IJLTER.ORG Vol 20 No 1 January 2021

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p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.20 No.1

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 20, No. 1 (January 2021) Print version: 1694-2493 Online version: 1694-2116

IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 20, No. 1

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the fields of learning, teaching and educational research.

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Foreword We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research.

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal committed to publishing high-quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website http://www.ijlter.org.

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Editors of the January 2021 Issue

VOLUME 20

NUMBER 1

January 2021

Table of Contents A Model for Implementing Problem-Based Language Learning: Experiences from a Seven-Year Journey .............. 1 Saleh Al-Busaidi, Tariq Yusuf, Hayo Reinders English Proficiency Gain and Mediating Factors in Training: A Self-Evaluation of Vietnamese Pre-Service EFL Teachers ................................................................................................................................................................................. 22 Nguyen Van Loi, Chung Thi Thanh Hang Understanding of Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases in Three Modes of Representation among Tenth-Grade Students in Chemistry .......................................................................................................................................................... 48 Joje Mar P. Sanchez Preparing Pre-service and In-service Teachers to Teach Mathematics and Science Using an Integrated Approach: The Role of a Six-Week Summer Course ........................................................................................................................... 64 Roland G. Pourdavood, Meng Yan Teachers’ Beliefs, Praxes, and Post-method Pedagogy in English Language Teaching .............................................. 86 Remedios C. Bacus First-Year Accounting Student Teachers’ Constructivist Learning Experiences, The Lecturer’s Role and Implications for Curriculum Implementation................................................................................................................. 103 Mapuya Medson Flipped Classroom Method with Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) in EFL Writing Class ............ 120 M. Ali Ghufron, Fitri Nurdianingsih Jordanian University Students’ Attitudes toward Online Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns: Obstacles and Solutions ............................................................................................................................... 142 Safi Mahmoud Mahfouz, Wael J. Salam University Students’ Perception of Transformational Leadership of the University President in Korea: The Role of Students’ Personality, Affect, and Affective Commitment to the University ............................................................. 160 Boram Do, Seung-Yoon Rhee Pre-service Mathematics and Physical Education Teachers' Perceptions of using Play-based Teaching Strategy across the Foundation Phase ............................................................................................................................................. 185 Blanche Ntomizodwa Ndlovu, Dumsani Wilfred Mncube Parental Involvement in Young Children’s Learning of Numeracy ............................................................................ 199 Munirah Ghazali, Zainun Mustafa, Rabiatul-Adawiah Ahmad Rashid, Fadzilah Amzah The Effects of Classroom Management Styles on Students’ Motivation and Academic Achievement in Learning English .................................................................................................................................................................................. 223 Thuong Tran Thi, Hong-Thu Thi Nguyen

The Use of Indigenous Games to Enhance the Learning of Word Problems in Grade 4 Mathematics: A Case of Kgati ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 240 Tshele J. Moloi, Moeketsi S. Mosia, Mogalatjane E. Matabane, Khanyane T. Sibaya Promoting Learning-Purpose Communication Cases in Development of FL Specialism Communicative Competencies in EL Teacher Students ............................................................................................................................. 260 Anna I. Nabok, Oleh S. Komar, Oksana V. Yasinska, Oksana M. Radavska, Nataliia M. Slipachuk Untangling Constructs on Characteristics of Effective Teaching from a Higher Education Institution: Basis for Effective Teaching Program .............................................................................................................................................. 275 Djonde Frega Antiado, Maher Ibrahim Mikhael Tawadrous, Rommel Pilapil Sergio Mathematics Distance Learning amid the COVID-19 Pandemic in the UAE: High School Students’ Perspectives ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 292 Hanan Almarashdi, Adeeb M. Jarrah Teachers’ Feedback Practice and Students’ Academic Achievement: A Systematic Literature Review ................. 308 Anne Malar Selvaraj, Hazita Azman, Wahiza Wahi Mathematics Teachers’ Pedagogy through Technology: A Systematic Literature Review....................................... 323 Jaafaru Aliyu, Sharifah Osman, Mohd Fadzil Daud, Jeya Amantha Kumar The Medium of Instruction in a Multicultural Classroom: Teachers’ Perspectives in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa ......................................................................................................................................................................... 342 Matshikiza Spokazi, Simon Luggya, Magdaline Tanga Sustaining Collaborative Learning among University Students in the Wake of COVID-19: The Perspective of Online Community Project ................................................................................................................................................ 356 Bunmi Isaiah Omodan, Olugbenga A. Ige Incorporation of Small-Group Learning Activities into Biology Lectures to Enhance Learning at a University in Pretoria, South Africa ......................................................................................................................................................... 372 Liziwe Lizbeth Mugivhisa, Joshua Olawole Olowoyo

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 1-21, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.1

A Model for Implementing Problem-Based Language Learning: Experiences from a Seven-Year Journey Saleh Al-Busaidi and Tariq Yusuf Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9649-429X https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4729-4782 Hayo Reinders King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3635-1833

Abstract. The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, it aims to identify the challenges and barriers experienced in implementing problem-based Learning (PBL) in a language program at Sultan Qaboos University in the Sultanate of Oman. Second, it proposes a working model for integrating PBL into an existing program. The research was conducted using a case study approach underpinned by design-based research principles. The proposed model came as a result of tracing the development of the program over a period of seven years with a total of 14 instructors and 2800 students. The model consists of a number of elements which include the use of hybridizing courses, the careful scaffolding of teachers and students, and the development of a PBL culture of collaboration and interdependence. Each of these elements is described from a process perspective, detailing how we attempted to implement them and how they reacted to challenges along the way. Even though the model was designed for a specific language learning and teaching context, it can be adapted to suit local needs. The model is unique in that it creatively integrates the relevant PBL and linguistic aspects that are often missing in PBL designs but are essential for a successful implementation. The skills training and the scaffolding that the model proposes can offer one means of working around rigid institutional and curricula requirements that often face PBL adoption. It is hoped that the model may support future implementations of successful PBL. Keywords: English language teaching; hybridization; Oman; problembased learning; scaffolding

1. Introduction Problem-based learning (PBL) is described by Moss and Van Duzer (1998, p. 1) as “an instructional approach that contextualizes learning by presenting learners ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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with problems to solve or products to develop.” PBL originated from the reforms in medical education at McMaster University in the mid-1960s. It was seen as a way to bridge the gap between the classroom and learners’ lives beyond it. The approach has spread globally where it is seen as a way to meet the demands of the knowledge-based 21st century economy. PBL is based on cognitivist and constructivist theories to learning that focus on developing the cognitive processes and skills of the learners and providing them with opportunities to learning in situations that are relevant. Furthermore, PBL is seen as one realization of constructivism, where learners are actively involved in learning through cognitive processing and in interaction with the environment (Savery, 2006). In a PBL class, students work in groups and are presented with scenarios of real problems that they have to study and then provide researched solutions. Taking into consideration the fact that knowledge evolves through interacting, collaborating and negotiating with others, and hypothesizing and trying out ideas, in PBL learners develop a sense of ownership of the problem and its solutions. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of PBL across many disciplines, age levels, and content domains (Savery, 2006), largely in response to the perceived inadequacy of traditional didactic practices in preparing learners for the changing needs of the 21st century workplace (Li & Henriksen, 2010). A growing body of evidence suggests that PBL can be more effective for the development of such skills as cooperative working, integrating information, critical thinking, problem-solving, communication skills, and selfdirected learning (Dolmans et al., 2005; Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Kain, 2003). In addition, there is some evidence to support the idea that PBL is more effective in developing professional skills (Berkson, 1993) and generating greater student interest and motivation (Michel, Bischoff, & Jakobs, 2002). However, in practice, adopting PBL has proven to be challenging due to teacher beliefs and practices (Salam et al., 2009), the teaching of process skills, group dynamics, students’ negative attitudes (Mansor et al., 2015), the specific nature of the PBL curriculum (Wee et al., 2000), and time constraints (Luk, 2004). These factors can all be impediments to the successful implementation of PBL. In practice, the integration of PBL has often been shown to be a lengthy and an arduous process that can stall or fail altogether (Lai & Tang, 1999). It is the aim of this paper to document the process of implementation of PBL and identify the variables that affect its success.

Based on the review of the relevant literature, we noticed that this is often missing or described very briefly, which makes replication quite hard. In addition, this paper aims to add to the relatively small body of research that exists in the particular domain of language education.

In this way, the paper goes some way towards addressing a need identified by Dolmans et al. (2005, p. 739) when they suggested that “what is needed is research that bridges theory and practice and extends knowledge about developing and improving PBL in everyday practice.” Universities are highly complex environments and many variables interact to make an innovation successful or otherwise. In addition to this, PBL is still relatively recent in English language teaching, but it has a particularly great potential to aid language acquisition and to emphasize the meaningful use of the language as a tool for communication and problem solving.

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2. Literature Review 2.1. PBL and language learning There is widespread acknowledgement that PBL can have significant benefits for learners. However, research into the design and implementation of PBL in English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts remains relatively piecemeal (Abdullah, 1998; Larsson, 2001; Mathews-Aydinli, 2007). A number of older, but still relevant, studies have described the programmatic adoption of PBL in business communication (Allen & Rooney, 1998), biomedical English (Wood & Head, 2003), and legal English (Ali & Abdul Kader, 2005). Greenier (2018) proposes an interesting instructional PBL model specifically designed for the second language learning context. The model “aims to tailor PBL to the language learning environment by attending to the development of intellectual competencies and content knowledge while simultaneously focusing on acquiring, practicing, thinking about, and experimenting with the target language” (p. 9). Other studies have investigated the effects of PBL on language performance (Jiriyasin, 2014), vocabulary acquisition (Lin, 2015), and perceptions of EFL students towards PBL (Azman & Shin, 2012). Lin (2016) argues that this dearth of research into PBL in EFL may be due to unfavourable conditions including resources, students’ attitudes towards active learning, and time constraints.

The trend in some language teaching contexts has been to define goals independently from learners and context and to present language in a rigid, linear, and structured fashion and reinforce content through decontextualized practice. This often results in learners acquiring knowledge about the language but little ability to use it (Zhou & Niu, 2015). In contrast, PBL presents the target language as a tool for communication and solving problems. It “positions the target language as both the object and vehicle of learning, meaning students see the project as a meaningful enterprise with which to learn and use English with their peers” (Greenier, 2018, p. 1). It gives learners the opportunity to use the language through contextualized materials, topics, and activities in a way that helps students develop their communicative skills. Even though the problem is the starting point, the focus is on the learner (Palupi, Subiyantoro, Rukayah, & Triyanto, 2020). The teacher scaffolds the learning process to help the learner become autonomous. Thus, learners develop academic, linguistic, social, and personal skills through the chain of events leading to solving the problem (Gómez, 2016). In this way, students are engaged in exchange of meaning, discussion of possible causes and solutions, and reaching agreements. This meaningful interaction with real problems is believed to enhance learner motivation and communication in the target language. This is also in line with the widely held view of language as a tool for communication rather than a subject to be learned.

2.2. Challenges and barriers to effective PBL implementation The introduction of a new teaching method into traditional language learning environments often creates a number of unique challenges for institutions, teachers, students, and other stakeholders (Grant & Hill, 2006). It requires a significant change in the mind-set of teachers and students. The implementation of PBL can create tension between the expectations associated with a new teaching approach and existing instructional methods, assessment, and curriculum. It can

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also disrupt teacher expectations and assume that students have the requisite skills to deal with the new approach. As Greening (1998) observes, the shift to PBL can result in “wide-ranging changes to the values of traditional education, and cannot be realistically applied on top of existing infrastructure” (p. 10). Grant and Hill (2006) have recognized five key factors that influence teachers’ adoption of student-cantered approaches, namely a) recognition and acceptance of new roles and responsibilities, b) comfort in the new (physical) environment, c) tolerance for ambiguity and flexibility in managing the new learning environment, d) confidence in integrating appropriate tools and resources, including technology, and e) integration of new pedagogies with realities beyond the classroom.

Indeed, the gravity and scale of these challenges may be one of the primary factors in explaining the slow adoption of PBL in the language education context (Grant & Hill, 2006). At the institutional level, administrative, financial, and management support is a necessary requirement to implement change and to help modify embedded systems and existing ways of working (Li & Henriksen, 2010). Wideranging changes result as a consequence of implementing PBL, and this may involve simultaneous changes in curriculum and assessment (Barron et al., 1998).

At the curriculum level, alignment of existing curriculum objectives and PBL objectives can cause friction due to the different expectations and learning outcomes (Biggs, 1999). In addition, assessment of PBL may not concord with existing assessment regimes and practices due to very different objectives in terms of what is being tested and how it is being tested (McDonald & Savin-Baden, 2004).

As far as teachers are concerned, they may lack awareness of the PBL approach in the sense that they short of the necessary background knowledge or training and may be resistant to changing tried-and-tested methods (Kassem, 2018). Teachers may also struggle with the “managerial” aspect of PBL, and the increased responsibilities and demands on their time (Brinkerhoff & Glazewski, 2004). A number of studies have shown that teachers experience difficulties with planning and implementing PBL courses (Simons, Klein & Brush, 2004), frustration with students shifting to more active roles (Gallagher, 1997), and assessment of learning within a PBL context (Brinkerhoff & Glazewski, 2004). In the same vein, Krajcik, Blumenfeld, Marx and Soloway (1994) describe three levels of challenge that teachers face: 1) previous experiences, beliefs, commitment to the innovation, pedagogical and content knowledge, 2) classroom resources, support, size, and schedule, and 3) school policies (relating to curriculum and testing), and community support and involvement. In addition, teachers may find it difficult to adapt to the different expectations associated with facilitating PBL courses, particularly in terms of taking on the role of mentoring students (Dolmans & Wolfhagen, 2004). In the traditional classroom the focus is on the teacher as the source of knowledge or expert and the students are more passive recipients of knowledge (Rosenfeld & Rosenfeld, 2006). Yet, within a PBL setting, teachers take on new roles (William & Shelagh, 1993) and this may involve a “paradigm shift” (Camp, 1996, p. 1) in terms of their understanding of their professional identity.

The shift from delivering information to facilitating learning may necessitate a deep-seated re-examination of pedagogical views and a re-evaluation of

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fundamental teacher beliefs and attitudes towards teaching and learning (Rosenfeld & Rosenfeld, 2006). As William and Shelagh (1993) suggest, PBL “turns instruction topsy-turvy” (p. 26).

With regards to students, PBL can hinder academic achievement in different ways. This is especially true in contexts where students do not have the necessary skills to effectively engage with collaborative learning, have set expectations of how they will and should learn and how they should be taught (Smith & Wertlieb, 2005), and they may be unused to taking responsibility for their own learning.

Besides, group dynamics can cause serious challenges for students, particularly when group members do not contribute or participate as required (Rowan, McCourt, & Beake, 2008), they cannot express their opinions, or feel that the group is dysfunctional (Azer, 2001). Students may also feel insufficiently prepared to work on their own with minimum intervention from instructors (Ge, Planas, & Nelson, 2010). According to Vermunt and Verloop (2000), the introduction of new approaches to learning can cause students to experience a temporary “friction” between the demands of the new learning environment and their preferred strategies, orientations, and conceptions related to learning, which can lead to frustration or withdrawal.

As a result of these challenges, practitioners are often hesitant to implement teaching approaches like PBL. Usually, an interplay of factors converges to lead to a failure in implementation. This paper aims to contribute to the above body of work to better identify the factors that play a role in determining the success or failure of implementing a new innovation, such as PBL. As Ward and Lee (2002) state, “The philosophies supporting PBL are well established, but the ‘how tos’ are in short supply” (p. 21). We attempted to offer a context-sensitive model. Four questions informed this process. First, what are the institutional constraints (e.g., existing curriculum outcomes, assessment practises and demands, resources, institutional support)? Second, what are the course constraints (e.g., timing, existing materials, alignment with other courses, specific language learning objectives, and skills focus)? Third, what are the factors related to teachers that need to be recognised in order to design an effective PBL course?(e.g. teacher background, changing roles, time constraints, management abilities, awareness of the PBL approach, training needs)? Fourth, what are the factors related to students that need to be recognised in order to design an effective PBL course (e.g., student background and expectations, motivation, learning styles and culture, language ability)?

3. Methodology The research was conducted using a case study approach underpinned by designbased research principles. The work on implementing a problem-based learning approach started in spring 2011, and the course was implemented in the fall of that year. The model for implementing PBL was developed over the course of seven years and builds on insights and observations over 14 iterations of the course. Over the duration of course development and implementation, a total of 2800 students and 14 teachers were involved in the course. The students and

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teachers were studied in their classes. These represented about 10% of the total population.

3.1. Design-based research The theoretical framework for developing the model for PBL implementation followed the design-based research (DBR) principles. Wang and Hannafin (2005) define DBR in terms of “a systematic but flexible methodology aimed to improve educational practices through iterative analysis, design, development, and implementation, based on collaboration among researchers and practitioners in real-world settings, and leading to contextually-sensitive design principles and theories” (p. 6). They go on to propose five basic principles that characterize DBR research: “Pragmatic, grounded, interactive, iterative and flexible, Integrative, and contextual” (p. 7). They elaborate on these principles by noting a number of features of DBR. Firstly, DBR engages with current real-world problems in realworld contexts through the design and implementation of interventions that extend a theory and refine design principles (Design-Based Research Collective, 2003). Secondly, they note that DBR requires collaboration between researchers and practitioners in order to achieve the objective of enacting real change (DesignBased Research Collective, 2003). Thirdly, they suggest that DBR is flexible in terms of its research methods and approaches, which are largely driven by the nature of the enquiry. They note that “design-based researchers utilize multiple mixed methods over time to build up a body of evidence that supports the theoretical principles underlying a specific innovation as well as refines the innovation itself in situ” (Wang & Hannafin, 2005, p. 8). Finally, DBR takes place over an extended period of time in order to develop and refine theory and practice through iterative design cycles focusing on analysis, design, evaluation, and redesign (Wang & Hannafin, 2005).

In the development of the present PBL model, the DBR process involved a number of different phases. Firstly, and prior to the design and implementation of the course, a comprehensive literature review was conducted in order to identify challenges and insights that could be gained from similar projects globally.

Although the researchers identified some specific areas that were relevant to the project, they were conscious of the extent to which outcomes could be applied wholesale without sensitivity to the specific context. At this stage, the researchers also arranged a number of discussions and meetings with teachers and course developers to ascertain the specific particularities of the educational context. By prioritizing these variables and developing a consensus around our specific contextual requirements, a number of broad themes emerged from this initial phase including the need for hybridization, teacher and student scaffolding, and tools to aid the development of a culture of PBL. The second phase of the process involved the design and development of the content of the course, bearing in mind the themes that had emerged from the literature review phase. A distinction was made between the actual content of the course in terms of course materials (student course books, teacher books, online materials, etc.) and tools that supported the course (teacher training, materials and practises to support the development of a culture of PBL). The third phase of the DBR process involved repeated iterations, evaluation, and review of the course. Before and after each

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cycle of implementation of the course, teachers reviewed the course and identified areas that could be improved and ways in which the objectives of the course could be better achieved. The outcome of the research was the production of a model of PBL implementation incorporating solutions to the design challenges faced throughout the implementation process.

3.2. The context The study took place at Sultan Qaboos University, a government university in the Sultanate of Oman. English is the medium of instruction in six of the nine colleges (medicine, science, agriculture, engineering, commerce, and nursing) and in certain majors in the other three colleges (arts, education, and law). Upon admission, all students sit for an English language placement test that places them into one of the six proficiency levels in the general foundation program. Students study English for one or more semesters after which they proceed to studying college courses and continue to receive additional English language support through credit courses.

The PBL course design was applied to one of the credit courses, titled LANC 2058, which is a course taken by College of Science students. This alternative course design was adopted because of the need to restructure the existing course that was no longer deemed to be suitable in terms of addressing student or college needs. Four teachers from the Language Centre were assigned to the development of the course and worked in coordination with the College of Science. The course itself (LANC 2058) is a credit English course with a specific focus on supporting the English language needs of undergraduate science students specializing in a range of subject areas.

As discussed above, the potential benefits of PBL are substantial; however, overcoming institutional, teacher and student-related challenges is an important, if not central, component of implementing PBL in a language learning context.

Indeed, an awareness of these challenges can determine the relative success or failure of implementing PBL (Barron et al., 1998), assist in a clearer conceptualization of course design, and improve course quality, relevance, and delivery (Greenier, 2018). A lot of the literature assumes PBL will be implemented within a native speaker context, in an institutionally-ready environment with teachers and students who are adequately prepared for the transition (Tally, 2015). In the researchers’ case, the context was very different. Students were nonnative speakers of English, the institution was largely driven by traditional approaches to teaching, curriculum, and assessment, and teachers and students had very little exposure to PBL. The implementation of PBL in its pure form was not deemed to be feasible or realistic.

As a result of the literature review, and drawing on Tomlinson (2011), a design framework of agreed principles was developed. The development of this framework involved the design team reaching a consensus around the principles that would shape and inform the PBL course design. Each team member was asked to identify and prioritize the design principles that best reflected the researchers’ particular context based on their understanding and interpretation of the literature. A number of broad principles that would shape the approach to

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course design were developed through a process of discussion and elimination (Tomlinson, 2011). The broad principles the researchers agreed on were hybridization, scaffolding (teachers and students) and culture development. The researchers recognized that there were numerous other variables to be considered; however, the specific variables the researchers selected helped in factoring into course design the specific challenges and issues the researchers faced in terms of developing and designing a PBL course suited to the specific needs of the context. In the next section, these variables are discussed in more detail.

3.2.1. Hybridization PBL is not a linear or rigid approach; it is very flexible and can be modified to suit different contexts and used in different ways, while retaining its core principles (Barrows, 1986). Barrows (2000) describes a number of areas in which PBL can be modified, including problem format, the role of the facilitator, and students’ degree of responsibility for their own learning and assessment (p. 2). Indeed, Malik and Malik (2018, p. 8) suggest that “it may be more useful to visualise PBL as a continuum rather than one immutable process” (p. 1). To this end, a distinction can be made between “standard” and more “hybrid” forms of PBL. Standard PBL can be described in terms of “PBL curricula where lectures and other didactic sessions are (very) judiciously used to support the active, selfdirected, and student-centred learning triggered by problem scenarios” (Lim, 2012, p. 1), and minimal levels of scaffolding are used. On the other hand, hybrid PBL actively scaffolds the PBL process with the use of traditional methods of instruction like lectures, tutorials, and more guided and structured support of the inquiry process (Mar et al., 2016). In other words, the distinction between standard and hybrid forms of PBL lies in the level of supplementation, facilitation, support, and scaffolding that students are exposed to in the inquiry process. Standard PBL formats provide little or no support and promote a more self-directed and selfregulated learning environment. More hybrid forms of PBL integrating scaffolding may be more suited to institutions that “want to benefit from the advantages of PBL methodology but do not want a complete reform to switch to an entirely PBL-based curriculum” (Mar et al., 2016, p. 1). They may also assist in addressing concerns practitioners may have about reconciling PBL with existing curricula and assessment demands by offering a compromise in terms of introducing PBL into an existing curricula and assessment framework (Chian, Bridges & Lo, 2019).

3.2.2. Scaffolding language students In the language learning context, the implementation of standard PBL can raise a number of issues and challenges for students (Norzaini & Kor Shin, 2012).

Students may not have the requisite language and study skills to engage effectively with the PBL process, and they may lack awareness of the expectations of PBL because of their educational backgrounds and lack of exposure to different teaching approaches. Studies have shown that a lack of adequate language skills can lead to inhibition and insecurity and hinder student performance in a PBL setting (Engelbrecht & Wildsmith, 2010).

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The use of scaffolding can help mitigate these issues through the supportive use of lectures, tutorials, and course materials. In a language learning context, this can be organized through the division of dedicated language input classes and PBL classes. Ertmer and Simons (2006) show that “students perform better, achieve more, and transfer problem-solving strategies more effectively” (p. 50) when supported through a scaffolded process of learning. The importance of language development supporting medical PBL courses has also been highlighted by Singaram et al. (2011, p. 162) who see it as a way “to improve and encourage tutorial group discussions and interactions, which would then enhance the quality of collaborative group learning and academic success in higher education settings”.

In addition to language input, there are a range of other skills that can help facilitate students through the PBL process. These skills can be broadly divided into three main categories; interpersonal skills (people), research skills (process skills), and design and information technology skills (product related skills). This broad categorization of skills can be a useful way to conceptualize a PBL course particularly in terms of developing relevant and targeted scaffolding for students and guiding students through the PBL process. In a language learning context, the identification of these skills can also help guide the development of language support components of a course (Kim, Belland, & Axelrod, 2019).

The first set of skills are (is?) the interpersonal and thinking skills (people skills).

Tally (2015) identifies five essential skills for ensuring student success in PBL: communication, inquiry, collaboration, research, and activation of prior knowledge. She proposes the use of a rubric with which “teachers can identify which skills their students have and rate their ability in that skill using a numerical scale” (p. 27). Peterson (1997) focuses on the interpersonal aspect of PBL and argues that without the adequate development of interpersonal skills “student learning can be frustrated” (p. 2). The interpersonal skills proposed for more effective student engagement with PBL include consensual decision-making skills, dialogue and discussion skills, team maintenance skills, conflict management skills, and team leadership skills (p. 2). In addition, a number of mechanisms are recommended which can assist in the development of these skills, including pre-requisite skills development courses, teaching skills in other courses running simultaneously with PBL, and integrating interpersonal skills into the PBL course itself (p. 6). A number of other studies advocate a range of 21st century skills that can help students to address the challenges of PBL (Dede, 2010; Lemke, 2002). These skills include critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration, communication, and creativity (Dede, 2010; p. 10).

Another level of skills that students require in order to effectively engage with PBL involves research skills (process). In the conventional understanding of PBL, students work collaboratively to solve ill-structured problems through a process of extended inquiry, and this process can be structured or guided through a series of steps or stages (Yew & Goh, 2016). Generally speaking, this process follows a number of steps (see Figure 1). Learning institutions across the world have modified this process in order to better adapt to their own needs and learning conditions. For example, Stix and Hrbek (2006) propose a more detailed and

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comprehensive nine-step learning process. Some institutions have also divided the PBL process into different stages (Wee, 2004), phases (Aarnio, 2015) and ladders (Othman, Salleh & Sulaiman, 2014). A number of studies have examined the different steps of PBL and how they impact on learning (Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2008; Visschers-Pleijers et al., 2006; Visschers-Pleijers et al., 2004). These studies found that the organization of process steps and tutor facilitation can have a significant impact on learning achievements. Other studies found that time spent on the problem analysis and that definition stage had a significant impact on learning achievement (Van Den Hurk et al., 2001). By anticipating and organizing these steps, teachers can think more clearly about the skills, input activities, and support they will provide.

Figure 1: Steps of problem-based learning

Along with people and process skills, students’ engagement with the PBL process can be facilitated through the use of information technology skills (product skills).

These skills can help students both in terms of the steps in the PBL process and the production of public products to communicate solutions to their particular problems. In relation to the PBL process, technology can help students though the use of applications that promote discussion, reflection, presentation, collaboration, and assessment (Donnelly, 2005). Technology can also be used as a tool “to build interactive learning environments where students can play an active role in the learning process” (Lee, 2013, p. 7). In relation to products, technology can support the more effective production and presentation of public products promoting PBL solutions (Donnelly, 2005). This may involve developing presentations, posters, brochures, websites, blogs, and other ways of communicating their solutions. The use of different levels of scaffolding can help students notice and reflect on the process of problem solving and provide valuable input in terms of language learning objectives. However, scaffolding may also be a useful way of addressing the concerns and challenges that teachers face in adopting a new teaching approach.

3.2.3. Scaffolding teachers Teachers face a range of unique challenges when adopting and implementing innovative teaching approaches like PBL, and these challenges can create a significant barrier to successful implementation (Grant & Hill, 2006).

Mergendoller and Thomas (2005) note that during classroom implementation “the

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overlapping, wide-ranging, and changing demands of PBL management and instruction are difficult to master, and novice PBL teachers frequently experience dilemmas and difficulties” (p. 35). This is largely because most teachers do not have experience with student-centred learning approaches (Land, 2000). The situation may be even more challenging in the case of PBL as the definitions of some of its underpinning conceptions, such as critical thinking, are still not widely accepted.

In addition, the skills and resources required in traditional teacher-centred classrooms are very different from those required in student-centred classrooms, and the way teachers manage and direct learning may require fundamental changes (Brush & Saye, 2000; Krajcik et al., 1994). As Tally notes “Traditional pedagogy is challenged when PBL is implemented in the classroom and teachers are forced to question their educational beliefs. This creates a struggle within as teachers try to adapt to a new way of looking at education while also trying to meet the educational needs of their students” (2015, p.18). As a result, supporting teachers throughout the process of adoption and implementation has long been recognised as a central priority (Fullan, 1992), and it has been noted that “there is a need for PBL-specific professional development as well as school support structures for teachers engaged in the PBL implementation process” (BradleyLevine et al., 2010, p. 6).

A number of studies have examined teacher scaffolding in the process of PBL planning and implementation. This was in terms of the use of specific scaffolding strategies to support teachers (Ertmer & Simons, 2005, 2006) and the use of hard and soft scaffolding throughout the process of PBL adoption (Brush & Saye, 2002) to simultaneously enhance student learning and provide teachers with valuable feedback and direction. They propose the use of digital platforms to act as an interface between teachers and students in order to promote reciprocal feedback.

These scaffolds provide support for students while also providing teachers with valuable feedback for developing and improving instructional inputs. Ertmer and Simons (2005) argue for a conception of teacher scaffolding that reduces PBL’s complexity while also increasing the teacher’s ability to independently implement PBL in the classroom (p. 5). They also make a distinction between efforts to support planning of PBL and supporting implementation. In relation to the process of planning, they stress the importance of driving questions and note that these driving questions should be broad, meaningful, and relevant and also lend themselves to deep student investigation. They also argue that good planning should consider the availability of resources and identify strategies for creating student ownership of the problem. In terms of implementation, they argue for the creation and development of collaborative classroom culture and strategies to maintain student engagement. The development of a “collaborative classroom culture” requires a shift in terms of the student/teacher relationship, expectations, and ways of working (Lee & Blanchard, 2019).

3.2.4. Developing a culture of PBL While traditional classrooms are teacher-centred and promote a conception of learning that focuses on extrinsic rewards, the right answer and strict codes of control, behaviour, and discipline, PBL is student-centred. PBL promotes

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collaborative learning and rewards flexibility and critical thinking. This can lead to greater learner autonomy which is seen as a way of empowering students to take responsibility for their own learning inside and outside the classroom boundaries, a skill that is much needed at the university level (Borg & Al-Busaidi, 2012ab; Reinders & Benson, 2017). The development of a learning environment in which students work productively, collaboratively, and independently requires that they “have shared goals and experiences, feel empowered to contribute, trust in one another, and feel understood and capable as individuals. These attributes enable teamwork, cooperation, a willingness to negotiate, and the ability to draw on one another's skills” (Kane, 2016, p. 3). Successful implementation of PBL also requires a willingness on the part of teachers to change their role from a directive to a facilitative role.

Shifting from traditional instructional methods to a PBL approach necessitates a requisite shift in classroom culture, involving both students and teachers. In other words, the implementation of PBL requires not only introducing a curriculum but also living out the underlying principles and values that underpin the approach (Bergeron, Schrader & Williams, 2019). In order to do this, teachers need to provide opportunities to practise and develop the required skills and also provide structural support for students in terms of fostering positive attitudes towards collative learning, individual accountability and learner autonomy. Classroom culture can be defined as: “The often unspoken and frequently unconscious assumptions about how people (both the teacher and the students) will behave during the lessons – Where will people sit, or stand? Who will speak, when, and what about?

What types of behaviour are appreciated, tolerated or frowned upon?”

(Swift, 2006, p. 1) Kennedy (2002) elaborates on this definition by including “the social rules, beliefs, attitudes and values that govern how people act and how they define themselves” (p. 430). Attention to developing a classroom culture is particularly important in the implementation of PBL because the development of a culture of inquiry and collaboration will necessarily impact on the quality of student learning. It is also an important aspect of PBL implementation because students and teachers may be used to particular ways of working and have entrenched attitudes and expectations of what it means to teach and learn. Boss and Larmer (2018) note: “Classroom culture takes on particular significance in PBL. When the goal is to foster inquiry, risk taking, persistence, and self-directed learning, culture is too important to leave to chance. Building the right culture for PBL requires on-going effort and attention by both teachers and students. Instead of being hidden, a PBL culture needs to be openly constructed, reinforced, and celebrated.” (p. 14) A classroom culture that promotes collaboration and interdependence can be instituted through the use of various strategies, including routines and protocols, mini projects, group reflections and the development of a vocabulary, or ways of talking about PBL (Boss & Larmer, 2018). In addition, the use of intentional practises that model, reinforce, and reproduce classroom behaviours that support PBL principles can help to promote a culture of thinking. These practises and

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routines can help structure the relationship between teachers and students and also promote conducive cognitive, emotional, and social learning structures (p.

32). Students’ attention must be drawn not only to content but also to the various levels of skills that projects promote. Through the use of rituals, explication, and reinforcement, students can be made aware of people skills (group formation, roles, team-building, collaboration, communication, consensual decision making, etc.), process (defining the problem, planning, research, etc.), and the products they will produce (presentations, posters, websites, etc.). In addition, a learning environment which promotes reflection at every stage of the PBL process allows more scope for the development of a reinforcing culture of reflection.

As discussed above, there are a number of broad considerations that can aid practitioners in terms of conceptualizing and designing a PBL course. In the next part of the paper, the researchers review and outline the researchers’ experience of implementing PBL and how these considerations informed the practical experience of conceptualizing, designing, and implementing a PBL course in an EFL context.

At this stage, the researchers were more aware of the constraints, challenges, and issues that would shape the researchers’ course design. Furthermore, they were better placed to think about the overall design of the course and the extent of hybridization in terms of inputs and assessments, scaffolding, teacher training, and culture development. As a result, the researchers came to the following conclusions regarding the intended design: 1. Develop a hybrid approach to PBL incorporating a mixture of traditional inputs and assessments 2. Incorporate language skills input to support the PBL content 3. Scaffold the course (through hard and soft scaffolding) in terms of people, process, and product skills 4. Train and support teachers and learners before, through, and after the implementation 5. Develop and promote a culture of PBL for both students and teachers.

The specific context where the model was developed also necessitated designing the course around a specific process of research. In other words, the researchers had to pre-empt or predict the process of problem-solving that students were likely to go through in order to design relevant scaffolding and language input.

The proposed model is shown in Figure.2. The model builds on insights gained throughout the process of implementation and incorporates key lessons that the researchers were able to draw from their experience. The model reflects the researchers’ understanding of the literature in the area of PBL implementation and the broad challenges faced by PBL course designers globally (Chakravathi & Heleagrahara, 2010; Luk, 2004; Wee et al., 2000). It also reflects the specific challenges the researchers faced in the process of implementing PBL in the researchers’ localized context. In addition, it draws on discussions with teachers, students, and course designers in terms of the features and characteristics of the course that were innovative or differentiated this course from other courses.

Finally, it consolidates the insights gained through consecutive iterations of the course.

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4. The Resulting Model This section describes the model representing the full implementation of the program, in its final instantiation. This represents the key pedagogical principles discussed above (hybridization, scaffolding, and the development of a PBL culture) as instantiated in the Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) specific context.

Although the researchers do not propose this model as an example to follow for others, given that each context is different and is likely to prompt additions and/or changes, they include it here as one possible pathway with all its different strands as necessitated in the researchers’ environment. The researchers also include it to show the entire range of design elements and how they come together in practice. It is the researchers’ hope that this will provide readers with ideas for planning their own PBL program.

The model as shown in Figure 2 is based on the pre-defined process of problem solving described above and builds on insights gained through consecutive iterations of the course. The model can be divided into three main levels; the student process, skills support, and language input. Firstly, and at its core, it shows the steps students proceed through in order to complete the PBL component of the course (stage setting, analysing and defining the problem, research, presentation, and reflection). Students are presented with an illstructured, real-world problem and work in groups to resolve the problem through predefined steps. The number of steps and how the process is broken up is dependent on a number of factors including the timeframe of the course, assessment, and course objectives. These steps also act as the organizing feature or backbone of the course in terms of providing a solid foundation around which to add or design supplementary support and scaffolding. The course was designed around five main component steps with students completing each step in approximately two-three weeks. The second level of the model is the student scaffolding and support in terms of input that supports students through the process of PBL. Students receive scaffolding throughout the process of problem solving through hard and soft inputs at the level of the people skills they require to complete the tasks, raising awareness of the process they are going through, and designing products that communicate their solutions effectively. Visualizing the scaffolding in terms of people, process, and product skills allows for more targeted and needs-driven support for students. In the researchers’ particular case, a student handbook was created and organized around the PBL steps. The student handbook provided a range of activities and materials that students completed at each stage of the PBL process. The materials and activities were designed in response to three main questions: What people skills do students require to compete this component of the course? How can students’ awareness of the process of problem solving be raised? How do students design better products for communicating their solutions? The third level of the model is the language input. In researchers’ particular case, this was the hybrid part of the course which used traditional inputs in terms of a course book which was designed based around the language learning objectives of the course. This part of course was taught traditionally but progressed in tandem with the PBL course so that language input was aligned to the steps in the PBL process. Finally, the

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model incorporates teacher scaffolding and culture building as important elements in the PBL process.

Figure 2: The proposed PBL Model

The model is meant to be understood as a work in progress which can be adapted, shaped, and modified to suit different contexts. While the model offers one way of conceptualizing PBL in a specific context, it also offers a framework for course designers in terms of contemplating possibilities, challenges, and opportunities for the development of PBL courses in other contexts.

5. Conclusion and Limitations Despite its considerable potential, PBL faces significant challenges in its implementation in language education context. From the researchers’ experience, there are a number of very specific factors that can inform course design. These factors are related to the institution, the prevailing culture and the background, and experience and expectations of teachers and learners. Hybridization, scaffolding and developing collaborative cultures of learning are important means of supporting the process of implementation and informing the design of courses. Conceptualizing PBL courses in terms of the barriers and constraints, the

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skills focus, and the extent of scaffolding students and teachers require, can offer one means of working around rigid institutional and curricula requirements.

As with any research, it is important to highlight the limitations of the study. First, this study was conducted using a case study approach underpinned by designbased research principles. It is seen as an alternative model for enquiry. Therefore, unlike conventional research studies, the present study did not contain data or information about participants. Second, the researchers were not able to empirically test the impact of the proposed model on student learning. The main objective of this study was first to examine the challenges and offer an alternative to the existing course design.

6. Recommendations for Future Research The present study has attempted to proposed a working model for the integration of PBL in language education. Future studies could test the effectiveness of the model. This would require collecting primary data from different participants.

PBL is rather new in English language teaching, but it has a great potential to support language learning and teaching. Therefore, future studies could extend this model to other contexts and assess its feasibility and impact. Future studies could also extend the scope of the model to school children as a way of making language learning more purposeful and relevant to students’ needs and interests.

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Visschers-Pleijers A. J., Dolmans, D., Wolfhagen, I. H., & Van Der Vleuten, C. P. (2004).

Exploration of a method to analyze group interactions in problem-based learning.

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Visschers-Pleijers, A. J., Dolmans, D. H., De Leng, B. A., Wolfhagen, I. H., & Van Der Vleuten, C. P. (2006). Analysis of verbal interactions in tutorial groups: a process study. Med Educ, 40(2), 129-137. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005.02368.x Wang, F., & Hannafin, M. J. (2005). Design-based research and technology-enhanced learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(4), 523. doi:10.1007/BF02504682 Ward, J. D., & Lee, C. L. (2002). A review of problem-based learning. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Education, 20(1), 16-26.

Wee, L. K. N., Kek, M. Y. C. A., Da Silva, G. & Seah, T. H. D. (2000). Tried and tested: issues and implications for educators in problem-based learning - relearning from the learners' perspective. Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Conference on Problem-Based Learning 2000: PBL: Educational Innovation Across Disciplines. Singapore. https://eprints.usq.edu.au/5117/ Wee, K. N. L. (2004). Jump Start Authentic Problem-Based Learning. Pearson-Prentice Hall.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 22-47, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.2

English Proficiency Gain and Mediating Factors in Training: A Self-Evaluation of Vietnamese Pre-Service EFL Teachers Nguyen Van Loi1 and Chung Thi Thanh Hang2 Can Tho University, School of Foreign Languages, Can Tho, Vietnam https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1815-1371 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6904-7179

Abstract. Following international language proficiency standards, Vietnam has recently set the advanced English proficiency (C1- CEFR) for teacher graduates from an English teacher education program.

Considering regional differences, this standard setting has raised a concern about its feasibility. This paper aims to report the language proficiency development of English teacher trainees at a Vietnamese university as an illustration and examine training factors that may influence this proficiency outcome. To this end, a self-report questionnaire was designed to collect the data on the trainees’ selfassessment of EP and their responses to the training factors. A group interview was then conducted to obtain qualitative evidence that backed up the questionnaire results. The participants were 41 fourth-year EFL teacher students, seven of whom agreed to participate in the group interview. The results showed that approximately 62.4% of the candidates self-assessed their level equivalent to the C1-advanced proficiency, while a significant percentage still desired additional language proficiency support. Their responses to the training factors revealed that they were overall satisfied with the effectiveness of English proficiency training.

Noticeably, their proficiency scores positively correlated with their use of self-regulated learning strategies, which in turn correlated with the types of teaching and assessment activities during the training years. Their starting proficiency level also had a significant correlation to their proficiency gain at the end. These findings offer useful implications for preparing foreign language teachers in the context towards the general proficiency standards, and for understanding expectations versus realities regarding this issue.

Keywords: training language proficiency

1 2

factors;

effectiveness;

advanced

proficiency;

Corresponding author: Nguyen Van Loi; Email: loinguyen@ctu.edu.vn Author: Chung Thi Thanh Hang; Email: ctthang@ctu.edu.vn

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction The quality of initial teacher education is central to the improvement of teaching and learning and school accountability (Gunashekar, 2016). Second language teacher education programs, therefore, need to provide sufficient knowledge base for teacher candidates. In spite of the different views on the contents of teacher professional knowledge in the field, content knowledge including LP is accepted as a teacher competence (Freeman et al., 2015; Kissau & Algozzine, 2017) especially in foreign language teacher education (FLTE) (Glisan, Swender & Surface, 2013; Kissau & Algozzine, 2017; Richards, 2017; Stedick, 2013). For nonnative English teachers (NNETs) in many parts of the world, English proficiency (EP) is strongly desirable and helps build their professional confidence (Choi & Lee, 2016), but it seems to be inadequately trained in teacher education programs (Eslami & Fatahi, 2008; Sandhu, 2016).

The construct of general language proficiency (GLP) was early defined as the ability to communicate effectively in a target language (Canale & Swain, 1980), or the mastery of a language (Stern, 1983). Academics in teacher education have recently argued the kind of proficiency involving “metalinguistic terminology and discourse competence for managing the classroom” (Pearson, Fonseca-Greber & Foell, 2006, p. 508) the teacher needs in order to instruct and interact with students in ways that generate comprehensible input and a conducive environment for language learning (Freeman et al., 2015; Le & Renandya, 2017; Richards, 2015). It is also argued that this specific LP and GLP complement each other in helping the teacher to teach effectively (Pham, 2017). In spite of the controversies on the construct (Tsang, 2017), LP standards have already been set for training, assessing and accrediting language teachers worldwide (ACTFL, 2012; Byram & Parmenter, 2013; NESA, 2017; Pearson et al., 2006; TESOL, 2010).

These LP standards, though different in contents, contexts and uses, seem to suggest that a native-like LP is needed for language teachers to function well in the classroom.

Abundant research has focused on the GLP against the benchmarks, and concluded that a high level of LP increases teachers’ self-efficacy in teaching, especially managing the classroom and communicating contents (Chacón, 2005; Choi & Lee, 2016; Tsang, 2017; Yusuf & Novita, 2020). In contrast, teachers’ LP inadequacy reduces their self-efficacy in providing comprehensible input, modelling, giving feedback and managing activities (Butler, 2004; Chen & Goh, 2011; Copland, Garton & Burns, 2014; Ghasemboland & Hashim, 2013; Richards et al., 2013; Yilmaz, 2011). Although a threshold level for effective teaching is unclear (Tsang, 2017), Tsui (2003) indicated that the advanced proficiency enabled teachers to provide more accurate meaningful explanations and respond to learners’ errors better than the lower level. In this respect, however, using the ACTFL standards’ Oral Proficiency Interview to gauge the speaking proficiency of 2,881 teacher candidates of 11 different languages in the USA, Glisan et al.

(2013) found that only 54.8% met the low advanced speaking proficiency in their target languages (e.g., German, Spanish). Noticeably, their proficiency variance emerged from their undergraduate experiences. This finding implies that teachers’ LP could originate in their higher education experience, which is

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arguably the case of Vietnam, where over 90% of Vietnamese high school teachers needed upgrading their level (T. Nguyen & Mai, 2015).

In Vietnam, English teacher education strictly follows the stipulations of the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) with respect to training quota, recruitment procedures and program design. Given an annual quota, universities select candidates by using the results of three subject tests administered in the national school graduation examination. English is compulsory and focuses on grammar, vocabulary and reading. Since 2008, the national 2020 Project missioned by the MOET, aiming to improve foreign language instruction (Prime Minister, 2008) adopted the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2001) as standards. The CEFR contains six levels: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2. Following the benchmark for language teacher graduates in Europe (Cárdenas & Chaves, 2013), C1 level, ‘Proficient’ or ‘effective operational proficiency,’ is set as a LP standard for high school teachers and graduates from FLTEPs (MOET, 2014). While the question of which LP and which level exactly is needed for a teacher’s effective teaching remains unclear and controversial (Pham, 2017; Tsang, 2017), this standard setting is commonly assumed to improve foreign language instruction (Kissau, & Algozzine, 2017).

How effectively current FLTEPs prepared their trainees to meet the standard, however, remains a question (Pearson et al., 2006) and a gap in Vietnam. Little is known about the extent to which ETEPs prepare pre-service teachers to meet the advanced level, especially in the disadvantaged area like the Mekong Delta (V. Nguyen, 2015).

To fill the gap, we examined the ETEP of a representative university in the region, focusing on the following research questions: 1. What are pre-service teachers’ levels of English proficiency (EP) before and upon training completion based on their self-assessment? To what extent do they attain the advanced level?

2. What are their evaluations of the EP training effectiveness and related quality factors?

2. Literature review Language program evaluation is essential to inform and improve the training quality (Aldoobie, 2015). Given that this task involves a systematic process of collecting, dissecting, and interpreting information for “forming judgments about the value of a particular program” (Robinson, 2003, p.199, as cited in Peacock, 2009), which is beyond our ability to manage, we find it imperative to gain insight into which training attributes may benefit LP development.

The literature on ETEP evaluation has concentrated on some important elements for effective training. These include a needs-based curriculum, an awareness of program goals, course structuring and linkage, the balance between teachercentered and learner-centered activities, and that between content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge (Bolitho, 2016; Peacock, 2009; Sung, 2009). Regarding LP development, a sufficient emphasis is widely suggested (Bolitho, 2016; Chacón, 2005). In particular, to achieve the advanced level, Cambridge English Assessment suggests that learners need 700-800 guided learning hours (Cambridge University Press, 2013). Besides, instructional activities should place a focus on learners and

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practice, instead of theory-laden lectures (Sung, 2009); learners’ awareness of the proficiency goal, their effort and time investment and willingness to practice the language outside class are also crucial elements (Chambless, 2012). Additionally, teacher educators’ LP, opportunities for learner-learner interaction, and learning strategy instruction are quality attributes (Sung, 2009). Research has further confirmed that the use of self-regulated learning strategies influences LP development (Fukuda, 2017). Importantly, the onset LP level could be a crucial mediator in the advanced LP achievement (L. Nguyen, 2014).

Research on FLTE has to date largely focused on teacher preparedness for pedagogical competence or professional knowledge (Akcan, 2016; Baecher, 2012; Carmel & Badash, 2018; Faez & Valeo, 2012; Kiely & Askham, 2012; Senom, Zakaria & Shah, 2013; Uzun, 2016). A few studies have yet contributed some insights into the preparation of teachers’ LP via pre-service teacher training. Peacock’s (2009) study is one of the few in Hong Kong that indicated that the NNET trainees desired an increased time for EP apart from the need for further teaching practice and classroom management skills. Examining the impact of a one-year EFL teacher training program in Cambodia, Sovann and Chomdokmai (2012) assessed eighty-nine trainees using an EP test and a teaching knowledge test whose results showed that they only achieved an average level in both English and teaching knowledge. Four training elements to be improved were the learning environment, resources, curriculum and program management. This study, however, is limited in terms of the EP test which lasted only 50 minutes, a far limited time to gauge the overall EP. In Norwegian contexts, Vold (2017) noted the LP component was not prioritized in FLTEPs, and his study confirmed evidence on the LP deficiency among novice teachers and their desire for a stronger focus on oral skills. With a qualitative approach to delving into an EFL teacher preparation curriculum in Indonesia, Hadi (2019) similarly concludes that the teachers are not adequately prepared for EP, because of the lack of theorypractice balance, and a facilitative learning environment. Faez, Karas and Uchihara (2019) found that after one-year training in an MA TESOL program in Australia, most of the Chinese EFL teachers improved their EP by one level, but only 26% achieved C1. The English-medium courses, and exposure to the language environment were reported as factors contributing to their EP development.

Overall, previous research has revealed a common picture that pre-service teachers are not adequately prepared for LP, but the extent to which the teachers achieve the advanced level is not mentioned in most studies.

3. Methods Formative evaluation could not be undertaken, so the study focused only on the trainees’ self-evaluation. We relied on a mixed-method approach (Lynch, 1996) combining a questionnaire and a group interview to collect data.

3.1. Data collection methods The questionnaire consisted of two parts: Part 1 collected the participants’ background information; Part 2 elicited the trainees’ self-assessment of EP, and their responses to training effectiveness and related factors which were previously reviewed in the literature (see appendix 1).

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We adopted the CEFR self-assessment grid because of financial constraints in conducting standardized tests. Researchers further question the exact measurement of GLP due to the controversy on the construct (Tsang, 2017).

Besides, combined measures such as self-rating and tests are suggested (Stern, 1983; Tsang, 2017). This is based on research findings about the relatively strong correlation between self-assessment and tests (Diamond et al., 2014; Ross, 1998; Wilson, 1999). Ma and Winke (2019) conclude that can‐do statements are useful for low‐stakes self-assessments. In this sense, the CEFR with both holistic descriptions and specific can-do statements and separate scales for listening, reading, spoken interaction, spoken production and writing, can facilitate learners’ self-assessment, and was adopted in recent studies (e.g., Faez et al., 2019).

Five six-point scales (1 to 6) of each skill ranging from A1 to C2 were used for selfrating the start level and exit level. The alpha coefficients of these scales were calculated, and the overall result was α = .886, which means sufficient internal reliability. The participants were also asked to report proficiency proofs, which were then used to corroborate with their self-assessment.

For the self-evaluation of EP training effectiveness, five-point Likert’s scales were used. The current study report the data on the following factors as indicated in Table 1.

Table 1: Factors for self-evaluation and scales

Factors Overall effectiveness of EP training (6 items) Teaching activities (29 items) Assessment activities (13 items) Self-regulated learning strategies (5 items)

Scales

Alpha Coefficients 1= strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3= α = .852 neutral, 4= agree, 5= strongly agree 1= never, 2= seldom, 3= sometimes, α = .921 4= most of the time, 5= always 1= never, 2= seldom, 3= sometimes, α = .767 4= most of the time, 5= always 1= never, 2= seldom, 3= sometimes, α = .858 4= most of the time, 5= always

The questionnaire also contains three open questions about which factors could enhance or limit the EP gain (questions 18-19), and which program aspects needed improving (question 20).

A group interview was then conducted in a conversational style to gain further information on training effectiveness because of the power imbalance between the trainees and the researcher as an insider lecturer. This would reduce anxiety, increase comfort and confidence in sharing ideas, and allow free interactions and mutual catalysts (Taber, 2013). Open-ended questions are employed to elicit free opinions. The following questions were posed in Vietnamese, and prompts were used to develop the talk: What would say about the effectiveness of EP courses? Do you feel that the EP training helped you improve your EP? To what extent did they prepare you for the C1 level?

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3.2. Context and Participants The study was conducted at a representative public university in the Mekong Delta. As per admission procedure, candidates to the four-year 140-credit ELTEP submit the results of three tests: mathematics (or geography, or history), literature and English, and are recruited basing on the in-take year quota. When admitted, they follow a mandated training structure: 30% of the total credits are for general knowledge delivered in Vietnamese, and 70% for the professional knowledge. The 2014-2018 program consisted of linguistics and culture courses (9.3%), courses on general and subject-specific pedagogy, assessment, technology for teaching and practicum (32.2%) and EP courses (28.5%). The time for EP equals to 787 in-class contact hours; each contact hour requires students to take two self-study hours.

All the EP courses were aligned with the CEFR can-do abilities, starting with B1 and targeting C1. The EP courses relied on the two textbook series, North-star and Pathways, which endorse the communicative approach; accompanied with an IELT book series for guided self-study. They were delivered by lecturers who held Master’s degrees in TESOL, or Applied Linguistics, and had a teaching experience of three years minimum. English was the main medium of instruction (EMI) in most professional knowledge courses.

Forty-one teacher trainees from the 2014-2018 in-take responded to the questionnaire, accounting for 50% of the population. They included 24 females (58.6%) and 17 males (41.5%); 30 candidates (73.2%) came from the countryside, and eleven (26.8%) from the city. Their entry English score was M = 6.99, SD = .965 (out of ten). Of the total, 68.3% reported proficiency proofs equivalent to C1 level3, and 14.6% B2; while the EP qualification of the remaining ten participants was unknown. Regarding their training motivation, albeit the program outcome is the English teaching career, only 65.9% desired to pursue this career; 9.8% wanted to find any job that uses English; 14.6% elected the major because of free tuition4 mainly, and 2.4% followed their family advice or imposition, and 7.3% thought it is a popular language. Five males and two females who had obtained C1 volunteered to participate in the interview.

3.3. Data collection and analysis procedures The questionnaire was put on Google Form and emailed to all the trainees in the program, accompanied by an invitation message at the end of their coursework before they left for the school practicum to complete their training. The participants had two weeks to respond to the invitation. The interview was conducted two weeks after that. Curricular documents were only consulted to obtain information on the intended goals and contents.

The returned questionnaire responses were collated into an excel file and transferred to the SPSS software. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were then calculated to assess the questionnaire reliability. Descriptive statistics were employed to depict the trainees’ self-evaluation. Then, inferential statistics such as independent-samples t-tests and correlation tests were used to explore the 3

Standard setting in Vietnam (IELTS-7.0, national VSTEP-level 5; TOEFL ITP-550; TOEFL iBT-80; TOEIC-850, CAE-180) 4 Teacher education programs are funded by the government, while tuition applies to other programs.

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differences in their EP, and the relationship between the training factors and the EP results. Given the only one-shot interview, it was only used to extract the evidence that could clarify the questionnaire results.

4. Results 4.1. EFL teacher trainees’ self-assessed EP levels Table 2: EFL teacher trainees’ self-rated entry and exit levels of EP across skills Skills

Listening

Reading

Spoken interaction

Spoken production

Writing

Levels

Entry

Exit

Entry

Exit

Entry

Exit

Entry

Exit

Entry

Exit

Mean SD 1-A1 % 2-A2 % 3-B1 % 4-B2 % 5-C1 % 6-C2 %

2.05 .805 26.9 43.9 26.8 2.4 -

4.49 .675 2.4 2.4 39.1 56.1 -

2.44 .923 14.6 39.1 36.6 7.3 2.4

4.71 .559 2.4 26.8 68.4 2.4

1.93 .848 34.1 43.9 17.1 4.9 -

4.58 .590 4.9 31.7 63.4 -

1.95 .805 31.7 43.9 22 2.4 -

4.54 .596 4.9 36.6 58.5 -

2.12 .954 34.1 24.4 36.6 4.9 -

4.61 .586 4.9 29.2 65.9 -

Table 2 reveals that the trainees started with various levels across all English skills.

Between 26.9% and 34% began with level A1, and 43.9% had A2 for listening and speaking. Over one-third of the respondents attained B1 in reading and writing, while 26.8% and around 20% rated themselves on B1 for listening and speaking respectively. Only less than 5% (2.4% to 4.9%) believed they possessed an overall B2, or a reading proficiency equivalent to C1. Overall, most respondents assessed their EP level between A2 and B1 (M = 1.93, SD = .848 for speaking; M = 2.44, SD = .923 for reading), and they were less self-confident in listening and speaking than reading and writing abilities. Their individual variance was quite large (SD = .805 for listening and spoken production, and SD = .954 for writing) In contrast, their self-assessment upon training completion showed a significant gain, with all the skills being estimated from level B2. The mean scores increased to over 4.0 (4.49 - 4.71), and the standard deviations decreased (.559 -.675). They continued to show most confidence in reading (2.4% attained C2, 68.4% C1, 26.8% B2, and 2.4% B1). Roughly similar numbers of participants self-rated their writing ability equivalent to C1 (65.9%), B2 (29.2%), and B1 (4.9%). On average, both spoken interaction and production were rated closely the same (M = 4.58, and M =. 4.54 respectively). Specifically, 63.4% of trainees assessed their spoken interaction at C1, and 31.7% at B2, while ratings for spoken interaction were 58.5% and 36.6% respectively. A small amount (4.9%) remained at B1. Their listening proficiency was ranked the lowest with only 56.1% of participants reporting level C1, 39.1% B2, 2.4% B1, and 2.4% A2.

On average, 62.4% of teacher trainees rated their EP as C1-equivalent upon completion of training. This number is comparable to 68.1% reporting official certificates of the same level. 28.7% of participants graded themselves on level B2, and 3.65% estimated their EP at level B1, which is the recommended starting standard (MOET, 2014).

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Exploring trainees’ EP differences To explore further, the participants were reassigned into two groups according to the Entry English scores: the below-seven, and the seven plus. Then comparing the self-rated EP means, we found that the below-seven group rated their onset proficiency at significantly lower level than the other group (t = -3.17, p < .05). In contrast, the ratings of exit EP were not significantly different between the groups (M = 4.44, SD = .505, and M = 4.71, SD = .443 respectively, t = 1.5, p > .05).

Regarding regional difference, the candidates coming from rural areas had significantly lower entry English scores than those from urban schools (M = 6.73 compared to M = 7.7, p < .05), but overall they self-evaluated their EP gain approximately the same at the end.

A Pearson’s correlation test was run between the entry English scores and the selfrated exit EP levels, producing a significant but low coefficient (r = .324, p < .05).

A similar calculation revealed a significantly stronger positive correlation between the self-perceived entry level and the exit level (r = .514, p < .05). This means that the higher EP candidates start with, the more likely they could attain the advanced level.

4.2. Trainees’ self-evaluation of EP training effectiveness factors What is their evaluation of the effectiveness elements of EP training?

Table 3: Trainees’ perceived effectiveness of EP courses by percentage Items The language skills courses state clear goals for developing EP. The language skills courses have a clear link and progress from easy to difficult levels.

The language skills courses satisfied your needs.

The language skills courses prepared you well for the EP equivalent to C1.

The teaching and learning activities in the skills courses helped you improve your EP. Teachers' assessment in the skills courses pushed you to improve your EP.

Disagree Unsure Agree Strongly agree 2.4

7.3

75.6

14.6

0

7.3

70.7

22

7.3

17.1

70.7

4.9

7.3

26.8

48.8

17.1

2.4

24.4

51.2

22

7.3

17.1

56.1

19.5

Seen from Table 3, the trainees overall agree on the effectiveness of EP courses.

The majority contended that the courses had clear goals, and were well connected and progressed (over 86% and 92% respectively). 75.6% felt the courses met their needs, while only 17.1% were uncertain and 7.3% disagreed with this. For attaining C1, nearly 66% of the trainees were content that the courses sufficiently prepared them, 26.8% were unsure, and 7.3% disagreed. A majority (73.2%), however, admitted that EP activities helped them improve their English to a large extent; while nearly one-fourth expressed uncertainty about this preparation.

75.6% of them also reported that assessment activities affected their learning to improve their EP. In the interview, the interviewees overall express positive attitudes to the EP courses in terms of goal statement, logical linkage and needs satisfaction.

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However, they believed the order of training writing genres seemed unclear. For them, starting with writing general texts such as messages, memos and letters, then continuing with writing basic academic paragraphs seemed unclear, as one trainee said, “I can’t see the difference in the level between ‘Reading and Writing General Texts’ and ‘Basic Academic Writing and Reading’.”

The choice of materials also presents gaps in the level progression and relevance.

Different lecturers selected different textbooks from two different series suggested in the syllabuses. A male trainee mentioned, “It depends on the lecturers; one lecturer chose Pathways for the basic and intermediate courses, then in the subsequent course, another selected North star, and then for Critical Writing and Reading, another lecturer switched back to Pathways.” The trainees further commented that North star was boring, and contained several topics irrelevant to their life and interest. One of the females recalled, “Even some lecturers commented the book is boring to them.”

For following the course syllabuses, they said most of lecturers used the suggested textbooks, but tweaked some activities and contents to a certain degree. However, the concerning issues are the teaching method that failed to motivate them, and the ineffective exploitation of the textbooks. One male trainee said, “I think the contents were interesting, but the lecturers’ methods failed to make the material interesting.” Another male trainee complained, “Once a native-speaker teacher taught us; he either strictly followed the book or completely ignored it; some contents he substituted were inconsistent with the syllabus and caused us confusion; consequently, many students skipped his classes because they felt demotivated.”

Regarding the question about awareness of the EP standard, only 65.9% of the trainees reported they were well-aware. In the interview, a female candidate noted, “As far as I know, many of my classmates now still believe that they don’t need to achieve C1 as one of the requirements, and they don’t care about it.”

To the open-ended question “what do you suggest to improve the program towards EP development?” most of the opinions concentrate on three crucial issues. First, further EP courses should be offered with a focus on oral skill development. Second, general knowledge courses should be reduced so that they could better invest effort and time into the development of EP. They said studying many general knowledge courses shared their time budget. This factor is also frequently repeated as the one affecting their EP development in another openended question. Third, there should be more practice, instead of theory-laden lectures in many EMI courses.

What types of teaching and assessment activities were often used in EP courses?

To understand the training effectiveness further, 29 learning activities, and 13 assessment activities were grouped into categories. Table 4 reveals that both teacher-centered activities (M= 3.88, SD= .448) and summative assessment (M= 3.95, SD= .462) recurred more regularly than learner-oriented activities (M= 3.58, SD= .463) and formative assessment (M= 3.55, SD= .524). The trainees’ use of selfregulated learning strategies were relatively high (M= 3.87, SD= .524).

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Table 4: Teaching and assessment activities in EP courses EP Course Activities Teacher-centered activities Learner-centered activities Summative assessment Formative assessment

Min. 3.0

Max. 4.71

2.61

4.56

2.67 2.43

4.67 4.71

Mean

SD

3.88

.448

3.58

.463

3.95 3.55

.462 .469

In detailed examination, for the teacher-centered activities, textbook-based practice was often guided by the teacher (M = 4.29, SD = .601), followed by teacher feedback (M = 4.12, SD = .714), lectures (M = 4.0, SD = .866), and teacher-controlled practice (M = 3.66, SD = .728). For the learner-centred category, group discussion occurred most frequently (M = 4.19, SD =.557), followed by output and interaction tasks (M = 3.93, SD = .608). Other less recurrent activities involved strategy instruction, promoting strategy use on tasks, extensive reading, presentations, projects, and task-based, self and peer assessment. Summative tests were employed more repeatedly (M = 3.95, SD = .462) than alternative formative assessment such as project, portfolio, journal and so on (M = 3.55, SD =. 469).

Table 5: Trainees’ use of self-regulated learning strategies Items Find out about course goals Set goals for studying the course Choose suitable learning strategies Plan to study and use learning strategies Monitor and notice success or problems Evaluate and change strategies if necessary Total

Min. 3.0 3.0 3.0

Max. 5.0 5.0 5.0

Mean SD 3.68 .6099 3.93 .7208 4.00 .6325

3.0

5.0

4.00

.7746

2.0

5.0

3.80

.6790

2.0

5.0

3.80

.6790

3.87

.524

Regarding the level of self-regulated learning (M= 3.87, SD= .524), Table 5 shows that the trainees usually set goals for what they wanted to learn, selected appropriate strategies for learning, monitored, evaluated and regulated their strategies when necessary (M= 3.8 – 4.0). In contrast, they less frequently found out about course goals beforehand (M= 3.68, SD= .609).

5. Discussion The results above reveal that overall the trainees make a significant progress in EP. A large proportion (62.4%) reported the achievement of the advanced level both in terms of self-rating and EP proofs, and many candidates appeared to make much improvement given their low starting point (A2). This number is closely consistent with previous research especially for the oral proficiency (approximately 60%) (Glisan et al., 2013), and is much higher than what Faez et al. (2019) found. The percentage closely matches the large proportion of A2-B2 at the beginning. The rest of candidates who achieved B1 to B2 appears sensible, given their lower starting point (A1). Despite the significant training effect, it seems that adequate preparation for the advanced EP remains a debate.

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Specifically, good proportion still desired further EP support, whereas the qualified candidates would be challenged to maintain their level upon entering careers being distracted by multiple factors (T. Nguyen & Mai, 2015). This finding, as with previous research (Glisan et al., 2013), means that teachers’ LP gaps could originate in pre-service teacher education. Ongoing professional development that emphasizes EP is necessary to ensure the new graduates’ levels will not drop.

Alternatively, as noted by Moeller (2013), it is hard to jump the hurdle to the advanced LP, if current training programs are not restructured or improved to respond better to the reality, this target will be unachievable.

Several related factors could mediate the trainees’ EP outcome and hence should be considered. First, as indicated by Peacock (2009), the effect might be due to the clear structuring and organization of EP courses. However, the fact that many candidates were unaware of the EP standard and entered training without clear career goals could possibly reduce their time and effort commitment (Bolitho, 2016; Chambless, 2012), and the likelihood to achieve their goals (Ball, 2010, as cited in Moeller, 2013). The choice of some materials and lecturers’ methods which failed to interest the trainees could have further exacerbated their motivation. This might have in turn undermined the program effectiveness (Peacock, 2009; Sovann & Chomdokmai, 2012; Sung, 2009). The trainees’ desire for further language support, much like in previous research (Uzun, 2016; Vold, 2017), also reflects the specific needs for EP regarding regional difference among the candidates. Given their varied start levels, certain students might need more extensive EP training than others. This means that the program should respond better to the candidates’ needs, especially the less proficient ones.

The balance between theory and practice and between knowledge components in the program is a crucial factor to consider. 28.5% of credits devoted to EP coursework is incomparable to 41.5% for pedagogical and linguistic knowledge courses delivered in both Vietnamese and English. This imbalance could have reduced the impact on EP growth (Bolitho, 2016; Chacón, 2005; Chambless, 2012).

Obviously, the contact hours fall within the range 700-800 for C1 achievement (Cambridge University Press, 2013). Nevertheless, as indicated in this study, trainees may enter the program with various backgrounds (e.g., initial levels, motivation, school education and residency), and given that second language acquisition depends on sociocultural constraints (Lantolf, Thorne & Poehner, 2015), the existing time allocation seems to suffice only to push trainees up to two levels.

This means those starting with the right level (A2-B1 at least) will be more likely to achieve the goal.

Other essential factors may be the teaching and assessment activities. Although a mixture of activity types were implemented, there were more lectures and textbook-based activities than learner-oriented activities. Learner autonomy was less often promoted by offering choices of study topics, and process-oriented activities namely portfolios, or projects. Further exploration about the relationships of assessment activities and EP course activities with the trainees’ use of self-regulated learning strategies revealed significant but low correlations (r. = .39, p = .008, and r. = .36, p = .012 respectively); however, a slightly higher correlation was observed between self-regulated learning strategies and the EP outcome (r. = .42, p < .05). This suggests that the type of course and assessment

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activities may mediate the level of self-regulation which in turn impacts EP development (Fukuda, 2017).

Noticeably, the onset EP is a significant factor to predict LP gain (L. Nguyen, 2014). Despite the tuition-free policy for teacher education in the context which aims to recruit the best candidates, findings from this study show that a majority of candidates were below the onset required level (B1). This is due to the recruitment procedure which rigidly relied on the English test whose validity and reliability are doubted with respect to GLP assessment. This is evident in the low correlation between the test scores and the exit EP level, while a stronger correlation existed between the self-rated initial EP and the gained EP. This finding echoes a concern that has been raised in other contexts (Bolitho, 2016; Sandhu, 2016). As Bolitho (ibid.) noted, in many contexts “entry-level requirements are frequently relaxed…, which means that the profession does not always receive the best possible candidates” (p. 28).

6. Implications Despite the limitations regarding the lack of process-oriented evaluation data, and a small sample size that limits generalizations, this study offers some implications for LP standardization in FLTE. Firstly, it is evident that the current program responds better to candidates with a proper starting level (A2-B1). Therefore, FLTE institutions should consider additional measures to recruit those candidates with the right levels. For the local program in this study, given the variant onset levels of the candidates as evident in their English test scores and EP self-rating, the collaboration of related recruitment units is necessary to further examine future candidates’ speaking and listening skills to ensure the suitable candidates be recruited.

Additionally, current FLTEPs need to respond better to the demands of teacher trainees for LP development. Specifically, consideration should be taken into the balance between LP coursework and theoretical knowledge components. Further curricular changes are required to increase the LP proportion, and especially reducing coursework (30%) perceived as unrelated to their professional training.

Alternatively, additional opportunities for LP development can be designed into LP courses for enriching exposure to authentic materials and practice of English.

For example, in-class instruction can be integrated with online learning resources and activities, using learning management systems.

Third, this study reveals that among the many mediating factors, teaching and assessment activities that push learner self-regulated learning and autonomy can enhance LP gain. Therefore, it is suggested that classroom instruction deploy more learner-centred activities and formative assessment to push the trainees’ use of learning strategies. Self-assessment using the CEFR grid is advisable to raise students’ awareness of the outcome goal and identify their gaps so that they can have timely LP supports (Pearson et al., 2006). It is stressed that the responsibility of all program constituents namely educators, trainees, and related departments and units will help achieve the goal (Moeller, 2013).

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7. Conclusion Teacher capacity primarily relies on initial teacher education. Expectations seem high compared to the current reality, but measures taken to ensure the quality of pre-service FLTEPs will urge would-be teachers to meet the LP standard goal.

Findings from this study on the EP training effectiveness at a large university in the Mekong Delta suggest that the feasibility in attaining the advanced EP goal remains an issue for further exploration across variable local contexts, especially disadvantaged areas. It is arguable that this level is achievable if teacher candidates have the right LP qualifications before training. Besides this, other potential factors to consider are learner-oriented course and assessment activities, self-regulated learning strategy use, and a balance between LP and other knowledge components. Despite the socio-cultural context where this study was conducted, we hope to contribute further understanding about features of ETEPs with respect to teachers’ LP preparation. Future studies in other contexts which employ both quantitative and qualitative data to follow teachers’ LP development may help to depict a fuller picture that informs teacher education towards the LP standardization policy.

Acknowledgements We acknowledge special thanks to the participants of the study. We also thank the reviewers for their constructive comments.

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Nguyen, T. V. (2015). Nguyên nhân, thực trạng và giải pháp nâng cao trình độ học vấn cho vùng đồng bằng sông Cửu Long [Causes, status-quo and measures for updgrading the educational level of Mekong Delta region]. http://css.hcmussh.edu.vn/?ArticleId=354f89b8-d50c-45c8-bc3c-a4e05c6bcef5 Nguyen, V. L. (2014). Factors influencing the English proficiency growth of English education students at Can Tho University. Journal of Science, 32, 67-74.

Nguyen, V. T., & Mai, K. N. (2015). Responses to a language policy: EFL teachers’ voices.

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Richards, J. C. (2017).Teaching English through English: Proficiency, pedagogy and performance. RELC Journal, 48(1), 7-30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217690059 Sandhu, H. (2016). Curriculum review: Need and modalities for prerequisite language competence in teacher education. In G. Pickering & P. Gunashekar (Eds.), Ensuring Quality in English Language Teacher Education (pp. 69-75). India: British Council.

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Appendix 1 Evaluation questionnaire This questionnaire aims to give you the opportunity to evaluate the English teacher training program you have followed. The main purpose is to obtain information on how effective it is to help you improve your English skills. This information is useful for improving training in the future. Please answer the questions as objectively as possible.

It will take about 20 minutes. Thank you for your cooperation.

Part 1: Personal information Please leave your information.

Email address:…………………

Gender (1=Male, 2=Female). Mark only one oval. o 1 o 2 Where do you come from? (1=Countryside, 2=City; 3=Suburbs). Mark only one oval. o 1 o 2 o 3 When did you begin studying English? (1=elementary school, 2=secondary school, 3=high school). Mark only one oval. o 1 o 2 o 3 What was your English score at the entrance exam? (e.g., 5; 6; 6.5) …………

What was your total score of 3 subjects at the entrance exam? …………..

What certificate did you have before entering the training programme at CTU? (e.g., IELTS 6.0; TOEIC 500; PET, KET, FCE...) ……………………….

What certificate do you currently have? (e.g., IELTS 6.0; TOEIC 500; PET, KET, FCE...)………..

What is the most important reason why you chose English language education as your major?

How many credits have you completed up to now?

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Part 2: Questions Please answer the following questions.

1. Please assess your level of listening skills at the start of the program and NOW. Read the description below carefully and choose the one that best describes your level.

Mark only one oval per row.

A1

A2

B1

B2

C1

C2

At the start of the program NOW

2. Please assess your level of reading skills at the start of the programme and NOW. Read the descriptions below carefully and choose the one that best describes your level.

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Mark only one oval per row.

A1

A2

B1

B2

C1

C2

At the start of the program NOW 3. Please assess your level of interaction skills at the start of the programme and NOW. Read the description below carefully and choose the one that best describes your level.

Mark only one oval per row.

A1

A2

B1

B2

C1

C2

At the start of the program NOW 4. Please assess your level of spoken production at the start of the programme and NOW. Read the description below carefully and choose the one that best describes your level.

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Mark only one oval per row.

A1

A2

B1

B2

C1

C2

At the start of the program NOW 5. Please assess your writing skills at the start of the program and NOW. Read the descriptions below and choose the one that best describes your level.

Mark only one oval per row.

A1

A2

B1

B2

C1

C2

At the start of the program NOW 6. Did you know from the beginning that C1 level was one of the goals of the training program?

Mark only one oval. o Yes o No 7. The language skills courses state clear goals for developing English proficiency. Mark only one oval. (2=disagree, 3=unsure, 4=agree) 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree

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8. The language skills courses satisfied your needs. (2=disagree, 3=unsure, 4=agree. Mark only one oval.

1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree

Strongly agree

9. The language skills courses prepared you well for the English proficiency equivalent to C1.

(2=disagree, 3=unsure, 4=agree). Mark only one oval.

1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree

Strongly agree

10. The teaching and learning activities in the skills courses helped you improve your English proficiency. Mark only one oval.

1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree

Strongly agree

11. Teachers' assessment in the skills courses pushed you to improve your English proficiency.

(2=disagree, 3=unsure, 4=agree). Mark only one oval.

1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree

Strongly agree

12. The language skills courses have a clear link and progress from easy to difficult levels.

(2=disagree, 3=unsure, 4=agree). Mark only one oval.

1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree

Strongly agree

13. The following courses helped develop your English proficiency towards the level of C1.

Mark only one oval per row. strongly strongly Disagree unsure agree disagree agree 1. Linguistics courses (e.g., grammar, pronunciation, phonology, syntax, discourse analysis...)

2. English Speaking Cultures 3. Teaching Literature 4. Teaching Methodology courses 5. Testing and Assessment 6. Technology in teaching English 7. Problem Solving Skills 8. Professional Communication Skills 9. Curriculum Design 10.Second Language Acquisition

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14. How often did the teaching in language skills courses engage you in the following activities?

Mark only one oval per row.

Always 1. Presenting a topic assigned by the teacher 2. Group discussion on a topic 3. Role play or drama 4. Demonstration 5. Project (e.g. make a video clip, a guidebook, a survey,...)

6. Portfolio 7. Practice exercises from the textbooks (listen, read, write,...)

8. Self-assessing the tasks you have done 9. Giving feedback on your classmates' tasks 10. Listening to teachers' talks 11. Activities that help you know how to learn English 12. Writing reflections on your learning process 13. Communicative language games 14. Online forum managed by the teachers 15. Further practice of language skills on the e-learning system managed by the teachers 16. Pairwork exchanges 17. Reading further (materials online, newspapers, or books) 18. Listening further to English on public media 19. Further speaking practice outside classes 20. Regular review of important knowledge 21. Watching a video clip/film

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22. Learning the supplementary materials introduced in the course syllabus 23. Interaction with a peer to complete a task 24. Teachers' feedback on your work/tasks 25. Using strategies to complete a task 26. Controlled practice (e.g., repetition, completing a given pattern, or similar practice) 27. Learning activities linked to your experience or life outside the classroom 28. Presenting a topic of your interest/choice 29.Vocabulary and grammar practice 15. How often did the teaching in the other courses taught in English engage you in the following activities? Mark only one oval per row.

Always 1. Presenting a topic assigned by the teacher 2. Group discussion on a topic 3. Role play or drama 4. Demonstration 5. Project (e.g. make a video clip, a guidebook, a survey,...)

6. Portfolio 7. Completing practice exercises from the textbooks or materials individually 8. Self-assessing the tasks you have done 9. Giving feedback on your classmates' tasks 10.Listening to teachers' talks 11. Activities that help you know how to learn

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Sometimes

Seldom Never

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12. Writing reflections on your learning process 13. Online forum managed by the teachers 14. Further practice on the elearning system provided by the teachers 15. Pairwork exchanges 16. Reading further (materials online, newspapers, or books) 17. Listening further to related materials 18. Further speaking practice outside classes 19. Regular review of important knowledge 20. Watching a video clip/film 21. Learning the supplementary materials introduced in the course syllabus 22. Interaction with a peer to complete a task 23. Teachers' feedback on your work/tasks 24. Using strategies to complete a task 25. Controlled practice (e.g., repetition, completing a given pattern) 26. Learning activities linked to your experience or life outside the classroom 27. Presenting a topic of your choice 15. How often was each of the following assessment forms used in the courses?

Mark only one oval per row.

Most Always of the time 1. Regular tests/quizzes (multiple choice or essay) 2. Final-term tests

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3. Group assignments in form of essays or reports 4. Group presentation 5. Group project 6. Portfolio 7. Writing a journal/diary 8. Self-assessment forms 9. Teacher regular feedback 10.Assessment from other classmates 11. Individual assignments in form of essays or reports 12. Mind map/concept map 13. Participating in in-class tasks/activities 16. Are you satisfied with the following aspects? Mark only one oval per row.

Very Satisfied satisfied 1. Teachers' English proficiency 2. Teachers' methods of teaching 3. Assessment methods 4. Contents of English major courses 5. Course delivering plan 6. Amount of class time for language skills courses 7. Learning Materials 8. Learning facilities 9. Teachers' knowledge of the subject taught 10. Structuring courses in the program

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Dissatisfied

Extremely dissatisfied

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17. How often did you do the following over the years of learning? Mark only one oval per row.

Always

Most of the Sometimes time

Seldom Never

1. find out about course goals 2. set your own goals for studying what you feel necessary 3. choose learning strategies that help achieve the goals 4. make a plan to study and use learning strategies 5. monitor the process to notice success or problems 6. evaluate and change the strategies if necessary 18. Which factors in the training program helped you develop English proficiency? Explain how they influenced your EP development?

19. Which factors in the training program limited your development of English proficiency?

Why? 20. Which aspects of the training program do you think need improving to help you achieve C1?

21. Please leave your contact number if you want to participate in an interview in the next stage. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 48-63, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.3

Understanding of Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases in Three Modes of Representation among Tenth-Grade Students in Chemistry Joje Mar P. Sanchez Cebu Normal University, Cebu City, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2224-0190

Abstract. An analysis of students’ performance in Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) of gases was done to determine the extent of the understanding of these chemistry concepts in three modes of representation, namely macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic. The study employed one-shot quasi-experimental research where students in Grade 10 at a secondary school in Cebu City were exposed to the Integrated Macro-Micro-Symbolic Approach (IMMSA). A validated posttest tool with macro, micro, and symbolic questions was used in the study. The post-test results revealed that there was a gradual improvement of the students’ understanding from a good understanding of macroscopic and microscopic levels to a very good understanding of the symbolic level. Thus, it was concluded that the use of three modes of chemical representation led to a high extent in the understanding of concepts in chemistry. It is recommended that teachers begin their instruction at the macroscopic level and introduce symbols only after the microscopic level.

Keywords: Chemistry education, Kinetic Molecular Theory, macroscopic, microscopic, symbolic modes

1. Introduction Understanding chemical concepts and processes is one of the factors that can affect learners’ acquisition of scientific, technological, and environmental literacy (Department of Education, 2016; Royal Society of Chemistry, 2011), as well as their preparation for higher education (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2011).

Understanding these concepts and processes involves the acquisition of chemical knowledge such as properties of matter and behavior of sub-atomic particles, as well as its application in daily life, industry, and the environment. However, learners have difficulty in acquiring and applying chemical knowledge, which is attributed to the lack of direct observation (Yakmaci-Gucel and Adadan, 2013; Nelson, 2002), the misconceived visualization of the atom (Towns et al., 2012; Wu and Shah, 2004; Harrison and Treagust, 2003), and the inability to derive meaning ©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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from chemical symbols and equations (Taskin and Bernholt, 2014; Marais and Jordaan, 2000). Due to this difficulty, educators of chemistry incorporate several modes of representation based on the framework developed by Johnstone (1982), called the Chemistry Triangle (Santos and Arroio, 2016; Towns et al., 2012; Talanquer, 2011; Gilbert and Treagust, 2009).

Figure 1. Chemistry Triangle (Johnstone, 1982 in Sanchez, 2017)

The Chemistry Triangle provides an overview of how chemical phenomena could be represented in three closely related modes of representation, which correspond to the three vertices of the framework, namely macroscopic, submicroscopic and symbolic modes (Fahmy, 2016; Talanquer, 2011; Gilbert and Treagust, 2009; Johnstone, 1982). The use of these multiple modes of representation supports the learning of different aspects of chemical phenomena and aid in a deeper understanding of such phenomena (Santos and Arroio, 2016; Ainsworth, 2007).

Several studies have been conducted on the use of the three chemical modes of representation in chemistry. Experimental studies such as those conducted by Sanchez (2017), Wood (2013), and Jaber and Boujaoude (2012) confirmed the effective nature of the integrated use of the modes in enhancing learners’ conceptual understanding. Moreover, investigations such as those done by Sanchez (2018), Brandiet (2014), Li and Arshade (2014), and Wood (2013) showed that the learners’ ability to link from one mode to another creates a better relational understanding of chemistry. However, there are only a few studies (e.g.

Sanchez, 2017; Franco, 2005), which examined the extent of students’ understanding of each mode of representation, as well as a handful, which dealt with the Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) of gases.

KMT of gases is a general theory that was developed largely by Clausius, Maxwell, and Boltzmann. The theory describes the behavior of gas particles at the molecular level and explains the observable properties of gases as shown in Table 1.

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Table 1. The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases (Adapted from España & Apostol, 2004) Properties Diffusibility Pressure

Indefinite Shape Volume Expansibility Compressibility

and and

Volume increases with Temperature

Concepts Gas particles are in constant motion; thus, they possess kinetic energy.

Gas particles collide with one another and hit the walls of a container. Each of the gas particles applies force as the particles hit one another.

There is less attractive force between gas particles.

Gas particles are very small and are far apart from one another. The spaces between them are too big compared to the size of each particle.

The motion of the gas particles increases as temperature increases. The average kinetic energy of gas particles is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

Teaching KMT is crucial as it accounts for and explains several important everyday phenomena (Rhodes, 1992). Several studies incorporating the teaching of KMT include misconceptions about KMT (Erceg et al., 2016; Jauhariyah et al., 2018), and implementation of strategies such as experiment-oriented approach (Wiseman, 1979) and use of computer software (Govender et al. 2016). However, there is a gap in the literature; there have been little or no studies that investigate the understanding of KMT in different modes of representations which led us to investigate the extent of learners’ understanding of KMT in three chemical modes of representation.

The results of the study could provide insights into how these modes of representation enhance the understanding of learners in KMT and chemistry in general. Taking into account the learners’ extent could offer a better examination of the Chemistry Triangle’s utilization in the 21st-century teaching-learning arena.

1.1. Review of Related Literature Multiple representations in chemistry are incorporated into a framework developed by Johnson (1982) called the Chemistry Triangle (Santos and Arroio, 2016; Townset al., 2012; Talanquer, 2011; Gilbert and Treagust, 2009). In the Chemistry Triangle, the chemical representations are represented as vertices of the Triangle: the macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic modes of representation (Fahmy, 2016; Talanquer, 2011; Gilbert and Treagust, 2009; Johnstone, 1982).

The macroscopic mode of representation provides the learners the description of matter and its processes based on their properties and can be implemented through practical work where they undergo the process of scientific inquiry and enhance science learning (Gilbert, 2008; Millar, 2004). The submicroscopic mode explains how observable phenomena occur at the microscopic level and can be taught through structural and virtual representations, photographs, diagrams, and graphs, which allows the learners to visualize the interaction of particles and create mental models (Santos and Arroio, 2016; Sunyuno et al., 2015; Tasker and Dalton, 2006; Gilbert, 2008). The symbolic mode represents the phenomena using

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chemical symbols, formula expressions, and expressions and can be employed through writing chemical equations and solving problems (Schoenfeld, 2013; Gilbert, 2008). The use of these multiple chemical representations supports students’ learning, constrains further interpretation, and leads to a deeper understanding of chemical concepts (Santos and Arroio, 2016; Ainsworth, 2007).

Educational researchers have studied the macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic modes in teaching and learning chemistry. Sanchez (2017) integrated the three modes into one approach and found that this approach is more effective than the conventional lecture method. Wood (2013) analyzed the instructional use of the three modes and their influence on the conceptual understanding of chemistry.

The study noted the influence of macroscopic mode on the understanding of the particulate level and concluded that microscopic models of matter are essential to students’ understanding. Jaber and Boujaoude (2012) investigated the shifting between the three modes when learning chemical concepts and revealed that relational understanding can be fostered by explicitly emphasizing the multirepresentational nature of chemical knowledge. Their studies confirmed the effective nature of the integrated use of the modes in enhancing students’ conceptual understanding of chemistry.

Studies have also been conducted on students’ ability to use the modes and shifting from one mode to another. Sanchez (2018) explored the translational skills of students and found out that an integration of the three modes led to two-way translations when explaining the chemical phenomenon at hand. Brandiet (2014) focused on the use of the three modes in explaining different perspectives of chemical reactions and generalized that students link macroscopic to a symbolic mode more frequently than other linkages such as macro-particulate and symbolic-particulate links. Li and Arshade (2014) revealed that different levels of understanding exist in different modes and that participants emphasized the macroscopic mode, then symbolic and submicroscopic. Wood (2013) states that the knowledge acquired in the macroscopic mode contributed to a better understanding at the microscopic level. In general, these studies showed that the ability to link one mode to another creates a better relational understanding in chemistry.

However, only a few investigations focused on the use of the chemical modes of representation and the understanding of KMT. Sanchez (2017) used the integration of the three modes and found out that this integrated approach has improved students’ understanding of KMT. Franco (2005) put his emphasis on the use of the modes in explaining the different concepts of KMT. Students consistently used the same set of premises from KMT but failed to understand certain processes, such as diffusing and dissolving, indicating inconsistencies in explaining both the macroscopic and microscopic modes. Therefore, there is variation in the extent of understanding chemistry in each mode of representation.

The objective of this study is to fill the gap in the literature by investigating the effect of different modes of representation on students’ understanding of KMT in different modes of representation.

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1.2. Statement of the Problem This paper aimed to determine the extent of understanding of KMT using the three modes of representations, namely (a) macroscopic, (b) microscopic, and (c) symbolic modes.

2. Methods 2.1 Research Design, Environment, and Participants The study utilized a one-shot quasi-experimental design to determine the extent of learners’ understanding of KMT. One-shot quasi-experimental research design is a type of experimental design wherein there is only one group (the experimental group). This group is exposed to a teaching-learning intervention called Integrated Macro-Micro-Symbolic Approach (IMMSA), thereby only measuring the post-test performance. The group exposed to IMMSA consisted of 30 randomly selected tenth-grade students (N=45 students) from a secondary education institution in Cebu City, Philippines as participants in this study. These participants were randomly chosen through the fish-bowl method and already had a chemistry course in their previous grade. All participants of the study were coded with an E, such as E1, E13, etc.

2.2 Research Procedure Permission from the school head of the secondary school and informed consent from the participants were sought first before the one-shot experimentation was conducted. In this experimentation, the IMMSA was employed in teaching KMT for a month. IMMSA (Figure 2) is an approach that integrates macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic modes of representation in teaching a chemical concept or process (Sanchez, 2017).

Figure 2. Flow of IMMSA (Sanchez, 2017)

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In IMMSA, the lesson starts with an engaging activity for motivation, and then, the KMT topic is presented. After this phase, laboratory tasks are implemented.

These tasks include experiments related to the properties of gases namely diffusion, pressure, volume, compressibility/expansibility, and temperature.

Classroom activities follow the lab tasks which include both discussions with illustrations and animations, and construction of diagrams that show the behavior of gases at the level of particles, atoms, and molecules. Relationships between gas properties are inferred, and mathematical relationships are derived according to the lab experiments and the construction activities that the students had. From this derivation, problem-solving tasks are implemented. Afterward, clarifications are entertained, and a generalization about the KMT topic is done. (Refer to Appendix A for a sample flow of the IMMSA.) After the experimentation period, the participants took the post-test. Analysis of the post-test followed after checking the assessment tool.

2.3 Research Tool and Analysis The research tool used in the study was a post-test. Before administered during post-experimentation, four experts in science and chemistry education validated the research tool. The experts checked the test items to see if they correspond to the competencies in the table of specifications as well as the answer key to see if they are correct, evaluated whether the items measure learning, and assessed if the face value and testing time of the tool is appropriate for the students’ age and answering pace. They rated the tool with high construct and content validity with some minor comments. These comments were applied, and the tool was ready for pilot testing. In the pilot testing, the tool was administered to a comparable group of tenth-grade students, subjected to a reliability test, and obtained a reliability coefficient equals to 0.843, indicating a good, above acceptable reliability.

The tool consists of 30 items, which are divided into five parts. These parts correspond to the five postulates of KMT of gases, namely diffusibility, pressure, volume, compressibility/expansibility, and temperature. Each of these postulates was assessed through a situational analysis where students explain the situation in terms of macroscopic words, construct an illustration showing the behavior of particles at the microscopic level, and infer the relationship between variables and solve for the unknown variable. In this way, the tool consists of multiple-choice, open-ended, and drawing questions that capture the multiple representations of the concepts learned in chemistry. (A sample portion of the research questionnaire is shown in Appendix 2.)

To measure the extent of understanding of the students in each of the five parts of the tool, the researcher gave one point for each correct answer in the multiplechoice items, and gave two points (min=0, max=2) for the open-ended questions: 0 point for no or incorrect response, 1 point for an answer that is correct but lacks the aspect that can explain their answer, and 2 points for a correct answer that provides a well-rounded answer. To analyze the responses of the participants, the study used the validated scoring rubric based on the mean of the students’ scores: 0.00—0.75 (Poor, P); 0.76—1.50 (Fair, F); 1.51—2.25 (Good, G); 2.26—3.00 (Very

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Good). This rubric was utilized as the post-test tool consisted of five parts, each with three subparts; the macroscopic and microscopic modes had 3 points while the symbolic mode had 2 points.

3. Results and Discussions The students’ understanding of different modes of representation was obtained from the post-test performance of the students exposed to IMMSA. The statistical analysis of the stated performance is shown in Table 2, which is divided according to topics and three modes of representation.

Table 2. Extent of students’ understanding in KMT of gases Mode

Macroscopic† Microscopic† Symbolic† Topic Mean* SD Mean* SD Mean* SD 1.13 1.30 1.47 1.06 1.07 0.59 Diffusibility (F) (F) (G) 1.53 1.25 1.60 0.91 1.87 0.52 Pressure (G) (G) (VG) 2.80 0.56 1.60 1.06 1.27 0.80 Volume (VG) (G) (G) 2.00 1.31 1.27 1.22 1.33 0.82 Compressibility/ Expansibility (G) (F) (G) 2.53 0.52 1.80 0.77 1.80 0.56 Temperature (VG) (G) (VG) 2.00 0.99 1.55 1.00 1.47 0.66 Overall (G) (G) (VG) * VG (Very Good), G (Good), F (Fair), P (Poor)

The results (Table 2) shows that the extent of the students’ understanding of diffusibility and pressure is highest at the symbolic level, while on volume, the highest is at the macroscopic level. Both compressibility/expansibility and the temperature have their highest extent at the microscopic level. This suggests that certain topics in chemistry could be best understood using one mode of representation, e.g., diffusibility is best taught using the symbolic mode.

However, the use of other modes enriches the learning of chemistry and offers a more effective medium of understanding concepts and principles from different perspectives (Jaber and Boujaoude, 2012; Ainsworth, 2007).

3.1 Macroscopic Mode The Very Good understanding of the topics on volume and temperature and the Good understanding of pressure and compressibility/expansibility could be because the given situations were everyday scenarios, which were applications of the postulates of KMT discussed during the study. It was noted that the terms used by students in explaining various phenomena were scientific terms first introduced during the laboratory sessions of the study. Some of these terms are shown in the answers of E13 in Figure 3.

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1 .

2 .

Figure 3. Sample answers from Student E13 on macroscopic questions: (1) volume, and (2) temperature

Based on Figure 3, the terms used by the student to explain the given phenomena on volume and temperature include force, density, volume, gravity, evaporate, pressure, water vapor, and burst. The association of these terms from the laboratory experiences conformed to the study of Brandiet (2014), which noted that students predicted chemical phenomena by attempting to use their experiences in the laboratory. It was implied that students remember more when they are engaged in hands-on-minds-on activities in the science laboratory.

However, in the case of the topic on diffusibility, students only got a Fair understanding using the macroscopic mode. The situation about diffusibility states: “Leonard wears his perfume inside his air-conditioned classroom”. The low understanding of this item might be due to differing vicarious observations that the students had since they tend not to be exposed to the phenomena in real life. During the conduct of the study, one anecdote might explain why students had a Fair conceptual understanding of the diffusibility of perfume. At some point in the course of the laboratory work, the experiment required that they use perfume. Surprisingly, they were not able to do it because they contended that, in their own words, “Who will be bringing perfume in an all-boys school?” This means that they had minimal or no experience at all of the phenomenon firsthand or they had it secondhand. Learning through direct experience should involve living through things to obtain long-term knowledge (Rizk, 2011). Though, the students still explained the phenomenon using the premises of KMT as evident in the Figure 3. Since they are not exposed to or are vicariously exposed to it, they tend to have different conceptions and use different premises of a theory to explain it (Franco, 2005).

Despite having a Fair rating in diffusibility, the students obtained a Good understanding of the macroscopic mode. This Good understanding could be the result of the instruction of chemistry at the IMMSA, which is strongly founded by what is observed by the senses during the laboratory experiments. This strong foundation on macroscopic mode was asserted by Jaber and Boujaoude (2012), who stated that students tend to interpret chemical phenomena more at the macroscopic level. Concepts of chemistry should be rooted in real everyday life to have a sound experience before advancing to more abstract and complex concepts.

The inclusion of laboratory activities in the IMMSA in teaching Chemistry might solve students’ lack of exposure to the macroscopic mode. It is through exposure that students gain interest and enjoyment, enhance the learning of scientific

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concepts and skills, gain insights in the scientific method, and develop expertise, and a scientific attitudes (Gilbert, 2008; Millar, 2004). Thus, performance in chemistry could be enhanced and a greater appreciation for the subject matter be developed.

3.2 Microscopic Mode The students’ Good level of understanding of pressure, volume, and temperature using the microscopic mode might be because they already had exposure to the macroscopic level and had ideas about the behavior of matter at the level of atoms and molecules. This led to a better understanding of the topics as they construct their visualization out from the given phenomena. Figure 4 shows sample illustrations on the situations for pressure, volume, and temperature constructed

by Student E11.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 4. Sample illustrations of Student E11 on microscopic questions: (a) volume, (b) temperature and (c) pressure.

It is noted in Figure 4 that the illustrations complement the students’ answers in macroscopic mode. For instance, Student E11 stated using the macroscopic mode, “Because the heat will cause the water molecules inside the kernels to expand, causing the kernels to have more pressure inside of it than the outside of it. Eventually making the kernels rupture and burst.” This statement was embodied in his construction of the illustration and provided more meaning as it included the behavior of molecules at the submicroscopic level. This makes the microscopic mode more complex and semi-abstract because students were introduced to some conventions, which included the representation of molecules as round particles, and the direction of the molecular motion as arrows, and the inclusion of the conditions about specific phenomena. This function of the microscopic level cohered with Ainsworth’s (2007) assertion that various ways of representing phenomena support learning by complementing one another with multiple perspectives.

In the case of diffusibility and compressibility/expansibility, students obtained only a Fair understanding. This might be partly due to the inconclusive experience in the macroscopic level that illustrating such experience leads to incorrect, misconceived iconic representation. This conformed to the study of Jaber and Bougaoude (2012), which asserted that the main hindrance to conceptual understanding could be attributed to students’ inappropriate application of macroscopic reasoning to explain phenomena at the microscopic level.

Additionally, it might also be that the conventions are too simple that they forgot to use them or are too complex that they have difficulty in using them. A sample

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illustration by Student E7 represented in Figure 5 shows some problems with the use of conventions.

Figure 5. Sample illustration on diffusibility as constructed by Student E7.

Based on Figure 5, the students had illustrated the behavior of linalool and linalyl acetate during the diffusion process by using a dichotomous color key to differentiate between the two types of gas molecules: the former molecule is white, and the latter is black. In addition to this, the illustration does not depict any arrows showing the motion of molecules, but the lines originating from the perfume bottle may suggest the direction of motion. Lastly, it was noted that the illustration did not account for the size of the molecules, as there were small and big linalool and linalyl acetate molecules. This incomplete depiction of the behavior of molecules might be because the submicroscopic level of understanding cannot be seen directly and is accessible only by imagination. This what makes microscopic mode difficult for both students and teachers (Touli et al., 2012; Nelson, 2002).

The relatively lower mean of the microscopic mode than the macroscopic mode negated the results of Wood (2013). In her study, only one instructor had produced significant mean gain from the pretest to the post-test, and this instructor was the only one who significantly used microscopic mode in both lecture and laboratory formats. This observation implied that the incorporation of descriptions of “how” and “why” of particle interactions helped the students to have a better connection among the three modes of representation. Such incorporation led to a better understanding at the symbolic level. Thus, chemical understanding has shown to be improved. With this, misconceptions at the submicroscopic level might be avoided.

Nevertheless, the students gained an overall qualitative rating of Good understanding using the microscopic mode, which was the same for the macroscopic mode. This might be because they were engaged first in laboratory activities. From such activities, they became more active learners as they took part in the construction of an illustration showing the behavior of gases and developed more complex skills. This agreed with the implication of McDermott (2009) that embedding illustrations in communicating scientific information result in a better level of performance. Davidowitz and Chittleborough (2009) added that the construction of illustrations and diagrams is consistent with constructivism that requires students to demonstrate their understanding and receive feedback; thus, these iconic representations become an active tool for learning. The students exposed to this mode translated macroscopic activities into a process in which

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they take part in the construction and development of comprehension, which can lead to a higher understanding in the subsequent symbolic mode (Kincheloe and Horn, 2007).

3.3 Symbolic Mode The students had a Very Good understanding of pressure and temperature, and a Good understanding of diffusibility, volume, and compressibility/ expansibility. This indicated that they had a very good chemical understanding at the abstract level. This could signify that the high-rated performance at this level was due to the gradual process brought about by the IMMSA. Since they are exposed already to the laboratory experiments and illustration construction activities, they gained mastery of the phenomena and extended the concrete and iconic nature of the representation to the most abstract one.

Shown in Figure 6 is a sample snippet of the symbolic mode as answered by Student E8.

Figure 6. Sample snippet from Student E8’s test on symbolic questions.

Figure 6 represents one of the students who answered symbolic questions correctly. It is noted that the student answered correctly the inverse relationship between pressure and volume, and the problem stated after. The relationship between two variables was determined by the students when they were exposed to the laboratory and illustration activities, wherein they inductively infer the direct, inverse, and no relationship among variables. Subsequently, they derived the formula based on the relationship obtained, gave meaning to the symbols used, and solved the problem. Other than that, it is also noted that the student showed a complete solution, as he did write the formula, derive the formula of the asked quantity, substitute corresponding quantities, use correct unit cancellation, solve for the answer, and box the final answer. This shows that students who were exposed to the IMMSA created a meaningful association through symbols and used a systematic convention to overcome some deficiencies, which occur at the symbolic level. This is in line with Marais and Jordaan’s (2000) conclusion that stated that students should be immersed in symbol-meaning making and be purposefully taught with symbolisms.

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The overall Very Good understanding of the students in the symbolic level reflected the effective role of the IMMSA in teaching chemistry as the students attained superior use of learning the highest level of the three-tiered model of learning (Sanchez, 2017). The superior use of learning is reflected when they allow concepts to be compacted in their minds, in such a way that they assign symbols that can represent their learning. Assigning symbols, such as P for pressure and K as a unit for temperature, means mastery of learning (Kincheloe and Horn, 2007).

3.4 Interplay of the Three Modes of Chemical Representation The interplay of the macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic modes of representation indicate the extent of how the students move from one mode to another. This interplay can be exemplified in Figure 7.

Figure 7. An Interplay among Macro, Micro and Symbolic Modes to describe how a Pressure Cooker works

Figure 7 shows the interplay of three modes of representation as Student E9 answered how a pressure cooker works. Firstly, he described that the pressure cooker works because of the concept of pressure and collision. Then, he constructed an illustration, which shows how pressure affects the cooking of humba in the cooker. Lastly, he answered a problem-based question in which he utilized the relationship between pressure and the number of collisions in the

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microscopic mode in order to answer it. This indicated that the interplay is complete, but only one-way interplay originating from the macroscopic terminal, thereby recommending further studies which would take into consideration the other originating terminals, namely the macroscopic and symbolic terminals.

6. Conclusion, Recommendations, and Limitations The use of the three different chemical modes of representation at the appropriate time and levels led to a high extent of understanding of concepts in chemistry, specifically in the KMT of gases. Engagement in hands-on-minds-on activities in laboratory activities provides a springboard for understanding concepts and principles. When these activities are translated into a process of illustration construction, students take part in the development of comprehension of the behavior of matter at the submicroscopic level. This eventually leads to the derivation of mental relationships, and assignment of symbols such as P and K, reflecting more active learning in chemistry at the symbolic level. Therefore, the use of different modes enriches the learning of chemistry and offers a more effective medium of understanding concepts and principles from different perspectives.

This study recommends that teachers begin instruction at the macroscopic level, where they implement laboratory exercise, include the microscopic mode in pedagogy, and introduce symbols, formulas, and problem-based activities after students understand the phenomena in the atomic, subatomic, and molecular level.

The study is limited to exploring the use of the macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic modes of representation to the understanding of KMT among tenthgrade students. With this, the results of the study may provide baseline data to further studies that will deal with the use of the modes in other grade levels in chemistry or in other fields of science education. A pre-test-post-test with a control design is recommended for future studies to determine how concepts in chemistry and problem-solving skills can be improved by each mode of representation.

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Santos, V. C., & Arroio, A. The representational levels: Influences and contributions to research in chemical education. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 13(1), 3-18.

Schoenfeld, A. (2013). Reflections on problem solving theory and practice. The Mathematics Enthusiast, 10, 1-2.

Sunyuno, Yuanita, L., & Ibrahim, M. (2015). Supporting students in learning with multiple representation to improve student mental models on atomic structure concepts.

Science Education International, 26(2), 104-125.

Talanquer, V. (2011). Macro, submicro, and symbolic: The many faces of the Chemistry triplet.

International Journal of Science Education, 33(2), 179-195. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690903386435 Tasker, R., & Dalton, R. (2006). Research into practice: Visualization of the molecular world using animations. Chemical Education Research and Practice, 7, 141-159. https://doi.org/10.1039/B5RP90020D Taskin, V., & Bernholt, S. (2014). Students' understanding of chemical formulae: A review of empirical research. International Journal of Science Education, 36(1), 157–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2012.744492 Touli, E. H., Talbi, M., & Radid, M. (2012). Teaching-learning of chemistry: Analysis of representations of learners on the modeling of chemical transformation. ProcediaSocial and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 47-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.065 Towns, M., Raker, J., Becker, N., Harle, M., & Sutcliffe, J. (2012). The biochemistry tetrahedron and the development of the taxonomy of biochemistry external representations (TOBER). Chemical Education Research and Practice, 13, 296-306. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2rp00014h Wiseman Jr., FL. (1979). An experiment oriented approach to teaching the kinetic molecular theory.

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(Ph.D. Dissertation).

Arizona State University. https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/114440/content/Wood_asu_0010E_13 174.pdf Wu, H. K., & Shah, P. (2004). Exploring visuospatial thinking in chemistry learning. Science Education, 88(3), 465-492. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.10126 Yakmaci-Guzel, B., & Adadan, E. (2013). Use of multiple representations in developing preservice chemistry teachers’ understanding of the structure of matter.

International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 8(1), 109-130.

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Appendix 1 Sample IMMSA flow in teaching Pressure and Volume Learning Activity 1: Laboratory Experiment (2 days=1 hour and 40 minutes) 1. Prelab: Students are asked about pressure and volume.

2. Lab Proper: Students are given with three experiments on drinking from a straw, and syringe experiments A and B. While doing the experimental procedures, they are to observe and record their results in a tabular format.

Cleaning the working area, and returning of apparatus follows.

3. Postlab: Students are to answer analysis questions, and write conclusion derived from the results of the experiment.

Learning Activity 2: Illustration Activity (2 days=1 hour and 40 minutes) 1. Pre-construction: Students are asked questions related to the lab experiment done.

2. Construction Proper: Students are divided into four groups. Each group is tasked to construct an illustration out of the results of the experiment done. For example, the students will illustrate the behavior of the molecules during drinking from a straw.

3. Post-construction: One representative from each group explains the illustration in terms of the behavior of molecules during such processes.

Learning Activity 2: Problem Solving (2 days=1 hour and 40 minutes) 1. Pre-problem solving: Students are asked about the relationship between pressure and volume, and temperature and volume. This primary questioning leads to the derivation of Boyle’s Law and Charles’s Law. 2. Problem Solving: After inferring the relationships above and derivation of Graham’s Law, the students are to answer one or two conceptual problems.

Then, problem solving activities are employed to them, where their answers follow the GAFSA format (Given, Asked, Formula, Solution and Answer).

3. Post-problem solving: Checking of papers follows. After this, one or two students are asked to create situations where Boyle’s Law or Charles’s Law could be applied. This serves as the conclusion and verification stage of the lesson.

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Appendix 2 Sample Portion of the Validated Research Tool Situation: Jaime puts a handful of corn kernels in a beaker with a small amount of oil.

1. What do you will Conner observe after heating the beaker containing corn kernels and oil?

A. The corn kernels will burst B. The corn kernels will shrink.

C. The corn kernels will change color.

D. Nothing will happen to the corn kernels.

2. Why do you think your answer is no.1 will happen? (constructive response) 3. Which of the following is CORRECT about the water molecules present in the corn kernel during the heating?

A. The water molecules strike the walls of the corn kernel at a greater rate.

B. The water molecules strike the walls of the corn kernel at a lesser rate.

C. The water molecules strike the walls of the corn kernel with an equal rate.

D. The water molecules do not strike the walls of the corn kernel when heated.

4. How do you represent the behavior of the molecules in no. 3? Illustrate it below. (constructing response) 5. What is the relationship between the volume of the corn kernel and temperature?

A. no relationship at all B. directly proportional C. inversely proportional D. exponentially proportional 6. At a temperature of 298.15 K, the corn kernel has a volume of 3.0 mL. After raising the temperature to 323.15 K, what is the volume of the kernel? (problem-solving response)

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 64-85, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.4

Preparing Pre-service and In-service Teachers to Teach Mathematics and Science Using an Integrated Approach: The Role of a Six-Week Summer Course Roland G. Pourdavood and Meng Yan Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2777-7867 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6031-5114 Abstract. Many pre-service and in-service elementary teachers indicate that they have limited content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and experience regarding the integrated teaching of mathematics and science. Such limitation puts them in an uncertain and vulnerable situation in terms of planning and instruction. This qualitative, descriptive, and interpretative study examines the experiences of 28 preservice and in-service teachers as they plan and teach during a six-week summer course on integration of mathematics and science instruction for 4th and 5th grades. The research question is: how may a six-week summer course focusing on planning and teaching mathematics and science using an integrated approach enhance teachers’ knowledge, experience, and confidence in teaching? Data include participating teachers’ reflections on assigned readings, meeting discussions, collaborative planning and teaching, their final papers, and the instructor’s field notes. The findings suggest that the exchange of ideas and information along with the instructor’s ongoing support provides the teachers with opportunities to become more knowledgeable and confident in integrating mathematics and science. The study also suggests that ongoing professional development and school district administrative support are essential components for sustaining teachers’ professional development related to teaching mathematics and science from an integrated perspective.

Keywords: collaboration; integration; interdisciplinary; professional development

1. Introduction STEM education (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) is receiving increasing attention worldwide. The combination of the four disciplines was “a strategic decision made by scientists, technologists, engineers,

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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and mathematicians to combine forces and create a stronger political voice” (STEM Task Force Report, 2014, p. 9). Partly due to the current and future actual or perceived shortage of STEM workforce, STEM education is considered as vital in many countries (Caprile, Palmen, Sanz & Dente, 2015; Charette, 2013; Hopkins, Forgasz, Corrigan & Panizzon, 2014; Margot & Kettler, 2019).

Policymakers, educators, and business leaders have all emphasized the urgency of promoting STEM skills to meet current and future social and economic challenges (English, 2016; Honey, Pearson & Schweingruber, 2014; Marginson, Tytler, Freeman, & Roberts, 2013; Prinsley & Baranyai, 2015). This responsibility naturally falls on schools as it is critical to the economy that schools produce students who can make great contributions in the fields of STEM. To achieve this goal, a growing number of elementary and secondary schools are integrating STEM curriculum and pedagogy into their classrooms (Margot et al., 2019). The STEM Task Force Report (2014) points out that STEM education is much more than a “convenient integration” of the four disciplines, which "cannot and should not be taught in isolation, just as they do not exist in isolation in the real world or the workforce” (p. 9). English (2017) believes that if well-designed integrated STEM experiences are implemented, it will be very helpful to promote Masters' (2016) recommendations on cultivating students’ learning in the 21st century, meeting students’ preparation levels, and extending their capacities. Gomez and Albrecht (2013) also advocate the establishment of this kind of education in STEM pedagogy through an interdisciplinary approach, so that students can build connections with the real world and prepare for STEM careers.

There are various definitions of STEM education, among which the definition proposed by Shaughnessy (2013) has been considered the most appropriate (English, 2016), which highlights the mathematics and science disciplines within the STEM space: “STEM education refers to solving problems that draw on concepts and procedures from mathematics and science while incorporating the teamwork and design methodology of engineering and using appropriate technology” (p. 324).

Within STEM education, teaching mathematics and science in an integrated fashion indeed gained widespread support (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000; National Research Council, 1996). Moore, Glancy, Tank, Kersten, Smith, & Stohlmann (2014) designated a framework including six core principles for quality K-12 STEM education, with the first two as the inclusion of mathematics and science content and student-centered pedagogy. Judith Ramely, director of education and human resources division of the National Science Foundation, also stated that mathematics and science are used as bookends for engineering and technology (Christenson, 2011). Integration of mathematics and science is advocated as a way through which students can develop deeply organized and interconnected knowledge structures (Huntley, 1998).

As with STEM education, there does not exist a shared definition of the integration of mathematics and science. Among the various conceptualizations of integrated mathematics and science by scholars such as Berlin and White (1995), Davison, Miller, and Metheny, (1995), Lederman and Niess (1997),

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Lonning and DeFranco, (1997), and Underhill (1995), Huntley (1998) described a theoretical framework for defining integrated mathematics and science, focusing on the distinctions between intra-disciplinary, interdisciplinary, and integrated curricula. According to Huntley (1998), an intra-disciplinary curriculum refers to the instruction that focuses on one discipline; an interdisciplinary curriculum focuses on the instruction of one discipline, with one or more other disciplines supporting or facilitating content in the first field by establishing relevance or context; whereas an integrated curriculum is one in which instructors explicitly assimilate concepts from multiple disciplines in the teaching process, featured typically by roughly equal attention to two (or more) disciplines. Attendees at the 1967 Cambridge Conference defined five categories to describe the various interactions between mathematics and science, namely, mathematics for the sake of mathematics, mathematics for the sake of science, mathematics and science, science for the sake of mathematics, and science for the sake of science (Education Development Centre, 1969). Expanding upon Lonning et al.’s (1997) model, Huntley (1998) converted these discrete categories into continuous, showing the different levels at which mathematics and science are coordinated in the teaching process on a continuum model (shown in Figure 1). Our conception of the integrated approach in this current study is guided by this framework.

Figure 1 The integrated approach to instruction promotes thinking in terms of relationship, connectedness, and context, thereby helping students form integrated knowledge and experience meaningful learning relevant to real-life (Drake, 2000). Integrated instruction also creates a holistic and multidisciplinary learning experience and provides students with opportunities for crossknowledge analysis, assessment, and creativity (Bossé, Lee, Swinson & Faulconer, 2010; Furner & Kumar, 2007; Treacy & O’Donoghue, 2013). As students experience integrated instruction, critical thinking skills emerge as they address problems from a multidisciplinary perspective. Research provides empirical evidence demonstrating that integration of mathematics and science instruction helps students to enhance their performance in both disciplines and facilitates classroom activities and discussions (Furner et al., 2007; Haigh & Rehfeld, 1995; Ríordáin, Johnston & Walshe, 2016). Educators indicate that professional development focusing on providing integrated instruction encourages the application of this approach for instructional purposes (Bossé et al., 2010; Drake, 2000; Treacy et al., 2013).

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To provide in-depth problem solving through the integration of disciplines with real experiences, teachers must be proficient in this unique student-oriented pedagogy. Educators should not only understand their own subject matter but also, they need to be able to create a classroom environment that is engaging and iterative (Margot et al., 2019). However, the reality is that many pre-service and in-service teachers do not have adequate content and pedagogical knowledge, experience, and confidence to implement the integrated approach into their daily classroom instruction (Adams 1998; Babbitt & Van Vactor, 1993; Ball, 1991; Kruger, 1990). It is important to provide teachers professional development opportunity relative to integration of mathematics and science. However, while the integration of mathematics and science has been widely advocated, it is yet a relatively unexplored area (Pang & Good, 2000), and this prompted us to explore the experiences of 28 pre-service and in-service teachers in planning and teaching mathematics and science in 4th and 5th grades using an integrated approach during a six-week summer course to answer the research question: How may a six-week summer course focusing on the planning and teaching of mathematics and science using an integrated approach enhance teachers’ knowledge, experience, and confidence in teaching?

2. Review of Literature Technological complexities, current learning theories, and classroom dynamics necessitate a new mindset for meaningful integration of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). The ideas and activities regarding curriculum, instruction, and learning must be engaging and relevant to our students' real-world experiences (Johnson, Mohr-Schoeder, Moore & English, 2020; Penprase, 2020). The integration of science and mathematics has long been supported by well-respected academic organizations such as American Association for the Advancement of Science, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, National Research Council, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, as well as School Science and Mathematics Association (Czerniak, Weber, Sandmann & Ahern, 1999), and received increasing attention from educators in recent years. The interrelated nature of science and mathematics, implications for teaching and learning, and the significance of integrating the two disciplines in school education have been explained in different ways as follows: “It is the union of science, mathematics, and technology that forms the scientific endeavor, and that makes it so successful. Although each of these human enterprises has a character and history of its own, each is dependent on and reinforces the others” (AAAS, 1993, p. 3).

“A coherent curriculum effectively organizes and integrates important mathematical ideas so that students can see how the ideas build on, or connect with, other ideas, thus enabling them to develop new understandings and skills” (NCTM, 2000, p. 15).

“The science program should be coordinated with the mathematics program to enhance student use and understanding of mathematics in the study of science and to improve student understanding of mathematics” (NRC, 1996, p. 214).

“The opportunity for students to experience mathematics in a context is important. Mathematics is used in science, the social sciences, medicine, and commerce. The link between mathematics and science is not only through content but also through process. The processes and content of science can

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inspire an approach to solving problems that applies to the study of mathematics…School mathematics experiences at all levels should include opportunities to learn about mathematics by working on problems arising in contexts outside of mathematics. These connections can be to other subject areas and disciplines as well as to students' daily lives” (NCTM, 2000, pp. 65-66).

Several other investigations provided additional literature on science and mathematics integration, showing evidence of validity and explaining stakeholders’ support for the integration (e.g. Berlin & Lee, 2005; Bossé et al., 2010; Czerniak et al., 1999; Hurley, 2001; Pang et al., 2000; West, VasquezMireles, & Coker, 2006). Some studies have shown that integrating mathematics and science has a positive effect on students’ attitudes and interest in school (Bragow, Gragow, & Smith, 1995; McComas, 1993) motivation to learn (Guthrie, Wigfield & VonSecker, 2000), and academic achievement (Hurley, 2001). Furner et al. (2007) are optimistic about improving science and mathematics education through integration, arguing that problem-based learning is an area where mathematics and science could be successfully integrated. There are also reports that teachers, especially pre-service and beginning teachers, generally support the idea of integrating science with mathematics, but they often encounter obstacles when trying to implement it (e.g. Basista & Mathews, 2002; Frykholm & Glasson, 2005; Judson, 2013; West et al., 2006). The literature further shows that teachers agree with the concept of integration, but the various stumbling blocks they are faced with have led to quality deficiencies in the implementation (Judson, 2013).

Multiple empirical studies have been conducted in this area in various aspects.

A relationship between science and mathematics teaching efficiency of preservice primary school teachers has been identified in a study by Utley, Moseley and Bryant (2005). Their findings suggest that teachers’ professional development impacts their attitudes and beliefs towards integration of mathematics and science. Also, research indicates that the methods course has a significant impact on the way teachers teach (Haigh, 1985); therefore, it is important for pre-service teachers to have conceptual understanding of mathematical and scientific ideas (Frykholm et al., 2005).

Koirala and Bowman (2003) did a three-year study of pre-service middle school integrated mathematics and science methods course by observing pre-service teachers of grades 5 to 8 and taking field notes during their visits. Their findings suggest that pre-service teachers are in favour of teaching mathematics and science in an integrated way but tend to be frustrated when they find certain concepts difficult to integrate. The findings also indicate that the integrated course contributed to the improvement of those pre-service teachers' understanding of integration.

Pyke & Lynch’s (2005) study on the preparation of mathematics and science teachers enrolled in an integrated preparatory course for the certification of the National Committee for Professional Teaching Standards. Their findings shows that teachers’ collaboration enhances their learning and their mathematics and science disposition. Underbill and his colleagues (e.g., Francis & Underbill, 1996;

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Underbill, Abdi & Peters, 1994) also advocate collaboration, suggesting peer collaboration between a teacher with a strong background in mathematics and another in science to integrate mathematics and science.

Margot et al. (2019) did a systematic literature review regarding teachers’ perception of STEM integration and education. The findings of their review indicate that teachers think a culture of cooperation would enhance STEM learning, and working with other STEM teachers and university professors is critical for creating an atmosphere to strengthen the preparation of STEM courses and demonstrating a team model for students (Asghar, Ellington, Rice, Johnson & Prime, 2012; Bruce-Davis, Gubbins, Gilson, Villanueva, Foreman, & Rubenstein, 2014; Herro & Quigley, 2017; Lehman, Kim & Harris, 2014; Stohlmann, Moore & Roehrig, 2012). Since STEM pedagogy requires students to work together to solve challenges, it is beneficial for teachers to model the strength of a group approach. Koirala et al. (2003) believe that “middle school students benefit by seeing their teachers working in a team, because belonging to a group is very important for them” (p. 14).

Pre-service and in-service teachers’ perceptions of mathematics and science integration have also been explored by several researchers (e.g., Lehman, 1994; Stevens & Wenner, 1996). Results reveal that pre-service teachers hold positive attitudes toward integration, whereas in-service teachers show reluctance, in part due to their subject-oriented preparation (Pang et al., 2000). Obviously, teachers without basic knowledge of other disciplines can at best promote superficial connections among disciplines. Pang et al. (2000) contend that “successful implementation of integrated curricula ultimately depends on whether teachers develop a solid understanding of subject matter and conceptualize connections among subjects” (p. 77).

Some other studies explore teacher education programs designed to facilitate integrated instruction at elementary and secondary school levels (e.g., Haigh et al., 1995; Lonning & DeFranco, 1994; Stuessy, 1995). The question is how the beginning teachers who took such integrated methods courses implement what they have learned in their daily classroom teaching and how their perceptions of integration may change. Teachers' own understanding and efforts into the integrated approach are of great significance to successful implementation and knowing teachers’ perception of the integrated approach and how they apply it, in turn, has implications for the design of teacher education courses (Judson, 2013).

In-service teachers, however, face various challenges when trying to integrate content from different disciplines, including knowledge of discipline differences between subject areas (Isaacs, Wagreich, & Gartzman, 1997; Lederman & Lederman, 2013), lack of breadth in their own content knowledge needed for teaching in multiple subject areas (Ball, Thames, & Phelps, 2008), dealing with time constraints (Isaacs et al., 1997), and contextual challenges (Berlin & White, 2010; Frykholm et al., 2005) such as administrator commitment, lack of support from colleagues, major course changes or innovations (Wicklein & Schell, 1995),

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and external testing forces aligning poorly with integrated curricula (Isaacs et al., 1997). Hence, Pang et al. (2000) call for future research to identify and explore challenges in implementing integrated curricula, ways teachers effectively address various constraints, and implications for teacher empowerment.

While the importance of integration in STEM education is increasingly emphasized and demonstrated, more often than not, teachers are not well trained to work effectively in areas dependent on multidisciplinary integration.

Therefore, teachers themselves may not have experienced integration and are not well prepared to involve students in the interdisciplinary learning required by the latest national standards documents in mathematics and science within which “there is a renewed emphasis on learning the content of each discipline through engagement in an integrated educational experience, rich with opportunities to engage in disciplinary practices” (Brown & Bogiages, 2019, p.

112).

Overall, the review of the literature indicates that policymakers, academic organizations educational administrators, educators, as well as business organizations all support and advocate the integration of mathematics and science, but due to inadequate teacher training, teachers’ lack of knowledge, skill, and experience, and various factors impeding the integration, there have been quality defects in the implementation over the years. An important part of teachers’ learning to implement curricula integration is for teachers to experience learning themselves through an immersive experience in the new strategy (Loucks-Horsley, Stiles, Mundry, Love & Hewson, 2010; Brown et al., 2019). Our study thus introduces the experiences of 28 pre-service and in-service teachers during a six-week summer course on the integrated instruction of mathematics and science for 4th and 5th grades and explains how they made progress in knowledge, skill, and confidence in planning and teaching mathematics and science using the integrated approach. The essential role of ongoing professional development and school district administrative support in maintaining teachers’ development in mathematics and science integration is also discussed.

3. Theoretical Assumptions The theoretical assumptions of this study are grounded in complexity theory and social constructivism epistemology (Cobb, 1994; Cobb & Yackel, 1996; Waldrop, 1992). The world around us operates as a complex adaptive system that exchanges energy, matter, and information with the surrounding environment. In such a complex adaptive system, long term planning is impossible. When a complex system reaches a bifurcation point, chance plays a dominant role in turning the complex system to a new road. After the road is chosen, which is unpredictable in advance, for a certain period of time, the necessity or determinism takes over until the complex system reaches another critical point. This process is not a linear or deliberative process but rather a dialectical one. This dialectical relationship between chance and necessity (determinism) exists at any given time in the life of a complex adaptive system.

The potential implication of this theoretical assumption for teacher education is

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significant. Looking at the world from the lens of complexity may provide a better understanding of teachers’ professional development and transformation.

Teachers as complex adaptive systems must be understood through the process of their interaction and communication within their social and cultural milieu.

They cannot be studied in isolation. This worldview provides a basis for understanding the nature and role of teachers’ praxis (i.e. reflection and action) and is fundamental to the constructivist theory of teaching and learning.

According to social constructivism, all learning and knowing is inherently social and cultural (Cobb, 1994).

4. Context of the Study The current study is conducted in an American university in the Midwest. The participants include 28 pre-service and in-service teachers recruited from students enrolled in the 4th and 5th Generalist Endorsement Program during the first six-week session of summer 2020. All participating teachers were female. Their age ranges from 22 to 35 years. The 4th and 5th Generalist Endorsement is a graduate program that includes three different courses, Mathematics and Science Instruction and Assessment Grades 4-5, (three credits), Learning and Developmental course (three credits), and Integrated Social Studies and Language Arts course (three credits), totaling nine credit hours for the program. The two of these courses are taught in a blended format, combining face-to-face sessions with online interaction. The course Mathematics & Science Instruction & Assessment Grades 4-5 is taught remotely through Zoom meetings. The candidates for the program must already have a valid pre-k to 3 teaching licenses. The senior undergraduate students/pre-service teachers (9 participants) had already finished their studentteaching and were allowed to take the graduate course with a petition. The inservice teachers (19 participants) were early childhood majors, who earned their early childhood license for grades pre-k to 3 and had three to six years of teaching experience in early childhood school settings. They desired to build their professional credential by earning the 4th and 5th endorsement. Similarly, the pre-service teachers were just about to earn their pre-k through 3 license and wanted to become more marketable by earning the 4th and 5th endorsement. In this sense, both pre-service and in-service teachers share a common interest and purpose in taking this course.

The course is designed to extend candidates’ content and pedagogy knowledge and aims to prepare 4th and 5th generalist teachers for the complex task of teaching mathematics and science. Teacher candidates gain experience by preparing problem-centered lessons for the 4th and 5th grade settings, focusing on the content and methodology appropriate for these particular groups of students. Also, during the six-week course, teacher collaboration, reflection, and constructivist theories of learning were discussed. Throughout the semester, technological tools such as Blackboard, Electronic Reserved Articles, and Films on Demand were used for instructional purposes. The participating teachers were engaged in mathematics and science activities as a basis for reflecting on learning, teaching, and assessing culturally responsive mathematics and science.

In addition, they were required to develop two unit lesson plans incorporating technology for teaching mathematics and science. To accommodate all the pre-

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service and in-service teachers and make the assignments and activities meaningful and doable within the time constraints of a semester, the primary researcher paired the participating teachers to the maximum extent possible so that one pre-service teacher and one in-service teacher worked together collaboratively to fulfil their common goal of a semester-long project. Besides, each pair was required to select another pair in the classroom for critiques of their project. The reciprocal peer critiques provided the teachers with an opportunity to reflect, modify, and re-plan their lesson plans and presentations.

The instructor of the course, also the primary researcher of this study, has 25 years of teaching in this institution and had the privilege of having most of these pre-service and in-service teachers in his mathematics methods course in previous semesters or years. This prior connection and relationship with the participating teachers played a crucial role in establishing a collaborative learning community.

5. Methodology This qualitative, descriptive, and interpretative study is grounded in Guba and Lincoln’s (1989; 1994) constructivist inquiry. This methodology is consistent with the theoretical assumptions of the current study. “Human behavior, unlike that of physical objects, cannot be understood without reference to the meanings and purposes attached by human actors to their activities” (Guba et al., 1994, p.106).

Guba and Lincoln provided strategies for establishing trustworthiness, focusing on four criteria, namely credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability. Credibility refers to certain activities that increase the probability that the findings will be authentic. Such activities include prolonged engagement and researchers’ time investment. The second component of trustworthiness is transferability, referring to the potential for others to identify with the research context and apply the findings to their own settings, which can be achieved through “thick description”. The third component is dependability which is known as the consistency of study results over time and across researchers, closely related to conformability, the fourth component of trustworthiness.

Several factors contributed to the trustworthiness of data analysis. The first factor is relative to the prior connection and professional relationship between the primary researcher and most of the participating teachers who were former students of the instructor/primary researcher in previous semesters or years.

The second factor is that the instructor spent quality time with the participating teachers before and after each meeting providing them with feedback to ensure credibility criterion. In addition, the researchers had ongoing one-on-one email interactions with the participants regarding the understanding and interpretation of the data. The third factor relates to transferability, which was achieved through thick description. The fourth is relevant to dependability, which was established through the two researchers analysing the data independently and meeting once a week to exchange ideas and information.

This data processing approach with active participation and feedback played a

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key role in the credibility of the research and the establishment of a supportive learning community.

Data include participating teachers’ reflections on assigned readings, meeting discussions, their planning and teaching, final reflective papers, as well as the instructor’s field notes. Throughout the semester there were six research articles relative to integrated mathematics and science and six Films on Demand regarding learning theories and constructivist teaching and learning. The reflections on readings and films provided a basis for meeting discussions. The participants summarized, analysed, and presented their professional opinions for each article and film weekly (one article and one film per week). Data analysis started alongside data collection using a systematic approach of iterative categorization (Neale, 2016), involving open coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) which Charmaz (2001) describes as the “critical link” between data collection and meaning interpretation, inductive sorting of codes into categories based on links between codes, and moving iteratively between data and coding framework to refine codes into consistent and discrete categories. Open coding, which is referred to as vivo and descriptive codes by Saldaña (2013), was assigned to identify primary themes of the data. It allowed us to explore the understanding, practices, and reflections of the participating teachers on discipline integration. Once open coding was concluded, we moved on to the inductive sorting of codes, identifying recurrent codes, themes, metaphors, and contradictions. The data were then integrated and sorted into categories according to links between the codes. The focus was on the experiences and reflections of participating teachers in their attempts to teach mathematics and science using an integrated approach. As categories began to emerge, we went back to the participating teachers to ask them how well the ongoing data analysis represented their experience (Hays & Singh, 2012). At the same time, we iteratively moved between data and the coding framework and refined codes into consistent and discrete categories. Along with the coding process, reflexive and analytical memos were written to “document and reflect on the coding process and code choices” (Saldaña, 2013, p. 41), which helped achieve researchers’ reflexivity on the data corpus and at the same time provide documentation and transparency about our methodology. Based on the coding, we then developed a codebook to guide our report on research findings.

6. Findings Data analysis revealed two attributes that contributed to the positive learning experiences of the participating teachers. The first attribute is the participating teachers’ time investment in their professional development and their willingness to learn from one another. The second attribute is the instructor’s role as a facilitator of the classroom discussions and activities. The instructor spent an enormous amount of time providing the teachers with timely feedback and support. As one participating teacher stated: “Although I was not sure how to design and develop an integrated mathematics and science lesson plan, I knew and trusted my peers in the class. I was also comfortable with the instructor because I trusted him. I was sure if I asked for help, I would have plenty of support. I think that was very important for me” (The Participating Teacher’s Reflection during the Class Discussion).

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From the analysis of the data including participating teachers’ reflections on assigned readings, classroom discussions, teachers’ planning and presentations, their final reflective papers, the instructor’s field notes, and reflexive and analytical memos, the following four themes emerged: Theme 1: Importance of Integrating Mathematics and Science Data analysis revealed that all the 28 participating teachers believe that it is important to integrate mathematics and science. They see various reasons for the integration. First, they believe it logical for mathematics and science to be taught together. They stated that there are many aspects that mathematics and science share, making them two closely related subjects to be integrated. For example, one participating teacher shared her view this way: “The common learning areas of mathematics and science emphasize concepts and skills that support the learning and understanding of the subjects.

Integrating these subject areas makes students feel that they are no longer learning separate topics but that the content of the subject areas flows fluidly together for the whole learning goal” (The Participating Teacher’s Reflection).

The participating teachers indicated that an integrated approach to learning aligns with the way the brain naturally processes and internalizes new information. Therefore, an integrated approach makes learning feel more natural. They stated that when educators begin the journey of integrating mathematics and science, they enhance the meaning of what they are teaching.

As one of the participating teachers put: “Integrated instruction provides students with an opportunity to combine academic skills from different subject areas to solve real-world problems, and this would interest and motivate students. It also allows students to become better problem solvers and logical thinkers. It has been proven that when students can relate classroom learning to real-life experiences, they are more likely to understand what is being taught and remember the information” (The Participating Teacher’s Reflection).

Second, the teachers stated that an integrated approach makes students more engaged and have a desire to learn since it involves hands-on exploration and interactive activities that are engaging, fun, and intriguing. As the participating teachers worked collaboratively towards developing/designing their unit plans, they became more aware of the importance of the meaningful and challenging activities and more sensitive to their students’ voices and social and cultural backgrounds. For example, one of the teachers asserted: “Integrating mathematics and science provides the opportunity for teamwork and peer communication that can promote collaboration and communication among students, helping them learn how to combat the problems at hand by working with others. This can help all the students including English language learners (ELLs). When students work in small groups, it can be less distracting and more engaging. Besides, having the curriculum integrated also provides more opportunities for parent and community involvement” (The Participating Teacher’s Reflection).

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There are several other reasons put forward by participating teachers, including improved teaching effects, transformed students’ attitudes, enhanced students’ interest and motivation, new mindset, and so forth. One of the teachers put it like this: “Incorporating mathematics and science is beneficial because students can see how real-world issues revolve around science, technology, and mathematics.

When math and science are taught using a student-centered approach rather than a traditional one, it is more effective and has a positive effect on students’ attitudes, their interest in school, motivation to learn, and achievement of both subjects. Integration requires work from both the teacher and students who can plan and learn together to modify the instruction. It provides opportunities for students to form a deeper understanding, see the big picture, and make connections among central concepts” (The Participating Teacher’s Reflection).

Another teacher shared in her reflective paper as follows: “Integrating mathematics and science allows students to learn through selfreflection and inquiry, to increase communication with others, to challenge high-order thinking, and to transform their learning environments. Integration is a beneficial practice that prepares today’s children for the future world. When teachers do this and encourage new ways of learning, they support not only their typical learners but also those have been identified as ELLs and students with disabilities; they are creating competent, well-rounded scholars, who are prepared to live and work in the global society” (The Participating Teacher’s Reflection).

Theme 2: Strategies for Incorporating the Integrated Approach Data analysis suggested that all the 28 participating teachers advocate the following six integration approaches to teaching mathematics and science.

Synchronized curriculum integration refers to the way in which the common content of more than one subject is taught separately but parallel so that it is easy for teachers to build on pre-existing knowledge about a topic. Thematic curriculum integration is the way that starts with a relevant topic linking subject areas together. Students are expected to make connections around an underlying theme. The project-based approach allows integration to be built around a planned task. Students are not aware that the content of separate subjects is being taught until they make the connections themselves. Cross-curricula integration focuses on broad skills across several subject areas. Schoolspecialized integration is where the focus is rooted in the whole school curriculum, and teachers will choose and modify subjects to fit in the chosen specialization. Community-focused integration is based on meaningful issues that impact the local community, which allows students to investigate and solve a local problem using content or skills of different subject areas, thus enhancing their understanding and operational capabilities.

Data analysis also indicated that the participating teachers believe that a projectbased learning approach (PBL) would best support mathematics and science integration in a classroom due to its unique characteristics. First, PBL has students at the centre of the learning process, allowing them to have control over their own decisions and connect the new information with real-world situations.

It requires students to use their inquiry skills to solve problems. Second, when supported by technology, PBL would greatly enhance students’ learning

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through teamwork, improving students’ collaboration and communication skills simultaneously. Third, PBL has varied instructional strategies and ongoing assessments. When students participate in PBL, they are likely to experience hands-on activities and manipulatives, which helps increase students’ interest and facilitate their learning. Finally, PBL, starting with an interesting problem for students to solve and engaging students in open-ended, authentic tasks, can break the project into manageable components and yield a tangible product. One teacher shared his view like this: “Incorporating science and mathematics with PBL is beneficial since PBL is based on real-world issues, where students can make relevant and ageappropriate connections. Effective PBL provides a unique way for students to apply their knowledge and skills and learn how to be successful in solving practical problems. Students learn because they want to, and they do not memorize information to pass a test and forget about it afterward” (The Participating Teacher’s Reflection).

Another teacher presented her opinions as follows: “The projects are created with important objectives, so students can accomplish learning goals while focusing on the subjects. Students are given models or rubrics that describe guidelines and high-quality works so that they are able to reflect, give, and receive feedback, and then adjust their work as needed” (The Participating Teacher’s Reflection).

The participating teachers also proposed a variety of useful strategies for supporting ELLs in mathematics and science classrooms, including creating vocabulary banks, using group discussions and partner conversations to help ELLs verbalize their ideas, performing role-playing, using anchor charts, and so forth. Nineteen of the 28 participating teachers also stated that it is important to be aware of the factors that contribute to the success of ELLs. They shared similar views on this point: “Knowing students’ backgrounds, experiences, levels of their second language, and their challenges in learning mathematics and science is significant for teachers to build a classroom community and apply strategies that can help ELLs succeed in learning. It is essential to activate ELLs’ prior knowledge, reduce their stress in the classroom, use native language as a resource, ask questions that elicit more than yes-or-no responses, provide visuals, organize small group discussions or pair work, and create hands-on and interactive activities” (The Participating Teacher’s Reflection).

The participants also suggested that teachers need to pay special attention to applying differentiation strategies to support ELLs, such as making manipulatives available for them to construct physical representations of mathematics thinking, designing questions and prompts in different ways for students at different levels, and considering language and mathematics skills when grouping students.

Theme 3: Participating Teachers' Experiences and Realizations in Learning Data analysis showed that the participating teachers had little experience of integration before taking this course, but through creating two integrated unit plans involving mathematics and science during this six-week session, all of them indicated that they learned many valuable ways to engage students by

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blurring the lines of subjects and content areas. They realized how the integration of mathematics and science may broaden student learning and expressed how they saw connections between subject areas made, which would facilitate students’ deeper understanding of the materials. One teacher shared her experiences in this way: “Before taking this course, I had very little practice in integrating subjects. I once tried integrating social studies and science during my previous teaching but found it hard because I did not have the knowledge of those approaches to integration. During this course, I created two integrated unit lesson plans involving mathematics and science and learned various ways of integrating through interaction and communication with my peers. It was interesting to see the different ways one topic is taught in different subject areas and how different but relevant topics could be integrated into one discipline” (The Participating Teacher’s Reflection).

The participating teachers also shared their experiences of applying PBL in teaching, as one of them put: “Through a project-based learning approach, students are allowed to use their skills when learning and exploring. When teaching mathematics and science using PBL, the activities can be adjusted for many different grade levels and more challenges can be added depending on the cognitive level of the class and the grade level. It is really beneficial” (The Participating Teacher’s Reflection).

They also proposed some points for attention during integration. One teacher presented as follows: “It is significant for teachers to recognize the variety of learners stepping into the classroom each day. No two children are the same and we cannot expect the same teaching style, assessment, and support to work for all the kids. We must know about our students, learn what strategies can well support their learning, and integrate that into our daily instruction. When integrating mathematics and science, it is important not to let one of the subjects dominate the class, and we must remember that manipulatives are merely tools for learning but not the goal of learning” (The Participating Teacher’s Reflection).

Theme 4: Challenges and Possibilities of Implementing the Integrated Approach When indicating that they would adopt the integrated approach to their future teaching, the participating teachers also raised the challenges they expected to encounter. Data revealed that the biggest challenge is the lack of support from school administration and colleagues. The teachers mentioned that some school leaders and teachers want to keep the traditional way of teaching subjects separately instead of making changes. Issues related to school administration create severe barriers to the implementation of the integrated approach. Besides, when creating a unit plan on multiple subjects, many teachers will need to be involved and plenty of problems need to be discussed. It requires staff members to communicate and reach an agreement on how the lesson will be taught and how to make the project successful. However, it would not be possible to conduct integrated instruction when colleagues lack interest or refuse to engage.

Further, integration requires a lot of planning, communication, and strong classroom management skills, so the lack of experience is the second challenge stated by the participating teachers. One of them shared her concerns as follows:

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“I am afraid that I will come up with an idea but have no support. I also fear that I will embarrass myself through failure when conducting integration. I feel that I need more help to carry out student-centered PBL because the planning must be done without knowing what students will do. I am also not sure how to set up a classroom that can allow students to learn based on their interests and experiences through ‘unstructured’ inquiry activities” (The Participating Teacher’s Final Reflective Paper).

Other concerns of the teachers include lack of time for preparation with an already overcrowded daily schedule, the budget needed for conducting integration, and the departmentalization of different subjects in schools. Despite the varieties of challenges anticipated, all the participating teachers hold a positive attitude towards the integrated approach and are confident in the application of it in their future teaching. One teacher stated: “Integration is a difficult task but worth the effort. Applying problem-based or project-based learning to mathematics and science lessons will promote higher levels of engagement, critical thinking, problem solving, and higher test scores of students. It is important not to have a fear of making mistakes during instruction but to learn from failures. We should believe that the barriers and obstacles can and will be overcome and a beneficial learning experience for all students and educators will be achieved with our endeavor” (The Participating Teacher’s Final Reflective Paper).

Another teacher presented how she saw the future possibilities: “Integrating mathematics and science is beneficial for both students and teachers. It can lead to a deeper understanding of both subjects. Students can learn across the curricula when the project or inquiry-based learning is used.

Students learn best through integrated instruction. It needs to be implemented more in classrooms for everyday learning so that students can become handson, active, and informed lifelong learners who can apply their learning to realworld situations. I believe integrating is the best way to help students succeed in their learning and become successful in their future life” (The Participating Teacher’s Final Reflective Paper).

When talking about future plans, a teacher shared: “I hope by integrating subjects I will become a better teacher. As a future educator, I want to become more familiar with different approaches and incorporate them into my teaching. I will use the approaches depending on the characteristics of my students and the teaching styles they best adapt to. It is also important for me to research more effective strategies to help ELL students in my classroom” (The Participating Teacher’s Final Reflective Paper).

7. Discussion This study examined the experiences of 28 pre-service and in-service teachers as they plan and teach mathematics and science in 4th and 5th grades from an integrated perspective during a summer course to explain how a six-week summer course focusing on planning and teaching mathematics and science using an integrated approach enhance teachers’ knowledge, experience, and confidence in curriculum integration. The findings suggest that the exchange of ideas and information with peers along with the instructor’s ongoing support provides the teachers with opportunities to become more knowledgeable and

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confident in planning and teaching mathematics and science in an integrated fashion.

The six-week summer course witnessed the accumulation of knowledge and confidence of participating teachers in curriculum integration and a shift of the teachers from traditional mathematics and science instruction to the integrated approach. With little experience and confidence in the integrated approach, the participating teachers came into this class and set out on the journey of exploration with an open mind. During learning, they investigated and reflected on current research, engaged in meeting discussions, designed and created unit plans in pairs, reviewed and provided critiques to other pairs’ unit plans, and completed their final reflective papers. Through this process of exploration and interaction, they identified significant issues regarding mathematics and science education, especially the teaching and learning of the two subject areas in 4th and 5th grade classrooms, and gradually formed their own mathematics and science teaching philosophy and goals. They began to realize that science and mathematics are more than just a set of subject areas; discipline integration is a movement to develop a deeper understanding between these content areas to make students more adaptive to the climate of uncertainties in the 21st-century.

Through their reflections and communications, the participating teachers realized that science and mathematics help develop a set of thinking, reasoning, research, collaboration, and creative skills that students can use in all areas of their lives. They became aware that integration is not a standalone class; it is a technique that intentionally incorporates different subjects into an existing curriculum. The most viable way to start is to involve students in the process of practice, and these practices enable students to relate mathematical and scientific ideas to real-world situations and apply them in everyday life. The teachers became convinced that these practices encourage students to clarify and build relationships and models among the various representations in mathematics and science.

The findings of this study also indicate that the professional collaboration and communication between pre-service and in-service teachers greatly facilitated their abilities to critically reflect on and make changes in their integrated lesson plans and instruction. The free flow of ideas and information allowed the teachers to reflect on who they are and how they can make their classroom a better learning environment for all their students. Of particular importance in the findings of this study is the role of ongoing feedback and support the teachers received from the instructor. The sense of trust that started in the sixweek summer course moved to deeper levels of communication and connection even after the course was completed. It went from knowing each other as a person to knowing each other as a professional.

The findings further reveal that ongoing professional development and support from colleagues and school administration are essential components for sustaining teachers’ development in curriculum integration. No matter how deeply the teachers understand the integrated approach and how willing they

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are to apply it in their classroom to support and facilitate their students’ learning, the implementation would be difficult in the absence of support from school/district and colleagues, which is the first and biggest concern raised by the participating teachers. They mentioned that some conservative school leaders are reluctant or afraid of innovation and reform in part because they do not see the potential positive impact of integration on student academic performance. This led us as researchers to think about a question: Are the existing school structures, cultures, and policies compatible with the collaborative environment needed for teacher professional transformation?

8. Conclusion As Furner et al. (2007) contend, changing the way of teaching science and mathematics has always been a concern of professionals, and we should strive now to transform the teaching of science and mathematics from traditional methods to a more student-centered approach.

“It really is our obligation as an educational community to make the difference for the future of our students in an ever-growing competitive global environment, which depends so heavily on mathematics, technology, and the sciences. If schools do more in terms of integrating mathematics and the sciences, they may impact the lives of their students forever” (Furner et al., 2007, p. 188).

The quality of education teachers provide to their students highly relies on what the teachers do in the classroom. Therefore, to prepare today's students to become tomorrow's successful individuals, teachers of mathematics and science should ensure that their teaching is effective. As Bybee (1993) puts: “We certainly need books, reports, and recommendations for new policies. However, unless the classroom teachers move beyond the status quo in [mathematics] and science teaching, the reform will falter and eventually fail” (p. 144). The implication of this study for teacher education is

significant in terms of pedagogical knowledge and experiences relative to integrated teaching of mathematics and science. Methods courses such as the one introduced in our study play an essential role. These courses are designed to extend teachers’ content and pedagogy knowledge and help improve their skills by engaging them in an immersive experience of learning new strategies, thereby enabling them to promote the development and implementation of integrated mathematics and science in their daily classroom teaching. Such problem/activity-centered courses, both exciting and academically fulfilling, can effectively enrich the practical experience of course participants.

About the Authors: Roland G. Pourdavood is a professor of mathematics education at Cleveland State University, Department of Teacher Education. His research interests include mathematics teachers’ dialogue and reflection for transformation and school reform. In addition, he focuses on cultural diversity, socio-cultural aspects of education, and emancipatory action research for personal and social praxis.

Meng Yan is a doctoral candidate in urban education at Cleveland State University. Her current research interests include curriculum development and instruction, teaching effectiveness, student motivation, parenting style and

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student well-being. She is also interested in second language acquisition, bilingualism, and the relationship between language and thought.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 86-102, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.5

Teachers’ Beliefs, Praxes, and Post-method Pedagogy in English Language Teaching Remedios C. Bacus Cebu Normal University, Cebu City, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4575-6365

Abstract. To address the challenge of identifying an effective English language teaching pedagogy, this study explored the Grade 10 teachers (n=50) and students’ (n=2,221) beliefs of effective language teaching methods and the teachers’ classroom practices. It further investigated the convergence and divergence of the teachers’ and students’ beliefs and the teachers’ practices along with the pedagogic parameters of practicality and particularity. Using the descriptive quantitative design, the findings revealed the convergence of responses between (a) teachers’ and students’ beliefs of effective language methods, and (b) teachers’ beliefs and their practices. Analysis of responses also revealed the pedagogic parameters of practicality and particularity in the conduct of their English language classes. Teachers continually engage in the cycle of personal assessment to increase their autonomy in formulating enlightened choices responsive to the students’ needs. It is imperative that English teachers be engaged in programs that support their awareness of local exigencies to strengthen their belief systems on postmethod pedagogy.

Keywords: beliefs; language teaching; post-method pedagogy; practices

1. Introduction The field of English Language Teaching (ELT) has received considerable attention in the past century. For the last two decades, studies show that teachers have found it difficult to put the method into practice in real classroom situation.

With the K to 12 Basic Education Program, teachers were provided with the curriculum guides (CGs) and learners’ materials (LMs), which afforded them the work plans and competencies to teach and how to teach in the classroom. These English CGs facilitate the vertical and horizontal articulation of learning competencies across key stages.

The veracity of issues concerning effective English language teaching practices can be drawn from the tenet that teachers are designers of method. Faced with the reality of students’ diversity, teachers are left to decide from numerous ©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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options, what makes language teaching effective (Vizconde, 2012). Over time several approaches have been tried and paradigm shifts took place as an offshoot of one’s credence on effective language teaching. Tofade, Elsner and Haines (2013) emphasized the taxonomy of questions as creative pedagogy to assess students’ knowledge, promote comprehension, and stimulate critical thinking. Another strategy for instruction identified in the study of Adriosh and Razi (2019) in English foreign language classrooms in Libya is code-switching. It is done when teachers and students, within the language class, shift from the use of the mother tongue to English and vice versa. Some schools in the Philippines place much value on immersion as one of the best ways to learn English. While differing in approaches, Getie (2020) claimed that social and educational context factors affect the attitudes of students towards learning English.

Considerably, teachers’ beliefs on what constitutes effective language teaching shaped their instructional practice. For the last ten years, few studies have delved into the teachers’ views of effective teaching practices. In the Philippines, there is no study conducted exploring the teachers’ and students’ beliefs and how such beliefs cascade into classroom practices. Little attention was placed on an in-depth evaluation of the extent to which the ELT methodologies are utilized in the classroom and the teachers' deviations, which resulted in the new method, if not, an alternative to the method known as ‘post-method.’

Albeit there is a plethora of research on English language teaching across countries, there is a pressing need to deal with the problem of an effective language teaching pedagogy in a particular context. It is against this milieu that this study examined the teacher’s beliefs, practices, and pedagogic parameters that shape classroom behaviors.

2. Literature Review This study is anchored on the “post-method pedagogy” of language teaching espoused by Kumaravadivelu (2001) and reconceptualized by Scholl (2017). The post-method pedagogy is viewed as the transference away from the century-old concept of method. This came as an offshoot of the restrictions of method-based teaching. Furthermore, it can be described as the construction and deconstruction of classroom practices and systems by the teachers based on their knowledge and experiences. Hence, in the post-method condition, teachers become a decisive element in their language classes.

Language teaching has become more demanding such that methodology has been continually refined to improve the students’ proficiency in the use of the English language. Although innovation in ELT has grown apace in recent years, much of it has been unsuccessful (Wedell, 2009) with the teacher as one of the barriers (Carless, 2012). In addition, Can’s (2009) study revealed that teachers experienced considerable deficiencies that provide them with the framework of their teaching. Such a framework is constantly modified based on their knowledge of the theories and their actual classroom experiences. The method modification is attributable to the assumption that new ways of teaching will foster better learning since students have differing needs in various phases of

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language acquisition. Accordingly, the problem with a method is addressed by identifying another method- an alternative method, a post-method.

The pedagogic parameter of particularity necessitates that any instructional endeavor must be sympathetic to the current conditions of learning taking intoaccount the needs of the particular students in a particular school within a particular educational system. This further denotes that local contingencies, i.e. school contexts, are given considerations during class interactions and varied speech acts occurring within an English class (Chen, 2014). On the other hand, the parameter of practicality indicates the connection between the teachers’ classroom practices and the theories learned. It is seen as the realization of the concepts formed over time with the actual classroom procedures. If the theories are not actualized, it implies that the teachers’ capacity to develop concepts and beliefs about learning and to translate them into actions is overlooked.

To Kumaravadivelu (2003), many classroom studies that have been done in the last two decades show that teachers could not be successful in putting method into practice in real classroom situation. He added that teachers know that methods are not based on the realities of their classrooms. More precisely, the result determined that teachers are not following the rules and principles they claimed, those who claim to follow different methods often follow the same classroom procedures. Traditional ELT pedagogical approaches are contrasted with alternative ways notwithstanding the uncertainties faced by the teachers.

Brown (2009) affirmed that a widening disconnect between teachers’ and students’ beliefs and practices affects learning. A teacher’s behavior conditioned by known theories of second language acquisition has an important influence on learner’s beliefs.

There is a prevalence of moving away from the limitations of a method since teachers will have to incorporate modifications away from the traditional method. One’s practice of classroom procedure modification is influenced by his/her beliefs. Sadeghi and Abdi (2015) opined that a well-founded understanding of one’s beliefs is paramount in improving student achievement as it raises the level and quality of teacher-student interaction, promotes a facilitative environment and positive classroom climate Although experimental and scientific evidence has been scarce to predict perfectly, there seems to be a universal belief that a sound connection exists between prior knowledge and the formation of belief systems relative to English language teaching and learning.

Hence, the purpose of the study was to identify effective language teaching methods as perceived by the teachers and students, determine the convergence and divergence of teachers’ and students’ beliefs, and teachers’ practices along the pedagogic parameters practicality and particularity.

3. Methodology This study employed a descriptive quantitative design to obtain answers to the research problem. The survey method was used to identify the teachers’ and the students’ beliefs in language teaching and learning, the evaluation for classroom practices, and the assessment of pedagogic parameters employed by the

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teachers. The study was conducted in 16 junior high schools in Cebu, Philippines. Chosen using cluster sampling, the respondents were Grade 10 students and their English teachers. Of the 2,300 distributed questionnaires, 2, 111 (92%) answered questionnaires were returned.

The Beliefs about Effective Language Teaching (BELT) questionnaire was used to determine the students’ and the teachers’ beliefs regarding what characterizes an effective methodology in English language teaching and learning. Also, an English Teacher’s Classroom Practices questionnaire was utilized to identify English teachers’ teaching behaviors in their class. It specifically assessed the frequency on the use of ELT methodologies, while an Assessment of Pedagogic Parameters was used to ascertain the teachers’ implementation of practicality and particularity along with instructional planning, delivery, and assessment.

The data gathered in the study were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Bipolar scaling was used in the interpretation because the survey on beliefs and practices prompted the respondents to balance two opposite attributes- the effectiveness and ineffectiveness of a language method, and determining the relative proportion of these opposite attributes. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to determine the convergence and/or divergence of the teachers’ and students’ beliefs and teachers’ beliefs and their practices. Frequency counts and percentages were used to assess the manifestations of the pedagogic parameters of particularity and practicality in the teachers’ practices.

4. Results The main purpose of this study was to attain a comprehensive and explicit comparison of the teachers’ and students’ beliefs and practices about effective language teaching methodologies. The ensuing discussion presents the salient findings which answer the stated objectives of the study.

Teachers’ Beliefs about Effective Language Teaching Methods English teachers come to their classes with some presumptions about what language learning is and how students should learn. Table 1 shows teachers’ beliefs about effective language teaching methods.

Table 1. Teachers’ Beliefs about Effective Language Teaching (LT) Methods x̃ ELT My students will learn best when…

Method 1. I correct grammar errors made and briefly explain why such 3.76 Designer corrections are necessary.

2. I provide opportunities for them to experiment and try out 3.64 CLT what they know using the English language.

3. I give information-gathering activities like student3.62 CLT conducted surveys and interviews.

4. I direct the students toward unrehearsed language performance in English using authentic materials and real3.6 CLT life situations.

5. they answer task-completion activities like puzzles, games, 3.46 Designer

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map reading, etc.

6. I present language skills orally first, then in written form.

3.44 ALM 7. they hear a model dialogue and they repeat each line of the 3.28 ALM dialogue.

8. they translate poems into English or into vernacular or vice Grammar 3.26 versa.

Translation 9. there is intensive oral drilling of the basic patterns of English 3.2 ALM sentences through choral repetition.

10. I give examples and they are asked to memorize rules and to Grammar 3.04 give original examples.

Translation 11. I don’t directly teach but give students enough time to focus, self-correct their errors and learn the rules from the 3.04 Designer examples.

12. the students speak in English at all times during our English 2.9 Direct class.

13. I use commands and questions to prompt oral responses in English where NO grammar explanation or modelling is 2.88 Direct necessary.

14. students read literary texts in English and memorize Grammar 2.8 vocabulary lists translated into the vernacular.

Translation 15. English is compulsory in the classroom, with no translation 2.7 Direct into the vernacular.

Legend: 1-2.0 - not favored 2.1-3.0 - somewhat favored 3.1-4.0-greatly favored

Teachers greatly favored error correction, a characteristic of the Designer Method, as most effective in a language class. Corollary to that belief is the provision of opportunities for the students to experiment with the language; thus, correction is deemed necessary in the conduct of language classes. Of the many ELT methods, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), as a greatly favored method, supports the importance of simulations of real-life situations to communicate in the target language Task-based learning through puzzles, games and map reading is associated with language experimentation. The mean obtained indicates that the teachers greatly favor active engagement through maximized student involvement. Consequently, the majority of the English teachers also considered the Audiolingual Method (ALM) and Direct Method with means interpreted as ‘somewhat favored’.

Students’ Beliefs about Effective Language Teaching Methods Students come to the language class with some preconceived ideas about English language learning. These beliefs, which are direct reflections of their acceptance of a method as effective, can signify what expectations they have and what actions in their language learning they will take. To determine the students’ beliefs on effective language teaching, 15 statements that summarized the five methodologies were used.

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Table 2. Students’ Beliefs about Effective Language Teaching Methods I will learn best when… x̃ 1. the teacher corrects my grammar errors and briefly explains why 3.47 such corrections are necessary.

2. the teacher provides me with opportunities for me to experiment 3.29 and try out what I know using the English language.

3. I answer task-completion activities like puzzles, games, map 3.14 reading, etc.

4. the teacher presents the language skills orally first, then in 3.12 written form.

5. there is a lot of practice of the basic patterns of English sentences 3.09 through choral repetition.

6. I hear a model dialog and I repeat each line of the dialog.

3.06 7. The teacher gives examples and I am asked to memorize rules 3.03 and to give original examples.

8. there is NO direct teaching but I am given enough time to focus, 3.02 self-correct my errors and learn the rules from the examples.

9. the teacher gives information-gathering activities like student2.93 conducted surveys and interviews.

10. I read literary texts in English and memorize vocabulary lists 2.92 translated into the vernacular.

11. I am directed toward unrehearsed language performance in 2.91 English using authentic materials and real-life situations.

12. I translate poems into English or into vernacular or vice versa.

2.80 13. The teacher uses commands and questions to encourage oral answer in English where NO grammar explanation or modelling 2.69 is necessary.

14. English is compulsory in the classroom, no translation into the 2.62 vernacular.

15. I speak in English at all times during our English class. (S13) 2.54

Legend: 1-2.0 - not favored

2.1-3.0 - somewhat favored

Method Designer CLT Designer ALM ALM ALM GTM Designer CLT GTM CLT GTM DM DM DM

3.1-4.0 -greatly favored

Input is paramount in the acquisition of another language. Teacher’s correction and explanation of grammar errors made by the students shape the needed input necessary to acquire the target language. As shown in Table 2, the ‘Designer’ Method characterized by error correction, had the highest mean interpreted as ‘greatly favored/valued’. The Grammar Translation Method obtained greater means than the Direct Method and therefore is a more popular method in language teaching.

English Teachers’ Classroom Practices Teachers’ cognizance about what constitutes effective language methods to employ and their actual classroom practices are two main domains of language teaching. Table 3 shows the English teachers’ classroom practices and the frequency of use of the teaching methods.

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Table 3. English Teachers’ Classroom Practices Classroom Practices 1.

simplifying words so students can understand

2.

correcting grammar errors made and explaining why such corrections are necessary. providing the students with opportunities to practice speaking in English. modelling spoken commands. providing opportunities for the students to experiment and try out what they know using the English language. letting the students answer task-completion activities like puzzles, games, map reading, etc. providing a number of practice of the patterns of English sentences through repetition. presenting language skills orally first then in written form. using dramatized texts, music and songs during the class. giving paper and pencil test to check the students’ knowledge of a grammar rule. presenting grammar and vocabulary through dialogs and role playing the dialogs. letting the students discover grammar rules. letting the students speak in English at all times during the class. providing opportunities for the students to experiment and try out what they know using the English language. giving examples and students are asked to memorize rules and to give original examples (e.g. rules for forming the plural nouns) basing the grades on the students’ successful interaction with their classmates using the English language. modelling dialogs and the students repeat each line of the dialog. letting the students translate poems into native language or vice versa.

NOT entertaining questions/responses if not in English.

NOT translating passages into the mother tongue.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Legend: 1.0-2.0=not evident

LT Method Grammar Translation

Frequency of Use

3.78

Designer

Always

3.78

CLT

Always

3.50

Designer

Always

3.48

CLT

Always

3.38

Designer

Always

3.38

ALM

Always

3.38

ALM

Always

3.36

Designer

Always

3.36

GTM

Always

3.34

ALM

Always

3.32

DM

Always

3.30

DM

Always

3.26

CLT

Always

3.10

GTM

Always

3.06

CLT

Sometimes

2.92

ALM

Sometimes

2.74

GTM

Sometimes

2.62

DM

Sometimes

2.54

DM

Sometimes

x̃ 3.80

2.1-3.0=sometimes evident

Always

3.1-4.0= always evident

As shown in Table 3, the means of the teachers’ practices along the five methodologies vary to some extent. Interpreted as ‘always evident’ with means greater than 3.0, the teachers practiced the five methods-GTM, Designer, CLT, ALM and DM. Only five practices- one in CLT, ALM and GTM and two in DM had means lower than 3.0 which is interpreted as ‘sometimes evident.’

Simplifying words so students can understand, a practice which is

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characterized by the Grammar Translation Method, is the most frequent practice.

Table 4. Convergence and Divergence of the Teachers’ and Students’ Beliefs on Effective Language Teaching Teachers’ Students’ Beliefs Beliefs ELT TPInterpretation Methods value value Simple Mean Simple Mean (SD) (SD) 1 ALM 3.28 (0.6713) 3.06 (1.344) -1.67 0.102 Convergent 2 ALM 3.2(0.782) 3.09 (1.433) 0.113 0.989 Convergent 3 ALM 3.44 (0.5771) 3.12 (1.122) -4.453 0.000* Divergent 4 GTM 3.26 (0.6328 ) 2.80 (1.112) -0.345 0.675 Convergent 5 GTM 3.04 (0.807 ) 3.03 (1.213) -3.223 0.005* Divergent 6 GTM 2.8 (0.857) 2.92 (0.991) 0.786 0.876 Convergent 7 Convergent 3.46 (0.5789) 3.14 (1.282) 0.051 0.347 Designer 8 Divergent 3.04 (0.755) 3.02 (1.021) -3.007 0.021* Designer 9 Convergent 3.76 (0.4764 ) 3.47 (0.988) -3.432 0.323 Designer 10 CLT 3.64 (0.5253) 3.29 (0.978) -3.432 0.323 Convergent 11 CLT 3.62 (0.5675 ) 2.93 (1.052) 0.724 0.456 Convergent 12 CLT 3.6 (0.5714) 2.91 (1.022) -4.003 0.723 Convergent Convergent 13 DM 2.9(0.6776) 2.54 (0.098) 0.987 0.421 14 DM 2.88 (0.718) 2.69 (1.204) -0.543 0.801 Convergent 15 DM 2.7 (0.735) 2.62 (1.121) -0.371 0.711 Convergent TOTALIT Convergent 3.24 (0.6622) 2.97 (0.991) 0.254 0.9002 Y *Significant at 0.05 level

Of the 15 items, three in each method, only three (3)- ALM (item 3) with a pvalue of 0.000, GTM (item 5) with a p-value of 0.005 and ‘Designer’ method (item 8) with a p-value of 0.021, were found to be significantly different. Hence, points of divergence between the students’ and the teachers’ responses are noted along these three items. The other 12 items which responses generated the computed p-values greater than 0.05 and the totality, with a p-value of 0.9002, rendered a “no significant difference.” This means that students’ and teachers’ beliefs about effective language teaching methods converged. Both groups held identical beliefs on how students learn English best.

Table 5. Convergence and Divergence of the Teachers’ Beliefs and their Practices pVariables Mean SD t-value Interpretation value Teachers’ 3.105 0.8266 Credence -1.669 0.101 Convergent Teachers’ 3.1159 0.4829 Practices *Significant at 0.05 level

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As Table 5 illustrates, there is a direct relationship between the teachers’ beliefs and their classroom practices. A p-value of 0.101 indicates no discrepancy between the teachers’ beliefs about effective language teaching methodology and their classroom practices; hence, a point of convergence is established.

The Teachers’ Classroom Praxes along the Pedagogic Parameters of Practicality and Particularity The parameter of practicality, focuses on teachers’ reflection and action, which are also based on their insights and intuition. Evidence of ‘practicality’ in teaching is seen in the three areas: instructional planning, instructional delivery and assessment. Along instructional delivery, practicality is manifested in the teachers’ responses in relating the topic to a local scenario, not teaching the way they were taught, modifying the ways of teaching to suit to the students’ needs, doing away from a usual method and not strictly following the guidelines and principles behind the method are all characteristics of practicality in teaching.

When faced with a problem of low student achievement, analysis and understanding the problem, considering and evaluating alternatives, and believing that measures must be undertaken to solve a problem are outward evidences of the implementation of practicality.

Teachers claimed that at the onset of teaching, they adopt a certain method and make some changes with their materials. They prepared varied activities to choose from depending on the needs of the students since it is not possible to make one lesson plan for every class. Such teacher-behaviors are an attestation of teachers’ movement towards the post-method pedagogy. Further, teachers’ practices seemed to have a deviation from method-wise language teaching.

Practices like designing and/or adapting activities, giving and teaching the students some learning strategies, having their own way of teaching, not using a specific method in all classes and making their own activities to measure students’ learning are in consonance with the principles behind the pedagogic parameter of particularity. These behaviors show that teachers are in control of the many possibilities in the classroom. Autonomy is one of the features of the application of the pedagogic parameter of particularity.

5. Discussion Pre-existing language learning beliefs have some significant effects on the teachers’ adoption of effective methods in the teaching process (Sönmez, 2011).

On ELT methodologies, the findings of Saritha (2016) corroborated the result with 70% of the teachers who expressed their preference of ALM over the Direct Method. With large classes handled by the teachers in private and public schools, drills are of particular use to maximize student participation. As pointed by Saritha (2016), ALM focuses on using drills of sentence patterns observing syntactic progression. This method helps the students control the structures of the language, which is much more engaging way of understanding grammar and structure than paper and pencil tests. Furthermore, dialogs that are not artificially expressed can provide a real context for the language forms.

The students will be able to experience how language is used in real interaction.

Keeping in view, the English teachers must provide a model of the target language.

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Memorizing lists of words translated in the vernacular, memorizing rules and translating poems into English and vernacular are characteristics of the Grammar Translation Method. The study of Oanh and Hein (2006) revealed that memorization is a helpful strategy for the majority of the students and teachers claimed that memorization was needed for learning grammar structures and vocabulary. Concurrent to the findings is the meaning-inferred method that Bagheri and Fazel (2011) cited as more efficient that results in better retention than a method where translations are directly given to the students. However, Calis and Dikilitas (2012) and Dagiliene (2012) viewed that translation is a reallife communicative activity and every day, at some point, the students will have to translate and use simpler terms in class, with their peers.

Drawing in the results of several studies, translation, direct and guided, seems to be an often used strategy and valued technique for many second language learners. It can be a valuable and creative teaching aid to support, integrate and further strengthen the four traditional language skills of reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Though considered a ‘classical method’ of language teaching, translation has always been a part of an English class. This practice resembles the way a person acquires the first language. As parents talk to their children, they use simplifications and translations to facilitate understanding of concepts.

Considerably, students believed that the teacher’s correction of their grammar errors made them learn English best. An error correction, done explicitly or through some form of a recasting, has been greatly favored by the students. In accordance with the findings of Emrani and Hooshmand (2019), students who encounter trouble in their utterances resorted to the practice of self-repair structures: inserting, replacing, deleting, and aborting. As such, teachers acquire evidences of students’ syntactic organization skills.

Students also considered the teachers’ provision of opportunities for practicing and experimenting with the target language as effective in language learning. It has been proven by theory and research that students’ language competence is associated with the length of meaningful language exposure. By using English, students are exposed to more complex structures of the language. However, ALM was identified as another effective way of language learning. The students acknowledged the primacy of oral presentation of language skills before its written form, the drill of patterns of English sentences and repetition after a model dialog as fundamental in their success in language learning.

With GTM as more popular, students are shunned from the thought that classroom instruction is conducted in English only. Their language exposure in the younger years could attribute to such felt difficulty. Conversely, Meniado (2019) believed that the students’ exposure, immersion and actual use aid in the achievement of a desired proficiency level in the target language. This explains why children exposed to the second language in the same way as they are exposed to the first language, achieved a great deal of success.

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It was also noted that the basic tenet of Direct Method, that is, devoid of translation to the native language, plenty of communication activities using English and minimal analysis of syntactic structures, were not very popular among the students. This implies that teachers must give sufficient time for extensive English language exposure for the students to learn the language successfully. A typical lesson design must allocate ample time to learn the language through the provision of activities that allow the students to experiment with the language. Comprehensible input must also be kept to a maximum.

English Teachers’ Classroom Practices Researches that looked into the teachers’ beliefs had shown that beliefs have an effect on teachers’ practices (Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2017). The favor credited to the Grammar Translation Method can be attributed to the fact that the majority of the teachers were taught English through GTM. They are products of a school system that emphasized memorizing structures to pass examinations, on basing students’ grades on their capacity to arrive at objectively predetermined answers.

Word simplification seems to be the easiest route to learning new words in the target language. It aids comprehension and since it develops a foundation in the acquisition of schemata. Correcting grammar errors and explaining why such errors are necessary is a ‘Designer’ Method and was evident in the teachers’ practices. This is an indication that they are sensitive to establishing a low affective filter to acquire the target language (Jing, Xiaodong & Yu, 2016; Mehmood, 2018). However, not entertaining questions if not in English and not translating passages into the mother tongue is the least evident practice. This indicates that teachers allowed the students to speak in their mother tongue even in their English class. This is in consonance with the provision that local language can be used as an auxiliary language in education.

Hos and Kekec’s (2014) findings supported the result when the majority of the teacher-respondents expressed that communicative activities are preferred over the teacher-led question-and-answer and translation. However, their study also unveiled that most of the participants believed that correction may not be done if the students manage to put their ideas across despite their grammatical flaws.

Language functions are given primacy over language forms. The first objective should be to convey message, especially at early levels. Nevertheless, the participants added that recurrent mistakes must be addressed to avoid the fossilization process.

Convergence and Divergence of the Teachers’ and Students’ Beliefs on Effective Language Teaching One of the major reasons for convergence is how the students were exposed to the learning of English. Like the teachers, the students were products of a system that values grammar translation. The more importance the teacher gives to a specific language item, the more thought and attention students will devote for learning it. Hence, these time-tested methods are still recognized as valuable in

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English and the result indicates that the ideas espoused by these methods are still upheld in their classrooms. Al-Issa (2012) captured this essence as transformational challenges. Besides, the majority of the teacher-respondents have been teaching English for less than 20 years, with ages that range from 2135. The age difference between the teachers and the students seem not to spell any variation as to the belief on when and how learning English is most effective. Moreover, most of them have earned units in the master’s program and all have been exposed to in-service trainings and seminars at least twice a year. The input acquired, along with the theories they learned in school, continually shapes and reshapes their beliefs towards language teaching. The assertions that their exposure to English with their teachers, not to discount from their peers and family, has influenced them in the way they approach language teaching. Belief systems do not simply change within a short span of time. With the convergence, teachers and students are moving in the same direction to accomplish the aim of improving the latter’s linguistic performance.

Convergence and Divergence of the Teachers’ Beliefs and their Practices The teachers’ espoused beliefs on effective language teaching had been cascaded into their practices. The result is in contrast to what Basturkmen, Loewen, and Ellis (2004), as cited in Hos and Kekec (2014), revealed about teachers’ beliefs that are not observed in classroom practices due to unanticipated events in a lesson. Also, the study of Balushi (2019) and Dunworth, (2013) presented the divergence between what the teachers believed and what they actually do in the classrooms. Although most of them believed in implicit, problem solving activities, and presentation of concepts inductively, there was much value placed upon grammatical terminology, formal instruction, and explicit grammar teaching. In the study of Phipps and Borg (2009), cases of mismatch were noted between the teachers’ practices and their grammar teaching beliefs. The same divergence was also noted in the study of Tok (2010) between teachers’ beliefs for grammar activities and their actual practices in teaching. In addition, Amara’s (2015) study showed that teachers used explicit correction due to the demand of time instead of their espoused belief on the effectiveness of the elicitation technique. Their beliefs about corrective feedback were not evident during the observation of classes.

In Hos and Kekec’s (2014) study, the teachers maintained the use of CLT in the classroom, but the observations revealed that majority use GTM as a methodology in teaching. Translations to students’ language and mechanical drills were observed instead of having communicative tasks using authentic materials. Moreover, another mismatch was identified in the findings of Saengboon (2012) that examined teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices about grammar teaching. The result revealed that teachers’ beliefs, due to complexities, are not reflected in their classroom practices.

General implications can be drawn from the salient findings of convergence with the view of offering a more effective way of teaching. At the outset, teachers’ beliefs must be recognized to make teaching practices responsive to the students’ needs and to better teaching training services. Since there were no

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identified inconsistencies in the result, the teachers can strengthen their belief systems and so with their practices to have a deeper understanding of effective teaching. In this manner, they can better address the needs of their diverse learners. Secondly, to ensure an ingrained knowledge of the latest trends in language teaching, in-service seminars and trainings must continually include “the teaching of English” as a topic among English teachers. This is to reactivate their pedagogical content knowledge. They will be directed to consider what experts labelled as “washback effect” by raising awareness on the forms of language assessments and the criteria for grading concerning the linguistic objectives. Creativity will always be tested due to the lack of suitable and sufficient resources. Teachers need to constantly reinvent their classes. Several methods and a combination of more than one method are thought to be the solution to make teaching and learning successful.

The Teachers’ Classroom Praxes along the Pedagogic Parameter of Practicality and Particularity Post-method pedagogy consists of some ways of meeting the restrictions of the concept of method by going beyond its limitations. It is about formulating a personal theory on what constitutes an effective teaching pedagogy in the context of one’s classroom. By this, teachers are free to adjust, adapt and alter their classroom practices based on the realities of their classrooms. Khatib and Fathi (2012) claimed that through prior and ongoing experience with learning and teaching, teachers gather an unexplained and sometimes explainable awareness of what constitutes good teaching.

Teachers’ modest deviations from the accustomed way of teaching found support in Richards and Rogers (2001, as cited in Brown, 2009), suggesting that the current language teaching profession is in a ‘post-methods’ era. They argued that no longer should teachers feel obligated to follow the overly prescriptive mandates of one certain method or approach. They encourage teachers to identify principles of effective language teaching that would guide their classroom decisions, not dictate them. Some of the principles they espoused include learners’ engagement in the lesson, provision of opportunities for maximum student participation, development of learners’ responsibility and confidence and acquisition of learning strategies. The current state of teaching leads to the idea of potentialities and actualities. Zeng (2014) and Khany and Darabi (2014) emphasized teacher autonomy in post-method era. As autonomous teachers, they can: (1) redevelop the textbooks by the ways of deleting, reordering, replacing, modifying the contents or justifying the teaching methods; (2) construct EFL learning environments in and out of classrooms; and (3) promote learners’ language awareness and cross-cultural awareness.

By particularity, it means sensitivity to the prevailing contingencies of teaching.

The practice of particularity makes English teaching context-sensitive, location and time-specific such that the local exigencies are given utmost consideration to solve pressing difficulties faced by the teachers. Practicality and particularity are closely intertwined that one is seen as the realization of the other. The two parameters interact with each other in a synergistic relationship.

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Evidence of paradigm shift can be noted in some practices like adapting a method of their own, contextualizing the content, the activity, and how these activities are conducted (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, & Snow, 2020). In making decisions on how and what to teach, the teachers have considered their specific students’ needs and context. Sensitivity to differing backgrounds, goals, and milieu was evident in their responses.

Since educational needs, wants, and situations are unpredictable and everchanging, teaching behaviors which were practiced by more than half of the respondents are clear indices of the application of particularity in teaching.

Acknowledging the teacher’s vicarious experiences, there is no consensus in the fundamental concepts of language teaching. No single method can account for students’ success in a language class. It has always been a cycle of life, death, and rebirth of methods. While sciences have advanced by approximations in which each new stage results from an improvement, not rejection, of what has gone before, language-teaching methods have followed the pendulum of fashion from one extreme to the other (Baroudy & Far, 2008).

Similarly, Huda (2013) elucidated that every context has its own peculiarities, and therefore, needs to be considered separately while constructing pedagogy for that context; otherwise language teaching will not be effective and practical.

As teachers modify their ways of teaching, they are addressing peculiarities in their classrooms. As such, a distinct method is developed. Conforming per concept of particularity, teachers unconsciously shifted away from ingrained beliefs and redesign their teaching based on their experiences in their classroom context.

In a nutshell, the method-based pedagogy does not support teachers’ autonomy, for the methods are served directly on a platter with little or no critical room for critical judgment (Kumaravadivelu, 2001). This is a top-down process that does not make the teachers empowered and independent to incorporate the local exigencies in teaching.

6. Conclusion Practices are influenced by the teachers’ set of belief systems. The convergence between their beliefs and practices has led them to shape their classroom practices. Due to the dynamism of English language teaching, the idea of inevitability and desirability of pendulum-like swing of methods is challenged.

No longer do teachers use a method from one theoretical extreme to the other because they have invented their own distinctive method which is sensitive to the prevailing context of teaching. English language teaching in the 21st century and onwards is best viewed in a pedagogical continuum.

As the scope of the study covers English language teaching in the basic education, teacher education institutions may revisit the program on pre-service teachers’ acquisition of generic professional knowledge as this would become the foundation of their beliefs that shape their classroom practices in the future.

Periodic self-assessment of teachers can be very valuable so they can have the

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time to indulge in an in-depth reflection, analysis, and evaluation of their practices. In so doing, they can arrive at the formulation of their personal theories of learning which will become the basis of classroom modifications to address the limitations experienced by the employment of conventional methods. The school administrations may design and conduct programs that support the teachers’ awareness of local exigencies. One of these can be an initiative towards producing and utilizing authentic rather than stilted materials for classroom use. Accordingly, future studies may be done on developing teachers’ pedagogical creativity.

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Calis, E., & Dikilitas, K (2012). The use of translation in EFL classes as L2 learning practice, Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46(2012)-5079-5084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.389 Carless, D. (2012). Innovation in language teaching and learning, The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics.

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Chen, M. (2014). Postmethod pedagogy and its influence on EFL teaching strategies. English Chinese university students. ERIC - Education Resources Information Center. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1075666.pdf Dagiliene, I. (2012). Translation as a learning method in English language teaching. Mokslo žurnalas Kalbų studijos / Studies about Languages. http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.sal.0.21.1469 Dunworth, K. (2013). In-course student English language development. In Five Years On: English Language Competence of International Students (pp. 52-74). International Education Association of Australia (IEAA).

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World English, 22(4), 539-550. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.2003.00317.x Mehmood, T. (2018). Bridging the gap: change in classroom environment to help learners lower affective filters. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ), 9(3), 129-144. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol9no3.9 Meniado, J. (2019). Second language acquisition: The case of Filipino migrant workers.

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Phipps, S., & Borg, S. (2009) Exploring tensions between teachers’ grammar teaching beliefs and practices. An International Journal of Educational Technology and Applied Linguistics, 37(3), 380-390. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ849429 Sadeghi, K., & Abdi, H. (2015). A comparison of EFL teachers and students’ beliefs about language learning. MEXTESO Journal, 39(1), 1-14.

Saengboon, S. (2012). Exploring beliefs of exemplary Thai EFL teachers toward teaching efficacy. Journal of Education and Practice, 3(4), 39-44.

Saritha, K. V. (2016). Audio-lingual method in ELT. Scholars Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(6), 725-726. https://doi.org/10.21276/sjahss.2016.4.6.16 Scholl, J. (2017). Reconceptualizing post-method pedagogy. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World, 15(3), 96-101.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 103-119, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.6

First-Year Accounting Student Teachers’ Constructivist Learning Experiences, The Lecturer’s Role and Implications for Curriculum Implementation Medson Mapuya Sol Plaatje University, Kimberley, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7331-5113 Abstract. The purpose of this study was to explore the constructivist learning experiences of first-year accounting student teachers and the implications these learning experiences have for curriculum implementation. The study employed a phenomenological research design and followed a qualitative research approach in which data were collected using focus group interviews. Content analysis and qualitative coding were used to analyse the qualitative data generated by the focus group interviews. Premised on the findings, the study recommends that as key stakeholders involved in curriculum implementation, lecturers should engage empathically with students on issues regarding pedagogy and subject didactics. Of central importance to the recommendations made in this study is that key questions regarding teaching and learning activities should be informed by the dynamic learning needs of students.

It therefore follows that lecturers ought to adopt a more studentparticipative, collaborative and consultative approach towards curriculum implementation and obtain regular feedback from students about their learning experiences.

Keywords: constructivist learning implementation; student teachers

experiences;

curriculum

1. Introduction The transition from high school to university education marks a radical shift from a highly supportive and structured learning environment to one that is more complex and sophisticated and that emphasises autonomous learning (Mapuya, 2018; Millet, 2015; Pieterse, 2015; Hodgson, Lam and Chow, 2010). Consequently, this transition is traditionally associated with a plethora of challenges for firstyear students. These include curriculum implementation approaches which are not compatible with their learning styles; lack of lecturer and peer support; a hostile, uncollaborative, individualistic, demotivating and demoralising learning

©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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environment; abstract meaningless learning experiences; self-centred competition; emotional insecurity and new social and academic systems (Wangeri, Kimani and Motweleli, 2012; Millet, 2015; Pieterse, 2015). In the same vein, Mbude (2018) cites the Cambridge Assessment International Education Report indicating that 85% of learners in South Africa aspire to enrol at institutions of higher learning. However, according to Mbude (2018), very few of those students will graduate within the course completion period.

Further to the above, Du Toit (2018), Seroto (2015) and Ko and Chung (2014) jointly caution that the social dynamics in the higher education learning environment have a material effect on the learning experiences of students.

Against this backdrop, it is necessary to establish and maintain an academically supportive, friendly and participative learning environment which promotes the academic success and course completion rates of students. This call is made in light of research evidence presented by Fardon (2013), Fayombo (2015), Bautitsa (2014), Bosman (2015) and Pollard (2014) that academic performance is correlated with the students’ learning experiences and the approaches that are used to implement the curriculum (Killen, 2016; Radovan and Makovec, 2015).

Given the foregoing, Nel, Nel and Hugo (2012) and Mapuya (2018) make a plausible argument that the dynamism and complexity of the learning environment in which students access the curriculum should always be the premise for educational research on the learning experiences of students. From the above submissions, it is therefore necessary to understand how students interpret and perceive their learning experiences. Such understanding can potentially galvanize lecturers to create and foster positive learning experiences for students. These learning experiences should be orchestrated around the precepts and pedagogical assumptions of social constructivism as propounded and pioneered by Vygotsky (1978, 1986). Regrettably, Gilakjani, Leong and Ismail (2013) lament that a critical analysis of the nature and type of teaching to which students are exposed reveals that very little has changed from the highly lecturercentred learning environments where the lecturer merely passes information to students and gives orders.

Davids and Waghid (2020) caution that while academic performance remains at the core of success, access and retention in higher education, students experience the most severe sense of exclusion, alienation and displacement in the learning environment. The reasons advanced by Davids and Waghid (2020) for this are that the students are not able to navigate through the demands and expectations of the learning environment and that they are never heard or seen. Although the dominant discourses of teaching and learning and the students’ learning experiences in higher education tend to differ significantly among institutions, socially, geographically, economically and politically they are defined by specific discourses which form part of the pedagogical ethos and teaching culture in the learning environment.

Makola (2016) and Mapuya (2018) share the interest and concern of Davids and Waghid (2020) about the poor completion rates of students in higher education.

While Davids and Waghid (2020) attribute this to lack of transformation in the higher education landscape and the learning environment, Yadav (2016) and

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Mapuya (2018) share the commonly held view that this is a result of a lack of a radical paradigm shift in curriculum implementation approaches. To this effect, Akalu (2017) cautions that increased student participation is crucial towards the democratisation of access and completions rates by not only making higher education available to many students but also through ensuring that curriculum implementation is conscious of the students’ learning needs (Jensen and Frederick, 2016; Van Wyk and Dos Reis, 2016; Mapuya, 2018).

In the same vein, Davids and Waghid (2020) caution that critical to the idea of student participation in higher education is the fact that the increased enrolment of students signifies the broadening and diversifying of the learning environment and educational setup in higher education. As such, student diversity points to a high probability of different perspectives and voices with regard to what constitutes meaningful, effective learning experiences and ideal curriculum implementation approaches. Thus, the pedagogical views of Vygotsky (1978, 1986) as discussed below, become critical in this regard.

In alignment with the above theoretical perspectives, this study sought to address the following questions: • • •

What are the constructivist learning experiences of first-year accounting student teachers?

What is the role of the lecturer in a constructivist learning environment for accounting?

How do the constructivist learning experiences of students implicate curriculum implementation approaches in accounting education?

2. Conceptualisation of Social Constructivism, Pedagogy and Education Social constructivism has been defined in various ways by different scholars, intellectuals and researchers of diverse interests and disciplines in education, management, sociology and psychology (Vygotsky, 1978, 1986; Lombard and Themane, 2015; Van Wyk and Dos Reis, 2016; Ormrod, 2014b; Tulbure, 2012).

Concurring with the above sentiments, Yadav (2016) admits that the constructivist pedagogical approach has been viewed in many different perspectives and has also been underpinned by a host of assumptions. Among others, these are radical constructivism, trivial constructivism, cultural constructivism and social constructivism.

Expressing their theoretical position on the definition of constructivism, Gilakjani et al. (2013) perceive constructivism to be a philosophical school of thought which assumes that reality is the mental construction of individuals who believe that they were involved in its discovery and investigation. Hence, this view of constructivism follows that learning is regarded as a self-regulated activity in which concrete experiences, reflection and discussion are used to resolve inner conflicts that emerged. The perspectives of Gilakjani et al. (2013) are consistent with the stance taken by Ormrod (2014b) and Peach-Squibb (2014) who asserted that the social constructivist school of thought acknowledges learning as an active and socially dependant construction of knowledge, meaning and understanding.

Peach-Squibb (2014) advanced that this construction of knowledge, meaning and understanding is not limited by age or the stage of cognitive development.

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Instead, it emphasises the importance of student involvement and participation in the actual development of personally important and relevant perspectives of? the subject matter.

In addition, Gilakjani et al. (2013) and Van Wyk (2016) subscribe to the earlier views of Vygotsky (1978, 1986). As such, they both argue that at the centre of the arguments advanced by constructivists is the assumption that knowledge, meaning and understanding must be personally constructed by students and not supplied by the lecturer. Ormrod (2014) also supports the above assertions.

Therefore, Ormrod (2014) views social constructivism as a theoretical perspective which looks at the collective efforts of individuals to construct and impose meaning on the world from their experiences. In the same vein, Yadav (2016) maintains that the major assumption of constructivism is that students can actively construct their own knowledge and understanding of the subject matter, premised on their own lived experiences. This argument is in harmony with the earlier perspectives of Nie and Lau (2010) and Peach-Squibb (2014) that constructivism emphasises the culture, social context and collaborative nature of learning.

Social constructivism assumes that while knowledge is created by an individual student, it is enhanced, precipitated and shaped by the social interactions and collaboration of students in the learning environment. In Yadav’s (2016) understanding, social constructivism is an approach to pedagogy which holds that learning is a social process which involves real life experiences, real world experiences, language, collaboration, cooperation and interaction among students.

A critical prognosis of the above perspectives reveals that the interest of social constructivists is fundamentally rooted and anchored in the internal aspects of the teaching and learning process. Van Wyk and Dos Reis (2016) and Lombard and Themane (2015) all subscribe to the earlier sentiments of Vygotsky (1978, 1986) that social constructivism is a theoretical perspective which emphasises the shared and collective efforts of students to construct and impose meaning on the world from their experiences. To this effect, Jensen and Frederick (2016) postulate that social constructivism maintains that the social, cultural and historical contexts in which students grow up and in which they find themselves have some serious effects on and implications for their thinking, learning and effective classroom instruction.

As propounded by Vygotsky (1978, 1986), students create knowledge and understanding from their experiences and observations rather than by memorising and absorbing facts. In trying to expand this narrative, Lombard and Themane (2015) and Ormrod (2014b) concur that social constructivists assume that individuals put together what they learn into solid bodies of knowledge and beliefs that may either be inaccurate or correct. An equally important feature of social constructivism is that it concentrates on how students create and acquire knowledge through their personal interactions with the environment, a process which Ormrod (2014) understands as individual constructivism.

Another significant factor about social constructivism is that it maintains that through working together, two or more students can negotiate and create a better

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understanding than an individual student can obtain when working alone (Ormrod, 2014; Vygotsky, 1978). Premised on the above theoretical perspective, it therefore follows that social constructivism advocates for the socialisation of the teaching and learning process and regards peer collaboration and cooperation as important variables for successful implementation of the accounting curriculum.

3. Social Constructivism in Accounting Education and the Role of the Lecturer in a Social Constructivist Learning Environment Research findings globally indicate that the pedagogical assumptions of social constructivism have been widely embraced and acknowledged (Visser and Vreken, 2013; Daniel and Bimbola, 2010; Taole, 2015; Van Wyk and Dos Reis, 2016). However, the actual implementation of these social constructivist assumptions in accounting pedagogy and the learning environment has been largely unsatisfactory and minimal. In addition, since the advent of the idea of social constructivist teaching and learning (Vygotsky, 1978, 1986; Visser and Vreken, 2013; Daniel and Bimbola, 2010; Taole, 2015; Van Wyk and Dos Reis, 2016), there has been a phenomenal global research interest in the educational gains of social constructivism.

As a pioneer and ardent advocate of social constructivism in teaching and learning, Vygotsky (1978, 1986) highlighted the cognitive and pedagogical effects of social constructivism and its subsequent benefits in education. As a result of these professed gains of social constructivism in the teaching and learning process, there has been satisfactory enduring interest in researching its application. As such, verdicts from the literature (Horsthemke, Siyakwazi, Walton and Wolhuter, 2013; Mapuya, 2018; Vygotsky, 1978, 1986; Lombard and Themane, 2015; Killen, 2016; Jacobs, 2016; Daniel and Bimbola, 2010; Van Wyk and Dos Reis, 2016) with respect to social constructivism demonstrate a shared emphasis on the socialisation of the teaching and learning process, with active student participation at the core.

An extensive review of relevant literature has revealed no currently existing prescriptions on the roles of the accounting lecturer in an accounting social constructivist learning environment. However, the participative, interactive and practical nature of the accounting content resonates well with the pedagogical imperatives of social constructivism. It is highly compatible with the assumptions of social constructivism as advanced by Vygotsky (1978). As such, social constructivism finds relevance and applicability in accounting education, despite the absence of application guidelines.

Yadav (2016) subscribes to the earlier views of Gilakjani et al. (2013) and Ginny (2012) that every student in the learning environment is regarded as a unique individual. To this end, Ginny (2012) observed that personal attributes such as the individual disposition and cultural background and prior knowledge influence the students’ learning. For this reason, Gilakjani et al. (2013) suggest that the lecturer needs to take all these student variables into consideration and help students to construct new knowledge out of what they have learned into the context of their lived experiences and lives.

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In advocating for social constructivist learning, Vygotsky (1978, 1986, 1987 and 1997) is clear about the role of the significant knowledgeable persons in the teaching and learning process and the creation of knowledge, meaning and understanding. The pedagogical implication by Vygotsky (1978; 1986; 1987 and 1997) with regard to the principal role of the lecturer in a constructivist learning environment is that of scaffolding, a learning mediator and facilitator, over and above being a source of knowledge and providing support for learning. In their synopsis of Vygotsky’s (1978; 1986; 1987 and 1997) views on social constructivist teaching and learning, Yadav (2016), Ginny (2012), Killen (2016), Jensen and Frederick (2016), Van Wyk (2016), Liu and He, (2014), and Ko and Chung (2014) affirm the above roles of the lecturer in a social constructivist learning environment.

An emphatic view of the above is provided by Yadav (2016), Vakalisa (2016), Gawe, Jacobs and Vakalisa (2016) and Van Wyk (2016) who all agree that the role of the lecturer in the learning environment needs to change from the all-time traditional role of prescription to the one of a learning mediator and facilitator. In the collective perspectives of Ginny (2012), Yadav (2016) and Gilakjani et al.

(2013), the primary role of the lecturer in a social constructivist learning environment is to adapt to the students’ needs and provide them with the freedom to construct knowledge and understanding for themselves. In this constructivist learning environment, Yadav (2016) subscribes to the earlier views of Gilakjani et al. (2013) that every student is regarded as a unique individual. Personal variables such as the individual disposition, cultural background and prior knowledge are believed by Yadav (2016) and Jensen and Frederick (2016) to have a material effect on students’ learning.

The theoretical verdicts emerging from literature on the role of the lecturer in social constructivist literature suggest that lecturer quality is one of the most central and significant factors that determine the students’ learning experiences and academic performance (Killen, 2016; Van Wyk, 2016; Ginny, 2012 and Vakalisa, 2016). To this end, Gilakjani et al. (2013) contend that the lecturer is even more important when considering the assumptions of social constructivism as a curriculum implementation approach. Ginny (2012) shares similar sentiments and further argues that the success of students is dependent on the lecturer’s knowledge, pedagogical competencies, actions and beliefs (Van Wyk, 2016).

Recent proponents of social constructivist learning such as Van Wyk (2016), Mapuya (2018), Yadav (2016), Vakalisa (2016), Gawe, Jacobs and Vakalisa (2016), Taole and Van Wyk (2015) support the earlier views of Ginny (2012) on the factors which should guide the lecturer in social constructivist learning. Ginny (2012) suggests that when helping students to learn, the lecturer needs to pay attention to two important factors, namely the zone of proximal development and the social and cultural context of learning. Accordingly, Ginny (2012) and Yadav (2016) caution that the lecturer should consider the students’ zone of proximal development and then provide students with the necessary assistance they require to construct new knowledge, understanding and meaning.

The second factor is premised on the critical stance adopted by Van Wyk (2016) and Jensen and Frederick (2016) about the social and cultural context of learning

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being a significant variable in social constructivist learning. In light of this theoretical perspective of social constructivist learning, Ginny (2012) emphasises that the lecturer should then foster, facilitate and enhance peer interaction, collaboration and cooperation among students. Contemplating on the critical role of the lecturer in the social constructivist learning environment, Yadav (2016) supports the earlier sentiments of Ginny (2012) that even though much learning is self-directed and regulated, the lecturer needs to ensure that students have access to adequately challenging material to learn and develop academically.

However, Ginny (2012) warns that this learning material must not be so challenging to students that they are discouraged from their self-regulated learning. This corroborates Vygotsky’s (1978, 1986, 1987 and 1997) pedagogical views on the role of the significant knowledgeable persons in social constructivist learning.

In addition, Killen (2016), Liu and He (2014) and Ko and Chung (2014) suggest that the lecturer ought to be flexible and adapt to the individual interests and learning needs of students. To this effect, Ginny (2012) believes that ensuring that the learning environment is supportive and positive is an important success factor of social constructivist teaching and learning. As argued by Yadav (2016), this gives students emotional security and confidence to challenge themselves cognitively and the courage to make mistakes, knowing that they will be corrected. Alluding to these perceptions, Ginny (2012) cautions that the lecturer needs to assure students that they are on the right track, that mistakes can be corrected and that their ideas are powerful and valuable in the learning process.

In performing the role of a learning mediator, a facilitator and scaffolder, Gilakjani et al. (2013) suggest that the lecturer ought to correct or confirm the knowledge constructed by students. In this way, Killen (2016) observed that the lecturer stimulates and enhances powerful and effective construction of knowledge, meaning and understanding. Van Wyk (2016) proposes that the constructivist lecturer is responsible for guiding and prompting students to recall experiences that can improve, develop and strengthen their prior learning. Most importantly, Yadav (2016) concurs with Taole and Van Wyk (2015) that the lecturer should give students the opportunity to choose learning activities, ask them to explain question answers and prompt them to be actively involved.

On the other hand, Gilakjani et al. (2013) and Ginny (2012) speak in one voice that the role of students in a social constructivist learning is primarily to engage and interact with each other, the lecturer, the educational materials at their disposal and the world around them. Jensen and Frederick (2016) and Ginny (2012) concur that students are able to construct knowledge, meaning and understanding through active engagement, observing and analysing the interaction of ideas and creating a cognitive framework to make sense and meaning. Ginny (2012) in particular suggests that students are usually at liberty to follow their own interests, provided they are challenging themselves to form new ideas in this process. It is the researcher’s view that this is where the role of the lecturer as a learning mediator and facilitator in social constructivist learning is crucial.

In emphasising the role of students and the structuring of learning in a social constructivist learning environment, Killen (2016) and Van Wyk (2016) endorse

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the earlier perspectives of Ginny (2012) that students are not in competition with each other. Instead, students are encouraged to work collaboratively and cooperatively, sharing and exchanging ideas, knowledge and various perspectives about the subject matter. In the shared views of Mapuya (2018), Yadav (2016) and Taole and Van Wyk (2015), the above argument is consistent with what Vygotsky (1978, 1986, 1987 and 1997) referred to as the socialisation of the teaching and learning process as advanced by the social constructivist school of thought. Furthermore, Gilakjani et al. (2013) agree with Ginny (2012) that in cases where students have adequate knowledge and understanding of the content currently being dealt with, students can take up the role of the lecturer and assist their classmates. In this way, Ginny (2012) argues that such students also reinforce their own knowledge and understanding.

From the various literature perspectives presented above, it can be concluded that the construction of knowledge, understanding and meaning in a constructivist learning environment depends on the active involvement and participation of students who will be responsible for their own learning. The role of the lecturer is therefore to create and enhance an effective learning environment in which selfdirected and self-regulated learning can thrive.

4. Implications of Learning Experiences on Curriculum Implementation The researcher subscribes to the sentiments of Davids and Waghid (2020) about student-centred curriculum implementation approaches. Davids and Waghid (2020) caution that the paradigm shift towards student-centred learning has some material implications for teaching and those directly involved in curriculum implementation. Lecturers are an indispensable part of curriculum implementation and cannot be detached from the learning experiences of students. In justification of this claim, Davids and Waghid (2020) indicate that lecturers do not only bring more than subject knowledge to the learning environment, but they also ensure that students achieve academic success.

Orchard, Heilbronn and Winstanley (2016) provide a more compelling and convincing analysis of why lecturers are regarded as crucial stakeholders in curriculum implementation and the learning environment as an interconnected educational and social system. Accordingly, Orchard et al. (2016) argue that lecturers influence, inspire, motivate and challenge students to explore, think deeper and step out of their comfort zone. It is the researchers’ view that this is only realisable when curriculum implementation approaches do not only resonate well with the students, but are also compatible with their learning needs, thereby making them develop a deep sense of inclusion and recognition in the learning environment.

Notwithstanding the above verdicts, a study conducted by Davids and Waghid (2020) revealed that lecturers experience challenges in ensuring that students develop a sense of inclusion and recognition in the educational setup. This was attributed to the lecturers’ unwillingness and incapacity to reach out to students with their diverse backgrounds, perceptions and perspectives. In this study, lecturers admitted that dealing with diverse students was a serious challenge. As

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a result, these lecturers made no attempt to know and understand all the students in the learning environment in terms of their learning needs.

Against these findings, Davids and Waghid (2020) lament that policy reform measures to transform the higher education landscape have significantly ignored who lecturers are and the dynamics which they bring to the learning environment.

Davids and Waghid (2020) contend that a host of those directly involved in curriculum implementation are either not well equipped or lack the willingness and desire to implement the types of teaching practices towards student-centred learning environments. Davids and Waghid (2020) further point out that lecturers are not ready to advance participative and student- centred learning to support education and pedagogical reform in higher education.

As in the case of inclusive education, a student-centred learning environment means that all the students are accommodated in the educational setup. It further implies that all students are able to experience active involvement in teaching and learning activities because their interests, abilities, backgrounds and insights are not only valued but also taken into consideration. As cautioned by Killen (2016), a student-centred learning environment ought to acknowledge the diversity of students and encourage the participation of all students whose social and cultural backgrounds are represented.

Curriculum implementation is generally a rational and objective practice which varies from one lecturer to the other. Further to the above, Davids and Waghid (2020) subscribe to the earlier views of Orchard et al. (2016) who suggest that curriculum implementation is always shaped and affected by the various socialcultural contexts. These social-cultural contexts are also subject to constant continuous change. In the collective views of Davids and Waghid (2020) and Orchard et al. (2016), students are an essential educational resource in the learning environment. In this regard, Orchard et al. (2016) in particular argue that the identities, perspectives and perceptions of students can be exploited to enhance curriculum implementation and their learning experiences. Premised on the prognosis of Davids and Waghid (2020), this follows that curriculum implementation is not a one-dimensional process in which lecturers talk and give instructions while students are expected to listen and absorb subject content.

In contextualising the above scholarly views, it is the researchers’ contention that predominantly lecturer-centred curriculum implementation approaches such as direct instruction have increasingly become obsolete in a 21st century learning environment which is student driven. It is for this reason that Davids and Waghid (2020) argue that curriculum implementation demands contextual cognisance as demonstrated and represented by the students in the learning environment. In corroboration of this school of thought, Orchard et al. (2016) caution that curriculum implementation can neither dismiss nor neglect the importance of linking pedagogy, teaching and learning activities with issues of student diversity, their lived experiences and social justice education.

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5. Methodology The study adopted a phenomenological research design which was underpinned by a qualitative research approach in generating qualitative data to answer the research questions. The research design and research approach were found to be highly compatible with the phenomena under investigation and the research questions raised. To obtain an accurate view of the constructivist learning experiences of first-year accounting student teachers, it was necessary to provide the students with an opportunity to reflect on their previous learning experiences consciously and thoughtfully. To this effect, a phenomenological research design was deemed the most suitable to generate qualitative data on the constructivist learning experiences of the study participants. The population of the study was all the first-year B.Ed. accounting student teachers.

Emphasising personal objective views on individual previous learning experiences, focus group interviews were used to enable students to share their learning experiences. A set of eight questions developed from relevant literature was used to guide these focus group discussions. Forty-eight students were randomly selected using a class list and they were then grouped into eight groups of six students for the focus group interviews. The groups for the focus group interviews were identified alphabetically from A to H. Similarly, each student in the focus group interviews was assigned a unique code with the alphabet letter of the group and the student’s numerical position in the group. For instance, the first student in focus group interview A was named Student A1, while the group for the interview was named FGI GA (meaning Focus Group Interview Group A).

As one of the underlying precepts of focus group interviews and qualitative research, follow-up and probing questions were used to solicit further refined personal views from the responses. In a phenomenological qualitative research, reality is both objective and mutually negotiated; therefore, the students were allowed to deliberate on their individual constructivist learning experiences in relation to a question. Content analysis and qualitative coding were used to analyse data, paying particular attention to the main ideas emanating from the respondents’ responses. As discussed below, these responses were then grouped into themes and sub-themes, based on the meaning they conveyed about the constructivist learning experiences of the first-year accounting student teachers.

As a measure to ensure the validity and truthfulness of data and the ultimate findings of the study, the techniques of validation and member checking were used. Thus to ensure that the views and intended meanings of the participants have been accurately captured and interpreted, the study made use of member checking. This follows that the main and sub-themes which emerged from the focus group interviews were communicated to the participants for verification purposes and confirmation of the truthfulness thereof. Through this process, the researcher ensured that the participants concurred with the findings. In this way, the participants were given an opportunity to endorse the findings as valid, truthful and as an accurate representation of their views and perceptions on their constructivist learning experiences.

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6. Research Findings After a rigorous thematic analysis of the qualitative sentiments of students, the following main themes emerged and were clearly distinguishable.

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The Student Teachers’ Constructivist Learning Experiences

Despite the availability of an avalanche of scientific evidence to support and advocate for constructivist learning environments (Killen, 2016; Van Wyk, 2016; Ginny, 2012; Mapuya, 2018; Yadav, 2016; Taole and Van Wyk, 2015; Vygotsky, 1978; 1986; 1987 and 1997; Gilakjani et al., 2013), the findings of this study point to serious deficiencies in its application in accounting education. On the basis of the phenomenological voices and verdicts of students, this study established that the principles of social constructivism are not implemented in the accounting class.

All students were unanimous that the learning environment is predominantly lecturer-centred and agonisingly abstract.

Evidence in corroboration of the above findings is found in the phenomenological voice of student C1 in FGI GC who bemoaned: “Dr Mapuya, every Accounting class is like a church sermon. Mnr [Mr] only does the talking while we listen attentively. Like congregants in church, we can’t even talk and ask questions during the lesson presentation. He takes asking questions as unnecessary interruptions which must be avoided at all costs” With reference to the above views of student C1, student D3 in FGI GD confirmed: “A successful lesson presentation according to his criteria is one in which no student interrupted the lesson to ask a question. Ntate [Mr] enjoys all the control over lesson proceedings and simply expects us to adhere to instructions” In another separate focus group interview session, student A5 in FGI GA had this to say: “As students, we feel reduced to learning robots which are just supposedly programmed to absorb information in the accounting class and follow instructions without fail. Our individuality, learning needs and learning preferences are thrown out of the window in that class sir” To amplify the degree of lecturer-centeredness in the learning environment and the absence of student involvement and participation in the lesson, student B3 in FGI GB remarked: “I wish the accounting lecturer can involve us more in the lesson through class discussions, group discussions or thought provoking questions” The findings on the role of the lecturer in the constructivist learning environment are presented below:

•

The Role of the Lecturer in a Constructivist Learning Environment

While there is very little comparative empirical research on social constructivism in accounting education to interrogate this finding, this theme was found to be consistent with the one above on the students’ learning experiences in the accounting learning environment. All the students share similar views on the

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lecturer being in total control of the lesson, without any interactions or input from students. The lecturer dictates the pace of the lesson and selects activities for students from the textbook.

To vindicate the above findings, student D1 in FGI GD lamented: “Personally, nna (I), I think that our lecturer thinks that we are clueless about everything that he teaches. So he finds no point in involving us. He believes we cannot contribute positively towards the success of the lesson” In agreement with the above perspective of the role of the lecturer in the learning environment, student E6 in FGI GE had this to say: “Our duty is to listen and absorb information and not to ask questions.

We can only ask questions to our classmates in our study groups or group discussions.”

In FGI GD, student D2 commented: “I am sorry to say this, but the lessons are presented in a dictatorial manner. How can asking questions about something you don’t understand be regarded as a disruption of the lesson?”

Shedding more light on the idea of the lecturer playing a predominantly direct instruction role during lesson presentation, student H4 in FGI GH remarked: “Reading out to us from the textbook and telling us which activities to do from the textbook is all we get exposed to in class” Below are the findings on the implications of the students’ constructivist learning experiences on curriculum implementation:

•

Implications of the Students’ Constructivist Learning Experiences on Curriculum Implementation

The phenomenological voices of the students suggest that curriculum implementation approaches have a substantial effect on their learning experiences. The students are unanimous that the experiences of alienation, marginalisation, disempowerment, worthlessness and boredom are fundamentally a result of the manner in which the lesson and learning activities are structured.

In justification of the above verdict, student F1 in FGI GF shared the following views: “Reading to us, denying us the chance to ask questions and giving us orders in class makes us feel useless sir. It’s like we are all empty vessels.

I see no reason in attending those reading sessions.”

Student B6 in FGI GB also concurred with F1 in FGI GF by saying: “Our views about the lesson do not matter at all. We are just students. It ends there.”

Similar views were also conveyed by student E3 in FHI GE who claimed: “These lessons are boring because we are not involved or regarded as an important role player in the lesson.”

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Perhaps a more vivid picture of the influence of curriculum implementation approaches on the students’ learning experiences was portrayed by student C6 in FGI GC whose contribution was: “We sleep in class. We do not attend classes. No desire to be there in any way. All because of one-way communication, no interactions, no questions, no discussions, no effort to get our views on the subject matter, only a one-man show.”

The findings above are now discussed in light of other perspectives from the literature. Thereafter, recommendations are made.

7. Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations The phenomenological verdicts of students present compelling evidence to conclude that they are not exposed to any social constructivist teaching in the accounting class. However, this is not the only study to deliver such a verdict.

Investigations by Yadav (2016), Liu and He, (2014), Mapuya (2018) and Ko and Chung (2014) also delivered a similar diagnosis where the learning environment was highly structured and predominantly lecturer-centred. The manner in which teaching and learning activities are structured in the learning environment for accounting bears no resemblance to the principles of social constructivism.

However, what this study and the previous ones fail to indicate are the underlying causes of these deficiencies in the application and implementation of social constructivist pedagogical assumptions in the learning environment. Thus, there is a need for further investigation into the lack of application of constructivist principles as a function of the lecturers’ reluctance or lack of knowledge and skills in their application.

Contrary to the views emanating from literature perspectives on the role of the lecturer in a social constructivist learning environment (Ginny, 2012; Yadav, 2016; Gilakjani et al, 2013; Killen, 2016 and Van Wyk, 2016), this study has produced convincing evidence to conclude that the role of the lecturer in the accounting class is predominantly to pass information and knowledge to students in one-way communication. Furthermore, the lecturer has emerged as an absolute source of knowledge who is firmly in full control of the leaching and learning proceedings.

While this finding is inconsistent with literature verdicts produced by Yadav (2016) and Ginny (2012), it endorses the earlier finding about the lack of social constructivist pedagogical principles in the learning environment. Therefore, it confirms the cautions of Vygotsky (1978, 1986, 1987 and 1997), Killen (2016), Horsthemke, Siyakwazi, Walton and Wolhuter (2013), Jacobs (2016), Daniel and Bimbola (2010) and Evans et al. (2010) about what lecturers should avoid in order to create and enhance an ideal social constructivist learning environment.

With regard to the implications of the students’ learning experiences on curriculum implementation, the findings of this study concur with the sentiments of Vygotsky (1978., 1986, 1987 and 1997), Jensen and Frederick (2016), Mapuya (2018), Van Wyk (2016), Vakalisa (2016), Gawe et al. (2016), Ginny (2012) and Gilakjani et al. (2013) which emphasise the significant influence of curriculum implementation approaches on the students’ learning experiences. Accordingly, this study found that the approaches used to implement the accounting

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curriculum have a direct impact on the learning experiences of students.

Predominantly lecturer-centred curriculum implementation approaches have been found to be negatively associated with positive learning experiences for students. On the other hand, curriculum implementation approaches which are collaborative and participative in nature and which prioritise active student involvement and participation have revealed a positive influence on the students’ learning experiences. It therefore follows that curriculum implementation approaches should not only be informed by the learning preferences and needs of students but also by their learning experiences, as echoed in their reflective phenomenological voices.

In addition, the study also found that there is a serious need to adopt curriculum implementation approaches that assist students to develop some degree of resonance with the learning environment. This finding supports the sentiments of Davids and Waghid (2020) that owing to lack of radical transformation in the higher education landscape, most students feel alienated from the learning environment and the institution itself. To this effect, curriculum implementation approaches need to promote and encourage student autonomy, self-regulation, real life-based learning, collaborative group work, learning beyond the learning environment and a less structured learning environment in which student creativity can thrive.

While the evidence generated by this study on social constructivist learning is not absolute or conclusive, it does provide a scientific and empirical basis to argue for a radical paradigm shift in the curriculum implementation approaches used in higher education. On the premises of the findings of this study, there is a need to migrate from a predominantly lecturer-centred to a more student-centred participative, consultative and collaborative learning environment where students have collective ownership of academic failure or success. It is further recommended that the learning environment should be revolutionised and undergo some radical changes in terms of lecturer support.

Lecturers need to adopt a radical shift and move away from lecturer-centred approaches to participative and interactive student-centred approaches. These recommendations are also supported by Zhang, Olfma and Firpo (2010) and Davids and Waghid (2020) who believe that for students to feel included and acknowledged in the learning environment, it is essential to ensure that the dynamic and diverse identities of students, their backgrounds, lives, and forms of knowledge are resembled and reflected in the teaching and learning process and activities. This recommendation is also consistent with the pronouncements of the Department of Higher Education and Training (2015) in terms of the minimum requirements of teacher education qualifications in a South African context.

Lecturers need to realise that students are not cognitive machines or devices which they can switch on and off at their convenience without any due consideration of their learning needs. A constructivist learning environment demands the active involvement and participation of students in the teaching and learning process. As part of transforming the learning environment, it is important to empower lecturers with the necessary competencies and skills

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required for constructivist pedagogies. To this effect, institutions of higher learning should invest in lecturer training programmes and workshops on constructivist teaching. At the centre of these lecturer-empowerment initiatives should be training on their role as learning mediators in a constructivist learning environment. This study concurs with the recommendations of Khechane, Makara and Rambuda (2020) and Killen (2016) about obtaining evaluative feedback and enhancing a more participatory and interactive learning environment in which students are given feedback about their learning progress.

This study therefore recommends that in order to always be up-to-date with the learning needs, learning experiences and expectations of students, lecturers need to obtain regular feedback from students to this effect.

The findings of this study, together with the scholarly views from literature perspectives, provide a strong and powerful basis to advocate for social constructivism in accounting education. Conclusively, social constructivism is premised on the active engagement and participation of the accounting students and the accounting lecturer in an accounting learning environment. This study contends that social constructivist teaching and learning provides students with the much needed practical learning, negotiated meaning, problem-solving, evaluative, and analytical skills and understanding in accounting education.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 120-141, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.7

Flipped Classroom Method with ComputerAssisted Language Learning (CALL) in EFL Writing Class M. Ali Ghufron IKIP PGRI Bojonegoro, East Java, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0681-9140 Fitri Nurdianingsih IKIP PGRI Bojonegoro, East Java, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9806-7761

Abstract. This study revealed the strengths, weaknesses, and effectiveness of the flipped classroom with CALL in EFL writing class. A mixed-method approach was used to achieve the goals of the study. An embedded quasi-experimental methodology design was used to achieve the aims of this study (i.e., quantitative and qualitative data analysis).

There were a hundred and fifty Indonesian EFL university learners who participated in this study. This study also involved 14 EFL writing teachers who experienced implementing the flipped classroom with CALL from five universities. The results of this study revealed that a flipped classroom with CALL in EFL writing class has many advantages, such as stimulating learner autonomy, improving teaching and learning processes, providing more time for EFL writing and input during face-toface meetings, promoting active learning, student learning responsibility, and peer collaboration. Besides, some drawbacks were also found from its implementation. However, implementing the flipped classroom in the current study positively affects the EFL writing course. This study implies that teachers can include online resources such as videos from reputable sources or make their videos as learning materials if possible.

Keywords: CALL; EFL writing; Flipped classroom; mixed-method approach

1. Introduction The flipped classroom is a form of learning in which homework and preparation are modified, and learning occurs outside the classroom (Adnan, 2017; Bergmann, J., & Sams, 2012; Chen Hsieh, Wu & Marek, 2017; Karabulut-Ilgu, Jaramillo Cherrez & Jahren, 2018). According to Chen Hsieh et al., (2017), the new information is transmitted to students, mostly through videos, in the flipped classroom when they leave school. Students engage in realistic exercises and procedures under the ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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supervision of teachers at the school. A flipped classroom offers the ability to involve students actively and fosters an engaging learning atmosphere (Chuang, Weng & Chen, 2018). Before classes, videos are made available to students to learn at their speed (Chen Hsieh et al., 2017; Yu & Wang, 2016). The time for teaching is flexible in a flipped classroom, a vivid and engaging learning atmosphere is developed, and concepts can be detailed (Amiryousefi, 2017; Chen Hsieh et al., 2017; Francl, 2014). The flipped classroom also leads to better academic performance and reduces students’ cognitive pressure (Turan & Göktaş, 2018), and improves students’ participation (Chen Hsieh et al., 2017).

It is already known that learning a foreign language takes time, needs patience, and requires many exercises. For successful foreign language learning outcomes, students should be encouraged to actively participate in more learning activities to understand the target language better. Thus, due to insufficient time, teachers will be compelled to skip the core facets of active foreign language learning. Han (Han, 2015) suggests that the flipped classroom will contribute to language learning results by extending teaching outside the classroom and providing extra classroom activities. The paradigm of the flipped classroom is found useful in language learning because it encourages two main points of success, i.e., studentcentered learning and learner autonomy (Amiryousefi, 2017; Ghufron & Nurdianingsih, 2019, 2020; Han, 2015; Köroğlu & Çakır, 2017). According to Chen Hsieh et al., (2017), the flipped classroom method provides an appropriate learning environment with certain ELT benefits.

Writing in a foreign language, as a productive skill, is pivotal as learners are required to achieve an appropriate level of competence in written communication.

New language learning and teaching methods enhance communication within this context, so writing skills must be learned as much as possible in language classes. However, teachers are urged to revisit their teaching practices in classrooms where students have minimal opportunity to learn target languages to reduce their challenges and build more fun, inspiring, and self-reliant lessons (Ekmekci, 2017). In this sense, teachers of foreign languages should use technology in their classrooms (Purcell, Buchanan & Friedrich, 2013).

One strategy to facilitate teachers' instruction is to incorporate computer-assisted language learning (Alhasani, Masood & Wan, 2018). CALL has demonstrated its efficacy through previous studies in English language teaching and learning (Jafarian, Soori & Kafipour, 2012; Rahimi & Hosseini K., 2011; Talebinezhad & Abarghoui, 2013). Integrating CALL with the flipped classroom method can make the learning process to be moved to any location with Internet or Wi-Fi connection. Therefore, the term ‘classroom’ becomes borderless in this context (Webb et al., 2014). Flipped classroom with CALL uses technology to improve student autonomy and learning control (Webb & Doman, 2020).

Some experiments on the flipped classroom implementation with CALL in English language teaching have been conducted (Adnan, 2017; Ahmad, 2016; AlHarbi & Alshumaimeri, 2016; Arifani, 2019; Doman & Webb, 2017; Han, 2015; Sung, 2015). Adnan (2017) investigated the perceptions of ELT students in the flipped classroom. The findings show no substantial difference between the two

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groups in e-portfolios, but the flipped students’ scores were substantially improved compared to non-flipped students. The findings also indicate students’ positive perceptions and satisfactory experiences of learning. Ahmad (2016) explored the flipped classroom method's influence on the listening comprehension of Egyptian EFL students. The result indicates that the flipped classroom positively affects the Egyptian EFL students’ listening comprehension.

Al-Harbi and Alshumaimeri (2016) analyzed the flip strategy to explore its effect on the results, expectations, and attitudes of secondary school students in the Saudi context. The results show that the flipped classroom can enhance EFL students’ grammar mastery, and the students also responded positively to the flipped classroom implementation. Arifani (2019) has investigated the WhatsApp group and individual flipped classrooms' impact to help EFL students' mastery in collocation. The findings show that WhatsApp group activities resulted in better collocation mastery than individual WhatsApp activities. Learners who were taught with the small group flipped instruction through WhatsApp with small group collocation activities show more positive attitudes than the individual WhatsApp activities. Sung (2015) researched flipped classrooms on EFL content courses. The findings have shown that given initial difficulties in adapting to the flipped classroom, the students have positively seen the flipped approach. In addition, they considered flipped teaching to be the driving force for the current ELT. From the previous studies, however, there has been little study investigating the strengths, weaknesses, and effectiveness of the flipped classroom method with CALL in EFL writing class, especially in the Indonesian context.

This study evaluates the strengths, weaknesses, and effectiveness of flipped classrooms with CALL in EFL writing classes to fulfil the previous studies' gaps.

Several English teachers and students from private and state universities in Indonesia who have implemented flipped classrooms with CALL in EFL writing courses were involved in this study. Those participants used some platforms while implementing flipped classrooms, such as YouTube videos, weblogs, and other Learning Management Systems (LMS). Some of them also used Google docs integrated with an automated feedback program as their media in EFL writing.

From the elaboration above, the research questions (RQs) are formulated as follows. (1) What are the strengths of the flipped classroom with CALL in the EFL writing class? (2) What are the weaknesses of the flipped classroom with CALL in the EFL writing class? (3) Is there any significant difference in students’ EFL writing performance before and after implementing the flipped classroom with CALL? Dealing with the third research question, since it is a quantitative question, it has a hypothesis which is stated as follows. H0: There is no significant difference in students’ EFL writing performance before and after implementing the flipped classroom with CALL; H1: There is a significant difference in students’ EFL writing performance before and after implementing the flipped classroom with CALL.

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2. Literature Review Several studies are investigating the flipped classroom in the ELT context. From those studies, it was revealed that there are four major trends of flipped classroom studies in the ELT context, i.e., the flipped classroom on EFL/ESL skills, its advantages on FL/ESL, the challenges of its implementation in ELT, and its effectiveness in ELT (Turan & Akdag-Cimen, 2019).

The first trend is the flipped classroom implementation on English language skills (Ahmad, 2016; Al-Harbi & Alshumaimeri, 2016; Ekmekci, 2017; Huang & Hong, 2016; Köroğlu & Çakır, 2017; Soltanpour & Valizadeh, 2018; Su Ping et al., 2019; Vaezi et al., 2019; Zou & Xie, 2019). Studies on the flipped classroom implementation were overwhelmingly positive. Vaezi, Afghari & Lotfi, (2019) investigated the flipped classroom's impact on students’ listening comprehension.

The results of this study demonstrated that flipped teaching enhanced students’ listening achievement. Köroğlu and Çakır (2017) examined the effects of the flipped classroom on the English-speaking skills of pre-service teachers. The study's findings showed that the flipped classroom is efficient for developing English-speaking skills in pre-service teachers. Furthermore, flipped teaching improves fluency and clarity, lexical capital, grammatical precision, and pronunciation among language students. Huang and Hong (2016) have investigated the impact of a flipped English-Classroom Approach on high school students' English-learning and ICT skills in Taiwan. The study's findings showed that the Flipped English classroom technique is effective when used for high school students. It fosters independence and grounds for learning English literacy.

Furthermore, teacher-student interactions were successful in developing student ICT skills. Zou and Xie (2019), proposed a flipped learning model and explored its usefulness in supporting writing skills. Results showed that in writing performance, flipped learning outperformed traditional flipped learning. The suggested flipped learning paradigm should be used in more English writing courses. From previous research, it can be inferred that introducing the flipped classroom has a beneficial impact on English language skills.

The second trend is about the advantages and the strengths of the flipped classroom in ELT (Alsowat, 2016; Amiryousefi, 2017; Basal, 2015; Boyraz & Ocak, 2017; Choe & Seong, 2016; Gasmi, 2017; Zainuddin, 2017; Zainuddin & Perera, 2017). Some scholars have conducted several studies investigating the advantages and the strengths of the flipped classroom in the ELT context. One of them is the study conducted by Amiryousefi (2017). He studied the impact of flipped learning on speaking, listening, out-of-class engagement, and involvement in ESL students' courses and activities. Telegram instant messaging has been chosen as the online forum for organized, semi-structured, and flipped learning groups to collaboratively carry out the preparatory works. The results suggest that flipped learning can create a less disruptive educational experience than traditional environments. It will create resources for more cooperative and interactive learning experiences, expand input and performance boundaries, and improve opportunities for high-quality engagement. Boyraz & Ocak (2017) carried out a review to look for an impact on the academic success of students in the Flipped Classroom (FC) and to maintain EFL awareness and to acquire opinion on this

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new approach. The results reveal that FC is very helpful in encouraging students to learn words and concepts outside of their classroom and in solving students’ problems either individually or in groups with the teacher's encouragement and involvement inside the classroom. Moreover, the integration of technological elements in FC could boost students’ learning motivation. The other advantages of the flipped classroom are also investigated, such as enhancing learners’ preparedness (Choe & Seong, 2016), lowering learners’ nervousness (Chen Hsieh et al., 2017), promoting learners’ in-depth learning strategies (Gasmi, 2017), improving learners’ ICT skills (Huang & Hong, 2016), etc.

The third trend is about the flipped classroom implementation challenges in ELT (Ansori & Nafi’, 2018; Egbert, Herman & Lee, 2015; Ghufron & Nurdianingsih, 2019, 2020; Yang, 2017; Zhang, 2017). A study conducted by Egbert et al., (2015) revealed that technology/internet related problems are a challenge for both instructors and learners during the flipped classroom implementation. Besides, Yang (2017) discussed the introduction of an English-language flipped classroom in Hong Kong. Findings suggest that flipping a classroom will only benefit more inspired learners and that an additional workload is required for learners to attend the flipped classroom session. Further, Zhang (2017) also confirmed that the flipped classroom causes an extra workload for learners and teachers. He argues that a flipped classroom is a type of instruction that pays more attention to self-learning and teaching. The best way to improve the teaching effect is to manage pre-class and in-class time. Students must prepare well in their pre-class studies. In classrooms, teachers must continuously direct students to learn and help them overcome their learning problems and supervise them to complete their learning tasks and objectives.

The fourth trend is about the effect of the flipped classroom in ELT (Kang, 2015; Khosravani, Khoshsima & Mohamadian, 2020; Meléndez & Iza, 2017; Mo & Mao, 2017; Rahmelina et al., 2019; Suranakkharin, 2017; Yu & Wang, 2016). Most studies investigating the flipped classroom's effectiveness confirm that the method is effective to be implemented in the ELT context (Ahmad, 2016; Alsowat, 2016; Amiryousefi, 2017; Meléndez & Iza, 2017; Mo & Mao, 2017). However, a few studies also reveal that the flipped classroom is not effective (Al-Harbi & Alshumaimeri, 2016; Suranakkharin, 2017). Al-Harbi and Alshumaimeri (2016) applied the flipped classroom method in English grammar class. The research investigated whether or not the flipped classroom substantially influences English grammar achievements by experimental and control groups. The results confirm that there is no significant difference in English grammar achievements between the students who were in the experimental and control groups. Furthermore, Suranakkharin (2017) investigates the flipped classroom's effect on students’ English collocation knowledge compared to traditional instruction in the Thai context. In general, the results indicate that after introducing the flipped classroom, student collocation learning outcomes improved significantly.

However, the results also indicate that there was no significant difference between the flipped and traditional classrooms.

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In summary, this study also supports the previous theories and studies which investigate flipped classroom in line with the major research trends that were previously described. This study was focused on, not only investigating the strengths and weaknesses of the flipped classroom method in EFL writing context, but also its effectiveness when it is integrated with computer system as an assisting tool in teaching and learning process. This study benefits the scholars, educators, and policy makers who focus on English language teaching and also those who focus on the integration of e-media in teaching and learning process.

3. Methodology 3.1. Research Goal From the RQs above, the goals of this study were (1) revealing the strengths of the flipped classroom with CALL in EFL writing class, (2) revealing the weaknesses of the flipped classroom with CALL in EFL writing class, and (3) revealing whether or not there is a significant difference in students’ EFL writing performance before and after the implementation of the flipped classroom with CALL. 3.2. Research Design A mixed-method approach was used to achieve the goals of the study. The concept of mixed-methods relates to an emerging research approach that promotes systematic integration or a combination of quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or sustainable research (Wisdom & Creswell, 2013). The design is based on the assumption that a single data set is not adequate to answer multiple research questions (Creswell & Clark, 2011). Therefore, an embedded quasi-experimental methodology design was used to achieve the aims of this study (i.e., quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis).

3.3. Research Participants and Context There were a hundred and fifty Indonesian EFL university learners who participated in this study. They were enrolled in five English Education Programs at some private and state universities situated in the East and Central Java. All the participants took EFL writing course as a compulsory course in the English education curriculum. Each university was represented by one class consisted of thirty students. The chosen class in each university was chosen by using a cluster random sampling technique. Besides, the researchers also used a purposeful sampling method for an in-depth interview. The willingness to be interviewed and the availability of the participants influenced the sampling process.

In the chosen class, the students were treated using the flipped classroom with CALL in their EFL writing class in one semester (a 14-week intervention). Before any treatment, the students were given a pretest in the form of a 500-word essay writing of expository texts with the free topic. Once the treatment had been completed, the students were given a post-writing test to write 500-word expository texts with the free topic. Both the pre and posttest were performed individually through google docs media.

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Furthermore, this study also involved 14 EFL writing teachers who experienced implementing the flipped classroom with CALL from five universities. Those teachers were chosen purposively based on some criteria, i.e., having at least onesemester experience implementing the flipped classroom with CALL in an EFL writing class, having a commitment and willingness to participate in the study from the beginning until the end.

3.4. Methods of Data Collection and Instruments The data were collected through questionnaires, in-depth interviews, and tests (pre and posttest) to achieve this study's purposes. The detailed information of data collection methods is presented in table 1.

Table 1: Purposes of the Study and Data Collection Methods No. 1 2 3

Purposes of the Study Revealing the strengths of the flipped classroom with CALL in EFL writing class Revealing the weaknesses of the flipped classroom with CALL in EFL writing class Revealing whether or not there is a significant difference in students’ EFL writing performance before and after the implementation of the flipped classroom with CALL

Data Collection Methods Questionnaires & in-depth interviews Questionnaires & in-depth interviews Pre & Posttest

The first data collection method is the distribution of questionnaires. There were two types of questionnaires focusing on revealing the flipped classroom's strengths and weaknesses, i.e., students’ survey and teachers’ survey on the flipped classroom. The students’ survey questionnaire consisted of 14 statements (5-point Likert scale) and 4 open-ended questions. The teachers’ survey questionnaire consisted of 20 statements (5-point Likert scale) and 1 open-ended question. The questionnaires were adapted from (Gough et al., 2017; Khodr & Waller, 2016). The questionnaire's reliability was also tested. The results demonstrate that the questionnaires are reliable since the overall Cronbach Alpha Coefficient of the questionnaires is (r=0.89), which means that the degree of internal consistency is high.

The second method is in-depth interviews. The instrument used was the interview protocol. This in-depth interview was focused on uncovering the strengths and weaknesses of the flipped classroom with CALL. The data from the in-depth interviews were recorded, collected, and transcribed for analysis.

The third method is the tests (pre & posttest). An essay writing test was given to the students in the pre & posttest. Before any treatment, the pretest was given at the beginning of the research. Following the flipped classroom with CALL (after a 14-week intervention), the posttest was administered at the end of the research.

3.5. Data Analysis This study had two kinds of data. The data from in-depth interviews were qualitative. In this study, qualitative data were analyzed using Creswell's

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(Creswell, 2012) principles. First, the researcher collected and then prepared the data. This study included creating a general understanding of data, coding the data, and core phenomenon themes. The coding systems were used to gain a more detailed view of events based on the study's purposes. These labeling systems also helped evaluate transcripts of participants.

Besides qualitative data, questionnaires and tests also yielded quantitative data.

The quantitative questionnaire data were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

Meanwhile, the pre & posttest data were analyzed using inferential statistics, in this case, using paired sample t-test. The prerequisite tests, i.e., normality and homogeneity testing, were also employed before the paired sample t-test. The program of SPSS 22.0 was used to help analyze the quantitative data.

4. Results 4.1. The Strengths of the Flipped Classroom with CALL in EFL Writing Class 4.1.1. Teachers’ View Based on the results of questionnaire distribution to teachers, it was revealed that flipped classroom integrated with CALL has several advantages, i.e., stimulating learner autonomy, improving teaching and learning process, providing more time to practice EFL writing and giving feedback during a face-to-face meeting, promoting active learning, promoting students’ responsibility to learning, promoting peer cooperation and collaboration among students, and so on. Table 2 summarizes the mean and standard deviation from different survey questions related to teachers’ responses to the strengths of flipped classroom methodology with CALL in the EFL setting.

Table 2: The Advantages of Flipped Classroom (Teachers' View) Questions The flipped classroom implementation in EFL writing class helps you improve your teaching process Implementing the flipped classroom method in EFL writing class provides more time for writing practice and giving feedback to students' writing during in-class activities Implementing the flipped classroom method in EFL writing class makes the teaching and learning process more fun Implementing the flipped classroom method in EFL writing class stimulates learner autonomy Absent students get the benefits of the flipped classroom method in EFL writing class Time built for classroom tasks in a flipped classroom approach enables more writing, peer reviews and active learning in EFL writing class EFL learners get the benefits of the flipped classroom method in EFL writing class Students do not require the presence of a teacher for basic teaching, but students need the presence of a teacher to address issues

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Mean 4.07

SD 0.47

14

3.64

0.93

14

3.64

0.84

14

4.36

0.74

14

3.07

1.14

14

3.71

0.47

14

4.00

0.68

14

3.07

1.07

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Questions N Mean SD Recorded lessons in the form of video, blogs, or other 14 3.86 0.53 online materials help students to learn the lessons every time and everywhere Implementing the flipped classroom method in EFL 14 3.93 0.73 writing class promotes active learning both in-class and outside class activities Implementing the flipped classroom method in EFL 14 3.86 0.66 writing class allows teachers more time to personalize instruction for students EFL learners learn better in a flipped classroom 14 3.43 0.76 Implementing the flipped classroom method in EFL 14 3.64 0.74 writing class promotes the students' responsibility for learning and come prepared to class The flipped classroom helps students to build stronger 14 3.64 0.84 relationships with other students through teamwork and collaboration The flipped classroom allows the teachers to have 14 3.36 0.74 increased interaction with students Adapted from (Gough et al., 2017; Khodr & Waller, 2016)

Further, the results of an in-depth interview with teachers also revealed some facts. One of them is that the flipped classroom provides flexibility to teachers in implementing it. They stated that the flipped classroom is helpful for them to improve their teaching and learning practices. The following is the interview excerpt.

“Well, I firstly implemented a flipped classroom last year. At that time, I utilized the google classroom platform in my flipped classroom. Due to its flexibility to implement the teaching and learning process in a flipped classroom context, I continued this method in the following semester.

After experiencing it in two semesters, I can conclude that the flipped classroom is helpful for me. My teaching practice is improving significantly. Furthermore, when I implemented a flipped classroom, I also evaluate my students’ works. Surprisingly, I could see their learner autonomy was getting improved significantly”. (T2) Besides, in the flipped classroom, the teaching materials are provided in an online form. Therefore, it is always accessible by students everywhere and at any time.

For those who do not understand the materials yet, they can access it easily. They can re-watch, re-read, and repeat it as many as they want until they understood it.

“The things that I noticed during the implementation of the flipped classroom in EFL settings were the raise of learner autonomy and students’ responsibility for learning and doing tasks, the more time for writing practice and evaluating it, the activeness of students when teaching and learning occurs, the accessible online materials which can facilitate students who do not understand the lesson, and the development of collaboration among students”. (T5)

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Another fact about the flipped classroom's strength is that the time management in a face-to-face meeting for EFL writing class is easier than in the traditional classroom. The reason is that in the flipped classroom, the teaching material has already been given through online mode of teaching before the face-to-face meeting occurs. The students can read and understand it before entering the class so that the face-to-face meeting can be focused on writing practice and evaluating students’ works.

“Yes, the flipped classroom is very beneficial in teaching EFL writing as we know that teaching EFL writing needs more time for practice and evaluation. In the traditional classroom context, we often find difficulties to manage the time during a face-to-face meeting in the class. After I implemented this method, I mean flipped classroom, I found that time management is no longer a serious problem for me to teach writing. I had already taught the theory through online mode, and the students have already learned the theory before the face-to-face meeting. So, when a faceto-face meeting occurs, we can focus on writing practice and giving feedback to students’ tasks”. (T6) 4.1.2. Students’ View Another questionnaire dealing with flipped classroom advantages and disadvantages integrated with CALL was also distributed to students. From the questionnaire, the students confirmed that flipped classroom has some advantages for them, i.e., raising students’ motivation to learning, providing more time for writing practice, raising students’ engagement, and giving benefit to students’ future since they can learn both the knowledge and information technology during flipped classroom process. Table 3 summarizes the mean and standard deviation from different survey questions related to students’ responses to the strengths of flipped classroom methodology with CALL in the EFL setting.

Table 3: The Advantages of Flipped Classroom (Students' View) Questions N Mean SD I am more inspired to practice EFL writing in the Flipped 150 3.96 0.20 Classroom I have more time to practice EFL writing at a Flipped 150 3.96 0.26 Classroom I want to watch the video lessons 150 3.98 0.27 I have more time to do class exercises in the Flipped 150 3.97 0.23 Classroom I am able to communicate more with other students in the 150 3.97 0.23 Flipped Classroom I would benefit from learning to use a flipped classroom in 150 4.01 0.12 my future education I use online services such as YouTube, weblogs on a daily 150 3.95 0.24 basis The Flipped classroom is more appealing than conventional 150 3.93 0.34 teaching I see the video assignment occasionally 150 3.96 0.23 Flipped Classroom will give me experience for my future, 150 3.97 0.20 e.g., for job training Adapted from (Gough et al., 2017; Khodr & Waller, 2016)

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An in-depth interview was also had been conducted with students to reveal students’ perceptions about the advantages of the flipped classroom. The interview confirmed that flipped classrooms could build up their learning motivation because the teaching materials were presented interestingly. They also stated that a flipped classroom is a fun but challenging methodology.

“The integration of face-to-face and online learning is such a kind of motivation for me to learn EFL writing. We can learn the material anywhere and at any time. It’s so flexible. Moreover, the materials are presented in an interesting way, such as video, weblogs, etc. It is enjoyable but challenging”. (S5) The integration of technology during the teaching and learning process, in the flipped classroom, also benefits the stduents. They can get the knowledge, and at the same time, they learn information technology, which could benefit them shortly.

“Well, I think the integration of technology in this method is an added value for students. We are required to learn by utilizing technology. It means that we also learn how to use the technology itself. This is, of course, will benefit us in our future”. (S6) The flexibility to access the online materials is also one of the advantages of flipped classroom confirmed by students. The video materials allow students to quickly stop, re-watch, pause, and repeat the part(s) they do not understand yet.

“The application of the flipped classroom model has many advantages over the traditional learning model. The availability of the material in the form of videos gives students the freedom to stop or repeat the material at any time in parts they do not understand”. (S9) Further, team-work among students can also be promoted through a flipped classroom activity. They can cooperate with their peers to learn, do the tasks, and even peer-evaluate their works.

“A flipped classroom enables students to spend more time collaborating.

This is not only a great way to learn, but also good for their team working skills. Further, it allows for self-paced learning, diving deeper into the subject, being better prepared, reusing lectures, and creating transparency for parents”. (S10) 4.2. The Weaknesses of the Flipped Classroom with CALL in EFL Writing Class 4.2.1. Teachers’ View Aside from the flipped classroom's advantages mentioned in the preceding part, there are also some disadvantages of the flipped classroom with CALL. From the questionnaire distributed to teachers, it was revealed that the advantages of the flipped classroom are the need of more time for material preparation and technological problems faced by some students who are not familiar with the platform used.

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Table 4: The Disadvantages of Flipped Classroom (Teachers' View) Questions

N

Mean

SD

Implementing the flipped classroom method in EFL writing class needs more time to prepare teaching materials

14

4.21

0.80

Some students face difficulties during the implementation of the flipped classroom method in EFL writing class due to the use of technology required outside of school

14

3.29

1.07

Adapted from (Gough et al., 2017; Khodr & Waller, 2016)

The teachers also confirmed the questionnaire distribution findings related to flipped classrooms' drawbacks during the in-depth interview. It was stated that material preparation in a flipped classroom setting is time-consuming. They must at least record a video lesson for each meeting so that the students can learn the material through the LMS. “Well, if we want to implement a flipped classroom method, we need more time for material preparation. It is time-consuming. We must make a video lesson and upload it to the LMS for each meeting. However, once we have finished preparing the materials, the teaching-learning process will run effectively”. (T11) Another drawback of the flipped classroom is technological problems and the availability of technology devices students face. Not all students were familiar with the platform used in online learning, so they found difficulties utilizing it.

Further, a few students also do not have their laptops and internet connection in their homes.

“Based on my experience, the technological issue is one of the problems in my class. Some students were unfamiliar with a certain platform. So, we need to explain to them how to utilize the platform in order to make the teaching and learning process run smoothly”. (T13) “There are drawbacks, such as not all students have access to the required information technology devices, such as computers/laptops and internet connections. This happens in my class. Further, it is also time-consuming for preparing the materials, and sometimes it is exhausting”. (T14) 4.2.2. Students’ View The questionnaire distributed to students also revealed the drawbacks of the flipped classroom. Even though only a few students confirmed the flipped classroom's drawbacks, it still needs to be exposed. The drawbacks stated by the students were that a few students were not familiar with the use of social media in the teaching and learning process. Consequently, they got difficulties in utilizing it. This leads to students’ frustration in learning, and they prefer to traditional learning to flipped classroom.

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Table 5: The Disadvantages of Flipped Classroom (Students' View) Questions

N

Mean

SD

The Flipped Classroom did not boost my EFL writing skill

150

2.33

0.51

I would not suggest a friend to the Flipped classroom

150

2.01

0.16

Internet networking is not an important part of my learning (YouTube, Twitter, Facebook)

150

2.02

0.24

I like to see a conventional lesson led by teachers instead of a video

150

2.11

0.44

Adapted from (Gough et al., 2017; Khodr & Waller, 2016)

Meanwhile, in-depth interview with students revealed that the flipped classroom causes problems for those who do not have internet connection and data packages. Further, for low-motivated students, online learning makes them demotivated in some cases because they were required to have a high commitment to learning.

“During online learning, it requires a good internet connection and surely data package, for some students, this is a problem. So, the teacher should accommodate such conditions to guarantee that teaching and learning process could run well”. (S11) “For low-motivated students, this online learning will burden them.

Consequently, they will be left behind. Therefore, the teacher should always maintain their students’ progress and motivate them”. (S13) 4.2.3. The Effectiveness of the Flipped Classroom with CALL in EFL Writing Class The one group pretest and posttest design were analyzed in this part. The paired sample t-test was carried out to determine whether or not there was a significant difference in EFL students’ writing performance before and after implementing the flipped classroom. Before the paired sample t-test was carried out, two prerequisite tests, i.e., normality and homogeneity tests, were also conducted to the pre-and-post test scores. Then, after the paired sample t-test was performed, the N-Gain score was calculated. The normality test results using Saphiro-Wilk (analyzed through SPSS 22.0) revealed that the data were in a normal distribution (see Table 6). Further, the homogeneity test using the Levene Test (analyzed through SPSS 22.0) revealed that the data were homogeneous (see Table 7).

Table 6: The Summary of Normality Test Results

1st University

2nd University

3rd University

Saphiro-Wilk Statistic

df

Sig.

α

Pre-test

.948

30

.145

.05

Post-test

.955

30

.234

.05

Pre-test

.964

30

.396

.05

Post-test

.963

30

.367

.05

Pre-test

.968

30

.474

.05

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Normal distribution

Research Site

133

4th University

5th University

Post-test

.949

30

.156

.05

Pre-test

.968

30

.474

.05

Post-test

.956

30

.248

.05

Pre-test

.960

30

.305

.05

Post-test

.948

30

.148

.05

Table 7: The Summary of Homogeneity Test Results Research Site

Levene Statistic

df1

df2

Sig.

α

1st University

.060

1

58

.808

.05

2nd University

.040

1

58

.842

.05

3rd University

.241

1

58

.625

.05

4th University

.162

1

58

.689

.05

5th University

.002

1

58

.964

.05

Conclusion

Homogeneous

After the data were tested for their normality and homogeneity, the next step was paired sample t-test. It was done whether there is a significant difference between the mean of pretest scores and posttest scores. The following is the result of the paired sample t-test.

Table 8: The Summary of Paired Sample t-test Results

Research Site Mean 1st PreUniversity post test 2nd PreUniversity post test 3rd PreUniversity post test 4th PreUniversity post test 5th PreUniversity post test

Paired Differences 95% Confidence Interval of the Std. Difference Std. Error Deviation Mean Lower Upper

t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

-19.45000

4.44381

.81132 -21.10934 -17.79066

-23.973

29

.000

-19.45000

4.27976

.78137 -21.04809 -17.85191

-24.892

29

.000

-19.43333

4.24210

.77450 -21.01736 -17.84931

-25.092

29

.000

-19.36667

4.07882

.74469 -20.88972 -17.84361

-26.006

29

.000

-19.16667

4.17986

.76314 -20.72745 -17.60588

-25.116

29

.000

Table 8 shows the results of the paired sample t-test. It reveals that the Sig. (2tailed), in each university group (p=.000, p<.05), which means that there is a statistically significant difference in students’ EFL writing performance before and after the intervention (flipped classroom).

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After knowing that there is a significant difference in students’ EFL writing performance before and after the flipped classroom (analyzed by paired sample t-test), the N-Gain score was calculated (by calculating the difference between the pretest and posttest scores). The N-Gain score calculation was done to know how effective the flipped classroom implemented in teaching EFL writing. The results are presented in Table 9. 𝑵 − 𝑮𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 =

𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 − 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 − 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆

Figure 1: The Formula of Calculation N-Gain Score Table 9: The Summary of N-Gain Score Research Site 1st University 2nd University 3rd University 4th University 5th University

N-Gain Score 0.57 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.57

Conclusion Moderately Effective

Table 9 above shows that the N-Gain score for each university group is in the range of 0.3 < g < 0.7 (moderate). Therefore, it is concluded that the flipped classroom's implementation in EFL writing class is moderately effective.

5. Discussion 5.1. What are the strengths of the flipped classroom with CALL in the EFL writing class?

The findings of this study revealed that flipped classroom with CALL in EFL writing class has several advantages, such as stimulating learner autonomy, improving teaching and learning process, providing more time to practice EFL writing and giving feedback during a face-to-face meeting, promoting active learning, promoting students’ responsibility to learning, promoting peer cooperation and collaboration among students, providing flexibility to teachers and students in teaching and learning process, raising students’ motivation to learning, engaging students in teaching and learning process, and giving benefit to students’ future for they can learn both the knowledge and information technology during flipped classroom process.

Even though, there are some benefits of the flipped classroom, but it also has some weaknesses (Uzunboylu & Karagozlu, 2015). In this sense, the flipped classroom can generate higher learning. In the flipped classroom, students may either watch a video, read a paper or complete their own computerized module (Moffett, 2015).

The lower stages of Bloom's taxonomy, comprehension, is performed outside school (Uzunboylu & Karagozlu, 2015). Meanwhile, in the classroom, the teachers and learners are engaged in higher-level activities of Bloom's Taxonomy stages, i.e., application, analysis, and synthesis skills.

Furthermore, the flipped classroom makes for more possibilities for self-centered instruction, as teaching accompanied by practicing will become self-learning

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before practice. This raises self-trust and makes learning more self-regulated (Juan, 2020; Strayer, 2012; Zarouk, Olivera & Khald , 2020). This usually consists of flipping around the classroom work with content assigned as homework (Gilboy, Heinerichs & Pazzaglia, 2015). In addition, the improvement of learner-centered teaching in a flipped learning will enhance the autonomy of a learner by encouraging new learning methods to be more broadly applied than standard methods, thus helping to accommodate the various types of learning among students (Uzunboylu & Karagozlu, 2015). Students are allowed to take the solution that better matches their academic needs. They will think much more about material which in turn encourage them to take part in solving problems (Mehring, 2016). Therefore, this method progresses to a higher degree than traditional learning.

Touchton (2015) also stressed this feature of the flipped classroom. it makes learning more fun and attracts to learners. They may also revisit the content they want to learn and re-use it. In addition, learners will obtain a good experience of learning by themselves and examine new content and recognize information gaps before face-to-face classroom time. Then, in the class, teachers and students discuss the material (Mehring, 2016). Moreover, in the flipped classroom, learners can collaborate with peers and benefit from their experience. Touchton (2015) suggests that when learners operate in groups, the flipped classroom encourages peer-instruction, whereby informal interactions help sustain development while the teacher is busy delivering individualized instruction elsewhere. Thus, students should educate one another to reach comprehensive interpretation of the subject.

Another benefit is that teachers can adjust approaches to redirect the classroom based on learners’ criteria by, for example, viewing videos and collaboration among students (Touchton, 2015). This guidance lets teachers identify and encourage those students who need to be more focused and spend more time, such as students with online difficulties (Moffett, 2015). They will also be able to give more comprehensive input to learners to focus on their deficiency areas and try to fix them (Touchton, 2015). This timely feedback in the face-to-face classroom can be difficult because of the time constraints, but it can be solved by using online resources. While this illustrates the impact on instruction of the flipped classroom, it also has implications for the abilities of teachers. It facilitates information exchange and enhances the resources of teachers (Uzunboylu & Karagozlu, 2015).

5.2. What are the weaknesses of the flipped classroom with CALL in the EFL writing class?

Apart from the flipped classroom's advantages described in the preceding section, the flipped classroom with CALL also has some disadvantages. It was revealed that the advantages of the flipped classroom bring up the issues of more time needed in material preparation and technological problems faced by some students who are not familiar with the platform used. Besides, the flipped classroom causes problems for those who do not have an internet connection and data package. Further, for low-motivated students, online learning makes them demotivated in some cases because they were required to have a high commitment to learning.

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Learners may face additional problems with their technology skills. In reality, Engin (2014) points out that the possibility that students may not be able to cope with the technologies involved, is one of the biggest problems in this flipped classroom model. The provision of a trial session to learners will, therefore, help to address this challenge. However, the use of computer in teaching and learning process takes more time (Hoic-Bozic, Mornar & Boticki, 2009). Although online devices can allow students to share their content with peers and teachers, it still needs supervision to the students (Engin, 2014). It is because the students are physically and mentally remote. Moreover, teachers’ workload will increase if they make their own videos, trying to create decent videos of appropriate quality (Hoic-Bozic et al., 2009). Therefore, they would not be able to apply to a flipped classroom (Hoic-Bozic et al., 2009). Moreover, creating activities using online tools can be challenging for a teacher, and learners' access can be a problem because they need online access to display online content, and teachers may need to learn relevant technical skills for designing the learning materials.

5.3. Is there any significant difference in students’ EFL writing performance before and after implementing the flipped classroom with CALL? The results of the paired sample test reveal that the Sig. (2-tailed), in each university group (p=.000, p<.05), which means that there is a statistically significant difference in students’ EFL writing performance before and after the intervention (flipped classroom). Further, it is also revealed that the N-Gain score for each university group is in the range of 0.3 < g < 0.7 (moderate). Therefore, it is concluded that the flipped classroom's implementation in EFL writing class is moderately effective.

Hung (2015) analyzed the flipped classroom effect on a general English course involving 75 EFL students. The study was performed in Taiwan, where for six consecutive weeks, the researcher applied a flipped-classroom approach. The teacher prepared and distributed online material through WebQuest. Using a quasi-experimental design, administered the only posttest, the findings showed improvement in learning.

More recently, researchers introduced a flipped classroom in Taiwan with 40 high school students in a study conducted by Huang & Hong (2016). They were selected randomly to undergo 12 hours of flipped classroom instruction. Another 37 participants entered a control group. This experimental design assessed the effect of the flipped classroom on reading comprehension and ICT literacy. The study revealed improvement skills, and students showed positive attitudes towards this instruction. Implementing the flipped classroom in the sense of the current study may have a positive effect on EFL courses.

6. Conclusion The results of this study revealed that flipped classroom with CALL in EFL writing class has many advantages, such as stimulating learner autonomy, improving teaching and learning processes, providing more time for EFL writing and input during face-to-face meetings, promoting active learning, promoting student learning responsibility, and promoting peer collaboration. Besides, some

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drawbacks were also found from its implementation. It was revealed that the advantages of the flipped classroom are the need for more time to prepare materials and technical challenges faced by certain students who are unfamiliar with the platform used. The flipped classroom also poses some problems for those without internet access and data packages. Furthermore, online learning makes them demotivated in some cases for low-motivated students because they needed a high commitment to learning. However, implementing the flipped classroom in the current study's context positively affects the EFL writing course. This study has implications for EFL writing teachers, mostly dealing with the preparation of the materials. Teachers should provide online materials such as videos from trusted sources or, if possible, they can make these videos learning materials. This can convince the students of the need to watch videos.

Acknowledgement This research is fully funded by the Ministry of Research and Technology/National Research and Innovation Agency (Indonesia) on Fundamental Research scheme (Penelitian Dasar) of the year 2020.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 142-159, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.8

Jordanian University Students’ Attitudes toward Online Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns: Obstacles and Solutions Safi Mahmoud Mahfouz The University of Jordan - Aqaba, Jordan http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6999-4096 Wael Juma Salam The University of Jordan - Aqaba, Jordan http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3786-8607

Abstract. This study aimed to investigate Jordanian university students’ attitudes toward online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns, shed light on the obstacles students encounter in online learning, and suggest possible solutions. A questionnaire designed by the researchers was used to elicit responses from a study sample consisting of 195 students from the Department of English Language and Literature at the University of Jordan – Aqaba. As this is an attitudinal study, the survey questionnaire was designed to elicit student responses on the following domains: gender, seniority level, socioeconomic status, training and orientation for using eLearning platforms, and their attitudes, whether positive or negative, toward online learning. Results of this quantitative research showed that student attitudes toward online learning are generally negative. The majority of the respondents reported that they prefer face-to-face classroom instruction over online learning because it gives them direct contact with the instructors. Furthermore, results revealed statistically significant differences amongst students attributed to their gender, whereas no differences were found with regards to their seniority of study, socioeconomic status, and the eLearning platform they prefer to use. The study concludes by proposing some pedagogical recommendations.

Keywords: attitudes; online learning; COVID-19 pandemic; University of Jordan – Aqaba

1. Introduction Before the COVID-19 pandemic started in mid-March 2020, Jordanian university students were not accustomed to having lectures and assignments online. In response to the pandemic, the Jordanian government through complete and

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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partial lockdowns in all governorates in the country implemented strict health and safety measures to prevent the disease from spreading widely.

With the outbreak of COVID-19 around the globe, many countries, including Jordan, have shifted education from on-campus face-to-face to online education.

This sudden change in the learning/teaching process has garnered positive and negative attitudes from both university students and instructors (Agung, Surtikanti & Quinones, 2020; Febrianto, Mas’udah, & Megasari, 2020). This study therefore explores Jordanian students’ attitudes toward online learning in light of the following variables: gender, level of seniority, availability of technological devices, socioeconomic status, and training and orientation for using eLearning platforms.

Whilst blended learning had been encouraged by the University of Jordan even before the COVID-19 pandemic, neither students nor instructors have been provided with enough training on how to use online teaching platforms such as Moodle, Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Google Classroom, and Microsoft Forms.

Although beyond the scope of the current study, synchronous interactions during online lectures help students majoring in English and other foreign languages improve their four language skills, speaking, listening, reading, and writing. In online-learning settings, students in all university courses are requested to complete many assignments and to submit them online by meeting certain deadlines. These assignments help the students improve their writing skills, increase their typing speed, become professional in using a grammar checker in Word documents, and above all, get accustomed to submitting assignments on time.

The shift to eLearning is beneficial for shy students who do not take part in classroom discussions (Beauvois & Eledge, 1996). Introverted foreign language learners who fear to take part in face-to-face classroom discussions feel more at ease whilst speaking English with their instructors and peers in online-learning platforms because online learning provides such learners with an anxiety-free environment. Instant messaging (IM) and video chat (VC) through eLearning platforms such as Moodle, Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and many others, in addition to social media websites, provide English Foreign Language (EFL) learners with real-life interactions with their instructors. Thus, eLearning takes the form of private tutoring because it is based on interpersonal interactions between the instructor and students via webcams, microphones, and earphones.

Online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns has received much attention in literature on synchronous and asynchronous computermediated communication (Agung et al., 2020; Febrianto et al., 2020). In fact, even prior to the worldwide spread of COVID-19, many studies have proved the pedagogical benefits of computer-assisted language learning (CALL), such as decreasing learner anxiety and providing shy learners with a safe learning environment (Beauvois & Eledge, 1996). Many studies have shown, for instance, that email exchanges in the foreign language can help learners improve their writing competency (Mahfouz, 2010).

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Online learning should include all modes of synchronous and asynchronous interactions between instructors and students and between students and their classmates so as to become an effective alternative pedagogical platform to the face-to-face classroom setting. In fact, several studies have investigated the effectiveness of online learning as a bridge to face-to-face, traditional classroom settings (Altenaiji, 2005; Beauvois & Eledge, 1996; Bulut & AbuSeileek, 2007; Warschauer, 1996).

Most online-learning attitudinal studies conducted worldwide during the COVID-19 pandemic have been largely positive (Agung et al., 2020; Febrianto et al., 2020; Coolican, Borras & Strong, 2020; Kalloo, Mitchell & Kamalodeen, 2020; König, Daniela & Glutsch, 2020). Even before the pandemic, students majoring in English Language and Literature in many Arab universities have testified of the multiple benefits of synchronous interaction. Amongst these are that it remarkably improved their receptive and productive language skills (Bulut & AbuSeileek, 2007); boosted their self-confidence in speaking the foreign language (Akbulut, 2008); and increased their motivation to learn the language because it caters to students’ learning styles and personality types (Beauvois & Eledge, 1996). In addition, synchronous interaction made the language-learning process pleasurable because it takes place in a stress-free and informal setting outside the rigid classroom environment (Stevens, 1991); improved students’ computer literacy as a result of their regular texting with their instructors and classmates (Altenaiji, 2005); and tremendously improved their writing skills and keyboarding speed (Mahfouz, 2010).

2. Problem Statement and Research Questions Recent research on eLearning during the COVID-19 pandemic worldwide has reported on the benefits of online platforms as an alternative to face-to-face classroom instruction (Agormedah, Henaku, Ayite & Ansah, 2020; Agung et al., 2020; Coolican et al., 2020; Febrianto et al., 2020; Kalloo et al., 2020; König et al., 2020; Shawaqfeh et al., 2020). However, students have reported encountering many obstacles during online lectures, namely internet interruptions and instability, and their inability to buy laptops, mobile phones and internet bundles necessary for their eLearning.

The study attempts to elicit responses to the following research questions: 1) What are the demographic profiles of the respondents in terms of gender, age, socioeconomic status, seniority level, qualification, and preferred eLearning platforms?

2) What are Jordanian students’ attitudes toward online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns?

3) What are the obstacles students at the University of Jordan – Aqaba encountered in their online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns?

4) Are there any statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes toward online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns that can be attributed to the variables of gender, socioeconomic status, seniority level, and preference of eLearning platforms?

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3. Significance of the Study There is an abundance of studies worldwide examining online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, there is a scarcity of attitudinal studies exploring its effects on the learning process and achievement of Jordanian university students. As such, this singles out this study as a significant contribution to the current literature on online learning.

4. Literature Review The twenty-first century has witnessed an extraordinary worldwide spread of cyberculture and distance education. Nowadays, students and instructors can use both multimodal synchronous and asynchronous platforms and blended learning to facilitate the learning/teaching process. A few studies have discussed the sudden shift from on-campus face-to-face learning to online learning, emphasizing the pros and cons of this unprecedented shift. In Ghana, Agormedah et al. (2020) designed a survey questionnaire through which they investigated the effect of online teaching on 467 Ghanaian university students. The researchers found that respondents had a positive attitude toward online learning despite having reported several challenges that negatively affected their learning progress. The challenges these Ghanaian students encountered included: the scarcity of laptops, cell phones and tablets resulting from the low socioeconomic status of some needy students; having no or limited access to internet; and their unpreparedness for online learning. Similarly, Agung et al. (2020) conducted research on 225 Indonesian English-major students at Pamane Talino College of Education. They investigated students’ attendance of and participation in online lectures, how they receive course syllabi and assignments, and their perceptions of the various eLearning platforms they use. Respondents reported that they encountered many obstacles during their online learning, including internet interruptions in eLearning platforms and inaccessibility of learning materials and assignments in such platforms.

In Indonesia, Febrianto et al. (2020) conducted an attitudinal study to explore the effects of online learning on 274 college students on Madura Island. The students reported having encountered several challenges during online lectures, such as frequent internet interruptions in eLearning platforms, the absence of any governmental financial support for needy students who do not have laptops or mobile phones or cannot buy internet bundles, and the unavailability of facilities such as computer labs. Interestingly, a large number of these Indonesian students had negative perceptions toward online learning.

Shawaqfeh et al. (2020) conducted an attitudinal study using a survey questionnaire to explore the attitudes of students at King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences toward online learning, their preparedness for online instruction, and the obstacles they face in online learning. Results showed that students had positive attitudes toward online learning. In addition, they praised the preparedness of both faculty and students for online learning during the Coronavirus pandemic and the financial support given to university faculty and students to facilitate the progress of the online learning/teaching process.

Nevertheless, approximately 34% of the respondents reported having

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encountered many obstacles negatively influencing their online learning, such as lack of motivation to attend online lectures. Some students who live in remote areas complained of the lack of network coverage in their houses or frequent internet interruptions.

Many of the attitudinal studies discussed in this literature review therefore share similar concerns, such as instructors and students’ insufficient or lack of training on how to use the eLearning platforms, unavailability of internet access and interruptions, and lack of governmental financial support and facilities required for the smooth progress of online learning. Conversely, Kawaguchi-Suzuki, Nagai, Akonoghrere and Desborough (2020) reported that to facilitate online learning, the Japanese government offered pharmacy students a tuition reduction or even a complete waiver, and granted them loans for the purchase of laptops and other information and communication technology (ICT) devices for online lectures.

Many global attitudinal studies have explored students’ reactions to online learning during the Coronavirus pandemic. However, very few researchers have shifted their focus to educators and university professors and how they manage to deal with online teaching without much training on how to use eLearning platforms for giving lectures and assignments and administering examinations online. König et al. (2020) investigated how teachers in Germany have easily shifted to online teaching. The researchers showed that teachers who frequently maintained social contact with their students and their students’ parents during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns showed positive perceptions of online education. Moreover, their results also revealed that teachers with outstanding potential factors, including high computer literacy, excellent pedagogical technological skills, and thorough training on the eLearning platforms, reported positive attitudes toward online teaching.

Coolican et al. (2020) investigated instructors and educators’ perceptions of the sudden shift to online learning as a result of the Coronavirus pandemic in four colleges in the San Nicolas District in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. Through a survey questionnaire and personal interviews with the study participants, the researchers aimed to explore their attitudes toward their adaptation to online teaching and the challenges they encounter in using the eLearning platforms.

They found that although teachers and educators were able to adapt to the sudden shift to online teaching, they reported having encountered many challenges, including the inaccessibility to technology necessary for online teaching and the inability to use eLearning platforms to upload and grade assignments. Likewise, Kalloo et al. (2020) investigated the administrative policies of the University of the West Indies in Trinidad and Tobago regarding facilitating the shift to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns. Through survey questionnaires and personal interviews with education policy makers and faculty teaching-staff members, they discovered the most important factors that helped facilitate the instructors’ easy shift and quick adaptation to online instruction during the COVID-19 crisis. These include the instructors’ sense of community

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and maintaining social contacts online with students, and their technological preparedness, high motivation, and readiness.

Attitudinal studies toward online learning were, in fact, conducted long before the COVID-19 pandemic had occurred. Many studies have reported on the benefits of multimodality in online learning as it entails that students and instructors use all modes of communication in the learning process (Kress, 2000).

Altenaiji’s (2005) study showed that eLearning platforms enhanced students’ sense of community and developed their computer literacy.

It should be noted that many studies have proved that the multimodal nature of eLearning platforms categorized under Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication (SCMC) makes such pedagogical tools resemble face-to-face communication in almost all aspects. Sotillo (2000) pointed out that SCMC discourse functions seem very ‘‘similar to the types of interactional modifications found in face-to-face conversations’’ (p. 82). In addition, several studies have reported that synchronous texting in eLearning platforms improves students’ writing skills (O’Connor, 2005) and computer literacy (Simpson, 2005).

5. Related Literature in the Jordanian Context Whilst there is a lack of studies that have investigated online learning in Jordanian higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic, some researchers have studied its merits and demerits. Alameri, Masadeh, Hamadallah, Ismail and Fakhouri (2020) used a questionnaire to survey University of Jordan students’ perceptions of online learning. The majority of the respondents showed positive attitudes toward online learning, stressing the preparedness of the University of Jordan to the sudden shift to eLearning for both students and instructors. The researchers particularly discussed the benefits of using eLearning platforms such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Moodle. These platforms, they maintained, facilitate interactive learning and help students develop self-study skills.

Whilst students’ responses have been explored, instructors’ responses to the sudden shift to online learning have been almost overlooked. However, Haidar and Al-Salman (2020) conducted a quantitative research analysis gathering university instructors’ responses from six public and private universities in Jordan. The study sample included 432 respondents. Results showed that whilst online learning was effective and helped both instructors and students develop new teaching and learning skills, many obstacles were encountered regarding insufficient orientation with eLearning platforms and preparedness for online learning and teaching. Therefore, the researchers recommended that higher education institutions should provide training programs for both instructors and students to facilitate online learning. They also suggested that technological resources such as laptops should be made available for both university instructors and students to help advance and facilitate the online teaching/learning process.

Blended learning is an eLearning modality that combines online teaching with oncampus face-to-face training (Barquero, 2020). The sudden outbreak of COVID-19 in Jordan and the government’s subsequent restrictions and lockdowns have put

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pressure on Jordanian universities to implement online learning during the pandemic and to use blended learning as it continues and even after it is over.

Oweis (2018) examined a group of 34 students studying English at the German Jordanian University. Participants were divided into control and experimental groups. The study concluded that the experimental group had achieved better results and learning outcomes compared to the control group after implementing blended learning.

6. Methodology 6.1 Study sample The study sample included 195 students from the Department of English Language and Literature at the University of Jordan – Aqaba who volunteered to respond to the survey questionnaire.

6.2 Research instrument A survey questionnaire consisting of 22 items and designed by the researchers was distributed amongst the study sample. The researchers statistically analyzed the respondents’ responses pertaining to a) their personal information, such as gender, seniority of study at university, socioeconomic status, the possession of a laptop or mobile phone, and the online-learning platform they prefer to use; and b) their attitudes toward online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns.

6.3 Validity and reliability of the research instrument The questionnaire was based on a pilot test administered to a limited number of respondents randomly selected from the study sample. The researchers further checked the content validity and internal reliability of the survey questionnaire items by conducting personal interviews with some students regarding their attitudes toward online learning and the obstacles they encounter. Additionally, to further ensure the instrument’s validity and reliability, the questionnaire was sent to three professional referees for proofreading and editing the questions.

Moreover, the researchers asked the respondents to respond to the questionnaire items twice with a one-week interval between each attempt. This was done to test and retest the reliability of the questionnaire, measure the internal consistency of items eliciting same factors to check if the same responses were elicited, and to ensure that respondents did not answer the questions arbitrarily.

7. Administration Procedures and the Questionnaire 7.1 Data analysis The researchers applied the statistics software SPSS-21 to analyze the questionnaire data. The mean score for each item was computed in comparison to a hypothesized neutral mean score of 3 that pinpoints the questions engendering positive or negative attitudes, exceeding chance answers. In addition, the researchers calculated the mean score for all respondents’ responses on all items of the questionnaire to reveal whether they expressed general positive or negative attitudes toward online learning. To investigate any statistically significant differences between the respondents’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to their gender, seniority of study at university, and socioeconomic status, the

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one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), the Fisher test and t-test for the independent sample were administered.

7.2 Respondents’ demographic profiles To answer the first research question, regarding the respondents’ demographic profile, the researchers calculated the mean scores, standard deviations, t-test and one-way ANOVA through a descriptive analysis, with the aim of investigating students’ attitudes toward online learning pertaining to all the study variables.

Statistical interpretations of the survey questionnaire revealed that the majority of the study respondents were female students, with a participation percentage of 81.5% of the total study sample, whereas the male respondents constituted the remaining percentage (Table 1).

Table 1: Distribution frequency of the respondents according to their gender Frequency

Percentage

M

36

18.5

F

159

81.5

Total

195

100.0

Regarding respondents’ age group, the majority of the study sample were from the young group, with ages ranging between 18 and 29 years, constituting 97.4% of the study sample (Table 2).

Table 2: Distribution frequency of the respondents according to their age Frequency

Percentage

18-29

190

97.4

30-39

3

1.5

40-49

2

1.0

Total

195

100.0

With regards to the respondents’ source of income necessary for paying tuition fees, the majority of respondents (72.8%) depended largely on various government grants (Table 3). Respondents paying tuitions through parental financial support ranked second (22.1%).

Table 3: Distribution frequency of the respondents according to their source of income Frequency Government grant

Percentage

142

72.8

Student loan

5

2.6

Self-employed

4

2.1

Helped by parents

43

22.1

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Total Missing

System

Total

194

99.5

1

0.5

195

100.0

Table 4 shows in which groups respondents were classified according to their household income. The largest income group was the group earning 500 USD or less (33.8%), followed by the group earning 800 USD or less (23.6%), followed by the income group earning 1000 USD or more (22.6%).

Table 4: Distribution frequency of respondents according to their household income (per month) Frequency

Missing

Percentage

100 USD or less

7

3.6

200 USD or less

23

11.8

500 USD or less

66

33.8

800 USD or less

46

23.6

More than 1000 USD

44

22.6

Total

186

95.4

9

4.6

195

100.0

System

Total

Respondents were also categorized according to their level of seniority (Table 5).

Amongst the study respondents, sophomore students constituted the largest percentage (35.4%).

Table 5: Distribution frequency of respondents according to their seniority of study at university Frequency

Percentage

Freshman

34

17.4

Junior

48

24.6

Sophomore

69

35.4

Senior

44

22.6

Total

195

100.0

The next demographic category in which respondents were divided was qualification. Table 6 shows that the majority of the respondents (88.2%) were undergraduate students.

Table 6: Distribution frequency of respondents according to their qualification

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Percentage

Diploma

10

5.1

B.A.

172

88.2

151

Missing

M.A.

4

2.1

Ph.D.

2

1.0

Total

188

96.4

System

7

3.6

195

100.0

Total

Table 7 shows that the majority of the respondents (76.9%) reported that they preferred on-campus teaching compared to online teaching (22.6%). This could be due to the high cost of laptops and internet bundles required for eLearning and the fact that students are burdened with too many assignments for each course they study every semester.

Table 7: Distribution frequency of respondents according to the type of teaching they prefer Frequency

Missing

Percentage

Online teaching

44

22.6

On-campus teaching

150

76.9

Total

194

99.5

1

0.5

195

100.0

System

Total

Respondents also responded on what electronic devices they use for eLearning (Table 8). The results revealed that 51.8% of the respondents use only mobile phones, whereas 33.8% use laptops and mobile phones.

Table 8: Distribution frequency of respondents according to the electronic devices they use in eLearning Frequency

Percentage

Laptop; mobile phone

66

33.8

Laptop; desktop; mobile phone

3

1.5

Desktop; mobile phone

2

1.0

Mobile phone; iPad

2

1.0

101

51.8

Desktop

2

1.0

Laptop

14

7.2

iPad

3

1.5

Desktop; laptop

1

0.5

Others

1

0.5

195

100.0

Mobile phone

Total

Students’ excessive dependence on mobile phones in online learning is due to the high cost of laptops and other electronic devices whose prices have drastically increased as a result of the high demand on laptops in the local Jordanian market

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during the COVID-19 pandemic. The financial challenges of buying a new or even used laptop or having access to monthly internet bundles are shared by almost all university students regardless of their source of income, gender, and seniority of study. During the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns in Jordan, many people, especially those working on a daily wage basis, have lost their sources of income.

As a result, they cannot support their university children financially and cannot afford to buy a laptop and internet bundles for each one of them.

Students’ preference for traditional on-campus university education over online learning is due to many factors, of which the most important is the unpreparedness of both students and instructors for the sudden shift to online learning. Some students and even university professors lack the proper training on how to use eLearning platforms such as Microsoft Teams, Zoom, Moodle, Facebook Messenger, Skype, and Microsoft Forms used for administering examinations.

In the initial stage of the COVID-19 pandemic, some universities lacked the infrastructure, facilities, and staff needed for effective online learning and some students were financially unable to buy laptops and internet bundles. Some Jordanian families have many children studying at schools and universities, and therefore many users use the same allocated amount of internet bundles to attend lectures online. This causes interruptions in the internet and consequently negatively affects students’ learning. Moreover, many universities do not provide any financial support to needy students to buy laptops or to have internet access.

The relatively mediocre level of financial support the Ministry of Education provides to needy students in low-income areas can also be considered as an obstacle to the facilitation of online learning. Finally, the pressure on internet-coverage networks at peak hours when students both at school and university levels are having classes online poses another problem for eLearning.

Nevertheless, the situation of online learning in Jordan has improved very fast and is yielding fruitful results. University professors and instructors have been given sufficient training on how to use eLearning platforms, how to upload and grade assignments, and how to administer their examinations online. Many lowincome students have been given free laptops and internet access by individual donors, the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, and the Ministry of Education. By having daily lectures and assignments online, students have also been independently trained to use eLearning platforms. Universities and schools throughout the country have significantly improved their internetnetwork infrastructure, facilities, and laboratories to cope with the current situation.

8. Jordanian Students’ Attitudes toward Online Learning 8.1 Hypothesis test To answer the second research question, regarding students’ attitudes toward online learning, the researchers tested four study hypotheses, discussed next.

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8.2 Student’s t-test The independent sample t-test is applied when two independent samples and two groups of individuals are compared.

For the t-test, the first null hypothesis (H0 1) was: There are no statistically significant differences in students’ attitudes toward online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic that can be attributed to gender.

The first alternative hypothesis (Ha 1) was: There are statistically significant differences in students’ attitudes toward online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic that can be attributed to gender.

Based on the t-test (Table 9), H0 1 is rejected. This is because t = -2.17, and the exact probability test’s p-value (0.03) is lower than 5% (Table 9). However, Ha 1 is accepted, which shows that there are statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to gender and in favor of the female students. This could be due to the fact that female university students may understand and use technological devices better than male students. Female students are also more homely and domestic than male students, who opt to have part-time jobs during the COVID-19 pandemic in addition to studying at university.

Table 9: Independent samples test, hypothesis test 1 Levene's test for equality of variances

Average

Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

t-Test for equality of means

F

Sig.

t

0.308

0.580

-2.174

-2.307

95% confidence interval of the difference Lower Upper

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean difference

Std. error difference

193

0.031

-0.22471

0.10334

-0.42854

-0.02088

55.788

0.025

-0.22471

0.09742

-0.41988

-0.02954

df

8.3 Fisher test (F) Null hypothesis 2 (H0 2) was: There are no statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to their level of seniority at university.

Alternative hypothesis 2 (Ha 2) was: There are statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to their level of seniority at university.

Based on the Fisher test through the one-way ANOVA, H0 2 is accepted.

The value of F was poor statistically at a significance level of 5% (Table 10). This is because the exact probability value of the test, which is equal to 51, is much greater than 5%.

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Table 10: Hypothesis test 2 Sum of squares

df

Mean square

F

Sig.

Between groups

0.736

3

0.245

0.765

0.515

Within groups

61.251

191

0.321

Total

61.987

194

Average

Null hypothesis 3 (H0 3) was: There are no statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to their source of income.

Alternative hypothesis 3 (Ha 3) was: There are statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to their source of income.

Based on the Fisher test, H0 3 cannot be rejected and should be accepted because the exact probability value of the test (F-Sig) is greater than 5%, as it reached 0. 246 (Table 11).

Table 11: Hypothesis test 3 Sum of squares

df

Mean square

F

Sig.

Between Groups

1.312

3

0.437

1.394

0.246

Within Groups

59.604

190

0.314

Total

60.917

193

Average

Null hypothesis 4 (H0 4) was: There are no statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to their household income with regards to the availability of electronic devices.

Alternative hypothesis 4 (Ha 4) was: There are statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to their household income with regard to the availability of electronic devices.

Based on the Fisher test, H0 4 cannot be rejected but should be accepted because the exact probability value of the test (F-Sig) is much greater than 5%, as it reached 0.991 (Table 12).

Table 12: One-way ANOVA, hypothesis test 4 Sum of squares

df

Mean square

F

Sig.

Between groups

0.089

4

0.022

0.069

0.991

Within groups

58.566

181

0.324

Total

58.655

185

Average

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9. Discussion of Findings To answer the third research question, regarding the obstacles students at the University of Jordan – Aqaba encounter in their online learning, the researchers conducted a thorough analysis of the study instrument. The study revealed a few obstacles that hinder, slow down, or affect the online teaching/learning process in Jordan during the COVID-19 pandemic. Both male and female respondents reported many technical problems and lack of training on how to use eLearning platforms. There were statistically significant differences amongst students’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to their gender, but there were no differences between them in terms of the other two variables: socioeconomic status and seniority level at university.

Before the effectiveness of online learning can be considered, one should attend to the availability of tools and resources as requirements for online learning.

Therefore, it is unfair to ask students how effective online learning is if they do not have the technological devices required for online learning. One reason for some students not being able to have devices for online learning is their low socioeconomic status. Whilst a few may have laptops or iPads, others do not.

Thus, one should be aware of the students’ household income. In Jordan, people who make 800 USD (550 JD) or less per month are classified by the government as citizens below the poverty line. Statistical analysis of the survey questionnaire showed that out of the sampled 195 respondents, the household income of 113 is lower than 800 USD per month. Out of these 113 respondents, 66 are from families with an income of less than 500 USD per month. The question that arises here is: Can students or their families afford to buy laptops, iPads, or even internet bundles to be able to connect to these electronic devices? Seventy-four (74) respondents did not reveal their household income. This means that the above numbers may be higher than indicated. We can conclude from these numbers that the socioeconomic status of students may substantially affect the quality of their online learning since such learning requires the purchasing of ICT tools and devices.

The availability of electronic devices such as laptops or personal computers is important for achieving maximally effective online learning. As has been discussed before, to arrive at conclusions of whether online learning is effective and beneficial for students or not, we must make sure that they have the required devices. In Jordan, for example, free laptops have been given as donations to students, and many universities have also granted their students internet access.

But this only happened after the end of the Spring semester 2020. In addition, the distribution of laptops does not have clear parameters, meaning that many poor students still do not have laptops or internet access. Yet before the Jordanian government’s grant of free laptops to some needy students, how were students able to learn online?

The survey questionnaire showed that 174 respondents use mobile phones in their eLearning, whereas only 84 use laptops. Some respondents reported that they use both a laptop and a mobile phone for their online lectures. The huge number of respondents who use mobile phones to participate in online learning is alarming.

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It should be noted that mobile phones are less efficient than laptops when it comes to online learning. The difficulty of using mobile phones for typing, their small screens compared to that of laptops, and the limited options on mobile phones negatively affect students’ online learning. The huge number of students using mobile phones can be attributed to their socioeconomic status. Whilst mobile phones can be bought at lower prices (poor people can have them), laptops are expensive. This explains why many more students use mobile phones than laptops.

One may draw a conclusion on why many students find online learning less effective when compared to traditional face-to-face learning in a classroom setting on campus. It is not because online learning is less effective; rather, it is because the required technological devices and tools are not available to students. In the survey questionnaire, respondents had to report on the efficacy of online learning and its downsides by selecting from various scales. The first three scales (very poor, poor, and fair) registered 105 responses from respondents who believed that online learning is ineffective or unsuccessful. Eighty-two (82) respondents indicated that online learning is average or less useful, and only eight respondents indicated that online learning is excellent. This low number does not suggest that online learning is less productive when compared to on-campus face-to-face teaching. Rather, external factors such as students’ household income and their socioeconomic status play a major role in directing the negative trend in the results of this questionnaire.

10. Findings in Light of the Study Variables To answer the fourth research question, pertaining to students’ attitudes toward online learning in light of the study variables, the researchers conducted a t-test and employed the one-way ANOVA as follows.

10.1 Gender The t-test showed that there were statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes toward online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic that could be attributed to gender in favor of female students. This result diverges from the findings of Akbulut’s (2008) study, which showed that students’ attitudes toward CALL are not influenced by their gender. This could be due to the fact that Jordanian female students are more proficient in texting on mobile phones than male students. Female students’ frequent texting with their classmates significantly improves their writing skills and typing speed.

10.2 Level of seniority at university The one-way ANOVA was employed to investigate the existence of any statistically significant differences amongst students’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to their level of seniority (freshman, junior, sophomore, or senior). Results revealed that there were no statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to their seniority level. This result is dissimilar to findings of previous studies, which showed that senior students are more computer literate than freshman, junior, and sophomore students, and they would thus use online learning more than the other groups

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either on campus in the university internet laboratory or off campus – or even at home. This result also diverges from the findings of Blake’s (2006) study, which showed that senior students have more positive attitudes toward CALL or internet-aided instruction than their freshman counterparts. Furthermore, this study yielded different results from those obtained by Bataineh and Baniabdelrahman’s (2006) study, which explored the perceptions of computer literacy amongst Jordanian learners of English as a Foreign Language. They reported that learners’ seniority of study positively influenced their perceptions in favor of senior learners.

10.3 Socioeconomic status With regard to the source of income needed for paying students’ tuitions, analyzing the survey questionnaire showed that most students receive government grants, followed by students who are funded by their parents to pay their fees. Nevertheless, the study showed that there were no statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to their household income and socioeconomic status. However, results of the study revealed that students who possess laptops and have more access to internet bundles and routers have more positive perceptions of eLearning than students who use mobile phones for the same purpose. This result lends support to the findings of previous studies (Agormedah et al., 2020; Agung et al., 2020; Febrianto et al., 2020), which reported that students’ household income influences their online learning. Thus, students’ socioeconomic status and household income affect their learning and progress positively or negatively. Not all students can afford to buy laptops or have mobile phones. Many students do not even have internet access; therefore, the University of Jordan has provided them with free data bundles. Most importantly, there are some students who live in remote areas in which there is a lack of network coverage or no internet at all.

11. Conclusions and Recommendations This study found that students’ attitudes toward online learning are generally negative. This is not due to the ineffectiveness of the online-learning medium, but simply because of the many technical and financial problems associated with it.

Moreover, the study results also showed statistically significant differences in students’ attitudes toward online learning attributed to gender, but not to their socioeconomic status, seniority level, and gadget availability, though such variables significantly influence their online learning. In light of the results of the current study, the researchers suggest a number of recommendations and solutions. As a priority, it is recommended that all needy students, especially those living in remote and poor sections of the Jordanian society, be given free laptops and access to internet. These might be made available through government grants or donations from individuals and private institutions.

Finally, since online learning is a two-partner teaching/learning process, it is recommended that both students and instructors have professional training on how to efficiently use all types of eLearning platforms. Moreover, it is strongly recommended that blended learning be incorporated in the Jordanian educational system for its effectiveness and appeal to students.

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12. Limitations of the Study There are two limitations to generalizing the results of the current study. One limitation pertains to the instrument used for data collection. Survey questionnaires are generally used to elicit only quantitative data from respondents. Gathering and analyzing qualitative data would thus add more beneficial information. The other limitation concerns the study sample, which was limited to one department from a public university in Jordan (Department of English Language and Literature at the University of Jordan – Aqaba). Attitudes of students from other Jordanian public and private universities were not surveyed. Thus, the findings of the study should not be generalized broadly.

13. References Agormedah, E., Henaku, E., Ayite, D., & Ansah, E. (2020). Online learning in higher education during COVID-19 pandemic: A case of Ghana. Journal of Educational Technology and Online Learning, 3(3), 183-210. https://doi.org/10.31681/jetol.726441 Agung, A., Surtikanti, M., & Quinones, C. (2020). Students’ perceptions of online learning during COVID-19 pandemic: A case study on the English students of STKIP Pamane Talino. Soshum: Jurnal Sosial dan Humaniora, 10(2), 225-235. http://dx.doi.org/10.31940/soshum.v10i2.1316 Akbulut, Y. (2008). Exploration of the attitudes of freshman foreign language students toward using computers at a Turkish state university. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology (TOJET), 7(1), 18-31.

Alameri, J., Masadeh, R., Hamadallah, E., Ismail, H., & Fakhouri, H. (2020). Students’ perceptions of e-learning platforms (Moodle, Microsoft Teams and Zoom platforms) in The University of Jordan education and its relation to self-study and academic achievement during COVID-19 pandemic. Advanced Research and Studies Journal, 11(5), 21-33.

Altenaiji, N. (2005). Pre-service teachers’ response to an online learning community system (OLC) in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) [Ph.D. dissertation]. University of Colorado.

Barquero, J. (2020). Main e-learning modalities. Innovative Learning Solutions. Cae Innovative Learning Solutions. https://www.cae.net/e-learning-modalities/ Bataineh, R., & Baniabdelrahman, A. (2006). Jordanian EFL students’ perceptions of their computer literacy: An exploratory case study. International Journal of Education and Development Using ICT, 2(2), 35-50.

Beauvois, M., & Eledge, J. (1996). Personality types and megabytes: Student attitudes toward computer-mediated communication (CMC) in the language classroom.

CALICO Journal, 13(2–3), 27-45. https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v12i2-3.27-45 Blake, C. (2006). The potential of text-based internet chats for improving ESL oral fluency [Ph.D. dissertation].

Purdue University. http://www.purdue.edu/OEPP/abstracts.htm#Internet%20Chats-Blake Bulut, D., & AbuSeileek, A. (2007). Learner’s attitude toward CALL and level of achievement in basic language skills. Journal of Institute of Social Sciences of Erciyes University, 23(2), 103-126.

Coolican, M., Borras, J., & Strong, M. (2020). Argentina and the COVID-19: Lessons learned from education and technical colleges in Buenos Aires Province. Journal of Education for Teaching, 46(4), 484-496. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2020.1802204

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Febrianto, P., Mas’udah, S., & Megasari, L. (2020). Implementation of online learning during the Covid-19 pandemic on Madura Island, Indonesia. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(8), 233-254. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.8.13 Haidar, A., & Al-Salman, S. (2020). COVID-19’s impact on the higher education system in Jordan: Advantages, challenges, and suggestions. Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews, 8(4), 1418-1428.

Kalloo, R., Mitchell, B., & Kamalodeen, V. (2020). Responding to the COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago: Challenges and opportunities for teacher education.

Journal of Education for Teaching, 46(4), 452-462. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2020.1800407 Kawaguchi-Suzuki, M., Nagai, N., Akonoghrere, R., & Desborough, J. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic challenges and lessons learned by pharmacy educators around the globe.

American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 84(8). https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe8197 König, J., Daniela J., & Glutsch, N. (2020). Adapting to online teaching during COVID-19 school closure: Teacher education and teacher competence effects among early career teachers in Germany. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 608-622. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1809650 Kress, G. (2000). Multimodality: Challenges to thinking about language. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 337-340. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587959 Mahfouz, S. (2010). A study of Jordanian university students’ perceptions of using email exchanges with native English keypals for improving their writing competency.

CALICO Journal, 27(2), 393-408. https://doi.org/10.11139/CJ.27.2.393-408 O’Connor, A. (2005). Instant messaging: Friend or foe of student writing? New Horizons for Learning.

Retrieved from http://newhorizons.org/strategies/literacy/ oconnor.htm Oweis, T. I. (2018). Effects of using a blended learning method on students’ achievement and motivation to learn English in Jordan: A pilot case study. Education Research International, 2018(7425924), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7425924 Shawaqfeh, M., Al Bekairy, A., Al-Azayzih, A., Alkatheri, A., Qandil, A., Obaidat, A., Al Harbi1, S., & Muflih, S. (2020). Pharmacy students’ perceptions of their distance online learning experience during the COVID-19 pandemic: A crosssectional survey study. Journal of Medical Education and Curricular Development, 7, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1177/2382120520963039 Simpson, J. (2005). Learning electronic literacy skills in an online language learning community.

Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18(4), 327-345. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588220500335463 Sotillo, S. (2000). Discourse functions and syntactic complexity in synchronous and asynchronous communication. Language Learning & Technology, 4(1), 82-119.

Stevens, V. (1991). A study of student attitudes toward CALL in a self-access student resource centre. System, 19(3), 289-299. https://doi.org/10.1016/0346251X(91)90053-R Warschauer, M. (1996). Comparing face-to-face and electronic discussion in the second language classroom.

CALICO Journal, 13(2&3), 7-26. https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v13i2-3.7-26

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 160-184, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.9

University Students’ Perception of Transformational Leadership of the University President in Korea: The Role of Students’ Personality, Affect, and Affective Commitment to the University Boram Do Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8215-182X Seung-Yoon Rhee Hongik University, Seoul, South Korea https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0760-657X

Abstract. This study explores how university students’ personality and positive or negative affect influence their perception of transformational leadership of the university president. It further examines how the level of students’ affective commitment to the university moderates the relationship. Survey data were collected from 141 undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in a large public university in South Korea.

The students answered survey questions to measure their big-five personalities, positive and negative affect, affective commitment to the university, and their perception of the university president’s transformational leadership. The results of hierarchical regression analyses show that (a) students’ positive affect is positively related to their perception of the university president’s transformational leadership, after controlling for the effect of the students’ personality and that (b) students’ affective commitment to the university moderates the relationship between negative affect and perception of transformational leadership of the university president. This study sheds light on the dynamic, reciprocal process of the social construction of university leadership with an emphasis on students’ affective state and personality traits as critical factors in understanding distant leadership.

Keywords: student perception; transformational leadership; personality; affective experience; organizational commitment

1. Introduction For over thirty years, leadership has been one of the most actively explored topics in the field of management for both academicians and practitioners. The majority of initial studies of leadership have taken a perspective of leaders rather than that ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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of followers (Weick, 1993). For example, studies have explored the characteristics (i.e., traits or abilities) of leaders and examined their influences on leadership effectiveness. However, later studies have begun to think of leadership as a social product constructed by both leaders and followers rather than leaders alone (Hollander, 1992; Lord & Maher, 1993). This shift has aroused academic attention to the followers’ perspectives and perceptions of leadership (Meindl, Ehrlich & Dukerich, 1985). In educational settings, university leadership has been conceptualized mostly from the perspectives of school leaders in terms of what they do or what they think the leaders’ role is (Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Marks & Printy, 2003), which resonates with the leader-centric approach in the management field. Later studies have paid attention to complex, reciprocal processes involved in education leadership (Hallinger & Heck, 2011; Heck & Hallinger, 2010).

The notion of the social construction of leadership originates from the followercentric perspective (Meindl, 1995). This perspective posits that leadership is socially constructed by followers, so the followers’ individual differences and their experiences are crucial in conceptualizing and perceiving the image of their leaders. Meindl (1995) suggested that both situational and individual differences influence the social construction of leadership. For instance, social contexts such as crisis (Bligh, Kohles & Meindl, 2004) and situational performance shape followers’ perception of leadership (Awamleh & Gardner, 1999). Also, individual differences, including personalities (Felfe, 2005), self-identity (Lord, Brown & Freiberg, 1999), risk-taking tendencies (Ehrhart & Klein, 2001), and needs for structure (Collinson, 2006; Felfe & Schyns, 2006) influence followers’ social construction of leadership.

While existing studies have focused on followers’ individual differences and their impact on the social construction of leadership (i.e., followers’ personalities and self-identities: Felfe, 2005; Lord et al., 1999), they have put little emphasis on the impact of followers’ affective experiences on their leadership perception. Our claim for the importance of understanding the affective influence on leadership perception is grounded on scholarly evidence. Studies have shown that individuals’ affective experiences offer explanations for fundamental mechanisms pertaining to attitude, behavior, and performance of individuals (Clore & Schnall, 2005; Staw & Barsade, 1993) as well as facilitate individuals’ thought processes such as decision-making, perception (Isen, 2000; Salovey & Mayer, 1990), and possibly leadership perception in our case.

The influence of followers’ affective experience on leadership perception can be even more pronounced when they have a distant relationship with the leader. The examples include the relationships between a CEO and ordinary employees or between a university president and students. In this case, followers often lack information about their distant leaders to evaluate them (Katz & Kahn, 1966), and rarely have direct interactions and exchanges with them. Therefore, when relationships between leaders and followers are distant, followers are more likely to perceive and evaluate leadership in a more affective and symbolic way relying on their own feelings and judgments, rather than in an evidence-based and

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concrete way (Collinson, 2005; Shamir, 1995). In this case, followers’ affective experience can have a more significant influence on how they perceive leadership than when they have close relationships with leaders.

In the literature on leadership in educational settings, studies have mostly focused on teacher perceptions, rather than student perceptions, of principal leadership which have been associated with enhanced student academic performance and a positive school climate (Shepherd-Jones & Salisbury-Glennon, 2018; Ubben & Hughes, 2001). A notable exception is a study by Odhiambo and Hii (2012) that examined the perceptions of parents and students in terms of how effective their school leadership was at a Catholic school in Sydney, Australia. While the study showed that parents’ and students’ general satisfaction was influenced by their perceptions of the principal’s relational leadership, the literature on transformational leadership perception reports other important outcomes as well including increased motivation, experiences of meaningfulness, and creativity (Gumusluoglu & Ilsev, 2009; Ilies, Judge & Wagner, 2006; Tepper et al., 2018).

Drawing on the social construction of leadership theory (Meindl, 1995) as an overarching framework, this study illustrates the impact of followers’ affective experience, above and beyond the impact of followers’ personalities, on their perception of transformational leadership in the context where university students (i.e., followers) view and evaluate a university president as a distant leader. Transformational leadership emphasizes leaders’ capability to transform followers’ goals and beliefs, induce followers’ intrinsic motivation, and facilitate the emotional arousal of followers to achieve a vision (Cherulnik et al., 2001).

Hence, transformational leadership is more likely to rely on emotional processes (George, 2000). Thus, followers’ affective experiences can have a larger impact on their perception of transformational leadership than on the perception of other types of leadership.

In addition, this study examines how university students’ affective commitment to the university moderates the relationship between their affect and perceptions of the university president’s transformational leadership. Because leadership, particularly at the senior or president level, is a symbolic entity that represents the organization as a whole (Hambrick & Lovelace, 2018; Pfeffer, 1981), followers with a high level of organizational commitment would be more sensitive to and concerned about the leaders and their leadership styles. Thus, such followers’ perception of transformational leadership will be more dependent on their affective experience, as they pay more attention to their leaders and constantly evaluate and re-evaluate their leadership. Followers with lower levels of organizational commitment would be less concerned about leaders and their leadership, and, thus, their perception of transformational leadership would be less dependent on their affective experiences. Therefore, the relationship between students’ affective experiences and their leadership perception may vary depending on the level of students’ commitment to the university in which they are enrolled.

This study contributes to three areas of discussion. First, by exploring the impact of students’ affective experiences on their perception of distant leadership, this

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study contributes to a better understanding of how the distant leadership of a university president is socially constructed by the students. The focus on students’ affective experiences as an antecedent of transformational leadership perception addresses the call for studying the dynamic and reciprocal nature of university leadership (Heck & Hallinger, 2010). School structure and culture as well as staff motivation may shape leadership effectiveness (Sebastian, Allensworth & Huang, 2016), and so does students’ perception of a university president’s leadership as followers’ individual differences are an important mechanism of understanding leadership (Meindl, 1995).

Second, this study complements previous research on followers’ dispositions or personalities as the main antecedents of leadership perception (Ehrhart & Klein, 2001; Felfe, 2005; Felfe & Schyns, 2006). Furthermore, it extends prior findings by examining the impact of positive and negative affect while controlling for the personality effects. As followers tend to perceive distant leadership on the basis of their affective experiences (Collinson, 2005), a deeper understanding of how students’ affect shapes their perceptions of university leadership is warranted.

Finally, by studying the moderating effect of commitment to the university on the relationship between students’ affective experiences and their leadership perception, this research reveals the extent to which university students as key followers as well as stakeholders pay attention to the university president as a symbolic representation of the organization (Hambrick & Lovelace, 2018). In doing so, this study sheds light on the importance of taking students’ perspectives in assessing school leadership and contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the process of the social construction of leadership in educational settings.

2. Literature Review and Hypotheses This study adopts the social construction of leadership theory (Meindl, 1995) as an overarching framework in viewing a university president’s leadership from the university students’ perspective. In the following subsections, we elaborate on our research model depicted in Figure 1. More specifically, we introduce the theoretical framework and then propose that student personalities, positive and negative affect, and affective commitment to the university play an important role in shaping the students’ perception of the university president’s transformational leadership.

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University Students’ Affective Commitment to the University

University Students’ Positive/ Negative Affect (Temporary State)

University Students’ Personalities (Stable Trait)    

University Students’ Perception of Transformational Leadership of the University President

Extroversion Openness to Experiences Agreeableness Neuroticism

Figure 1: Research model

2.1. Social Construction of Leadership Meindl et al. (1985) suggested a follower-centric approach to understanding leadership, which is to view leadership as a social construction among followers.

Followers tend to simplify complex phenomena related to their organization, and often attribute the causes and outcomes of the organizational phenomena to leadership. Through this process, followers gain psychological benefits, such as reduced cognitive burden and uncertainty and a sense of comfort and security (Bligh et al., 2004; Felfe, 2005). More importantly, the attribution process enables followers to construct an image and impression of their leader, thus facilitating their social construction of leadership. Research findings have shown that the psychological benefits that accrue to followers through the attribution process are likely to create positive images of the leaders (Gardner, 2003).

Followers tend to attribute blame and credit to leaders in varying degrees. For example, Gibson and Schroeder (2003) tested the effect of leaders’ hierarchical position on attributions and showed that upper-level positions received more blame than credit. Interestingly, Shamir (1995) proposed that perceptions of distant charismatic leaders will be more idealized than those of close charismatic leaders. Given our research context of a university president as a leader and the university students as followers, the process of the social construction of leadership is likely to be more active.

2.2. Personality and Social Construction of Leadership Among several dispositional characteristics of followers, personalities are considered one of the most important factors that influence the perception of leadership. This is because personalities, in general, tend to have a stable impact on individuals’ beliefs, attitudes and behaviors (Felfe & Schyns, 2006). Shamir,

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House & Arthur, (1993) and Keller (1999) argued that individuals tend to believe

that they are similar to other people. This illusion of similarity occurs because being similar to other people confirms individuals’ self-concepts and perceived congruence with others. For example, the moral foundations of the followers have been associated with their ethical leadership perceptions (Fehr, Yam & Dang, 2015).

Thus, when followers believe that they have similar personalities with their leader, they are likely to evaluate them more positively or think of them as more transformational (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1996; Schyns & Felfe, 2006). Hence, students’ (i.e., follower) personalities can impact their perceptions of the transformational leadership of the university president.

Followers with high extroversion and openness are likely to perceive leadership as transformational. Extroverts enjoy being with others and are full of energy, and people who are open to new experiences are characterized as imaginative and creative. Followers with either personality characteristics would perceive their leaders as more transformational because both are common personalities found among transformational leaders (Judge & Bono, 2000), and, thus, enhance followers’ similarity perception with their leaders.

Followers with high agreeableness are also likely to perceive leadership as transformational because highly agreeable people tend to view others in a positive light with a pro-social orientation towards others (Graziano, Jensen-Campbell & Hair,, 1996). Agreeable individuals are cooperative, and emphasize social harmony and building positive relationships with others (Goldberg, 1993).

On the contrary, neuroticism refers to the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anxiety and anger, and is highly correlated with pessimism (Boland & Cappeliez, 1997). Thus, people with high neuroticism are less likely to be motivated and idealized by transformational leadership. Moreover, neuroticism is known to have a negative relationship with the emergence of transformational leadership (Judge & Bono, 2000). Therefore, we hypothesize as below.

Hypothesis 1a. University students with high extroversion will perceive the university president as more transformational.

Hypothesis 1b. University students with high openness to experiences will perceive the university president as more transformational.

Hypothesis 1c. University students with high agreeableness will perceive the university president as more transformational.

Hypothesis 1d. University students with high neuroticism will perceive the university president as less transformational.

2.3. Affect and Social Construction of Leadership While past research on affect and leadership has been mainly devoted to understanding leaders’ affect and its effect on leadership effectiveness (George, 2000; Palmer et al., 2001), there has been a growing interest in studying the impact

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of followers’ affect on their perception of leadership (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995; Barsade & Gibson, 2007; Conger & Kanungo, 1987). Affect is considered a fundamental mechanism that explains why and how certain attitudes, cognition, and behavior come to exist. In the same vein, followers’ positive or negative affect may influence their social construction of leadership. The impact of followers’ affect can be stronger in the perception of distant leadership, in particular because followers tend to perceive distant leadership based on an affective, symbolic image of the leaders rather than relying on concrete or specific evidence (Collinson, 2005; Shamir, 1995).

By positive affect, we mean a positive emotional state or how much a person experiences enthusiastic, active and alert at the moment (Frijda, 1986). High arousal positive affect is a state of high energy and concentration as well as pleasurable, full engagement, whereas low arousal positive affect is a state of calmness and serenity (Watson, Clark & Tellegen, 1988). By negative affect we refer to subjective distress and unpleasant affective experiences that accompany a variety of aversive mood states (Watson & Tellgen, 1985). High arousal negative affect includes anger, fear, contempt, disgust, guilt, anxiety, and nervousness, whereas low arousal negative affect includes sadness and lethargy.

Meindl (1995) suggested that followers’ level of emotional arousal can impact the extent to which they attribute the causes and outcomes of organizational phenomena to their leaders. More specifically, followers’ experience of high arousal positive affect tends to enhance their perception of transformational leadership (Mayo, Pastor & Meindl, 1996). This is because high emotional arousal tends to bound followers’ rationality (Kaufman, 1999), thus having the followers become susceptible to positivity bias, which fosters a positive perception of leader behavior (Wright & Dawson, 1988).

We propose that the effect of followers’ positive or negative affect may remain even after controlling for the effect of the followers’ personalities in the case of the perception of distant leadership. One of the major factors that shape the social construction of leadership is individual differences (Meindl, 1995). Individual differences can be either (a) stable differences, such as personality differences, or (b) unstable, changing differences, such as an affective state (e.g., Rhee, 2007). To fully uncover the effect of individual differences on the social construction of distant leadership, it is important to consider the impact of both stable and unstable individual differences. Hence, we hypothesize that students’ positive and negative affect will influence their perception of the university president’s transformational leadership, above and beyond the impact of their personalities.

Hypothesis 2. University students’ positive and negative affect will influence their perception of transformational leadership of the university president, even after controlling for the effect of students’ personalities.

Several research findings show how followers’ positive and negative affect may have different impacts on their leadership perceptions. Dasborough and Askanasy (2002) found that followers experiencing positive affect interpreted leader behaviors more favorably and perceived the leadership as transformational

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because positive affect fosters positive interpretations of leaders’ behaviors.

Additionally, Sinclair (1988) showed that individuals experiencing positive affect tended to appraise others’ performance more positively. Thus, it is likely that university students experiencing positive affect appraise the university president’s leadership as transformational. Hence, we hypothesize as below.

Hypothesis 3. University students experiencing positive affect will perceive the university president’s leadership as more transformational.

The effect of followers’ negative affect is not clear, especially for the high arousal negative affect, such as anger or fear. On the one hand, studies have argued that followers with high arousal affect, regardless of positive or negative, tend to perceive their leader as more transformational (Meindl et al., 1985). Thus, followers experiencing high arousal negative affect may think of the leader as transformational. On the other hand, individuals with negative affect tend to be more critical and skeptical in judgment and evaluation or interpret things in a more pessimistic way (Scheier, Weintraub & Carver, 1986; Staw & Barsade, 1993).

This argument suggests that followers experiencing negative affect may view their leaders less favorably or less transformational. Because of the two different possibilities regarding the impact of university students’ negative affect on the perceptions of university president’s transformational leadership, we set competing hypotheses as follows.

Hypothesis 4a. University students experiencing negative affect will perceive the university president’s leadership as more transformational.

Hypothesis 4b. University students experiencing negative affect will perceive the university president’s leadership as less transformational.

2.4. Direct and Moderating Effects of Affective Organizational Commitment In the previous section, we proposed that followers’ affective state may influence their perceptions of transformational leadership. In this section, we suggest that the effect of followers’ affective experiences can be moderated by an organizationrelated psychological factor, such as followers’ affective commitment to the organization. We further propose that followers’ affective commitment can directly impact leadership perception as well. By affective organizational commitment, we refer to an affective bond with the organization (Jaros l., 2017; Meyer & Allen, 1991; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986) or with the university in our case.

Affective commitment to an organization heightens the level of identification with the organization (Meyer & Allen, 1991). The extent to which members identify with the organization, in turn, influences how they perceive things related to the organization, such as leadership (Gautam, Van Dick & Wagner, 2004; Machokoto, 2019). Because followers tend to identify their leaders, particularly at the senior levels, with their organization (Hambrick & Lovelace, 2018; Pfeffer, 1981), followers with high affective commitment to the organization are likely to be affectively attached to their leader. Therefore, we predict that university students with high affective commitment to the university will perceive the university president’s leadership as more transformational.

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Hypothesis 5. University students with high affective commitment to the university will perceive the university president’s leadership as more transformational.

Furthermore, the more the followers are affectively committed to the organization, the more they become attentive to emotional information about leadership. This is also because followers tend to identify leaders with the organization (Pfeffer, 1981). Leaders carry symbolic meanings and their identity tends to overlap with the organization’s identity (e.g., Hambrick & Lovelace, 2018). Thus, when followers are affectively committed to the organization, the impact of their affect on leadership perception may be amplified. In other words, a positive feeling about leadership may become more positive because the quality of leadership matters for the followers who are affectively committed to the organization. In the same vein, a negative feeling about leadership can become stronger with the followers with affective organizational commitment. Hence, we hypothesize as follows.

Hypothesis 6. The effect of university students’ positive and negative affect on their perception of the university president’s transformational leadership will increase when the students have a high level of affective commitment to the university they are enrolled in.

Drawing on the social construction of leadership theory (Meindl, 1995), this study complements and extends extant literature by proposing how university students as followers perceive the distant transformational leadership of the university president through their affective experiences, an important yet under-explored aspect of leadership perception. This approach also responds to the call for a deeper exploration of the reciprocal nature of university leadership (Heck & Hallinger, 2010), which has generally neglected students’ perspectives in evaluating university leadership.

3. Methods To collect data for the test of study hypotheses, we have conducted an online survey study with university students, exploring the relationship between students’ personalities, affect, as well as their perception of the president’s transformational leadership. Undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in a large public university in South Korea participated in the survey. A survey recruitment flyer was posted on a social network service that the majority of the university students used, and their participation was voluntary. About a year before the survey was conducted, the university had a new president who attempted to make various radical changes throughout the university, including tenure and promotion policy and student graduation requirements. Students had mixed thoughts and feelings about the president so we concluded that this case is an appropriate site to examine the relationship of students’ personalities and emotions with their perception of leadership. Detailed survey processes are delineated below.

3.1. Sample and Procedure Among the total 141 student participants, 106 were males and 35 females, and 80 were undergraduate and 61 graduate students. We assumed that all the

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respondents had a similar amount of information about the university president and that they had almost no previous direct interaction with them.

When the survey was conducted, the university did not have any institutional monitoring or approval of human subjects research. However, this study only assessed students’ personalities, affects, and perceptions of another person which have been widely used in existing studies without any sensitive questions or information. Thus we concluded that this study was safe to run in the university.

Also, at the beginning of the online survey, we have fully explained all the necessary information about the survey, such as confidentiality, anonymity, and their right to withdraw at any time.

3.2. Measures Positive and negative affect. The PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule) scale is one of the most well-known measures of emotional state, developed by Watson e al. (1988). PANAS has ten positive emotions (e.g., interested, enthusiastic, proud, and alert) and ten negative emotions (e.g., distressed, guilty, hostile, and afraid). We asked the participants to rate the items on a scale from 1 to 5, based on the strength of affective experience where 1 = "very slightly or not at all" and 5 = "extremely" (see Appendix 1). The internal consistency (i.e., Cronbach’s alpha) of positive affect was 0.82, and negative affect 0.80. According to Nunnally and Bernstein (1994), the suggested minimum value for acceptable reliability is 0.6.

Transformational leadership. Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ Form 5X)© measures the extent to which a leader exhibits transformational and transactional leadership and the followers’ level of satisfaction with the leadership style. We used 20 items to measure the students’ perception of the university president’s transformational leadership using a 5-point scale (Avolio, Bass & Jung, 1999). Internal consistency of each sub-scale was at a good or acceptable level: idealized influence (α= 0.76), inspirational motivation (α = 0.64), intellectual stimulation (α = 0.73), and individualized consideration (α = 0.71).

Personality. The International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) with 40 items (Goldberg, 1999) was used to measure personality traits in the current research (see Appendix 1). Each personality trait was assessed with 10 items using a 5-point scale (1 = very inaccurate; 5 = very accurate). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were good or acceptable: neuroticism (α = 0.83), extroversion (α = 0.76), openness (α = 0.68), and agreeableness (α = 0.80).

Affective commitment to university. We measured students’ level of affective commitment to the university using 10 items suggested by Nora and Cabrera (1993). We used a 5-point Likert scale (see Appendix 1), and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.81.

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4. Results Using SPSS 20.0 software, we performed reliability tests for each of the measurements and conducted correlation analysis. To test the hypothesized relationships, hierarchical regression analysis and moderated multiple regression analysis was performed.

4.1. Descriptive Statistics Table 1 shows means, standard deviations, and correlations between the variables.

Because some of the personality variables had significant correlations higher than 0.30, we checked for multi-collinearity problems. The results indicated that multicollinearity between the variables was not significant (Tolerance > 0.10, VIF (Variance Inflation Factor) < 10, Eigenvalue > 0.01, Index< 100). Our initial examinations further showed that our regression models below meet the assumption of normality, homoscedasticity, as well as no multicollinearity.

Table 1: Means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients Variables

M

1. Years in the university

4.20

1.99

.75

.43

3. Neuroticism

1.81

.739

-.109 -.097

4. Extroversion

3.61

.588

.040 -.092

-.332**

5. Openness

3.77

.578

-.119 -.051

-.057

.430**

6. Agreeableness

3.52

.627

.108 -.133

-.303**

.383**

.270**

7. Positive affect

2.86

.722

-.153

-.293**

.275**

.248**

8. Negative affect

2.46

.744

-.099 -.026

.569** -.181*

.025 -.364**

9. Affective commitment to university

3.52

.533

-.043 -.082

-.141

-.002

.028

.085

.092

10. Perception of transformational leadership

3.03

.620

-.267**

.203*

.152

.299**

.355**

2. Gender (Female 0, Male 1)

SD

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

-.033

.045

.065

.135

.149 -.032

-.084

-.082 .187*

N = 141; † p < 0.10, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

4.2. Hypothesis Tests 4.2.1. Effects of Individual Differences: Personality and Positive and Negative Affect Model 2 in Table 2 illustrates regression results examining the relationship between student personalities and perception of the university president’s transformational leadership. Hypothesis 1c, which predicted that students with high agreeableness would perceive transformational leadership more strongly than those with low agreeableness, was supported ( = 0.24, p < 0.01). Also, students’ neuroticism had a negative relationship with the perception of

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transformational leadership with a marginal significance ( = - 0.16, p < 0.10), thus marginally supporting Hypothesis 1d. Students’ extroversion and openness personalities were not associated with their leadership perception, thus rejecting Hypotheses 1a and 1b.

Next, to test the effect of students’ positive and negative affect after controlling for the effect of personalities, we regressed personality, positive and negative affect altogether on the perception of transformational leadership. We found that students’ positive affect, but not negative affect, was positively related to the perception of transformational leadership even after controlling for the effect of student personalities (see Model 3 in Table 2), thus partially supporting Hypothesis 2. Model 3 in Table 2 also shows that students’ positive affect has a positive relationship with their perception of transformational leadership ( = 0.27, p < 0.01), thus supporting Hypothesis 3. Because students’ negative affect was not associated with their perception of transformational leadership of the university president, Hypotheses 4a and 4b were not supported.

Table 2: Results of hierarchical regression analyses for perception of transformational leadership: Direct effect of student personalities and affect Variables

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Gender

.14

.16†

.14†

Years in the university

.05

.01

.06

Neuroticism

-.16†

-.16

Extroversion

.04

.00

Openness

.07

.02

Agreeableness

.24**

.26**

Step 1: Control variables

Step 2: Independent variables (Personalities)

Step 3: Independent variables (Affect) Positive affect

.27**

Negative affect

.12

R2 Adjusted R2 N = 141; † p < 0.10, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

.02

.16**

.23**

.01

.12

.18

4.2.2. Effects of Affective Organizational Commitment In Model 2 in Table3, there is a direct positive relationship between students’ affective commitment to university and their perception of transformational leadership ( = 0.18, p < 0.05). Thus, Hypothesis 5 was supported. However, when interaction terms are added in the model (Model 3 in Table 3), the significant positive relationship disappears and a moderating effect appears. To test the moderating effect of affective commitment to university, we regressed the

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perception of transformational leadership on students’ positive and negative affect, affective commitment to university, and interaction terms of positive/negative affect and affective commitment to university. Model 3 in Table 3 shows that a coefficient of the interaction term is significant only for the interaction between negative affect and affective commitment to university ( = 0.47, p < 0.10), but not for the interaction between positive affect and affective commitment to university. Hence, Hypothesis 5 was partially supported, which predicted that the relationship between university students’ positive and negative affect and their leadership perception would be amplified when students have a high level of affective commitment to the university. The moderating effect is depicted in Figure 2.

Table 3: Hierarchical regression analyses for perception of transformational leadership: Effect of affective commitment to university Variables

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Gender

.14

.13†

.14†

Years in the university

.05

.11

.11

Positive affect (PA)

.35**

.34**

Negative affect (NA)

-.04

-.03

Affective commitment to university

.18*

.18

Step 1: Control variables

Step 2: Independent variables (Affect and affective commitment)

Step 3: Interaction effects (AffectｘAffective commitment) PAｘAffective commitment to university

.02

NAｘAffective commitment to university

-.13†

R2 Adjusted R2 N = 141; † p < 0.10, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

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.02

.18**

.20**

.01

.15

.16

173

Figure 2: Moderating effect of affective commitment to university on the relationship between negative affect and perception of transformational leadership of the university president

5. Discussion The purpose of this paper was to examine how university students’ personalities and affective experiences influence the social construction of distant leadership of the university president. Followers’ affect has important implications for understanding their perception of distant leadership, in particular because followers tend to rely on the affective or symbolic image of distant leaders when evaluating leadership effectiveness. Corroborating previous findings, university students with high agreeableness perceived the university president as more transformational (Schyns & Sanders, 2007), and those with neuroticism perceived leaders as less transformational. Moreover, even after controlling for the effect of student personalities, there was a significant relationship between students’ positive affect and their perception of the transformational leadership of the university president. This indicates that, for the perception of distant leaders’ transformational leadership, followers’ positive affect may matter above and beyond the impact of followers’ personality. Finally, students’ affective commitment to school enhanced their perception of transformational leadership and amplified the negative relationship between students’ negative affect and their perception of transformational leadership.

The hypotheses on the relationship between students’ extroversion or openness and perceived transformational leadership were not supported. Past research found that followers viewed leaders more positively when they shared similar characteristics (Fehr et al., 2015; Keller, 1999). It is probable that students may not have perceived the university president as always extrovert or open to new experiences, which are exemplary features of transformational leaders. In fact, at the time when the survey was conducted, there was a negative sentiment at the

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research site regarding the university president’s arbitrary decisions, rather than building consensus, on a number of school policies. Perhaps this situation had formed an image of the university president as less open to and more withdrawn from others’ opinions. Hence, the similarity argument can be limited depending on how extroverted or open the leaders are. In contrast, agreeableness and neuroticism seem to show stable effects such that agreeable individuals view others in a more positive light and that those with high neuroticism tend to view others with negative sentiments (e.g., Costa, McCrae & Löckenhoff, 2019). Hence, students’ agreeableness and neuroticism may have shown a more stable effect on the perception of transformational leadership than extroversion and openness personalities have.

Most of the hypotheses pertinent to students’ negative affect were not supported, except for the moderating effect of affective commitment to school on the relationship between negative affect and transformational leadership perception.

It may be that the degree and variance of the university students’ negative affect were not big enough to produce significant effects (M = 2.46 on a 5-point Likerttype scale; SD = 0.74). Another possible explanation pertains to the extent to which followers view themselves as interdependent with the leader (Eberly & Fong, 2013). The more the followers viewed themselves as connected to the leader, the stronger their motivation was to remain connected to the leader who elicited positive affect. However, non-interdependent followers did not make a significant distinction between positive or negative affect associated with the leader. This finding implies that, in the case of distant leadership of the university president to whom students are remotely connected with a weak sense of interdependence, it is likely that their negative affect may not necessarily result in a weakened perception of transformational leadership.

When combined with the effect of affective commitment to the university, however, students’ negative affect significantly reduced their perception of transformational leadership. The more the students were affectively committed to the university, the less they perceived the university president as transformational when the president was associated with negative feelings. For the university students with a high level of affective commitment to the university, negative feelings about the university president may have meant unsatisfactory performance of the president, thus resulting in the perception of the president as possessing less transformational leadership. Insofar as students experience affective commitment or connection to the university, they become psychologically engaged with the university and pay careful attention to what it does and what it stands for (Hur et al., 2017). As a symbolic representation of the organization (Hambrick & Lovelace, 2018), the leadership of a university president could be under scrutiny by multiple stakeholders including its students, particularly those who are more committed to the university.

5.1. Theoretical and Practical Implications The study findings contribute to the discussion of school leadership and the social construction of leadership theory in several ways. First, we attempted to contribute to the follower-centric view of leadership research. While a leader-

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centric viewpoint has been a dominant approach in leadership research in both educational and managerial settings (Heck & Hallinger, 2010; Weick, 1993), later studies have developed the idea of the social construction of leadership from followers’ perspectives. Leadership effectiveness is determined not only by what and how leaders do, but also by how followers perceive the leadership (Hollander, 1992). While school leadership literature has viewed leadership mostly from teachers’ perspectives (Dinham, 2005; Shepherd-Jones & Salisbury-Glennon, 2018; Ubben & Hughes, 2001), the current study opens up the possibility of taking students’ perspectives into account (e.g., Odhiambo & Hii, 2012). A more vigorous attempt to understand the follower-centric perspective of leadership may enable us to fully uncover the dynamics of transformational leadership and leadership perceptions.

Second, by a focus on followers’ (i.e., students’) perception of distant leadership, this study applied the argument of the social construction of leadership to the context of a distant leader-follower relationship in educational settings. The follower(student)-centric approach allows the exploration of how students perceive the distant leadership of the university president in an affective and symbolic way (Popper, 2013). This study, therefore, extends prior studies on perceptions by teachers who are relatively closer to school leadership than the students are (Hauserman, Ivankova & Stick, 2013; Ubben & Hughes, 2001).

Followers use different types of information when forming impressions of their leaders, depending on how approachable or distant the leaders are (Collinson, 2005; Shamir, 1995). By parsing out the effect of follower personalities and affect as an important mechanism of the social construction of distant leadership, we suggest future research opportunities in the arena of perception of distant leadership.

Finally, given the importance of follower (i.e., student) affect as a key source of distant leadership perception, we call for a fuller investigation of the impact that followers’ positive or negative affect may have on the social construction of leadership. Past research has mainly focused on the effect of dispositional aspects of followers, including personality and self-concept (Felfe, 2005; Lord et al., 1999).

However, there is evidence that followers’ affect influences the way they interpret leaders’ actions and the way they view the style of leadership (i.e., Isen, 2000; Johnson, 2008). This study showed a significant positive association between students’ positive affect and their transformational leadership perception of the university president, above and beyond the effect of student personalities, thus suggesting the criticality of examining the effect of follower affect.

The current findings have implications for educational and management practice.

Given that leadership tends to be socially constructed by both leaders and followers (Hollander, 1992; Meindl, 1995), understanding and managing followers’ leadership perception mechanisms become crucial for the leadership to be effective. Hence, university leaders need to pay attention to the students’ affective experiences in the university and their level of affective commitment or connection to the university. For instance, frequent communication of university vision and development (Berson, 2015), as well as relational practices such as

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holding town hall meetings (Hsih et al., 2015) or collaborative decision-making, are recommended. As university leaders face ever-growing challenges in fastchanging, complex environments with diverse stakeholders, professional development or relational training are emphasized (Lasater, 2016) through which skills and competencies to build rapport and establish trust can be cultivated. An important basis of leadership perception involves how caring and trustworthy the leaders are. Indeed, researchers have indicated that these are crucial competencies for university leaders to evoke affective commitment from the school community (Cherkowski, 2012), which ultimately results in leadership effectiveness, positive school climate, and desirable performance outcomes (Shepherd-Jones & Salisbury-Glennon, 2018; Ubben & Hughes, 2001).

5.2. Limitations and Future Research Directions The present findings need to be considered in light of several limitations. First, respondents to our questionnaire might have been those who were satisfied or dissatisfied with the current leadership more than others, producing a biased distribution of data and results. Second, generalizability is limited by the sample and the research context. We cannot eliminate the possibility that the findings were unique for the specific research context or specific students and departments within the university due to relatively small sample size (n=141) in this study.

Finally, we did not control for the influence of environmental factors such as media evaluation of the university president or recent positive or negative events having occurred at the university, for example.

Future research may examine whether the current study findings hold in different cultural or contextual settings. Antecedents of leadership perception may vary depending on different research settings. For example, perception or evaluation of self-sacrificial leadership and dictatorial leadership may differ depending on followers’ personalities. Also, follower positive affect could have different impacts on the perception of distant or close leaders. Besides, future research may look at whether there is a fit between certain personality types and positive or negative affect. For example, researchers may investigate whether agreeable followers experiencing positive affect perceive leaders as more transformational than those experiencing negative affect.

6. Conclusion The current research explored the importance of followers’ personalities and positive and negative affect in understanding the social construction of distant leadership in university settings. We investigated the impact of student personalities and positive and negative affect on their perception of the transformational leadership of the university president. We further investigated the moderating effect of students’ affective commitment to the university on the relationship between their personalities and perception of transformational leadership. Students’ positive affect has an impact on their perception of transformational leadership of the university president, above and beyond the impact of students’ personalities. Also, students’ affective commitment to school fostered their perception of the transformational leadership of the university president.

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The present study addresses the call for understanding university leadership as a highly contextual competence with a dynamic, reciprocal nature involving school culture, staff motivation, delegated leadership (Heck & Hallinger, 2010; Majumdar, 2018; Sebastian et al., 2016), and students’ perception of leadership (e.g., Odhiambo & Hii, 2012) in our case. This study sheds further light on the follower-centric view of leadership with a focus on followers’ affective state, personality traits, and affective organizational commitment as critical determinants of the social construction of distant leadership.

Funding This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF2020S1A5A8042404), and partially supported by the Graduate School of YONSEI University Research Scholarship Grants in 2020 (2020-22-0020).

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Appendix 1 Questionnaire items 1. Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule) (Watson et al., 1988) Please indicate to what extent you have felt this way during the past few days.

Use the following scale to record your answers.

items

Positive affect

Negative affect

1

2

3

4

5

very slightly or not at all

a little

moderately

quite a bit

extremely

interested excited strong enthusiastic proud alert inspired determined attentive active distressed upset guilty scared hostile irritable ashamed nervous jittery afraid

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2. Personality: International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) (Goldberg, 1999) Please rate how accurately each of the items describes you. Use the following scale to record your answer.

1: very inaccurate (VI) 2: moderately inaccurate (MI) 3: neither inaccurate nor accurate (NINA) 4: moderately accurate (MA) 5: very accurate (VA) items

Extrove rsion

Agreea bleness

Neuroti cism

Openn ess

Am the life of the party Don’t talk a lot * Feel comfortable around people Keep in the background * Start conversations Have little to say * Talk to a lot of different people at parties Don’t like to draw attention to myself * Don’t mind being the center of attention Am quiet around strangers * Feel little concern for others * Am interested in people Insult people * Sympathize with others’ feelings Am not interested in other people’s problems * Have a soft heart Am not really interested in others * Take time out for others Feel others’ emotions Make people feel at ease Get stressed out easily Am relaxed most of the time * Worry about things Seldom feel blue * Am easily disturbed Get upset easily Change my mood a lot Have frequent mood swings Get irritated easily Often feel blue Have a rich vocabulary Have difficulty understanding abstract ideas *

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MI

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Have a vivid imagination Am not interested in abstract ideas * Have excellent ideas Do not have a good imagination * Am quick to understand things Use difficult words Spend time reflecting on things Am full of ideas * Reverse scored items

3. Affective commitment to school: 10 Items by Nora and Cabrera (1993) Please indicate the degree of your agreement or disagreement with each statement. Use the following scale to record your answer.

1: strongly disagree (SD) 2: disagree (D) 3: neither disagree nor agree (NDNA) 4: agree (A) 5: strongly agree (SA) items

1 SD

2 D

3 NDNA

4 A

5 SA

I am confident I made the right decision in choosing to attend this university.

I am certain this university is the right choice for me.

My close friends rate this university as a quality university.

I am satisfied with the prestige of this university.

I feel I belong at this university.

My education at this university will help me get a better job than an education from another university.

My education at this university will help me secure future employment.

It is very important for me to graduate from this university as opposed to some other school.

Most students at this university have values and attitudes similar to my own.

Most faculty, academic advisors, and college administrators at this university have values and attitudes similar to my own.

4. Transformational leadership: Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ Form 5X)© Copyright © 1995 by Bernard Bass & Bruce J. Avolio. All rights reserved in all media. Published by Mind Garden, Inc. www.mindgarden.com

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 185-198, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.10

Pre-service Mathematics and Physical Education Teachers' Perceptions of using Play-based Teaching Strategy across the Foundation Phase Blanche Ntombizodwa Ndlovu University of Free State, Bloemfontein Campus, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3506-7382 Dumsani Wilfred Mncube* University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5566-2288

Abstract. This qualitative case study explores early childhood pre-service educators' perceptions of using play-based teaching strategy across the Foundation Phase. A play-based approach promotes a special mode of thinking, sense of possibility, ownership, control, and competence in maths and PE learners. That is why scholars believe that hybrid pedagogical content knowledge that integrates play-based learning sustains learner attention throughout the lesson and promotes problemsolving skills. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to propose alternative pathways that promote the implementation of a hybrid pedagogical teaching strategy in the Foundation Phase. This study draws from a qualitative case study conducted at one of the universities in KwaZulu-Natal to explore the perception of pre-service teachers about using a play-based teaching strategy in pre-Grade R and Grade R classes.

Five preservice teachers who teach both mathematics and PE were purposively and conveniently sampled to generate data using narratives and semi-structured interviews to describe their perceptions and experiences. Zoom group meetings and WhatsApp one-on-one semistructured interviews were used during the data generation process. The findings reveal that pre-service mathematics and PE teachers perceive play-based pedagogies as necessary to provide a wide range of opportunities for learners to learn to count, visualising groups, and problem-solving skills. They underscore the importance of drawing from a hybrid approach that draws strength from play-based learning to complement formal learning.

Keywords: foundation phase; mathematics; play; pre-service teachers; teaching strategy

*

Corresponding author: Dumsani Wilfred Mncube; Email: MncubeD@unizulu.ac.za

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Foundation Phase (FP) teaching needs to adapt to the realities of the 21st century by systematically infusing a hybrid approach into pedagogy to strike a delicate balance between formal and play-based teaching. Indeed, early childhood education (ECE) teachers in South Africa aspire to popular discourse underpinned by a binary choice between, on the one hand, learning and school preparedness, and on the other, paying special attention to child-led play. Playbased teaching benefits learning when facilitated in the pre-Grade R and Grade R phases with the use of resources and teacher-facilitation approaches based on developmentally appropriate principles. Assurance of such a basic principle reinforces the popular belief that all learners, young and old, have a constitutional right to play as recognised in the Rights of the Child which South Africa ratified in 1995. This noble principle forms the basis of the Constitution against the backdrop that school curricula used to deprive learners of using play pedagogies to learn (Department of Basic Education [DBE], 2015; van Vuuren, Uitenbroek, van der Wal & Chinapaw 2018; Isaacs, Roberts, Spencer-Smith, & Brink, 2019).

In South African schools, there is a greater focus on strengthening teacher-led instruction in early childhood education (ECE) (Bubikova-Moan, Hjetland, & Wollscheid, 2019). To this end, pre-service teachers are expected to safeguard children’s appetite to constantly engage in a spontaneous and free play-aligned curriculum (Stebler, Vogt, Wolf, Hauser & Rechsteiner, 2013). There is, however, growing concern regarding the dearth of literature and the alarming disappearance of play-based activities in pre-school practice (Bubikova-Moan et al., 2019). The DBE (2019) states that despite all good intentions to capacitate preservice teachers to focus on teaching and learning, there is no consensus on hybrid preschool pedagogy. Consequently, schools pay very little attention to the development of an ECE curriculum aligned to a play-based approach because it attracts controversy (Isaacs et al., 2019). Literature warns that such poor leadership threatens ECE practitioners inspired to implement a play-based approach for improving professional practice, indirectly stifling curriculum innovations for teachers. Van Vuuren et al. (2018) argue that FP educators understand that their curriculum aspiration towards play may remain unachievable (Stebler et al., 2013).

The National Integrated Early Childhood Development Policy (2015) developed

by UNICEF outlines international protocol targeted towards helping ECE preservice teachers improve implementation of hybrid pedagogy in mathematics and PE. Zooming directly onto pre-service teachers’ perceptions and contexts, this study seeks to understand how a play-based approach to teaching contributes to improvement in learner performance in mathematics and PE. The topic of preservice mathematics and PE teachers’ perceptions is commonly discussed during teacher training as it constitutes a highly charged excitement for teacher trainees (Kalogiannakis, Nirgianaki & Papadakis, 2018). In essence, educators consider playing as an add-on activity and as an expression of local indigenous people who try to promote their traditional social realities. This notion is challenged by CAPS, which champions play-based teaching strategy. By paying special attention to ECE teachers this study by no means excludes other voices, but it unpacks how

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their practice influences policy and children in both mathematics and PE classrooms.

2. Literature review Over the years, a wide range of teaching approaches and teaching material has been developed to improve mathematical learning in early childhood education.

A study conducted by Aronstam and Braund (2016) reveals the significance of play and games in encouraging language use as well as the personal development of both educators and learners in the school. Teaching through play requires a detailed planning procedure by including features that have a strong traditional orientation to teaching and learning, especially for FP learners. This is in contrast to literature that confirms that most educators and practitioners work in underresourced schools, and basic facilities are non-existent (Aronstam & Braund, 2016). Educators' expectations in the FP need to be challenged to match the realities of each grade. School realities include the extent to which school leaders and professionals understand the role of learning through play as a concept.

Sadly, many experienced educators dismiss pre-service educators when they integrate this innovation into their lessons.

2.1 The international perspective on the play Studies show that countries in Southeast and East Asia are currently transforming pedagogy from a traditional didactic approach to a constructivist approach (Barnard & Braund, 2016). At the heart of this shift is the need for innovative practices driven by a range of skills, including social, emotional, physical and cognitive skills (Parker & Thomsen, 2019). More importantly, the global policy shift towards educational outcomes reflects this notion. Global institutions such as the United Nations and its Sustainable Development Goals have pushed for a high-quality education to foster learners’ holistic development (UNICEF, 2018).

This recognition has been the culmination of research that has demonstrated the value of prioritising holistic skills development such as play. The study by Kalogiannakis et al. (2018) identified a sudden shift in many educational programmes to involve skills, metacognition, and collaboration in an attempt to impact positively on learner achievement. Some authors seem to suggest formal in the ECE curriculum, however, questioned its heavy reliance on the instructional learning approach within this phase. Overloading early childhood education curriculum with content knowledge is likely to have undesirable effects in the early years of child development.

Western theories of development have also promoted play in the curriculum to address this missing parameter. Berkvens, Kalyanpur, Kuiper, and van den Akker (2012) argue that teaching and learning material alone is never sufficient in any learning environment. They found that playfulness in early mathematics and PE has positive effects at the beginning of primary school. These learners stand out because they have benefited from a child-centred and play-based learning environment. Kalogiannakis et al. (2018) believe that play-based teaching inspires both educators and learners to be creative and sensitive to the needs of the learners by encouraging the co-creation of learning resources within their reach. The point of departure here is that cognitive and emotional intelligence is linked to

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professional development when the resource is useful. Aronstam and Braund (2016) propose the use of games to improve the teaching of number skills, patterns that are likely to inspire confidence during mathematics and PE learning. He sees the role of the facilitator as a designer and selector of appropriate learning materials who only use appropriate learning activities. Isaacs et al. (2019) argue that appropriate learning activities should also accommodate educators and their teaching styles to achieve the desired results. Barnard & Braund (2016) reveal that although teaching via lectures which involve the whole class dominates, other instructional activities, examined for their effectiveness for educators' understanding and engagement, proved effective.

2.2 Play-based approach as a teaching method Play-based learning is one of the powerful instruments for early childhood teachers to activate self-directed learning. The study by UNICEF (2018) shares the view that early childhood learners show better learning outcomes when their formal learning is characterised by a play-based approach rather than by heavily loaded instructional and formal teaching (Parker & Thomsen, 2019). Most studies praise the hybrid approach specifically for both mathematics and PE because it not only promotes formal learning and instructional teaching but also emphasises the significance of play-based teaching and learning (Aronstam & Braund, 2016).

Kalogiannakis et al. (2018) caution early childhood teachers about assuming that play could be the panacea for all the challenges facing the teaching of mathematics. Instead, they recommend a good balance in the curriculum in the ECE learning for teachers. In essence, meaningful teaching strategies are an absolute necessity considering the amount of planning needed to select relevant games for play-based teaching and learning in mathematics and PE. The teacher plays a vital role when play is organised within the classroom environment. He/she must plan and initiate playing parameters and be prepared to act as an observer (Kalogiannakis et al., 2018). This generalisation was expressed by Aronstam and Braund (2016) in noting that play-based teaching strategies are available as ice-breakers during the planning stage of the lesson.

More importantly, play as teaching pedagogy affords teachers ample opportunity to observe individual learners use the material and decide on the right course of action while asking probing questions. Parker and Thomsen (2019) remind early childhood teachers how powerful play-based teaching strategies might be to achieve their end-game, but they must remember that learners have their hidden purposes; they must be allowed to express them and get the first-hand experience without the supervision of the teacher.

Bubikova-Moan et al. (2019) highlights three different approaches for educators – teacher-centred, content-centred and learner-centred – which involve play and also classifies learners' strengths and weaknesses. The expert understanding of using play lies in educators' understanding of the subject’s objectives.

Kalogiannakis et al., (2018) thinks teaching resources are important in teaching and learning in the FP. FP educators need specific teacher/learning aids to make teaching easier (DBE, 2013). Practical activities play a clear role in aiding learners' development in mathematics and PE. Modelling numbers in the classroom

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seemed to develop imaginary counting strategies, and can then work with what learners believe in learning situations. This shows that young learners are capable of imagining objects when they are encouraged to use play and games in the learning process. Isaacs et al. (2019) argue that practical work alone does not translate into teaching and learning in the classroom, but needs to be coupled with some play-based learning to leave a long-lasting impression. The young learners normally link audio-images (i.e. sounds or rhythms) to a concrete image of something meaningful, such as fingers or objects.

Visual and tactile images, such as an abacus or bead string, assist learners in linking counting to movement. These artifacts are a useful mathematical resource for counting and visualising groups. Teachers allow learners to play with beads and an abacus while counting in tens (Kalogiannakis et al., 2018). Dewey (1933) asserts that the use of maths and PE resources provides an environment that transforms learning spaces. Parker and Thomsen (2019) found that long-term use of play-based learning had a positive effect on learners' achievement, by allowing them to use concrete objects to observe, model and internalise abstract concepts.

These factors individually and collectively influence the implementation of an innovative curriculum.

3. Vygotsky's theorisation of play-based learning This study is underpinned by Vygotsky's (1978) theory of cognitive constructivism, which seeks to support the shift towards a play-based learning experience. A teacher and children should always be exposed to the surrounding environment as part of knowledge construction. The research reveals that lessons foregrounded in play-based pedagogy present endless opportunities associated with play experience from interaction with the environment. The benefit transcends theoretical disposition by deepening the value of collaboration and improving critical skills. Vygotsky foresaw the danger associated with rote learning and mechanical tasks and began to explore a new trajectory and opportunities to allow participation in learning activities within the environment.

Several studies argue that most children grow and develop because of social interactions instead of a linear process. Once exposed to the zone of proximal development (ZPD), they gain new understanding, realities, and abilities (Nugent, 2017). The research supports these stages as premised on the learner's ability to operate independently, against the level which the child can reach with adult support or assistance from capable peers. Learning, according to the ZPD, is managed for new learning to take place at a rate that is meaningful for learning to occur. The study conducted by Nugent (2017) in America states that pretend play experiences provide a means for this developmental change to occur, as children work together to complete a task that they could not have completed without the scaffolding that results from interaction with more capable peers.

4. Research objective The main objective of this research was to explore pre-service educators' perception of teaching mathematics and PE using play as a teaching resource. The

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perception includes how tools, resources and ideas are used to implement playbased education during their teaching practice were explored.

Research questions ▪ What are the mathematics and PE pre-service educators' perception of using play as a teaching strategy?

▪ How do mathematics and PE pre-service educators use play as a teaching strategy?

5. Research methodology The study employed a qualitative research method underpinned by an interpretive qualitative case study of five pre-service teachers who were purposively and conveniently selected based on their accessibility, willingness to share their perceptions, and experiences gained during teaching practice in various schools. Ethical clearance was granted by the research office. All participants were requested to read and sign consent forms (i.e. forms containing detailed information about potential ethical issues, including confidentiality, anonymity, and beneficence). Participation was voluntary, and anonymity was guaranteed by using pseudonyms to conceal the identity of the pre-service teachers. All five processes used in maintaining trustworthiness were observed in this study: credibility, conformability, dependability, triangulation, and transferability (Yin, 2014). Interpretivism was used to understand and describe the perception of pre-service teachers in infusing play-based pedagogy when teaching mathematics and PE. Yin (2014) argues that an explorative case study design generates a rich and deep description of teachers’ perceptions, which results in the reinforcement of play-based pedagogical practice as a gold standard for the teaching of mathematics and PE. Haegele, Hodge and Shapiro (2020) argue that narrative inquiry begins with an ontology of experience grounded in Dewey’s theory of experience, conceptualising reality as relational, temporal, and continuous. The data generation process was guided by two phases. The first phase involved semistructured interviews generated from pre-service educators shortly after the end of teaching practice, using open-ended questions. This phase was guided by a series of questions asked about their perceptions of using a play-based approach in FP teaching. The second phase of data collection used narratives produced by pre-service teachers over the second semester (four weeks of teaching practice and lectures). Participants reflected on their practical observations during lesson presentations that integrated play-based learning. Triangulation ensured dependability by using various methods of data generation, such as narratives and semi-structured conversations (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011).

Data were analysed using content analysis. Raw data were refined into words and themes drawn from the interpretation of results. Specifically, latent content analysis was preferred owing to its strong interpretive approach to finding underlying the meaning of a text – what the text is talking about. Generated data emerged from two research instruments which were first coded for easy transcription, and to avoid possible loss of meaning. The researcher later put

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mapped codes into categories to link the theoretical framework with literature to improve alignment with themes. In the final analysis, three main focused themes emerged as a guiding process for the presentation of findings.

This article was guided by two main research questions, namely: what pre-service mathematics and PE teachers’ perceptions of play-based teaching strategy across the FP are, and why their perceptions take particular forms when play is used as a hybrid teaching approach. The next section presents findings and discussion based on the two main research questions and proposed alternative solutions are presented to demonstrate what pre-service teachers recommended, and what inspired them to use play-based teaching as a hybrid approach for teaching mathematics and PE in the FP.

6. Findings and discussion This section presents the results from both the semi-structured interviews and narrative inquiry. The purpose of this study was to understand pre-service educators' perception in the FP grades when play is used during teaching and learning. The outcome was that pre-service educators perceive hybrid approach as an important pedagogical teaching strategy for harnessing foundation skills and attitudes when integrated play-based pedagogy. It was important to track the progress in teaching experience gained from teaching using play in rural schools and to explore whether resource provision matches the curriculum requirements.

The participants reflected extensively on how much progress has been made, and how much still needed to be done to bridge resource allocation. More importantly, this study proposed intensification of using play alongside teaching to achieve the intended outcomes of the FP curriculum.

6.1 Pre-service educators’ perceptions of play-based approach in the FP Participants have an understanding of how a play should be used during a teaching in the FP: what fell within the categories of the nature of play, its benefit, challenges, the opportunities for play at school, and why they think the play is possible in many schools in South Africa. Most participants saw the play as an educational tool for teaching across subjects, including mathematics and PE, while two participants were not convinced, and described the play as a free activity. The play was seen as organised chaos, fun, and regarded as a structured activity guided by sets of rules and regulations.

Mrs. Dlomo: In my understanding, the play does appear to be a powerful expression that can be formalised and can occur in a natural setting based on rehearsed routines targeting skills and endurance. Some of the skills could be counting, organising patterns, building structures, etc.

Play gives young learners the ability to experiment with new ideas in a space and to learn from these, individually and collectively, how to perfect activities. In a narrative report, learners were grouped to play with beads where counting was promoted through groupings and arrangements. In class, participants identified certain groups of learners who learn better when they are in play mode, while others need guidance from their mentor. The pressure that comes with the curriculum schedule deprives certain groups, while others benefit. The issue of

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play was identified as a necessity to improve problem-solving within the curriculum implementation and enhance teaching and learning.

Most of the participants indicated that they now understood why ECE children need to learn by play. At their age, learners would like to touch objects to understand what would happen while they develop the confidence to play for fun and gain experiences based on trial and error. They benefit indirectly in acquiring physical, cognitive, creative, emotional, physical, and social skills (Parker & Thomsen, 2019). The results also revealed that pre-service educators began to understand the significance of infusing play-based teaching into the lesson planning and building trust in their instincts while they engaged the learners in play.

Zondezi: Honestly, the play does something extraordinary to learners’ confidence, and indirectly allows you to gain trust in learners' ability. It allows each teacher to devise groundbreaking teaching strategies that promote the hybrid approach to teaching. Play is fun and allows each one to express their feelings and gain more freedom and space to use their environment to their betterment. Trust helps me gain valuable knowledge from learners when playing in a formal setting. It was, however, more challenging to co-create these activities and relate them to the lesson of the day – but as a teacher, I had to take the best shot.

This point was consistently highlighted in the narrative inquiry, where participants wrote: "Using play has brought more light and more crazy stuff to my lesson fun. Learners enjoy some play because it is fun and full of interesting ideas, but at times they don't show any interest." The participants had to prove their worth to senior educators who were instrumental in guiding them during the implementation of the play-based lessons. Most participants praised the infusion of play into the content areas because content knowledge alone is never enough since it requires learners to operate on an abstract rather than practical and fun level. This result is consistent with the findings of Kalogiannakis et al. (2018) that the role of play should be aligned with curriculum delivery.

Obama: Teaching and learning that integrate play require a competent and dedicated teacher who understands the need to think critically about the relevance of play in the lesson, and link plays with assessment activities to understand the impact of play in the lesson. For example, I sometimes give them counters to play with, and later ask them to use the same play activity in a formal activity. This is an excellent approach.

The fact is that while play is fun, it needs to be taken seriously to have a positive impact on educational outcomes. Important pedagogical content knowledge of the play or game is mandatory to run a successful ECE classroom (Kalogiannakis et al., 2018). It is even more mandatory because mathematics is known to be a challenging subject, yet fun to many children; effort to engage learners in a practical and logical sequence is mandatory. The same views were expressed during the narrative inquiry: " Some maths activities are difficult for the learner when approached from a conceptual perspective, but the infusion of play-based activities helps educators to achieve learning outcomes more quickly." At the same time, it is necessary to understand certain rules for several games for a better explanation of rules and

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the reasoning behind the play before learners can engage in it. This ensures fairness and equal opportunity for all. A learner with learning challenges needs special attention, fair treatment, and equal opportunity if a play is to be used to enhance teaching and learning, as cautioned by a study conducted in Greece (Lenakakis, Howard, & Felekidou, 2018). Furthermore, educators need to spend more time with every learner while relating play to the lesson and assessment (Mzimela, 2016). Most pre-service educators felt the significance of play in the learners' ability to organise themselves into small groups and show their full potential of using guided play techniques.

6.2 Implementation of play-based education in the FP class It was important to ascertain the perceptions of the participants based on the specific content knowledge they investigated. Each was interviewed about their perceptions of the practical implementation of the play-based lessons taught during teaching practice. The first issue that drew their attention was the list of resources recommended for teaching FP mathematics lessons using play, as described earlier. In the actual implementation, participants first listed resources such as flashcards, shapes, counting charts, Unifixes, blue boards, play money, building blocks, boxes of different shapes, mathematics games, e.g., Ludo, snakes and ladders, jigsaw puzzles, dominoes, and tangrams, counters and cardboard circles (Stebler et al. 2013). These items were on the list of important resources recommended by the policy document for the implementation of a play-based lesson for mathematics. The first content area that was investigated to ascertain the perceptions of participants was operations and relationships. The second content area investigated comprised patterns, functions, and algebra. Not all content areas were investigated in this study owing to time constraints and the main focus of the study.

6.2.1 Perceptions of pre-service teachers on using play to teach operations and relationships The outcome of the investigation reveals that most schools have only one or two of these critical resources for play-based learning. It was clear that certain schools recommended improvisation as they don’t have enough resources. The Department of Basic Education in KwaZulu-Natal is failing these schools.

According to participant Zondezi, schools should be forced to order all of these critical resources, or they should be supplied to each school, as some SMTs will not encourage teachers to order them.

Each participant was asked to focus on a specific content area covered in the FP, to present a fair reflection based on their experience. Their views shed light on their perceptions and experiences in each of these curriculum content areas.

The first two participants, Zondezi and Mtetwa, focused on numbers, operations and relationships: Zondezi: My mentor was quick to work with me to analyse and identify content areas that should be covered by both free play outside and free play inside. This information was helpful to focus on the content area assigned to me, which was numbers operations and relationships. I first explored water and sand play learners were using during free play outside to learn

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addition and subtraction. While embarking on play with children outside the class, it was helpful to explain basic number operations to them in a fun and relaxed atmosphere using games…

Mtetwa: In my case, the senior educators assigned to me were helpful in first introducing me to all the resources available for FP classes, and second in helping me explore number operations and relationships with learners during the series of lessons. It was a very interesting experience to work with learners during a play session, and later assess them on this specific content area. For example, I taught them to count pictures of grouped objects up to 500, and read and write numbers from 0 to 1 000 as part of number operations and relationships.

Most participants used free play outside as part of the teaching strategy. In this case, the main target was operations and relationships. The sand was used as the learners like to play outside, and it is readily available, while water was taken from a river. The little available potable water is kept for drinking and cooking for the school feeding scheme. The alignment of the university curriculum with a school-based curriculum should be mandatory. It was clear that some of the participants were not competent to handle certain aspects of the curriculum, and were not hesitant to leave out those sections.

Even though most learners enjoyed this strategy, a few struggled to understand the rationale for using sand and water as part of the lesson. The narrative report recorded certain activities that gave most learners problems: "Certain learners were unable to play with confidence during the sand and water activity. They were unable to demonstrate an understanding of operations and relationships during the assessment."

This was evident when learners were assessed after the series of activities. In terms of free play inside the class, the participants also acknowledged its value during the lesson. Zondezi gave numerous examples here: The class used specific play that addressed operations and relationships.

Games such as toys and blocks were used, but owing to the shortage, it was difficult to assess their effectiveness. I do not doubt that if these resources were available in numbers, learners would have benefited tremendously. Those learners who were able to lay their hands on these resources were able to understand operations and relationships as they performed better during the assessment.

In this content area, the participant was satisfied with the pedagogical aspect of play in the curriculum. She highlighted the complexity of play-based learning and the fact that her professional knowledge was enhanced during the implementation of play in the classroom. The ability of this participant to combine the pedagogy behind the play with the content area enhanced most of the lessons, and this finding is consistent with what Isaacs et al. (2019) found in their study.

They revealed that successful educators are versatile and dynamic players, who always demonstrate a superior understanding of integrating pedagogy and content knowledge in class. The CAPS curriculum is very clear about what needs to happen in the FP during play (either free play outside or free play inside the class) to achieve critical learning outcomes.

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6.2.2 Perceptions on using play to teach patterns, functions and algebra The rest of the participants were assigned to share their perceptions about the use of play during the teaching of patterns, functions and algebra. Activities could be solving basic equations, two-step or three-step equations, equations with variables on both sides, and mixed equations. The shortage of resources was an issue from the beginning of the interviews, and improvisation took place during the lesson to infuse play within the content area. This challenge was also underlined in the narrative report, and patterns and functions were used to analyse the perceptions of pre-service educators, but algebra was not explored.

This participant found the nature of the content area to be challenging: Mtetwa: I must admit that this content area involving patterns, functions, and algebra was complex to explore. First, it is very much easier to infuse play during the teaching of patterns to young learners.

Fortunately, blocks were enough for all the learners to draw lines, shapes, and objects.

However, this was not all that these participants identified when they integrated play into their lesson planning and presentation. They could explain their role that changed their perceptions of the children’s play: Mtetwa: For me, to listen attentively and offer minimal help (…) as a way of enhancing the quality of play changed my perception.

Investigating how they are forming patterns gives me more information about their lived experiences before I can come in to help solve their problems. But listening to and observing what they are doing prepares me. Once they are introduced to the concept and communicate how it is done, their play-based learning will be achieved…

Mtetwa spent more time understanding how prior knowledge influences learners’ engagement in games during practice. It enabled teachers to understand their limitations and improve their pedagogical philosophy where learners were struggling during play to guide learners in the future. Later, Mtetwa realised that learners were getting excited to use play as part of the lesson, and this is how she expressed her delight.

My learners were fascinated with this activity to show their skills and talent in front of others. I used this activity to develop their language and speaking skills by asking them to integrate the pattern they were making into the mathematics and PE lesson.

This activity taught learners to make two-and three-dimensional geometric shapes and objects by cutting out paper or cards; in other instances, they had to draw them as part of the play. The participant was able to experiment with the use of patterns by asking the learners to make patterns from box shapes and ball shapes that they had made from play-dough. The level of understanding was good, and participants were able to use play successfully in the lesson.

7. Conclusion and recommendations: Nurturing the child through play After careful analysis of results, numerous recommendations were made to improve the infusion of play into lessons. The CAPS document, which is the

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official policy document, needs to be revised to advise and guide teachers on how to use play-based learning to teach mathematical concepts to young children.

Teachers have a positive outlook on how the curriculum has been structured, and are allowed to use their creativity under CAPS. Play allows both teachers and learners to be flexible in using their creativity. Play is fun to plan, and learners are having fun while expressing their raw talent with a little guidance from the teachers. Participants noted that planning for play is complex, but has huge curriculum implications, as learners develop confidence and work in groups to achieve their tasks.

Rules and regulations guide how the play should be implemented to teach learners to respect their teammates and be disciplined. Participants revealed the steps taken by the DBE to systematically infuse play into mathematics lessons.

This is done through imagining role-playing a particular career, renting and supplying an apartment, and negotiating other features of daily living. When learners use imagination and creativity to dramatise roles or situations, such as trying on roles and pretending to have possible careers, they are practising independence and taking on roles of power. Using their imaginations in these ways enables learners to be patient and persevere. One step was to identify important resources needed to ensure that play as a strategy is realised in the school calendar. Four main content areas were identified as the basis from which play is to be implemented in the FP curriculum, and possible scenarios were presented to guide teachers.

Finally, the results reveal that a play-based approach to teaching has the proven potential to improve intrinsic motivation to do mathematics as well as academic content, if that content is integral to the gameplay, such as the Great Race board game with embedded early mathematics learning. Pre-service mathematics and PE teachers are capable of implementing a hybrid approach to teaching these subjects. Teaching mathematics and PE in this way is effective, meaningful, interesting, contemporary, motivating, and particularly amusing. Based on the results, it is recommended that each content area be resourced properly to enforce equity across the schools, irrespective of socio-economic status. To this end, participants recommended that procurement strategy be centralised to cater for all schools to achieve resource equity. In terms of training, pre-service and inservice training should be evaluated in terms of training and content methodology to ensure that training is contextualised to include developmentally appropriate principles ensuring hybrid teaching takes place in the Foundation Phase.

8. References Barnard, E., & Braund, M. (2016). Strategies for the implementation of mathematics in grade R: Teachers' beliefs and practices. South African Journal of Childhood Education, 6(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.4102/SAJCE.v6i1.409 Berkvens, J. B. Y., Kalyanpur, M., Kuiper, W., & Van den Akker, J., (2012). Improving adult learning and professional development in a post-conflict area: The case of Cambodia. International Journal of Educational Development, 32, 241–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.03.008

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Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2013). Research methods in education. London: Routledge.

Department of Basic Education. (2013). Report on the Annual national assessment of 2013 held on 02 December 2013. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education.

Department of Basic Education. (2015). Department of Basic Education on its 2015/16 annual performance & strategic plans, with Deputy Minister present. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education Department of Basic Education. (2019). Annual performance plan: DBE strategic plan 2015/162019/20. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education.

Dewey, J. (1933). How we think. Prometheus Books.

Haegele, J. A., Hodge, S. R., & Shapiro, D. R. (2020). Routledge handbook of adapted physical education. New York: Routledge.

Isaacs, S., Roberts, N., Spencer-Smith, G., & Brink, S. (2019). Learning through play in grade R classrooms: Measuring practitioners' confidence, knowledge and practice. South African Journal of Childhood Education, 9(1), 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajce.v9i1.704 Kalogiannakis, M., Ampartzaki, M., Papadakis, S., & Skaraki, E. (2018). Teaching natural science concepts to young children with mobile devices and hands-on activities.

A case study. International Journal of Teaching and Case Studies, 9(2), 171-183. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJTCS.2018.090965 Kalogiannakis, M., Nirgianaki, G. M., & Papadakis, S. (2018). Teaching magnetism to preschool children: The effectiveness of picture story reading. Early Childhood Education Journal, 46(5), 535-546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-017-0884-4 Lenakakis, L., Howard, L., & Felekidou, K. (2018). Play and inclusive education. European Journal of Special Education Research, 3(3). https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8914-1384 Mzimela, J. (2016). Exploring the role of teaching using folklore in developing grade R learners’ mother-tongue. Studies of Tribes and Tribals, 14(2), 129-137. https://doi.org/10.1080/0972639X.2016.11886740 National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/PSDAP.pdf.

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Neha, M., & Rule, P. N. (2018). Imaginative play and reading development among Grade R learners in KwaZulu-Natal: An ethnographic case study. South African Journal of Childhood Education, 8(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.4102/ sajce.v8i1.518.

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Stebler, R., Vogt, F., Wolf, I., Hauser, B., & Rechsteiner, K. (2013) Play-Based Mathematics in Kindergarten. A Video Analysis of Children’s Mathematical Behaviour While Playing a Board Game in Small Groups. Journal für Mathematik-Didaktik, 34, 149– 175 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13138-013-0051-4 UNICEF. (2018). Learning through play: Strengthening learning through play in early childhood education programmes. UNICEF. United Nations Children's Fund. (2019). A World Ready to Learn: Prioritizing quality early childhood education. UNICEF. Van Vuuren, C. L., Uitenbroek, D. G., van der Wal, M. F., & Chinapaw, M. J. (2018).

Sociodemographic differences in 10-year time trends of emotional and behavioural problems among adolescents attending secondary schools in

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Amsterdam, the Netherlands. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(12), 16211631.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard Institutions of Higher Learning Press. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosn006 Yin, R. K. (2014) Case Study Research: Design and Methods (5th edn.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1356389013497081

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 199-222, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.11

Parental Involvement in Young Children’s Learning of Numeracy Munirah Ghazali, Zainun Mustafa, Rabiatul-Adawiah Ahmad Rashid and Fadzilah Amzah Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7197-350X https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0797-724X https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6689-9704 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7576-9840

Abstract. This study seeks to assess the Malaysian parental involvements in young children's numeracy learning. A questionnaire was administered to 327 parents of kindergarten-going children. The data then analysed descriptively using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version-26. The present survey shows that the parents' knowledge, understanding, and attitude towards preschoolers' numeracy are high. Despite the positive findings, the parents' attitudes and experience in mathematics are moderate. The analysis found that parents need a relevant guide to support their children learning at home using effective instructional strategies. This research's data formed an initial insight to support a comprehensive follow-up study in parental involvement in young children’s numeracy learning. Based on these findings, it is pertinent to investigate the underlying factors and constraints behind these results. The study will benefit researchers, parents, children, school, as well as the entire community in general.

Conclusion and future recommendation are further discussed.

Keywords: numeracy; pre-school; participation; questionnaire

parental

involvement;

parent

1. Introduction Numeracy refers 'to the ability to do basic arithmetic operations, understanding the simple mathematical ideas and applying the knowledge and skills in mathematics in daily life' (Curriculum Development Centre [CDC], 2010). As much as the numeracy is concerned in the national education system, the children early numeracy is fostered by the quality of home-learning (Purpura et al., 2020; Soto-Calvo et al., 2020) and parental support at an early age (Lin et al., 2019; Visser, Juan & Hannan, 2019). The importance of numeracy is fairly acknowledged, as it sets as profound for the understanding of much complex mathematic later on. A comparative study on Trends in International ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS), particularly in mathematics found that the Malaysian students perform relatively lower than Singapore. Ng et al., (2012) further emphasized that even though both countries have similar educational structures such as centralized educational systems and schooling routine, parental involvement positively predicts both countries' mathematics achievement regardless of their performance. However, Ubale and Abdullah (2015) acclaimed that parental involvement in Malaysia is scarce even though the Malaysian Ministry of Education (MOE) encouraged parents to be an active partner with the school. Husen and Mansor (2018) even conclude that elementary mathematics children's performance depended on the reflection of their parents' attitudes and aspirations. Although it is accepted that children's later mathematical achievement is most directly affected by prior knowledge and experience in early numeracy, the research on examining the parental involvement in children's numeracy learning environment before formal schooling in Malaysia is insufficient.

The purpose of this study is to explore the parental involvement in the facilitation of their children's acquisition of numeracy and number concepts. Therefore, to fulfil the purpose of the study, some research questions are underlined; i.

What is the level of parents’ knowledge about preschool mathematics? ii.

What is the level of parents’ readiness to be involved in the mathematical activities at home? iii.

What is the level of parents’ understanding of the importance of mathematics? iv.

What is the level of parents' experience in mathematics? v.

What is the level of parents' attitudes towards mathematics?

The data accumulated from this research provides baseline evidences of the current practice of parental involvement in young children's mathematical education in the Malaysian education landscape. The reference value from the analysis reveals misunderstandings that may represent obstacles to the ongoing numeracy-related program and serve a ground to propose a new intervention strategy related to parental involvement in early numeracy in Malaysia.

2. Background of Study Early numeracy is crucial in a child's learning progression in mathematical skills and mathematical thinking. The awareness should be raised to ensure that the quality of early numeracy serves a firm ground for more advanced numerical cognitions. The importance of children's ability to master necessary numeracy skills is acknowledged in the Malaysian education system since 1996 (Harun et al., 2017). The preschool mathematic curriculum in Malaysia underwent several changes until the recent newly revised National Preschool Curriculum Standard (KSPK) was developed in 2010. According to Harun et al. (2017), early numeracy in the Malaysian preschools covers the topics that include pre-number numbers, basic number operation, the value of money, time, shape, and space.

Meanwhile, LINUS (Literacy and Numeracy Screening) is introduced as the national diagnostic assessment system since 2013 to monitor the students'

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numeracy ability from year one until year three. This assessment is tailored with a remedial program to decrease the young children's polarisation in an early numeracy ability (Wei & Hutagalung, 2014). Despite this program positive remark (Peng, Leng & Hutagalung, 2016), this standard tools-aided program was repealed in 2019. Singh et al. (2019) found out that the newly introduced syllabus (i.e Standard Based Curriculum for Secondary Schools and Standard Based Curriculum for Primary Schools) integrated with the mathematical thinking and enumeration in composite and multi-layered across all the topics, compared to the confined remedial program which specifically to cater a particular group of students in LINUS. Henceforth, the government's remarkable approach in the new syllabus is also a part of the current notion to acknowledge the school initiatives to address and curb their respective issue (i.e., numeracy) at the individual level. The sound decision is aligned with the recent finding that shows the development of young children's numerical cognition is fluid, dynamic, and unique based on biological and cultural perspectives (Pantsar, 2019; Xu, Spelke & Goddard, 2005).

2.1. Children's ability in numeracy The numeracy is a composite proficiency of the mathematical thinking (DíezPalomar, 2019; Jain & Rogers, 2019) and numerical skills (Mutaf-Yıldız et al., 2019; Susperreguy et al., 2020). Vacher (2014) claimed that from the psycholinguistic and ontological perspectives, numeracy is synonymous with “quantitative literacy” and “quantitative reasoning.” It is widely accepted that numeracy is not segmented in one topic; it is somewhat stretched throughout the cross-topically in the early mathematical curriculum (Bennison, 2019; Goos et al., 2020). The study concerning numeracy in early childhood has been documented for more than 200 years (Cohen, 2001; Sharp, 2018) and proliferated in the broad corpus of study.

The importance of early numeracy experience as the foundation for mathematical learning in school is frequently reported. To demonstrate, the past studies found a significant predictive link between the verbal counting skills (Koponen, Aunola & Nurmi, 2019), subitising (Hannula-Sormunen, Lehtinen & Räsänen, 2015), basic arithmetics (Singer & Strasser, 2017; Pardo, et al., 2020), and number concepts (Balt, Fritz & Ehlert, 2020) in early years with later mathematics performance in school. Sobkow, Olszewska and Traczyk (2020) and Darriet, et al. (2020) claimed that the numerical competency could further predict preferences in real-life choices. However, the individual differences in numeracy are distinguished in an early age and persisted in later development.

2.2. Parental Involvement Could Affect the Numeracy Learning of Children From the perspective of human development, the innate number sense is naturally developed since fetal (Bull, Davidson & Nordmann, 2010) and infancy/toddler (Vandervert, 2017; Whitacre, Henning & Atabas, 2017; Xu, Spelke & Goddard, 2005). Ostensibly, studies in number sense or early numeracy tried to comprehend the physiological determinant (Wilkey & Ansari, 2019), psychological determinant (Kesler et al., 2011), gene and heritability determinant (Tosto et al., 2014) in early numerosity. For instance, the nature of individual

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factors extensively studied include neurocognition (Raghubar & Barnes, 2017), inhibition (Clayton & Gilmore, 2015), attention (Brueggemann & Gable 2018), motivation (Martin & Lazendic, 2018), challenged learner (Silva et al., 2020) and gender (Brandlistuen & et al., 2020; Toivainen et al., 2017).

Hence, despite the ‘nature’, the advancement and competency in numeracy are also determined by ‘nurture’ as well. The nurture or environmental factors denote as contributing factors in the development of early numeracy, such as home ecology (Napoli & Purpura, 2018), socioeconomic status (Forgasz & Leder, 2020), cultural variations (Ayonrinde et al., 2020) and pedagogical approach (i.e., Piper et al., 2018; Budgen & West 2020). These studies consistently found that children's ability to perform numerical competency is attributed to early childhood homelearning environments as support to preschool education.

Parental involvement in supporting children's ability in numeracy is fairly appraised. Ubale and Abdullah (2015) analyse several definitions on parental involvement, concluded that “parental involvement can be a label as a parental contribution as well as taking part towards the learning goals’ achievement of their children” (p.348). Thus, the parental involvement is diverged beyond home-basedteaching towards the various domain of parent-child interaction. The positive relationship between parent-child interactions in the numeracy activities include numerical content, attention focus, emotions, and social connection (Skwarchuk, Vandermaas-Peeler & LeFevre, 2016; Vandermaas-Peeler, Westerberg & Fleishman, 2019). Theoretically sound with Vygotsky’s social development theory (Vygotsky, 1978), parental involvement in children’s early numeracy is a form of social internalisation of knowledge (Edens & Potter 2013). To put it simply, the parent-child interactions in numeracy are considered as one of the critical educational capitals and resources.

The parent-child interactions in numeracy are further framed into two; formal and informal (Cahoon, Cassidy, & Simms, 2017). Formal activities refer to a wellstructured outline of teaching and learning guides with explicit instruction. The guides serve as the manual for the parents or educators outlined with particular objectives, plans of activities, and assessment meant for reflection. The stimulating formal activities include worksheet activity, drilling practice, oral memorisation, and technology-guided software or application (Aunio et al., 2016; BaccagliniFrank, Carotenuto & Sinclair, 2020). In contrast, informal activities are the result of situational or incidental learning. The learning prompt at home may occur during a visit to the museum (Vandermaas-Peeler, Massey, & Kendall, 2016), playing board or card games (Ramani & Scalise 2020), money-talk when shopping (Barrera-Mora & Reyes-Rodriguez, 2019), and measuring ingredients when cooking (Son & Hur, 2020; Finn & Vandermaas-Peeler, 2013). The endless possibilities to infuse numeracy learning at home means that the preschool period may be an especially important time to examine the effects parents can have in developing children's mathematical skills.

The pool of research evidence demonstrates that first-grade children’s mathematics performance differs in different environments (Lore, Wang &

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Buckley, 2016; Silinskas et al., 2020; Aunio et al., 2016). Weerasinghe (2017) identified parental attitudes, beliefs, expectations, values, educational aspirations, and academic standards as crucial attributes in children's perception of learning mathematics to understand the difference. Pritchard (as cited in Muir, 2012) concluded that there were links between parents’ attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs about mathematics and children’s attitudes and performance in mathematics. In a similar vein, Rogers, Bastandardisedrblett and Robinson (2018), measured the parent's perception by highlighting parental involvement in an early numeracy which is linked with children’s primary numerical and/or mathematical performance (Mutaf-Yıldız et al., 2018). However, previous studies examining parents’ beliefs on mathematics were somewhat inconclusive (Sonnenschein et al., 2012; Galindo & Sonnenschein, 2015; Missall et al., 2015).

Several studies have shown that low-income parents thought that the children mathematics learning were more critical in pre-school than in the home environment (DeFlorio & Beliakoff, 2015), presumably due to low socioeconomic and educational status, parents had lower confidence in their teaching abilities (Burns, 2020; Drummond & Stipek, 2004; Cui, Zhang & Leung, 2019).

Furthermore, past cross-country studies found that parental involvement in early childhood education relied on their country economic status (i.e., Sobayi, 2018; Cheung & Pomerantz, 2011; Nilsen et al., 2020) and parents past experiences (O’Toole & de Abreu (2005).

Therefore, the preschool period may be an especially important time in examining the effects parental involvement can have towards the development of children's mathematical skills. This article was part of a bigger study that explored parents' knowledge in numeracy specifically through the following constructs; knowledge about preschool mathematics, readiness to be involved in preschool mathematics activities at home, understanding the importance of preschool mathematics, experience during respective parents' previous learning of mathematics and attitudes towards mathematics.

3. Methodology This survey employed a quantitative method using a set of predefined questions formatted in systematised questionnaires (see Appendix 1). The questionnairebased survey was administered to the representative samples (n=327) of parents residing in Peninsular Malaysia (Kedah, Kelantan, and Pulau Pinang) and East Malaysia (Sarawak). The sampling procedure was carried out through stratified purposive sampling. From the 327 questionnaires distributed, 307 of the questionnaires were returned. The final 307 questionnaires were further analysed to establish the understanding of parental involvement in terms of five constructs; 1) parents' knowledge about preschool mathematical practices and curriculum, 2) parents' readiness to involve in mathematical activities at home, 3) parents' understanding of the importance of mathematics, 4) experience in mathematics and 5) attitude towards numeracy and number concepts of four following components of numeracy. These components are comparison, classification, one to one correspondence and seriation concept. The number of items per construct and the constituents' Likert Scale point is summarised in Table 1.

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Table 1. The number of items for each construct and the Likert scale point.

Constructs Knowledge about preschool mathematics practices and curriculum Readiness to involve in mathematical activities at home Understand the importance of mathematics Experience in mathematics Attitudes towards mathematics

Number of items 11

Likert-scale point 5

5 10 5 8

5 5 3 5

The concept of parental involvement in the early numeracy in this study was indexed via questionnaires. Thus, self-perspectives on parental involvement to facilitate the children's acquisition of numeracy was recorded using declarative rated-statement. The data was analysed descriptively. The frequency of the demographic profile was tabulated and all the response means were analysed descriptively.

3.1 Instrumentation The instruments consisted of five aspects which specifically encompassed parental involvement in young children’s learning of numeracy according to previously discussed construct. The questionnaire item was developed by the team of expert from our institution through a series of questionnaire development training. Even though the data were collected from multiracial community, the medium of instruction in classroom was in the Malay language as the national language or/and English, similar to the medium of instruction in the questionnaire. The procedure of participant and data confidentiality was adhered to the guidelines by Education Policy Planning and Research Division, Ministry of Education Malaysia [EPRD], 2021). The details of instruments development, piloting, validity/reliabity testing and research ethics were reported comprehensively in the monograph in Ghazali et al. (2017).

4. Findings of Study The parental involvement in the facilitation of their children's acquisition of numeracy and number concepts was obtained from the quantitative data. The frequency of all the response means were analysed descriptively.

4.1 Parents’ Knowledge about Preschool Mathematics As shown in Table 2 on parents’ perceived knowledge about preschool mathematics, this research focused on the 11 items according to the topics in the early mathematics curriculum. Based on Table 3, most respondents answered "Capable." Based on SPSS data, it appeared that item 1 of writing numbers showed the highest means value of M = 4.65 (SD = 0.73). Item 11 displayed the lowest mean value of M = 4.30 (SD = 0.93). In this construct, more than 60% of parents answered all the items on the scale of "very capable". In contrast, only for items 10 and 11, the percentage that was less than 60%.

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Table 2. Distribution of mean and standard deviation of parents' knowledge about preschool mathematics No.

Items

1.

2.

Writing numbers Comparing objects based on particular characteristics Comparing numbers Classification of objects based on particular characteristics

4.65 4.63 4.58 4.58

0.75 0.73

Arranging object based on particular criteria Matching identical pair object Matching non-identical pair object Matching object with equal or different quantity Number concepts Exercises/Activities with learning materials/games Simple mathematical operation problem solving

4.59

0.74

4.61 4.56 4.55

0.72 0.74 0.75

4.53 4.39

0.78 0.81

4.30

0.93

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Mean (M)

Standard Deviation (SD) 0.73 0.69

The items 1 until 9 referred to the Low-Order Thinking skills (LOTs) and basic numeracy content learning according to KPSK that would be further enhanced in the early primary-years curriculum. The items 1 to 9 (i.e., numbers writing, comparing objects based on particular characteristics, numbers comparing, classifications of objects, object arranging, identical and non-identical pair object matching, object matching, and number concepts resembled the lists of activities of children to remember, understand and apply the concept that they understood in numeracy. Meanwhile, the items 10 and 11 were the High-Order Thinking Skills (HOTs), including analysing, evaluating, creating through games, and simple arithmetic problem-solving activity. The data revealed that the parents’ perceived knowledge about early numeracy was confined towards the cultivation of Low-Order Thinking skills.

4.2. Parents’ Readiness to be Involved in Mathematical Activities at Home Table 3 shows the mean and standard deviation of the parents’ readiness to be involved in mathematical activities at home by analysing the items 12 to 16.

According to Table 4, most parents self-rated as "Quite Ready" in this construct that focused on parents' readiness to be involved in mathematical activities at home. Based on SPSS data, the item 15 of “I assist my child in mathematics-related problem solving” showed the highest mean value of M = 4.29 (SD = 0.88) and the item 13 of “I prepare concrete materials for my child to understand mathematics” indicated the lowest mean value of M = 3.64 (SD = 1.14).

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Table 3. Distribution of mean and standard deviation of parents' readiness to be involved in mathematical activities at home No.

Items

12.

I prepare mathematics-based activities for my child at home I prepare concrete materials for my child to understand mathematics I asked my child questions on mathematics concepts while doing activities at home I assist my child in mathematics related problem solving I sing counting songs with my child at home

13.

14.

15.

16.

Mean (M)

Standard Deviation (SD)

3.84

1.00

3.64

1.14

3.97

1.00

4.29

0.88

3.68

1.24

Parents’ readiness to assist their children can be detected through the parents’ actions that are done by them in supporting children’s learning at home. Even though the parents have prepared the material to learn at home, the preparation seemingly focused on non-concrete materials such as asking mathematics questions and assisting in problem-solving. On the contrary to the earlier findings, these data indicated that even though parents believed that they have limited content knowledge related to early numeracy problem solving, they were dedicated to assist their children in this area. However, the least non-concrete learning material rated by parents was singing counting song activity.

4.3. Parents' Understanding of the Importance of Mathematics By referring to Table 4, parents had a high understanding of the importance of mathematics measured through items 17 to 26. The item 17, “numbers writing,” showed the highest mean value of M=4.78 (SD=0.56), while the item 23 of “doing exercises with other children” indicated the lowest mean value of M = 4.49 (SD = 0.92). More than 70% of respondents rated "very important" for all items in this construct except 64.5% on the item 25, which was "doing exercises with materials/games."

Table 4. Distribution of mean and standard deviation of parents' understanding of the importance of mathematics No.

Items

17.

18.

Writing numbers Comparing objects based on particular characteristics Comparing numbers Classification of objects based on particular characteristics Arranging object based on particular criteria Mathematical games Doing exercises with other children

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

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Mean (M) 4.78 4.68

Standard Deviation (SD) 0.56 0.63

4.76 4.69

0.55 0.62

4.72

0.59

4.59 4.49

0.81 0.92

207

24.

25.

26.

Doing homework/exercises Doing exercises with materials/games Simple problem solving

4.65 4.47

0.69 0.85

4.60

0.80

Based on the findings, most parents grasped the mathematical importance by employing behaviourist task-based exercise. Even with a small sparsity, the games and inter-child activities were not seen as part of learning mathematics than rote learning (write and compare numbers, compare and classify objects based on particular characteristics). The finding was in line with the lowest score in parents' perceived knowledge in exercising using activities with learning materials and/or games and in parents' readiness to prepare concrete material.

The consistent emergence in terms of games and material-based activity in the home environment has predicted instructional knowledge of underlying issue among parents.

4.4 Parents' Experience in Mathematics As compared to the five-point scale in the parents' knowledge, understanding, and attitude constructs, the parents’ experience in mathematics was to identify the perception of mathematics-related-past schooling experience using three point-Likert scales (Table 5). Based on the Table 5, the lowest mathematics experience score was in item 27 (M = 1.21). Meanwhile, the experience in secondary school mathematics was rated at the highest (M = 1.40).

Table 5. Distribution of mean and standard deviation of parents' experience in mathematics No.

Items

27.

28.

My opinion about mathematics My experience in primary school mathematics My experience in secondary school mathematics My confidence in mathematics My ability in mathematics

29.

30.

31.

Mean (M)

Standard Deviation (SD)

1.21 1.22

0.48 0.50

1.40

0.62

1.31 1.31

0.61 0.59

The overall finding of the parents’ experience was centered at the midpoint. Thus, this evidence debunked that most parents' mathematics experiences during their school days were moderately scored. The findings were unlikely to complement with the demographic profile of the parents who participated in this study.

Although most parents attained the basic secondary education, their experience with mathematics during schooling was moderate.

4.5. Parents' Attitudes towards Mathematics As presented in Table 6, parents’ attitudes towards mathematics were relatively moderate. Based on the finding, item 32 of “only teachers are responsible to teach my children about mathematics,” and item 33 of “parents are solely responsible to teach my children about mathematics” showed the lowest mean value, which was M = 1.87 (SD = 1.29) and followed by M = 1.73 (SD = 1.17). The two lowest

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scored items underpinned the idea that a child's early numeracy was bothparents’ and teachers’ responsibility. From the finding of item 34 till 39, most parents had a positive attitude in facilitating their children’s numeracy.

Table 6. Distribution of mean and standard deviation of the parents' experience in mathematics No.

Items

32.

Only teachers are responsible to teach my children about mathematics Parents are solely responsible to teach my children about mathematics Activities in the home could be related to mathematics All children have the opportunity to excel/succeed in mathematics I can assist my child to enhance mathematical knowledge My involvement in learning will enhance my child's positive attitudes towards mathematics It is important for children to have fun while learning mathematics I have a role in inculcating positive attitudes towards mathematics among children

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

Mean (M)

Standard Deviation (SD)

1.87

1.29

1.73

1.17

4.07

1.09

4.59

0.76

4.33

0.86

4.35

0.83

4.66

0.68

4.39

0.83

4.6. Parental Involvement in Young Children's Learning of Numeracy The mean values of all constructs are tabulated in Table 7 to view the overall finding of this study.

Table 7. The descriptive statistics of all constructs

Constructs Parents' knowledge about preschool mathematics Parents' readiness to involve in mathematical activities at home Parents' understanding of the importance of mathematics Parents' experience in mathematics Parents' attitudes towards mathematics

Number of items

Min

Max

Mean Percentage (M) (%)

11

4.30

4.65

4.54

93.0

Likertscale point 5

5

3.64

4.29

3.88

77.6

5

10

4.47

4.78

4.64

92.8

5

5 8

1.21 1.73

1.40 4.66

1.29 3.75

43.0 75.0

3 5

From the data, three constructs with five point-Likert scales mean were more than M=4.5. The finding indicated that parents had high perceived knowledge about preschool mathematics; parents are ready to be involved in mathematical activities at home; and parents understand that mathematics are vital for their children. Considering the three-point Likert scale to measure the fourth construct,

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the M=1.29 highlighted that the parents encountered moderate mathematics experience. Finally, the mean (M=3.75) of the fifth construct showed that parents had moderate attitude towards mathematics. The mean percentages of all constructs are presented in Figure 1.

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Mean Percentage

Figure 2. The descriptive statistics of all constructs

5. Discussion The parental involvement was measured through five constructs consisted of parents’ knowledge about preschool mathematical practices and curriculum, parents’ readiness to be involved in mathematical activities at home, parents’ understanding, experience, and attitudes towards numeracy and number concepts. It was found out that parents’ knowledge, understanding, and attitude towards preschoolers’ numeracy was high. Parents also had moderate experience and attitudes toward mathematics.

In this study, most parents perceived that mathematics is essential and willing to get involved in their children's numeracy activity. From the analysis throughout 39 items, overall, the parents in this study preferred to advance the operational activities, LOT’s-levelled, non-concrete, indirect activities, behaviourist-task based activities. The finding was similar to Susperreguy et al. (2018), Ramani et al. (2015), and Sobayi (2018), who studied the early numeracy in primary-schooled children, the parent-child interaction in numeracy was limited at an operational basic-level and inclined towards the advancement of current development stage and improvement to prepare for primary years schooling. Soto-Calvo et al. (2020) and Kleemans et al. (2012) also found that the parents tended to be involved in task-based behaviourist activity and promote the rote-learning of LOTs. Nevertheless, advancing beyond the children's current development stage is heavily criticised by early childhood researchers (Gersten, Jayanthi & Dimino, 2017; Little & Cohen-Vogel, 2016). Therefore, there is a requirement for systematic guidelines and consultation for parents in facilitating advanced numeracy

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principles by manifesting HOTs and tool-aided numeracy activity (Linder & Emerson 2019; Smith et al., 2020) to facilitate an effective the parents’ involvement in numeracy learning.

Despite moderate positive self-experience in mathematics, encouragingly, parents showed their confidence that they have substantial mathematical knowledge and ready to impose on mathematics importance for their children. Based on this study, there was a requirement for a deeper understanding of the parents with moderate experience and attitude in mathematic that encouraged children's early numeracy at home. To sum, we believe that the parents had some driving forces to assist their children in numeracy at home regardless of the moderate experience and attitudes toward mathematics. Nevertheless, the factors that drive the parents to be involved in their children's numeracy activity need to be further studied.

6. Conclusion This study has provided new tangents of perceived reality in parental numeracy involvement in the Malaysian context. From the finding, there is an evident that the parents had already an awareness of their involvement in early numeracy.

Parents should be supported by ‘how to facilitate the home early numeracy’ rather than ‘what to teach at home.’ The pedagogical knowledge, instructional strategies, and the psychology of child development as the principles of home-numeracy are essentially required to conduct effective home-based learning. Thus, this research was the indication for the policymaker to design a systematic program for parents in engaging with their children at home.

The present study has discrepant views of self-rating with reality. The survey methodology was prone to self-rating bias and social desirability issues, affecting the finding practical and vocational circumstances. Henceforth, the follow-up study which measures parental involvement is suggested to include a comprehensive measure to examine parents’ economic status and motivational factors to be involved with their children's numeracy activity at home. Besides, the frequency, quality, and extent of parental involvement will better understand the potential instructional strategies to be introduced to the parents; which in turn refers to the limitation of this study. The local circumstances and cultural factors also require to be further studied in the Malaysian multicultural context to assure for a numerate citizen.

Acknowledgement This research project was sponsored by Exploratory Research Grant Scheme (ERGS) Grant No: 203/PGURU/6730128 by Ministry of Education, Malaysia.

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Appendix 1 Appendices

Meneroka Pengetahuan Pembelajaran Numerasi Sebelum Persekolahan Formal Exploring Knowledge in Learning Numeracy Before Formal Schooling

Pusat Pengajian Ilmu Pendidikan, Universiti Sains Malaysia Geran ERGS (Grant No: 203/PGURU/6730128) Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia Universiti Sains Malaysia 2013 – 2015

Instrument Soal Selidik Ibu Bapa Parents’ Quentionnaire

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BAHAGIAN A : DEMOGRAFI Maklumat Ibu Bapa SECTION A : DEMOGRAPHY Parents’ Information Tarikh Date

: ________________________

Jantina Gender

:

Etnik Ethnic

: Malay

Lelaki/Male

Perempuan/ Female

Chinese

India

Lain lain/Others :________________________________(sila isikan) Negeri/State: ___________________________ Daerah/_____________________________ Pendidikan/Education Ibu/Mother

Bapa/Father

SPM/SPVM

SPM/SPVM

STPM

STPM

DIPLOMA

DIPLOMA

BACHELOR

BACHELOR

MASTER

MASTER

PhD

PhD

Pekerjaan Ibu Mother’s Occupation : __________________________________________ Pekerjaan Bapa Father’s Occupation : __________________________________________

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BAHAGIAN B SECTION B ❖ Pengetahuan Berkaitan Matematik Prasekolah ❖ Knowledge about preschool mathematics Items No.

1.

2.

Saya boleh mengajar anak saya perkara berikut: I am able to teach my child the following:

Menulis Nombor Writing numbers.

Membandingkan Objek Comparing objects.

3

Membandingkan Nombor Comparing Numbers

4

Mengklasifikasi objek Classification of objects.

Seriasi Seriation.

Padanan satu – ke - satu Matching one-to-one.

Memadankan objek tidak seiras Matching non-identical pair object Ukuran mudah Simple measurement.

Konsep nombor Number concepts.

Latihan/Aktiviti dengan bahan pembelajaran/permainan Exercises/Activities with learning materials/games Penyelesaian masalah mudah Simple problem solving.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

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Tidak boleh Incapable 1

Tidak Pasti Not Sure 2

Boleh Capable 3

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❖ Kesediaan untuk melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti matematik di rumah ❖ Readiness to involve in mathematical activities at home

Item

Bil/No.

Tidak Bersedia Not Ready 1

11.

Saya menyediakan untuk anak saya aktiviti berunsurkan matematik di rumah.

I prepare mathematics based activities for my child at home.

12.

Saya menyediakan untuk anak saya bahan/peralatan konkrit yang cukup bagi menguasai matematik.

I prepare enough concrete materials for my child to understand mathematics.

13.

Saya bersoal jawab dengan anak saya tentang konsep matematik semasa melakukan aktiviti di rumah.

I asked my child questions on mathematics concepts while doing activities at home.

14.

Saya membantu anak saya dalam menyelesaikan masalah berkaitan matematik.

I assist my child in mathematics related problem solving.

15.

Saya menyanyi lagu berkaitan membilang bersama anak ketika di rumah.

I sing counting songs with my child at home.

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Tidak Pasti

Bersedia

Not Sure 2

Ready 3

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❖ Kefahaman tentang kepentingan numerasi ❖ Understanding about importance of numeracy Bil./Nos.

Item Adakah aktiviti berikut penting untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan numerasi kanak-kanak prasekolah?

16.

Are the following activities important in enhancing preschool children’s knowledge about numeracy Membilang nombor.

Counting numbers

17.

Menulis nombor.

18.

Writing numbers Membandingkan objek dan nombor.

19.

Comparing objects and number Mengelaskan objek.

20.

Classifying objects.

Membuat padanan objek di persekitaran.

21.

Matching objects in the environment.

Permainan matematik.

22.

Mathematical games.

Melakukan latihan dengan kanak-kanak lain.

23.

Doing exercises with other children.

Melakukan kerja rumah/latihan.

24.

25.

Doing homework/exercises.

Melakukan latihan dengan peralatan/bahan permainan.

Doing exercises with materials/games.

Menyelesaikan masalah mudah.

Simple problem solving

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Tidak Penting Not important 1

Tidak Pasti Not Sure 2

Penting Important 3

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❖ Pengalaman dalam matematik/Experience in Mathematics Bil./Nos. 26.

27.

28.

Item

Positif 1

Tidak Ingat 2

Negative 3

Setuju Agree 3

Sangat Bersetuju Strongly agree 4

Pengalaman saya berkaitan numerasi dalam matematik.

My opinion about numeracy in mathematics.

Pengalaman saya dalam matematik sekolah rendah.

My experience in primary school mathematics.

Pengalaman saya dalam matematik sekolah menengah.

29.

My experience in secondary school mathematics.

Keyakinan saya dalam mata pelajaran matematik.

30.

My confidence in mathematics.

Kebolehan saya dalam mata pelajaran matematik.

My ability in mathematis

❖ Sikap terhadap numerasi ❖ Attitudes towards numeracy Bil./ No.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

Item Saya berpendapat bahawa/I think that

Hanya guru sahaja yang bertanggungjawab mengajar anak saya tentang numerasi.

Only teachers are responsible to teach my children about numeracy.

Aktiviti yang dilakukan di rumah dapat dikaitkan dengan numerasi.

Activities in the home could be related to numeracy.

Semua kanak-kanak berpeluang untuk berjaya dalam matematik.

All children have the opportunity to excel/succeed in mathematics.

Saya boleh membantu anak saya meningkatkan pengetahuan matematik.

I can assist my child to enhance mathematical knowledge.

Penglibatan saya dalam pembelajaran dapat meningkatkan/menerap sikap positif anak terhadap matematik.

My involvement in learning will enhance my child’s positive attitudes towards mathematics.

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Sangat Tidak Bersetuju Strongly disagree 1

Tidak Bersetuju Disagree 2

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36.

37.

Adalah penting untuk kanak-kanak berasa seronok ketika belajar matematik.

It is important for children to have fun while learning mathematics.

Saya mempunyai peranan dalam menerapkan sikap positif kanak-kanak terhadap matematik.

I have a role in inculcating positive attitudes towards mathematics among children.

❖ Kepentingan Pengetahuan Berkaitan Matematik Prasekolah ❖ Importance of Knowledge about preschool mathematics Items

No.

Sila berikan kepentingan 1(paling kurang penting) – 10 (paling penting) untuk item berikut.

Kepentingan (sila bulatkan) Rank (please circle)

Please rank from 1(least importance) – 10 (most importance) the following items

1(paling kurang penting) – 10 (paling penting) 1(least importance) – 10 (most importance)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Menulis Nombor Writing numbers.

Membandingkan Objek dan Nombor Comparing objects and numbers.

Mengklasifikasi objek Classification of objects.

Seriasi Seriation.

Padanan satu – ke - satu Matching one-to-one.

Memadankan objek dan persekitaran Matching objects in the environment.

Ukuran mudah Simple measurement.

Konsep nombor Number concepts.

Latihan/Aktiviti dengan bahan pembelajaran/permainan Exercises/Activities with learning materials/games Penyelesaian masalah mudah Simple problem solving.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

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9

10

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1

2

3

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5

6

7

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10

1

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10

1

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10

1

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3

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5

6

7

8

9

10

Sekian, terima kasih.

That’s all. Thank you

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 223-239, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.12

The Effects of Classroom Management Styles on Students’ Motivation and Academic Achievement in Learning English Thuong Tran Thi Hanoi Law University, Ha Noi City, Vietnam https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2335-0738 Hong-Thu Thi Nguyen Hanoi Law University, Ha Noi City, Vietnam https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6421-7511 Abstract. The aims of this research are to investigate teachers’ and learners’ perception towards the significance of classroom management in motivating students to learn English; to determine the classroom management styles adopted by teachers during classroom and to identify the extent to which their classroom management styles affect students’ English learning motivation and academic achievement. The design of the research is mixed-method one in which an interview and questionnaires are the instruments to collect data. 14 English teachers were asked to be interviewed and 398 students (201 10 th graders and 197 12th graders) participated in answering the questionnaires. The outcomes revealed that the various styles in managing their classrooms were displayed; however, each grade possessed a dominant style.

Furthermore, the findings showed that each style of classroom management exerted impact with different levels and dimensions on students’ English learning motivation. Remarkably, Authoritative style demonstrated the most positive influence on students’ English learning motivation and academic achievement. Based on these findings, some implications for managing classroom were drawn out, which emphasized the adoption of Authoritative style and the reduction of some negative aspects of the other styles.

Keywords: Classroom management styles; English Motivation; Academic achievement; Teacher controls

learning;

1. Introduction Education has been seen as a multi-tasking job involving not only teaching knowledge but shaping the ethical values and codes of conduct in students as well. Thus, teachers as “the nucleus of all formal learning” are being put under growing pressure on how to effectively handle both tasks ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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(Chamundeswari, 2013). According to Moreno Rubio (2009), one significant element that contributes to a successful teacher regardless of a profound content knowledge of his or her subject is classroom management skill. It is, thus, obvious that the study of classroom management has become an important aspect of teacher development. It is contended that classroom management could exert influences on the learning environment for students, which, as a result, affects both their academic competencies and emotional development (Kratochwill, n.d).This can be considered as a rationale for much research into the effect of classroom management on students’ academic achievement and students’ behavior. Anderson, Evertson & Brophy, (1979) and Brophy & Evertson (1976) maintained that managerial behaviors of teachers and student achievements were closely connected. Good and Grouws (1977) strengthened the previous research result by showing that teachers whose classes had better academic performance possessed better management skills. As to students’ behavior, much research highlighted that teacher’s classroom management practices exhibited a dramatic, positive effect on diminishing troublesome behavior, especially disruptive or aggressive one in the classroom. In the book “Comprehensive Classroom Management: Creating Communities of Support and Solving Problems,” Jones and Jones (2007) mentioned one more aspect that the teacher managerial strategies affected students, which is students’ motivation.

However, although motivation is an important factor contributing to students’ achievement, hardly can studies that thoroughly investigates its relationship with teacher’s management practices be found.

With regard to the above stated, the researchers’ aim is first to find out the perspectives of students on classroom management styles adopted during the course. In addition, the effects of classroom management styles on students’ English learning motivation and academic achievement are also the researchers’ concerns. Besides, it is the researchers’ desire to investigate the techniques of building positive motivation through adopting classroom management styles.

In brief, to achieve these aims above, this paper is conducted to answer the following questions: 1. What are the perspectives of students on classroom management styles adopted during the course?

2. To what extent do classroom management styles affect students’ English learning motivation and academic achievement?

3. What are teachers’ beliefs on building positive motivation through adopting classroom management styles?

2. Literature review 2.1. Classroom management styles Although classroom management is the frequently used term, there are various different viewpoints surrounding its exact definition. Doyle (1986) identified classroom management as “the actions and strategies teachers use to solve the problem of order in classrooms” (p. 397). It means that Doyle is concerned about how the disciplines in classrooms were effectively enforced

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when problems arise. In a broader and more widely accepted sense, Moore and Hansen (2012) did not only claim that classroom management was the immediate reaction of teachers against problems in classroom, but also expanded the meaning of classroom management to “the establishment and maintenance of the classroom environment so that educational goals can be accomplished”(p.53). In other words, they emphasized a preventive approach or the routine procedure, which was conducive to students’ learning. In the researcher’s viewpoint, classroom management and discipline should not be interchanged and considered to be the same. Classroom management can be regarded as an “umbrella” to help teacher to oversee a multitude of learning activities such as social interaction, and student behavior (Martin, Yin & Baldwin, 1998). Classroom management relates to procedures and routines to the point of becoming rituals, whereas classroom discipline concerns the way people behave and is about self-control. Based on this distinction, it can be seen that Doyle’s definition of classroom management is indeed the definition of classroom discipline. To sum up, it is commonly accepted that classroom management is connected to creating a task-oriented environment, predictable and consistent (Wong & Wong, 2005).

2.2. Aspects of classroom management As mentioned above, classroom discipline and classroom management are conventionally used interchangeably. However, discipline is only one of the many other aspects of classroom management. It has been claimed that classroom management was not simply a “bag of tricks” that was used identically among different teacher generations but it was a multi-faceted endeavor that goes beyond controlling students' behavior (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). As a multi-faceted construct, classroom management comprises three broad aspects: instructional management, people management and behavior management (Martin et al., 1998).

To begin with, instructional management consists of sub-aspects such as managing the physical setting of classrooms, establishing daily routines and allotting materials. The way these tasks are conducted influences the whole classroom atmosphere and classroom management styles (Burden, 1995; Kounin, 1970; Weinstein & Mignano, 1993). Brophy (1988) maintained that teachers were required to possess good instructional skills so that they could plan and organize the activities more efficiently and make transitions between these activities smooth. For example, teachers can deliver instruction step by step, starting with structuring and then modeling it. By doing so, teachers can enable students to be on-task.

Concerning people management, it is understood that to manage a large group of students is not an easy task. It requires teachers to take students’ different personalities into consideration when dealing with them. In other words, how to make students cooperate and comply is the mission of teachers. To be more specific, people management includes what teachers believe about students as persons and behaviors teachers do to convince students to do something for the purpose of attaining some outcomes (Hill, 2003). For instance, a teacher gives her students the opportunity to establish

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their own daily routines if she believes that her students prefer self-discipline.

Noticeably, teacher-student relationship is properly the most significant subaspect of people management. In fact, many researchers have concurred that students’ academic achievement and proper behavior are enforced if a strong teacher-student relationship covers the classroom atmosphere (Burden, 1995; Glasser, 1986; Weinstein, 1996). Marzano and Marzano (2003) have indicated that “the most effective teacher-student relationships are characterized by specific teacher behaviors: exhibiting appropriate levels of dominance; exhibiting appropriate levels of cooperation; and being aware of high-needs students.”

Finally, behavior management can be regarded similar to discipline, but they differ in the way that behavior management is prone to prevention rather than immediate reactions to students’ behaviors. Precisely, behavior management includes setting rules, establishing a reward structure and providing opportunities for student input (Martin et al., 1998). To illustrate, a system of rewards and punishments can be set at the beginning of the school year. In the study of Emmer et al. (1980), they distinguished between efficient and inefficient classroom managers based on the manner those managers develop and employ rules. According to Weinstern and Mignano (1993),the order of classroom is similar to the conversation which can only be successfully carried on if both teachers and students agree to involve in.

Therefore, only when students are motivated to comply with the rules do classroom rules take effect.

2.3. Types of classroom management styles It can be readily acknowledged that classroom management styles vary among teachers because of their different personalities and ideologies.

Therefore, hardly can researchers identify all the existing types of classroom management styles. However, there is a consensus among researchers that teacher classroom management styles can be categorized into four types based on two dimensions: the level of control exerted over students and that of the teachers’ involvement with students (Baumrind, 1971; Dunbar, 2004).

Besides the variables of Student Control and Student Involvement, Chamundeswari (2013) added the variable of Knowledge into his Classroom Management Styles Inventory. In this study, the researchers also include Knowledge variable in each classroom management style as this can influence one’s classroom management style according to the researchers’ viewpoint.

There are a number of taxonomies regarding teacher classroom management styles; however, the researcher only utilized the widely accepted classification developed by Baumrind (1971), which comprises four types: Authoritative style, Authoritarian style, Indulgent style and Permissive style.

2.3.1. Authoritative Baumrind (1971) defined this style of teachers as exhibiting high expectations of suitable behaviors, articulating clearly about the reasons for a particular behavior to be accepted while others are not and maintaining a harmonious relationship with students. Dunbar (2004) was also in agreement with Baumrind; however, he provided a more detail description of this style.

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According to him, an authoritative teacher displays limits and controls over students but still facilitates independence at the same time (Dunbar, 2004).

Authoritative teachers usually use informal or non-controlling language when communicating with students. As in the dissertation of Chang (2012), another way to name this style is “Autonomy-Supportive.” It is obvious that building a classroom environment that fosters students’ independence in thinking and making choices with the support of teachers is the critical goal of this style. For example, students can be involved in the discussion about establishing classroom rules or their expectations. It means that authoritative teachers carefully take students’ needs, interests and preferences into consideration.

2.3.2. Authoritarian As opposed to the afore-mentioned style, authoritarian teachers appear like a boss in classroom settings. Chang (2012) called this style of teacher “Highlycontrolled” teacher. It can be interpreted that firm limits and controls over students are utilized by authoritarian teachers (Dunbar, 2004; Chang, 2012).

Rarely does an authoritarian teacher explain the reasons why or why not a certain behavior is acceptable, even though the rules are explicitly informed to students. In addition, those who exhibit authoritarian styles tend to offer rewards as a means to motivate students (Woolfolk & Hoy, 1990). Besides, punishment or negative consequences are also used when students refuse to comply with the rules.

2.3.3. Indulgent In the classification of teacher classroom management style presented by Dunbar (2004), this style is called “Laissez-faire” style. Indulgent or laissez-faire teachers are prone to establish few demands and controls over their students. Teachers are hesitant to enforce the rules. If discipline is imposed, there is a tendency of inconsistency. The reason is that these teachers try to be a friend of students rather than a role model or an educator (Jones, n.d). Students who, in classes, are facilitated by an indulgent teacher are often given permission to do their favourite things (Dunbar, 2004). In other words, students are granted much freedom in classroom. Baumrind (1971) stated that indulgent teachers enthusiastically support their students to seek their own ends using any reasonable means.

2.2.4. Permissive Permissive or Indifferent teachers are defined as being deficient in both involvement with students and control over them (Baumrind, 1971). Also, Permissive style is similar to Indulgent style in certain extents in which teachers set few or no limits and controls over students (Dunbar, 2004). However, unlike Indulgent teachers, Permissive teachers always feel that preparation before class is not necessary. Therefore, they tend to spend little time for classroom preparation as well as using repetitively one type of material; lesson plans year after year (Dunbar, 2004). In addition, discipline is non-existent in the class undertaken by permissive teachers (Baumrind, 1971). In other terms, a nonpunitive classroom is facilitated. As can be seen, this style of teacher reflects an uninterest and the lack of dedication to pedagogic career.

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2.4. Language learning motivation 2.4.1. Importance of motivation in language learning According to Terrell H. Bell (as cited in Ames, 1990), “There are three things to remember about education. The first one is motivation. The second one is motivation. The third one is motivation.” This illuminates the importance of motivation in the learning process. Indeed, whether a learner possesses a potential capability or not, learning a foreign language still requires an enormous amount of effort and patience. Apparently, effort and patience originate from one’s dynamic. Once learners are well aware of their goal to learn a language or desire to achieve success in learning because of some inside or outside sources, the learning process can easily occur. As a result, sooner or later motivated learners will fulfill their dream of success. Gardner (1972), Wigfield and Wentzel (2007) stated that motivation can influence language learning outcomes independently from language aptitude. It is, thus, evident that motivation is one of the indispensable factors driving the language learning process.

2.4.2. Classifications of students’ language learning motivation Ryan and Deci (2000) highlighted that “to be motivated is to be moved to do something.” In other words, one who is motivated will be engaged in doing and focusing attention on the tasks. Usually, it has been described as “the intensity of behavior, the direction of behavior, and the duration of behavior” (Ames, 1990).

However, when it comes to mention motivation in language learning, this term shows its complexity as it is influenced by social and cultural factors. As Gardner wrote, motivation to learn a language is the combination of effort and desire as well as a positive attitude toward the target language (Gardner, 1985).

It means that motivation to learn a language can come from an inner drive or it may be the result of the social factors influencing learners’ language attitude. In the psychological field, motivation is defined as a psychological process that causes stimulation, direction and the assertive maintenance of voluntary action that is closely related to goals (Mitchell, 1982). As there are a number of definitions for motivation in language learning, there also exist many classifications of learners’ motivation. Gardner and Larmbert (1972) first presented these concepts in their Socio-educational Model. According to them, motivation to learn a language could be divided into two types: Integrative and Instrumental, and the emphasis was placed on the first type. Integrative motivation is defined as the desire to be exposed to the target language, communicate or even integrate with the community of the target language (Keblawi, n.d). Meanwhile, people who display instrumental motivation regard learning a language as a tool to achieve their goals such as getting a job or passing an examination (Gardner, 1985). In other words, instrumental motivation serves to fulfill more purposeful functions when learning a language.

In Self-determination theory, motivation is categorized into Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation, which is seen as a cognitive approach to motivation, is related to the internal motives that drive a person to perform a certain action. To be specific, people engage in a particular activity as a result of internal rewards such as pleasure, enjoyment or satisfaction of curiosity. As Deci claimed intrinsic motivation brings about feelings of competence and self-

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determination (1975). In contrast, extrinsic motivation is considered as a stimulation approach to motivation, that is; it requires external rewards for a behavior to be exhibited. Brown (2007) pointed out that external incentives such as money, prizes, positive feedback, grades could have an impact on extrinsic motivation.

2.4.3. Relationship between classroom management and students’ English learning motivation In a study on teacher characteristics and their effects on students’ attitudes, Açıkgöz (2005) stated that to facilitate a learnable and teachable classroom climate, pedagogical and professional characteristics of teachers are not enough but personal traits are the most influential in this case. Evidently, classroom management styles of teachers which are partly shaped by teachers’ personal characteristics also nourish an effective learning atmosphere. Açıkgöz (2005) and Morehouse (2007) claimed that classroom with a and encouraging atmosphere exert a positive influence on students’ intrinsic motivation. That is to say, classroom management styles which enable such favorable ambience also strengthen the intrinsic motivation of students. Alternatively, Nation (2001) observed that “without the engagement or aroused the attention of the students, there can be little opportunity for other conditions favoring learning to take place” (p. 63). Accordingly, teachers’ management is also inefficient in this case.

It is, thus, evident that students’ learning motivation can also produce some adverse effects on classroom management, particularly teacher classroom management styles.

3. Methods 3.1. Population Participants of this study comprised of 14 English teachers (9 males and 5 females) whose ages were from 28 to 42 and their teaching experience was from 5 to 17 years; 201 (10th) graders and 197 (12th) graders. The 10th graders at this age were experiencing a critical stage of their education and psychology. As they had left their secondary school and been exposed to a new environment of high school, everything they encountered in school life could have negative or positive impact on their characters and studying. Evidently, at this deciding stage students could be either motivated or demotivated to learn by a number of factors in which teachers deem to be the most influential entities. Of the five 10th grades, 10A1 was the only gifted-class with the outstanding students chosen from the entrance exam. The 12th graders were the at the last-stage of the high school duration with the development in learning experience, self-efficacy, autonomy and mature in psychology. To select student samples for the study, the researcher employed stratified sampling technique and 398 students were involved in.

3.2. Data collection instruments The questionnaires, pretests and post- tests, in – depth interviews are the data collection instruments in this research. The questionnaire was used to collect data regarding the management styles of the English teachers and how the teachers’ management styles influence the students’ motivation in learning English. The questionnaire for students consists of 2 parts. Part 1 asks students

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to identify their teachers’ management styles by selecting any characteristic that their teachers exhibit. Part 2 of the questionnaire requires students to rate teacher control and motivation levels in the learning course based on the 5-point Likert scale. Furthermore, the participants of the two groups had taken 2 types of test including pretests and post-tests to check the effect of teachers’ management styles on their academic achievement. The pretests were taken by all the 10th graders at the beginning of the course to compare the input levels between the grades when there had been no control and teaching from teachers.

The post-tests were conducted at the end of the course as a final exam. The teacher scored their outcomes based on 10-point scale. Using interview guide, the researchers can assure that the same basic lines of inquiry are pursued with each person interviewed. It means that the guide will help interview many people systematically. Therefore, it will facilitate the researchers in data analyzing phase. The questions in the interview guide are asked based on the areas that the researchers want to investigate. Precisely, the first question in the interview guide deals with the teachers’ perception towards the impact of their classroom management styles on students. The rest questions figure out the classroom management styles of each interviewer by exploring 3 variables of classroom management style: Knowledge, Student Involvement and Student Control.

3.3. Data collection and analysis The data from the survey were analyzed by means of both qualitative and quantitative approaches with the assistance of SPSS 25.0 software. A reliability analysis was conducted as the first phase of the data analysis process. These findings made good unidimensionality validity for variables to ensure the proper data treatment for the research questions. The demographic information of the participants, the proportion of classroom management styles were analyzed based on frequency descriptive test. The investigator employed Independent t-test to test the difference in teachers’ management control and motivation levels between grades 10th and 12th. Then, Paired-sample T-test was employed to measure the difference between pretests and post-tests among 10th graders and regression test was used to evaluate the correlation between teacher control levels, motivation level and academic achievement. For question number 3, the researcher utilized interview to gather information because by face-to-face interviewing teachers, it is much easier to get their viewpoints on a matter.

4. Findings 4.1. Classroom Management Styles Adopted in graders 10-12 Table 1 presents the information on classroom management styles adopted in the 10th and 12th grades.

Table 1: Proportion of classroom management styles adopted in graders 10-12 Grades Class styles Authoritarian Authoritative Indulgent Permissive

10

12

10A1

10A2

10A3

10A4

10A5

12C1

12C2

12C3

12C4

12C5

26,4 41,8 23,4 8,5

7,6 31,3 44,9 16,2

5,0 40,0 50,0 5,0

31,7 46,3 12,2 9,8

42,5 37,5 10,0 10,0

32,5 42,5 15,0 10,0

20,0 42,5 30,0 7,5

5,1 17,9 56,4 20,5

2,5 37,5 45,0 15,0

2,5 32,5 47,5 17,5

17,5 27,5 40,0 15,0

10,3 41,0 35,9 12,8

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As can be seen from Table 1, there is a diverse distribution among the class management styles in 2 groups of 10th grades and 12th grades. In general, authoritarian class type appeared in grades 10th more than in grades 12th with 26.4% and & 7.6 % respectively. The authoritative class types made up to 41.8 % in grades 10th whereas 31.3 % belonged to grades 12th. It can be explained that the students in 10th grades were the new ones enrolling in a high school, so they had to be placed in the classes with more powerful instruction and higher control from teachers. Teachers added that classroom management served to maintain students’ interest in the subject. There was a converse result in the two class types left with the higher proportion resting with the 12th grades.

Particularly, the indulgent class took account approximately half of the 12th grades; meanwhile, the 10th graders possess only 23%. Similarly, the number of 12th students choosing the permissive option was as twice as the number of 10th students. Therefore, it can be concluded from questionnaire results that Authoritative style were adopted in the 10th grades most of the time. In contrast, indulgent class was the dominant style in the 12th grades.

Going into more details, students of grade 10A determined indulgent style to be preferred more than the other types. However, students of 10C considered the Authoritarian styles as the premier one. The other 10th grades (10A2, A4, A5), by common consent, are identified to belong to Authoritative style. Of 5 grades 12th, only one grade 12 C1 considered authoritative style as the main classroom management style. Meanwhile, four the others rested with the indulgent class style.

Comparing the results from interviews and questionnaires, the researcher comes to a conclusion that teachers of all10 grades exhibited quite various styles of classroom management, namely Indulgent, permissive, Authoritative and Authoritarian styles, of which Permissive and Authoritarian styles were relatively low in the number of votes, whereas Authoritative and Indulgent styles were dominant in grades 10th and 12th respectively. Based on the investigation on the percentage of the classroom management styles maintained in 10th graders and 12th graders, it can be seen that there was difference in classroom traits between the beginners and the last-year students in high school.

This is explained for a number of reasons in the open questions and interviews.

4.2. Difference in teachers’ control levels between the grades 10 and 12 Concerning the management control levels between the grades 10 and 12, the result from the independent sample test indicated that the Sig. value of Levene's Test for Equality of Variances is below 0.5. Therefore, the Sig. (2-tailed) value in the equal variances not assumed was used to take into consideration.

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Table 2: Difference in teachers’ control levels between the grades 10 and 12 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference

Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

F Equal variances 8,716 assumed

t-test for Equality of Means Mean Sig. (2- Diffe Std. Error Lower Upper Sig. T df tailed) rence Difference ,003 -5,615 397 ,000 -,655 ,117 -,884 -,426

Equal variances not assumed

-5,623 386,54 9

,000

-,655

,116

-,884

-,426

As can be seen from Table 2, the Sig. (2-tailed) value of t-test for Equality of Means is smaller (0.000) than the confidence level (<0.05). It comes to conclusion that there is a slight difference (0.655) in the management control levels between the grades 10 and 12. The lower difference that could be found in the table is 0.426 and the highest difference is 0.884. It is apparent that in the table 1, the dominant class styles of the groups are different, meanwhile management control level is the main trait to distinguish the styles. Thus, it is easy to interpret the difference in teachers’ management control levels between the grades 10 and 12.

4.3. Difference in motivation between the grades 10th and 12th When it comes to student motivation in learning process, an independent samples test was implemented to compare the difference between the grades 10 and 12.

Table 3: Difference in motivation between the grades 10 and 12 Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

Equal variances assumed

F 10,920

Sig. ,001

Equal variances not assumed

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference

t-test for Equality of Means

t -5,420

Df 397

-5,416

392,391

Sig. (2Mean Std. Error Lower tailed) Difference Difference ,000 ,095 -,704 ,000

-,517 ,095

,095

-,704

Upper -,329 -,329

It can be referred from Table 3 that the Sig. (2-tailed) value in the equal variances that is not assumed was opted to be taken into account (Sig<0.05). Thus, the Sig. (2-tailed) value of t-test for Equality of Means is smaller (0.00) than the confidence level (<0.05). It reveals that there is a slight difference (0.655) in motivation between the grades 10 and 12. The lower difference that could be found in the table is 0.329 and the highest difference is 0.704. Besides, the figure of the Mean Difference between two variables is not high (0.095).

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4.4. Effects of class management styles to the academic achievement As far as investigating the effects of class management styles to the academic achievement is concerned, the results from Paired Samples Test came out to tell that all the Sig. values (2-tailed) are smaller than the confidence level. This means that there were differences in scores between the pretests and post-tests amongst the 10th grades.

Table 4: Comparison between the pretests and post-tests of 10th grades Paired Differences

pretests and post-tests 10A1 pretests and post-tests 10A2 pretests and post-tests 10A3 pretests and post-tests 10A4 pretests and post-tests 10A5

Std. Std. Error Mean Deviation Mean ,875 1,418 ,224

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper ,422 1,328

T df 3,904 39

,000

0,988

1,227

,192

,100

,875

2,545

40

,015

1,025

1,527

,241

,537

1,513

4,244

39

,000

,975

,877

,139

,195

,755

3,427

39

,001

1,025

1,423

,225

,570

1,480

4,556

39

,000

In the comparisons with the pretests, the post-test scores in all grades were higher. Obviously, the most significant difference belongs to grade 10A3 with the mean of Paired Differences is 1.025 by a high consent of all the members of the class (SD=1.527). Looking back to Table 1, 10 A3 is the only class orienting to Authoritarian management style with 42.9% in which the teacher is more concerned about the fulfilment of students’ needs in the classroom more than controlling them. It can be seen that thanks to the teacher control, students made a lot of efforts and got the certain success with the higher scores at the end of the course. Meanwhile, the grade 10A1 that was mostly based on the indulgent classroom style, had a slight progress with the mean paired difference 0.875.

4.5. Correlation between teacher Control levels, Motivation and Academic achievement In order to answer the question whether there is a correlation between teacher control levels, motivation and academic achievement or not, a regression test was conducted.

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Table 5: Correlation between control levels, motivation and academic achievement Coefficients Standardiz ed Unstandardized Coefficient Coefficients s

1

Collinearity Statistics Toleranc e VIF

Model B Academic 7,615 achievement Motivation -,108

Std. Error ,303

Beta

t 25,166

Sig. ,000

,080

-,095

-1,352

,178

,996

1,004

Control levels ,082

,057

,102

1,441

,151

,996

1,004

It can be seen from Table 5, the Sig. value is higher than 0.05, and therefore there is not enough evidence to conclude that these variables are correlated. There is a common consensus that various factors affecting the student achievement, in which motivation and teacher control are placed on the prior positions.

However, this does not mean that the high or low results of students derives from the classroom management styles.

4.6. Teachers’ beliefs on building positive motivation through adopting classroom management styles The answers for this question were received from the interviews with the teachers. It can be reported that the interviewees exhibited quite different attitudes and ideas about the significance of classroom management for motivating students to learn English. A teacher regarded classroom management as a really important factor contributing to students’ motivation.

Interviewees contended that classroom management played roles in maintaining students’ motivation and encouraging students’ task motivation as well.

The teachers very flexible in choosing strategies to cope with misbehaviors. In this sense, Mrs Lan doesn’t strictly apply the same policy into various circumstances but her decision “depends on the seriousness of the behavior. Her demands for students’ learning are also changeable according to the level of specific classes – My demands are different in each class depending on the students’ competence. Obviously, at this point she does not express any traits of Permissive style because she always places control and demands on her students to some extent. As can be seen, the control over her students can be ranged from Indulgent styles, Authoritarian to Authoritative style. Ms. Ha expressed her constant care for her students, not only about their learning but also their personal problems. On the one hand, she shows her good attempt in promoting students’ performance by helping them to understand more and “acquire the knowledge better when students do not meet her expectation. On the other hand, she also pays attention to students’ personal problems and considers it as a mean to get more respect from students as well as tightening the teacherstudent relationship. Moreover, she maintained a friendly and mutualunderstanding and mutual-respect way of communication with students. All of those traits undoubtedly depict Authoritative style. Information with regard to Knowledge aspect also indicates this style of classroom management.

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Specifically, she prepares lesson carefully with the provision of more matters than in the text and vary the activities as many as possible. Besides, she usually checks students’ comprehension through asking students to give examples.

Mrs Hai does establish the same rules in each class; however, depending on the specific situation that she follows them or not. She also supports students in relearning accepted behaviors by helping them understand that their behavior is not appropriate and making them realize the bad results if they continue those inappropriate behaviors. As to Student Involvement, Authoritative style is the most remarkable classroom management style adopted in spite of the fact that her class occasionally shows her Indulgent and Authoritarian styles. For example, she is really concerned with the personal problems of students because she could help or give them advice to avoid negative consequences (Authoritative style). Besides, she often maintains “friendly” communication with her students; nevertheless, she also keeps distance in communication” if the situation requires her to do so (Authoritative style, Indulgent style and Authoritarian style). As for knowledge aspect, the variation of classroom management styles is even more complex. She can be of Permissive style when she does not vary in-class activities but only uses group work most of the time.

She can also exhibit Indulgent style, Authoritative style or Authoritarian style when it comes to provide more matters than in the texts. This comment is drawn because she “depends on the topic of the text” to introduce additional content.

Therefore, sometimes students may find her informative, sometimes not.

When being asked about Student Control aspect, Ms. Lien reported that she did not uniformly respond to different situations. On dealing with misbehaviors, she often “take[s] students’ attitude into consideration before deciding on what treatment should be given”. It means she can be of Authoritarian style if students are “aggressive or impolite” or of Authoritative and Indulgent styles when students “express their apologetic attitude”. One other evidence is that she does not always impose rules and demands on students. In some cases, she expresses Permissive style as students are obedient and “rules and demands are not necessary”. As regards Student Involvement, all of her answers reflect Authoritative and Indulgent style. For instance, in her viewpoint, teachers should be “a friend” of students; hence, paying attention to their personal problems is teachers’ way to make friends with students. In terms of Knowledge aspect, she displays Authoritative, Authoritarian style and Permissive style.

Precisely, she will vary in-class activities if the lesson is not so difficult. If not, she chooses individual work or pair work as the only activity for students: “It’s quite hard to conduct various activities within the time limit. So, if the lesson is not so difficult, I can provide students with more types of activities, discussion or some funny games for example. If not, I only ask them to do exercise in pairs or individually.” (Mrs Hai) Analyzing details from the interview with the other teachers, the researcher found out that they are prone to be an easy-going teacher. Miss. Hoa reported that she felt “somehow uncomfortable when imposing such rules on [her] students.” She can easily forgive students’ misbehaviors if they “break the rules for the first time.” In addition, she also said that she did not want “the whole class atmosphere to be down and waste too much time on dealing with

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misbehaviors.” When it comes to mentioning Student Involvement aspect, she expressed her high consideration towards students’ personal problems. She regarded it as a mean to “encourage students to get over their problems and learn harder.” Besides, according to her viewpoint, teachers should be friendly and demonstrate no distance in communicating with students. By so doing, “students will feel most comfortable and unpressurized. ”In terms of Knowledge aspect, this teacher sometimes disseminates knowledge sufficiently according to the materials without introducing extra content. Furthermore, she does not usually vary in-class activities because “individual work accounts for the majority in [her] classes.”

5. Discussion On the premise of the proportion of Classroom management styles adopted in graders 10-12, it can be seen that each class with the distinctive traits was suitable with one type of class management. The difference in ages and grades had an impact on the choosing class style to control. It was obvious that the students in grades 12th with more experience, mature in psychology, learning autonomy capacity and skills were prone to fit the indulgent management type.

Whereas, the students in 10th grades who were the first-year ones at high school with a lot of difference and strange from the secondary school, needed more care and control from teachers to have a right pathway in learning. As a consequence, the dominant classroom management styles in grades 10 are Authoritative and Authoritarian styles which in turn manifest high expectations of performance from students, enable progress, and respect for students through active listening. The prior classroom styles in grades 12th were indulgent and Authoritative ones. This finding aligns with the studies by Baumrind (1971) and Dunbar (2004). It is consented that teachers should identify the characteristics, psychological features and academic capacity of students to choose a suitable management style in classroom.

As seen from the obtained results, classroom management styles had an impact on the students’ English learning motivation and academic achievement to some extent. In particular, there is a remarkable difference in the scores of pretests and post-tests of the 10th-grade students. It was noticeable that the class managed by authoritative style got higher motivation and better progression than the other styles. It means that the appropriate classroom management had positive effects on student motivation, and their academic achievement, which is in consistent with investigation by Adler (1930) and Dreikurs (1957). They concluded that in a supportive, democratic, and encouraging education environment, students have greater satisfaction and involvement in school with their teachers . As a result, students achieved more success in obtaining the learning goal, in relationship with instructors and participating in academic activities rather than students who have the usual classroom experiences. Obviously, with the encouragement, support and consults from teachers; along with feeling belonging, importance, freedom, and mutual respect in classroom (Djigic & Stojiljkovic, 2011; Dreikurs et al., 2004; Waterman, 2007), the students become willing to be engaged in classroom, capable to complete their homework and other school tasks (Wessler, 2003).

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The findings from the interview reveal that teachers highly evaluate the effect and the importance of classroom management styles in building a positive education environment, boosting motivation and improving academic achievement. Besides, being aware of the role of management in classroom, teachers identified the appropriate strategies to adapt to the particular contexts.

The demands for students’ learning are also changeable according to the level of specific classes.

Moreover, teachers also pay attention to students’ personal problems to help them to overcome the difficulties and tighten the teacher-student relationship.

Maintaining a friendly and mutual-understanding and mutual-respect way of communication with students is always an important criterion to construct a good relationship. In dealing with misbehaviors, teachers need to take students’ attitude into consideration before deciding on what treatment should be given.

In terms of acquiring knowledge, teachers classify students into groups based on the competence to assign the appropriate tasks. By considering the classroom management style as the initial move, teachers may be able to increase students’ motivation in learning, build positive relationships with classmates, and contribute to more effective learning environment.

Results from the present study do not merely inform teachers of their classroom management styles, but it stresses their effect on students’ external motivation to learn English as well. Thus, being aware of the strong and weak aspects of one’s own classroom management style, teachers can consolidate the characteristics beneficial for students’ learning motivation and constrain the detrimental traits also. Although style is determined by many factors including personality, it is still changeable. As the results have shown, Authoritative style is the most fruitful model for encouraging students to learn English. Permissive style is totally harmful to students’ learning impulsion. Hence, it is highly recommended that teachers should adopt Authoritative style and eliminate Permissive style when managing their classrooms. Besides, some positive characteristics of Authoritarian and Indulgent styles should also be taken into consideration. To illustrate, teachers should praise their students when they do tasks rightly or spend time to interact with students in/out of classroom. As can be seen, teachers can make full use of the favorable characteristics of each style in order to be the driving force for students’ learning. In other words, the flexibility in choosing and combining different styles are necessary.

Another matter arising from the result of this study is that whether teachers should employ and enforce a firm rule and discipline system to control students or not. According to many students, this action can be a stimulus for their learning. In contrast, some other students report that it can demotivate them from learning the subject. Obviously, rules and disciplines are essential to keep the class in order, which enables the teaching and learning to happen. In this case, perhaps the students’ individual differences in learning styles are possibly the cause for this phenomenon. Therefore, teachers should study carefully the students’ learning styles to decide how rules and disciplines will be formulated.

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6. Conclusion The general conclusion is that different styles affect student’s English learning motivation and academic achievement in different levels and dimensions. First, Authoritative teachers appear to be the most positively influential factor to students’ learning motivation. This style contributes greatly in driving students to learn the subject, especially when teachers deliver the lessons fluently with modulated voice. However, there is a disagreement between groups of students concerning the impact of rules and disciplines have on students’ English learning motivation. Second, Indulgent classroom management style has been reported as creating both positive and negative effect on students’ learning interest. In general, the negative effect is of greater part. The most negatively influential characteristic of this style is the little control of teachers over in-class activities. The only trait of this style that has enormously positive impact on students’ motivation is teachers’ willingness to interact with students in and out of classroom. Third, Authoritarian style mostly has negative to fair influence on students’ external motivation except for the common characteristics with Authoritative style. Strikingly, a conflict arises between students as to whether teachers’ enforcement of a firm discipline system for misbehaviors could stimulate students to learn English. Lastly, Permissive style is considered to severely affect students’ inspiration for achieving English.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 240-259, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.13

The Use of Indigenous Games to Enhance the Learning of Word Problems in Grade 4 Mathematics: A Case of Kgati Tshele J. Moloi North West University –Potchefstroom Campus https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3533-2852 Moeketsi S. Mosia Sol Plaatje University, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7189-0018 Mogalatjane E. Matabane Sol Plaatje University, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7953-6729 Khanyane T. Sibaya Mafika-Ditshiu Primary School https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0882-2925 Abstract. This paper explores the value of indigenous games in the teaching and learning of word problems in Grade 4 mathematics. In particular, the paper explains how the moves of *kgati (skipping rope) can be used to enhance the teaching and learning of mathematics word problems. Participatory action research (PAR) methodology was used to generate data so as to enable participants to work collaboratively, freely and with confidence. Participants of this study were Grade 4 learners, a head of department, two Grade 4 mathematics teachers, a life skills teacher, a mathematics subject advisor, four parents and three members of the local royal family. The study seeks to answer the question: To what extent can learners use knowledge of the kgati (skipping rope) game to enhance the learning of mathematics word problems?

Community cultural wealth (CCW) theory was employed as a lens that acknowledges the huge wealth of knowledge that participants bring from their homes into the classroom. These forms of capitals include aspirational, navigational, social, linguistic, familial and resistant capital which relate to the knowledge learners bring from home and use to tap into word problems. Critical discourse analysis was used to analyse the words of the research team to reach their deeper meanings. The results of the study indicate that learners can interpret, convert and link their indigenous knowledge with mathematics and improve their understanding of mathematics concepts when indigenous knowledge is ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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incorporated. Incorporating kgati moves to learn word problems significantly improved learners’ creativity and imagination. The study further suggests that learners work better when given opportunities for interactive and collaborative activities that relate to their daily practices.

Keywords: the moves of *kgati, mathematics word problems; community cultural wealth; indigenous knowledge; Eurocentric

1. Introduction Over the past decade, critical scholars have led a paradigm shift in mathematics that seeks to challenge the deficit discourse, the privileged perspective of mathematics, the marginalisation of indigenous knowledge and the mistreatment of black students in mathematics education classrooms, research and society (Wright, 2018; Osibodu, 2020; Moloi, 2013). Learners in the elementary grades (Grades R- 6) learn mathematics word problems more easily and with better understanding when the teaching draws from lived experiences and cultural practices, including indigenous games such as kgati (Chapman, 2006; Rubel, 2017; Hunter & Hunter, 2018). This is affirmed by Nkopodi and Mosimege (2009) who cite morabaraba (board game) and diketo (coordination game) as examples of indigenous games that could assist learners to learn mathematics word problems better and with deeper understanding. In support of this view, Dziva, Mpofu and Kusure (2011) state that using indigenous games to teach mathematics gives learners the opportunity to learn how to link their everyday experiences with mathematics. Cognisant of the foregoing, the researchers confirm that children learn mathematical word problems optimally when their learning is deep-rooted in playful activities, thus using play to learn (Imray & Hinchcliffe, 2013; Young & Murray, 2017; Moro, 2020).

Considering the above, in this study learners were given platforms to translate the knowledge gained from playing the indigenous game kgati into mathematics content and solving word problems. In the context of this paper, the moves of kgati refer to the way learners swing kgati (refer to Figure I) so that it forms two semicircles, the one facing upwards , and the other facing downwards .

Community cultural wealth (CCW) was used as a lens to determine the extent to which the indigenous skills of learners can be used in learning mathematics word problems (Bishop, 1988; Vongai & Elaosi, 2017). The CCW theory suggests “cultural knowledge, skills, abilities and contacts possessed by socially marginalized groups often go unrecognized and unacknowledged” (Yosso, 2005, p. 69).

Participatory action research (PAR) was used as research methodology to generate data and to explore how learners, teachers and other relevant stakeholders could work together and connect indigenous games with the teaching of mathematics word problems. Critical discourse analysis was used as a tool to analyse the texts, spoken words and actions demonstrated by research participants to gain a deeper understanding of their meanings (Filmer, 2015; Van Dijk, 2004). Findings of the study are informed by the literature review and the discussions that relate to observing the moves of kgati.

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2. Background and Literature This study contests the Eurocentric approach to learning mathematics. The phrase ‘Eurocentric approach’ refers to a view that the European culture is preeminent compared to other world cultures, including the African culture (Conrad, 2019; Williams, 2019). The Eurocentric view of mathematics rests on the foundation that Europeans created mathematics and posses superior intellectual ability. As a consequence, this study agrees with Davis (2018, p. 21) that it “misinforms blacks students about their people`s place in the history of mathematics and seek[s] to destroy their racial and mathematics identities”. According to this view, colonised Africans were regarded as empty vessels who could only sustain their livelihood through Western cultural systems and scientific knowledge (Odora Hoppers, 2002; Shonhai, 2016). The European thinking led colonised Africans to believe that their indigenous skills, knowledge and games could only be useful if they were presented as sports, play for enjoyment or fun and physical education to achieve fitness, but not in mathematics (Department of Sport & Recreation, 2017; Dziva et al. 2011). The view also disseminated the idea that colonised Africans could only build their ambitions and futures through modern urban life, not in rural communities where indigenous knowledge is valued and African indigenous games, skills, knowledge and languages are dominant (Kaya & Seleti, 2013; Riffel, 2020). This claim is affirmed by Shizha and Emeagwali (2016) who explain that most oppressed Africans studied through a system that schooled them to view and value African indigenous skills, knowledge and games as irrelevant in a formal system system.

According to Da Silva (FAO, 2015), learners that live in rural areas use the wealth of their cultural and indigenous knowledge to understand the world around them. Lucero (2010) indicates that this wealth of knowledge that sustains the learners is often marginalised in the teaching and learning of mathematics, particularly relating to mathematics word problems. However, Vongai and Elaosi (2017) state that the task-given instructions by teachers should be seen to link mathematics content with cultural knowledge. The Mathematics Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) defines mathematics as a human activity that aims to build relations between physical and social phenomena, and between mathematical objects themselves (Department of Basic Education, 2014). Thus, this definition creates a platform for rural learners’ ways of knowing and learning mathematics word problems to be grounded in their social and physical contexts.

According to Matusov and Marjanovic-Shane (2017), “The modern way, which may soon be upon us, is to let students define what is mathematics means to them or their culture, and to work towards the goal of equality, that happy state when all are satisfied with their level of (self-defined) mathematical understanding”. To this end, the teaching of mathematics which is imbued with learners’ ways of being makes the learning of mathematics word problems to be an exciting and adventurous endeavour of human life. To buttress the foregoing, researchers (Maferetlhane, 2012; Moloi 2015; Vongai & Elaosi, 2017) argue that in decolonising the Western education system, learners could use their social capital and cultural heritage in learning mathematics word sums. This argument is acknowledged by Long and

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Dunne (2014) and Knight (2003), suggesting that incorporating indigenous games into the teaching and learning of mathematics is significant because learners in elementary grades learn through playing. In acknowledging the importance of decolonisation in mathematics education, Nkopodi and Mosimege (2009) incorporated morabaraba, an indigenous game, in the learning of mathematics, and presented information on relevant skills and indigenous knowledge that could be linked with the game; however, they did not incorporate the moves of kgati in their paper. Therefore, using participatory action research, this paper investigated how the moves of kgati could enhance the teaching and learning of mathematics word problems.

3. Problem Statement According to Moloi (2013), one of the reasons for poor performance in mathematics problem solving is the exclusion and marginalisation of the wealth of knowledge learners bring to the classroom. In the same breath, Moloi (2015) and Nabie (2015) posit that mathematics concepts are rooted in indigenous games and human beings have multiple realities of connections with their evironmental settings. This view is also shared by Sepeng (2015) and Knight (2003) when they argue that the mathematics curriculum that is divorced from learners’ lived experience and badly written textbooks are some of the causes of learners’ inability to interpret, convert and link the indigenous games (such as kgati) to word problems. Kavalo (2014) declares that the use of indigenous games to teach mathematics is original and unique, and if utilised within a particular culture and society, would yield great results. This argument links well with epistemological and ontological stances of ethnomathematics in the sense that mathematics acquaintance and realities are co-produced or made meaningful through the interaction between various parties (such as learners and parents) and not limited to teachers. Learners learn word problems when their backgrounds and experiences are considered. Again, ethnomathematics as a research programme is less of a complement to mathematics than a critique of the knowledge that is valorised as being mathematical knowledge. The prefix ‘ethno-‘ shifts mathematics from places where it has been erected and glorified (schools and universities) and spreads it to the world of people, in their diverse cultures and everyday activities.

Thus, ethnomathematics brought to the mathematics education field new and refreshing insights, not just about the local or ethnic mathematics knowledge, but also in terms of historical, philosophical and political approaches involved in mathematics and its education.

Weldeana (2016) contends that ethnomathematics is the way different cultural groups mathematise, that is, different communities can count, measure, relate, sort, compare, infer, hypothesise, problem pose, generalise, communicate, data gather and process, predict, analyse, record, evaluate, verify, and construct. Mathematising is understood as the way marginalised cultural groups use mathematical tools located in the context of their real–life situations to survive (Rosa & Orey, 2016).

In the context of this study, learners can mathematise because they are able to use and unearth mathematical content embedded within kgati. In addition, it can be pointed out that ethnomathematics as a human activity does not subscribe to

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the notion of the Platonist view. Platonists define mathematics as a static discipline which views mathematics as out there waiting to be discovered, where the work of mathematicians resembles a textbook, with no emotions and no signs of human authorship (Gail, 2002).

The Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) suggests that it is important to use learners’ lived experience to make mathematics relevant and interesting. However, there is lack of research on the use of indigenous games to improve the teaching of word problems in mathematics. While Nkopodi and Mosimege (2009) incorporated morabaraba, an indigenous game, in the learning of mathematics, the use of kgati has not been explored.

4. Framework or Lens This study used the community cultural wealth (CCW) theory as a framework to examine the extent to which learners could use knowledge of the indigenous game kgati to enhance the learning of mathematics word problems. Yosso (2005) describes CCW as a theory that addresses the racial and social imbalances between people of the same society or group. Thus, CCW theory offers alternatives to the cultural deficit perspective and serves to “challenge the social injustice that Yosso believes is endemic in schools “(Yosso, 2005, p.12). As argued by Vega (2014: 10), CCW guides teachers to “acknowledge the strength of culturally related attributes, such as bilingual homes and large extended families, instead of seeing those qualities as barriers to success”. By looking through the CCW lens, this study focuses on various forms of capitals, such as aspirational, navigational, social, linguistic, familial, and resistant, which acknowledge the knowledge that learners bring from their homes into the classroom setting. The teaching of word problems tapped into this capital wealth of knowledge which school learners bring from their marginalised communities. Considering aspirational wealth, it entails learners who are determined to master the word problems irrespective of the challenges they are facing. This capital suggests that learners come to school being motivated and eager to learn word problems and not being coerced.

Therefore, it is expected of the mathematics teachers to tap in all these capitals and present word problems in interesting ways.

Navigational capital refers to learners who can maneuver, using various skills to solve word problems. This capital enhances the teaching and learning of word problems. Teachers do not have to take more time to explain ways of solving the word problems as learners already possess this capital. Rather, learners are allowed to discover these ways of learning word problems on their own. On the other hand, social wealth capital allows learners to interact in small groups to learn word problems. By its nature, social capital is manifested when learners network and interact freely in the daily life activities, such as the playing of kgati.

Again, learners express themselves freely in their home languages to describe mathematical concepts with the same ease as they play kgati. This is made possible by the linguistic capital, which embraces intellectual skills and experiences learned at home, multiple language abilities and communication skills. These skills are often used in their daily life activities, for instance, when they play kgati. Furthermore, familial wealth is seen as the cultural knowledge

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developed through interactions with families and friends in sports and social community settings. This mutual interaction by learners is necessary in the fruitful learning of word problems. Lastly, it can be noted that resistant capital enables learners to challenge instances of inequity, unfairness, discrimination, oppression, and marginalisation instituted against them. This capital empowers learners to be alert to the fact that their interpretations and views on word problems should not be suppressed by teachers. Rather their voices and experiences need to be valued in the learning of word problems.

Thus, in the context of this paper, social capital was adopted to show how people networked with other people when observing and identifying mathematical shapes from the moves of kgati. Xenofontos and Papadopoulos (2015) encourage mathematics teachers to acknowledge the teaching of mathematics word sums with activities that will address cultural biases amongst the learners. To buttress the foregoing, Arenas, Reyes and Wyman (2017) argue the use of indigenous knowledge as being powerful and key in acquiring deeper mathematical knowledge.

The CCW theory fits well with the study since it involves parents, teachers and members of the royal family working together with learners, exploring the cultural capital and its relevance to mathematics learning. Lynn (2004) and Yosso (2002; 2005) argue that community cultural wealth acknowledges the cultural knowledges, skills and abilities possessed by learners. In this study, the use of an indigenous game, kgati, in teaching word problem skills in grade 4 mathematics classes is a way of recognising and acknowledging learners’ cultural practices. In addition, Williams (2017) and Ernest (2010) contend that involving parents in the study of mathematics word sums is significant because it helps learners to perform better in the subject. More importantly, learners are excited at seeing parents and teachers working together to connect mathematics lessons taught at school with what learners and parents know and do at home.

5. Conceptual Framework Guiding the Study The paper adopted ethnomathematics as the conceptual framework in enhancing the teaching and learning of word problems. According to Mukhopadhyay (2013), ethnomathematics is an instructional approach integrating significant cultural mathematics artefacts into the learning of mathematics. It provides learners with the opportunities to make sense of the mathematical concepts using personal experiences and cultural wealth. For instance, the moves of kgati are rich in mathematical concepts such as geometric figures, fractions, and word sums. Learners are more able to invent solutions than being taught how to find solutions to mathematics activities (D‘Ambrosio, 2009). Again, ethnomathematics is appropriate to this paper as it affirms the marginalised knowledge that learners bring to school. Learners bring a huge wealth of knowledge which is rich in understanding mathematical content areas.

More often than not this knowledge that learners have is sidelined in the teaching of mathematics word problems. Ethnomathematics as the conceptual framework can be used to enhance the teaching and learning of mathematical

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concepts in cultural and social contexts. Cultural and social contexts also embrace the playing of kgati and many other indigenous games.

6. Methodology and Design In this qualitative case study, participatory action research (PAR) methodology was used as a tool to respond to the question: To what extent can learners use knowledge of indigenous game kgati to enhance the learning of mathematics words problems? PAR supports the research question in the sense that PAR encourages collaboration and sharing of ideas among learners in learning word problems. PAR, as an approach, mends social injustice between researchers and research participants, that is, it frees every participant to take ownership in the learning of mathematics word problems (Hertz-Lazarowitz, Zelnike & Azaiza, 2010). Moreover, PAR as a methodology aligns very well with CCW as they both enable active participation from the marginalised groups. De Palma (2010) argues that PAR is an approach that unites learners from different cultural backgrounds and beliefs so that they consider mathematics word problems and think critically to interpret and solve them.

The researchers worked with a team of Grade 4 learners at a school located in the rural area of QwaQwa, in the Thabo Mofutsanyana District in the Free State Province, South Africa. The school was chosen because of its geographical position, in a deep rural village where indigenous games are played as part of extra-mural activities. The whole Grade 4 class of 35 learners volunteered to be part of this research study as most of them had not performed well in mathematics word sums in previous grades. Most of the learners view mathematics as a ‘dull, boring subject’ to learn, and as having little application to the outside world (Weldeana, 2015). As such, they were very excited to hear indigenous games that they know very well would be used to teach mathematics word problems. The rest of the team that volunteered to participate in the study were the head of department for mathematics, two Grade 4 mathematics teachers, one life skills teacher, one district official from the Department of Basic Education (DBE), and three members of the local royal family. The Free State Department of Education and the school principal gave permission for this research project to commence, and parents signed consent forms on behalf of the learners to take part in the research project.

6.1 Data Collection and Analysis In collecting data for the study, the research team used the moves of kgati to teach mathematics word problems by encouraging learners to make mathematical observations while playing this indigenous game, namely kgati (Figure 1).

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Figure 1: Kgati, a rope-jumping game

Figure 1 shows learners playing kgati, an indigenous game, while others observe its moves. According to Moloi (2015), learners can learn multiple realities from playing indigenous games. For the first stage of the lesson, the focus was to observe the moves of kgati and determine which geometric shapes were being formulated with the aim of interpreting, converting and integrating them into mathematics word problems. The moves of kgati refer to the way the rope changes shape when it moves, for example, when it swings down for the first time and touches the ground to form a loop that faces upwards, and when it swings up for the first time and weaves in the air to form another loop facing downwards.

The second stage of the lesson was about discussions and analysis of the observations. Critical discourse analysis was used to analyse what was observed, and to identify power balances (discursive practice) and social inclusion (social practice), especially where some learners were given a platform to demontrate the moves of kgati, while teachers, other learners and the rest of team members observed the moves of kgati.

Two groups selected from the research team, namely Group A and Group B, identified mathematics shapes from the moves of kgati. Each group was represented by two learners, one as the reporter and the other one as the coordinator. The task given to these groups was to observe a game and identify which kgati moves were identical to geometric shapes during a first swing, a second swing, as well as a third swing of the game. Group A volunteered to present and reflect on the first swing, Group B on the second swing, and a parent volunteered to reflect on the third swing. The groups observed the second movement of the rope, when it weaved in the air for the first time and formed a loop facing downwards The last stage of the lesson was guided by a worksheet to show how the loop facing up and the loop facing down, which together form a full circle, could be converted and interpreted into geometric and numeric patterns to make sense of the learning of mathematics word problems for learners in elementary grades.

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Worksheet This part of the lesson was presented by Mr Dintwe (not his real name) (the mathematics subject advisor) in the form of a table on behalf of the team. The presentations were made as follows: Our table below presents four columns, of which the first column is used to represent the number of swings made by kgati (the skipping rope) (e.g., 1 representing one swing). In the second column, geometric patterns (e.g., ) are presented, indicating the type of shapes created from observing the moves of kgati. The third column presents the number patterns (e.g., 1= ½ + ½) formulated from observing geometric patterns in the second column. In the last column, word problems are created (e.g., one full swing is a half loop of the rope facing upwards, plus a half loop of the rope facing downwards). From observing the number of swings made by the rope in the first column, geometric patterns have been formulated in the second column and numeric patterns in the third column.

Table 1: Techniques of presenting kgati moves as a way to enhance learning of word problems No. full swings

1

Geometric pattern

Numeric pattern

 = 

1= ½ + ½

Mathematical word problem created

One full swing is half a loop of the rope facing upwards plus half a loop of the rope facing downwards.

2 3

The table presented by Mr Dintwe on behalf of the team was intended to show whether learners would be able to convert geometric patterns (patterns presented in the form of shapes) and numeric patterns (patterns presented in the form of numbers) into mathematics word problems and interpret them. Another objective was to show the interdependent nature of columns in the table (how columns depend on each other). For this reason, learners were given a platform to complete the table. Morwesi and Thabo volunteered to complete the table.

Morwesi started to complete the first part, where there were two full swings, while Thabo completed the second part where the number of swings given was three.Their responses were as follows:

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Table 2: Morwesi’s response

Table 2 shows the voluntary response of Morwesi. When learners were given a platform to complete the table, Morwesi volunteered to complete the first part, involving two swings. She attempted to determine the geometric pattern and numeric pattern from the number of swings given in the first column so as to create mathematics word problems. She first attempted to determine the geometric pattern in the second column, then she noted the number of swings in the first column( two swings), and the example. From the example, she learnt that one full swing was equal to one full circle, which equated to two half circles.

Then, from this example, she reached the conclusion that two full swings would be determined by drawing two full circles, of which one could be equated to two half circles (one facing up and one facing down).

Her second attempt was to determine the numeric pattern. In determining the numeric pattern, she observed from the geometric pattern that two shapes had been formed from the number of swings in the first column, and each was equated to two halves. Then she drew and added two cirlces together, of which each equated to two halves. In her last attempt, she looked at the numeric pattern and found that the best way to create a word problem was to convert numeric patterns into mathematics word problems. Therefore, the number 2 was converted or written in word form, as two full swings, and equated to four halves in words. Nabie (2015) confirms that mathematics concepts are rooted in indigenous games.

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Table 3: Thabo’s response

Table 3 shows the responses made voluntarily by Thabo. When learners were given a platform to complete the table, Thabo volunteered to complete the first part where the given number of swings was three. He attempted to determine the geometric pattern and numeric pattern from the number of swings that was given in the first column so as to ultimately create a mathematics word problem.

In his first attempt to determine the geometric pattern in the second column, he observed the number of swings in the first column (three swings), and the example. From the example, he learnt that one full swing was equal to one full circle, which equated to two half circles. Then, from this example, he drew the conclusion that three full swings would be determined by drawing three full circles, of which one could be equated to two half circles (one facing up and one facing down).

His second attempt was to determine the numeric pattern. In determining the numeric pattern, he observed from the geometric pattern that three shapes had been formed from the number of swings in the first column. Then he equated one full swing to two halves in each case in order to have three full swings, of which each one was equated to two halves. In his last attempt, he considered the numeric pattern and found that the best way to create a mathematics word problem was to convert or write the numeric pattern into mathematics word problem form. So, the number 3 was converted or written in word form as two full swings and equated to four halves in words. So, the number 3 was converted or written in word form as three full swings equated to six halves, also written in words. Moloi (2014) highlights that mathematics problem-solving, like all other forms of knowledge, is rooted in indigenous games and located within cultural contexts.

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6.2 Lesson Reflections The mathematics teacher facilitated the discussions during the reflections phase.

The focus was on to what extent learners used knowledge of indigenous games to enhance the learning of mathematics words problems. If not, the teachers and other research participants are able to clarify misconceptions that might arise.

Learners from Group A and Group B shared their experiences and lessons learned with other groups. It was important to do the reflection so that learners gained different perspectives in understanding word problems. Also, they had an opportunity to ask questions and gain a deeper understanding of mathematics word problems using the moves of kgati.

Thus, this is in line with PAR principles, which suggest that opportunities need to be created for learners to share their expertise and make decisions together.

Once again, this action allows learners to have ownership of the mathematical content presented.

First swing The group observed the first movement of the rope when it touched the ground to form a loop facing upwards. During the observation time and identification time, Morwesi (not a real name) (a learner who served as group coordinator and reporter) articulated the following on behalf of Group A: Ka tlwaelo kgati e bapallwa for boithabiso, re thabela ho ithuta hore e bapala karolo ya bohlokwa dipalong [normally, the kgati game is played for enjoyment; now we learn that the game can be used to learn mathematics]. Jwale, hare tadima se etsuwang ke kgati mona re hlokomela hore ha sedikadikwe se ka tlase se ama lefasthe, re ipopela setshwantsho sa thapo ya sedikadikwe se shebileng hodimo.

[Now, when we observe the moves of kgati, we discover that, whenever a first swing is done, the rope touches the ground and forms a loop facing up]. Ho ya ka rona sedikadikwe sena ka dipalo ke sekele e hafo e shebileng hodimo [In our understanding, in mathematics, the loop facing up is called a half circle facing up].

The word, ‘normally’ denotes that it was a norm or a habit of the group that learners played kgati for enjoyment, but this changed when the group discovererd that mathematics could also be learnt through the moves of kgati.

This realisation is affirmed by Knight (2003), who claims that there are multiple ways of learning mathematics, particularly mathematics word problems. The use of the pronoun ‘we’ in the passage suggests, furthermore, balanced power relations amongst the members of the team because a learner was given a platform to report and coordinate the team’s research proceedings, some team members observed and identified the moves that resembled mathematics shapes while others demonstrated the moves of kgati. This venture helped them because the team realised that, when the rope swings down and touches the gound, a shape in the form of a loop facing upwards was formed; then they realised that, from that shape, a geometric shape was formed (i.e. semicircle facing upwards).

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In summary, learners learn that when the rope swings up for the first time and touches the ground, a  shape is formed. So, mathematically, this  shape is said to be a semi-circle facing upwards. This shape forms part of a full cirlce. The team learnt that mathematical shapes can be learnt from a cultural environment, such as the moves of kgati. Thus learners were able to solve problems in context involving common fractions and the addition of fractions with the same denominator to obtain a whole number.

Second swing During the observation and identification time, Morena (not a real name) (a learner who served as a group coordinator and reporter) articulated the following on behalf of Group B: Ka kutwisiso ya rona sedikadikwe sena se bopa mofuta wa serkele of shebileng fatshe [In our understanding, this loop forms a kind of a circle facing down]. Mofuta ona wa serkele ka dipalo re utwisisa hore ke halofo ya serkele e shebileng fatshe [We learn in mathematics that this type of loop facing down is a half circle facing down].

The word ‘our’ from the above passage denotes that the research activity was owned by the entire team. This was clear when the research activities were shared fairly amongst the members of the team. For example, three learners were given opportunities to demonstrate how the game was played, others observed and identified mathematical shapes in the moves of kgati, while one learner coordinated and reported the moves on behalf of the entire team. This coorperative work was in line with PAR. According to Vongai and Elaosi( 2017), one of the principles of PAR is to allow people to work together in order to attain common goals. One of the goals pursued by this study was to see the team exploring what mathematical shapes could be formed by the moves of kgati. This was done because the team noticed that, whenever the rope weaved up in the air, it formed a loop facing down, and from that loop, they deduced that a semicircle facing downwards was formed.

Furthermore, the word ‘we’ indicates that social inclusion was practised fairly in the study and amongst the team members. This practice was observed during the research proceedings when all participants were given platforms to take part in the lesson. They had been selected from different walks of life with the intention to share the indigenous knowledge they possessed to make this study a success.

In summary, learners learn that when the rope swings up for the second time, a semicircle facing down  is formed. The moves of kgati enable learners to fulfill Grade 4 mathematics curriculum content specifications, that is to recognise, visualise and name 2-D shapes in real-life contexts.

Third swing The groups observed what type of shape was formed when the first swing and second swing were pooled. During the observation and identification time,

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Ntate Mokoena (a parent who served as a group coordinator and reporter) articulated the following on behalf of the entire team: Re hlokomela hore ha re kopanya sedikadikwe sa pele se shebileng hodimo mmoho le se shebileng fatshe se bopa serkele e felletseng [We observed that, when we put or combine the loop facing up together with the loop facing down, the two loops form a full circle].

The phrase “sedikadikwe sa pele se shebileng hodimo [loop facing up]” demonstrates that familial and linguist capitals are very rich in explaining mathematical concepts to learners. The way they talk shows that there are many mathematical concepts embedded within their home language.

Again, the word ‘we’ denotes that it was the efforts of the whole team that determined that, when they combined the semicircle facing up  with the semicircle facing down , a full circle  was formed. This type of collaborative effort by the team was similar to that of the teams involved in analysing the other two moves, as described above. Therefore, we can conclude that the entire team learnt that a full circle is formed when the loop facing up is connected with the loop facing down, as can be seen in the indigenous game of kgati. In addition, the team realised that their linguistic capital is very rich in describing mathematical concepts and this brings a deeper undestanding of word problems.

7. Findings The findings of this study reveal that learners were able to identify mathematical shapes such as circles and semi-circles from the moves of kgati, and were able to interpret, convert and link the shapes to word problems. Learners were able to use the indigeneous knowledge gained by playing and observing moves of kgati to interpret and understand mathematics word problems relating to the geometrical shapes that they observed from the kgati moves. The familial capital (for instance, community history of interactions through sports activities) and linguistic capital (such as Sesotho and Setswana languages learners learnt from home to describe geometric shapes illustrated by kgati) possessed by the team members assisted them to extrapolate mathematical concepts embedded within the movement of kgati.

The study highligted the interdependent nature of the columns in Table 1 as of vital importance. Because the columns were independent, learners could count the number of swings given in the first column to determine or draw the number of geometric shapes or the shapes needed in the second column. By determining these numeric patterns, participants had to observe geometric shapes formed from the second column count and convert them into the numeric patterns (patterns in the form of numbers). Lastly, by creating mathematics word problems, they had to reflect back on the numeric patterns they had formulated in the third column, and write mathematical sentences or statements linking to those numbers.

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8. Study Limitations The study noted some limitations. Firstly, the use of kgati gave learners an understanding of circles and semi-circles but not of other geometrical figures.

1 Secondly, the different swings of kgati yield few specific fractions (2) and not 1

5

others like (4) , (8). Thirdly, adding fractions from different swings only gave learners the opportunty to add fractions with same demoninator.

9. Conclusion In responding to the research question regarding the extent to which learners can use knowledge of the kgati game to enhance the learning of mathematics words problems, the study contends that, while indigenous knowledge and games were being neglected, or less used, learners explored the value of the kgati game as dynamic. This was seen during the observation, identification and interpretation when the learners formulated mathematical shapes from the moves of kgati through discussions of swings, namely, a first swing, a second swing and a third swing. In the first swing, a geometric shape of a semicircle facing up was formed; in the second swing, a geometric shape of a semicircle facing down was formed; then, in the third swing, two semicircles (the one facing up and the one facing down) were joined together to form a full circle.

The linguistic capital that learners possess (indigenous languages and Sesotho) embraces mathematical concepts. For instance,”ha sedikadikwe se ka tlase se ama lefasthe, re ipopela setshwantsho sa thapo ya sedikadikwe se shebileng hodimo”, mathematically they visualise a semicircle facing upwards. Actually, through their indigenous languages, learners constructed word problems of which they were also able to figure out the graphical representations. Furthermore, these graphical reprensations could be described numerically.

Finally, the study noted part of the knowledge-conveyed-area of the curriculum.

The knowledge-conveyed-area refers to the part of school-based assessment whereby learners are given platforms to introduce , convey and link indigenous knowledge, skills and games they may be aware of with mathematics in free learning spaces. By doing so, the Department of Basic Education (DBE, 2011) declares they will see the beauty of mathematics and learn school mathematics at grade 4 level better, and with understanding. Learners are able to realise that the playing of kgati improves their understanding and appreciation of patterns as well as the beauty of mathematics in natural and cultural forms. It is noted that ethnomathematics serves as a transformative played-based teaching strategy that enhances the learning of word problems. Ethnomathematics as the tranformative play-based teaching strategy integrates the play of kgati into school mathematics that provides learners with a deep understanding of word problems. Also, it gives learners opportunities to make sense of word problems by using their background and personal experiences. It is recommended that indigenous games be a critical element element in the process of learning mathematics word problems. Shizha and Emeagwali (2016) acknowledge them as imperative because the knowledge used is original and initiated by colonised African ancestors as the way of knowing and did not necessarily begin with the coming of colonial Western systems.

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* Footnote: Kgati (A rope-jumping game or skipping rope game): This kind of indigenous game is played on open ground with an even, hard surface. The skipping rope swing freely and the players should be able to jump over it with ease. Two players are chosen to swing the rope. They take up position opposite each other. The two players swing the rope to form a loop and swing it low across the surface of the ground. The other player(s) jump over the rope when it reaches the lowest point (Department of Sports and Recreation, 2006).

10. References Arenas, A., Reyes, I., & Wyman, L. (2017). When indigenous and modern education collide. In J. Zajda & K. Freeman (Eds.), Race, ethnicity and gender in education.

Cross-cultural understandings. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9739-3_4 Bishop, A. J. (1988). Mathematics education and its cultural context. Educational Studies in Mathematics, Mathematics Education and Culture, 19(2), 79-191.

Chapman, O. (2006). Classroom practices for context of mathematics word problems. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 62(2), 211-230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-006-7834-1 Chimuka, A. (2017). The effect of integration of Geogebra software in the teaching of circle geometry on Grade 11 students’ achievement [Master’s thesis]. University of South Africa.

Conrad, J. (2019). The big history project and colonizing knowledges in world history curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 51(1), 1-20. doi:10.1080/00220272.2018.1493143 Cooper, C. R., Gonzalez, E., & Wilson, A. R. (2014). Identities, cultures & schooling: How students navigate racial-ethnic, indigenous immigrant, social class & gender identities on their pathways through school. In K.C. Mclean & M. Syed (Eds.).

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Appendix 1. Ethical Clearance

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 260-274, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.14

Promoting Learning-Purpose Communication Cases in Development of FL Specialism Communicative Competencies in EL Teacher Students Anna I. Nabok Academy of the State Penitentiary Service, Chernihiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3696-9505 Oleh S. Komar Pavlo Tychyna Uman State Pedagogical University, Uman, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8071-3905 Oksana V. Yasinska Lesya Ukrainka Eastern European National University, Lutsk, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6902-6079 Oksana M. Radavska Lesya Ukrainka Eastern European National University, Lutsk, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9656-5246 Nataliia M. Slipachuk Kamianets-Podilskyi National Ivan Ohiienko University, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6504-3827

Abstract. The purpose of the study was to identify how promoting learning-purpose communication cases impacts students’ communication competencies, and how this instructional model is perceived by the sampled students. 163 (119 students and 44 lecturers) from the Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University and Drahomanov National Pedagogical University were the participants used in this study. The study integrated quantitative and qualitative methods for data collection. The instruments for the study were: the ESP test, the originally designed baseline study questionnaire, teacher and studentpeer observation checklists, the Mental Speed Test, the originally designed self-reflection scale, and focussed group interview. The latter was administered to identify the perception of this instructional model by both students and teachers. The study found that the instructional model positively influences students’ specialism purpose foreign language communicative competencies mainly in spoken production and spoken interaction, information processing speed, and selfreflection abilities. The results of the baseline study survey indicated that both teachers and students associated the concept of communicative ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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competence and focused their efforts on teaching/learning grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation in the ESP course. The results also revealed the feasibility of the instructional model used in the study. The interviewed students’ judgments of the course delivery model were also complimentary, wherein the majority of the respondents appreciated the ESP classes based on promoting learning-purpose communication cases.

Keywords: Higher education; pre-service teachers; learning-purpose communication cases; foreign language communicative

1. Introduction Developing of the specialism purposes foreign language communicative competencies in the ESP (English for Specific Purposes) context among foreign language students and stressing its role among teachers is a challenging and multi-dimensional process that combines many contexts, influences, and approaches to help students achieve foreign language proficiency (Whyte, 2019).

Different methods, strategies, and approaches are used to instruct communicative competencies namely: task-based instruction, the problemsolving approach, the context-based approach, Data-Driven Learning (DDL) approach, simulations, role-plays, project-based teaching, inquiry-promoting teaching strategy, and case-studies (Anthony, 2018; Shernazarova, 2019; Wozniak, 2017). Specifically, Roell (2019) emphasises on the benefits of casestudies in developing foreign language communication skills as these are useful and aimed at engaging students in situation-based spoken interactions. More than that, promoting learning-purpose communication cases (PLCCs) seems to be an integrated instructional design model that uses all methods mentioned, and that has a greater potential in training the specialism purposes foreign language communicative competencies. The reason for this is that PLCCs are flexible in updating content, structure, and instruction methods. Besides, PLCCs establish cross-disciplinary connections, illustrate the cause-effect relationship, influence students’ communicative behaviours, and they are based on the trueto-life situations that assist learners to use of the authentic (not memorised) language. However, the overall ESP teaching methodology is still disintegrated, as it relies on training skills using the methods, strategies and approaches separately (Deyrich & Stunnel, 2014).

2. Literature Review The ways of communicative competence development are discussed in the scientific literature based on the perspective of reliance on their intentions and experiences which are difficult to specify and categorise (Alami, 2014).These intentions and experiences can be of social, occupational, educational or personal nature and those intentions and experiences should be influenced comprehensively through the ‘learner-friendly’ context (Council of Europe, 2001).The use of communication scenarios in ESP teaching is found efficient in engaging students in spoken contextualised interaction (McFarlane, 2015). The instructors can benefit from them in being effective pedagogical tools that combine learning outcomes with teaching objectives (Luptakova & Selesova, 2016). Accordingly, communicative competence covers three key competencies

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namely: linguistic competence (grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation), sociolinguistic competence (community values, rules, and culture), and pragmatic competence (application of the above components) (Abdulrahman & Ayyash, 2019). In the current study, the essence of communicative competence is interpreted as an integrated account of linguistic, sociolinguistic, and pragmatic knowledge, skills, and personal traits that are applied in the context of the students’ professional field. This notion aligns with Sato (2013), Dubow and Gundermann (2017), and Kolodii (2019) who emphasise the situational nature and purpose of the communicative competence. With regard to the above stated, promoting communicative competence in the ESP training is important from the instructional perspective, and therefore the present paper aims to: 1- Identify how learning-purpose communication cases influence students’ communication competencies; and 2) Learn about students’ perceptions as to this instructional model.

Based on the above objectives, the researchers hypothesise that: H0: There is no dependence of the improvement of students’ communication competencies on the participation of the sampled students in the communication cases-based ESP course.

H1: There is a dependence of the improvement of students’ communication competencies on the participation of the sampled students in the communication cases-based ESP course.

3. Methodology 3.1. Research Design The research relies on the pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design because it is found more advantageous in terms of ensuring the validity of the results (Price, 2017). The Study took place on November 2019 and lasted to the end of September 2020. It was organised as a sequence of four phases: baseline study, a pre-intervention, while-intervention, and post-intervention phases (see Figure 1). To begin with, the purpose of the baseline study was to identify how the students and teachers understand the concept of “communicative competence” and what competencies it covers. A pre-intervention phase was dedicated to designing the cases, reshaping the ESP course syllabus, sampling, and pretreatment measurements. It was also designed to identify the sample homogeneity, data collection tools and evaluation of their credibility and eligibility, and a research plan. In the while-intervention phase, however, the intervention was administered through the delivery of promoting learningpurpose communication cases, and in the post-treatment phase, the repeated measurements are administered to collect the intended data. These were followed by the focus group interview, and data were processed and recommendations were produced as well.

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Baseline study • Survey to identify how the students and teachers understand the concept of “a communicative competence”.

Pre-intervention phase • Design of the cases, reshaping the ESP course syllabus • Sampling • Pre-treatment measurements to identify the sample homogeneity • Data collection tools design and evaluation of their credibility and eligibility • Design a research plan

While-intervation phase • Delivery of the promoting learning-purpose communication cases • Observation data collection

Post-intervention phase • Repeated measurements • Data consolidation Focus group interview • Data processing • Producing recommendations

Figure 1: The research pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design of a combination design type

3.2. Description of the Intervention The PLCCs were designed as a structured combination of six interconnected components, namely: a concept introducing unit which is inquiry perspectivedriven, a reflective component, a consolidation component, an information inquiry-stimulating component, a skills training unit, and a teacher guide (see Figure 2). The typical flow of the phases was as follows: 1) Introduction of the concept (see, for instance, Lesson plan 3 which is accessed via the link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/19Xyq3jsxEsWXwzp8v2U9b5E4oEJdF2E1/vie w?usp=sharin ; 2) Case-studies (see some examples via the link: https://www.eria.org/publications/economic-consequences-of-globalisationcase-study-of-thailand/ (ERIA, 2019); 2)http://ekmair.ukma.edu.ua/bitstream/handle/123456789/15748/Abakumov a_Economic_growth_globalization_and_income_inequality.pdf?sequence=1&is Allowed=y (Abakumova & Primierova, 2018); 3) Progress self-check: the example of this can be accessed via the link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1r7kW7Qo3iwN1_JsHsvaEEALr0gn9pQ0c/vi ew?usp=sharin; 4) Assignment to write a solution to the problem essay or holding a debate (discussion); 5) Research assignments followed by writing a report or delivering a presentation or participating in the discussion; 6) “mistakes-to-be-corrected” drills or student-tailored skills training assignments.

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Consolidation component - a

Reflective component -

description of the actions taken to resolve the problem and an assessment of the consequences of the decisionmaker's step

Information inquirystimulating component -

search the facts and statistics that caused the problem situation

self-monitoring and selfevaluating of actions and performance

Concept introducing unit - brief

outline of the situation, including letters, audio or video materials

Skills training unit drills and activities to further trainn the skills

Promoting Learningpurpose Communication Cases

Teacher guide - lesson plans and materials for lecturers

Figure 2: Structure of the promoting learning-purpose communication cases

3.3. Sampling The undergraduate students from BorysGrinchenko Kyiv University and Drahomanov National Pedagogical University were the population for the study. Two sampling methods were employed at different phases of the study.

First, the random sampling was utilised to select 163 respondents (119 students and 44 lecturers) for the baseline study survey and 11 students of the experimental group (EG) for the focus group interview. The convenience sampling method was used to form the EG and the control group (CG). Both groups were meant to be mutually homogeneous since they were subject to obtain a degree in the same specialism (Levy & Lemeshow, 2011). Additionally, the Mean grades obtained from the ESP test was approximately similar (73%, ECTS) which indicated that students were homogeneous and the sample was reliable for this study.

The EG group consisted of 24 students (6 males aged 20-21 and 18 females aged 20-21) majoring in English language teaching and seeking a Bachelor’s degree at BorysGrinchenko Kyiv University, Ukraine. Whereas, the CG included 22 students (8 males aged 20-21 and 14 females aged 20-21) majoring in English language teaching and seeking a Bachelor’s degree at Drahomanov National Pedagogical University, Ukraine.

3.4. Research Methods and Data Collection Instruments Both quantitative and qualitative data methods were used in this study. Data on specialism purpose foreign language communicative competencies including: spoken production and spoken interaction, information processing speed, and self-reflection abilities were actually measured by means of pretest-posttest. The ESP test was also used to identify students’ level on the English Language before and after the treatment. Several statistical tools were used to collect data,

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namely: the originally designed baseline study questionnaire (See Appendix A), teacher and student-peer observation checklists to assess the students’ communication fluency (See Appendix B), the Mental Speed Test (MST) (Version 1), which can be accessed via the link: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/tests/iq/mental-speed-test-version-1, to measure the students’ information processing speed and the originally designed self-reflection scale to measure the students’ self-reflection abilities (See Appendix C). A focus group interview was administered to identify students’ and teachers’ perceptions towards the instructional model (See Appendix D). The following sub-sections explain each research instrument and the methods the investigators used to validate the gathered data.

3.4.1. The ESP Test. The test comprised of three sections which are: reading comprehension, structure, and compositional analysis, whereas the speaking skills were tested orally. Each section covered 20 questions (a total of 60 questions). The test was piloted and DIF and DTF methods were used to analyse its validity and reliability. The questions that show DIF were identified using the Lord’s Chi-square DIF method giving α value 0.01 (α - significance level), and the threshold which was 8.932. The impacts of DIF items on the test scores were analysed using the Mantel-Haenszel/Liu-Agresti DTF method. The items with the values drawn from the DTF that were higher than 0.14 were considered sufficient for the final ESP test version.

3.4.2. The Baseline Study Questionnaire. It was a structured survey questionnaire consisting of nine items to rate using 5-point Likert Scale. It covered linguistic and extra-linguistic dimensions of communicative competence such as overall fluency and interaction (strategic) skills along with linguistic and lingua-professional skills and abilities. The content of the questionnaire was validated by the team members.

3.4.3. The Teacher and Student-peer Observation Checklist on Using English as a Medium of Communication. The checklist relies on ten questions using a fivepoint Likert performance rating scale. The teachers rated their students’ spoken production and spoken interaction in the classes using the values that ranged from 1=Bad performance to 5=Excellent performance. To validate the checklist, it was reviewed by a panel of three experts, in which the first expert was a CELTA-certified English Language Teacher, the second expert was a Ph.D. holder on Pedagogic, and the third expert had a background in Statistics. Every expert first assessed the clarity, significance, and concreteness of the questions applying a four-point-based rating scale with the values from 1 = ‘not clear’ or ‘not concrete’ or ‘not substantial’ up to 4 = ‘totally clear’ or ‘absolutely concrete’ or ‘very substantial’. The content validity index (CVI) of each item was then calculated as recommended by Yusoff (2019). When the CVI was higher than 2.90 (72.5%), it is therefore considered adequate for the item to be included in the checklist. The final validation of the questionnaire was performed during the panel meeting which was followed by the coding procedure as recommended by Veal and Darcy (2017).

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3.4.4. The Mental Speed Test. The MST is a 5-minute test that can be accessed via the link: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/tests/iq/mental-speed-testversion-1/. It assesses the test siter’s mental speed in terms of information processing and decision-making. The test consists of 41 questions that use pairs of words vs images, mathematical equations, or number sequences. The test uses a binary scale for the respondent to decide whether the answer is “Correct” or “Incorrect”. The test was found to be reliable by an expert in psychology with a Ph.D. degree.

3.4.5. The Self-Reflection Scale. The scale encompassed three subscales; awareness, desire, and involvement. It includes 15 items. The content of the scale was validated by the team members and the hired expert with a Ph.D in Psychology. The construct validity evaluation was performed with confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory factor analysis (EFA).The Chi-square test χ2 based on the comparative fit index (CFI), goodness-of-fit index (GFI), standardised root mean square residual (SRMR) and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) are used to compute the fitness of the scale. The thresholds indices such as p-value of χ2> .05, CFI > .95, TLI > .95, RMSEA < .08, and SRMR < .08 were considered to be of satisfactory fit for this instrument, as claimed by Kline (2016). Accordingly, the above values were sufficient to decide that the scale was valid. Following that, the randomly selected students were required to complete the questionnaire twice in hope to monitor the questionnaire test-retest reliability. The internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the scale were measured by computing Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. This was then followed by the calculation of the interclass correlation coefficient (ICC). The value which was more than 0.70 for Cronbach's alpha and ICC were regarded as sufficient.

3.4.6. The Focus Group Interview Questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of 4 open-ended questions arranged step-wise as recommended by Krueger & Casey (2015). More explicitly, it enclosed four purposeful questions: an exploring general impression question, two reflective questions for identifying positive and negative respondents’ experiences, and an ending question to identify the interviewees’ perceptions and encourage them to make suggestions of how to improve the intervention. Three randomly selected volunteer lecturers interview the respondents individually. One interview lasted approximately 30 minutes as the interviewees could be asked follow-up questions to clarify their ideas. The interview was recorded and then made textualised to be further analysed to specify the topics. Concurrently, the Raven’s Eye software (https://ravens-eye.net/) was utilised to categorise and code the responses. The Raven’s Eye software is considered a reliable instrument to analyse qualitative data for the research purpose (Kunal, 2020).

4. Results The results are presented in three main parts such as a baseline study, intervention, and focus group interview. Primarily, the data yielded from pretest and posttest measurements showed that promoting learning-purpose communication cases positively influence students’ communication

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competencies, and the instructional model was hence positively perceived by the students.

4.1. The Results of the Baseline Study Survey The respondents were supposed to rate each specified feature of the communicative competence (CC) using the 5-point Likert importance scale to explore the understanding of the CC concept by both students and lecturers (teachers). As can be seen in Figure 3, the CC concept was mainly associated among the respondents with linguistic knowledge features such as accuracy in grammar, pronunciation, and use of language (vocabulary), and the abilities to comprehend what others say. They considered the ability to interact verbally and in writing, the ability to deliver the message clearly, and abilities and skills to establish rapport, use empathy, engage in conversation, and manage time as secondary skills as to CC. The features such as the appropriate and relevant demeanour, non-verbal behaviour, and abilities to use discourse strategies relevantly were given third priority by the respondents.

Communication competence features Abilities to comprehend what others say Accuracy in grammar, pronunciation, and use…

Abilities and skills to establish rapport, use…

Abilities to interact verbally and in writing Abilities to use discourse strategies relevantly The skills of using questioning techniques

Occupational knowledge background Appropriate and relevant demeanor, non-…

Ability to deliver the message clearly

0

1

2

3

4

5

5-point Likert Importance Scale

Figure 3: Distribution of respondents’ judgements on the importance of the features of the communication competence

The results in Figure 3 suggested that both teachers and students focused their efforts on teaching/learning grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation in the ESP course. The results proved the feasibility of the instructional model used in the study.

The consolidated results were obtained from the pretest-posttest measurements using teacher and student-peer observation checklists (TSOC), the Mental Speed Test (MST), and the self-reflection scale (SRC). The Paired T-Test Calculator which is accessed via the link: https://www.statskingdom.com/160MeanT2pair.html, was used to make measurements in the EG and CG (Table 1).

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Table 1: The results drawn from a Paired sample T-test Mean SD B A B A EG = 24 3.56 4.15 0.46 0.41 CG = 22 3.57 3.77 0.44 0.40 Note: B-Before; A-After; d - effect size.

Group

Normality 𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.2591 0.00002925

𝑡 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 3.5886 0.7056

𝑑 0.73 0.15

𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.001553 0.4882

4.2 Validation of the Results Obtained from a Paired Sample T-test, Using T Distribution (DF=23 for EG and DF=21 for CG) (two-tailed) The p-value equals 0.001553 for the EG and 0.7056 for the CG. It means for the EG that the chance of type1 error (rejecting a correct H 0) is small: 0.001553 (0.16%), and therefore the p-value supports H1. In the CG, it indicates that the chance of type I error, rejecting a correct H0, is too high: 0.4882 (48.82%).The test statistic T equals 3.5886 for the EG and 0.7056 for the CG, which is not in the 95%region of acceptance: [-2.0687:2.0687], and the x=0.48 is not in the 95%region of acceptance: [-0.2786: 0.2786]. The standard deviation of the difference, S' equals 0.135 (EG) and 0.277 (CG), is used to calculate the statistics.

The observed effect size 𝑑 in the EG is large (0.73), while it is small in the CG (0.15). This points out that for the EG, the magnitude of the difference between the average and μ0 is large, and for the CG is small. The values imply that there was an improvement in communication competence, information processing speed, and self-reflection abilities in both EG and CG students. However, the effect size in the EG was by far higher (0.58 points) than in the CG. 4.3 Results of the Focus Group Interview As for the first question, seven respondents appreciated the ESP classes based on promoting learning-purpose communication cases, while the others were neutral about them. Some of the illustrative quotes were as follows: […classes were engaging and interesting … we did a lot of pair work and collaborated with other students…] [… I felt that I improved professionally…] [… we did a lot of tasks that we benefited from…]

Data on the second question, four respondents reported improvements in analysing the situations critically. Five students mentioned that they learned to apply self-assessment techniques, and two students answered that their English language fluency improved. One of the respondents claimed the following: [ … I dealt with my psychological barriers in speaking English both as a presenter and a team member…]

Concerning the third question, eight students showed dissatisfaction with the inquiry component for being quite challenging. Three students were unpleased about the reflection phase stating that self-evaluation is not their interest.

As far as the last question in the interview, six students suggested using more tailored inquiry section assignments, while five respondents proposed linking the ESP course to some specific academic discipline or course.

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5. Discussion The current study was intended to identify how promoting learning-purpose communication cases impact students’ communication competence and how this instructional model was perceived by the present research informants. The novelty of the study is in a specifically structured instructional design that is driven by the inquiry perspective of fostering communicative competencies within the students’ professionalism context. It was found that the instructional model positively influences students’ specialism purpose foreign language communicative competencies such as spoken production and spoken interaction, information processing speed, and self-reflection abilities. The results of the baseline study survey suggested that both teachers and students associated the concept of communicative competence and focused their efforts on teaching/learning grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation in the ESP course. The results revealed the feasibility of the instructional model used in the study. The values obtained for measurements of the consolidated data yielded from the pretest-posttest measurements using teacher and student-peer observation checklists (TSOC), the Mental Speed Test (MST), and self-reflection scale (SRC) imply that there was an improvement in communication competence, information processing speed, and the self-reflection abilities in both EG and CG students.

The results obtained and concluded from this study were also supported by the responses of the interviewed students. Most of the respondents appreciated the ESP classes based on promoting learning-purpose communication cases, while a minority reported improvements in analysing the situations critically, and almost half of them mentioned that they learned to apply self-assessment techniques. Two students posited that their English language fluency improved.

As far as what they have suggested is concerned, using more tailored inquiry section assignments, and linking the ESP course to some specific academic discipline or course were seen important to its flourishing implementation.

Indeed, the findings of the study align with some previous studies. More specifically, the baseline study run by the British Council Ukraine (2019) uncovered that there was a lack of consistency in the approach to ESP and EMI nationwide, ineffective teaching methodology, issues with developing the materials and assessment that lead to diversity, and overarching concern of the educational stakeholders over the quality of ESP courses. The findings of the study are consistent with the literature on effectiveness of contextualisation and localisation in learning through cases. In this light, Garin et al., (2017) concludes that the use of indigenous content is effective from the perspective of the instructor and learner. The study also goes with Andriotis’s findings (2017) who advocates the idea that contextualizing can both address the students’ future job context and improve teaching and learning outcomes. The results adjust to Kostenko (2020) who implies that self-assessment practices and communicative activities based on real-life contexts increase the effectiveness of the ESP course in terms of developing students ‘communication competence. The study is consistent with Lavrysh (2016) who proved that peer and self-assessment accelerate students’ critical thinking skills, maintained their learning motivation,

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and increases their engagement in learning. The study agrees with Roell (2019) emphasising the benefits of using case-study methodology such as exposing students to the real job. According to Bonney (2015), the case-studies rely on Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive learning and develop higher-order cognitive skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation that are followed by application.

6. Conclusion The study concluded that the instructional model positively influences students’ specialism purpose foreign language communicative competencies such as spoken production and spoken interaction, information processing speed, and self-reflection abilities. The results of the baseline study survey suggested that both teachers and students associated the concept of communicative competence and focused their efforts on teaching/learning grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation in the ESP course. The results stressed the feasibility of the instructional model used in the study, and improvement in communication competence, information processing speed, and self-reflection abilities in both EG and CG students were achieved. The interviewed students’ judgements of the course delivery model were also complimentary. The majority of the respondents appreciated the ESP classes based on promoting learning-purpose communication cases, and some of them showed improvements in analysing the situations critically. With reference to what has been put forward by the respondents, further research should study how the tailored inquiry assignments can influence the development of the communicative competence of the students doing the ESP course. Besides, future endeavours should also investigate the issue of how the integration of the ESP course into some specific academic discipline can have an effect on the students’ language skills.

7. Acknowledgement We are thankful to the experts for their expertise in invalidating the instruments.

We also express our gratefulness to all the sampled students and teachers for being diligent and for projecting a positive attitude.

Limitations The limitations of this study are related to the involvement of only one institution in the experiment and the sample size.

Conflicts of Interest The authors report no conflicts of scientific or financial interest that can be associated with the accomplishment of the present study.

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2445-2452). http://ekmair.ukma.edu.ua/bitstream/handle/123456789/15748/Abakumova_ Economic_growth_globalization_and_income_inequality.pdf?sequence=1&isAll owed=y

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Abdulrahman, N. C., & Ayyash, E. A. S. A. (2019). Linguistic competence, communicative competence, and interactional competence. Journal of Advances in Linguistics, 10, 1600-1616. https://doi-org/10.24297/jal.v10i0.8530 Alami, S. E. A. (2014). Promoting communicative competence within EFL contexts: A UAE case study. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5(6), 1245-1255. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.5.6.1245-1255 Andriotis, N. (2017). Contextualized learning: Teaching made highly effective. https://www.efrontlearning.com/blog/2017/06/contextualized-learningeffective-elearning.html Anthony, L. (2018). Introducing English for specific purposes (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi-org/10.4324/9781351031189 Bonney, K. M. (2015). Case study teaching method improves student performance and perceptions of learning gains. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education, 16(1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.846 Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment Companion volume. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-referencelanguages Deyrich, M.-C., & Stunnel, K. (2014). Language teacher education models: New issues and challenges. In J. D. M. Agudo (Ed.), English as a foreign language teacher education (pp. 83-105). Rodopi. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789401210485_007 Dubow, G., & Gundermann, S. (2017). Certifying the linguistic and communicative competencies of teachers in English-medium instruction programmes. Language Learning in Higher Education, 7(2), 475-487. https://doi.org/10.1515/cercles-20170021 ERIA. (2019). Economic consequences of globalisation: Case study of Thailand. https://www.eria.org/publications/economic-consequences-of-globalisationcase-study-of-thailand/ Garin, R., Reyes, R., Domantay, G., & Rosals, J. (2017). Contextualized and Localized teaching as a technique in teaching basic statistics. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences, 4(1), 62-67. http://apjeas.apjmr.com/wpcontent/uploads/2017/05/APJEAS-2017.4.1.2.08.pdf Kolodii, N. V. (2019). The modification of the formation of professional linguistic competencies of future factors of social work. Innovate Pedagogy, 12(1), 106-110. https://doi.org/10.32843/2663-6085.2019.12-1.22 Kostenko, N. (2020). Developing communicative competence in English as a second language by integrating business competencies. Scientific Issues of Vinnytsia State M. Kotsyubynskyi Pedagogical University. Section: Pedagogics and Psychology, 216(58), 109-115. https://doi.org/10.31652/2415-7872-2019-58-109-115 Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2015). Focus group interviewing. In K. E. Newcomer, H. P. Hatry & J. S. Wholey (Eds.), Handbook of practical program evaluation (pp. 506534), Jossey – Bass. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119171386.ch20 Kunal, N. (2020). New comprehensive report on qualitative data analysis software market to witness an outstanding growth during 2020–2025 with top players like Provalis Research, WebQDA, Raven’s Eye, Research Ware, FOCUSSON, Audio transcription, Qiqqa, Aquad, Dovetail. https://thedailychronicle.in/news/72267/newcomprehensive-report-on-qualitative-data-analysis-software-market-to-witnessan-outstanding-growth-during-2020-2025-with-top-players-like-provalisresearch-webqda-ravens-eye-researc/ Lavrysh, Y. (2016). Peer and self-assessment at ESP classes: Case study. Advanced Education, 1, 60-68. https://doi.org/10.20535/2410-8286.85351

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Roell, C. (2019). Using a case study in the EFL classroom. English teaching forum. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1236098.pdf Sato, M. (2013). Beliefs about peer interaction and peer corrective feedback: Efficacy of classroom intervention. The Modern Language Journal, 97(3), 611-633. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2013.12035.x Shernazarova, H. (2019). Developing communicative competence by implementing project based-learning in ESP classes. Philology Matters, 3, 145-153. https://doi.org/10.36078/987654373 Veal, A. J., & Darcy, S. (Eds.). (2017). Research methods in sports studies and sport management: A practical guide (1st ed.).

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Appendix A: Baseline Questionnaire (Adapted from Whyte, 2019). #

How much do the following address the high level of communicative competence?

5-point Likert importance scale 1 2 3 4 5

1 2

Ability to deliver the message clearly.

Appropriate and relevant demeanour, non-verbal behaviour.

3 Occupational knowledge background.

4 The skills of using questioning techniques.

5 Abilities to use discourse strategies relevantly.

6 Abilities to interact verbally and in writing.

7 Abilities and skills to establish rapport, use empathy, engage in conversation, and manage time.

8 Accuracy in grammar, pronunciation, and use of language (vocabulary).

9 Abilities to comprehend what others say.

Note: 1= Unimportant; 2=Slightly Important; 3=Moderately Important; 4=Important; 5=Very Important.

Appendix B: The teacher and student-peer observation checklist on using English as a communication media #

Item

5-point Likert performance rating scale 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3

The student is generally fluent and easy to follow.

The student uses functional language appropriately.

The student uses professionalism-related terms relevantly and appropriately.

4 The student uses exponents appropriately.

5 The student speaks cohesively.

6 The student speaks coherently.

7 The student uses a “five-finger strategy” to provide arguments.

8 The student uses persuasion techniques.

9 The student shows good time management skills when communicating the idea.

10 The student uses their body language confidently.

Note: 1=Bad performance; 2=Below the average performance; 3=Average performance; 4=Good performance; 5=Excellent performance.

Appendix C: Self-Reflection Scale Subscale Awareness

# 1 2 3 4 5 6

Item I am usually aware of how I express myself.

I am usually aware of what feeling my words stimulate.

I am usually aware of the strategy I use to influence people.

I am aware of the reasons for my behaviour in certain communication situations Sometimes the way I communicate a message confuses people.

Sometimes the way I communicate a message confuses me.

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7 8 Desire

9 10 11 12

Involvement

13 14 15

I am usually aware of how my communication-related thinking works.

I am usually aware of how my feelings are related to communication work.

I feel it important to evaluate the way I communicate and interact with others.

I am interested in evaluating the way I behave in communication and interaction.

I feel it essential to provide reasoning to my every communication success and failure.

I feel it essential to examine the way how I build and develop my arguments.

I hardly dedicate time to self-analysing my thoughts.

I hardly dedicate time to self-analysing my feelings.

I regularly take time to do self-reflection.

Appendix D: Focus Group Interview Questions 1. What do you think about the ESP classes based on promoting learningpurpose communication cases?

2. How did this educational experience address your needs and expectations?

3. What caused you to feel disappointed in this educational model?

4. According to you, how this educational model can be made more effective?

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 275-291, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.15

Untangling Constructs on Characteristics of Effective Teaching from a Higher Education Institution: Basis for Effective Teaching Program Djonde Frega Antiado Southville International School and Colleges, Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5597-1339 Maher Ibrahim Mikhael Tawadrous City University College of Ajman, Sheikh Ammar Road, United Arab Emirates https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3420-1428 Rommel Pilapil Sergio Abu Dhabi School of Management, Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan Street, United Arab Emirates https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2058-9495 Abstract. The need of skilled workforce to meet the challenges of the 21st century puts teaching effectiveness to the forefront of higher education policies. Therefore, the current study explores the Characteristics of Effective Teaching (CET) as observed by the students from a higher education institution in the United Arab Emirates. The study employed a descriptive survey method wherein qualitative analysis of data was used. The respondents (N=199; 121 were females and 78 were males) are registered in General Education courses using a pre-constructed interview schedule. The 69 CETs had been ascertained by qualitative method through axial coding of general themes in order to come-up with recommendations pointing to Effective Teaching Program (ETP). The dominant characteristics of effective teaching as perceived by the student respondents were 21 items with “helpful” topping the list, followed by “knowledgeable,” “friendly,” “organized,” and “flexible.” Six classifications were derived from clustering the CET, namely: buddy type, accommodating type, cool type, academician type, techie type, and non-biased type. The major findings reveal that the three important elements of effective teaching as perceived by students are academic qualification, attitudes, and skills.

Specific recommendations to ETP are also introduced in the paper to strengthen the quality of teaching effectiveness.

Keywords: Characteristics of effective teaching; Effective teaching program; Student’s perception

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Today’s students are described as belonging to the “digital generation.” They are constantly exposed to digital technology and electronic devices such as computer games and other virtual media which serve as their learning tools.

They are accustomed to a “plug-and-play” learning approach. The divergent and dynamic learning orientation of this generation requires hands-on experience and, learning by trial and error or exploration, as opposed to the traditional sequential or linear learning approach followed by traditional universities. Students have evolved into active learners brought about by an open learning environment with the accessibility of the internet where information is delivered to anyone, any time, and any place. In addition to the rapid changes of technology, the influence of globalization or internationalism of education, diversity of students, global competition and the need of skilled workforce to meet the challenges of the 21st century, puts teaching effectiveness to the forefront of higher education policies. Faced with a challenging scenario, new paradigms for quality teaching are prescribed to prepare graduates to work and adapt in a complex and fast changing environment. An effective teacher is the one who can respond to these changes and meet the learning needs of students of the 21st century. In this regard, an interesting inquiry should be raised; how do we characterize effective teachers in the 21st century?

In response to the challenges of the 21st century, three main areas of competency that teachers should develop were identified in a report by the National Institute of Education, Singapore (2009), which are: (1) literacies on the use of knowledge and information (ability to show adeptness in guiding students to access information through various electronic and print media critically, creatively and accurately, and develop the students’ ability to use knowledge to generate better ideas); demonstrate skill in utilizing multiple media or interactive modes of instruction to facilitate learning; and demonstrate awareness of cultural diversity (or multicultural literacy); (2) ability to enhance and expand the learning environment utilizing varied instructional tools, technologies and resources to broaden students’ awareness and knowledge of current and real issues affecting their own community and world contexts; and (3) ability to integrate technology in pedagogy and curriculum by devising innovative, inquiry and problem-based approaches and developing higher order thinking skills of students.

A vital element of effective teaching also entails having desirable personal characteristics or personality dispositions. The study of Calderhead (2008) indicated that in both educational settings (traditional or online), personality traits significantly correlated with effective teaching (the two variables were found to have significant linear relationship). Personal characteristics had been found to be of paramount importance in effective teaching, more than content knowledge, cultural knowledge, and pedagogical knowledge (Spitzer, 2009). It is an influencing factor affecting student achievement and needs further attention and investigation (Chandler, 2015; Cioli-Stewart 2014), and it contributes to a conducive learning environment by facilitating and / enhancing learning (CiolliStewart, 2014; Halder, 2014; Kimbrough-Walls, 2012). More than that, student’s perception of “good or bad teacher” is based on the personal characteristics observed in class which impact on students’ assessment of teaching effectiveness (Ibad, 2018).

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As we transform and meet the demands of the 21st century education, we need not only to focus on what to teach, rather we need to think how to impart and develop the needs of our 21st century learners. The latter requires finding out how we can be effective in our teaching which starts with identifying dispositional characteristics. As a starting point, the researchers explored the perspective of students from a private higher education institution in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to find out constructs of characteristics on effective teaching.

2. Literature Review The following body of information points to the literature review that has direct resemblance on the study.

2.1. Teacher Effectiveness Elliott (2010) identifies two sub-topics related to teaching effectiveness: “effective teacher characteristics may be summarized as measuring who I am or the essence of teaching, whereas teacher effectiveness may be summarized as what I do or the process/product of teaching (p.1).” In a review of related studies on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes by Burroughs et al. (2019), it was pointed out that teacher characteristics and behaviors (observed by students during classroom instruction and delivery of content to support learning) influenced the students’ achievement or outcome the most. Findings of Teven and McCroskey, and Connell on caring as a teacher attribute (as cited in Chandler, 2015) indicated that if students perceived that their teacher cares, the more care they show in class and learn more as evidenced by higher achievement scores. A study on comparing high performing and low performing schools was conducted, and findings show a significant relationship between teaching effectiveness to students’ attendance and academic performance (Etim, Etim & Blizard, 2020). In another context, Mohammaditabar et al. (2020) described effective teachers as possessing exemplary human qualities with an expertise in teaching. Apparently, the personality dimension is perceived as a key factor in teaching effectiveness. Since learners are not pedagogically literate, students tended to give more importance to personality rather than professionalism to characterize effective teaching (Mohammaditabar et al., 2020). In a study involving teachers’ perceptions of effective teaching, professionalism in terms of being competent, having the expertise, qualification and knowledge were highly prioritized (Rasool, 2017).

Teaching effectiveness can be deduced from the perceived profound or lasting impact on the students. Gender and year of study influenced students’ perception of effective teachers. In this vein, Yilmaz (2011) conducted a study in which he asked students pursuing teacher training students to describe the characteristics of teachers whom they characterized as effective throughout their schooling from primary, secondary or university level. Results showed that a significant number of the respondents found their high school teachers as most “effective” compared to their elementary or university teachers. The defining factor of “effectiveness” had been based on how the teachers had contributed to students’ personality development – dealing with life challenges or outlook in

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life, thoughts and emotions, having confidence in one’s worth (self-esteem) and being self-sufficient. In terms of gender and years of study, Yilmaz (2011) found that female students tended to report having effective teachers more than the male students; and more students during their first year of study or during freshmen revealed that they have had at least an effective teacher.

The concept of what made a teacher effective depended on the thinking styles of students. However, the teaching style that encouraged creative thinking and complex information processing was considered the most effective teaching style among students (Li-Fang, 2004; Skliar, 2014). The same characteristics of effective teaching were found in an online environment and traditional face-toface settings, yet the emphasis or order of importance was different (Delaney, Johnson & Treslan, 2010; Gangi, 2011). The factors or variables which contribute to successful teaching ranked according to importance are: (1) Personal knowledge and characteristics (ability to collaborate with colleagues, forms strong relationships with students, etc); (2) Content knowledge (knowledge about what is to be learned or taught); (3) Cultural knowledge (understanding of cultural context and characteristics of learners in belonging to a particular culture); and (4) Pedagogical knowledge (general knowledge how to teach) (Spitzer, 2009, p.88). The ability to communicate well, being concerned for student learning, ability to motivate students and course organization were found to be significant criteria of teaching effectiveness (Young and Shaw, 1999).

In addition, effective teachers did not necessarily get high ratings on all these important variables implying that teaching effectiveness does not follow an additive model. Further, students who were made to understand the value or worth of a course indicated the strongest predictor of teacher effectiveness (Young and Shaw, 1999).

2.2. Students’ Perception of Characteristics of Effective Teachers From a western perspective, Delaney et al. (2010) conducted a study to find students’ perceptions of effective teaching in higher education comparing oncampus and distance modes of delivery. Regardless of the mode of delivery, nine characteristics of effective teaching were identified with differences in emphasis: Respectful, Knowledgeable, Approachable, Engaging, Communicative, Organized, Responsive, Professional, and Humorous.

Being respectful is ranked the first for both on-campus and distance modes of delivery.

The students described respectful as being fair, realistic, understanding, trustworthy, flexible, humble, caring, empathetic, patient, kind, helpful, consistent, compassionate, open-minded, reasonable, sincere, concerned and diplomatic. Being knowledgeable is demonstrated as being practical, flexible, current, competent, credible, eclectic, qualified, and reflective. Being positive, friendly, happy, personable, helpful, and accessible was characterized as approachable. The students approached engaging as being assertive, enthusiastic, energetic, interesting, interactive, passionate, stimulating, motivating, charismatic, creative, and positive. Being communicative is demonstrated as attentive, clear, constructive, understandable, and thorough to one’s student. To be organized, a teacher should be prepared, efficient and focused, and being perceptive, efficient, helpful, accommodating, and available

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described what responsive meant. To be professional, one has to be confident, dedicated, hygienic, punctual, efficacious and dependable; and humorous as being kind, has a positive outlook, engaging and approachable. Most attributes of effective teachers mainly fall into two categories, namely: teaching skills and personality characteristics (Toraman, 2019).

It is significant to note that student-teacher relationship had been found significantly important in students’ academic performance and learning experience. If students perceived that their needs and/ wants are met as a result of the teacher’s positive level of engagement, it followed an increment of students’ grades, and overall satisfaction of the course (Boluda & Lopez, 2021).

Besides, the “emotional connection” established between the student and the teacher had been found crucial in teaching effectiveness (Batool et al., 2015). The student’ perception characterizing effective teaching using content analysis (Batool et al., 2015), included qualities as: the teachers’ friendliness, cooperativeness, politeness, empathy, dedication, preparedness in class, being considerate of the students’ level of learning and, capable of encouraging and motivating students to participate.

A cross-cultural study comparing the qualities of good teachers in China asserted that results are consistent with US studies in spite of different categories found (Liu and Meng, 2009). Three categories that mark an effective teacher as perceived by Chinese students were: (1) teacher ethics, (2) professional skills, and (3) test scores. A teacher that demonstrates high teacher ethics is the one who is responsible, treats students’ equally, caring, maintains friendly and close relations with students, humorous, considerate, and able to control temper.

Also, the one who is knowledgeable, has excellent teaching skills and able to create active classroom atmosphere is perceived as high in professional skills. If students get good test scores, then a teacher is considered effective.

2.3. Characteristics of Effective Teaching in Arab Countries There are three important dimensions which were identified in line with teaching effectiveness: academic characteristics, social and psychological characteristics of personality, and practical and pedagogical expertise. These were found to characterize effective ESL (English as a Second Language) teachers among Qatari female college students (Sabah, 2018). To begin with, students expected that highly effective ESL teachers who rated high on academic characteristics, achieved the basic skills and required teacher qualifications or pursued graduate degree, attended relevant training and showed teaching proficiency, and at the same time able to speak the students' native language. In terms of social and psychological characteristics, the students regarded the following as highly important: being friendly, just or fair, kind, shows stability under pressure and stimulates learning, good listener, polite and respectful, reduces students’ anxiety in class, encouraging and able to motivate students, patient, shows willingness to help students in and out the class, shows flexibility in checking attendance, firm in dealing with students and gives five or less assignments. Teachers who highly demonstrated practical and pedagogical expertise applied various strategies in teaching, were well prepared, managed the class and class time properly, and prepared activities that stimulated the

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interest of students, and utilizes technology (such being familiar with the use software, multi-media, social media) in teaching.

Among Turkish college students, perception of effective teachers had been based on teacher’s personal and professional characteristics (Yilmaz, 2011). In order of preference, the top ten (10) characteristics or qualities of effective teachers include: (1) exhibiting dynamism, (2) shows empathy, (3) has expertise on the subject area, (4) shows warmth and friendliness, (5) fair to students, (6) communicates effectively, (7) motivates and inspires students, (8) has the sense of humor and makes learning fun, (9) well informed and updated on relevant issues, and (10) promotes the talents of students. Another study (Cakmak, 2009) involving Turkish prospective teachers (college students), identified important behaviors which described effective teaching characteristics as follows: states the objectives of the lesson; keeps students lively in the lesson; fond of the job performed; teaches with regard to students’ interests and talents, and able to maintain rapport with students. The least important of the behaviors of an effective teacher cover: arranges various seating arrangements (group, etc.) in the teaching process; jokes with students; requires students to do presentations (projects, etc.) in lessons; suggests a source material list to students to adhere to in the lessons and the tendency to be authoritative.

Teaching effectiveness is perceived as a combination of personality and ability, wherein the former is being regarded as a key factor. Findings from the research conducted by Raymond (2008) uncovered that students from Middle East regions primarily considered five highly important personality traits of an effective teacher namely: (1) being respectful, (2) making classes interesting, (3) fairness in grading and evaluating student work, (4) cares that students succeed in the course, and (5) being friendly to students. Three important ability attributes were found to describe excellent teaching which were: (1) being able to encourage students’ questions and discussion, (2) well prepared and organized, and (5) able to make difficult subjects easy to learn. Add to this, an effective teacher is the one who can establish and/ maintain good rapport and shows flexibility and willingness to compromise or adjust depicting UAE culture. Two themes, namely: interpersonal rapport with students and instructional skills were found to characterize perceived qualities of effective teaching among college students in UAE (Saafin, 2008). Using content analysis, the qualities and practices which were identified in order of frequency were; (1) treats students with respect, (2) shows flexibility and willingness to compromise, (3) being helpful and caring, (4) friendly, (5) has a sense of humor, (6) helps students understand by exhausting all possible means for students to learn, (7) gives the students a chance to speak and ask questions, (8) shows dedication in teaching, (9) fair or treats students equally in class, (10) a role model, (11) knowledgeable or has mastery of courses taught, (12) patient, and (13) smiles often.

Based on the synopsis presented on the characteristics of effective teaching, the following implications are put forward:

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1. Perceptions on effective teaching are multidimensional and do not follow a “one size fits all” perspective, however effective teaching impacts on positive learning experiences and quality of education in general.

2. The personality characteristics and behaviors of teachers as perceived by students are important dimensions in the teaching learning process of effective teaching, and needs further study.

3. The global landscape of education is rapidly changing and as a result, roles of teachers and expectations of students change which could create a gap for students to relate effectively with their teachers and vice-versa.

4. Conducting periodic study of students’ perceptions of effective teaching should be made in order to design responsive educational programs geared towards addressing their specific needs.

5. How students perceive effective teaching characteristics across cultures merit further exploration.

6. A limited number of studies had been conducted, especially in the Middle East.

Therefore, the current study aimed to introduce baseline data of information to add value to existing literature and to serve as a reference data of information for future research.

3. Objectives of the Study This qualitative, descriptive study aimed to explore the concept of effective teaching of students from a private higher education institution in the United Arab Emirates. It aims to specifically meet the following research objectives: 1. To know the dominant Characteristics of Effective Teaching (CET) as perceived by students.

2. To determine the elements that comprise the concept of CET by the students.

3. To recommend a set of programs for effective teaching.

4. Research Paradigm Figure 1 shows the process paradigm of the study.

Figure 1: The process paradigm of the study

The paradigm (Fig.1) displays the entire process of the qualitative study. In determining the dominant Characteristics of Effective Teaching (CTE), mean rating per CET was computed and the top 20 CETs. Comments for the 20 CETs

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were gathered for analysis. Then, Axial Coding was done to provide an abstract of the definition per CET. The first part of the coding was established to determine whether the comments are clear definitions of the CET or otherwise.

Thus, “Definition” and “Unclear” were coded accordingly. Second coding was done among the comments which were coded as definition. Thematic clustering was used as the basis for coding. Comments with the same theme were given the same code and were further clustered to come-up with the derived CETs and with the elements of Effective Teaching.

5. Methodology, Sampling and the Study Setting The paper employed qualitative research design, particularly the descriptive study utilizing the interview method. The process of content analysis has been employed through axial coding and clustering of responses to come up with specific constructs on characteristics of effective teaching. The accessibility sampling technique was employed from which all the students registered in the General Education Program were invited to be a part of the study. Accordingly, a total of one hundred ninety-nine (199) students voluntarily participated in this study, of which one hundred twenty-one (121) were females, and seventy-eight (78) were males. The study was conducted in a private university of the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

6. Data Gathering Tools Each of the 199 respondents was separately asked through an interview session, facilitated by the authors of this research paper. Students were given assurance that their identity is withheld as part of the ethical practice. The respondents were given a pre-constructed list of characteristics of effective teaching (Table 1).

After which, they were asked to choose five (5) characteristics of effective teaching from the list given and rank these 5 items in order of importance (using the range 1 being the most important and 5 being the least important).

Thereafter, the respondents were asked to describe the characteristics they chose. The descriptions of students were taken into account and were tabulated.

The top five (5) most important characteristics from a list of sixty-nine (69) characteristics of effective teaching (CET) were ascertained through content analysis (axial coding and clustering of CETs).

7. Results and Discussion The results were derived from the collected data of 199 respondents after the necessary treatments that had been conducted. The treatment of data was based on the objectives presented in this study, in which the first objective aims to know the dominant characteristics of effective teaching as perceived by students.

The CETs were chosen based on the top five generated responses from the respondents. The 20 CETs were generated from the coding and framing of student responses through the interviews conducted personally by the authors themselves. Table 1 below shows the CETs with their corresponding ranks based on the frequency distribution.

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Table 1. Dominant characteristics of effective teaching (CET) as perceived by the students

CETs

N

Rank

Helpful

67

1

Knowledgeable

65

2

Friendly

63

3

Organized

39

4

Flexible

37

5

Understanding

29

6.5

Respectful

29

6.5

Open minded

27

8

Fair Understandable Motivating Happy Communicative Interesting Clear Professional Qualified Focused Available Humorous Patient

25 22 22 22 20 19 19 19 15 14 12 11 11

9 11 11 11 13 15 15 15 17 18 19 20.5 20.5

The result of the analysis for Objective 1 shows that being “helpful” is the most dominant characteristic among the top 21 CETs considered. Fourteen out of the top CETs corroborated the studies of Sabah (2018) and Saafin (2008) using Arab students as respondents. These characteristics include helpful, knowledgeable, friendly, flexible, respectful, fair, understanding, motivating, communicative, interesting, clear, professional, qualified and patient.

As can be gleaned from Table 1, the first five CETs fall under the category of Personal Knowledge and Characteristics (Spitzer, 2009). The factors or variables which contribute to successful teaching according to importance are: (1) Personal knowledge and characteristics (ability to collaborate with colleagues, forms strong relationships with students, among others), (2) Content knowledge (knowledge about what is to be learned or taught), (3) Cultural knowledge (understanding of cultural context and characteristics of learners in belonging to a particular culture), and (4) Pedagogical knowledge (general knowledge how to teach).

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As for the second objective which aims to determine the elements that comprise the concept of effective teaching, the following table displays the gathered data.

Table 2. Clustered elements that comprise the concept of effective teaching

Academic Qualifications Professional Knowledgeable Qualified

Attitude Flexible Understanding Communicative Focused Understandable Clear Open Minded Helpful Respectful Friendly Happy Patient Available Fair

Skill Flexible Understanding Communicative Focused Understandable Clear Open Minded Helpful Knowledgeable Motivating Interesting Professional Humorous Organized

Table 2 shows the initial clustering resulted to three elements that comprise the concept of effective teaching. These are Academic Qualifications, Attitudes, and Skills. It is significant to note that there are 14 equal number of characteristics in attitudes and skills, and the first 8 of which have exactly the same order elements. An academically qualified instructor who is perceived as effective in teaching is the one who has PhD, relevant training/s and/ certification related to the field of study, imparts lessons clearly and able to relate to student’s experiences, and adept in the use of technology to enhance learning. In terms of attitude, the one who demonstrates flexibility, is fair, shows respect and patience, maintains a happy demeanor, accessible when needed, at the same time able to deliver lessons clearly, sensitive to the diverse needs and/ address learning difficulties of students is qualified as an effective teacher. Teaching skills that students perceived important as: able to effectively communicate and establish good rapport to keep students engaged and motivated in learning, students are able to openly share their opinions and values, shows expertise subject area and professional by being updated in the use of technology; able to recognize and address diverse needs of students (different abilities and cultural backgrounds).

Data on objective 3 which aims to recommend a set of programs for effective teaching, strongly outlined the following: 1. Faculty Development. Faculty should be given the time, venue and/ opportunity to reflect on their methods, their delivery, and the way they connect with their students. Through diagnostic meetings and appropriate workshops, they would be able uncover those weaknesses, further enhance their strengths and come up with courses of action to improve their effectiveness in teaching.

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2. Faculty Recruitment. The elements that comprised the concept of CET to include academic qualifications, attitude and skills should be considered in the recruitment of faculty.

3. Student Feedback. Consider students’ concept of effective teaching in coming up with tools in evaluating Effective Teaching of Instructors at least in an annual basis.

4. Faculty Evaluation. Evaluate further effective teaching in the university using the behavioral manifestations of the characteristics of effective teaching as perceived by students.

5. Data Analytics. Compare effective teaching concepts of faculty, and administrators with the concept of students as basis for leveling of expectations.

6. Model Development. Consider the derived model together with other models in the development of faculty evaluation tool.

7. Teacher Education. Develop competencies to address diverse needs of students (different abilities and cultural backgrounds); and continuously enhance training on the use of current technology in learning and teaching.

8. Conclusion Limited studies had been conducted in the Arab region on effective teaching.

Finding out how to impart and develop the need of the 21st century learners is deemed important. Hence, this study sought to identify CETs which can provide baseline data for further exploration and/ for future research. Twenty-one items of the 69 CETs were perceived as essential among the research informants.

Fourteen items out of the 21 CETs corroborated with the studies conducted among Arab students. These characteristics include the notion of being helpful, knowledgeable, friendly, flexible, respectful, fair, understanding, motivating, communicative, interesting, clear, professional, qualified and patient. Results also indicated that students tended to describe CETs based on the perceived personality characteristics or traits of the teacher followed by professional characteristics. The results align with the findings of recent research conducted.

Thus, how the teachers’ CETs influence the learning and teaching process need further study. The ability to “connect” with students to make their learning conducive or promote their desire to learn had been perceived as relevant.

Further, the use of information and communication technologies for teaching had been considered as vital for effective teaching. There were 6 classifications derived from clustering the CETs, namely: buddy type, accommodating type, cool type, academician type, techie type, and non-biased type and finding out which of these types influences the teaching learning process, an area that needs further study. The elements that comprised the concept of CETs by the students were as follows: academic qualifications, attitude, and skills. These elements need to be considered in designing programs for faculty recruitment, development, and evaluation.

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The study had been limited to students taking general education courses. Thus, it is recommended that further exploration ought to be made of students taking specialization courses.

9. Acknowledgments The authors express their sincerest gratitude to the editors and blind reviewers who have shared their expertise and guidance for the opportunity laid through this paper.

Funding Information This article is not financially supported by any funding agency.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

10. References Batool, S. S., Naz, B., Habib, S., Anjum, W., Goraya, F., Akram, M., Khalid, A., & Sadaf, A. (2015). Construction of Effective Teaching Evaluation Scale and Students' Perception of the Characteristics of Effective Teachers. Pakistan Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13(1), 28-35.

Boluda, I. K., & López, N. V. (2021). A teachers' orientation approach to understand the university teacher-student relationship. Estudios Sobre Educación, 40, 149-172. http://dx.doi.org/10.15581/004.40.149-172 Burroughs, N., Gardner, J., Lee, Y., Guo, S., Touitou, I., Jasen, K., & Schmidt, W. (2019). Teaching for excellence and equity. Switzerland: Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16151-4_2 Cakmak, M. (2009). Prospective teachers’ thoughts on characteristics of an “effective teacher”. Education and Science, 34(153).

Calderhead, S. A. (2008). College students' perceptions of effective teaching personality traits: A quantitative analysis of traditional versus online education [Doctoral dissertation].

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Gangi, S. (2011). Differentiating instruction using multiple intelligences in the elementary school classroom: A literature review [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Wisconsin--Stout.

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Ibad, F. (2018). Personality and ability traits of teachers: Student perceptions. Journal of Education and Educational Development, 5(2), 162-177. http://dx.doi.org/10.22555/joeed.v5i2.2215 Kimbrough-Walls, V. (2012). Students' perception of important teaching behaviors in classroom and clinical environments of a community college nursing and dental hygiene education program. https://search.proquest.com/docview/1024141591?accountid=145382 Li-Fang, Z. (2004) Thinking styles: University students' preferred teaching styles and their conceptions of effective teachers. The Journal of Psychology, 138(3), 233-252. https://doi.org/10.3200/JRLP.138.3.233-252 Liu, S., & Meng, L. (2009). Perceptions of teachers, students and parents of the characteristics of good teachers: A cross-cultural comparison of china and the united states. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(4), 313-328. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11092-009-9077-z Mohammaditabar, M., Bagheri, M. S., Yamini, M., & Rasaee, M. E. (2020). Qualities of a Good English Language Teacher from the Perspectives of Textbook Authors in the Field of Language Teaching, Teachers, and Learners. The Qualitative Report, 25(11), 3927-3960. https://search.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/qualitiesgood-english-language-teacher/docview/2465477496/se-2?accountid=145382 Rajandiran, D. (2020). Singapore’s Teacher Education Model for the 21st Century (TE21).

In F.M Rrimers (Ed.), Implementing Deeper Learning and 21st Education Reforms (pp. 59–77). Springer, Cham. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-57039-2_3 Rasool, G., Mahboob, U., Sajid, M. & Ahmad, S. (2017). Characteristics of effective teaching: A survey on teacher’s perceptions. Pakistan Oral & Dental Journal, 37(1). https://search.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/characteristics-effectiveteaching-survey-on/docview/1891291525/se-2?accountid=145382 Raymond, S. M. (2008). Effective & ineffective university teaching from the students' and faculty's perspectives: Matched or mismatched expectations? [Doctoral dissertation] University of Exeter. https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/40767/Raymond S.pdf?sequence=1 Sabbah, S. S. (2018). The Characteristics of effective English as a second language instructors. International Journal of English Language Teaching, 6(2), 1-24. http://www.eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/Tertiary-LevelStudents%E2%80%99-Perceptions-of-the-Characteristics-of-Effective-English-asa-Second-Language-Instructors.pdf Saafin, S. (2008). Arab tertiary students’ perceptions of effective teachers. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: Gulf Perspectives, 5(2). http://www.zu.ac.ae/lthe/lthe05_02_02_saafin.htm Skliar, O. (2014). Native and nonnative English-speaking teachers in Turkey: Teacher perceptions and student attitudes [Doctoral dissertation]. Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey. https://tez. yok. gov. tr/UlusalTezMerkezi Spitzer, L. (2009). Personality or pedagogy: Which personal characteristics are necessary for ESL teachers to possess and what role do they play compared to formal pedagogical training in ESL teaching?. Studies in Learning, Evaluation, Innovation & Development, 6 (3), 80-92.

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Appendices Appendix 1. Pre-Constructed Characteristics of Effective Teaching Used in the Interview Schedule 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Approachable Enthusiastic Available Knowledgeable Stimulating Personable Humorous Understanding Flexible Understandable Open Minded Communicative Punctual Responsive Sincere Concerned Organized Interesting Patient Fair Motivating Clear Respectful

24 25 26 27 26 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

Challenging Practical Energetic Thorough Helpful Attentive Eclectic Efficient Accessible Prepared Confident Friendly Trustworthy Positive Empathic Dedicated Current Dependable Caring Engaging Happy Constructive Competitive

47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69

Creative Realistic Compassionate Professional Qualified Pleasant Hygienic Accommodating Reasonable Consistent Perceptive Kind Interactive Focused Charismatic Efficacious Credible Assertive Passionate Diplomatic Reflective Humble Collaborative

Based on Delaney, J., Johnson, A., Johnson, T.D. & Treslan, D. (2010). Students’ Perceptions of Effective Teaching in Higher Education, p. 20. (http://www.uwex.edu/disted/conference/Resource_library/handouts/28251_10 H.pdf)

Appendix 2. Top 20 Obtained Characteristics of Effective Teaching as defined by the Students using the Axial Coding Sequence

Characteristics

Helpful

Behavioral Manifestations of Instructors as Described by Students Instructors take initiative to ask students of anything they missed or failed to understand.

Instructors answer all queries from students in and out of their classroom. Instructors make sure that students understand the lessons in class.

Instructors encourage students to do their best.

Instructors assist students even with non-academic purposes.

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Instructors prepare students in facing what is in store for them in the field of work.

Instructors provide bonus questions to help students increase their grades.

Knowledgeable

Friendly

Organized

Flexible

Understanding

Respectful Open Minded

Fair

Understandable

Instructors have PhDs. Instructors are proficient in the use of English as a medium of instruction in class.

Instructors are confident with facts of their lesson because of their use of several references like books and personal experiences.

Instructors are confident in explaining their lesson with the use of technologies.

Instructors find time to greet, converse and play jokes with students even outside the classroom.

Instructors create a family working environment inside the classroom.

Instructors find time to help students understand the lesson even outside the classroom.

Instructors smile in and outside the classroom.

Instructors see to it that instructional materials are guided by the arrangement of topics in the course syllabus.

Instructors make sure that materials are reader friendly.

Instructors present topics using a certain flow of information that is easily understandable to students.

Instructors can manage and change schedules in class accordingly. Instructors are not strict with absences and “late incurrence” of students in class.

Instructors explain requirements and quizzes ahead of time, then, provides additional help to students when needed.

Instructors can use practical approaches in teaching when needed. Instructors provide means on how students can reach them when needed.

Instructors exert effort to understand and adjust to the limitations of students.

Instructors find time to know personal concerns of students even outside their classroom.

Instructors respect religion and culture of every student.

Instructors can discuss any topic and accepts any answers from students.

Instructors recognize differences in abilities and cultures and adjust accordingly Instructors give grade that is due to students based on their works not on nationality.

Instructors properly supervise students to provide appropriate grade.

Instructors provide instructional materials to everybody.

Instructors use a language that is understandable to all students. Instructors accent do not affect students understanding of the lesson.

Instructors make themselves available for questions from students even outside their classes.

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Motivating Happy Communicative

Clear

Professional

Qualified

Focused

Available

Humorous Patient

Instructors bring out the best in every student.

Instructors come to class in good mood and with all smiles.

Instructors are available whenever students would like to communicate with them.

Instructors are capable of indulging students to participate in exchanging information through discussion in and even outside the class.

Instructors use several means to communicate with students like SMS, webmail, and portal.

Instructors exert effort in making sure that students understand each lesson, requirements, policies and exams clearly.

Instructors see to it that students know how to communicate with them whenever they have questions even outside their classes.

Instructors are educated with higher degree and teaches subjects from their own field.

Instructors present lessons in a simple manner with the use of technologies.

Instructors teach subjects in their field of specialization and shows evidence that they are studying or learning subjects outside their specialization.

Instructors do have high qualifications like PhDs and degrees of specialization.

Instructors are grounded with their mission to develop each student.

Instructors exert effort in simplifying lessons for maximum understanding of students.

Instructors are anywhere in the university when needed by students. Instructors are willing to render service in the absence of the other.

Instructors delegates tasks in his absence.

Instructors exert effort to break the seriousness of the class by giving jokes and funny comments.

Instructors entertain many questions from students and is not irritated when students come to class late or when students leave the room.

Appendix 3. Classification of Characteristics Derived from the Combination of the CETs as Perceived by the Students Using Axial Coding A. Buddy Type Characteristics Available Flexible Communicative

Clear Understanding

Behavioral Manifestations Instructors are accessible in the university when needed by students.

Instructors provide means on how students can reach them when needed.

Instructors are available whenever students would like to communicate with them.

Instructors use several means to communicate with students like SMS, webmail, and portal.

Instructors see to it that students know how to communicate with them whenever they have questions even outside their classes.

Instructors make themselves available for questions from students even outside their classes.

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Helpful

Instructors answer all queries from students in and out of their classroom.

Instructors take initiative to ask students of anything they missed or failed to understand.

B. Accommodating Type Characteristics Behavioral Manifestations Friendly Instructors find time to help students understand the lesson even outside the classroom.

Understanding Instructors exert effort to understand and adjust to the limitations of students.

Focused Instructors exert effort in simplifying lessons for maximum understanding of students.

Clear Instructors exert effort in making sure that students understand each lesson, requirements, policies and exams clearly.

Organized Instructors present topics using a certain flow of information that is easily understandable to students.

Understandable Instructors use a language that is understandable to all students. Instructors accent do not affect students understanding of the lesson.

Helpful Instructors make sure that students understand the lessons in class.

C.

Cool Type

Characteristics Flexible Patient

Behavioral Manifestations Instructors are not strict with absences and “late incurrence” of students in class.

Instructors are not irritated when students come to class late.

D. Academician Type Characteristics Professional Knowledgeable Qualified E.

Techie Type

Characteristics Professional Knowledgeable Communicative

F.

Behavioral Manifestations Instructors are educated with higher degree and teach subjects from their own field.

Instructors have PhDs. Instructors do have high qualifications like PhDs and degrees of specialization

Behavioral Manifestations Instructors present lessons in a simple manner with the use of technologies.

Instructors are confident in explaining their lesson with the use of technologies.

Instructors use several means to communicate with students like SMS, webmail, and portal.

Non-Biased Type

Characteristics Respectful Open minded

Behavioral Manifestations Instructors respect religion and culture of every student.

Instructors recognize differences in abilities and cultures and adjust accordingly.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 292-307, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.16

Mathematics Distance Learning amid the COVID-19 Pandemic in the UAE: High School Students’ Perspectives Hanan Almarashdi United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4571-6654 Adeeb M. Jarrah United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8216-8848

Abstract. In light of the COVID-19 pandemic that has resulted in several countries being locked down, there has been a paradigm shift in terms of learning worldwide. As a result, educational institutions in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) have acted swiftly and shifted from faceto-face education to distance learning. Thus, this study investigated high school students’ perspectives on the distance learning of mathematics.

The research employed a quantitative method using a developed and validated online survey. The convenience sampling consisted of 580 high school students in Al Ain. Descriptive statistical analysis of the mean and standard deviation of scores was used and then interpreted based on Gagné’s rating (1991). In general, the results showed that the students had an ambivalent view of their distance learning experience.

Notably, students’ most negative perceptions were about missing the interaction with teachers and colleagues, and disapproving of the unfavourably long screen times. Furthermore, 78.3% of the participants showed no preference for choosing to study mathematics by distance learning in the future, given a choice. This study has extra relevance since the process of distance learning has become more prevalent in the UAE owing to the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, it is imperative that educational institutions try to understand the complexity and embedded nature of distance learning, and the challenges encountered by students while they are studying mathematics in an online environment.

Keywords: COVID-19; distance learning; mathematics; online learning; United Arab Emirates

1. Introduction COVID-19 was declared a global emergency by the World Health Organization (WHO) on January 30, 2020, and then a global pandemic on March 11, 2020 ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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(WHO, 2020). This disease is highly contagious (Liu et al., 2020). The global spread of COVID-19 has led to profound changes in social interaction and organization, and the education sector has been no different. Many countries have implemented strict social distancing measures in attempts to inhibit the virus from spreading in dense social networks such as schools and universities (Weeden & Cornwall, 2020). Consequently, on March 12, 2020, 46 countries had declared school closures and 26 of these countries had fully closed schools nationwide (Huang, Liu, Tlili, Yang & Wang, 2020).

The concept of distance learning is not new, as it started in the 1990s and has gained increasing legitimacy, as revealed by major international agencies such as UNESCO and the World Bank, and many national policies (Perraton, 2000). As well as this enforced change, the education sector as a whole has been undergoing a more general paradigm shift with the advent of technology (Perienen, 2020). Although, as O’Brien (2020) states, “The adoption of distance learning comes as organizers and associations around the world adapt to rules prohibiting large gatherings”, Noonoo (2020) notes that some schools lack controls to deal with the pandemic, while others are better prepared and recognize the need for alternative means of providing education. Schools must adopt distance learning via the Internet, especially when there is an urgent need to provide education to students regardless of their location. Education is an ongoing process, and therefore it should enjoy the utmost priority because it is the key to global development (Brende, 2015).

However, although online learning or e-learning has been a major trend in higher education (Almuraqab, 2020; Osman, 2018; Quadri, Muhammed, Sanober, Qureshi & Shah, 2017; Yen & Lee, 2011), it is fairly new in K-12 schools.

Despite this, in a meta-analysis study (Hillmayr et al., 2020), evidence was found of the use of digital tools to enhance mathematics and science learning in high schools. However, most studies were conducted in normal situations where distance learning is optional to improve the teaching and learning process.

Mathematics is usually viewed as challenging even under normal circumstances (Fritz, Haase & Rasanen, 2019). A few studies on distance learning were conducted previously during pandemics (Ash & Davis, 2009). In fact, mathematics was not the focus of many of these studies (Astri, 2017). Many studies focused on using technological tools as a mediator in teaching mathematics; however, in this situation of the pandemic teachers are alone with these technologies and the students are far away. For example, Juliane, Arman, Sastramihardja and Supriana (2017) studied digital teaching and learning for digital natives while Quadri et al. (2017) investigated the barriers affecting the elearning implementation in Saudi Arabian universities. Thus, it is important to understand how students perceive the experience of distance learning in mathematics such as using platforms and Microsoft Teams and other applications as it has a special nature, unlike other subjects. Although the technology used as platforms was useful for teachers and students in sharing ideas and discussions in distance learning, these were considered inadequate for teaching mathematics as efficiently as traditional face-to-face teaching (Fedele &

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Li, 2008). For example, teaching many subjects requires discussions, presentations, and elaboration on the learning outcomes from the students and their teacher while this is not the case for teaching mathematics where, in addition to the discussion, the teacher needs to communicate with students by writing words and symbolic language on the blackboard. This is not easy in distance learning (Cassibba et al., 2020).

At the time of writing, researchers have been concentrating on the knowledge required to adopt distance learning during the COVID-19 crisis. For example, Perienen (2020) focused on teachers as he investigated the factors which contribute to technology usage by mathematics teachers, and found that only a minority used technology in their practice. In the UAE context, Almuraqab (2020) focused on general university students’ attitudes and found that a sample of UAE’s university students wish to continue distance learning after COVID-19.

Almuraqab’s (2020) study will have implications for the decision-makers in the UAE higher education sphere. At the time of writing, no research has been found relating to school students in the UAE. This highlights the importance of investigating mathematics distance learning experiences for students during pandemics.

Because of COVID-19, the current situation is very new to all countries globally.

Hence, the results of the current study will help advance our understanding of the integration of e-learning amid the COVID-19 pandemic in the context of developing countries at the high school level. Also, this study adds more insight into distance learning in the near future for better and more efficient education from the students' point of view. Hence, to add to the literature, this study considers the perspective of high school students in the UAE. Its purpose was twofold: (i) to illustrate high school students’ perspectives about their mathematics distance learning experience during the COVID-19 pandemic; and (ii) to investigate students’ preference to either continue distance learning or return to traditional face-to-face classes. The findings will help decision-makers understand what students think about their experience, and consequently improve distance learning in the UAE for all school subjects, especially mathematics. In this paper, the terms ‘online’, ‘e-learning’, and ‘distance education’ are used interchangeably.

This study sought to answer the following questions: RQ1. What are the perceptions of high school students toward their experience of mathematics distance learning?

RQ2. Would high school students in the UAE prefer to continue mathematics distance learning after COVID-19?

2. Literature Review Phipps and Merisotis (1999) stated that “It is important to understand what is meant by ‘distance learning.’ Because the technology is evolving, the definition of what distance learning is continues to change” (p. 11). Since it is necessary to define the concept, the literature review starts by defining the term and then studying its

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opportunities and challenges. It then describes the UAE’s transition to distance learning and discusses the students’ perspectives.

2.1 Distance Learning Definition and Types Merriam-Webster defines distance learning (n.d., para. 1) as “a method of study where teachers and students do not meet in a classroom but use the Internet, e-mail, mail, etc., to have classes.” Other definitions include that of the United States Distance Learning Association (Roblyer & Edwards, 2000) as “the acquisition of knowledge and skills through mediated information and instruction, encompassing all technologies and other forms of learning at a distance” (p. 192). King, Young, Richmond and Schrader (2001) provided a more precise definition of distance learning by first defining learning itself as “improved capabilities in knowledge and/or behaviours as a result of mediated experiences that are constrained by time and/or distance such that the learner does not share the same situation with what is being learned”(King et al., 2001). In accord with this definition, Midgely (2018) also defines distance learning in terms of remoteness between the student and teacher, that is, an absence of face-to-face contact in a classroom.

In addition to how these definitions refer to the distance of place, distance education can also be synchronous or asynchronous according to differences in time and the type of interaction (King et al., 2001). The former situations allow ‘real-time’ interaction and are time-sensitive, but geography is not a factor, while asynchronous situations are neither chronologically nor geographically sensitive. Many methods of distance learning are possible (Rodrigues, Almeida, Figueiredo, & Lopes, 2019). Hybrid learning (or blended learning) is different from synchronous and asynchronous learning as it combines traditional education with online tasks in an attempt to integrate the advantages of face-toface teaching with web-based benefits (Ellis & Han, 2018; Ko & Rosen, 2008).

This type of distance learning is not the focus of this research as face-to-face learning is impossible during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Tracking the history of distance learning, there is broad agreement among researchers that there are three major interlaced generations that can be identified for distance learning (Anderson & Dron, 2012; Bates, 2005; Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2004). The earliest stage of distance learning included postal correspondence, and the next used media such as radio, film, and television; the third and current generation facilitates education through interactive digital technologies such as networks that involve multiple students interacting with a teacher or each other via text, audio, and video. Current distance learning sessions are aligned with the third generation, and this may explain the interchangeable use in recent articles of the terms ‘e-learning’, ‘online learning’, and ‘distance learning’ in which live meetings and webinars facilitate learning.

2.2 Distance Learning Opportunities The OECD (2019) emphasized the importance of mathematics and science literacy for social participation and stressed that they are “necessary for finding solutions to complex (real-world) problems” (p.6). However, the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) has shown that many students globally

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have difficulty learning mathematics (OECD, 2019). The use of digital tools has high potential for teaching and learning mathematics (Gunbas, 2015). Learning with digital tools can be beneficial in face-to-face as well as in distance learning, according to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, as students need to participate actively in their own learning process to understand new information (Mayer, 2014). In this respect, interactive learning tools have a good effect on students' learning; however, this effect depends on the type of interactive digital tool used (Hillmayr et al., 2020). However, despite the fact that the use of the Internet facilitates the use of digital tools in teacher education methods, the focus of this study is on the benefits of distance learning in mathematics regardless of the use of digital tools, whether teachers are limited to using educational platforms or using interactive programs such as Geogebra or any other digital tool.

Nash (2015) states that online learning has experienced rapid growth and will continue to expand. The distinction between distance or online learning and face-to-face learning is that students of all ages can receive an education, even without going to class. Given this advantage, there is a surprising lack of research about distance learning in the field of mathematics. Of the existing studies, however, two have recently indicated that students learn mathematics better when effective and appropriate technology is adopted (Perienen, 2020; Niess, 2006). Educational technology experts have emphasized the positive benefits of online learning, especially when the physical site is a barrier (Ostankowicz-Bazan, 2016). In fact, distance learning today facilitates the educational process. For example, “The synchronous environment demonstrates the amazing power of a synchronous online system that empowers students in conversation and expression” (McBrien, Jones & Cheng, 2009, p. 13). Thus, distance learning is a unique solution to the continuation of learning in critical times, as in the recent case of the global pandemic of coronavirus.

There is a consensus in the literature that the main advantage of distance learning is that it allows participants to fit their learning around their work and home life (Anderson & Dron, 2012; Midgely, 2018). The flexibility of distance study is one of the main reasons for studying along this path (Anderson & Dron, 2012). Furthermore, Anderson and Dron (2012) explained that owing to the advancement of technology, such as using webinars, that now facilitates interactive distance learning, many distance learners can live and work in different countries and time zones from their teachers and peers. Distance learning also allows students to work at their own speed to achieve set goals, usually at a lower cost than with full-time education (Midgely, 2018). Moreover, distance learning enhances students’ time management and research skills.

2.3 Distance Learning Challenges Two decades ago, Phipps and Merisotis (1999) stated that technology is simply unable to replace the human factor in the educational process. This is still somewhat true, since the main distance learning challenge reported in the literature is social isolation and the lack of face-to-face contact with peers and teachers (Amin & Li, 2010; Bates, 2005; Ratnawati, 2018; White, 2003). White (2003) also links the decline of motivation to factors such as loneliness and

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isolation, the absence of live interaction, competing obligations, and the difficulty of adapting to a distance learning method. However, recent improvements in technology may have lessened students’ sense of isolation, while a growing set of activities, tools, and techniques has since been created to reduce feelings of isolation among learners (Bates, 2005). For example, White (2003) suggests that using synchronous sessions is highly motivating since it can reduce the feeling of loneliness and isolation among students.

Regarding student engagement in learning, Amin and Li (2010) investigated graduate students’ distance learning experiences and found that providing such students with an interactive learning experience and connection to their online class requires more than limiting their interaction to posting notes and engaging in discussion; rather, teachers should involve their students in group work to keep them engaged. However, teamwork assignments can only be applied to specific lessons depending on the purpose of the lesson (Ratnawati, 2018).

Moreover, other problems can affect student engagement in learning, such as lack of discipline and the difficulty of obtaining immediate feedback, which are both typical issues with online learning (Ratnawati, 2018). Distance learning requires self-discipline to complete the required tasks by giving priority and time to study. Another important challenge for online learning also mentioned

by Ratnawati (2018) is the problem of Internet connection. This may be the most significant problem because it prevents students from joining live sessions or causes a delay between speech and reception. However, there are challenges of distance learning to teaching mathematics due to its unique nature. For example, Mayes et al. (2011) indicated that the anxiety any student feels about mathematics increases when combined with student isolation and class anxiety during distance learning in addition to the difficulty in communicating mathematical ideas, especially in the form of symbols or graphs.

2.4 Transition to Online Distance Learning in the UAE The UAE has stopped traditional face-to-face schooling in favour of distance education owing to the pandemic (United Arab Emirates’ Government portal, n.d.). Schools were suspended on March 8, 2020, bringing the spring break forward by two weeks; afterwards, students began learning from home for two weeks. Subsequently, the Ministry of Education decided to continue distance education until the end of the 2019–2020 academic year without losing a single teaching day (UAE Ministry of Education, 2020).

Even before the pandemic, the availability and utilization of e-learning infrastructure and platforms accelerated the migration of distance learning throughout the UAE. Schools and universities there have been at the forefront of developing digital learning by actively using e-learning applications.

Mohammed bin Rashid’s Smart Learning Program, for example, was utilizing elearning applications and different supporting programs designed to help students gain an additional advantage in their learning long before the outbreak of COVID-19 (United Arab Emirates’ Government portal, n.d.). Although, technology was used before the pandemic as a good way to teach mathematics among teachers and learners, after the pandemic teachers no longer had a choice

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in becoming more dependent on technology even without much training in its use.

Ensuring a radical transition to online distance learning may seem difficult and almost impossible; however, schools that already use distance education have found that the transition has become easy (Noonoo, 2020). Thus, the Ministry of Education in the UAE has taken several steps to ensure the successful implementation of the distance learning process for schools and students by allowing private schools to use their own distance learning system and designating follow-up committees and teams to ensure that the learning process continues as well as in public schools. There is coordination with the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (TRA), Du and Etisalat to provide free mobile Internet packages for families who need a home Internet connection (United Arab Emirates’ Government portal, n.d.). Moreover, the Abu Dhabi Department of Education and Knowledge coordinated with private school departments and relevant partners to provide students with the tools and all other requirements necessary to activate the distance education programme forthe continuity of classes for students (Sebugwaawo, 2020).

The UAE provided licences or access to technology such as Microsoft Teams to all teachers and students. Training and guides were also given based on the main tools available. The UAE employs both synchronous learning tools via Teams for meetings chats, posts, and file sharing, and asynchronous learning tools using a learning management system (LMS) for assignments, tasks, homework and examinations. These key tools provide some consistency so that students are not overwhelmed by or rushed to learn different tools. Many teachers began to use live conferences (as synchronous learning) for the first time, but were nevertheless willing to take risks by using surveys and competitions to try to engage learners. In addition, the LMS allows teachers to manage student learning as they can upload resources and tasks (as asynchronous learning) and track student performance.

3. Methodology The purpose of this study was to investigate the students’ perceptions regarding their experience of mathematics distance learning. For this purpose, the research employed a descriptive survey design from the quantitative research approach to measure these perceptions. According to Fraenkel, Wallen and Hyun (2011), quantitative methods are considered capable of providing reliable, valid, objective, and generalizable findings. Choosing a descriptive approach is appropriate in research during the COVID-19 pandemic because it is easier to collect and explore the data fully as surveys are one of the most frequently used quantitative tools and can be conducted with a large number of participants. The data were collected on a voluntary basis via an online survey from students attending both public and private schools in the city of Al Ain in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. The use of the online survey made it easy and convenient for participants to take part in the survey in their spare time.

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3.1 Participants The convenience sampling consisted of 580 high school students from grades 9– 12 from Al Ain in the UAE. As Table 1 illustrates, the sample consisted of 101 students from grade 9 (17.4%), 183 students from grade 10 (31.6%), 154 students from grade 11 (26.6%), and 142 students from grade 12 (24.5%). The participants were distributed almost equally between public and private schools, with the number of the former being 291, and 289 from the latter. Regarding the male/female composition, the percentage of females was 68.3% (n=398), while that of males was 31.7% (n=184) (Table 1).

Table 1: Participant demographics Participants

Grade Level

Type of schooling

Gender

Frequency

Percent

Grade 9

101

17.4

Grade 10

183

31.6

Grade 11

154

26.6

Grade 12

142

24.5

Total

580

100

Public

291

50.1

Private

289

49.9

Total

580

100

Male

184

31.7

Female

396

68.3

Total

580

100

3.2 Study Instrument The survey was developed based on a review of the relevant questionnaire literature and especially on the researchers’ experience as they were themselves involved in teaching mathematics during the first few months of the pandemic (June 2020). The development of the survey went through several stages before being finalized and distributed online. First, the researchers formulated a set of purpose-built questions and research questions based on their field observations of students' experience in mathematics distance learning using what students reported during their mathematics classes as well as their fellow mathematics teachers. After several revisions, the researchers approved the final draft for piloting. It was then validated by two faculty members specializing in mathematics education, and six mathematics teachers and supervisors, who checked the relevancy of the items of the survey. The feedback was used to modify the wording of some statements. In addition, before administering the survey, eleven students also checked that every item was clear. To establish the reliability of the survey, a pilot test was conducted with 50 students who were not participants in the main study. Cronbach’s alpha, the most common measure of scale reliability, was used to calculate reliability and was found to be 0.90, indicating very strong reliability (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2012).

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The final draft of the survey consisted of three sections: the demographic questions (school type, gender, and current class); 24 close-ended questions with five-point Likert scales to describe the students’ mathematics distance learning experience (scales ranged from ‘strongly agree’ [SA], ‘agree’ [A], ‘neutral’ [N], ‘disagree’ [D] to ‘strongly disagree’ [SD]); and three dichotomous items with Yes/No answers to evaluate the students’ mathematics distance learning experience.

3.3 Data Collection The survey was created and distributed online, sent to all high school students in government and private schools in Al Ain, and made available for one week.

The submission of the survey included the goal of the study, which the participants had to read before participating. No payments or benefits were made or given to participants. In order to maintain anonymity, neither the name of the student or the school was required. The researchers emphasized that the answers would be used for educational purposes only and assured the participants that they could agree or disagree with the items of the study. In addition, the students' participation in this study was optional.

3.4 Data Analysis After collecting the data, all the responses were coded. Descriptive statistical analysis of mean and standard deviation of scores were employed rather than overall scores and then interpreted based on Gagné’s rating (1991). The mean scores were categorized by Gagné (1991) as follows: a mean score of 4–5 points was classified as high positive (HP), between 3.24–3.99 as positive (P), 2.75–3.25 as ambivalent (A), and 2–2.74 as negative (N). Scores under 2 were considered high negative (HN). Frequencies and percentages were calculated of three items in the third part of the survey.

4. Results Regarding the first research question about the students’ perspectives of their mathematics distance learning, Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations of the results for individual statements in the survey. In addition, the mean results for per individual statement rating were estimated using Gagné’s (1991) interpretation. Negatively worded items were reverse coded before calculating the means.

Table 2: Students’ perceptions of their mathematics distance learning experience # 1 2

3

4

Item

Mean

SD

Rating

It provides flexibility in choosing the time to perform and deliver tasks even at night time I can choose what suits me from a variety of learning resources such as worksheets, educational videos, educational websites, and others I can access worksheets and educational resources anytime and anywhere because of a copy of them on the LMS It allows me to work on activities at a speed that suits me

3.52

1.30

P

3.56

1.19

P

3.73

1.19

P

3.17

1.38

A

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5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

14

15 16

17

18 19 20

21 22 23 24

I can’t focus on learning mathematics because of the inconvenience caused by my family* Being away from classmates forces me to do maths exercises myself without help I am more organized and my confidence in learning mathematics has increased I miss the interaction and cooperation with students and the teacher in mathematics* I feel stressed and nervous due to my inability to work with computers and educational programs* I missed some important information due to connection problems or weakness on the Internet* Studying for long hours in front of a computer makes me tired* I receive feedback on my maths tasks, such as exams and assignments, in a timely and detailed manner I do not like to participate in the maths class because of the difficulty of writing maths symbols using a computer* I focus on understanding, not memorizing, during my study for the maths exam more than regular exams I don’t study for the mathematics exam and get answers to questions easily from others* I am constantly nervous and feel anxious due to assignments of assignments and tasks at any time on the LMS* Due to the multiple tasks, I do not have enough time to complete all the required tasks per day for mathematics* I can attend my classes even if I am away from home or feeling ill I insist on recording my attendance in maths classes but without any involvement* I participate and exchange ideas with the teacher and peers during discussions on mathematics more than before The teacher uses more diverse methods of teaching mathematics than before The focus was on the basic skills of mathematics more than the practical applications* I feel satisfied with the distance learning experience in general I understood maths lessons with equal competence before distance learning Average scale

3.20

1.42

P

3.21

1.35

A

2.73

1.46

N

1.93

1.23

HN

2.76

1.41

A

2.12

1.26

N

1.71

1.10

HN

3.29

1.26

P

3.22

1.39

A

3.58

1.25

P

4.09

1.18

HP

2.08

1.24

N

2.35

1.35

N

3.44

1.28

P

3.26

1.31

A

2.74

1.39

N

3.12

1.32

A

2.81

1.15

A

2.85

1.44

A

2.63

1.49

N

2.94

0.71

A

Generally, the perceptions of mathematics distance learning were ambivalent as indicated by the scale mean (M= 2.94). However, the results showed high negativity for two items in the survey, indicating that students were tired because of the long screen time spent in front of their digital devices (M= 1.71) and that they missed the interaction with their teachers and colleagues (M=

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1.93). On the other hand, students were very positive regarding their rejection of the statement that they did not study for the mathematics examination and easily obtained answers to questions from others (M= 4.09). The students’ perceptions were positive for seven other items, ambivalent for eight, and negative for six items.

Regarding the second question on whether the students preferred to choose distance learning to study mathematics, Table 3 reveals the numbers and percentages of students for each of the items that describe their evaluation.

Table 3: Students’ evaluation of mathematics distance learning and their preference for the future Items

Distance learning is more suitable mathematics than other subjects

for

I face a challenge in studying mathematics during distance learning more than direct learning in the classroom

If I have a choice, I prefer distance learning to study mathematics more than direct learning in the classroom after the COVID-19 crisis

Response

Frequency

Percent

Yes

135

23.3

No

445

76.7

Total

580

100.0

Yes

404

69.7

No

176

30.3

Total

580

100.0

Yes

126

21.7

No

454

78.3

Total

580

100.0

As seen in Table 3, 76.7% of the students rejected distance learning for the future on the grounds that it is unsuitable for mathematics in comparison to other subjects. Furthermore, 69.7% reported that they faced more challenges with distance learning of mathematics than with direct learning. Finally, 78.3% would not choose mathematics distance learning if they had the choice.

5. Discussion and Conclusion The UAE’s Ministry of Education has taken careful steps to apply distance learning to help limit the spread of COVID-19 by employing both synchronous and asynchronous learning in schools. However, the experience was not without some challenges in general, and mathematics in particular, as reported by more than two-thirds (69.7%) of the students. Around 78% would not choose distance learning to study mathematics given the choice. This result is not unexpected and is in line with Fedele and Li’s (2008) research, which found that despite online systems being useful platforms, they may not be as appropriate for mathematics courses as traditional face-to-face classes. Moreover, the students also agreed with the teachers in their opinion of the difficulty of participating in the case of distance learning due to the difficulty of writing words and symbolic language necessary for the mathematics class (Cassibba et al., 2020) as the

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students displayed negative perspectives towards writing mathematics symbols using a computer (M= 3.22).

The students had ambivalent general perspectives (M= 2.94) regarding their mathematics distance learning experience. Moreover, their responses were also ambivalent (M= 2.85) about the statement, “I feel satisfied with the distance learning experience in general” but were negative (M= 2.63) towards “I understand maths lessons with equal competence before distance learning”. This indicates that improvements should be made to the distance learning process and more specifically to mathematics learning.

The most negative perspective (M= 1.71) concerned spending long screen time.

In addition, in relation to technical issues, the students reported a negative perspective (M= 2.12) regarding missing important information due to connection problems. This is in accordance with Ratnawati’s research (2018).

Moreover, regarding technology, the students’ perspectives were ambivalent (M= 2.76) towards their inability to use computers and educational programs.

Similarly, they felt that the difficulty of writing maths symbols using a computer (M= 3.22) affected their class participation. However, this perspective was very close to being positive.

The second most highly negative perspective (M= 1.92) was for the statement “I miss the interaction and cooperation with students and the teacher in mathematics”, as reported by many researchers (Amin & Li, 2010; Bates, 2005; Ratnawati, 2018; White, 2003). Likewise, the students held negative perspectives (M= 2.73) regarding distance learning making them more organized. In addition, the students had an ambivalent perspective (M= 3.26) to attending class with no interaction and being forced to be independent and do mathematics exercises themselves as their fellow students are not available (M= 3.21).

In accordance with Ostankowicz-Bazan’s (2016) research, the students responded positively to all the statements that represent the flexibility of distance learning such as, “It provides flexibility in choosing the time to perform and deliver tasks even at night time”, and similar items (2–4, and 18). Likewise, another positive perspective was towards receiving feedback on mathematics assignments (M= 3.29), in contradiction to Ratnawati (2018), who reported difficulty in obtaining immediate feedback as a problem of online learning.

However, the students’ perspectives were ambivalent, but very close to positive, towards both the teachers’ use of more diverse methods of teaching (M= 3.12) and the focus on basic skills in mathematics distance learning (M= 3.19). This guides mathematics teachers on how to improve their practices in the distance learning experience. However, students responded positively (M= 3.58) to focusing on understanding more than memorizing for tests. This was supported by the highest positive response (M= 4.09) to, “I don’t study for the mathematics exam and get answers to questions easily from others”, indicating their rejection of cheating.

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To conclude, the students' view of the distance learning experience of mathematics was not decisive as the distance learning experience provided them with many advantages such as flexibility and independence in education.

However, it confronted them with many challenges such as technical problems that deprived them of some of their lessons, and the long hours they spend in front of the screens of their devices in addition to missing the interaction with their colleagues and teachers.

6. Implications and Future Research Despite the emergence of distance learning technology and its widely expected use in mathematics education, little research has been conducted on the interaction of teaching, learning, and distance education in mathematics.

Therefore, more research is needed on how to teach mathematics effectively in an online environment, and what constitutes productive learning in such an environment.

The distance learning employed in UAE schools includes synchronous and asynchronous learning, which includes many positives and benefits. However, the most prominent result of this research was that students missed the interaction with their colleagues, in addition to spending a great deal of screen time on their digital devices. The findings of this study motivate new areas of research, especially since, up to this point, no effective treatment for COVID-19 has been found and precautionary measures will continue to some extent in the near future. Since the continuity of education is a top priority, we should take advantage of this period of distance learning to improve it for all subjects, and mathematics in particular. The results of this study are therefore important for decision makers in education.

For future research, collecting qualitative data will deepen the understanding of students’ perceptions and explore the differences in their learning styles, as well as considering how the applied teaching methods can affect students’ experience of distance learning (Mayes et al., 2011). Moreover, more options should be studied for distance learning. Rodrigues, Almeida, Figueiredo and Lopes (2019) have indicated that there are many solutions available for distance learning. One might study blended learning, a combination of online and in-class learning (Ellis & Han, 2018; Ko & Rosen, 2008), which seems to be an appropriate solution for ongoing studies under the current circumstances. This might be especially fruitful since Almuraqab’s study (2020) revealed that most university students in the UAE prefer blended learning.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 308-322, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.17

Teachers’ Feedback Practice and Students’ Academic Achievement: A Systematic Literature Review Anne Malar Selvaraj, Hazita Azman and Wahiza Wahi Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6871-8914 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3018-5336 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5120-1038

Abstract. Previous literature on teachers’ feedback practices has revealed that feedback has a strong effect on students’ academic performance.

Nevertheless, feedback is a challenge for teachers to use in teaching and the learning environment due to time constraints and teachers’ inability to provide students with feedback they need for self-improvement.

Furthermore, teachers are often unsure whether the feedback given will meet students’ academic needs as students have to work on improving themselves after receiving feedback from their respective teachers. Hence, it is necessary to determine how teachers’ feedback correlates with students’ performance in school. Feedback highlights students’ strengths guides them on how to develop and regulate their learning strategies.

Feedback also provides better learning opportunities, while simultaneously guiding them to improve their current weaknesses. This paper presents a comprehensive review of past studies about feedback and its impacts on students’ learning in the classroom. This paper is using systematic literature review (SLR) to explore the connection between students’ academic performance and teachers’ feedback. The analysis discovered that although teachers’ feedback played a significant role in helping students improve themselves academically and in motivating them to become independent, feedback, particularly in written form, could negatively influence or impede learning.

Keywords: Teachers’ feedback; students’ achievement; closing the gap

1. Introduction Malaysian education practice regards feedback as a summative procedure where grades and marks are awarded, and written work is seen as a product. Profound changes were made to how academic subjects were taught, learned and assessed, including school-based assessment (SBA). Other revamps transformed the country’s traditional education curricula of assessment of learning (AoL) to assessment for learning the (AfL) (Hazita, 2009; 2016). Advances in the education ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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landscape occurred when the government recognised that future generations must be equipped with the requisite skills to cope with a rapidly evolving and increasingly globalised world and job market. Nevertheless, teachers in Malaysia have obstacles in affording needed feedback in an examination-oriented environment due to several reasons, specifically, 1) dominance of superficial and rote learning in classroom assessment practices, 2) assessment materials are not critically reviewed and discussed with peers, 3) strong emphasis on grading instead of learning, and 4) assessments do not result in the desired washback effect (Mustaffa et al., 2011; Hazita, 2016; Hamzah & Paramasivan, 2017).

As explicated in past studies on the importance of teachers’ feedback on students’ academic achievement (Ahmad, Saeed & Salam, 2013; Carvalho et al. 2014; Fyfe & Rittle-Johnson, 2016; Al-Bashir, Kabir & Rahman, 2016; Afzal & Afzal, 2017), feedback has a prominent role in classrooms, as teachers use it to inform students of their current academic progress. Giving feedback on how students perform in the classroom or on specified tasks allows them to reorganise what they understand or know to accommodate new and better ideas and skills.

Nonetheless, providing feedback does not fall solely on teachers as feedback can be given by peers during group work and students can create their feedback when working on academic tasks. Feedback is significant in the formative evaluation where teachers will be able to identify their students’ weaknesses and use the information to improve their delivery.

Although teachers are cognizant that feedback promotes students’ learning, they encounter multiple obstacles throughout the teaching and the learning process.

Teachers believe it is arduous in furnishing feedback to the pupils personally.

According to Anne and Hazita (2020), teachers are still doubtful about feedback’s potency in academically engaging students. Further, Carver (2017) mentioned that teachers usually feel that it is onerous to provide students with the feedback they need and apply. In education, students are consumers, and teachers are compelled to provide accurate feedback that is specifically tailored to address students’ demands and interests. Therefore, teachers must realise that feedback enriches students’ learning by presenting information about how much progress they have made and what they need to do next to move forward. Nonetheless, subjects examining feedback practices in secondary schools in Malaysia are still lacking. Consequently, this study presented a synthesis of contemporary studies on teachers’ feedback to learn how it could enhance secondary school students’ academic performance.

2. Literature Review 2.1 Feedback Practice and Purpose Hattie and Timperley (2007) defined input as knowledge given by teachers, peers, parents or experiences as to how one performs, or understands a matter. Feedback occurs after a student’s response or when a student is given input on a certain task (Henderson et al., 2019). Systematically, teachers use feedback to shift students’ focus from grades to the importance of knowing how much they have mastered a given task. Furthermore, feedback, at its best, is not just a list of comments but it is personalised to cater to students’ specific needs. However, the impact feedback

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has on students is dependent on its type, when and how it is used. Practically, teachers inform students of their progress while learning through the feedback loop (Chalmers, Mowat & Chapman, 2018). In these instances, students are informed of their current progress, reach their learning goals and gauge their performance against their peers.

Sadler (1989) contends that feedback is not just giving students their examination scores in grades or marks as these grades cannot help students better themselves.

For this purpose, he considers that feedback is significant in shaping and enhancing students’ academic development. He further explains that feedback helps evaluate learning by contending that formative feedback can act when it is interlinked with learning, which is the core of the entire learning process. This view is supported by Lefroy et al., (2015) and Rossiter (2016) who state that teacher’s feedback, when it is not acted upon, cannot be considered as feedback for self-improvement because students use feedback to identify the areas they need to improve further. Formative feedback is only helpful when the comments are used to enhance learning to close the gap between the students’ present academic achievement and the goal they strive. One of Sadler’s (1989) prominent argument is that developing knowledge and skills are students’ responsibilities and they should not be dependent on the teacher to tell them what is right, how to correct their errors and what they should do to improve.

In the AfL, formative feedback is essential for both students and teachers as feedback will tell students how much progress they have made, how much further progress is needed to reach their goals, the direction they need to take and how to achieve them (Tan, 2013). What separates the AfL from the AoL is the fact that in the AfL, information is utilised specifically to help students whilst learning new knowledge and skills. In situations where teachers’ see assessments as essential in any learning process, they involve students in the process. Using information obtained from feedback, these teachers will make necessary adjustments to meet their students’ requirements and simultaneously, students will also adjust their goals and learning techniques (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).

Feedback in the AfL is linked to improving students’ learning activity. For feedback to efficiently complete the formative role, students must have their aims or standards that they can use to gauge their existing realisation against what they aspire to achieve and a set of actions that will motivate the gap to be narrowed down. In recognising this, Sadler (1986; 2016) re-conceptualised the idea of feedback and understood the formative nature of feedback. He challenged the concept of feedback being teacher-centred and a channel of knowledge controlled by the teacher, with the students placed as passive recipients. Sadler’s argument further affirmed that students must have the capacity to regulate their learning and evaluation means. To initiate learners’ control, learners should take on an influential role and work in partnership with the teachers. In Sadler’s design, learners and teachers work collectively to form a partnership that empowers reading teachers’ knowledge, transparent and accessible to learners.

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The double-barrelled approach defines the dynamism of formative feedback, i.e. concurrently addressing motivational and cognitive constituents. Feedback intends to furnish students the awareness they require to distinguish their position on their learning curve and cognitively outline what to manage next.

When students learn the direction they need to use, the feeling of control moves them to attempt learning independently (Chalmers et al., 2018; Winiewski et al., 2020).

2.2 Effective Feedback and Academic Performance Due to previous attainments and practices, feedback or constructive criticism in an evaluative classroom situation can be positively viewed by students as they are aware that learning must happen with practice. Omer and Abdularhim (2017) posit that for teaching and learning to be considered successful, evaluation-based feedback should be constructive and suitable. On the other hand, Wisniewski, Zierer and Hattie (2020), whose analysis involved four hundred and thirty five (435) studies on the effects of feedback and students’ academic achievement, reaffirmed Hattie’s (2009) meta-analysis that feedback, due to its cognitive influences, was imperative in any forms of teaching and learning. Feedback is most effective when it is given during the learning process as it cognitively helps students adapt to new strategies or understand to improve learning and academic performance. Forsythe and Johnson (2017) maintain that feedback is used to develop students’ understanding and help them productively and effectively change their learning and grow strong academically. This view is in line with Brown et al., (2014) who confirms that students’ appreciation towards the feedback given will grow when they realise that it aids them in their academic pursuit. Previous research by Orsmond and Merry (2011), Alderman et al., (2014), and Evans (2013) support feedback’s influence on students’ academic excellence and on keeping them motivated.

Feedback can occur in several situations, specifically 1) teachers giving tips for corrective measures, 2) peers giving information for clarification, 3) students referring to a task’s answer key to determine if the selected answer is accurate, and 4) students using self-reflection on previous experiences for selfimprovement. When effectively provided, feedback is a powerful tool for improving learning. Feedback feeds forward into planning modifications in learning as well as in teaching for teachers whilst feedback about learning is provided to the learners with the intended purpose of improving learning (Griffths et al., 2017).

The feedback model by Hattie and Timperley (2007) suggests that feedback must answer three main questions to be considered constructive , i.e., 1) what are the goals, 2) how to reach the goals, and 3) what is the next step (what activities are required to progress?). This model is also known as feed-up, feedback and feedforward, where teachers can reduce the difference between what is currently understood and goals and achievement. The effectiveness of feedback is proven when three main questions are addressed. The model is as follows:

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1) Feed-up: Prior to giving feedback, students must know the learning purpose. Feed-up clarifies where the students are going and what their goals are.

Answers to these questions provide context for feedback.

2) Feedback: Since it revolves around how the students are doing and their progress, it monitors and assesses students’ progress in learning related to the intent to learn.

3) Feed-forward: This step calls students to improve the tasks they are working on or their learning intention. Focusing on where to next and what needs to be done to move forward, feed-forward is more on asking students to refine their goals, i.e., come up with different sets of goals to achieve their target.

Students and teachers are equally responsible for reducing the learning gap. On the students’ part, they need to either 1) put in more effort and effectively employ learning strategies or 2) lower or change their present goals. Carver (2017) states that teachers can give suitable goals and effectively help students using feedback and learning strategies. The feedback given can be based on four levels, namely level of tasks (what), process levels (how), addressing self-regulation lists for students, and self-level (students’ personalities). According to Hattie and Timperley (2007) and Wiliam (2012), feedback based on the process and selfregulation is viewed as powerful effective.

Feed-forward is viewed as a better substitute to traditional feedback as it allows students to seek advice on the next course of action towards self-improvement (Martin & Alvarez, 2017). Students have the freedom to accept or reject the advice as the approach prepares them to accept challenges without fear of being judged.

The feed-forward approach empowers them to plan for what is to come rather than brooding over what has passed. Feed-forward’s positive traits let students know that the power to change is in their hands. Moreover, feed-forward’s effectiveness makes students and teachers feel comfortable communicating with each other as students have the impression that their teachers are coaching them to become better without being intimidating.

Feed-forward is a favourite among students because it does not rate them on what they have done or failed to do but instead, it helps them to find permanent solutions to their current academic predicament. According to Martin and Alvarez (2017), feed-forward works on the fundamentals of assisting students by allowing them to plan and tailor their plans to meet their capabilities. On a similar note, Carver (2017) stated that apart from helping students cope with tasks related to summative evaluation, feed-forward assesses students’ present achievement levels and formulates strategies to narrow existing gaps. Students who are actively present in the learning process, tend to perceive feedback as a feedforward that helps direct them to their personal goals.

Kim and Lee (2019) state that despite, feedback’s benefits, it can still be unkind and negative. As schools strive to become the best in their respective regions or districts, the real meaning of learning is negated by the importance of grades and the pressure to perform. Various studies discovered that the obsession with the number of As had affected students’ interest to learn (Khan, 2014; Klapp, 2015;

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Méndez López & Tun, 2017). Students lack the motivation to pursue their academic dreams as they feel that they are assessed by the grades obtained and not how much they have learned. Both teachers and students are trapped in a circle that pins students in a merciless spin of grading and teachers are pressured to prepare students to produce high grades. The high grades may put schools on pedestals, but it victimises students who are taught to become producers of countless As and not as individuals who have mastered learning.

Al-Bashir, Kabir and Rahman (2016) considered that feedback provides to teachers and students knowledge about learning while Masantiah, Pasiphol and Tangdhanakanond (2020) agreed that students need teachers’ feedback to be able to reach their learning and to serve students with recognising the vital and vulnerable points of their work. Further, feedback assists narrowing down the gap between students’ present extent of performance or knowledge and the aspired aim. Feedback can offer practical and influential impressions on students’ learning, depending on how much information the teacher gives for additional growth. For example, Núñez-Peña, Bono and Suárez-Pellicioni (2015) reported that the use of feedback on students in mathematics class lessened the learning gaps of the results of mathematics-related anxiety, which might help them to perform well in the subject.

For feedback to be considered good or acceptable, it must contain details that can be used by the students. If teachers want students to benefit from the feedback given, they must ensure that the feedback is audible and comprehensible.

Students will be unable to plan their next course of action if they cannot understand the feedback’s gist. Consequently, they will ignore the advice and take the feedback lightly since they do not find the message relevant to their present situation. Regarding this, several studies have discovered that feedback, regardless of its benefits, can negatively affect students if it is given inappropriately. Moreover, students, especially those pursuing tertiary level education, tend to reject feedback and see it as pointless (Omer & Abdularhim, 2017; Rossiter, 2016; Wisniewski et al., 2020).

Fyfe and Rittle-Johnson (2016) reported that feedback’s effectiveness is dependent on the learners’ prior knowledge. Feedback helps learners with no or less prior knowledge of what is being learned but does not affect learners with excellent earlier knowledge on the subject. Consequently, for any feedback to efficiently meet learners’ requirements, teachers must ensure that feedback discusses interests and areas that require improvement. In their research, Fyfe and RittleJohnson’s (2016) examined three (3) secondary schools in Malaysia comprising ninety (90) seventeen-year-old participants who learned English as a second language (ESL). They studied the use of written feedback and participants’ perception of the feedback. The results revealed that the participants reacted poorly towards the feedback as they felt that the feedback was demotivating despite its noble aims (Saidon et al., 2018). Such conflicting response is attributed to the fact that feedback tends to be overwhelming and excessive (Chalmers et al.

2018). Afzal and Afzal (2017) recommended that written feedback be orderly and immaculate, including the standard and necessary jargon, and avoid providing

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some response. Hence, teachers need to find a balance between empowering and moving students to produce critical changes.

Students’ reaction towards any forms of academic feedback is normally related to their perception of it. According to Boud and Molly (2013), how students perceive feedback from their peers and teachers is related to their growth mindset. Those who positively view feedback would see it as a positive indicator of their learning process and use it to measure how much they know and what they should do to better themselves (Forsythe & Johnson, 2017). In certain circumstances, Tippin et al., (2012) believe that the person giving feedback could influence students’ perception of the feedback.

Another factor influencing students from accepting feedback is a fixed mindset (Chalmers et al., 2018). Unlike those with a growth mindset, fixed mindset student tends to be offended by feedback. These students would resort to being defensive as they feel that the feedback is a form of judgement that attacks their image and confidence. Instead of challenging them to change for the better, this group of students would view feedback as useless. Moreover, they would focus on what they are not good in rather than using the feedback to form plans or strategies that could help them grow intellectually and emotionally.

3. Objective and Methodology This study employed systematic literature review as its research methodology and was qualitative research. It merged literary analysis and thematic analysis procedures to analyse and synthesise research papers that explore teachers’ feedback and students’ performance. The specific aim of this study is to identify the connection between teachers’ feedback, students’ learning and academic achievement. The Systematic Literature Review (SLR) necessitates a stable, attentive reading and re-reading of the papers. This review’s research papers were from various databases such as ERIC, Google Scholar, Elsevier, and other Scopusindexed journals.

The search was carried out from May 2020 to August 2020. During this period, the researcher scrutinised the link between teachers’ feedback and its impact on students’ academic success. For this review, research published from 2013 to 2018 were included. The research papers selected for this review were sourced from several databases such as ERIC, Google Scholar, Elsevier, and other Scopusindexed journals.

Guidelines adapted from Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) were used in this methodical literature analysis. Based on the guidelines, the following steps were used. The checklist was used as a guide and were used to develop a methodical review protocol to select literature that met the inclusion criteria. The protocol was as follows: i.

Database search ii.

Specific keywords related to the topic iii.

Articles published from 2013 to 2019

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iv. v. vi.

Titles and abstracts were screened based on the predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria Data relevant to the research questions are identified Finalised data are summarized and reported

3.1 Selection of Studies For selection purposes, selected articles must meet the following inclusion criteria: i. ii. iii.

Studies focusing on teachers’ feedback and students’ academic achievement Studies discussing problems associated with teachers’ feedback and its impact on students Studies discussing on benefits associated with teachers’ feedback and its impact on students

The selected articles are examined further to determine whether they had met the pre-determined inclusion criteria. This review only includes publications written in English and published by peer-reviewed journals. Therefore, papers excluded are masters and doctoral theses and government reports and to prevent duplication, the articles’ relevance are established based on their titles and abstracts.

3.2 Extracting Data The database search was conducted using search engines of notable digital libraries such as ERIC, Google Scholar, Elsevier, and other Scopus-indexed journals. Relevant articles were searched based on their title and abstracts and were analysed based on their keywords and phrases teachers’ feedback and students’ academic achievement.

Table 2.1 Keywords and phrases with inquiries for database search Keywords and Phrases Teachers’ Feedback

Students’ academic achievement and teachers’ feedback

Inquiries Effects of teachers’ feedback on learning; Types of teachers’ feedback; psychological impact of teachers’ feedback Academic achievement and teachers’ feedback; students’ perception towards teachers’ feedback

The keyword search identified thirty-five (35) articles. The inclusion process saw the articles being examined further based on the titles. Five articles were removed as they were duplicated. Ten (10) articles that did not focus on issues related to teachers’ feedback and students’ academic achievement are eliminated leaving the list with twenty (20) articles. The second inclusion process used abstracts to eliminate more articles leaving the list with eighteen (18) articles. The articles selected was published between 2013 and 2019. The key data were: (i) Author(s) name, (ii) the region, (iii) types, (iv) sample characteristics (e.g., gender, age), (v) data analysis, and (vi) key findings. The PRISMA flow diagram is outlined in

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Figure 1 shows the process of identifying relevant publications, screening process and finalized the number of articles selected.

Step 1: Title review

All articles within (ERIC, Google Scholar, Elsevier, and other Scopus-indexed journals,) and relevant abstracts from the databases spanning from 2013-2019 were considered according to the title content for inclusion.

Articles found based on databased search using specific keywords (n=35)

Removal of duplicates (n =5)

Title Review (n=35)

20 articles considered relevant as per title (n=20)

Abstract review (n=20)

Finalized articles (n=18)

Two (2) articles rejected during abstract review (n=2) 1.

Did not focus teachers’ feedback 2.

Did not focus on teachers’ feedback and students’ academic achievement

Figure 1. Steps identifying articles in examining teachers’ feedback practice and students’ academic achievement

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4. The Results Based on the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) administered, teachers’ feedback assisted students to grow themselves to be academically sound. Teachers must offer feedback that inspires students’ learning instead of demotivating them. The subjects in the analysis centred on reviewing teachers’ feedback on students’ academic accomplishment. The outcomes recorded that teachers’ feedback could influence students in various forms, particularly their 1) academic achievement, 2) motivation to study, 3) capacity to learn independently and 4) learning-related anxiety. The outcomes are summarised and explicated in Table 1.

Table 1. A Systematic Literature Review of Teachers’ Feedback Practices and Secondary School Students’ Academic Achievement Systematic Literature Review of Teachers’ Feedback and Students’ Achievement NO .

Teachers’ Feedback and Students’ Achievement

1.

Influence of teachers’ feedback on students’ achievement

The positive correlation between feedback given and students’ academic performance

Ahmad et al. (2013); Al-Bashir et.al. (2016); Masantiah et.al (2018); Núñez-Peña et al. (2015)

2.

Teachers’ feedback approach could improve or hinder students’ motivation (perception) to learn

The positive correlation between teachers’ feedback and the possibility of it affecting students’ motivation and perception towards learning

Hamidun, Hashim & Othman (2013); Carvalho et al., (2014); Fyfe and Rittle-Johnson (2016); Afzal and Afzal (2017); Saidon et al. (2018); Chalmers et al.

(2018)

3.

Teachers’ feedback motivates students to improve themselves as independent learners

The positive correlation between teachers’ feedback and students’ regulating their learning independently

Fernandez-Toro and Hurd (2014), Al-Bashir et.al2016); Masantiah et.al (2018),

4.

Teachers’ feedback helps lower students’ anxiety when learning difficult subjects (science and language)

The positive correlation between teachers’ feedback and lowered anxiety levels

Di Loreto and McDonough (2014); Núñez-Peña et.al (2015); Martin and Alvarez (2017); Abdullah, Hussin & Shakir (2018)

Explication

Study

5. Discussion Teachers’ feedback highlights the learners’ forces and guides them on improving learning while simultaneously guiding them to address their current weaknesses.

Teachers’ feedback is surely connected with students’ academic accomplishment, as presented on the analysis. Students require feedback for self-improvement. It

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is imperative, so they will be self-supporting pupils and further intensify their scholarship. Nonetheless, teachers’ feedback has flaws, particularly when it is rendered without judging students’ preceding knowledge and sentiments.

Even though teachers’ input is confidently linked with how good students achieve in their task, past studies has also pointed out that such input could have damaging results. Students tend to perceive their teachers’ feedback, especially in written form, as inconsiderate and captious of their abilities. Their adverse response to the feedback could demotivate them from learning and improving themselves. Nevertheless, students driven by the feedback tend to learn by themselves as they manage independently to reinforce their weak links and devote more enthusiasm to become better.

In addition to the teachers’ role in helping students academically, analysed studies have also highlighted that students are responsible for their learning. Apart from being moved to learn independently, students should embrace feedback, regardless of its nature and tone, as a hint to adapt and evolve. The capacity to accept constructive forms of feedback will empower students to recognise that feedback does not intend to attack them personally, but instead, it emphasises what they need to prepare for self-improvement.

The analysed literature also calls to attention the dark side of feedback used in summative assessments. Instead of building students’ confidence and motivation to learn, feedback will end up demotivating them as a result of summative evaluation’s critical and rigid features. The rigidity hinders learning as it uses grades to determine students’ academic progress and gauge their abilities against their peers. On the other hand, when feedback is formative, instead of pitting peers against each other based on their grades, the feedback will help students to recognise their fortes and weaknesses. Students will be aware of the measures they need to take to overcome the gap between their current and future goals, hence, motivating them to become better learners.

In the literature, assessment for learning is quintessential for both students and teachers. Feedback prompts one to react to experience, design new instructional methodologies and found a robust sense of new learning in the classroom. To overcome students’ challenges, teachers must make it a practice to use feedback to escalate teaching and learning effectively. By following the teachers’ input, they deliver information that registers where the priority is and where relevant development guidance is assigned. Feedback not only promotes learning but at the same time teachers can change their teachings based on the input during the classroom lessons. Additionally, positive feedback invigorates teachers to devise learning and information models for their students’ exacted scholarship.

The reviewed literature also showed that teachers’ feedback should not always be exclusively descriptive but must consider classroom situation, motivation, the capability to read, and students’ readiness. These qualities should create concrete feedback and guarantee the support and progress of students while learning.

Teachers’ input holds an obvious difference as feedback offers students’ critical

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information and what they know and what they need to do to move ahead in their learning. Feedback supports students to realise where and how to develop, and it can increase their motivation to put exertion in making enhancements. Therefore, feedback can better cognitively process for more reliable execution, including, affirming and rebuilding understanding, improving learning techniques, managing students to more knowledge and recommending better strategies to improve further. Feedback draws students in metacognitive techniques, for instance, objective setting, task arranging, observing and reflection, which are vital skills for self-regulated learning.

Ultimately, the literature pointed out that feedback is essential for students and upgrades teachers’ instructional teaching skills. The reflexive action of considering and reflecting upon feedback empowers teachers to look deeper into their respective teaching skills and practices while delivering the content during classroom teaching. When feedback is utilised productively, it can intensify learning activities, pedagogy, and realise its predicaments. On the other hand, students reflecting on their understanding can offer feedback to the teacher, reflecting where teaching should be given importance and core interest. When teachers are tended to modify their lesson exercises depending on the feedback, this further encourages students’ learning.

Concerning teachers’ feedback, prospective comparisons can consider including secondary schools from other states in Malaysia to review other factors related to teachers’ feedback practices and their influences on students’ performance.

6. Conclusion In the examined literature, the potency of feedback in promoting students’ learning experience has been presented. Ergo, the analysis authenticated that teachers’ feedback practice is pertinent in assuring that students are informed of their academic development. Feedback practices must not be mere comments by becoming a conduit that enables learning to move forward. Mastering the art of giving feedback is no longer a choice, but compulsion as it progressively becomes a notable factor that enhances students’ learning and academic performance.

Nevertheless, giving feedback should be done because it can affect the students’ perception of the teachers’ intentions and demotivate them from striving to become better. Teaching and learning are a two-way interaction between teachers and students, and feedback encourages balance how students are taught and how teachers approach teaching to satisfy their students’ academic levels. Apart from helping students be informed of their academic progress, teachers can use feedback to reflect on their teaching manoeuvrings as they must guarantee that they can customise their lessons to cater to students’ diverse necessities.

Acknowledgements We are very thankful to the experts for their valuable critiques to write this journal.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 323-341, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.18

Mathematics Teachers’ Pedagogy through Technology: A Systematic Literature Review Jaafaru Aliyu Department of Mathematics, School of Secondary Edu. Sciences Federal College of Education Zaria, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9124-1445 Sharifah Osman School of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2896-9377 Mohd Fadzil Daud School of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University Teknologi Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9046-0649 Jeya Amantha Kumar Centre for Information Technology and Multimedia, University Sains Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6920-0348

Abstract. Mathematics teachers’ pedagogy (MTP) is an integral part of classroom instructional mediation through technology or manipulatives.

This article describes a logical literature analysis for the MTP and technology with GeoGebra (GG). The findings reveal the intervention impact of MTP with GG and other technologies such as matrix laboratory (MATLAB); an interactive whiteboard (IWB) and computer algebra system (CAS); wxMaxima, which is a CAS; information and communication technologies (ICT); concrete materials as well as other resources in developing students’ performances in mathematics which were generally effective too. The systematic literature review (SLR) explored findings from current research between January 2011 and October 2020. Quality assessment screening of the papers was done and alongside further elimination of repeated documents from the analysis, twenty-eight publications met the refinement and inclusion/exclusion criteria out of 110 papers. The modified preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) outline exemplifies the literature review accordingly. The authors observed, accomplished, and discussed the significance of the SLR. This was followed by the

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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constraints, upcoming directions for MTP with technology and GG, and the MTP consequences for education and research.

Keywords: GeoGebra; Mathematics education; Mathematics teachers’ pedagogy; Systematic literature review; Technology

1. Introduction Mathematics is a study of topics such as quantity or numerals, change, shapes, and space. Mathematics tries to find out designs or patterns and use them to convey new conjectures. Thus, it is essential in many fields, such as medicine, natural sciences, engineering, finance, social sciences, and many more.

Mathematics has several valuable advantages to our minds if we go into its study. The development of mental thinking/reasoning accelerates our minds and analytical thinking as well as being useful for practical use and day-to-day activities. Usman (2019) stressed that mathematics is the rational language for conveying concepts, structures, capacities, dimensions, other modifications, and vitality in the teaching procedure and clarifying the difficulties of modern society in the professional, commercial, academic, economic and engineering fields for lifelong learning. Without mathematics there is no science, no modern technology, and no national development (Usman, 2019). Furthermore, Chinyere (2016) argues that there is no course of study in our institutions of learning that does not require the knowledge of mathematics; hence its role in science and technology cannot be overemphasised. Mathematics teachers’ pedagogy (MTP) in this situation discusses what instructors can do to uphold the best quality practice that may meet the necessary targets of the 21st century. Thus, teachers need to be able to develop strategies on how they can improve effectiveness in their teaching, what scientific training can elevate their levels of competence, and what teachers’ content knowledge and what approaches may yield desirable outcomes for students (Warner & Kaur, 2017).

The TPACK framework proposes that excellent instruction requires a good understanding of the intricate relationships among the three key foundations of information: technology, pedagogy, and content; and reports in what manner they play out in indefinite settings (Mishra et al., 2011). Thus, for successful design in technology integration, schoolteachers must understand more than the technical aspects of technology; they need to comprehend its constraints and benefits both for demonstrating subject matter and distinguishing relevant teaching styles (Mishra et al., 2011). Recently, the TPACK framework has been recommended as an incorporated context for teacher knowledge for successful technology assimilation. Built on Shulman's pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), Mishra et al. (2011) added ’technological’ (T), thereby creating TPACK (technological, pedagogical and content knowledge) in 2005. Thus, TPACK is essential for implementing technology and effective instruction. Effective instruction involves teachers’ knowing how to operate knowledge and the use of technology in instruction. The TPACK structure comprises three basic components, namely content knowledge (CK), pedagogical knowledge (PK), and technological knowledge (TK) (Luo et al., 2018).

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Furthermore, technology integration (TI) focuses on new knowledge or what can transform modern technology, such as GeoGebra (GG), to have a constructive impact on the students’ learning because of the excellence and richness of the lesson materials offered by teachers through the incorporation of technology.

Ogbonnaya and Mushipe (2020) stressed that TI, like GG with mathematics training, corresponds to the constructivist philosophy of understanding through knowledge as a dynamic procedure and that society can study via investigation and functioning involvement in the education development. However, in the teaching/learning of mathematics, numerous classroom modification activities are done through designing and developing lesson plans with the aid of supportive innovation that can lead to success in mathematics learning (Za’ba et al., 2020). Thus, what precise abilities and limitations do these tools have and do they bring positive changes to the classroom setting and nurture the progress of students’ learning? Accordingly, Za’ba et al. (2020) point out that the achievement of technology integration into teaching/learning transpires when teachers are capable of using technological devices to support them in acquiring information, exploring and incorporating the information, and expressing it proficiently to students. Pfeiffer (2017) argues that many instructors and students have open entry to appropriate software while computers are obtainable both in homes and schools, integrating technology into the daily teaching/learning of mathematics. Also, GG is freely available, and teachers/students can access it through smartphones or computers and can copy it online. Students can even use it in their free time on computers or smartphones (Pfeiffer, 2017). Further, GG or other software through TI can support students’ learning activity and challenge the traditional approach of teaching/learning.

Abidin et al. (2019) stressed that a systematic literature review (SLR) is a technique to classify, choose and assess study subject matter appropriate to the research problem. In reviewing a paper, three phases are necessary: preparing the review, performing the review, and informing the review (Abidin et al., 2019). Moreover, there are some challenges associated with SLR that include the need for training, difficulty in synthesising results, formulating the study design, lack of funding, and being time-consuming. Thus, Abidin et al. (2019) argue that the technique in the SLR should comprise setting a question, carrying out a search, recognising the right type of research, and obtaining information from the articles. Subsequently, the conclusions of the review should be brief, and the outline of the assessment should be made known. The information should include the mediation and the pattern result of all the paper evaluations (Abidin et al., 2019).

Consequently, in the PRISMA framework, the existing pieces of evidence are synthesised in the findings. There is always categorisation of the outcomes. SLR has an established protocol for searching strategies and reporting. Duplicate records’ removal from the documents is paramount. SLR provides reasons for including or excluding studies and is explicitly informed by the research questions. Data extraction is on current and relevant studies related to the topic of discussion. Finally, included studies only were assessed as to the quality of the review.

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In the findings, the sections are used to explain the entire content of the research in ascending order: Purpose of the Review, Methodology, Results and Discussion (Study of Mathematics Teachers’ Pedagogy with Technology, Study of Mathematics Teachers’ Pedagogy and GeoGebra and a summary of twentyeight review papers), Limitations, Future Recommendations, Conclusion, Research Implication and References.

2. Goal of the Review The objectives are to map out the existing understanding of the problem. This systematic review (SR) is an integrative and retrospective scientific investigation which intends to answer research questions clearly formulated through a systematic and explicit process. The following research questions were formulated and used to guide the procedure of the SLR, namely (i) What are the findings of the studies in MTP and technology intervention? and (ii) What are the previous studies in MTP and GG intervention?

Based on these research questions, the following objectives were set: (i) to provide an introductory overview of the process; to highlight key standards that can be used to prepare, conduct, and report on SLR; present resources; add values; address the knowledge gap; synthesise multiple studies; and give the best estimate of any true effect. (ii) The study aims to review papers on the effect of MTP using technology and GG as well as offering more descriptions in the field and making recommendations for future development.

In this phase, the planning is according to the PRISMA framework and the questions posed in the research. Thus, the inquiry sequence and the reporting pattern are explained below:

3. Methodology SLR is a technique of sorting and blending result findings that fit precise standards to solve a specific problem (Piper, 2013). It is a process of developing a clear question that utilises logical and specific approaches towards classifying, selecting and crucially assessing or calculating significant investigation, and of collecting and examining the information from the findings for the review. SLR tries to classify, evaluate, and create realistic support that convenes prestipulated appropriateness measures to resolve a provided investigation issue. A meta-evaluation is a statistical review of the information presented from several sources or findings that seeks to enquire or respond to the identical problem (Piper, 2013). Li et al. (2020) argue that performing systematic reviews to investigate the significance of and developments in particular subjects is common in learning research. For instance, investigators analyse the historical progress of study in mathematics education as well as patterns studied with technology used in mathematics education (Li et al., 2020).

Consequently, in the current research, a modified PRISMA statement template is used for the methodological procedure to gather, examine, and produce all the related information in the earlier studies to offer the state of the research. Thus, the PRISMA information facilitates the investigator to enrich the coverage of the

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assessment paper (Khan & Qureshi, 2020) and build on the indicated purposes of the research finding. Figure 1 below shows the literature inclusion and exclusion at every phase:

Figure 1: A summary of literature inclusion and exclusion

3.1 Search Strategies For this systematic search, a search strategy was developed to identify relevant literature: Pedagogy OR MTP AND GG OR Technology in Mathematics Education. These search strategies used five databases: IEEE XPLORE, ScienceDirect or Elsevier, Scopus, Springer Link, and Taylor & Francis Online. In addition, tools such as Google Scholar and Web of Science were used in the belief that they are the leading databases that comprise bibliographic documents with full-text publishing structures in a variety of disciplines and, specifically for educational multidisciplinary research. All searches spanned from databases 0101--2011 until 18-10-2020 and included journals, reviews and conferences published in English only.

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3.2 Selection Criteria The search focused mainly on mapping existing literature on pedagogy (MTP) or with technology (GG) in the field of social sciences. The examination was then restricted to the subject sections, to social sciences, art, and humanity, multidisciplinary and technology with over 34,500 papers. The exploration period was 2011-2020. All articles prior to 2011 were excluded from the examination. The exploration concentrated on all nations globally. Thus, a total 34,390 research articles was excluded at this stage. There were 110 records extracted at this stage.

3.3 Quality Assessment The research is centred on new investigation articles and conference documents.

For upholding the integrity of the review, all duplicates were verified comprehensively. The abstracts of the articles were checked meticulously for the evaluation and purification of the articles to certify the excellence and significance of educational information contained in the analysis procedure. A thorough assessment of all inquiry articles was held at a subsequent phase. The following rejection measure was to regulate the documents published in the English language only. There were 10 in other languages and these have been eliminated from the research. Also, refinement of 50 papers was done and these were excluded. Furthermore, after the filtration of duplicate records, 20 more articles were removed from the study. A total of 28 articles were selected after assessing each article on the inclusion and extraction criteria.

3.4 Data Extraction The findings have been limited to conferences, journal articles and review papers from 2011 until 2020 and are accessible in the English Language. A total of 110 papers were found while conducting the review. These papers were examined to detect the objectives of the study. The keywords related to GeoGebra and other technological interventions as used in the previous findings, among others, include the following: (i) GeoGebra assisted students effectively in solving the properties of straight-line graph problems (Mudaly & Fletcher, 2019). (ii) The outcomes of the post-test indicate that 70-75% of students answered the questions correctly with the intervention of the GG software (Aizikovitsh-Udi & Radakovic, 2012). (iii) The statistical assessment demonstrates that the students' knowledge attainment in investigating drawing and graph functions improved with GG (Takači, Stankov, & Milanovic, 2015). (iv) Nineteen of the candidates enjoyed significant educational success and seven had less success through GG software in the past (İpek et al., 2014). (v) Good practice with technology uses enhanced exploration, inquiry and collaboration among learners (Bray & Tangney, 2017).

The writers then encapsulated the content into a table for the stage of informing the review. Subsequently, the writers eliminated the papers corresponding to the criteria; 28 papers were found to be reviewed in depth. The review of the results and discussion is presented below.

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4. Results and Discussion Primarily, in the twenty-eight papers evaluated, seventeen conducted the study on secondary/high/college school students, four on primary/elementary school students, and seven on university students. Thus, this information shows that there is a limited amount of research at the primary and university levels.

Moreover, only four out of twenty-eight researchers used the TPACK framework in their findings. The researchers incorporated other relevant pedagogies related to technology or ICT as well as information in the instruction and studying of calculation at all levels of education (Costică, 2015). Other writers from the review used a computer algebra system (CAS) that focused on the symbolic manipulation of doing mathematics (Marshall et al., 2012). CAS is a specific kind of mathematical software platform that can control and influence mathematical representations with a conceptual variable quantity. The main goal of a CAS is to systematise monotonous and occasionally challenging algebraic manipulation tasks. Thus, many teachers said that the role of symbolism in classrooms ought to be transformed (Özgün-Koca, 2010).

Currently, in the findings, and also in the previous study, there are various approaches to technology use that include interactive whiteboard (IWB) (Ayub et al., 2012), MATLAB (Beauchamp & Kennewell, 2013), and wxMAXIMA (Costică, 2015). Most of the papers reported the use of pedagogy or technology or mathematics software for intervention purposes. The roles of these tools in the education and understanding of mathematics bring changes to pupils’ learning and encourage an increase of students’ discoveries (Yong et al., 2019).

Moreover, it enables students to gain access to a variety of unusual solution sets, and to experiment and construct with geometrical tools to make assumptions and clarifications. Graphics or visuals facilitate knowledge access and improve students’ attitude to the issues of a subject traditionally regarded as being difficult (Ayub et al., 2012; Beauchamp & Kennewell, 2013; Costică, 2015).

However, in the elementary-school mathematics classroom, it is necessary for the use of augmented reality to adopt the curriculum subject (Radu et al., 2016).

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) has a significant effect on the teaching/learning of mathematics (Young, 2017). Thus, good practice through technology-enhanced exploration, inquiry and collaboration is required (Bray & Tangney, 2017).

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Table 1: Study of mathematics teachers’ pedagogy with technology Citation

Instrument MTP &Technology

Results

Lye, 2013

TPACK; education technology; ICT in education

There is a need for improvement in PCK as aspects of learning skills

Kaarakka et al., 2019

MathCheck; pedagogy; mathematics; education

MathCheck encouragement

AlAbdullatif & Alsaeed, 2019

Visible learning ICT integration; mathematics classrooms; technology-enhanced (TI)

Around Saudi Arabia, there is a need for re-evaluating their instructors’ outcomes on learner’s knowledge through TI

Young, 2017

Calculators; meta-evaluation; Technology; computer-assisted instruction; mathematics achievement

Statistically important moderator of the effects on mathematics through technology enhancement

Kalloo, Mohan, & Kinshuk, 2016

Learning game design pedagogy; competition design; mathematics games; major games; event model lenses

In studying sport design there is a need for the insertion of pedagogical concepts into the new requirement.

Yong et al., 2019

Digital event-centred learning; educational games; COTS; mathematics; tutors, parents, and undergraduates

Students should explore Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL) on their own

Zualkernan , 2015

Gender-variations; growing countries; online-learning; equipment-enhanced learning; mathematics

With or without the use of technology, as observed there is no considerable disparity in performance among female and male children for class II and class V proficiency

Radu et al., 2016

Fundamental classroom instruction; teachers’ augmented reality; prototyping; mathematics

In the elementary-school math classroom, there are few opportunities for adopting the curriculum subjects

Kurvinen et al., 2019

Teacher feedback: technologyenhanced learning

The programme constructed and executed at the University of Turku called Ville to improve teachers’ confidence

Bray & Tangney, 2017

Technology-enhanced learning; mathematics education; secondary education, SLR

Excellent preparation with technology uses improved inquiry, exploration, and co-operation, whereby the teacher functions as a mediator of knowledge

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Akkaya, 2016

Mathematics instruction; intermediate school mathematics pre-service instructors; technology (TPCK)

Pre-service tutors to have guidance on TPACK and re-evaluated in the context of TPACK to primary mathematics tutors

Beauchamp & Kennewell, 2013

IWB; transition; instrumentation; affordance; instructor's role; tutor learning

A knowledgeable instructor and learners can devise the IWB system to accelerate successful learning by the students

Saralar, IşiksalBostan, & Akyüz, 2018

Collaborative learning; constructivism; mathematics; function; problem-solving

Delivers results on TPACK. The preservice teachers use dynamic geometry as observed through their planning artefacts and evaluation with TPACK structure

McCulloch et al., 2018

Enhancing teaching; pedagogical issues; learning/teaching plans; secondary education

Teachers should gain access to a range of various technology instruments and be prepared to use the knowledge they need at their college

Chen & Jang, 2014

Stages of concern; TPACK; TI; career development; Taiwan

Investigate the interrelatedness among instructor concerns and their learning formation (TPACK)

Bano et al., 2018

Science education; mathematics education; pedagogy; mobile learning

Examining the relationship between mobile learning and these pedagogies through SLR

da Silva FigueiraSampaio et al., 2013

Mathematics; K-12 schools; solid materials; coaching systems

Schoolteachers use tangible resources for teaching mathematics and materials are valuable and attractive

Backfisch et al., 2020

Learning technology; capability research; specialised knowledge; anticipation-value theory; teaching mathematics

Motivational values with instructors’ role for learning technologies perform a vital status in incorporating technology into mathematics instruction

Kivkovich, 2015

Teaching strategies; geometry; mediation; mathematics; pupils’ attitudes

Teachers can utilise tools for comprehensive and feature intermediated learning by dialogic communication. These include spoken and non-verbal aspects

Marshall et al., 2012

Post-secondary education applications in subject areas; improving classroom teaching; human-computer interface

Using CAS largely to have students’ discover and imagine mathematical notions

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Ayub et al., 2012

Great approach; calculus; wxMaxima; surface approach; CAI

wxMaxima as a teaching aid may develop mathematics at the Malaysia secondary school stage

Costică, 2015

Computing technology; the geometric representations. competition; tetrahedron; parallelepiped

Creates cognition, develops a suitable behaviour, and uses pedagogical practice, the AEL lesson packs and special software such as GG, MATLAB, and Maple

Re-examining teachers’ effect on learners’ skill and development through technology (Al-Abdullatif & Alsaeed, 2019), inserting pedagogical theories into learning game design and exploring digital game-based learning (DGBL) are paramount (Kalloo et al., 2016). Thus, the design and implementation of a platform such as Ville (Kurvinen et al., 2019) and feedback in the use of MathCheck improve teachers’ confidence, provide encouragement and offer opportunities for adopting the curriculum subjects in schools (Kaarakka et al., 2019).

Training through TPACK for primary mathematics teachers may improve best practices (Akkaya, 2016). Evaluating the TPACK of pre-service teachers using a dynamic geometry environment can enhance learning (Akkaya, 2016). Assessing the interrelationship among educator concerns and their familiarity formation (TPACK) found that, out of 26 participants, 19 have high levels of academic success (Chen & Jang, 2014).

Similarly, the role of teachers in orchestrating the IWB environment to simplify efficient learning by the students, software such as GG, MATLAB and Maple, creates cognition to the learners, using CAS to visualise and explore mathematical concepts and wxMaxima could serve as useful teaching aids (Ayub et al., 2012; Beauchamp & Kennewell, 2013; Costică, 2015).

Moreover, teachers use concrete materials for teaching mathematics, which is useful and attractive for teachers to use tools for complete and quality mediated learning (Da Silva Figueira-Sampaio et al., 2013). Motivational beliefs and teachers’ role are key factors in adding technology into mathematics instruction (Backfisch et al., 2020). Besides, it is paramount that teachers have to get and use different technology instruments at their school (McCulloch et al., 2018).

Zualkernan (2015) stressed that, in the developing countries, in technologyenhanced leaning of mathematics, with or without the e-learning, there is no substantial difference in implementation between male and female children for grade II and grade V numeracy (Zualkernan, 2015).

Consequently, technology enhancement moderates effects on mathematics, Good practice with technology uses enhanced exploration, inquiry and collaboration as well as examining the relationship between mobile learning and pedagogies (Bano et al., 2018).

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Table 2: Study of mathematics teachers’ pedagogy and GeoGebra Citation Khoza & Biyela, 2019

Instrument (MTP)&GG Content; GG; knowledge; mathematics; pedagogy; technology

Results The solution to the decolonisation of education can be done using pedagogical information to generate a realistic curriculum

Mudaly & Fletcher, 2019

iPad technology; mathematics teaching; linear functions; GG software manipulation

A positive outlook by participants towards the use of the GG app in collaborative learning

Aliyev, 2011

Using ICT in teaching geometry in mathematics classroom

AizikovitshUdi & Radakovic, 2012

GG; high order thinking; critical thinking; Bayes’ theorem

Takači, Stankov, & Milanovic, 2015

Collaborative learning; constructivism; mathematics; function; problem solving

The existence of four and three-way relationship inscribed to one and constrained about other triangles and Apollonius (red) circle and its generating blue tangent circles are developed The marks of the post-test illustrate that 70%-75% of students were able to solve the questions correctly with the help of the software.

The statistical analysis proves that the students' learning achievement in examining functions and drawing their graphs is better when they use GG

İpek et al., 2014

Mathematics instruction; geometry education; CAS; computer-assisted geometry education; TPACK; GG

Nineteen participants have high academic success while seven have less and only one contributor had previously heard about GG software

Therefore, GG is user-friendly and free software that promotes high-order thinking. Critical thinking may help students to solve the questions correctly with the help of the software, it encourages collaborative learning, construction of knowledge, problem solving, and helps students' learning achievement (Misrom et al., 2020; Mudaly & Fletcher, 2019) in examining functions and drawing a better graph with the use of GG as well as in TPACK (Takači et al., 2015) and mathematics instruction with CAS (İpek et al., 2014).

Moreover, the software can be used in teaching linear functions in a collaborative learning environment with a positive outcome from the students.

Thus, it generates a realistic curriculum from the solution to the decolonisation of education (Khoza & Biyela, 2019). Besides, the content knowledge of mathematics pedagogy, and the use of ICT in the teaching of geometry in the mathematics classroom and specifically in solving four triangles inscribed to one and circumscribed about other triangles and Apollonius (red) circle and its generating tangent (blue) circles are achieved (Aliyev, 2011).

In this assessment, numerous sources from conferences peer-reviews and journals that support the findings are included. There were twelve quantitative,

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three qualitative, six mixed-method, three review and five empirical studies that investigated the pedagogy or MTP with GG. A summary of the reviewed articles is illustrated in Table 3 below: Table 3: An outline of the 28 reviewed studies Researcher & year Aizikovitsh-Udi & Radakovic (2012)

Country Israel

Research type Social and Behavioural Sciences

Method Quantitative

Akkaya (2016) Al-Abdullatif & Alsaeed (2019) Aliyev (2011) Ayub et al. (2012)

Turkey Saudi

Eurasia Journal of MSTE Cogent Education

Mixed method Quantitative

Azerbaijan Malaysia

Empirical Quantitative

Backfisch et al. (2020) Bano et al.(2018) Beauchamp & Kennewell (2013) Bray & Tangney (2017) Chen & Jang (2014)

Germany Australia UK

Inter Conference on ICT Social and Behavioural Sciences Learning and Instruction Computers & Education Educ Inf Technology

Ireland

Computers & Education

SLR

Taiwan

Quantitative

Costica, (2015)

Romania

Figueira-Sampaio et al. (2013) İpek et al.(2014)

Brazil

Kaarakka et al. (2019) Kalloo et al. (2016)

Kurvinen et al. (2019) Lye (2013)

Finland Malaysia

Marshall et al. (2012) McCulloch et al.

(2018) Mudaly& Fletcher (2019) Radu et al. (2016) Saralar et al. (2018)

Canada USA

Education and Info Technologies Social and Behavioural Sciences MIPRO, IEEE Social and Behavioural Sciences Computers & Education Computers & Education

Mixed method

Kivkovich (2015)

Finland Trinidad Tobago South African Romania

Computers in Human Behaviour Social and Behavioural Sciences Social and Behavioural Sciences Social and Behavioural Sciences LUMAT Inter Conference on ALT

Qualitative

Takaci et al. (2015) Yong et al (2019) Young (2017)

Serbia Malaysia USA

Zualkernan (2015)

UAE

Prob of Educ in the 21st Century IEEE Virtual Reality International Journal for TME Computers & Education Peer-review IEEE Educational Research Journal IEEE GHTC

Khoza & Biyela (2019

Turkey

South Africa Georgia Turkey

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Quantitative SLR Empirical

Quantitative Quantitative Mixed method Quantitative Empirical

Mixed method Mixed method Mixed method Quantitative Qualitative

Empirical Qualitative Mixed method Quantitative Review Quantitative

335

5. Limitations The nominated investigations cover an array of nations. Thus, in this research, there are a limited number of research studies in primary schools (3) and universities (8) as compared to high/secondary schools (17). Several studies were performed in one or more frameworks (Daoud et al., 2020) and others were done in the same situation, but adopted different learning principles (Daoud et al., 2020). Figure 2 summarises the scenario by country/territory:

Figure 2: Documents by country or territory

The USA, Canada, Spain, the UK, and Sweden remained the most studied individual countries and in one database South Africa met the inclusion criteria.

Thus, there were no findings that coincided with the inclusion provisions from Africa according to some data bases used. Figure 3 below indicates documents by citations.

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2019 has maximum 'citations'.

120

Citations

100 80 60 40 20 0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Publication Year Figure 3: Documents by citations

Consequently, the articles within the review identified and reported information on the aspects of documents by citation, subject area, and by year. Mathematics has only 5.1% while social sciences had 51.9%. This indicates the need for more article writers in the field of mathematics as illustrated in Figure 4 below:

Figure 4: Documents by subject area

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Figure 5: Documents by year

Moreover, documents by year indicate 2011 no records, 2012 only 1, 2014 no documents, 2015 with five papers, 2016 with eight papers, 2019 with the highest of twelve articles, and 2020 with seven publications. Thus, this information reveals that there are generally few writers per year in this field of studies.

6. Future Recommendations The current systematic review reveals that the research studies conducted in the area of MTP and GG focus on instructional materials that include MATLAB, IWB, wxMaxima and others with specification on primary, high schools/colleges, and universities through technology intervention and manipulatives.

Consequently, attention to other learning areas such as Solving 3×3 simultaneous equations with GG, complex numbers, and algebraic proofs are paramount. The use of alternative strategies such as TPACK and GG could develop the quality and discovery in MTP.

7. Conclusion This review aimed to evaluate the MTP through TI. A modified PRISMA framework (data extraction, quality assessment, selection criteria, and search strategies) was used to demonstrate the entire scenario in the literature review, and 28 out of 110 papers met the criteria. Data extraction was restricted to journals, review papers and conferences in English language only from previous studies. Results of the discussion outcome related to MTP with technology and MTP with GG showed a positive outcome. The summary of the reviewed articles illustrated justification of the research methodology assessment findings. Thus, the objectives of the review, some limitations and future direction were discussed. The use of various interventions, such as an interactive whiteboard (IWB), the dynamic geometry software (DGS), the CAS, GG and other pedagogies shape and promote the learning of mathematics. Moreover, most of the writers focus on secondary schools and colleges with few on primary schools and universities. Hence, documents by country, citations, subject area, and by

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year indicate areas of weakness and that there are limited researches on those areas of study. Thus, potential suggestions were made with respect to GG and MTP.

8. Research Implications The implication of MTP to educational practice and research is dynamic and significant to the learners’ logical thinking ability and may foster a good understanding of content knowledge. MTP is a catalyst that sustains best practice through critical thinking, technology, communication, and confidence.

Pedagogy is a vibrant and flexible phenomenon that promotes awareness and gives support to students. The MTP is a stimulus for the development and evaluation of teacher preparation programmes. Also, MTP enhances teamwork and interest for the students to learn as peers and alleviate learning obstacles.

Multiple representations in MTP through technology (GG) help in addressing students' learning misconceptions. Encouragement for MTP in the teaching processes may nurture the attainment of a well-established knowledge base.

Research into MTP demonstrates the shift and assimilation of knowledge, both in theory and practice, and needs to be further investigated and conducted.

Acknowledgment This work was supported (R.J130000.7651.4C430).

by

the

Contract

Research

Grant

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 342-355, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.19

The Medium of Instruction in a Multicultural Classroom: Teachers’ Perspectives in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa Matshikiza Spokazi, Simon Luggya and Magdaline Tanga* Faculty of Education, University of Fort Hare, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7493-7758 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0966-5896 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8016-8094 Abstract. The South African Government has instituted a policy of multicultural education (ME) to ensure inclusivity and equal learning opportunities for all learners. This paper aimed to explore teachers’ perspectives on the medium of instruction in a multicultural classroom.

The paper was extracted from a thesis that examined multiculturalism in selected schools in South Africa. A sample of 18 participants was purposively selected from two urban schools that have learners from different socio-cultural backgrounds in the Eastern Cape. The paper used the interpretive paradigm, which aligns with the qualitative approach.

Data were analyzed thematically. The findings revealed that as a universal language, most participants preferred using English in the classroom. However, they sometimes code-switch to IsiXhosa and/or Afrikaans (two of the 11 official languages in South Africa) if the need arises. The participants also revealed attempts at balancing the use of English with learners’ first language, mostly during breaks, sporting, and cultural events, but they admitted this does not equal ME. Finally, the participants indicated that preference to teach in English was due to its universalism. Consequently, African languages have become receptors and not creators of knowledge. The paper concludes that despite the ME policy, teachers are not keen to practice it because of a lack of skills. It is recommended that the country be zoned into language areas and teachers be taught in at least two dominant languages of each region, excluding the English language, to ensure equal educational opportunities.

Keywords: diversity; learners; multicultural; multicultural education; multilingual

*

Corresponding author: Magdaline Tanga; Email: MTanga@ufh.ac.za

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction The outcome of any educational institution solely depends on the established policies of the country it is in. In recent years, the established educational policies in South Africa have given birth to a more inclusive educational approach. The transformation to a more inclusive and accommodating schooling system was mainly paved by the constitutional reforms of 1996. The primary aim of the 1996 Constitution was to create a nation, the education system included, that upholds the principles of equality, justice, and non-racism (Bitzer & Botha, 2011). These fundamental changes created the platform for appreciating diversity in the context of South Africa. Similarly, the South African Schools Act (SASA) (Act 84 of 1996) aimed at redressing the past educational injustices and discriminative policies and practices of the apartheid regime. Thus, an attempt was made to transform the education system to ensure that it creates a platform for the principles of fair opportunity and equality. This led to the admission of learners from poor socioeconomic and other racial backgrounds to previously whites-only schools known as “Model C” schools. Most former Model C schools in South Africa have undergone a serious transformation to accommodate and offer exceptional facilities and high academic standards, which explains the learner exodus from public schools to these schools since the early 1990s. The desegregation called for curriculum content and approaches that reflect the diversity of the country and inclusivity, which gave rise to Multicultural Education (ME). The ME approach creates equal educational opportunities for school learners from diverse backgrounds. According to Banks (2008, p. 38), “ME was created to provide educators with a platform for working with such diverse school populations and achieving justice within societies marked by inequalities based on language, gender, socioeconomic status, or religion.”

Schools had to address the learning needs of a diverse population of learners.

Hooijer and Fourie (2009) observed that the change in the composition of learners in former racial schools raised concerns about the capacity of schools to cope with multiculturalism in the classroom. In trying to address this situation, the Pan South African Language Board (PANSALB), according to Ohyama (2018), was created in 1995 to promote multilingualism. It established a system that adopts the home language of the region as the language of instruction up to Grade 3. As stated in Section 29 of the South African Constitution (Bill of Rights): “Everyone has the right to receive education in the official languages of their choice in public educational institutions” (Republic of South Africa, 1996). Consequently, learners should be taught in the language of their choice. Furthermore, in a multicultural classroom, teachers should be multilingual to teach learners from diverse sociocultural backgrounds (Banks & Banks, 2019). This is because a multilingual classroom comprises learners with a variety of first languages (Georgieva & Shehu, 2017).

To achieve justice within the educational system of South Africa, educators were provided with a multilingual approach to work with diverse school populations (Banks & Banks, 2019). In this regard, the teachers have to be multilingual to be able to translate where the learners do not understand. Despite all these efforts by the government, there are issues of mismatch in ME classrooms regarding the

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medium of instruction. Ohyama (2018) maintained that South Africa has developed goals for multilingualism. However, the medium of instruction that should be used in the classroom may be challenging given that South Africa has 11 official languages. Kretzer (2019) was of the view that most multilingual schools in South Africa choose as medium of instruction English or Afrikaans and not an African language. Teachers may only code-switch to clarify a difficult concept. Presumably, African languages are not given priority to facilitate teaching and learning, which is contrary to Basic Education Minister Angie Motshekga’s recent claim (BusinessTech, 2019). Seemingly, most teachers might find it difficult to acquire the basic language skills of all 11 official languages to be able to facilitate teaching and learning. Therefore, this paper aimed to explore South African teachers’ perspectives on the medium of instruction in a multicultural classroom. The next section is the literature review and is followed by a discussion of the research methods. The paper then moves to the presentation of findings and ends with the conclusions and recommendations of the study.

2. Literature Review Teachers in most countries in the world have been confronted with learners coming from different socio-cultural backgrounds, which presents the challenge of delivering curriculum content in ways that respect the education rights of all.

Consequently, these countries have had to grapple with the issue of satisfying all learners by offering them equal education opportunities. Some of the countries have had to struggle with pieces of legislation to balance these educational opportunities. For example, in Australia, the recognition of indigenous culture and languages was made feasible by particular legal fights, which include a series of fundamental legal struggles (Price, 2012). Before this recognition, according to Holm and Zilliacus (2009), Australian educational policies for indigenous culture and language support were lacking the comprehensive aspect of acknowledging language rights.

Wright et al. (2012, pp. 8-9) indicated that “ME in Australia focuses on the following aspects: ➢ Providing precise teaching programmes of English as a second language for Immigrants and indigenous children and adults; ➢ First language maintenance for immigrant and indigenous children or mother tongue maintenance; ➢ Teaching of community/heritage languages; ➢ Inserting different cultural views among all subject areas of the curriculum, such as history, geography, and citizenship studies; and ➢ Parent participation and comprehensive rejection of adverse and racist stereotyping of minority populations”.

The above constitutes the language policy of Australian multiculturalism.

Canada is one of the countries with a good policy on multiculturalism, especially given its bilingual character. Cultural and linguistic diversity is integrated into its description of national identity, and it has a compulsory national policy of multiculturalism (Howe, 2014). However, there has been a controversy

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surrounding the choice of language for instruction in the school system (Syed, 2010). French has been commonly utilized in Eastern Canada, especially in Quebec and Montreal, whereas English has been commonly utilized in Western Canada (Bianco, 2016). This is an indication that the medium of instruction in a multicultural classroom has been an issue in different countries.

Bianco (2016) argued that the language issue is one of the focal issues within ME in many countries in Africa. This is partially due to how it has been shaped by both conservative and progressive administrations in many countries (Kamp & Masouri, 2010). Furthermore, research has revealed that the multilingual abilities of African-language speakers are often measured against their proficiency in English only, and this compromises their rich linguistic repertoire (Nomlomo & Katiya, 2018). Therefore, it is clear that there are controversies regarding language use by teachers in multicultural classrooms. Most teachers find themselves in situations where they need to mediate learning in ways that are contrary to their training or teach in a language and environment in which they are not comfortable because of ME (Meier & Hartell, 2009).

In South Africa, the Minister of Education and Training announced in 2008 that all schools should commit to providing four hours of lessons in English for most indigenous learners, with the rest of the hours being utilized to teach learners in their first language (Portera, 2010). However, according to Portera (2010), there have been growing concerns about the use of South African languages as media of instruction in schools. Hooijer and Fourie (2009) averred that teachers have argued that teaching in multilingual classrooms is challenging because of the diverse backgrounds, and that they thus need support. Wright (2018) held another view, that there is a need for better educated, trained, and well-motivated language teachers. However, the question is whether being well educated in one language makes one a good teacher in a multicultural classroom. Most classrooms in South African public schools are comprised of learners from a variety of backgrounds who speak different languages and have different educational needs. Meier and Hartell (2009) noted that increasing cultural diversity in educational institutions necessitates improved abilities in teaching and managing diverse learners. The desegregation of schools without considering teachers as facilitators of the public policies heightens tension and prejudices (Du Toit, 1995).

The gap between theory and practice in ME, which has outpaced development in practice, has been highlighted by Gay (1992). Without considering their potential, teachers are expected to effectively implement all the designed policies and curriculum transformation. Mickelson and Nkomo (2012) noted teachers’ varying challenges with multicultural teaching. Therefore, educators have been seen dealing with classroom diversity for which they may not have been professionally prepared (Robinson, 2003).

Most South African teachers received their training within a mono-cultural context in which education was provided along racial lines (Husén & Opper, 2014). As such, they were not adequately prepared to teach in a variety of languages and are therefore compelled to utilize their second language.

Regardless of the context in which teachers are trained, most find themselves in

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difficult situations of trying to apply the policy of ME. Therefore, there might be some contradictions regarding the right language to use in a multicultural classroom. As Vandeyar (2010, p. 350, as cited in Nieto, 2002) aptly demonstrated, “the languages are spoken by students, which are eventually spoken at school, are resources because didactic cultures are based on the previous understanding and the training learners have had over the years in their home language.” According to Nieto (2009), the primary responsibility of teachers is to accept the language assimilation of their students. On the other hand, Rubagumya (2010) indicated that education in the colonial language is culturally alienating. Therefore, the teachers’ attitudes, belief systems, ethnic groups, cultural values, and language are important to facilitate teaching and learning. The overview of the literature shows that many countries confront challenges regarding providing instructions in a multicultural environment, especially given the training provided to teachers in a monolingual setting.

Many governments have instituted policies to overcome challenges associated with ME and to provide equal education opportunities to all learners from different socio-cultural backgrounds. Although many studies have been conducted on multiculturalism around the world and in South Africa, there is a dearth of literature on the medium of instruction in a multicultural classroom, especially from the perspectives of teachers. Despite government policies and the school Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement that promote inclusivity and respect for diverse cultures and training, the implementation of multilingualism in classrooms still needs proper interrogation. There have been complaints from learners, teachers, and stakeholders concerning the medium of instruction used in classrooms. Learners have complained that they were not comfortable with the language of instruction and thus felt excluded during teaching, whilst teachers have complained of not knowing multiple languages. Therefore, this paper interrogates ME and gauges the perspectives of teachers who have taught learners coming from different socio-cultural and racial backgrounds. The main research question that this paper attempts to answer is: What are the experiences of teachers regarding the medium of instruction in a multicultural classroom?

3. Research Methodology A qualitative research approach was adopted for the larger study from which this paper was extracted. Creswell and Creswell (2017) maintained that qualitative studies are meant to explore a variety of dimensions of the social world. In such studies, participants are often asked open-ended questions (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008), which allows them to freely express themselves. This approach allowed the participants to elaborately discuss the ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions of teaching and learning in a multicultural classroom. A case study design was used and its purpose, according to Cohen and Crabtree (2006), is to use a variety of data sources for the exploration of a phenomenon. In the case of the broader study, the views of teachers were sought to understand their experiences in the language used in a multicultural classroom.

Data were collected from a sample of 18 participants from two urban high schools from Chris Hani West District of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. The reason for

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choosing these two urban schools was that learners were from different sociocultural and racial backgrounds. Another reason for this choice of urban schools was because of their enrolment of a large number of immigrant learners, reflective of the racial and ethnic diversity of the schools. An equal number of teachers, nine from each school, were purposefully selected for the study, and the face-to-face in-depth interview method of data collection was used. Using a semi-structured interview guide, data were collected on the biodata of the participants, who were all teachers, their experiments with ME in the classroom, their personal experiences, and their challenges, amongst other aspects. The qualitative data collected were manually processed and analyzed based on key themes.

Regarding ethical considerations, the participation in the study was voluntary.

Anonymity and confidentiality were strictly adhered to during the data collection and analysis as well as dissemination. The participants also signed informed consent letters in which the objectives of the study and how ethical issues would be addressed were detailed. Participants’ consent was also sought to audio-record the interviews. Ethical clearance to conduct the study was obtained from the University of Fort Hare (UFH). A request letter was written to the provincial Department of Education and District Office to seek permission for entry into the two schools. Besides this, approval was sought from the principals of the selected schools. Trustworthiness was checked throughout the research process. This entails credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability, which according to Williams and Morrow (2009), is the extent to which the findings are transferable to other contexts, dependable, and confirmable. Credibility was achieved through member checking, which entails participants verifying the findings as a true reflection or accurate narrative of their perspective. Credibility was also reinforced through prolonged engagement with all the participants.

Furthermore, a well-managed research-inquiry audit was undertaken by ensuring that the research process and product were consistent to achieve dependability and confirmability of the data. According to Sinkovics and Alfodi (2012), dependability is the extent to which a study can be repeated with findings being consistent. Confirmability is the extent of neutrality in the research study’s findings (Carcary, 2009). Therefore, during the writing process of this paper, data were quoted. In addition, audiotapes containing the raw, individual data; typed transcripts; and the final draft of the research project were stored for verification by any interested individual.

4. Participant Demographics The gender distribution of the participants was deliberate (nine female and nine male participants). This was driven by the fact that, to have a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study, it was vital to acquire and reflect on information about the implementation of ME amongst high school teachers from both genders. This also avoided discrimination, bias, and unnecessary assumptions on information from one gender only. This study is about diversity, where similarities and differences are recognized, including the gender of the participants. Therefore, it was necessary to offer equal opportunities to both genders.

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Concerning the ages of the participants, the majority of the teachers interviewed (12) were in the 50–59 years age range. Four were in the age range of 30–39 years and the rest (2) were in the 40–49 years age range. This reflects that the participants were all mature teachers. All participants were qualified and trained teachers. Ten participants held a diploma in Education, six held a bachelor’s degree in Education, and two held an honors degree in Education. Most of the participants (nine) had teaching experience of 1–5 years, with others (four) having worked for 6–10 years. Another four had worked for 11–15 years and only one had working experience of 20 years and above. This was a deliberate choice to ensure that there was a mixture of teachers with different levels of experience to gauge the extent of their engagement with ME. Finally, regarding race, the majority of the participants (10) were black South Africans who could write, speak, and teach in English and IsiXhosa, whereas the others (8) were Colored South Africans who were fluent in English and Afrikaans.

5. Findings and Discussion The findings revealed three interesting themes that emerged from the interviews, namely: ➢ The dominant use of English, with intermittent code-switching to IsiXhosa and Afrikaans; ➢ Balancing the use of English with home language mostly during breaks, sporting, and cultural events not equaling ME; and ➢ The universalism of the English language; the first (African) language as a receptor and not a creator of knowledge.

These three themes guide the discussion of the findings below.

5.1 Theme 1: The dominant use of English, with intermittent code-switching to IsiXhosa and Afrikaans The participants were asked to explain which language was used in their classroom to facilitate teaching and learning. Although the participants had different views on the medium of instruction used in a multicultural classroom, the majority (12) of them reported using only English. These participants were asked why they were using English as the only medium of instruction in a multicultural setup. They maintained that this was because they were not trained in the languages of the region and were therefore unable to teach in other languages. The following are excerpts from some of the participants: “I use English as the medium of instruction because I am not conversant with other languages of the region, including IsiXhosa. More so, I was not trained to teach in more than one language. The ME is a new policy document and the newly recruited and trained teachers should be the ones to implement it.”

“I just teach in English, which is the main language. Besides, I know English and isiXhosa. These are the two languages I understand and speak, though most learners and myself will prefer their first languages, which are isiXhosa and Afrikaans.”

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“I teach in English because I am an English teacher and it is the language of instruction that is commonly used by all. Therefore, we are bound to use it as a medium of instruction and not by choice.”

Whilst the majority of the participants indicated that they were using solely English as the medium of instruction in their classrooms, some participants (six) maintained that to help the struggling learners with poor English backgrounds, they sometimes had to code-switch to IsiXhosa or Afrikaans if there was a need.

Some of them said they were doing so with the understanding that learners in their schools came from different socioeconomic and linguistic as well as racial backgrounds. Hence, there was a need to sometimes code-switch to help those in need of properly grasping the content of the lessons that they were delivering.

One of the participants holding this view submitted that: “Although I mostly teach in English, I sometimes code-switch to isiXhosa when I feel that the South African black learners do not understand what I want them to understand during the lesson in the classroom. However, I do not do this all the time because it excludes some learners, especially children from migrant backgrounds as well as other South African kids not coming from this region [Eastern Cape province].”

Another participant echoed the views of those who sometimes code-switch to other languages than English. She narrated that: “I teach in English because I believe it is a unifying language. It is not easy for a teacher to be able to use all the official languages in SA to teach.

I know just my isiXhosa and English. I sometimes code-switch to isiXhosa to relax. In my class, there are Afrikaans, isiXhosa, and a few isiSotho speakers, and other minority groups of learners. Therefore, once I code-switch, they feel excluded.”

Most of the participants used English as medium of instruction in a multicultural classroom. Many had advanced reasons, including not having received training in other official languages or languages of the region, and hence their inability to use other languages to dispense their content. This means that ME within these urban schools seems to be a failure as the majority of the participants do not implement this policy. There is a likelihood that supervisors from the provincial Department of Education are not ensuring the implementation of this national policy of ME. English, as some participants reported, is a unifying language, and the policy also recognizes this, but, as others narrated, it is not their first language and they would have loved to teach in their first language. In other words, English is used to accommodate learners who are not from the region of the participants (Eastern Cape). For these participants, teaching in the English language fosters inclusivity, though it comes with challenges in a multicultural classroom.

Presumably, this is why Nomlomo and Katiya (2018) argued that proficiency in English is the sole measure of the multilingual abilities of African-language speakers, which seems to be the controversy the participants are faced with. This is contrary to Banks and Banks’s (2019) finding regarding the use of indigenous languages in teaching. Accordingly, teaching ME using English is not fair and

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does not ensure justice, especially to learners whose first and second languages are not English. Consequently, a teacher who does not use learners’ first language in teaching makes learning more difficult (Vandeyar, 2010). Another participant explained that there are diverse groups of learners coming from different backgrounds and speaking different languages as first and second languages.

Therefore, it becomes difficult to satisfy all the learners by teaching in their respective languages.

5.2 Theme 2: Balancing the use of English with home language mostly during breaks, sporting, and cultural events not equaling multicultural education When the participants were asked how they ensured the effective implementation of ME at their schools, the majority (13) of them reported that learners were encouraged to use their local languages (Afrikaans and isiXhosa) during breaktime, sporting, and cultural events. They acknowledged, however, that this did not equal ME. They further averred that during these times, one could observe the learners interacting amongst themselves more than they would in the classroom. According to these participants, this is an indication that the learners would have preferred teachers to use their first language, in this case isiXhosa and/or Afrikaans. When asked why they encouraged learners to use their first language only during these times which are outside of the class times, the participants claimed that this was because learners must pass the first language before they are promoted to the next class. However, given the multicultural environment of the schools, participants noted that some learners whose first language (isiXhosa or Afrikaans) is not spoken in the region feel excluded and there is little they can do to help them. The following excerpts from some of the participants substantiate some of the above views: “Learners only have the opportunity to speak their first language when they play outside and during cultural festivals. This excludes some learners, especially those who are few and do not have friends to communicate with in their language. Also, students are not promoted if they fail isiXhosa. This is another way that the school promotes the use of Xhosa, which is an advantage only for the Xhosa-speaking learners.”

“We allow most learners to speak isiXhosa, Afrikaans, and English as the specific languages when they are playing and during cultural days.

However, this affects other minority groups of learners and they feel unwelcome or isolated.”

“Learners are not allowed to proceed to another class if they fail their home language. Therefore, understanding their home language is key, as they might not develop fully without the missing gap. They should take it seriously. However, any learner coming from another culture besides isiXhosa suffers to learn the new language just to pass the examination.

This is a challenge for most new learners.”

The implementation of the policy of ME seems to be in jeopardy in these schools as most of the participating teachers allow learners to use their first language only during breaktime, sporting, and cultural events. According to the participants,

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this is a way of inclusivity in the classroom. Despite this attempt at balancing the two languages (English and isiXhosa or Afrikaans), some learners whose first language is not isiXhosa or Afrikaans feel excluded and isolated. Therefore, ME is not being effectively practiced in the selected schools. Georgieva and Shehu (2017) corroborated this by maintaining that in a multicultural classroom, learners come from diverse backgrounds and speak a variety of first languages, which makes it difficult for a teacher to engage with each learner in their first language. It might therefore be difficult for a teacher to ensure the use of home language in a multicultural school. Kretzer (2019) supported this by submitting that African languages are rarely used as medium of instruction. This is because most South African schools use either English or Afrikaans as medium of instruction.

Therefore, as aptly indicated, African languages are not well utilized at schools.

This runs parallel to the dictates of the South African Language Policy.

The fact that learners are expected to pass their first language before proceeding to the next class is an indication of the importance of that language. However, at one of the participating schools, learners can only speak isiXhosa in class during the isiXhosa period, or during breaks, sports, and cultural events. Therefore, learners have limited time to speak their home language at school. This is worse with learners from different linguistic backgrounds. According to Section 29 of the Bill of Rights in the Constitution of South Africa, “[e]veryone has the right to receive education in the official languages of their choice in public educational institutions” (Republic of South Africa, 1996). Based on the findings in this study, it is assumed that learners are not enjoying this right. Many reasons have been advanced for this, including the inability of teachers to teach in other languages, English being seen as a global or a universal language, and the issue of learners coming from many multicultural and linguistic backgrounds (Ohyama, 2018).

Thus, the policy of ME is defeated. However, Gollnick and Chinn (2012) argued that given the cultural and racial diversity of learners, integration of diversity education into the curriculum will help educators understand the differences between learners to effectively implement ME. Demir and Yurdakul (2015, p. 3653) explained that “ME is based on the principles of social justice, educational equity, critical pedagogy, and commitment to providing educational experiences that involve all”. Yang and Montgomery (2013) maintained that the presence of different ethnic and cultural groups within specific learning settings does not imply the existence of ME. Similarly, Phahlamohlaka (2017) argued that ME is a complicated concept with various dimensions, and teachers usually emphasize and focus on a single dimension – language.

5.3 Theme 3: Universalism of English; the first (African) language as a receptor and not a creator of knowledge The findings showed that, alongside other reasons reported earlier in this paper, most of the participants preferred English as a teaching language not because they liked it, but due to the universal nature of the English language. The participants indicated that their first language was relegated to the background and acted only as a receptor and not a creator of knowledge. The participants were asked to explain what they understood by the universalism of English and first language

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as a receptor and not a creator of knowledge as reported by some of their peers.

The majority of them revealed that because English is widely spoken around the world and the fact that most books are written in English, their first languages (isiXhosa and Afrikaans) are only used to interpret what has been written. This is worsened by the fact that there are very few books written in these first languages.

Therefore, the first languages are receptors and not creators of knowledge. One of the participants reported as follows: “I would prefer to teach in my first language, which is Afrikaans, but because of other learners coming from other provinces and countries, I am bound to teach mostly in English, as it is known as the universal language. This is disadvantageous to our first language because we seem to be consumers of knowledge from English and not a creator of knowledge using our first language.”

Another participant echoed the sentiment expressed by his peer above. According to him: “We have a problem because all books are written in English and we are expected to teach in both English and our first language [isiXhosa] and this is almost impossible as a teacher needs to read in English and interpret in isiXhosa before teaching learners. We were not taught to teach in multiple languages. The government wakes up and comes up with policies that cannot be implemented effectively. How do you expect a teacher to know all the eleven official languages in South Africa and be able to use them all in a classroom because of learners coming from these 11 regions?”

The findings indicated that the majority of the participants make use of the English language because it is universal and most people understand it. Because of the universalism of the English language, African first languages are not well developed to enhance knowledge creation through writing and other knowledge-creation modes. Although the Constitution of South Africa allows for the official use of all eleven languages, the majority are still in the rudimentary stage of development. As such, there would be little or no writings of a high standard in these languages. Therefore, it becomes a challenge to successfully use them as teaching languages. In South Africa, the problem of African first languages was created by the apartheid schooling system that was created to unjustly uplift white people whilst marginalizing other, different groups (Vandeyar, 2010). Hence, white South Africans could obtain a quality education that would ensure that they were recruited into higher positions, which maintained their political, economic, and social status at the expense of other groups, subsequently leading to education inequalities. Educational policies for indigenous-culture and -language support during the apartheid era lacked a comprehensive aspect of acknowledging language rights, which led to the neglect of the African languages (Bianco, 2016). This has made these languages to be mere receptors of knowledge without the capabilities to create knowledge like other developed languages. Machaisa (2014) noted that teacher education programs and qualifications do not prepare teachers for a diversified school system, and this is the view that was held by most of the participants of this study.

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6. Conclusion and Recommendations Though ME is a national policy aimed at giving equal educational opportunities to learners irrespective of their socioeconomic, racial, and linguistic backgrounds, the English language remains the predominant medium of instruction at most schools because of its universalism. The use of the English language has also been seen as leaving African languages as simple receptors of knowledge and not being able to create knowledge. Therefore, when it comes to creating knowledge that can be useful within the African context and worldwide, these languages are relegated to the background. The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa’s Bill of Rights, which gives learners the right to be taught in their first language, is flouted, and rightly so, because no teacher can teach using all 11 languages of the country in a multicultural classroom in case there are learners from all the regions.

As the participants reported, many of the teachers in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa can teach only in English and either isiXhosa or Afrikaans. More so, their training did not embody metalinguistic training, hence the incapacity to teach effectively in a multicultural classroom. However, in an attempt to come across as helping academically struggling students and implementing ME, some participants sometimes code-switch to IsiXhosa and/or Afrikaans if needs be. In addition, learners are encouraged to speak their first language during sports, breaks, and cultural events. Nonetheless, this does not equate to the ME put in place by the government to include all learners. Attempts at balancing the use of the English language and first languages have been criticized for being exclusive of learners whose first language is not used by the teachers. Therefore, the cycle of blame and criticism goes on. Since it is difficult to teach in multiple languages, it is recommended that the country could be zoned and that teachers, during their training, could be taught the major languages of these zoned areas. The maximum number of languages could be set at two, excluding the English language.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 356-371, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.20

Sustaining Collaborative Learning among University Students in the Wake of COVID-19: The Perspective of Online Community Project Bunmi Isaiah Omodan University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9093-3108 Olugbenga A. Ige University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6505-2114

Abstract. This study aims at reconstructing an online classroom community project as an alternative to physical collaborative teachinglearning process by identifying the challenges militating against the implementation of an online classroom community project and the possible solutions to mitigate the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Ubuntu was used to theorise the study within the Transformative Paradigm (TP) and Participatory Research (PR) lens as a research design. Ten participants were selected among 810 first-year students who were twice given online community project assessments during the COVID-19 lockdown. The participants were selected using convenient sampling technique because, as at the time of the study, the they are under level 3 lockdown. Thematic analysis was adopted to serve the current research objectives. The study found out some challenges such as: students struggle to locate group members and unstable internet access and electricity shortage mitigate their learning. The study also revealed that tolerance among group members and consistent utilisation of online community project are the possible ways to implement online classroom community project in University classrooms more effectively.

Keywords: Online Community Project; University Students; COVID-19; Collaborative Learning; Ubuntu

1. Introduction The classroom community project is one of the common processes in the implementation of teaching and learning among universities in South Africa.

Virtually all the modules taught in university classrooms have one or two assessments that will involve coming together of students in a group for the purpose of achieving one or two social and relationships skills. Some view this as a way to instil unity in diversity among students (Cross, 2004) where the ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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validity of differences could be identified and ameliorated (Meier & Hartell, 2009). On the other hand, some also regard it as a way to ensure interpersonal relationships and promote intuitive reasoning among students (Amineh & Asl, 2015). In the same vein, the existed literature demonstrated that it enhances their social, critical thinking, and inquisitive skills when students work together in groups. According to Kasim (2015), these skills positively affect students' productivity during their study and post-study life. The classroom community project is also viewed as a collaborative knowledge construction (Rimor & Rosen, 2010; Omodan & Tsotetsi, 2020). In the present research paper, the researcher found it significant to reveal that any process that involves grouping students into smaller units to provide a solution to a particular problem in the classroom is regarded as a classroom community project.

Given the benefits inherent in community project vis-a-vis knowledge production among students, the outbreak of COVID-19, otherwise known as Coronavirus, constitutes a threat to the implementation of such classroom project among university students. That is to say, the COVID-19 does not only affect university classrooms' activities, but also the entire world because of the highly contagious virus that sprang up in Wuhan, China in late 2019 (Shereen, et al., 2020). It spreads across the world within the shortest period of time, including South Africa, upon which it was declared as a global pandemic by the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2020a). Subsequently, countries shutdown their parastatals and close businesses, including university operations, in a bid to key into the social distancing measure (WHO, 2020b). The novel virus's attendant effects disrupted traditional teaching-learning in universities, leaving them with no option than virtual learning through the internet (Dube, 2020). In the wake of this situation, the universities determine that quality teaching and learning must be sustained against all odds. This determination resulted in the adoption and deployment of various internet virtual learning infrastructures and platforms such as blackboard, zoom, Google classroom, whatsApp groups, and telegram groups. In order to ensure unbridled implementation of quality teaching and learning that will not jettison the intention of collaborative knowledge generation and participatory mode of inquiry, many lecturers, including the researcher adopted the use of online community project with the help of blackboard virtual learning platform and WhatsApp. This becomes expedient because the literature has demonstrated that coming together of students to generate knowledge is significant, not only in academic performance but also in improving their lives after schooling (Vrioni, 2011; Williams, 2011; Backer, Miller & Timmer, 2018).

There is scanty literature regarding online community project, but a lot of attempts have emerged and have placed more emphasis on the importance of online teaching-learning system as an alternative response to classroom vacuum left behind by COVID-19. Favale et al., (2020) found out that remote online collaboration during COVID-19 did enhance staff productivity and students' elearning abilities and reduce campus traffic. Dhawan (2020) analysed the strength of the online teaching and learning system and concluded that it is the best strategy to rescue students from hard times during physical contact

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sessions. Dhawan further argued that remote learning engagement is studentcentred because it is flexible and allows them to determine their studies' time and location. On the other hand, Favale et al. (2020) also confirm that the "new normal"that includes online engagement between teachers and students enables both students and the instructors to be innovative by creating various strategies to make sure that their duties are carried out excellently. Conversely, it has been demonstrated that not all students and even lecturers have equitable access to the internet that could enable them to effectively participate in virtual community engagements due to their location and socio-economic background (Dube, 2020; Omodan, 2020). Such a fact reflects social inequalities among classroom players on one hand, and the internet that possesses a threat to the entire process on the other hand (Affouneh, Salha & Khlaif, 2020). This is perhaps why Cojocariu et al., (2014) advocate for an equitable benefit to education via e-learning.

Consequently, perceptions exist among academics and students that the imposition of lockdowns that affect university operation in its usual sense has aborted the intention of group work among students. But the intention from this research paper was to contende the exposure and the use of various social media applications such as WhatsApp, Zoom, and Blackboard collaborate exist to ameliorate this vacuum even while students and lecturers work from home and from their various convenient spaces. Forthwith, the findings of Favale et al.

(2020), Dhawan (2020), and Omodan (2020) identified the significant positive relationship between the use of internet (online engagement) and students' performance during COVID-19 pandemic. In order to achieve these positive findings, the lecturers need to consider various online strategies in their practices that will accommodate collaborative engagement among students.

However, implementing any online collaborative strategies may not be successful if students in their own spaces are not well prepared to handle such social spaces. This argument is supported by Burke (2011) and Ryu and Kim (2018) who claim that students work well together when a prior spirit of love, unity, oneness, and cooperation take place among them. I lieu of this, the place of Ubuntu as a theoretical framework for this study is not out of place, as it helps prepare students ahead of an online community project.Therefore, the following section conceptualised Ubuntu in details.

2. Situating Ubuntu as a Theoretical Framework Ubuntu from the general perspective is synonymous to love, unity in diversity, oneness and freedom in togetherness. This is not far from the definition of Oxford Dictionary (n.d) that Ubuntu is branded by compassion, benevolence, sympathy and consideration for others. In the same vein, Collins English Dictionary (n. d) described it as humanity in fellowship. Tutu (1999) simplified the word Ubuntu to mean humanity and togetherness. That is to say, Ubuntu relates to togetherness or bonding together. This is interpreted by Jacob and Andrew (2013) as being self because of others. Ubuntu in the Zulu language or South Africa decent is "ubuntu ngumuntu ngabantu"which means "I am, because we are". Because it is emanated from Africa, Mokgoro (1997) regarded it as Africanism. However, the bottom line still bothers on unity and togetherness of

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humanity among the people. In the position of Arthur, Issifu and Marfo (2015), Ubuntu is a strategy that ensures unity among the people despite their diversities. It is also approached as an established, indigenous way of managing people (Swanson, 2008). This is because the togetherness and oneness as an assumption of Ubuntu are obvious among Africans and supported by Tutu (1999), it ensures unity and oneness. This is what is viewed as love, cooperation and openness among peoples (Omodan & Tsotetsi, 2019), and depicts compassion (Tutu, 2004).

From the above analysis, it is safe to say that Ubuntu is characterised with caring, protecting fellow human beings, and selfless service to humanity. This is in line with the view of Brack et al., (2003) in which Ubuntu relates social morality, humanness and personhood in people’s daily social conducts. The implication is that Ubuntu is a human social relationship which affects the way and how people are related together towards achieving their goals. This also suffices in Omodan and Tsotetsi (2019) who conclude that Ubuntu as African philosophy preaches humanity; love for others and through others. Going by the above assumptions, the research argues that Ubuntu’s philosophy is needed to prepare the mind of classroom agents, most especially during this pandemic towards their academic success. This was actually confirmed by Mbigi (2004) who revealed the idea that it helps the development practice of togetherness in schools. Lefa (2015) also corroborates with the researcher’s standpoint in which such a practice will promote the spirit of togetherness and develop leadership and commitment among stakeholders.

This theory is relevant to this study because it explains the importance of love, oneness, compassion, togetherness and unity in the success of people's productivity. When university students are pre-prepared with the spirit and philosophy of Ubuntu, working together, whether physically or remotely, will not constitute a threat to their social conduct. They may translate to working together without stress and conflict when professional love, tolerance, acceptance, and care co-exist among the students. If these are achieved, it will reduce the possible social threats associated with implementing online and or physical classroom community project. In the case of online classroom community Project ,which in this study also means group work among students, it becomes therefore easily visible and achievable without jettisoning the original intention of collaborative knowledge construction.This is also viewed as developing critical thinking skills, interpersonal relationships among students, and improving inquisitive skills. The presence of Ubuntu among students will enable them to assist themselves in achieving their tasks, and they will also gain the needed knowledge and skills to survive the work place. In order to expose further the trajectory of implementing an online classroom community project in the wake of COVID-19, the following research question and objectives were raised.

1- How can collaborative learning among undergraduates be sustained using online classroom community project approach during COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa

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In order to answer the above research question, the following two research objectives were raised to guide the study; • The study examined the challenges associated with implementing an online classroom community project to sustain collaborative learning among university undergraduates during COVID-19 pandemic.

• The study also investigated the possible ways to mitigate the challenges of an online classroom community project as a means to sustain collaborative learning among university undergraduates during COVID19 pandemic.

3.

Methodology

The study was conducted using a qualitative research approach. This was done by adopting transformative paradigm to lens the study, and participatory research was also used as a research design. Participants and selection of participants were discussed while reflection was used to elicit information from the participant, and the data were analysed using thematic analysis. The issue of ethics was also expatiated.

3.1. Research Paradigm This study adopted the Transformative Paradigm (TP) in order to transform the investigation from the old ways of doing class community project into the "new normal", the online class community project. TP is described as a research process that is aimed to emancipate and transform community people through group action (Mertens, 2010). From its axiological perspective, TP promotes social justices, human right and equality, moral and cultural respect (Mertens, 2010) among the researcher and the researched who have become co-producer of knowledge (Mertens, 2017). Add to this, TP considered the history and sociality of the situation at hand (Guba & Lincoln, 1982). On the epistemological stands, TP generates its knowledge from people's relationships and trust, which is the hallmark of working together as a group. This is why it becomes important to understand the way people do things, talk and react to issues during group work. This case enables the students to work well together and understand their differences as community members (Mertens, 2012). However, this paradigm is still within the purview of a collaborative way of doing things which, according to Dube (2016) is participatory in nature. That is, in order to emancipate students to the classroom within the COVID-19 crisis, they must be allowed to jointly participate in the process of finding a solution to their problems. This is why it is appropriate to adopt participatory research as a research design for the study.

3.2. Research Design In order to implement the principles of TP, Participatory Research (PR) was used to design the study. This is relevant because it involves bringing the people who faced the concerned problem together to produce knowledge that will emancipate them out of their predicaments. PR enables both the researchers and the participants to get equally involve in the research process by jointly identifying the problem and ways to resolve it (Khanlou & Peter, 2005). That is, PR values the involvement and participation of all the concerned stakeholders in the research process. Fetterman and Wandersman (2005) describe this research

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process as a coordinated democratic process of knowledge production. In this scenario, both the researched and the researcher are responsible for the research outcomes (de Vos et al., 2011). They are also the beneficiary of the outcome.

According to Maree (2016), PR is meant to develop programmes that will improve the lives of the people under the study. In lieu of this, students who are the major concerns and the beneficiary of this study were the participants and co-producer solutions to their classroom problems.

3.3. Participants The participants for the present study were first-year university students who undergo a particular module in a selected university in South Africa. The total students were 810, but only 10 were given two different online community projects with the help of blackboard and WhatsApp technology at two different times. They were grouped into groups headed by 10 leader who were selected using a convenient sampling technique. This technique is appropriate because the students are on level 3 lockdown with little or no physical access to the university campus. One of the predominant assumptions of convenient sampling is that it is suitable to select participants that are homogeneous (Etikan, Musa & Alkassim, 2016). Besides, it enables the researcher to get hold of the available group leaders, who are easy to be reached (Alvi, 2016). All the group's members and their leaders, who were involved in the group tasks, possess all the needed information as research participants for data validity and reliability.

3.4. Method of Data Collection and Data Collection Process The study adopted reflection to collect data from the selected participants. In this study, reflection is described as when students are asked to reflect on particular activities and or process they experienced or participated in. The entire 810 students were divided into groups and were exposed to online classroom community project twice where they are supposed to perform part of their official assessments. The 10 group leaders that were selected, among others, were asked to give their reflection on their experiences regarding the online classroom community projects. Their reflections were guided by the two dominant questions generated from the objective of the study. The questions revolved around the challenges they encounter before, during and after the implementation of the online project, and that they should also reflect on how they mitigated or would prefer the challenges to be addressed in the future. The WhatsApp group was created for the 10 participants, moderated by the module representative, the representative moderated, collated and arranged the reflections later subjected to deductive interpretation.

3.5. Data Analysis and Ethical Consideration The collected data were subject to thematic analysis. The latter was considered appropriate because it enables data to be categorised into themes and subthemes for the sake of coherence (Keevash et al., 2018). Accordingly, the data in line with the research objectives were categorised into sub-themes under each objective. This process also helps the researcher better understand the data (Mohammadpur, 2013). The six steps of doing thematic analysis as postulated by Braun and Clarke (2006) is in fact followed. The steps include; familiarisation with the transcribed data, coding the data, identifying the relevant themes,

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reviewing the themes, naming the themes, and producing the result (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Braun & Clarke, 2013). The issue of research ethics was keenly observed. This is important because it protects the personality of the researchers and the co-researchers from any potential harms (Dube, 2016). The researcher seeks the participants' consent, and they were also informed that they were not under any obligation to participate. Their freedom to withdraw from the research process was also guaranteed. Their identities were protected by representing them with pseudo names when doing the data presentation stage.

In the presentation stage, the participants were represented as; S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 and S10, respectively.

4. Data Presentation and Analysis The collected data through PR process were interpreted with the use of thematic analysis. This was done to respond to the objectives guiding the study. More explicitly, the data were categorised into two major objectives; the challenges associated with the implementation of online classroom community project among university undergraduates during COVID-19 pandemic, and the possible ways to mitigate the challenges of online classroom community project among university students during COVID-19 pandemic. The major themes were also broken down into sub-themes such as; struggle to locate group members, unstable internet access and electricity shortage, tolerance among group members, and consistent utilisation of online classroom community project in the teaching-learning process (See table 1).

Table 1: Thematic representation of data based on the research objectives

Objectives 1.

The challenges associated with 1. implementing an online classroom 2. community project to sustain collaborative learning among university undergraduates during COVID-19 pandemic.

2. The possible ways to mitigate the 1. challenges of an online classroom 2. community project as means to sustain collaborative learning among university undergraduates during COVID-19 pandemic.

Analysis of Sub-themes 1. Struggle to locate group members.

2. Unstable internet access and electricity shortage.

1. Tolerance among group members.

2. Consistent utilisation of online community project in the teaching-learning process.

4.1. Challenges Associated with the Implementation of an Online Classroom Community Project In the participatory manners, the participants identified that the Struggle to locate group members; unstable internet access and electricity shortage were the challenges of an online classroom community project.

4.1.1. Struggle to Locate Group Members One of the challenges that was uncovered among the students during the implementation of the online community projects is that they were unable to locate themselves in due time. There is no doubt that they were doing this for the first time during the COVID-19 lockdown. This is what is regarded as a new

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normal in the university environment that every stakeholder must learn to cope with (Sharma, 2020). Though this did not affect students' output as they were able to submit their work as and when needed. The below statements explicitly revealed their responses: S6: One of the problems we faced as a group was making time for the discussion because, at that time, we were all strangled with other modules as it was difficult to find ourselves in time.

S9: I try several times to email my group members, but I can't find them all, this was very difficult for us to finish quickly.

S4: I must say, it wasn't easy to find some of my group members and that alone scares me because I don't want to fail, but at last, we won.

From these conversations, S6 confirmed that it was difficult to get hold of themselves as a result of activities from other modules. Such a reality, according to S6, affects their time schedule to achieve their tasks. In the same revelation, S9 complained that the group members could not be fond of which makes it challenging to finish their tasks with the shortest possible time. In the same vein, S4 also confirmed the hurdles they faced in finding themselves. Therefore, according to S4, it constitutes fear of failure, but they were able to get things right. As for the others, they uncovered similar experiences: S3: The first problem was how to find my group members. I tried but ended up only getting one member. This problem doesn't barrier our performance because we continue helping one another.

S5: We decided to continue without other members; we had to move slowly so that others with personal problems wouldn't stay behind.

S1: In our group, the only challenge that we had faced is struggling to find each other but besides that, we were working very well even though others were facing network problem because of electricity.

The revelations highlighed from S3 confirmed that, though they faced challenges in getting other members, they were able not only to perform their duties without hesitation, but they were also able to help one another to overcome their challenges. The statement of S5 also shares the same sentiment that it resulted in slowing their activities because of some members who perhaps have one or two delays in joining the activities. This further concludes that they were not working at the same space when it comes to getting together for the purpose of a group task. In the statement of S1, the argument remains the same. These challenges, according to the S1, are linked to poor network and electricity issues. This led to the second challenges which are unstable internet access and electricity shortage in the communities.

4.1.2. Unstable Internet Access and Electricity Shortage There is no doubt that students have to work from home in the wake of COVID-19 lockdown. They may likely face many issues in their homes, such as unstable power supply and internet laxity. This is another challenge that is not within the purview of students to solve. Even their parents may not have power over it because students come from different socio-economic backgrounds. The findings of Omodan (2020) and Dube (2020), confirm that students residing in the rural location of South Africa have little access to

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internet. In consonance with this, the participants also shared the same views.

Consider the below statements: S1: "…but besides that, we were working very well even though others were facing network problem because of electricity".

S2: "…we get delayed as a result of internet problem, sometimes happen during our discussion; as a result, we were compelled to reschedule for another time".

S4:"During our discussion as a group, others were struggling with the network connection and that delayed us to some extent".

S7:"On the other hand, we have another challenge, especially during the discussion, which was lack of electricity as they affecting internet network".

As stated by the S1, the unstable internet and electricity problems was one of the major challenges they face during their online group work. The S2 also supported the same idea in which it has been revealed that the issue of unactable intervened and power supply delayed their group's progress as in the most time happened in the middle of their discussion which makes them have no option than just to postpone their group meetings. The statement of S4 also reiterates that the issue of internet connection results in their delay. This is because the group works require all of them to participate in the activities adequately and they have to wait for those having poor connectivity challenges.

In the same view, S7 also adds that power outage that affects the internet was in itself challenging to their online group work. The majority of the participants were in the same page regarding the epilepsy power supply cum internet. The following statements also supported the above utterances: S9: The problem we encountered was poor network connectivity and not having data to participate on time as stipulated time by other group members S10: As a group, I think the most challenge that we had was a network problem. It was not easy for us to get the task done in time due to the network problem because we had to wait for other members to be online so that we can proceed with the task given.

S8: Other members would come with excuses for not joining us in time, they would say they had network issues but they did not understand that we were required to discuss not just give answers.

Hence, One could say that all the groups virtually experience the issue of unstable power supply cum erratic internet connectivity, in which S9 confirms that they had poor internet connectivity and even some do not have internet access to participate real-time. This still bothers on their financial capability and differences in their socio-economic background. According to S10, this challenge did not make their work easy because they have to wait for others to participate which in turn is a disadvantage for them. The complaint from S8 regarding the excuses made by some group members still bothers the fact that there is poor access to the internet to enable the students to meet up with their online learning. The following session explored the possible solutions made by the participants.

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4.2. Possible Ways to Mitigate the Challenges of an Online Classroom Community Project In the participatory manners, the participants who were based on their experiences about the online class community project given to them, suggested that there were some possible ways to overcome the stated challenges. In this ground, the following sub-section discussed these remedies in details.

4.2.1. Tolerance among Group Members One of the ways in which online classroom community project could be achieved in the wake of COVID-19 is to ensure that there is a spirit of unity in diversity among the students. They are supposed to be partners in progress and must be able to accommodate one another's shortcomings. This was argued by Sulaiman (2015) as harmony among students, which an element needed to sustain collaborative learning among students. The below statements from the participants were shown up: S10:"We tried our best to be patient on one another when one was late due to network problems we will call and check that why were they not participating".

S10:"We also made sure that we move at a slow pace during our discussions in order to make sure that we were all on the same page".

S9:"For the future purpose, it is fair that we should be considerate to ourselves because sometimes, those who did not participate well may be due to poor network connectivity and even personal problem beyond him".

S8:"One of the members had enough with their excuses and decided to face them, they then apologised for their behaviour and thing worked out just fine".

From the statement of S10, it showed that students show compassion by accommodating themselves, especially to those who by one reason or another come late to the group meeting. To ensure equal participation among students, it was suggested to slow down in the process so that to accommodate other students. This went in line with S9 wherein it is expedient to accommodate others because no one could ascertain their predicaments which may be a result of their poor internet connectivity and even personal problems. By doing so, it will put all the group members be at peace with one another and be able to manage their differences. The following statements too covered the same notion: S5:"I think it was all made possible by making compromises because group work requires that we establishing a well-grounded foundation between ourselves. This enables us to understand ourselves better".

S2:"I create our WhatsApp group where we were able to do our work, we learnt and talked to ourselves politely and respectfully, and it helps a lot to make the strong bond between us and our work".

The S5 participant stated that the student understands the importance of unity, oneness, love and understanding when in working together. This further confirms the assumption of Ubuntu that unity and compassion among people which, according to Lefa (2015) promote the spirit of togetherness and

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commitment to duties. In parallel, what is said by S2 further corroborated that the creation of a WhatsApp group enables them to work together effectively.

Apart from that, they learn how to talk to themselves politely and respectfully which will create a strong bond and love towards achieving their task. The above report indicates that the spirit of Ubuntu makes it possible for them to accommodate their differences and able to work together despite their diversities.

4.2.2.

Consistent Utilisation of Online Community Project in the Teaching-Learning Process Another solution proffered by the participants is that the online classroom community project's use should be consistent. This is in line with the saying "practice makes perfect". The more students involve and or engage in the online method of collaborative knowledge construction, the more they get used to it and possibly become expert in it. The below statements confirm that when the method is practiced from time to time, the students will be familiar with it.

S8:"We can improve online communication discussion by doing it once or twice a month to be familiar with it because we still lack behind in online group work".

S7:"I told members that what they are doing is not what we are required to do, I explained everything to them, and they said as time goes on, we will get to understand how to do our online group assignment".

From the above utterances, S8 projected that when this teaching and learning style is done on a consistent base, like twice in a month, it will make students more familiar with such a new normal situation. In the experience of S7, there was a need to redirect the idea of the group members during their discussion.

The responses he got from the group members was that they would get to understand how to do and implement an online project as time goes on. This is an indication that the students believe that when they do one of the more online community projects, it will strengthen them and increase their understanding.

The following buttressed that experiencing online projects helps to better the teaching/learning process: S6:"We made use of the experience we got in the past group work, that was how we finally manage to respond to all challenges. I know next time, we will not have more problem".

S1:"We worked very well as a group. We all had the same understanding about the content in the second online class community work, as opposed to the first one, where we had different views which way we were not certain about".

The statement of the S6 showed that the experience they got from the first online classroom community project helps them to succeed in the second one. The participant also projected that the next time they do, such assessment would be better than the previous ones. In the same line of thought, participant S1 reiterated that they are excellent when working together with a group and confirmed that the second online classroom community project was better than the first one. This is to confirm further that when the students are consistently engaged in the online project in the wake of COVID-19 will help them to achieve

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the intention of what the physical classroom project was set to achieve. The findings of the study are discussed below.

5. Discussion The findings of the study were presented based on the data obtained. This was done by identifying the findings from the objectives of the study. Two findings were discovered from the first and the second objectives. The table below elicits them, and each finding was discussed seperatly in the following sub-sections.

Table 2: Thematic representation of the findings

Objectives Objective one Objective two

Findings 1. 1. Struggle to locate group members.

2. 2. Unstable internet access and electricity shortage.

6.

1. Tolerance among group members.

7.

2. Consistent utilisation of online community project in the teachinglearning process.

5.1.

Struggle to Locate Group Members The study found out that the students struggle to locate their group members.

This may be due to the fact that the groups were selected using blackboard technology that did not take cognisance of the student's prior relationships. Put differently, those who were grouped together did not know each other and they were gathered to work together. This action is, however, one of the objectives of working together in the classroom. According to Ubuntu, this challenge demonstrates that people must work together as one, irrespective of their differences and diversities. This is in line with the assumption of Arthur, Issifu and Marfo (2015) who claimed that Ubuntu is a strategy that ensures unity among the people despite their diversities. Yet, the analysis also indicated that the students were able to accommodate and listen to themselves, and show compassion to those who, one way or the other were unable to meet up with their schedules. Therefore, Tutu (1999) revealed that students’ intention is to show humanity and togetherness towards people's development.

5.2.

Unstable Internet Access and Electricity Shortage The findings also revealed that many group members encounter a lack or poor internet facilities. This was linked to unstable electricity supply in their selected communities. On the other hand, this may be linked to the students' differences in their socio-economic background. That is, many students may have free access to internet facilities in their home while others may find it difficult to access reliable internet facilities. In this sense, Dube (2020) stated that students who are located in rural communities are subject to the lack the internet access.

In Omodan’s (2020) findings, students residing in the disadvantaged South Africa communities (Rural locations) have little or no access to social amenities, including internet access, which in turn affects their academic effectiveness during COVID-19 crisis.

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5.3.

Tolerance among Group Members According to the encountered results, one of the possible ways to ensure smooth implementation of online classroom community projects during COVID-19 new normal is to boost patience and accommodation. Based on the first challenge, the students (group members) must be able to show compassion, love and friendliness to one another. Besides, they must be patient and accommodative. This is to confirm that the spirit of Ubuntu is a pointer to group success because when there is love, compassion, unity and understanding, the actualisation of group goals and objectives are not subject to negotion. In this study, the students were able to extend patient to themselves and accommodate their differences and shortcomings. This is in line with Brack et al. (2003) who argued that Ubuntu relates to social morality, humanness, and personhood in people’s daily social conduct. According to Mbigi (2004), it helps the development practice of togetherness in schools.

5.4.

Consistent Utilisation of Online Community Project in the Teaching-Learning Process.

The study also concluded that the more there is consistency in the use of online community project during CIVID-19, the more the students get used to it and become perfect. This was manifested in the above analysis where the participants were able to use their past experiences to get the job done while some others also referee to the fact that they will perform better if the use of online community project in the teaching-learning process is consistent. This result is similar to Šteh and Kalin’s finding (2012) in which the consistent participation of students in group discussion makes them aware of their own contribution, and consequently allows them to contribute constructively to their group work quality. In support of this, Ellis, Goodyear, Bliuc and Ellis (2011) also found out that there is a significant positive relationship between student experiences and academic achievement. Therefore, consistency in the use of online classroom community project will go a long way in helping students to cope with COVID-19 new normal.

6. Conclusion and Recommendation The study confirmed that the use of an online classroom community project is the best strategy to implement the intention of collaborative knowledge construction in the classroom during the COVID-19 new normal. This was unravelled under the tutelage of transformative paradigm, participatory research, and Ubuntuism as a means to transform classroom activities among university students in the wake of Pandemic. Based on the above findings, it is safe to record that implementing an online classroom community project comes with a number of challenges such as "struggle to find group members and unstable internet access and electricity shortage. On the other hand, the study also concluded that patient and accommodation among group members and consistent utilisation of online community project in the teaching-learning process are important dimensions that could enhance the smooth implementation of an online classroom community project in University classrooms. However, the study recommends that both lecturers and students

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should adopt the spirit of Ubuntu when dealing with a task that involves them coming together as one.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 372-390, January 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.1.21

Incorporation of Small-Group Learning Activities into Biology Lectures to Enhance Learning at a University in Pretoria, South Africa Liziwe Lizbeth Mugivhisa and Joshua Olawole Olowoyo Department of Biology, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6112-5478 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8601-091X Abstract. There have been intense teaching challenges at institutions of higher learning as a result of an increasing range of courses offered to students with diverse backgrounds and levels of preparedness. Lecturers are also faced with a high failure rate and increased retention rates.

Student achievement is crucial, and efforts have to be made to adapt and change to methods of teaching that contribute to the better performance of students. Hence, calls have been made for a radical shift from teaching which is teacher-centered to student-centered teaching approaches. The study assessed students’ perceptions on the incorporation of active learning in small groups and the impact of the incorporation of smallgroup learning activities into Biology lectures on the performance of the students. Participants showed a preference for small-group learning activities and indicated that incorporating small-group learning activities into lectures should be compulsory. The average mean test marks of 72 Biology students before and after the incorporation of smallgroup learning activities were compared. Results showed that the mean test mark (52.7±15.7) of the participants was significantly higher after incorporation of small-group learning activities compared to before incorporation (38.9±16.4), indicating a positive effect (p<0.05) of smallgroup learning activities on student performance. The participants also showed a preference for the incorporation of small-group learning activities into lectures. It is recommended that other factors such as the preparedness of students before assessments be investigated in future studies.

Keywords: academic performance; assessments; learning activities; lectures; small groups

1. Introduction Education plays a crucial role in every society and should be given priority as it directs economic and social growth (Diković & Gergorić, 2020). At institutions of higher learning, education is about complex learning, with large amounts of ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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information needing to be organized and remembered (Knight, 2010). An increasing range of courses offered to students with diverse backgrounds and levels of preparedness has resulted in intense teaching challenges at institutions of higher learning (Northedge, 2003). For the majority of students, including those who are successful, the transition to university can be both a great and difficult encounter (Räisänen et al., 2020). In addition to the incorporation of remedial support to struggling students within institutions and teaching programs to address the above-mentioned challenges, there has been a call for a radical shift from the teacher-centered approach of teaching to the student-centered teaching approach (Dema & Tshering, 2020). In 2017, the Council on Higher Education and the Department of Higher Education and Training jointly convened a national workshop in South Africa to find ways to improve the quality of university teaching so that the success rate of students can be increased.

Lecturers are faced with high failure rates, increased retention rates of students, and a lack of motivation by students (Khan & Kousar, 2011). Student achievement is critical and lecturers must make efforts to adapt and change to new teaching methods which contribute to the better performance of students. As such, lecturers must consider all the available educational tools with an assortment of technologies and techniques so that students can be provided with the richest possible educational experience (Cherney, 2008; Dema & Tshering, 2020).

Traditional methods of teaching, which include lectures, only need to be revised to accommodate the students of the twenty-first century, who are active learners that might find the lecture method of teaching not beneficial to their engagement (Dema & Tshering, 2020).

Due to the economic pressures at higher learning institutions, the result is that bigger classes should be taught by a smaller number of lecturers, making lecturebased learning the most effective pedagogy (Killian & Bastas, 2015). As a result, the teaching activities have mostly concentrated on pedagogies that are teachercentered, with the information being presented to students to mainly cover theoretical knowledge (Manfrin, 2019). In contrast, active learning has recently been introduced, which places students at the center of the learning process as opposed to putting emphasis on the teachers and accepting students as passive learners (Machemer & Crawford, 2007; Michael, 2006). Universities have made a change in the paradigm of teaching from teacher-centered learning to studentcentered learning (Michael, 2006). According to Muhammad (2016), all learning which is genuine is active and not passive.

In teacher-centered learning, the emphasis is on traditional lectures, where the main role of the students is to listen and take notes. However, in student-centered learning, the main emphasis is on active learning, which may incorporate team-based or cooperative learning to encourage students to be responsible for their education (Machemer & Crawford, 2007; Manfrin, 2019; Singh et al., 2018).

Education should be about learning and not about teaching of the students.

Learning should take place when individuals construct their own knowledge individually or socially (Cattaneo, 2017). As such, institutions of education should promote students’ social and individual activity in the present society (Diković & Gergorić, 2020).

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Active learning is defined as any instructional method that results in the engagement of students in the learning process (Demirci, 2017; Hedden et al., 2017; Prince, 2004; Smith & Cardaciotto, 2011). It is an educational paradigm that focuses on learning instead of teaching (Michael, 2006). The instructional strategies of active learning encompass a wide range of activities that have a common element of students being involved in doing things, interacting with each other, and thinking about the things which they are doing (Demirci, 2017; Eison, 2010; Smith & Cardaciotto, 2011). According to Felder and Brent (1996), even though many people define active learning as anything which a teacher might ask students to do inside or outside the classroom, a definition that is restricted to in-class activities is more useful. Hence, active learning is defined as anything which is related to the course and which all students in a class are asked to do besides them simply listening, watching, and taking notes (Felder & Brent, 1996). In active learning, both lecturer and student should have a contribution towards the quality of learning (Zepke, 2013).

Decades of research studies have shown that active-learning approaches consistently promote better learning of students compared to traditional lectures (Burke, 2011; Cavanagh, 2011; Michael, 2006; Owens et al., 2018; Smith & Cardaciotto, 2011). Research has also shown that students prefer teaching strategies which involve active learning, with the promotion of higher order thinking skills, compared to traditional lectures (Muhammad, 2016). According to Hartikainen et al. (2019), active learning can be described as a wide concept related to learning that is student-centered and includes activities and instructions given by the instructors. Active learning involves deep learning which leads to better retention of knowledge, skills in higher order thinking, engagement, and participation of the students (Bonwell & Eison, 1991), whilst in the traditional way of teaching, the emphasis is on the recalling of facts and remembering of information (Diković & Gergorić, 2020). According to Cattaneo (2017), active learning is not new, and its promotion is gaining momentum in academic literature and policies as a viable solution for the enhanced achievement of students.

Active learning is a constructivist perspective of learning in which learners actively construct knowledge that is integrated into the existing experience and knowledge (Hedden et al., 2017). In general, active learning does not include activities which are done by students on their own. Instead, it involves activities which are monitored and organized by the lecturers, making it an instructional approach in which the learning of students is guided (Hartikainen et al., 2019). It is a learning approach in which different activity instructions, such as interactions, deeper processing of information, physical activity, and social collaboration, are given to students (Hartikainen et al., 2019). Active learning helps in that students are kept awake, are together with the lecturer, and can retain more information about the lecture content and learning outcomes (Gǿrtz, 2011). Retention of the concepts by students is increased, especially if students are actively involved with their own learning (Cherney, 2008).

The two major learning theories for active learning are cognitivism and constructivism. In cognitivism, information is transformed into knowledge

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discovery with visualization artefacts that ensure that the problems are solved at the end of the lecture. The cognitive theory puts emphasis on the effects of working together (Abu et al., 1997). According to Hedden et al. (2017), the constructivist approach is a student-centered approach in which learners develop meaning from experience. Students are engaged and required to do meaningful activities; think about what they are doing; and reflect on, analyze, evaluate, and communicate about the information (Manfrin, 2019; Smith & Cardaciotto, 2011).

Learning becomes a constructive process in which the learner builds an internal representation of knowledge. Learning turns into an active process through which meaning is established based on experience. Learning that is student-centered and students being given instructions that make them more active contribute to enhanced achievement in the learning of students (Hartikainen et al., 2019).

The constructivist approach draws on the student creating, instead of simply acquiring, meaning by interacting with the environment. Biggs (1999) stated that in constructive alignment, the teaching is designed in such a way that students engage in learning activities, which increases the chances of them achieving the intended outcomes. According to Oliveira et al. (2006), students’ learning is hampered by the exclusive use of lectures which continues in colleges even though it does not encourage interest in the subjects taught (Killian & Bastas, 2015). The emphasis of the constructivist approach is on higher order thinking, and the engagement of the student is required (Miller & Metz, 2014). This, in turn, allows students to become information producers instead of information consumers.

Cooperative learning, which can be incorporated into active learning, includes methods of teaching where students learn new academic concepts by working together and assisting each other in small groups organized by the lecturer (Tran, 2014). For cooperative learning to take place, students should be interdependent on one another. The major theoretical perspectives related to cooperative learning are the sociocultural theory of development, and motivational and cognitive theories (Abu et al., 1997). The sociocultural theory of development suggests that students learn when they solve problems beyond their current level of development with the support of their peers or a teacher. During the interaction of the students with each other, perspectives are explained and discussed, leading to a greater understanding of the material to be learned. The motivational theory of cooperative learning emphasizes students’ incentive to do academic work, whereas the cognitive theory of cooperative learning emphasizes the effects of working together (Abu et al., 1997).

Several studies have found that groupwork, which is part of cooperative learning, augments academic achievement (Gull & Shehzad, 2015; McMaster & Fuchs, 2002; Nichols, 2002). Employers also seek graduates who have skills in teamwork and well-developed interpersonal behavior (Burke, 2011). In addition, Killen (2007) stated that the essence of the motivational perspective is that the rewards of the group encourage individuals to assist each other to achieve (Botelho & O’Donnell, 2001). Members of the group accomplish their personal goals only when a group is successful (Killen, 2007). Positive interdependence is one of the elements of cooperative learning in which students have the perception that their success or

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failure is dependent on their working together as a group (Abu et al., 1997; Johnson & Johnson, 2008; Johnson et al., 2014). In a study by Johnson et al. (2006), cooperative learning was found to produce better academic performance than individual and competitive learning. In cooperative learning, learners give each other steppingstones or scaffolds for thinking, which easily explains why students learn from each other when working together.

Learners who are not engaged in learning activities besides watching and listening to the lecturer as with traditional lectures tend to lose concentration and interest in the lectures and end up losing motivation to learn. As a result, calls for teaching which involves more active involvement of students have been made (Owens et al., 2018). Several studies have also been done on the perceptions of students on active learning (Cavanagh, 2011; Machemer & Crawford, 2007; Miller & Metz, 2014; Oliveira et al., 2006; Owens et al., 2018), but to the best of our knowledge, a comparison of the assessment marks of students before and after engaging in small-group learning activities have not been made. As such, the research questions for this study were: What are student perceptions on the incorporation of active learning in small groups? and What is the impact of the incorporation of active learning in small groups on the performance of students?

2. Methods and Procedure A quantitative research design was employed for the study through the completion of questionnaires by Biology students to assess their perceptions on the incorporation of small-group learning activities into lectures. The questionnaires were constructed by the researchers. The first questionnaire (Appendix 1) consisted of closed-ended questions and was administered to the participants before the introduction of small-group learning activities in Biology lectures. The questions sought demographic information of the participants, information on which teaching methods students preferred, prior experience with group activities in lectures, student perceptions on the frequency and duration of learning activities, and whether the learning activities would enhance student learning. The second questionnaire (Appendix 2) was administered after the participants had participated in active learning and small-group activities. The questionnaire used a modified Likert scale and consisted of questions that were intended to seek information on the experiences of the participants on the incorporation of learning activities into lectures. A comparison of the experiences of the participants was made between a group of participants who had passed and those who had failed. For ethical considerations, since the marks of the participants were used, and human subjects (students) were involved in the study, ethical clearance was sought from the ethics committee of the School of Science and Technology and the University Ethics Committee. The participants were then asked to complete and sign consent forms.

The Biology course at the university is a semester course, with the first and second semesters covering different topics and content. Only those students who were registered for both semesters of Biology 2 were used as a study sample. In the first semester, lectures were delivered by one of the researchers for about five weeks, without the incorporation of small-group learning activities. In the second semester, for about four weeks, small-group learning activities were incorporated

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into the Biology 2 lectures in the form of mind maps to summarize the lecture content which had been covered each week. The small-group learning activities were incorporated into lectures once a week only and lasted for about 45 minutes each, whereas four traditional lectures were also delivered per week for 45 minutes per lecture.

For the small-group learning activities of each week, participants were randomly divided into groups of about five students per group. To ensure random selection and heterogeneity in the groups, participants were randomly assigned to the groups. To ensure the participation of all the students in each group, each member of the group was given a role and a responsibility during the small-group learning activities and a group leader was selected for each week. Learning activities in the small groups were done on A2-sized papers in the form of mind maps to summarize the content taught in class each week. The learning-activity worksheets were collected after each participant had taken a picture of the worksheets to enable them to use the worksheets as learning tools during examinations.

A total of 126 Biology 2 students, which represented 77.8% of the whole Biology 2 class, agreed to participate in the completion of the questionnaires for the assessment of the perceptions of students on the incorporation of small-group learning activities into lectures. The first questionnaire was administered at the beginning of semester 2 before the incorporation of small-group learning activities. The sample comprised 29% male and 71% female students. The majority of the participants (49%) were in the age range 18–20 years, followed by 44.8% in the age group 21–23 years, with the lowest number of the participants (5.6%) being in the 24–27 years age group. In addition, the majority of the participants (81.4%) were registered for Biology 2 for the first time. At the end of the second semester, only 41 Biology 2 students, representing 23% of the class population and having participated in the small-group learning activities, agreed to complete the second questionnaire to determine their experiences on the incorporation of small-group learning activities. A paired sample t-test was used to compare the mean test scores of 72 participants in the first and second semesters before and after the incorporation of the small-group learning activities, respectively (p<0.05). These 72 participants were those who had attended a minimum of two lectures where there were learning activities, as seen on the class register. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to check if there was any significant difference between the mean test marks of the participants who had engaged in different numbers (frequencies) of the small-group learning activities (p<0.05).

3. Results Table 1 below shows the results of the questionnaire items which were administered to the participants before the incorporation of small-group learning activities into lectures.

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Table 1: Responses of participants regarding small-group learning activities Response

Percentage of participants (%) Yes

No

Prior experience in small-group learning activities in lectures.

43.3

56.7

Preference for lectures and small-group learning activities.

82.4

17.6

Preference for working in small groups.

51.6

48.4

Should small-group learning activities be compulsory in all course modules?

77.2

22.8

Will small-group learning activities in lectures result in better academic performance or pass rate?

98.4

1.6

Slightly more than half of the participants (56.7%) did not have prior experience in small-group learning activities, whereas 43.3% had been exposed to small-group learning activities. The majority of the participants (82.4%) preferred the incorporation of small-group learning activities into lectures, whereas 17.6% preferred the teaching method of lectures. Furthermore, most of the participants (77.2%) responded that small-group learning activities should be compulsory in all course modules, whereas 22.8% did not want small-group learning activities to be compulsory in all course modules. Lastly, almost all the participants (98.4%) reported that small-group learning activities would improve their academic performance, with 1.6% believing that small-group learning activities would not result in an improvement in their academic performance (Table 1).

Participants also had to respond on how frequently small-group learning activities should take place (Figure 1) and how long each small-group learning activity should be (Figure 2).

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7% 14%

79%

once a week

once a month

once a semester

Figure 1: Responses on how frequently small-group learning activities should take place

The majority of the participants (79%) preferred to have small-group learning activities at least once a week, whereas 14% and 7%, respectively, preferred smallgroup learning activities once a month and once a semester (Figure 1).

14%

21%

65%

< 15 min

between 15 & 30 min

> 30 min

Figure 2: Responses on how long the small-group learning activities should be

With regards to how long the small-group learning activities should be, 65% of participants preferred to have them for a duration of between 15 and 30 minutes, whereas 21% preferred them to last for more than 30 minutes (Figure 2). The least number of participants (14%) preferred small-group learning activities of less than 15 minutes.

The mean and standard deviation of participants’ test marks of the first and second semesters were calculated and are depicted in Table 2.

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Table 2: Participant performance in the first and second semesters Category

Semester 1 (before intervention) (%)

Semester 2 (after intervention) (%)

38.9±16.4

52.7±15.7

Minimum mark

6

13

Maximum mark

82

85

Participants who scored above 50%

22.2

59.7

Participants who scored below 50%

77.8

40.3

Participants who scored more than 75%

4.2

8.3

Mean test average

The mean average test mark of 38.9%±16.4 (mean%±standard deviation) for the first semester was significantly lower than the mean average test mark of 52.7%±15.7 for the second semester, after incorporation of the small-group learning activities (p<0.05) (Table 2). Test marks in the first semester ranged between 6% and 82%, whereas in the second semester it ranged between 13% and 85%. Only 22.2% of the participants scored above the pass mark of 50% in the first semester, with 59.7% scoring above the pass mark of 50% in the second semester.

Regarding achieving a distinction (75%), for the second semester, 8.3% of participants were able to do so, compared to 4.2% for the first semester.

Figure 3 shows the test marks of participants engaging in different frequencies of small-group learning activities.

60

Test Marks (%)

50 40 30

Before intervention

20

After intervention

10 0 25% 50% 75% 100% Frequency of doing learning activities Figure 3: The test marks of participants engaging in different frequencies of smallgroup learning activities

The mean test marks for the second semester were all significantly higher than the mean test marks for the first semester for all the frequencies (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) of participant engagement in small-group learning activities (p<0.05).

Participants’ marks before and after the intervention were also assessed to determine whether the marks had improved or worsened (Figure 4).

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14%

Marks went down after small groups learning activities Marks went up after small groups learning activities

86%

Figure 4: Improvement or worsening of participant marks after intervention of smallgroup learning activities

Figure 4 shows that from the participants who passed in the second semester after the introduction of the small-group learning activities, 14% had a decline in marks in the second semester compared to 86% who showed an improvement in the second semester.

Participant responses to the second questionnaire are depicted in Tables 3 and 4.

Table 3 shows the overall responses of all the participants irrespective of whether they passed or failed, whereas Table 4 compares the responses of the participants based on whether they passed or failed. The objective of this questionnaire was to elicit participant responses on the small-group learning activities at the end of the second semester after having engaged in the small-group learning activities.

Table 3: Participant overall responses on small-group learning activities at the end of semester 2 Response Strongly disagree Group learning increased memory.

Percentage (%) of participants Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

activities

0

0

24.3

61

14.6

There was better understanding of subject content after group learning activities.

0

2.4

22

64

14.6

Group learning activities are a good way to learn.

0

2.4

9.8

65.9

22

The group learning activities were fun and helpful.

4.9

7.3

19.5

46.3

22

The majority of the participants (61%) agreed that group learning activities increased their memory, followed by 24.3% and 14.6% who were neutral or strongly agreed, respectively. Only 14.6% of the participants strongly agreed that

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there was a better understanding of the subject content after having engaged in small-group learning activities, whilst 64% agreed and 22% were neutral. The least number of participants (2.4%) disagreed that there was a better understanding of subject content after group learning activities. Furthermore, 22% of participants reported strongly agreeing that small-group learning activities were a good way to learn, with the majority (66%) agreeing that group learning activities were a good way to learn. However, 9.8% reported that they were neutral and 2.4% disagreed that group learning activities were a good way to learn. The proportion of participants who strongly agreed that the small-group learning activities were fun and helpful was 22%, whilst 46.3% agreed to this and 19.5% were neutral. Surprisingly, 7.3% and 4.9% of the participants disagreed and strongly disagreed, respectively, with the small-group learning activities being fun and helpful.

Table 4 below also presents participant responses after having engaged in the small-group learning activities. This time, the table is divided into those participants who passed and those who failed in the second semester.

Table 4: A comparison of participant responses between those who passed and those who failed on small-group learning activities at the end of semester 2

Neutral

Agree

0

19

57.2

23.8

0

0

30.8

61.5

7.7

0

0

19

66.7

14.3

0

7.7

23.1

53.8

15.4

0

4.8

9.5

57.1

28.6

0

0

15.4

79.2

7.7

4.8

9.5

9.5

52.4

23.8

7.7

0

30.8

38.5

23.1

0

4.8

19

33.3

42.9

0

0

23.1

46.2

30.8

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Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

0

Neutral

Strongly agree

Disagree

Participants who failed after the small-group learning activities

Agree

Learning activities increased memory.

Better understanding after learning activities.

Learning activities are a good way to learn.

Learning activities made me enjoy Biology more.

Learning activities will improve performance.

Disagree

Participants who passed after the small-group learning activities

Strongly disagree

Response

383

More of the participants who failed in the second semester felt neutral (30.8%, 23.1%, 15.4%, 30.8, and 23.1%) about all the questions which were asked in the questionnaire in the second semester on how they felt after they had engaged in the small-group learning activities compared to the participants who passed in the second semester (19%, 19%, 9.5%, 9.5%, and 19%). However, more of the participants who failed (61.5%, 79.2%, and 46.2%) agreed that the small-group learning activities increased memory, were a good way to learn, and that it would improve performance, respectively, compared to those who passed in the second semester (57.2%, 57.1%, and 33.3%, respectively). In addition, more of the participants who passed strongly agreed (23.8%, 28.6%, 23.8%, and 42.9%) that small-group learning activities increased memory, were a good way to learn, made them enjoy Biology more, and would improve their performance, respectively, compared to those who failed (7.7%, 7.7%, 23.1%, and 30.8%, respectively).

4. Discussion The finding of this study that participants had a slight preference for working in groups is in agreement with Oliveira et al. (2006), in whose study the majority of the student participants (80%) indicated that the learning activities which included discussion of the problems and group activities were useful to their learning. In a study by Yuretich (2004), students indicated that even though they equally liked lectures, they considered interactions with their peers and lecturers as the most popular features of lectures. Furthermore, in Cavanagh’s (2011) study, students valued both traditional lectures and learning tasks in cooperative learning, but valued the varieties of learning activities more. Cooperative learning results in improved participation, understanding, motivation, and better academic performance of students (Gull & Shehzad, 2015). In addidion, cooperative-learning activities support the understanding of students (Cavanagh, 2011). The engagement with peers supports and scaffolds the learning of the students (Vygotsky, 1997). Individuals tend to learn more when they learn with others than when they learn alone (Michael, 2006). According to Räisänen et al.

(2020), in peer learning, students learn through the interaction with each other. In several studies, groupwork has been found to augment academic achievement (Gull & Shehzad, 2015; McMaster & Fuchs, 2002; Nichols, 2002).

This study also found that the participating students preferred longer and frequent active-learning sessions and that active learning was useful. This finding correlates with the results of Miller and Metz (2014), which showed that students found active learning useful and preferred to have a larger percentage of the lecture time in Basic Sciences scheduled for learning activities. The results of the present study which showed a significant increase in academic performance when incorporating small-group learning activities are also comparable with the findings of Barrows and Tamblyn (1980). They found that the mean exam scores of students who were taught using active learning were significantly higher than those who were taught in the teacher-centered manner, as with the traditional lectures-only method.

Furthermore, in this study, the majority of participants indicated that the small-group learning activities improved their memory of the subject content.

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These results are comparable with the results of Smith and Cardaciotto (2011), where the majority of the student participants reported more retention of course material. These results are also comparable with those of Towns and Grant (1998).

In their study, student participants responded that cooperative-learning activities in lectures contributed to an increase in their learning and comprehension of the content even though some participants felt that learning activities resulted in less content being covered. According to Prince (2004), students tend to remember more content if activities are briefly introduced in lectures.

Active learning is a student-centered pedagogical approach that focuses on the learner and what the learner does in a lecture (Michael, 2006). The finding that the marks of the majority of the participating students increased in the second semester when compared with the first semester is again indicative of the positive impact that the incorporation of the small-group learning activities had on the overall academic performance of the participants. The responses of the participants who failed or passed in the second semester coincided with the responses they gave at the end of the second semester on their experiences of the small-group learning activities.

5. Conclusion It can be concluded that the incorporation of small-group learning activities into lectures has a positive effect on the academic performance of students and hence should be promoted in Biology lectures. The marks of the participants showed an improvement after the incorporation of small-group learning activities compared to when the lectures-only method of teaching was employed. The participants showed a preference for small-group learning activities and suggested that incorporation of small-group learning activities into lectures should be compulsory.

It is recommended that follow-up studies on small-group learning activities should be done on larger groups of students and over an extended period. Other factors, such as the preparedness of students and the presence or absence of other assessments around the time of writing tests, which can have an impact on the performance of the students, should also be investigated. The impact of other learning activities on the academic performance of students, such as answering questions or taking part in class group discussions, should also be explored. This should not include the summarizing of lecture content into mind maps. In addition, more studies should be carried out with other subjects and different levels of study.

6. Acknowledgments The authors would like to sincerely thank all the students who took part in the study by completing the questionnaires and taking part in the small-group learning activities. The authors would also like to thank the Teaching Advancement Fellowships Programme (TAU) – 2018/2019, an initiative of the Higher Education Learning & Teaching Association of Southern Africa (HELTASA), for granting one of the authors an opportunity to take part in the program and hence carrying out the study.

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Appendix 1

SEFAKO MAKGATHO HEALTH SCIENCES UNIVERSITY

School of Pathology & Pre-Clinical Sciences Biology Department PO BOX 139, MEDUNSA, 0204 Email: Liziwe.mugivhisa@smu.ac.za

Incorporation of learning activities in small groups into the Biology lectures to enhance learning at a university in Pretoria, South Africa Definition of learning activity: “In short, active learning requires students to do meaningful learning activities and think about what they are doing”. Prince (2004, p. 223).

1. Age

2. Gender

3. Are you doing Biology for the first time?

Male

Female

Yes

4. Do you ever enthusiastically answer questions in the lectures?

No

Yes

5. In class are you able to concentrate for the whole class?

6. If “no” after how long does your concentration go down

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After 10 min

No

Yes After 15 min

No More than 15 min

389

7. Which method of teaching do you prefer?

Lectures only

8. Have you ever experienced any teaching method which incorporated learning activities in any of your lectures?

9. When given learning activities would you prefer to work individually or in a group?

10. When given learning activities how often would you prefer to do the learning activities?

11. How long do you think the learning activities should be?

Lectures & activities / discussions

Yes

Individually

Once a week

< 15 min

12. Do you think learning activities in lectures should be compulsory in all course modules?

In a group

Once a month

Once a semester

Between 15 & 30 >30 min min

Yes

13. Do you think learning activities in lectures would enhance the learning of the students or result in better performance / pass rate?

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No

No

Yes

No

390

Appendix 2

SEFAKO MAKGATHO HEALTH SCIENCES UNIVERSITY School of Pathology & Pre-Clinical Sciences Biology Department PO BOX 139, MEDUNSA, 0204 Email: Liziwe.mugivhisa@smu.ac.za

Incorporation of learning activities in small groups into the Biology lectures to enhance learning at a university in Pretoria, South Africa

Answer the questions by ticking in the blocks which best describe your responses.

Strongly disagree (1) The learning activities in small groups contributed to me remembering the course content better.

I gained better understanding of the course content after doing the learning activities in small groups.

The learning activities in small groups were a good way to learn about the topics.

Learning activities in small groups made me enjoy doing Biology more I think learning activities will contribute to me performing better in exams

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Disagree

Neutral

Agree

(2)

(3)

(4)

Strongly agree (5)

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