning work to students to prepare before the lesson, by expecting them to do some reading or watching a video, is not an innovative idea; however, flipped learning involves more than this. It is an effective way to allocate lesson time for interactive activities that students cannot do on their own In the EFL teaching and learning context, engagement plays a vital role in students’ performance. Passive students are not able to learn a language effectively, and flipped classrooms require students to engage inside the classroom, and in activities beyond the classroom Collaborative group work, student led discussions, task based activities and problem solving activities are
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common in flipped instruction, and these activities are also often suggested for use in EFL classrooms (Öztürk & Çakıroğlu, 2021).
2.2 Basic Procedure of Teaching an Online Flipped Classroom
Flipped classrooms consist of three typical groups of activities: pre class/lesson, in class/lesson and post class/lesson activities (Demirel, 2016) In a flipped classroom, researchers (Gerber & Eybers, 2021) report organizing these activities according to the different learning levels of Bloom’s revised taxonomy; students generally understand basic concepts before the lesson, and during and after the lesson time, focus on more on application of the concepts (Hyder, 2016)
Pre class work generally consists of basic learning activities that students need to prepare and complete before the lesson In pre class activities, teachers aim to provide all the students with key foundational knowledge, so that the students can remember and understand basic concepts according to Bloom’s taxonomy. Common assignments students are required to prepare include reading or viewing the lessons in advance. While video content is associated with the flipped classroom model, teachers can flip their teaching by using traditional resources, by relying on available materials or using existing online content rather than creating new material. Textbook chapters, relevant articles or related YouTube clips are common sources of content that teachers can post via student mailing groups, or on the learning platform. To ensure that they can participate in discussions in future class meetings, the students are required to complete assignments and post their questions on the learning platform, and respond to questions posted by other students.
In class/lesson activities are the central part of the flipped classroom approach These activities focus on higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, including application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. In an online flipped lesson with a common procedure of presentation, practice and production, students are required to prepare the presentation and practice stages in advance, leaving the online lesson time for the production element. Generally, teachers start the class with students’ questions about the pre lesson assignments. Group problem solving exercises are also common activities for engaging more students in a specific task. Promoting discussions is also important in an active flipped classroom, as this generally fosters collaborative learning. For effective discussions, the task should be goal oriented and the students should be allocated sufficient time to think and respond, and positive and immediate feedback should be provided.
The post class/lesson stage refers to activities of assessment and application of the learned knowledge, which can be completed at home to reinforce the pre class and in class stages After the flipped classroom, students can continue interacting with their peers and teachers on the platform, if they still have questions. Teachers can present additional problems on a learning platform such as Moodle, a course website, or from the textbook, for students to get further practice on their own, outside the classroom. Online assessment systems can also be used to provide immediate feedback to students.
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The Covid 19 pandemic required a substantial change in education systems around the world, by forcing teaching and learning to be shifted from onsite to online instruction. Since flipped pedagogy can apply the characteristics of both synchronous and asynchronous content delivery, the online flipped classroom can be an effective method, particularly for emergency online teaching In traditional flipped classrooms, students are assigned tasks, for instance, to view video lectures at home and prepare for class meetings. During the pandemic crisis, due to social distancing, and unlike the original flipped classroom model, students and teachers do not meet in physical classrooms, but through online instruction Using online flipped teaching during the pandemic and in the new normal is very useful for guaranteeing the continuous process of teaching and learning, though it requires the adoption of technology to enhance education quality (Gopalan et al., 2021).
The current study aimed to explore EFL students’ perceptions of online flipped learning during the pandemic at a public university in South Vietnam. The following two main questions were posited: “What are students’ perceptions of typical characteristics of flipped classroom?”, and “What are major challenges of online flipped instruction?”
In the current study, a descriptive survey design with an online questionnaire was employed with EFL students of a public university in Vietnam The survey method was feasible as it is a relatively inexpensive research tool that can be used to collect data from a large population within a limited time. A questionnaire was based on a literature review of the online flipped classroom, and was useful in this study, because of its feasibility to deliver, respond to, and produce reliable data.
The sample of this research comprised EFL students in the School of Foreign Languages at Can Tho University in the south of Vietnam. In total, 120 participants completed the survey. The basic characteristics of the participants are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Demographic characteristics of the participants (N = 120)
Characteristics
Gender
Number
Percentage
Female 84 70% Male 36 30%
Year of study
First year students 6 5%
Second year students 16 13.3%
Third year students 30 25%
Fourth year students 68 56.7%
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The participants were invited to respond to an online survey on Google Forms (see Appendix). There were three sections. The first section elicited participants’ demographic information. The second section consisted of 15 closed ended questions about typical characteristics of a flipped classroom, adapted from literature on flipped instruction (Aljaraideh, 2019). Each item was rated with a 5 point Likert scale relating to the respondents’ level of agreement, from 0 (do not agree at all) to 4 (completely agree). The last section consisted of two open questions, which asked the participants to present typical challenges of online flipped learning and to suggest effective ways to improve this type of learning approach.
The results of the main sections of questions in the survey were analyzed and presented.
There are five statements in the questionnaire that enquire about the participants’ interest in and motivation for the flipped classroom. Table 2 provides the descriptive statistics of the students’ interest in and motivation for the learning process.
Table 2: Mean scores for interest in and motivation for online flipped learning (N = 120)
Statements Mean SD Scale 0 1 2 3 4
Flipped classroom can improve interest in exploring topics 2.79 1.003 4 8 27 51 30
Flipped classroom can improve interest in knowledge construction 2.63 1.028 6 11 24 59 20
I feel more confident about my learning due to the flipped instruction 2.60 1.024 6 11 27 57 19 Flipped classroom attracts my attention to learning and teaching process
2.57 1.042 6 11 32 50 21
I feel more motivated in a flipped classroom. 2.50 1.053 5 16 33 46 20
Overall mean score 2.62
Interest and motivation are important factors that influence online learning (Xiu & Thompson, 2020). In this study, the mean scores for questions on this topic are relatively high the overall mean score is 2.62, the highest mean score is 2.79, and the lowest mean score is 2.50.
It is clear that the statement “Flipped classroom can improve interest in exploring topics” has the highest mean score. Similarly, the statement “Flipped classroom can improve interest in knowledge construction” also had a relatively high mean score. This finding is in line with a recent study (Noori et al., 2022),
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which found that, in flipped learning, students were more active and more interested in their learning. Instead of lecturing students, as teachers would in a traditional classroom, teachers in flipped classrooms facilitate students to become self directed learners, through setting up the content, mapping out assignments, and organizing interactive and productive activities to be undertaken in class meetings (Öztürk & Çakıroğlu, 2021).
The statement “I feel more confident about my learning due to the flipped instruction” has a relatively high mean score of 2.60. An explanation can be that, in a flipped classroom, where students have prepared beforehand, students are likely to feel more confident about joining in a class meeting (Lestari & Sundari, 2020).
Students generally reported positive motivational beliefs about the flipped classroom (Xiu & Thompson, 2020). In the current study, over half of the participants reported a high level of agreement with the statements “Flipped classroom attracts my attention to learning and teaching process” and “I feel more motivated in a flipped classroom.” It was quite unexpected that, in this study, the factor of motivation in relation to flipped learning received the lowest mean score. It is possible that not all the student participants were completely ready for the transition from onsite to online learning during the pandemic. However, this speculation needs further examination.
4.2 Effectiveness of Online
Flipped learning is generally reported to be more effective than traditional lecture based learning, across most disciplines, as students are more centered and more empowered in an active learning environment (Hwang et al., 2019) In traditional lectures, it is possible for students to sit through a class without prior preparation, but in a flipped classroom, doing prior homework is a requirement. The results of the current study support that of previous research (Yavuz & Ozdemir, 2019), as the majority of participants (69.2%) indicated a high level of agreement with the statement, “With flipped instruction, I have to do more work out of the classroom,” as shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Mean scores of the effectiveness of online flipped learning (N = 120)
Statements Mean SD Scale 0 1 2 3 4
With flipped instruction, I have to do more work out of the classroom
2.80 1.050 3 14 20 50 33
With flipped classroom model, I am more prepared for my learning 2.78 1.132 6 13 17 49 35
Flipped classroom gives me the opportunity to ask more questions inside the classroom
I think flipped classroom guides me toward a better understanding of the lesson content
2.68 1.069 5 12 27 48 28
2.68 1.006 4 10 32 49 25
Flipped classroom learning has reduced my dependency on teachers 2.67 1.048 4 13 29 47 27
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I can learn more in the flipped classroom 2.64 1.129 7 10 33 39 31
I believe that I am able to learn materials with flipped classroom instruction better than with traditional lecture based instruction
2.57 1.090 4 18 29 43 26
My performance on English tests is better with flipped classroom 2.54 1.114 6 15 33 40 26
A flipped classroom in online based learning is a better way of learning in comparison with traditional classroom
The flipped classroom is more engaging than traditional classroom instruction
2.54 1.052 5 13 37 42 23
2.42 1.193 10 17 28 42 23
Overall mean score 2.63
The participants in the current study generally indicated relatively high levels of agreement with the beneficial characteristics of flipped learning, such as “With flipped classroom model, I am more prepared for my learning,” “Flipped classroom gives me the opportunity to ask more questions inside the classroom,” “I think flipped classroom guides me toward a better understanding of the lesson content,” and “Flipped classroom learning has reduced my dependency on teachers ” The results confirm the findings reported on the literature on flipped learning, which indicates that students are the center of the learning environment, and they should be more in control of their own learning (Kim & Yoon, 2021).
In comparing flipped learning and traditional learning, over half the participants indicated their preference for the more active model of learning. The results support several previous studies, which found that EFL students in a flipped class could perform significantly better than those subjected to traditional learning (Nguyen, 2021); however, it is noteworthy that all four statements “I believe that I am able to learn materials with flipped classroom instruction better than with traditional lecture based instruction,” “My performance on English tests is better with flipped classroom,” “A flipped classroom in online based learning is a better way of learning in comparison with traditional classroom,” and “The flipped classroom is more engaging than traditional classroom instruction” had lower mean scores than the other statements relating to the effectiveness of online flipped classroom. This result was very similar to the findings of a study by Ma and Luo (2022), which reports EFL undergraduates’ concerns about the effectiveness of learning platforms and online interaction in flipped instruction. The effectiveness of online flipped instruction compared to the traditional classroom needs further investigation.
In the section of open questions, the participants were asked to report typical challenges they faced in attending flipped classrooms. Despite the numerous benefits of flipped classrooms, for instance, being more flexible and enabling students to be more self directed in their learning, students in the current study encountered some challenges when attending the flipped classes. Lack of
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Internet or unstable Internet connectivity, the heavy workload caused by pre lesson activities, low levels of self motivation, insufficient physical interaction, a shortage of relevant and available resources, the physical environment and health problems were prominent themes in relation to the challenges students in this study faced.
Many respondents indicated that Internet connectivity presented as the most important barrier to their participation in flipped learning. Flipped classrooms are almost impossible without a stable Internet connection. Additionally, while the Internet has grown in popularity in Vietnam over the past few decades, smaller cities and remote villages experience consistent problems with the network coverage (Statista, 2021) Many students responded negatively about this problem, and its relation to online learning:
Unstable Internet connection is the biggest challenge I have encountered in this method.
Internet connection is one of the most problems I have to deal with through flipped instruction in online based learning.
My Internet bandwidth is not high and I hardly join online flipped classroom with camera on.
The heavy workload caused by pre lesson activities, which is reported as a significant disadvantage of the flipped instruction (Nguyen et al., 2018), was also identified as a major concern by many participants in this study. In general, students complained about time consuming assignments and experiencing extreme pressure to complete the pre lesson activities. Examples of students’ comments in relation to this challenge include the following:
Flipped learning takes me much time to read and prepare homework, and I hardly finish before the class meetings.
It is always deadline for my study. I must complete huge assignments before class during the week.
Learning with flipped classrooms requires more time and effort because it has to be prepared in advance.
During the pandemic, the new experience of online flipped learning was considered to present a great challenge for many students. Self motivation is also a challenge, as online learning requires a high level of participation by students in their learning. As reported by literature about online learning, lack of motivation is generally the main reason why many students fail to complete online courses (Gustiani et al., 2020). Some of the students commented as follows:
Flipped learning makes me feel stressful because it is not typically the same as traditional classroom, and I must adapt with new learning strategy
I have less motivation to self study than normal classroom because there is no ‘ pressure ’ from the lecturer.
Several participants in this study indicated insufficient physical interaction as a barrier for online flipped classroom, which usually reduces students’ satisfaction (Turley & Graham, 2019). This result deviates from that of previous research
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(Sakulprasertsri, 2017), which reports on effectiveluy enhancing interaction through various engaging tasks in an online flipped classroom. An explanation can be that the student participants in this study were not completely ready for online flipped learning during the pandemic; however, the number of these respondents was not significant, and the result needs further investigation. Some of comments about this problem were as follows:
There is limited interaction in online flipped learning.
Most of my time in flipped classrooms is for reading materials but not much time for class interaction. I need ‘real’ classroom atmosphere. Flipped classrooms cannot give me good social interactions and class discussion or arguments are very limited in online learning.
Finding relevant resources was another challenge for several student participants, which negatively influences the effectiveness of this learning approach.
I have difficulties to search for valuable sources for further readings.
I cannot find the exact or the original sources to study and feel confused.
My teachers assigned a lot of readings but many of these are not much useful for the subject.
Problems relating to the physical environment, and health problems, were also common concerns for several students. They gave the following examples:
I am easily distracted by many things around me.
Interruption from my parents, and noises around me, from the teacher or some classmates doing something else without turning off the microphone are really annoying.
Long hours of online learning with screen reading is really boring and tiring.
Participants of the study were also invited to provide suggestions for improving online flipped learning. It is important to note that a number of the respondents (25.8%) expressed their satisfaction with the program, and had no specific suggestions. Most of the suggestions were about the role of teachers and their pedagogy, the task schedule, grouping techniques, the students’ role in flipped classroom, and technical support
The role of teachers in the flipped classroom was emphasized: Teachers should decide what lesson content to cover in class meetings, and what materials are appropriate for assignments to help learners explore on their own outside the classroom (Sakulprasertsri, 2017). In this study, over 20% of the participants made suggestions directly related to teachers’ responsibilities. Some of their comments were the following:
Teachers should be more helpful to facilitate students with basic knowledge.
Teachers need to use teaching tools such as Kahoot or Quizizz to have more engaging lessons.
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Teachers should provide instant feedback, and focus on main points during teaching hours. The lesson objectives need to be informed and reviewed in every lesson.
The task schedule is usually of great concern in flipped classrooms. Many students in this study shared their views about task assignments and made suggestions for improvement. I like my teachers to extend more time for assignments
The flipped classroom is a good choice, but assignments should be reduced because I have eight subjects in this semester. Personally, I think online flipped instruction is effective if teachers can reduce the amount of difficult assignments or give students suitable time to understand and complete all the homework. I think it is about one week.
Grouping technique was another common theme for improving online courses. Group learning is beneficial in the flipped classroom. It is worth noting that groupwork activities outside the classroom can be just as valuable as those applied directly in the classroom (Haghi, 2020). Some comments included Study group is important, and I think teachers should divide the class into small group to study and support each others.
Groupwork is very necessary and helpful in the way that group members can share and solve many problems together.
I think with online learning, grouping is much easy with different tools such as Zalo group or Zoom break out room functions. Students can decide their group members and assign the tasks among the members.
To improve the effectiveness of online flipped learning, some of the participants also indicated the importance of students’ role in this active learning approach. Some of them said Students should be more active and independent, preparing the given exercises for effective classroom discussion.
Doing extra exercises will be better for class learning, and students should also actively contribute ideas to the lecture to help the teacher understand the student's learning situation.
We [students] have to study more about the subject and find more books to understand the subject better.
Providing technical and online learning supports was a common suggestion for improving online flipped classrooms. As online flipped instruction is a new method, and is different from traditional teaching and learning, students must know what to expect when they participate in a virtual flipped classroom. It is important to note that confusion can result in ineffective learning, whereas clarity can foster students’ engagement (Redmond et al., 2018). Several participants shared their concerns: Course standards and requirements should be fully informed before the course.
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The program should provide more technical supports through Zalo groups.
Online flipped classrooms are a growing trend, and it implements technology in education, particularly in the process of teaching and learning during the Covid 19 pandemic and beyond. From the results of the study, it is concluded that the success of the flipped classroom is associated mainly with three factors, that is, teachers, students and instructional materials.
The flipped classroom creates an interactive learning environment in which the teacher’s role is, typically, changed from “sage on the stage” to “guide on the side” (Morrison, 2014) The main role of teachers, as course facilitators, is to provide support to students when they need it, to spend time expanding the understanding of students, and to provide support for individual students during class time. Teachers are also responsible for providing instant feedback on each student’s learning progress; it is generally necessary for the teachers to have mastered the subject matter. Teachers are also responsible for selecting relevant content, or creating content for students. In addition, teachers need to create appropriate assignments and assessments for students (Dong, 2016).
In flipped learning classrooms, students are encouraged and empowered to take charge of their learning, and to be self directed. The flipped classroom method requires students to independently explore learning material in greater depth before class. Although it may challenge students in traditional classrooms, who are used to merely listening to lectures, students in a flipped classroom are required to participate in various engaging activities, such as individual presentations, student led discussions, and collaborative group work Unlike traditional lecture based learning, flipped learning asks for a higher level of participation and interaction, compared to regular online classes. Students are expected to come to class prepared, otherwise they cannot fully participate. This expectation encourages students to be more responsible about their learning process (Ngo & Yunus, 2021) It is also worthy to note that teachers in online flipped classes should be more readily accessible to provide immediate support before, during and after the class (Keaton & Gilbert, 2020).
Instructional materials are of great importance in flipped learning In every flipped classroom, teachers’ lectures are replaced with flipped learning materials. Although videos are the most popular tool to help students learn at their own pace outside the classroom, instructional materials can also include interactive tutorials, audio clips, and even traditional textbook readings and articles. The two common formats of instructional materials are coursebook style reading and video lectures. Coursebooks are available for both teachers and students. Though the reading material in coursebooks is often also used in the traditional teaching style, when it is used in a flipped classroom environment, students are required to prepare and complete the required assignments beforehand, and to understand and be able to apply the relevant knowledge during and after the class activity. Video lectures are usually visual and
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auditory, and prove to be very effective in flipped instruction (Bui, 2021). To obtain the greatest effect of flipped learning, teachers should consider what content would be most suitable for teaching in the lesson meetings, and that can be assigned to help learners explore on their own outside the classroom
The most significant finding of the study is that EFL students have a relatively positive perception of online flipped learning, and this innovative pedagogy can be one of the dominant alternatives to learning in the new normal, although a number of typical challenges need to be considered to enhance the effectiveness of this type of instruction.
Online flipped instruction has become a popular approach to education during the pandemic, and continues to be effective in the new normal, because this new pedagogical approach has the potential to enhance active and collaborative learning Advantages of the flipped instruction are numerous, including increasing self directed learning, enhancing good interactions between teachers and students, and emphasizing students’ individual differences. This preliminary study found that EFL students generally had relatively positive perceptions towards the online flipped classroom, although a number of typical difficulties need to be addressed and resolved to improve the effectiveness of this type of instruction. The flipped classroom is only effective if students can actively engage in assigned tasks through pre class, in class and post class activities. Instructional materials should be selected or created to support an autonomy supporting learning environment, and, most importantly, teachers should be aware of their role change, from content provider in traditional classrooms, to course facilitator in a flipped classroom. An active learning process in a flipped classroom can only be successful when there are greater efforts and engagement by both students and teachers.
This study could provide a valuable reference for teachers when they implement this innovative approach in EFL classes in the new normal. However, because this study was conducted with a relatively small group of participants from only one university in Vietnam, there are some limitations to the research. Given the small sample size, generalization is relatively restricted. Additionally, the results were mainly based on qualitative data obtained from open ended questions, which can limit in-depth data analysis Further research involving a larger sample size and using different types of data for effective triangulation needs to be carried out to shed greater light on the issue in the future.
Successful flipped learning is generally based on a number of factors, which should be taken into consideration. The first factor is collaboration, because, in the flipped classroom, collaborative learning is the heart of active learning when students work together to achieve a common goal. Collaborative learning strengthens the communication of students and helps them grow into productive members of a team. The second factor is student centered learning, which is encouraged by using more engaging teaching strategies. Instead of
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giving lectures, as in a traditional classroom, in flipped teaching, teachers need to reorganize lesson plans to enhance student engagement through lesson delivery. The third factor is instructional materials. In a flipped classroom, it is not as simple as adapting instructional materials from a traditional classroom to a flipped classroom. Instead, learning materials should be selected intentionally, and should form part of clear design. It is suggested that facilitators in flipped classrooms consider both the content and the presentation method of the material, in order to maximize the effectiveness of in class sessions (Liu et al., 2016). The last factor is technology support. The online flipped classroom approach is a technology supported pedagogy, so it is obvious that technology forms a central part of online flipped instruction. Teachers should be trained and equipped with appropriate tools and skills to create effective and interactive flipped content (Mehring, 2017).
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Appendix
Section A: Please indicate your gender.
Female ☐ Male ☐
Your year of study:
☐First year students
☐Second year students
☐Third year students
☐Fourth year students
Section B: The following are typical characteristics of flipped classroom. To what degree do you agree with the following statements? Please indicate the level of your agreement from 0 (not agree at all) to 4 (completely agree).
Statements 0 1 2 3 4
I feel more confident about my learning due to the flipped instruction.
I feel more motivated in a flipped classroom.
Flipped classroom attracts my attention to learning and teaching process.
Flipped classroom can improve interest in exploring topics.
Flipped classroom can improve interest in knowledge construction.
With flipped classroom model, I am more prepared for my learning.
With flipped instruction, I have to do more work out of the classroom.
Flipped classroom gives me the opportunity to ask more questions inside the classroom.
Flipped classroom learning has reduced my dependency on teachers.
I think flipped classroom guides me toward a better understanding of the lesson content.
The flipped classroom is more engaging than traditional classroom instruction.
A flipped classroom in online based learning is a better way of learning in comparison with traditional classroom.
I can learn more in the flipped classroom.
My performance on English tests is better with flipped classroom.
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I believe that I am able to learn materials with flipped classroom instruction better than with traditional lecture based instruction.
Section C: Provide your answer to the following questions.
• What are typical challenges you have encountered with online flipped learning?
• Suggest some effective ways to improve online flipped instruction.
THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION!
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 477 493, September 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.9.26
Received Jul 9, 2022; Revised Sep 5, 2022; Accepted Sep 30, 2022
Xiaoxia Tian
Department of Mechanical & Electrical Engineering, Huanghe Jiaotong University, China
Guangchao Zhang
Department of Education, Woosuk University, South Korea
Kyung Hee Park*
Department of Education, Woosuk University, South Korea
Abstract. In the digital age, English literacy is one of the key competences for high school students. This study aimed to explore the relationship between English literacy and academic achievement. To this end, the four dimensional English literacy scale by the General High SchoolEnglishCurriculumStandard(2017Edition,2020RevisedEdition) set was used, and 446 high school students participated in the survey in March 2022. The results indicate no significant difference in English literacy between male and female students Moreover, the structural equation model results showed that (1) Language ability significantly predicted cultural consciousness, thinking quality, and learning ability; (2) Thinking quality and learning ability correlated with students’ academic achievement; (3) Nevertheless, cultural consciousness did not predict academic achievement; and (4) Learning ability mediated between language ability and academic achievement This conclusion highlights that cultivating students’ learning ability and language ability can improve their academic achievement. Therefore, teachers should exert more effort to develop students’ language ability and learning ability in the future.
Keywords: English literacy; language ability; cultural consciousness; thinking quality; learning ability; academic achievement
Curriculum standards need to be changed to meet the literacy standards required for student development in the 21st century (Voogt & Roblin, 2012;
*Corresponding author: KyungHeePark,khpark@woosuk.ac.kr
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Wang, 2018). The Ministry of Education in China published Opinions on Comprehensively Deepening the Curriculum Reform and Implementing the Fundamental Task of Building Morality and Cultivating People (2014), which proposes that schools of all levels and types move on from the actual situation and revise the curriculum plan and curriculum standards. Moreover, according to the system applicable to students’ core literacy development, the New Curriculum Standard for Senior High School English emerged.
Due to national policy and historical reasons, in China, English teaching at high schools has long been oriented by examinations and scores, which means teachers focus on book knowledge and neglect the comprehensive cultivation of English literacy (Gong, 2014; Wang, 2018). However, with the development of the digital age and a society oriented to lifelong learning, it is far from enough for students to have only textbook knowledge. Only when students learn English literacy can they acquire competences and basic qualities of the English language.
The research on English core literacy mainly focuses on its concept and constituent elements (Cheng & Zhao, 2016; Sun, 2015), evaluation methods (Huang, 2016), and cultivation strategies (Chen & Liu, 2016; Wang & Li, 2019). However, the relationship between English literacy and academic achievement has not been extensively studied. Therefore, this research aimed to explore the relationship between high school students’ English literacy and their academic achievement through structural equation modeling (theoretical model and competitive model), and then, improving their academic achievement by cultivating English literacy. The following were the research questions:
(1) What is English literacy level of high school students?
(2) Is there a relationship between students' English literacy and their academic achievement?
(3) Does high school students' academic achievement improve through English literacy?
2.1 English literacy
English literacy covers a system of knowledge and skills, processes and methods, emotional attitudes, and value education (Mei, 2016). In particular, China' s General High School English Curriculum Standard (2017 Edition, 2020 Revised Edition) suggests that the core literacy goals for English subjects involve four elements: language competence, cultural consciousness, thinking quality, and learning ability (Ministry of Education, 2020).
Language ability refers to competence in comprehensively using language in social situations, and is a direct manifestation of high school students’ English literacy (Sun, 2015). Moreover, language ability refers to not only the language comprehension ability that is formed by listening, speaking, reading, and writing, but also the ability to express oneself in a language, which is gradually formed and developed through learning and practice. Therefore, English
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language ability constitutes the fundamental element of English literacy (Ministry of Education, 2020).
Cultural consciousness refers to not only students’ understanding of domestic and foreign cultures, appreciation of traditional culture and excellent culture, but also involves students’ cultural identification ability in the context of globalization, that is, an ability to compare, summarize and explain cultural phenomena, and to form their own cultural opinions and attitudes, and behavioral orientations (Cheng & Zhao, 2016).
Thinking quality is described as the competence and reflection level in relation to aspects of logic, criticality, and innovation. Thinking quality embodies the intellectual features of English literacy. On the one hand, developing thinking quality is conducive to improving students' analytic skills and problem solving. It can encourage students to recognize and comprehend the world from a cross cultural perspective, and shape appropriate value judgments about things (Ministry of Education, 2020).
Learning ability describes the awareness and competence of students to actively apply English learning strategies, access English learning resources from multiple approaches, and attempt to upgrade their English learning efficiency. Therefore, learning ability is a crucial prerequisite for and assurance of the improvement of English literacy (Ministry of Education, 2020).
The relationship between the four elements is as follows: Language ability constitutes a fundamental element of English literacy; cultural consciousness manifests the value orientation of English literacy; thinking quality demonstrates the intellectual characteristics of the development of English literacy, and learning ability constitutes an important condition for and guarantee of the development of English literacy (Ministry of Education, 2020).
Academic achievement is the degree to which a student meets their short or long term education objectives, and is usually evaluated by test scores (e.g., final exam scores) (Woodcock et al., 2001). In China's education system, test scores are frequently used to gauge students' academic progress. More specifically, the student's scores in major subjects, such as Chinese, mathematics and English, are considered reliable measures of academic achievement (Chen et al., 1997).
Students are not only the subject of learning, but also the subjects of evaluation (Wang, 2017). Students, as the main participants in the evaluation process, should be encouraged to self evaluate and peer evaluate. They should constantly reflect on the evaluation and summarize their experiences (Ministry of Education, 2020). Some scholars have pointed out that predicting academic achievement should include a wider range of factors, such as students' self assessments and scores (Kerstjens & Nery, 2000; Park & Li, 2022)
English competence should be guided by English literacy, should pay attention to the diversity and rationality of evaluation methods, and realize the combination of formative evaluation and comprehensive evaluation (Ministry of Education, 2020). In this study, formative assessment refers to the assessment of students' self learning of English, and comprehensive assessment refers to students' final exam scores. Both constitute students’ academic achievement.
Language ability is the foundation of English literacy. Cultural consciousness, thinking quality, and learning ability refer to the expansion and extension of language ability; that is, the growth of language ability can aid in the growth of cultural consciousness, thinking quality and learning ability (Sun, 2015; Wang, 2018).
The curriculum standard lists cultural awareness as one of the teaching goals, which marks a shift from pragmatism to humanism in English teaching in high school. At the same time, it marks the pivotal position of cultural teaching in the context of English globalization (Zhang & Zhang, 2007). Besides, some researchers believe that students’ perceptions of cultural diversity predict academic achievement (Chang & Le, 2010; Nasir, 2012; Tan, 1999).
English literacy also refers to people's thinking quality. Some scholars believe that language ability can promote the development of thinking quality (Chen et al., 2019; Gong, 2014). For example, English language learning positively affects students’ thinking cognition (Gong, 2014). Language has the ability to enrich someone ’ s way of thinking and develop thinking ability further (Chen et al., 2019). Moreover, some scholars believe that developing students’ thinking quality can improve students’ academic achievement (Zhang, 2001). For example, Zhang (2001) surveyed students in mainland China and Hong Kong and proposes that thinking styles contributed positively to academic achievement.
Language ability requires learners to not only understand and express themselves through application of various language skills, but also to have a certain learning ability. With the assistance of various learning strategies, learners should actively expand and apply various learning skills, and carry out constructive learning through perception, prediction, analysis, generalization, comparison and innovation (Chen & Liu, 2016). Moreover, several studies have shown that learning strategies are related to achieving academic scores (Dignath & Büttner, 2008; Ramdiah & Corebima, 2014; Zimmerman, 1989).
From the above analysis of existing research, it can be seen that there is a significant correlation between language ability, cultural consciousness, thinking quality, learning ability and academic achievement. On this basis, a theoretical model and a competition model were established. The specific models and evidence are as follows.
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As far as the four elements of English literacy are concerned, language ability is the most fundamental element, as it can promote the development of cultural awareness, thinking quality, and learning ability (Ministry of Education, 2020; Sun, 2015). Besides, language ability has been confirmed to be a vital contributing factor to students’ academic achievement (Chen & Sun, 2006). Moreover, research is finding, more and more, that students’ academic performance is significantly influenced by their level of English proficiency (Fakeye & Ogunsiji, 2009; Sahragard et al., 2011), by students’ perceptions of cultural diversity (Chang & Le, 2010; Nasir, 2012; Tan, 1999), thinking styles (Chen et al., 2019; Zhang, 2001), and learning strategies (Dignath & Büttner, 2008; Ramdiah & Corebima, 2014; Zimmerman, 1989).
Therefore, a theoretical model with language ability as the independent variable, cultural consciousness, thinking quality and learning ability as mediating variables, and academic achievement as the dependent variable, was developed by this study; the relationships among the variables in the theoretical model are shown in Figure 1.
However, some research claims that language ability does not directly affect academic achievement (Dev & Qiqieh, 2016; Oliver et al., 2012). For example, Dev and Qiqieh (2016) investigated the correlation between English language proficiency and academic achievement of non native English speakers, and found no direct association. Another study, by Oliver et al. (2012) over three years with 5,675 undergraduate and graduate students, wanted to determine whether English language proficiency was sufficient to ensure academic achievement. Based on these arguments, this study constructed the competition model (See Figure 2), which assumes that language ability does not directly impact students' academic achievement.
In order to verify the validity of the model proposed in Figure 2, this study adopted quantitative research methods to collect, process, and analyze data. This study collected data from a large population to analyze and discuss the relationship between students’ English literacy and academic achievement
In this study, the participants were sophomores randomly selected from three high schools in Shandong Province, China. The regulations of the Education Bureau forbid high school students to bring mobile phones to school, so paper questionnaires were issued to carry out the survey. A total of 620 surveys were issued, of which 523 were recovered. SPSS 26.0 was used to encode the survey data, and invalid data were deleted. Finally, 446 surveys were retained, with an effective rate of 85.2%. Moreover, the participants and data were used in the co author’s dissertation (Zhang, 2022), though the main hypotheses and research models were designed separately.
3.2.1
The scale used was adapted from the General High School English Curriculum Standard (2017 Edition, 2020 Revised Edition) (Ministry of Education, 2020). The scale is divided into four dimensions: language ability (23 items), cultural consciousness (20 items), thinking quality (11 items), and learning ability (20 items). On a 5 point Likert scale, responses range from 1 (never able to) to 5 (entirely able to). The reliability and validity of the formal scale were explored using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The Cronbach's alpha values for language ability, cultural awareness, thinking quality, and learning ability were .898, .875, .891, and .855, respectively, indicating a reasonably good level of internal consistency. Moreover, the average variance extracted (AVE) is greater than 0.50 (from .587 to .678), and construct reliability (CR) is more significant than 0.70 (from .857 to .901), which indicates that the data is suitable (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).
Academic achievement consists of two parts: self assessment and English scores (Kerstjens & Nery, 2000; Park & Li, 2022). Self assessment refers to the participants’ rating of their English learning on a 5 point scale of low, average, fair, good, and excellent. The English score was based on the students’ final English course test scores (0 150) of the previous semester. The test paper used by the students was compiled by the Education Bureau of Weifang City, Shandong Province. The standard for measuring the test paper generally involves difficulty and distinction. Difficulty is an indicator that measures the degree of difficulty of the test paper; generally, a degree of difficulty of between 0.4 and 0.7 is appropriate. The degree of distinction (D) of the test paper is an index to distinguish students' learning level, and its criteria are as follows: if D>0.4, the test questions are considered to be excellent; if 0.39>D>0.3, it is a good test question; if D<0.2, test questions should be discarded (Liu, 2018). After calculation, the difficulty of the English test paper used in this study was found to be 0.46, and the discrimination was 0.59, which indicate that the quality of the test paper met the standard.
In order to achieve the expected results of the scale, a pilot test was conducted, and 78 samples were recovered. EFA was performed with SPSS 26.0. Factor loading coefficients were less than 0.5, and some indistinguishable items were removed. The formal survey was conducted from March 16 to 30, thus, for two weeks. Surveys returned with the same answer for all items, or with less than 1 minute response time, were deleted. The final results are as follows: 5 items of language ability, 5 items of cultural consciousness, 4 items of thinking quality, and 4 items of learning ability. The survey commissioned English teachers from three high schools to distribute paper surveys during recess. The teacher informed all participants of the purpose of the study and obtained their consent. Participants filled out the survey within 25 minutes under the guidance of the English teacher.
This study adopted the following research steps and methods to process the collected survey data. Firstly, SPSS 26.0 was used to analyse the reliability, EFA, frequency, and correlation of the collected data. Secondly, this study used AMOS 26.0 for CFA and convergent validity. Finally, AMOS 26.0 was adopted to test and select an optimal structural equation model for mediation analysis.
The data analysis was done according to four steps. First, descriptive analysis was undertaken to determine the participants’ English literacy levels. Second, an independent sample t test was used to compare the English literacy and academic achievement by gender. Thirdly, Pearson correlation analysis was used to verify whether language ability, cultural consciousness, thinking quality, learning ability, self assessment, and English score were related Finally, structural equation modeling was used to explore the effects of language ability, cultural consciousness, thinking quality, and learning ability on academic achievement.
Firstly, the results show that the analyzed data followed a normal distribution. As seen in Figure 3, the mean values of language ability, cultural consciousness, thinking quality and learning ability are 2.889, 3.037, 2.870, and 2.968, respectively. Regarding students’ English literacy, the mean level of cultural consciousness is the highest, and the mean level of thinking quality is the lowest.
Figure 3: Mean values of English literacy
English scores were divided into a low score group (0 69, 143 students), a medium score group (70 109, 248 students) and a high score group (110 150, 55 students). As seen in Figure 4, the level of cultural consciousness was the highest in the medium and low score groups, but the lowest in the high score group. In contrast, in the high score group, students’ learning ability and thinking quality were more prominent.
Figure 4: Mean values of English literacy for different groups
The mean level on English literacy and academic achievement was compared by gender with the independent samples t test (See Table 1). Between male and female students, there was no significant difference in language ability (t= 1.045), cultural consciousness (t= 1.366), thinking quality (t= .035) and learning ability (t= 1.630), self assessment (t=.171) and English score (t=.214). Therefore, there is no discernible difference in English literacy and academic achievement between male and female students.
Table 1: Results of the independent samples t-test
(N=205 Male, 241 Female)
Variable Gender Mean SD SE t test P
Language ability
Cultural consciousness
Thinking quality
Learning ability
Self assessment
English score
Male 2.841 .964 .067 1.045 .297 Female 2.930 .842 .054
Male 2.975 .928 .065 1.366 .173 Female 3.091 .860 .055
Male 2.868 .963 .067 .035 .972 Female 2.871 .888 .057
Male 2.888 1.005 .070 1.630 .104 Female 3.035 .886 .057
Male 2.420 1.098 .077 .171 .864 Female 2.402 1.000 .064
Male 1.810 .677 .047 .214 .831 Female 1.800 .602 .039
Pearson's correlation analysis found that language ability, cultural consciousness, thinking quality, learning ability, self assessment, and English scores were significantly connected with one another. As data in Table 2 indicates, the correlation coefficient among the four dimensions of English literacy ranges from .700 to .809 (p<.01) a significant positive correlation. The highest correlation is observed between thinking quality and learning ability (r=.809, p<.01); the second highest correlation is between language ability and learning ability (r=.780, p<.01). However, the lowest correlation is between cultural consciousness and thinking quality (r=.700, p<.01).
The correlation coefficient between the four dimensions of English literacy and self assessment ranged from .440 to .583 (p<.01). The highest correlation is observed between language ability and self assessment (r=.583, p<.01). However, cultural consciousness has the lowest correlation coefficient with self assessment (r=.440, p<.01)
The correlation coefficient between the four dimensions of English literacy and English score ranges from .427 to .567 (p<.01). The highest correlation is the relationship between learning ability and English score (r=.567, p<.01). In turn,
the lowest correlation is between cultural consciousness and English score (r=.427, p<.01).
Table 2: Correlation analysis between variables
Variable LA CC TQ LAB SA ES
LA 1 CC .710*** 1 TQ .743*** .700*** 1 LAB .780*** .716*** .809*** 1 SA .583*** .440*** .529*** .538*** 1 ES .525*** .427*** .530*** .567*** .561*** 1
Note: ***p<.001. LA=Language Ability, CC=Cultural Consciousness, TQ=Thinking Quality, LAB=Learning Ability, SA=Self assessment, ES=English Score
This section reports on the tests of fitness of the theoretical model and the competition model, of which the test indices are chi square statistic (χ²), χ²/df ratio, the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker Lewis index (TLI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). By synthesizing various fitting indices (see Table 3), it was found that the fit indices of the theoretical model and the competition models meet the corresponding evaluation standards. Therefore, it is necessary to select the best model from the two models.
The chi squared difference test is one of the ways to compare the two models (Satorra & Bentler, 2010). That is, ∆df=1, ∆χ²=3.93 (>3.84), p<.05, which means the two models are significantly different. However, the chi square test can only verify whether the model is significant, but cannot determine which model is better. Therefore, other indicators, such as Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), were needed to evaluate the models. When the data generating model has broad influence and takes into consideration simple candidate models, the BIC outperforms the AIC with zero/one loss (Vrieze, 2012). The competition model has the smallest BIC value in this study, so it was selected as the research model (see Figure 5).
Table 3: Fitness Index of the Theoretical Model and Competition Models
Model df χ²/df P CFI TLI RMSEA BIC
Theoretical Model 163 2.637 .000 .956 .948 .061 716.569 Competition Model 164 2.645 .000 .955 .948 .061 714.399
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Figure 5: Standardized path coefficients in research model
Note: LA=Language Ability, CC=Cultural Consciousness, TQ=Thinking Quality, LAB=Learning Ability, AA=Academic Achievement
As seen in Table 4, most path coefficients were significant, except for the correlation between cultural consciousness and academic achievement. Specifically, language ability has a significant positive predictive effect on cultural consciousness (β=.843, p<.001), thinking quality (β=.882, p<.001) and learning ability (β=.945, p<.001). Moreover, thinking quality contributes significantly to academic achievement (β=.204, p<.05), and learning ability has a profoundly positive impact on academic achievement (β=.750, p<.001).
Table 4: Path coefficient of competition model Path β B SE t Support
LA → CC .843 1.057 .073 14.575*** Supported
LA → TQ .882 1.011 .067 15.110*** Supported
LA → LAB .945 1.096 .069 15.963*** Supported
CC→ AA .136 .115 .077 1.494 Rejected
TQ→ AA .204 .189 .095 1.993* Supported
LAB → AA .750 .686 .117 5.855*** Supported
Note: *p<.05, ***p<.001.
This study used bootstrapping to test the mediating effect, and the sampling times are 2,000. As shown in Table 5, only learning ability mediated language ability and academic achievement significantly, with an indirect effect value of .752 (SE=.227, Bias corrected 95% CI=[.394, 1.293]). The confidence interval does not contain 0, and p<.001, which indicates that learning ability is a key mediator between language ability and academic achievement.
Table 5: Mediation effect test of structural model
Product of Coefficients
Bootstrap 2,000 times 95% CI Bias corrected SE Z value Lower Upper P
LA → CC → AA .121 .179 .675 .528 .171 .469
LA → TQ → AA .191 .115 1.661 .020 .434 .078
LA → LAB→ AA .752 .227 3.312 .394 1.293 .001
Total indirect effect .821 .072 11.403 .693 .978 .001
In accordance with the research questions, the research results were divided into three parts. First, it described the mean level of students' English literacy. Second, it analyzed the relationship between students' English literacy and their academic achievement. Third, the structural equation model was used to explore whether the path between English literacy and academic achievement is significant.
Firstly, the mean values of language ability, cultural consciousness, thinking quality and learning ability range from 2.870 to 3.037, with only cultural consciousness higher than the median score of the three groups, which means the level of students' English literacy was weak. As for the three groups with high, medium and low English scores, cultural consciousness was the highest in medium and low groups, while thinking quality was the lowest in medium and low groups. In the high group, students had the highest level of learning ability and the lowest level of cultural consciousness, which indicates that different learning methods should be provided for different students. For students in the middle and low groups, teachers can focus on cultivating students' thinking quality, while in the high groups, teachers should improve students' cultural consciousness. Students should be taught according to their aptitudes and their all around development should be promoted (Yang et al., 2022). Moreover, this study used a t test to determine whether gender plays a role in students' English literacy. The results are that English literacy did not differ significantly between male and female students (Dev & Qiqieh, 2016).
Secondly, the Pearson correlation analysis revealed significant correlations among the four variables of English literacy and academic achievement. As for the four sub factors of English literacy, cultural consciousness has the lowest correlation with the other three factors. In terms of academic achievement, cultural consciousness was also the least correlated with self assessment and English scores. This may be because, in the past, cultural education mainly involved providing cultural background knowledge, and failed to cultivate students' cultural criticism consciousness, cultural identity and intercultural communication ability to a deep level (Zhang & Zhang, 2007).
Thirdly, the path coefficient between English literacy and academic achievement was confirmed by using the structural equation model. According to other research findings, language ability can promote the development of thinking
quality, cultural consciousness, and learning ability (Ministry of Education, 2020; Sun, 2015; Wang, 2018). In particular, previous researchers have found that promoting students’ perceptions of culture leads to positive academic outcomes (Chang & Le, 2010; Nasir, 2012; Tan, 1999). Nevertheless, in this study, cultural consciousness did not significantly predict academic achievement. The acquisition of cultural knowledge is not only through English learning much cultural knowledge may be acquired from other disciplines, or transferred from extracurricular acquisitions. At the same time, cultural consciousness will also be affected by other factors (Xia, 2018).
Furthermore, thinking quality has been discussed in relation to predicting academic achievement (Cano Garcia & Hughes, 2000; Zhang, 2001). However, this study generated no empirical evidence that thinking quality mediates the association between language ability and academic achievement. One of the possible explanations is that high school students are in their adolescence, and their thinking is in a development stage, so their logical thinking ability and critical thinking ability are relatively weak (Chen et al., 2019).
Finally, this study contributes to understanding of the connection between learning ability and academic achievement. Learning ability plays a key mediating role in the interrelation between language ability and academic achievement. The results show that, as students’ language ability increases, so does their learning ability, which improves their academic achievement and thereby creates a positive learning cycle (Fakeye & Ogunsiji, 2009; Guglielmi, 2008; Sahragard et al., 2011).
Moreover, as the results from this study show, language ability is not only the foundation of English literacy, but also facilitates the development of cultural consciousness, thinking quality and learning ability (Ministry of Education, 2020; Sun, 2015).
English literacy not only represents the language proficiency and cultural consciousness contained in the English subject itself, but also illustrates the goal of students developing their thinking quality and learning ability through learning English. Therefore, we should, in conjunction with China's education status, continue to research and practice advanced teaching concepts, scientific teaching methods, and diversified evaluation applicable to English literacy, and devote ourselves to cultivating students’ English literacy.
Firstly, the study demonstrated that high school students’ English literacy level is relatively weak. On the one hand, it may be because English literacy has been promoted only in recent years, and a systematic teaching system has not yet been formed. On the other hand, due to the pressure of the college entrance examination, some teachers only pay attention to the students’ English scores, while ignoring the cultivation of English literacy Therefore, teachers should adopt diversified teaching methods and effectively combine English knowledge with English literacy to improve students’ English literacy levels.
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Secondly, the current findings confirm the relationship between English literacy and academic achievement. English literacy is significantly related to academic achievement. Therefore, teachers are required to carefully study curriculum standards and textbooks used for the teaching process, and to set goals for cultivating English literacy in their region and school. Teachers should focus on cultivating language ability, thinking quality, and learning strategies through the teaching process, and gradually improve students’ English literacy levels Furthermore, improving English literacy levels will contribute to the improvement of academic achievement
Finally, learning ability and thinking quality predicted academic achievement. Based on the results, teachers should carefully design teaching activities and tasks, motivate students to think positively, and cultivate students’ ability to discover, analyse and solve problems. Meanwhile, learning ability played a mediating role between language ability and academic achievement. Therefore, it is suggested that teachers add more teaching activities in the curriculum to improve students’ language levels, enhance their learning ability, and improve their academic performance. High school is an important period for the development of students’ learning ability. Therefore, teachers pursue cultivating students’ learning ability as an important teaching goal, and provide conditions for students to improve their learning ability through the teaching process.
Certain potential limitations of this study need to be considered. First, in this study, academic achievement only included students’ self assessment and their English scores, and did not involve students’ classroom performance and other evaluation methods. Therefore, the study needs to find ways to comprehensively evaluate English literacy and promote student development. Second, the small scope of the research study affected the survey results, and may not be sufficient to generalize to all high school students in China. Therefore, further validation and research are required to expand the scope. For example, researchers can use the same scale to conduct surveys at high schools in other provinces and cities in China, to determine high school students’ English literacy levels and explore whether there is a relationship between their English literacy and academic achievement Lastly, English teachers play a crucial role in enhancing their students’ English literacy levels and academic performance. However, this research did not investigate and analyze English teachers’ implementation of English literacy. In follow up research, researchers should pay involve English teachers, and improve students’ English literacy in a targeted manner.
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