IJLTER.ORG Vol 20 No 12 December 2021

IJLTER.ORG

p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.20 No.12

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 20, No. 12 (December 2021) Print version: 1694-2493 Online version: 1694-2116

IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 20, No. 12

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Editors of the December 2021 Issue

VOLUME 20

NUMBER 12

December 2021

Table of Contents Students’ Perceptions of Content- and Language- Integrated Learning in Vietnam: A Survey Study ....................... 1 Phuong-Bao-Tran Nguyen, Lies Sercu Industrial Engagement in the Technical and Vocational Training (TVET) System...................................................... 19 Mohd Azlan Mohammad Hussain, Rafeizah Mohd Zulkifli, Arasinah Kamis, Mark D. Threeton, Khaizer Omar The Impact of Teaching Practice on Female Students’ Preparation for Mathematics Teacher Education Programme in Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria .................................................................................................. 35 Sunday Bomboi IJEH, Onoriode Collins POTOKRI Integrating Video-Based Multimedia in Teaching Physics in Context of Covid-19 in Rwandan Secondary Schools ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 49 Gabriel Janvier Tugirinshuti, Leon Rugema Mugabo, Alexis Banuza Development and Validation of a Model Predicting Students’ Sense of School Belonging and Engagement as a Function of School Climate .................................................................................................................................................. 64 Jerome St-Amand, Jonathan Smith, Aziz Rasmy Virtual Mathematics Education during COVID-19: An Exploratory Study of Teaching Practices for Teachers in Simultaneous Virtual Classes .............................................................................................................................................. 85 Faisal Aloufi, Ibrahim AL-Hussain Khalil, Abdelkader Mohamed Abdelkader Elsayed, Yousef Wardat, Ahmed AL-Otaibi Factors Affecting Secondary School Students’ Academic Achievements in Chemistry ............................................ 114 Aimable Sibomana, Claude Karegeya, John Sentongo An Examination of the Correlation between South African Grade 12 students’ Mathematics Self-Concept and their Academic Achievement ............................................................................................................................................ 127 James Bill Ouda, Tawanda Runhare, Ndileleni Mudzielwana, Hasina Cassim, Shonisani Agnes Mulovhedzi Religious Instruction for Students with Autism in an Inclusive Primary School ....................................................... 139 Hakiman Hakiman, Bambang Sumardjoko, Waston Waston Assessing the Higher Education Settings after the Transition to Online Learning: Exploring Teaching, Assessments, and Students’ Academic Success .............................................................................................................. 159 Nahla Moussa Harnessing the Power of Reflective Journal Writing in Global Contexts: A Systematic Literature Review........... 174 Anselmus Sudirman, Adria Vitalya Gemilang, Thadius Marhendra Adi Kristanto Game-Based Didactic Resources as a Strategy in Foreign Language Pedagogy ........................................................ 195 Valeria Sumonte Rojas, Lidia Fuentealba Fuentealba, Ranjeeva Ranjan Resetting Integrity Through Communication on Plagiarism: University Classrooms Weaving Values into the Social Fabric ......................................................................................................................................................................... 212

Arniza Ghazali, Azniwati Abdul Aziz Theoretical Models of Integration of Interactive Learning Technologies into Teaching: A Systematic Literature Review .................................................................................................................................................................................. 232 Laila Mohebi Learning Potentials of Job Shadowing in Teacher Education ....................................................................................... 255 Danijela Makovec Instructional Leadership Capacity of Secondary School Science Heads of Department in Gauteng, South Africa ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 267 Cynthia B. Malinga, Loyiso C. Jita, Abiodun A. Bada

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 1-18, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.1 Received Sep 05, 2021; Revised Nov 24, 2021; Accepted Dec 07, 2021

Students’ Perceptions of Content- and LanguageIntegrated Learning in Vietnam: A Survey Study Phuong-Bao-Tran Nguyen* KU Leuven, Belgium Can Tho University, Vietnam https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2927-0632 Lies Sercu KU Leuven, Belgium https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3213-396X Abstract. Content- and language-integrated learning (CLIL), an educational approach, in which the subject matter is taught in a foreign language. This has become popular in tertiary education. Many research studies have shown its benefits and discussed the favorable effects, especially with respect to L2 language gains. Yet, critical voices, also from the primary stakeholders, namely the students taking part in such integrated programs, have also been heard. In an effort to integrate into the international academic and scientific community, universities in Vietnam have also started to teach academic courses in English. The main objective of this cross-sectional survey study (N=104) was to explore Vietnamese students’ perceptions of such dual-training programs and to investigate to what extent they feel the program currently meets their needs. Our findings show that both lecturers and students are struggling in these courses, for one thing, because of insufficient levels of mastery of the English language; while for another reason, since courses cannot be characterized as courses in which disciplinary contents and the foreign language are taught in an integrated way. The way forward seems to be to educate the lecturers and the students well, before allowing them to participate in CLIL English courses. All these issues need to be considered in the context of local Vietnamese educational realities and traditions.

Keywords: English-Medium Instruction (EMI); Content- and LanguageIntegrated Learning (CLIL); Vietnamese Higher Education; students’ perception; survey

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Corresponding author: Phuong-Bao-Tran Nguyen, npbtranctu.edu.vn

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction As in other countries in the Asian-Pacific Region, the Vietnamese Ministry of Education (MOET) has embraced the idea of teaching content courses in English in both upper-secondary and higher education (HE) institutions. With the Vietnamese government’s release of the “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Educational System, Period 2008-2020” project, one might say that the government has trusted the higher education sector with the extra challenge and responsibility of educating talented Vietnamese youngsters – not only for the Vietnamese, but also for the global labour market. Master’s in engineering or Business Administration, for example, also have to become proficient users of the English language. They have to be able to use that language flexibly and effectively for social, academic, and professional purposes. According to the Ministry of Education (MOET, 2008), on graduation, students need to be able to use a foreign language confidently and independently in communication, studies and work in an integrated, multilingual, and multicultural environment.

Since 2012, universities have started to supplement or replace English language teaching courses with English-Medium Instruction (EMI) courses. In EMI, the lecturer typically uses the English language, and rather than Vietnamese, to teach a content course. Underlying the introduction of EMI is the belief that offering courses in English within the meaningful context of learning specialized content is the ideal way to also foster students’ English language skills.

Directly after the first period of MOET’s “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Educational System” came to an end, this study wanted to investigate the current EMI situation, as it is perceived by the main stakeholders: what do students perceive of teaching, their lecturers’ English proficiency, EMI teaching approaches, their own motivation, and the mastery of English? Do students believe that EMI courses do not negatively affect either content or language learning? To that end, a survey study among EMI students from one university situated in the Mekong Delta was carried out. Students’ perception that data can inform lecturers and university authorities on how to proceed in the future, in order to meet students’ needs and MOET’s expectations.

In what follows, we first frame the study, defining and assessing EMI and Content- and Language-Integrated Learning (CLIL), and discussing how CLIL is perceived by students in tertiary education. Next, we provide a general sketch of the current situation of EMI and CLIL teaching in Vietnam. This is followed by a discussion of the research methodology. In the final sections of this paper, we present and discuss our research findings. The data show that both lecturers and students are struggling in these courses, for one thing because of insufficient levels of mastery of the English language and, for another, because courses cannot be characterized as courses in which disciplinary contents and a foreign language are taught in an integrated way.

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2. Background and Literature review 2.1 Content and Language Integrated Learning As pointed out by Macaro et al. (2018) in their systematic review of research findings regarding English-medium instruction in Higher Education (HE), EMI is used to refer to a variety of educational approaches, and “both the definition of EMI in HE and its practice appear to be fluid.” (Macaro et al., 2018). Both at the macro- and at the micro-level of education, reference may be made to Content and Language-Integrated Learning (CLIL) or Integrating Content and Language in Higher Education (ICLHE). According to Marsh et al. (2012), Content- and Language-Integrated Learning refers to “any dual-focused educational context in which an additional language is used for the learning and teaching of both content and language (Marsh et al., 2012, p. 9). Teachers in a CLIL context are not typically native speakers of the foreign language or language teachers; they are experts in an academic discipline (Fajardo Dack et al., 2020). Nor are they language-teaching specialists, who master a language-teaching methodology.

From this, it follows that CLIL courses at the tertiary educational level may be closer to English-medium instruction (EMI) or Content-based instruction (CBI) courses. In such courses, students do receive large amounts of English language input, but the educational focus remains on content learning. Indeed, in tertiary education, with its focus on disciplinary knowledge and skills learning, CLIL courses tend to come closer to CBI and EMI courses, rather than to true CLIL courses, where the content is learned through language; while language is learned through content (Coyle et al., 2010; Peukert & Gogolin, 2017).

Generally, it is assumed that the language would be learned alongside the content, and that there is no need to outline a language-learning trajectory with specific language attainment gains. Although most studies exploring language learning outcomes have found that these content-based language instruction programs to do as well, or better than non-CLIL programs (Graham et al., 2018, p. 30), it is clear that language input alone does not necessarily guarantee language acquisition and that pedagogical interventions supporting the integrated learning of language and content are needed and also beneficial.

2.2. Student perceptions of CLIL As shown by Goris et al. (2019), in a systematic review of longitudinal experimental CLIL studies, CLIL learners develop better writing skills than nonCLIL learners, and additionally, their grammar and vocabulary are better developed. Significant results are found as regards their enhanced fluency in the foreign language. Indeed, fluency is the skill commonly believed to be affected most favorably because of the increased opportunity for authentic communication (Goris et al., 2019, p. 693).

Given these overall positive results, it comes as no surprise that researchers investigating students’ perceptions of their CLIL experiences have found that learners at the tertiary level of education overall hold positive views of CLIL. Tsuchiya and Pérez Murillo (2015), for example, found that students in Spain and Japan expressed a relatively positive view towards CLIL in higher education (p.

33). Yet, they also found that students voiced critical concerns regarding CLIL implementation at university level. These concerns include their insufficient

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English skills to understand academic subject matter and the potential risk of lacking subject knowledge in their mother tongue. Aguilar and Rodriguez (2012) report students’ perceptions of some of their lecturers, as only having a low level of mastery of English. This leads to lecturers’ slow delivery rate hindering smooth lecturing, which is said to be “tedious” and “difficult”. Also, CLIL courses lack sufficient opportunities for discussion; since both students and lecturers do not feel at home in the foreign language and may show a tendency towards avoiding student interaction in the classroom (Aguilar & Rodríguez, 2012, p. 193).

On the other hand, students also testify to having improved their English listening skills and mastery of specialized vocabulary. Nuñez Asomoza (2015), investigating CLIL at the BA university level in Mexico found that students have an overall positive perception of CLIL courses. However, this study also reports that participants identify many areas that could be improved as regards lecturers, materials and the learning environment in general (Nuñez Asomoza, 2015).

Students generally struggle with developing academic skills, such as academic writing, identifying and using academic genres and specialized vocabulary. In addition, they report feeling stressed and anxious in CLIL courses, something that is also due to the presence of native speakers of English in the CLIL classes. This feeling of uneasiness is further fostered by a deterioration in their academic performance because of CLIL. In addition, students remark that teachers need training in English, CLIL teaching methodology and CLIL material development, findings which Aguilar and Rodriguez (2012) also suggested.

2.3 CLIL in Vietnam and Vietnam’s new language policy in higher education In 2012, the Vietnamese government issued a new law on HE, allowing a foreign language to be used as the medium of instruction. This stirred up heated discussions, with many people expressing the fear of losing the country’s unity and a strong Vietnamese cultural identity and heritage. Yet, it is clear that the government has initiated important changes in the national language policy and planning, opening Vietnam further to the world.

Following the release of this HE law, Vietnamese HE institutions (HEI) have established linkages with HEI abroad to develop so-called Advanced (AP), Joint (JP) and High Quality (HQP) Programs. Whereas HQP’s are locally developed with reference to foreign programs, A’s are designed and administered in close cooperation with international partners. Sometimes, Vietnamese students study the same curriculum as students in the partner universities. At other times, the foreign curriculum is adapted to local Vietnamese needs and circumstances. The assumption is that all teaching in these programs is done in English and that English medium foreign textbooks are to be used.

Even if the government has been successful in establishing a sense of urgency regarding the need to integrate in the international research and teaching community in HEIs, it has not been fully efficient when it comes to stimulating the necessary preparatory work that HEIs need to do before starting with such an important reform (Tran & Marginson, 2018). Given that the students are major stakeholders in this whole endeavor, the government could have incited HEI to

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set minimum EMI course entry requirements, specifically with respect to the level of mastery of the English language.

Yet, at the national level, there is no consistency as regards the entry level requirements for students, who want to enroll in EMI programs in which at least 60% of the courses are taught in English. It is said that they should have a sufficient mastery of the English language, but no certificate of English mastery may be required, and no entry test has yet to be taken. When an English certificate is required, a limited to moderate user level, as defined by IELTS (International English Language Testing Services), or a level comparable to an A2 level (CEFR, Common European Framework of Languages) may be deemed sufficient.

However, that level does not allow for easy content, comprehension or communication in the EMI content classroom.

When taking the VSTEP, the Vietnamese Standardized Test of English Proficiency, and obtaining a B2 or even a C1 score, students are led to believe that they have obtained the internationally recognized CEFR B2 or C1 level, whereas in fact, the VSTEP is a test that is mainly focused on general English communication skills. Thus, it does not reflect international standards where students at the B2 or C1 level are required to demonstrate their understanding of and ability to discuss and write complex texts on abstract topics, including technical discussions in their field of specialization.

As regards EMI lecturers, government documents require that they hold a PhD or a master’s degree obtained from an overseas university. Yet, as demonstrated by Nguyen (Nguyen, 2018, p. 123-124), the overseas criteria can be applied loosely, and lecturers who did not study in an Anglo-Saxon environment, or did not obtain an English-medium PhD or a master’s degree can also be asked to teach a course in English. Lecturers do not need to provide proof of their mastery of English at the CEFR C1-level. In addition, professional development toward better EMI teaching competence is left to the lecturer’s own initiative.

Additionally, from research, it has become clear that lecturers have not been consulted, as to whether they feel up to teaching a content course in English, let alone supporting their students’ development of their English language proficiency (ELP) via their course. Therefore, lecturers may not experience full ownership of the reform; and they may experience feelings of uncertainty and inadequacy (Do & Le, 2017; Vu & Burns, 2014). As specialists in their area of study, they may fear a language-content trade-off to the detriment of content, something which to them is not acceptable.

3. The Methodology 3.1 Aim From the above review of the literature, it is clear that lecturers and students may be both supportive, as well as critical of CLIL education, and that local language policy-related decisions pertaining to the conditions, under which CLIL programs can co-determine their level of success. The aim of this study, then, was to explore students’ perceptions of CLIL teaching in Vietnam directly after the first phase of

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the government’s “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Educational System, Period 2008-2020”, whereby the project came to an end.

Using a validated questionnaire, the study aimed to answer the following research questions: (1) What are students’ perceptions of their mastery of English within EMI courses?

(2) What are students’ perceptions of their lecturers’ English language proficiency within EMI courses?

(3) What are students’ perceptions of the amount of teaching done in English within EMI courses?

(4) What are students’ perceptions of the teaching materials used in EMI courses?

(5) What are students’ preferred teaching activities within EMI courses?

(6) To what extent do students feel they have been able to strengthen their English language skills during such EMI courses?

The main hypothesis of the study was that growth in students’ English language proficiency would be limited; and it would depend on the amount of teaching time done in English, students’ initial ELP, lecturers’ ELP and the chosen teachingand-learning activities.

3.2 The Research Instrument The study used a quantitative cross-sectional design (McKinley & Rose, 2019). A self-developed and pretested questionnaire survey (see Attachment 1) was used to explore the following aspects: students’ background (items 1-4), students’ perceptions of their mastery of English (items 5 -7), students ‘perceptions of the usefulness of teaching activities (items 8-16), students’ assessment of the amount of teaching time taking place in English (item 17), students’ views on whether or not CLIL education had helped them to improve their English language skills (item 18) or their content knowledge (item 19), students’ perceptions of their lecturers' English language proficiency (items 20-29), and, finally, students’ appreciation of teaching materials (items 30-41).

The participants responded to each statement by using a five-point scale. The survey answers were coded and checked for reliability. A strong Cronbach's Alpha (alpha 0.843) was obtained.

3.3 Sample 3.3.1 Student sample The survey was distributed among freshmen CLIL students from one large Vietnamese public university (PU) that can be considered as being representative of other public universities in Vietnam. From all the EMI students, a randomized sample of 365 students was selected. From this sample, 104 students from diverse study backgrounds participated in the study on a voluntary basis. The participants were studying Business, ICT or Engineering.

3.3.2 University profile At PU, EMI was first introduced in 2010 in the study areas ‘Advanced Biotechnology’ and ‘Advanced Aquaculture’. To these, other disciplines were

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added in 2015, namely the areas of Information Technology and International Business. Currently, this group of pioneers has been joined by EMI programs in ‘Chemistry Technology’, Electricity Technology’, ‘Construction Technology’, ‘Food Technology’, and ‘Finance and Banking’. Following government regulations, a minimum of 60% of courses are to be fully delivered in English.

Lecturers were required to have obtained a PhD, or to have graduated from an overseas master’s program. However, they did not need to provide proof of a CEFR C1 level of mastery of the English language.

From a limited set of interviews with lecturers, we learned that lecturers do not receive assistance when turning their Vietnamese-medium course into an EMI course, nor has a university-wide service been put in place to which they could turn for advice on how to integrate language learning into their content teaching, or to prepare course materials so that students can learn both the language and the content from them. Lecturers use English course books published by renowned publishers; since these are considered to be reliable sources of knowledge; and also they feel that their mastery of the English language does not permit them to write equivalent teaching materials themselves.

Before 2020, students who wanted to enter an EMI program were required to take a computerized PU in specific general English placement test, designed after the TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) test. When they did not reach a B1 level, they were required to take an intensive 20 credit English course before they could enter the EMI program in their sophomore year. After having taken the course, students were expected to have reached a B1 level in English.

Since 2020, and since students from English medium high school programs, offered in Schools for the Gifted, have entered university, admission is based on the students’ English and content scores obtained in three EMI high-school subjects.

3.4 The data analysis The data processing was done in accordance with the GDPR-file G-2021-3393, approved by the GDPR and Ethics Commission of Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven). Descriptive and inferential data analyses were performed with the help of SPSS version 20.

4. The Results 4.1 Students’ perceptions of their mastery of English As regards students’ self-assessment of their English language proficiency, 15% of the students indicated that they have a level below B1, with about 12% testifying to having a level as low as A1. 27% for assessing themselves, as having acquired a B1 level, and about half of the students, as having a B2 level. Only 4% said that they had a C1 level of ability.

When asked whether they hold a certificate testifying to their level of English, 56 students or 54% said that they do. Yet, strikingly, all these students self-assessed their actual proficiency level to be lower than that which the certificate indicated.

When inquiring into students’ confidence to use English during EMI courses, one quarter (25%) indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed with that statement.

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They reported that they never feel sufficiently confident to use English; rather they feel frightened and stressed when they do not understand their lecturer, when s/he is speaking in English; and they worry that their final results would be poor, because of that. About one third of the students took a neutral stance in these matters, from which it follows that only about half of all freshmen feel confident enough to study in English in content courses, or to participate actively in EMI courses because of their limited English proficiency.

4.2 Students’ perceptions of their lecturers’ English language proficiency As regards students’ perceptions of their lecturers’ English language competence, as many as 58,5% of the students answered that they agreed or strongly agreed with their lecturers having excellent English language skills, from which it follows that no less than 41,5% indicated they did not agree with this statement.

When asked about what skills students want to find in a lecturer, they indicated that they mostly expect their lecturers to have content knowledge (88% of students), to be able to explain that content well (88% of students) and have knowledge of specialized vocabulary (75% of students). Surprisingly, the variable that meets with the lowest overall agreement is that lecturers need to be able to use flawless English (38% of students). The ability to reformulate or to pronounce words correctly is deemed to be more important than that of grammatical correctness, when using English.

4.3 Students’ perceptions of the amount of teaching done in English When asked about the amount of teaching that is done in English in EMI-courses, the picture obtained testifies to the very diverse experiences. As can be seen from Figure 1, the largest group of students (62 %) indicated that they believed their lecturers use English for at least 50 to 60% of the teaching time, with 44% of students’ assessment being that most lecturers meet the 50-60% requirement put forward by PU. It follows that about 2/5 or 38% of the students believed that the lecturers speak Vietnamese during about half or more than half of the teaching time.

Figure 1: Students’ perceptions of the amount of English used by lecturers

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4.4 Students’ perceptions of teaching materials, as fostering their English proficiency When asked whether their teaching materials might help them to acquire course contents and the English language equally well, 46,2% of students said that they agreed with this statement, given that teaching materials are generally in English.

Yet, more than half of the students voiced the opinion that content learning outweighs language learning. Only slightly over half of the EMI students (52%) said they believed that their teaching materials systematically fosters their English proficiency.

4.5 Students’ perceptions of teaching activities When asked about the usefulness of teaching activities, the students indicated they preferred teacher-centered activities, where the lecturers give oral presentations and explain English media scientific texts, next to allowing students to discuss the contents in groups. Independent individual work, such as making oral presentations in English, was considered to be less useful, by quite a large group of freshmen (30 to 40%).

4.6 Students’ assessment of the extent to which they feel they have been able to strengthen their English language skills during EMI courses Finally, the questionnaire asked whether the respondents believed that they have been able to improve their English language skills. As many as 69% of the students ticked the agree or strongly agree box, with none of the students strongly disagreeing with the statement; and the remaining 31% of freshmen indicating that they were not really sure about this issue.

5. Discussion The findings from our survey have provided important information regarding the extent to which EMI courses can be considered CLIL courses and about how students experience their learning and teaching situation. The findings demonstrate the lack of growth in English-language proficiency among a large group of PU freshmen, thereby confirming our main hypothesis. Both lecturers and students were struggling in EMI courses, which confirms the earlier work of, for example, Nguyen (2018), Tran and Phuong (2019), and Macaro et al. (2018). In many cases, this struggle follows from lecturers’ and students’ insufficient level of mastery of the English language.

Our findings also indicated that EMI courses cannot be characterized as true CLIL courses, suggesting that a dual focus on both the content and the English language teaching is not yet in place. Traditional approaches to teaching (lecture format combined with group discussions, which, as it was noticed during our class observations, often take place in Vietnamese, not in English). These are preferred activities in which the students are obliged to demonstrate their personal mastery of content-and-language in an integrated way, for example during an oral presentation followed by a Q&A session. Even if the teaching materials may be in English, too many students indicated that their proficiency in English does not substantially improve in an EMI course – thanks to more extensive purposive English language input. Students with a lower language proficiency indicated they do not always understand their lecturers; and that they feel anxious to speak

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English. A large part of their teaching is done in Vietnamese, which may either follow from lecturers’ awareness of students’ comprehension difficulties, or from their own lack of mastery of this medium of instruction.

Furthermore, too large a group of students indicated that they feel their current level of English does not allow them to benefit fully from EMI courses both in terms of content and language teaching, is an unfortunate finding, but this should not surprise us; since it confirms the earlier findings (Phuong & Nguyen, 2019).

When self-assessing their proficiency level, students systematically indicate that the English language certificate they obtained seems to have overrated their actual proficiency. This may follow from the fact that students have been studying for the English-language proficiency test, that they wanted to take, with many practice materials being available that could help test takers prepare specific answers to specific exam questions.

This is true for the VSTEP, and also for other international English-language tests.

However, from learning answers to exam questions by heart, it does not necessarily follow that one can actually transfer vocabulary to new situations, or to use specific grammatical structures independently. Moreover, as the entrance test freshmen take a general English test, passing that test does not guarantee that students would then be able to process scientific reading materials or foreign language textbooks, which may be written for native speakers of English, let alone that they would then be able to learn a language from these materials; since they may have to devote all of their cognitive resources to the comprehension and study of the subject matter.

PU would be wise to address the issue of the entry requirements for students. It appears that at present, with English proficiency levels of students being on the low side when graduating from high school, it is currently PU’s own responsibility to prepare freshmen well for EMI / CLIL education via intensive English courses, as is done already now. Furthermore, PU may be advised to opt for a more gradual build-up of the EMI program, with more courses being taught in Vietnamese in the freshmen year, but with a gradual reduction of Vietnamese medium courses in the sophomore year, to end with a full English-medium program during the students’ graduation years.

Our findings regarding lecturers’ use of English during EMI courses give food for thought. If it is PU’s strategy and ambition to allow its outgoing graduates to participate in EMI master programs overseas, or to attract incoming foreign students who are not yet able to speak or read Vietnamese in their High Quality and Advanced Programs, major changes in current teaching approaches are needed. Indeed, the only way to attract foreign students would be to teach EMI fully in English, to provide English-medium descriptions of courses and course procedures, and to demand English entry levels that are not below the CEFR. B1; and preferably the B2 level, especially for advanced courses. It follows from this these lecturers should be able to provide proof of their mastery of English at the CEFR C1 level, by successfully completing an internationally recognized English language test, but especially by demonstrating their mastery of the language in their teaching. In addition, lecturers need to be familiar with CLIL

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teaching strategies and to be able to implement them during their courses, so that students can integrate the learning of specialized vocabulary with content learning and can practice and further enhance their critical thinking and academic presentation skills in the English language.

Nevertheless, it is important to strike a good balance between using Vietnamese and English in courses where not all the students have mastered the English language well enough. If lecturers decide to explain difficult concepts and procedures in Vietnamese, so as to prevent subject content loss, this strategy may be wholly appropriate, especially in view of the fact that universities, like the one under scrutiny in this study, face the danger of having larger groups of students who opt out of EMI programs; because they experience them as being too far above their current abilities. This might damage PU’s reputation as a university where it is said that excellent conditions are in place for supporting students to learn.

Furthermore, it may be advisable to develop a CLIL methodology course for content lecturers, and to provide them with personalized CLIL teaching support at their request. This approach could lead to true CLIL teaching, in which the learners can learn both precise subject matter contents and accurate academic and professional English in an integrated way. In this way, they would be able to enjoy participating actively in EMI courses; and they could also acquire what is said to be typically Anglo-Saxon academic and professional skills. Furthermore, students should receive dedicated instructions on how to best learn in EMI courses, learning-appropriate strategies to read English-medium academic texts, so that they can maximize their understanding and application of subject matter, whilst also enlarging their discipline-related and academic lexicon and language skills.

A limitation of this study lay in the number of respondents it could attract. Only 104 respondents participated in the investigation. Following this, we could not explore potential differences between the various subgroups of students, for example with respect to age, number of years of EMI-experience or disciplinary field. Even if we are well-aware of the fact that we have mapped students’ perceptions only and have not had the opportunity to actually attend EMI classrooms for a limited number of times, we are confident that students’ answer reliability mirrors, which reflect the actual teaching situation at PU, as they confirm what we observed during our own classroom observations.

In future, via the collection of more and more longitudinal data, it should be possible to determine when students become truly ready for CLIL teaching; and when perhaps the teaching rhythm could be accelerated. When lecturers could be given the guarantee that an initial slowdown in learning within a CLIL context, especially in the first years of university study, this would surely be followed by more substantial learning in which the contents and the language are integrated, they may be more motivated to teaching according to CLIL methodology, leaving EMI teaching, which may actually be a more Vietnamese-medium teaching than the EMI-teaching, behind them.

In the future, it would also be interesting to study to what extent high school students, who have graduated from the schools for the gifted and have entered

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EMI courses at PU for the first time in the schoolyear 2020-2021 do better than students who did not attend such CLIL secondary schools before entering an EMI program at PU. The question to be answered is whether the effort these high school students have made to study mathematics, physics and chemistry in English has really been worthwhile? Do students who take an intensive English course during the first year of their university education not keep up with these students as regards their mastery of the English language, or worse, would they surpass them in terms of content learning? Would all these students remain motivated to support CLIL learning?

Does their motivation fluctuate, and if so, why? Are they able to maintain the image of an ideal self? (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009). Here, we are referring to one who can participate with ease in the international academic community? Would they go to study further abroad, and thus contribute to Vietnam’s reputation as a reliable business partner?

6. Conclusion The study reported here has looked into CLIL implementation realities against the background of MOET’s project “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Educational System, Period 2008-2020”, which has now come to an end.

Even if the government has been successful in establishing a sense of urgency regarding the need to integrate in the international research and teaching community in HEIs, it has not been fully efficient when it comes to stimulating the necessary preparatory work that HEIs need to do before starting with such an important reform, which touches the heart of education, as it affects the degree of comprehensibility of communication in HEI courses (Tran & Marginson, 2018).

Our study reveals that actual teaching reality may still be far removed from the desired reality, namely that lecturers are fully able to teach content courses in English and that students are wholly ready to participate in these courses. From the data, it is clear that lecturers are devoted to content teaching and that students appreciate their efforts. However, the case of PU has shown that sustainable CLIL teaching also depends on improved students’ and lecturers’ preparation. One thing that practitioners should take to heart, is to inform students of the language level required for successful participation in the course.

Open communication may motivate students to try and achieve the desired ELP level before entering the CLIL program. Another thing is to support students in the acquisition of CLIL learning skills through systematically directing students’ attention to important content and language features throughout their courses, in order to best serve their students, lecturers would be wise to devote themselves to the acquisition of CLIL teaching methodology, including the preparation of teaching materials and the selection of teaching formats.

7. References Aguilar, M., & Rodríguez, R. (2012). Lecturer and student perceptions on CLIL at a Spanish university. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 15(2), 183–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2011.615906 Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). Content and Language Integrated Learning (3rd ed.).

Cambridge University Press. www.cambridge.org/9780521130219

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Do, H. M., & Le, L. T. D. (2017). Content lecturers’ challenges in EMI classroom. European Journal of English Language Teaching, 2(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.256802 Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36).

Multilingual Matters Bristol.

Fajardo Dack, T. M., Argudo, J., & Abad, M. (2020). Language and Teaching Methodology Features of CLIL in University Classrooms: A Research Synthesis. Colombian Applied Linguistics Journal, 22(1 SE-Theme Review), 40–54. https://doi.org/10.14483/22487085.13878 Goris, J., Denessen, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2019). The contribution of CLIL to learners’ international orientation and EFL confidence. Language Learning Journal, 47(2), 246–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2016.1275034 Graham, K. M., Choi, Y., Davoodi, A., Razmeh, S., & Dixon, L. Q. (2018). Language and Content Outcomes of CLIL and EMI: A Systematic Review. Latin American Journal of Content & Language Integrated Learning, 11(1), 19–38. https://doi.org/10.5294/laclil.2018.11.1.2 Macaro, E., Curle, S., Pun, J., An, J., & Dearden, J. (2018a). A systematic review of English medium instruction in higher education. Language Teaching, 51(1), 36–76. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444817000350 Marsh, D., Mehisto, P., Wolff, D., & Frígols-Martín, M. J. (2012). European Framework for CLIL Teacher Education. A framework for the professional development of CLIL teachers. In Encuentro (Vol. 21). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444811000243 McKinley, J., & Rose, H. (2019). The routledge handbook of research methods in applied linguistics. In The Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Applied Linguistics.

Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367824471 Nguyen, H. T. (2018). English-medium-instruction management: The missing piece in the internationalisation puzzle of Vietnamese higher education. Internationalisation in Vietnamese higher education (pp. 119–137). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-78492-2_7 Nuñez Asomoza, A. (2015). Students’ perceptions of the impact of CLIL in a Mexican BA program. Profile Issues in TeachersProfessional Development, 17(2), 111–124. https://doi.org/10.15446/profile.v17n2.47065 Peukert, H., & Gogolin, I. (2017). Dynamics of Linguistic Diversity (Vol. 6). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsld.6 Phuong, Y. H., & Nguyen, T. T. (2019). Students’ Perceptions towards the Benefits and Drawbacks of EMI Classes. English Language Teaching, 12(5), 88–100. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v12n5p88 Tran, L. T., & Marginson, S. (2018). Internationalisation of Vietnamese higher education: An overview. Internationalisation in Vietnamese Higher Education, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78492-2 Tran, T. T. Q., & Phuong, H. Y. (2019). An investigation into English preparatory programs for EMI learning in higher education institutes in Vietnam. Can Tho University Journal of Science, 11(2), 51–60. https://doi.org/10.22144/ctu.jen.2019.024 Tsuchiya, K., & Pérez Murillo, M. D. (2015). Comparing the language policies and the students’ perceptions of CLIL in tertiary education in Spain and Japan. Latin American Journal of Content and Language Integrated Learning, 8(1), 25–35. https://doi.org/10.5294/laclil.2015.8.1.3 Vu, N. T. T., & Burns, A. (2014). English as a medium of instruction: Challenges for Vietnamese tertiary lecturers. Journal of Asia TEFL, 11(3), 1–31. http://www.asiatefl.org/main/download_pdf.php?i=59&c=1412065511&fn=11 _3_01.pdf

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Appendix 1 QUESTIONNAIRE ON STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF EMI AND CLIL COURSES This questionnaire is about the present implementation of Content and English language integrated learning and teaching at our university. We hope that you can give your feedback on specialized subjects taught in English. Therefore, your answers will help our university to improve the quality and the effectiveness of your academic discipline courses taught in English in the future.

The main objective of this questionnaire is to gather information about your impressions and reactions to content and knowledge teaching in English. This questionnaire is anonymous and confidential. The obtained information will be only used for research purposes. Your responses will NOT be passed on to your instructors.

Thank you very much for your collaboration.

Section 1: Student’s Background 1. Student’s Email 2. Your major: 3. Your age: 4. Your faculty / college : Section 2: Your mastery of English 5.Do you hold any English certificate and if yes, which exactly? (e.g. A2/KET ; B1/ PET, B2 (FCE); C1 (CAE); IELTS, TOEIC, TOFLE) 6.What is your level of English proficiency?

Beginner / A1□ Elementary/ A2 □ Intermediate/B1 □ Upper-Intermediate / B2 □ Advanced/ C1 □ Proficiency/ C2 □

7. How would you rate your English proficiency related to your specific field of study?

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1.poor 2.fair  3.good 4.very good 5. excellent

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Section 3: How would you evaluate the following course tasks and teaching activities?

Not useful at all

Slightly useful

Quite useful

Useful

Extremely useful

8. Presentations related to content-subject issues 9. Group work to analyse and discuss issues related to your scientific field.

10. Individual project to present or report issues related to your scientific field.

11. Oral presentations on issues related to your scientific field 12. Recording students’ views according to their oral presentations 13. Assessing and discussing presentations made by other groups.

14. Processing scientific texts.

15. Projects relevant to your scientific field.

16. The use of computers to carry out projects relevant to your scientific field.

17. What is the percentage of teaching time that is carried through in English? ______________ 18. The integrated content and English learning has helped me improve my English-language skills Strongly disagree  disagree  

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neutral 

agree 

strongly agree

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19. The integrated content and English learning has helped me to develop my knowledge in other content courses also.

Strongly disagree  disagree  

neutral 

agree 

strongly agree

Section 4: Your instructors/lecturer’ English language proficiency 20.I think that the instructors teaching my subject-content courses have excellent English language competence Strongly disagree disagree  When your teacher speaks in English in CLIL class, what do you consider important?

Not at all important

21. the correct pronunciation of words 22. teachers’ explanations and instructions 23. knowledge of vocabulary 24. knowledge of the contents 25. the use of facial expressions, gestures and body movements 26. grammatical correctness 27. check that the others understand me when I speak 28. the ability to reformulate (e.g. teacher can change and modify questions, teaching instructions, plans for students Understanding the contents 29.Others:

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neutral agree strongly agree  Very unimportant

Neither important nor unimportant

important

Extremely Important

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Section 4: Teaching materials Statements

strongly disagree

30. The present materials can satisfy language and content- teaching equally.

31. The content element outweighs the language element in the current materials.

32.Language element outweighs content element in the current materials.

33. The current materials systematically foster English proficiency.

34. The current materials foster learning skills development. (e.g. They can improve the way you study subject-content and English) 35. The current materials foster learners’ autonomy. (e.g. You have the ability to study English and contents in an integrated way by making use of my free time to study, keeping a record of my study, opting out of class activities to practice, catching chances to take part in activities such as pair/ group discussion.)

36. The current materials foster cooperative learning.

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disagree

Neutral

agree

Strongly agree

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37. The current materials help create a safe learning environment.

(The materials can guide you on how to study the subject-content effectively; they provide questions, knowledge summary, and the glossary) 38. The current materials seek ways of incorporating authentic language and authentic language use.

39. The current materials foster critical thinking.

40. The current materials foster the learning in the course to be meaningful.

41. The current materials meet the appropriate technical requirements, like pictures, format, or multimedia.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 19-34, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.2 Received Sep 11, 2021; Revised Dec 03, 2021; Accepted Dec 07, 2021

Industrial Engagement in the Technical and Vocational Training (TVET) System Mohd Azlan Mohammad Hussain, Rafeizah Mohd Zulkifli* and Arasinah Kamis Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9760-1010 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3621-2668 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3233-4027 Mark D. Threeton The Pennsylvania State University, State College, U.S.A. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2255-4704 Khaizer Omar Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0794-5018 Abstract. From 2010 through to 2021, this study critically assessed Malaysia's government efforts to increase industrial involvement in the country's TVET system. The goal of this research is to look at what the Malaysian government has done to strengthen industrial involvement in the country's TVET system from 2010 to 2021, as well as to make recommendations for any future changes. A textual narrative synthesis, based on three elements: strategy, execution, and the impact of those policies in promoting industrial involvement in the Malaysian TVET system, was used to conduct a systematic review. Five government policies since 2010 have been extracted from 231 linked-literature sources, each of which presented a strategy to improve industry-TVET cooperation. All of these government measures, according to the report, adopted a corporatist paradigm, in order to encourage corporate participation in the national TVET system. This was done by providing various incentives, including tax breaks, training grants, and subsidies.

Improvements have been suggested to boost the industry-TVET relationship in Malaysia, particularly by giving connected industries some obligations to participate in the country's human-resource development, in comparison to the German model of the dual Apprenticeship programme.

Keywords: industrial engagement; technical and vocational education; vocational education; dual system; industry-TVET partnership; Malaysian TVET; Malaysian government policy

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Malaysia is a developing country with a strong emphasis on industrial, agricultural, and service industries. As Malaysia progresses toward becoming a developed country, a considerable effort has been made to build local human resources, in order to meet the present and the future job demand. Since 2011, the country has made substantial efforts to develop the local human resources through government incentives and initiatives, in order to improve the country's TVET system, thereby resulting in the production of future talent for the country.

Malaysia has pledged to become a society that achieves sustainable growth, equitable wealth distribution, and a good quality of living for all of its residents by 2030, as part of its "2030 Share-Prosperity Vision" (Malaysian Ministry of Economic Affair, 2019). Using advanced technology in the industrial and service sectors, as well as boosting investment in the machinery and equipment sectors, are some of its efforts to attain these aims.

As a result, Malaysia wants a minimum of 30% of its workforce to be qualified as high-skilled employees by 2030, in order to meet the demands of the job market.

TVET has risen to the top of the priority list for accomplishing these goals.

Although Malaysia's TVET system is on track to produce skilled people in demand by local industry, TVET products must exceed the quality standards set by the particular industries or corporations. According to the Malaysian Economic Plan Unit (2015), feedback from industry has revealed a mismatch between graduates' abilities, knowledge, and attitudes and what is expected in the job situation.

In order to address this problem, we need a formula for increasing the breadth and depth of industrial participation in the TVET systems, in order to establish high-quality training programmes that meets the needs of businesses and those of the present labour market. Industrial involvement in the TVET system is usually done on three levels: (a) industrial experience; (b) collaboration and partnership; and (c) law (Yunos, Sern & Hamdan, 2018).

According to Yunos, Sern, and Hamdan (2018), most TVET institutions request industrial experience through internship programmes from industry; because this is the best platform for students to apply their knowledge and skills in a realworld setting, while also understanding the dynamic world of work. In order to solve each problem, the partnership or collaboration parts require synergy among all the industries and TVET centres (Yunos, Sern & Hamdan, 2018). For example, companies contribute input and participate actively in the development of TVET curricula; while TVET centres do the necessary research and development to tackle the industrial concerns.

The third pillar, legislation, refers to government policies and regulations regarding industrial engagement in the TVET system, particularly various incentives granted by the government to encourage industrial participation in their TVET system (Postiglione & Tang, 2019). Although industrial participation in the TVET system is critical, gaining their participation is difficult; since there is still a grey area in determining the win-win benefits for both parties. Every TVET

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centre is keen to form strategic partnerships with businesses, in order to provide students with the necessary industrial experience through internships, apprenticeships, on-the-job training, and other programmes. These exercises are critical in assisting students in becoming physically and intellectually ready for a job (Tan & Tang, 2016). However, TVET colleges can only offer a limited number of mutually beneficial services to industry.

In Malaysia, the On-the-Job Training (OJT) programme for TVET students is currently the most important industrial contribution to meeting the needs of training centres, particularly for graduates from local TVET universities.

However, their contributions are lower than that which TVET institutions had hoped for; because they require significant industrial input in the creation and improvement of their programmes, in order for them to be marketable. On the industrial level, the present cooperation with TVET centres tends to be one-sided, due to the lack of mutual interest that TVET institutions can offer to potential industrial partners (Pillay et al., 2013).

The main benefits of partnering with TVET universities are usually letters of recognition, tax revenue, and personnel recruiting. However, only tax revenue appears to be a convincing and profitable incentive for the industries; whereas new recruitment after OJT is becoming less popular, as several studies have shown that many employers still prefer to hire foreign labour rather than local labour, because of the lower wages (Norsi'ee et al., 2014). The Malaysian government has taken these challenges seriously, and the action plan has been incorporated into most government programmes and national planning, as well as being revised on a regular basis.

Consequently, this research will critically examine all the government policies and plans dating back to 2010, in terms of incentives and tactics to increase industrial engagement in Malaysia's technical and vocational training system. This analysis was carried out by the author, based on three major elements: strategy, implementation, and impact.

2. Methodology This research is based on a ten-year comprehensive literature evaluation of Malaysian government policies and pertinent publications. The primary source of information in this study comprised secondary data from government official papers, such as budget planning, annual reports, and policy filing, which was supplemented with journal articles from internet resources.

Popay et al. (2006) and Lucas et al. (2007) proposed a method of textual narrative synthesis, which was implemented in this study, by using a standard dataextraction format to extract various study characteristics (e.g., issues, findings, suggestions, etc.) from each piece of literature. According to textual narrative synthesis, these studies can be divided into homogeneous groupings. Then, using the data retrieved, the similarities and differences between the various research projects were evaluated (Lucas et al., 2007). The quantitative counts were able to show the number of studies with each attribute, because of the consistent coding

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style. To address the research question, a commentary on the strength of evidence could be employed (Lucas et al., 2007).

The first step in this research is to find relevant material by using general keywords, such as "Malaysian Development Plan" and "Malaysian government policy" in the Google Scholar database. A total of 231 literature sources have been identified, as a result of this approach. The selection and refining process was carried out until five primary literatures were chosen to be analysed by utilising the textual narrative synthesis (see Figure 1). The technique adopted by Almestahiri et al. (2017) in their literature-review study was followed for the refining and selecting process. These five literatures were chosen because, in addition to being within the researcher's timeline, they had a specific objective relating to industry-TVET system collaboration (i.e., the years 2010-2021). The remaining literature sources were employed to back up the study's discussion and findings. Figure 1 depicts the overall process of selecting the literature, as implemented by Almestahiri et al. (2017).

Identification Recorded in search database (n=231)

Screening Recorded Screening (n=231)

Eligibility

Excluded (n= 204) Unrelated to research study (n =132) Time period below than 2010 (n=72)

Full article accessed (n=27) Excluded (n= 22) Unrelated to research objective (n =22) Included Textual narrative synthesis (n=5)

Figure 1: The literature-selection process

The selected literature was critically examined for parallels and variations in strategy, implementation, and impact of government policies on increasing industrial participation in the Malaysian TVET system. The author also made certain that all of the study's conclusions would be reported professionally, thereby avoiding faked or fabricated data, as well as any sort of plagiarism.

3. The Findings Malaysia's 10th Development Plan (10th MPDP, 2011-2015) and Malaysia's 11th Development Plan (11th MDP, 2016-2020), which are the five-year Malaysian blueprints for developing the country's social, environmental, and economic status, are two of the five Malaysian government policies chosen for textual narrative-synthesis analysis. The government's goal to offer a fair standard of life to all Malaysians by 2030, is the third policy in Malaysia's Shared-Prosperity Vision 2030, which was presented in 2019. The fourth policy is the National

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Economic Recovery Plan (PENJANA), which focuses on labour-market stabilisation; and this was implemented in 2020, as a response to the social and economic catastrophe brought on by the global pandemic of Covid-19.

The last policy chosen for further analysis was the Strategic Programme to Empower the People and the Economy (PEMERKASA, 2021), which is highly focused on initiatives to boost economic growth, to support businesses, and to continue targeted assistance to people and the sectors still affected by Covid-19.

3.1 Malaysia’s 10th Development Plan (MDP) The Malaysian government is preparing the country to become a developed nation by 2020 through its 10th Development Plan (2011-2015), which requires the country to double down on productivity and innovation, as well as to prepare a generation to become a creative and innovative workforce (Malaysian Economic Plan Unit [EPU], 2010). Furthermore, the government is required to implement the Vocational Education Transformation within that timeframe, in order to transform Malaysia into a developed country with high-income residents (Abdul Rahman, Mohammad Hussain & Mohammad Zulkifli, 2020). In order to fulfil the needs of developed countries, Malaysia's government has recognised the need to improve Malaysian skills in 2010, in order to promote employability by addressing the future job-market needs. The 10th MDP outlined a strategy to rebrand Malaysian TVET by updating and harmonising its curriculum quality with the industrial requirements, while also seeking greater enrolment in the TVET programmes.

The introduction of Industrial Leading Bodies (ILBs) to promote the publicprivate partnership and to build the industry’s recognition of the Malaysian TVET system is one of the important initiatives made to restructure Malaysian TVET, in order to render it more industrially oriented. The ILBs are made up of representatives from various business sectors, who play an important role in offering feedback and guidance on the Malaysian TVET system, the in light of the current and future market trends. Their advice is primarily focused on the following topics: 1. The establishment of an occupational framework, which examines the structure, job description, and abilities required for a specific industrial vocation.

2. NOSS (National Occupational Skills Standard), is a collection of standard abilities expected of skilled professionals in certain occupational categories, based on the current industrial needs.

3. The necessity for upskilling, new skilling, and skill certification among current industrial workers.

4. Conducting research (Department of Skills Development, 2020) Thirty ILBs are expected to be actively participating in Malaysia's TVET system by 2019. The Malaysian Department of Skills and Development has developed the National Occupational Framework (NOF) and the National Occupational Skills Standard (NOSS), as guidelines for curriculum development and revision in Malaysian TVET programmes, together with the help of expert panels comprising industrial experts and practitioners from specific ILBs occupation sectors. The

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Occupational Framework defines a certain occupation's work scope, in terms of job competencies. The National Occupational Skills Standard (NOSS) is then developed, with a total of 1,819 Malaysian National Occupational Skills Standards (NOSS) developed in 2019 as a guideline for producing curricular content for Malaysia's TVET training programme.

Additionally, this offers companies instructions for training and examination requirements for their employees, in order for them to become trained and certified personnel, in accordance with the applicable standards and norms.

Another strategy implemented, as part of the 10th MDP, was to engage Malaysian industries in the TVET system, by streamlining TVET delivery through the National Dual-Training System (NDTS). The NDTS is an apprenticeship programme, in which 70 to 80 per cent of the training or the practical session is conducted in the real workplace; while 20-30 per cent of the theoretical lesson is conducted in TVET training centres, either through block-release (i.e. one week in a training centre and four weeks in the workplace for every month) or day-release (i.e. one day in a training centre and five days a week at the workplace) or dayrelease (i.e. one day in a training centre (Ali et al., 2015). The NDTS has received a lot of attention, because it provides: 1. Future skilled workers with on-the-job training.

2. More opportunities for an apprentice to be hired because the company pays close attention to their performance and abilities.

3. An apprentice's productive contribution that helps both the employer and the apprentice.

Although the NDTS was first implemented in the Malaysian TVET system in 2005, the government has budgeted a total of MYR 150 million (about USD 35 million) under the 10th MDP in 2010, in order to encourage more students, training centres, and enterprises to participate in the NDTS programme. Furthermore, industries which provide NDTS training programmes are eligible for the following benefits: 1. A claim on the levy; 2. Deduction for income tax (single tax deduction); 3. A stipend for each pupil they have tutored (USD 50 per student).

The government has set aside USD1.7 million to teach experienced employers in the workplace, who will coach apprentice trainees, to help them to give training to their apprentices more successfully. During the 10th MDP era, 20,000 people are projected to join the programme, primarily school dropouts, in order to contribute to the national skilled-talent pool. The 10th MDP's strategies had a substantial influence on increasing access to excellent TVET programmes and increasing annual enrolment in the Malaysian TVET system from 113 000 in 2010 to 164 000 in 2013 (Economic Plan Unit, 2015).

Moreover, during the 10th MDP, the National Dual Training System benefited 38 000 employees, including 12 835 teenagers, who were able to find work after completing their training programme (Economic Plan Unit, 2015).

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3.2 Malaysia’s 11th Development Plan The Malaysian government released the 12th iteration of the MalaysianDevelopment Plan (2016-2020) in 2015, as the ultimate blueprint for attaining developed-nation status by 2020. The transformation of the Malaysian TVET, in order to satisfy industrial need, was one of the major issues in the 11th MDP. The goal was to shift the country's economic activities from labour-intensive to knowledge- and innovation-intensive. The transition is expected to result in the creation of 1.5 million new jobs, 60 per cent of which would require TVET-related skills, making TVET a game-changing mechanism for developing skilled employees that the country needs (Economic Planning Unit, 2015).

A major emphasis has been placed on enhancing collaboration with industries, in order to continue to expand the number of people who enrol in TVET, and to improve the program's quality and institutions, and to raise the overall profile of Malaysian TVET (Economic Plan Unit, 2015).

Through the implementation of the tenth plan, the Malaysian TVET system has been improved by allowing industry-led programmes to eliminate skills mismatch and to boost graduate employability. From curriculum creation to student enrolling, training delivery, and job placement, the industry-led TVET programme entails collaboration between industry and TVET schools throughout the entire process. Through collaboration with the industrial players, an IndustrySkills Committee (ISC) has been formed to identify the relevant competencies for each occupation, as well as to develop and proposed new partnership models that might enable industrial involvement at every level of the Malaysian TVET system, particularly in the areas of curriculum design and delivery, in order to ensure that they are job-oriented; and that they meet the needs of the current job market.

The ISC also reviews TVET training modules to see if they might be confronted with a problem, project, or product based on real-world industrial activities, in order to expose students to real-world situations.

The effectiveness of industrial engagement in the NDTS programme during the 10th MDP was reinforced during the 11th MDP by setting a target of 6 000 skilled people created annually from this programme (Department of Skills Development, 2020). The key reason for these successful collaborations is that this programme benefits the company or industry in terms of employee recruiting; furthermore, it allows its employees to participate in this programme for upskilling and reskilling, in order to be certified as skilled workers (Department of Skills Development, 2020).

The NDTS programmes have been allotted USD 9.5 million in the 11th plan. The new 1MASTER NDTS was created in response to the specific human-capital requirements of Malaysia's industrial region. The Iskandar Malaysian Development Corridor, for example, is a big new industrial sector located in Malaysia's southern region. The youth and the current workers in those locations have benefited from the 1MASTER NDTS initiative, which has provided opportunities for skill training and employment.

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The Structural-Internship Programme (SIP), a systematically organised internship programme for undergraduates and TVET trainers from all over the country, in order to equip them with real working experience, was introduced through the 11th MDP, as another new incentive to maximise industrial involvement in the Malaysian TVET system. Previously, internship programmes were managed separately by TVET training centres. Most of the time, TVET centres or trainers, must discover the related businesses or industries for their internship programmes.

The SIP makes the internship placement process much easier to navigate. The Malaysian government established the Talent Corporation Malaysia Berhad (TalentCorp) to create a database of possible candidates and sectors for industrial training programmes. Malaysia's talent strategy to become a dynamic talent hub is planned and organised by TalentCorp, an organisation under the Ministry of Human Resources. TVET trainers have additional options in picking business and industrial centres, in order to gain work experience with TalentCorp's internship database, while business centres can choose individuals to groom, as their future employers.

TVET trainers, who are able to get an internship through the SIP programmes are entitled to a monthly minimum allowance of USD100.00 (Malaysia Ringgit 500.00) from the employer (TalentCorp, 2018). The SIP's participating company, on the other hand, benefits from a double tax reduction, if they meet the government's requirements. These include: (a) registering with the TalentCorp; (b) providing a minimum monthly allowance of about USD100.00; (c) offering a minimum 10week internship duration; and (d) clearly defined learning outcomes for their interns (TalentCorp, 2018). The SIP programmes also assist the company by increasing the awareness of its internship programmes and developing stronger ties with TVET universities. Malaysian SIP programmes have successfully administered internship programmes for 94 133 students at 16 219 organisations, as of December 31, 2020. In addition, the double tax reduction incentive has benefited 11 161 businesses (TalentCorp, 2021).

3.3 Malaysia Shares Prosperity Vision 2030 In 2019, the Malaysian government, which had hoped to become a developed country by 2020, was depressed by its dismal performance; and it was understood that the country needed to pursue an additional vision, which is: “To make Malaysia a country that achieves sustainable economic growth, along with fair, equitable and inclusive economic distribution, across all income groups, ethnicities, regions and supply chains. The emphasis is on the principle of equitable outcome, rather than on opportunities” (Economic Planning Unit, 2019, p. 5).

The Education and TVET enabler will be developed through this strategy, in order to enhance the number of skilled people to meet the industrial needs, and to build a highly educated workforce. As a result, industrial involvement in the TVET

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system was projected to assist the country in producing 35 per cent of high-skilled workers in the labour force and to improve educational and training programmes at universities and training institutes, in accordance with the industry’s expectations and requirements.

Consequently, this policy has strengthened the motivation and initiative put in place by previous MDPs, in order to increase industrial engagement in Malaysia's TVET system (Economic Panning Unit, 2019).

3.4. Post Covid-19 Pandemic Policy (PENJANA & PEMERKASA) Since February 2020, Malaysia, like the rest of the world, has been affected by the global Covid-19 epidemic. Since March 2020, a series of Movement Control Orders (MCO) has been in place, in order to combat the spread of the virus. The government's MCO has contributed to the slowing of the country's economic growth (Leo and David, 2020). Many firms and industries have had to temporarily halt their operations, resulting in massive economic losses and increased unemployment (Idris, Andi Kele, Lily & Kim Lian, 2020).

In response to these concerns, the Malaysian government has announced a MYR250 billion emergency fund to support citizens, as well as small and medium businesses (SMEs) throughout the pandemic (Jalil, 2020). The government has also implemented a number of social-protection and employment-related initiatives, including the Prihatin Rakyat Economic-Stimulus Package (Prihatin) for social assistance and the National Economic Recovery Plan (Penjana), in order to stabilise the labour market (Rahman, Jasmin & Schmillen, 2020).

In Malaysia, the Covid-19 pandemic has impacted the local TVET system. Since skill-based professions are classified as vulnerable and require on-site employment, many TVET graduates and skilled workers have lost their positions.

The country's Movement-Control Order prevents their worksites from operating (Rahman, Jasmin & Schmillen, 2020). The government has responded to this problem by implementing the Prihatin policy, which introduces time-limited wage incentives, to encourage staff retention. The wage subsidies help firms to pay their workers at a rate of MYR 600 per month for up to six months, during this important period, thereby ensuring that they remain employed (Malaysia Ministry of Finance [MOF], 2020). Consequently, the initiative is able to retain almost 2.75 million individuals in their jobs (Malaysia Prime Ministry Office, 2020). In addition, as a solution to unemployment difficulties, the government offers firms financial incentives to hire new workers by paying up to 60% (maximum of MYR 6000.00) of their new workers' monthly wage for a six-month period. Employers can also claim up to MYR 7000 for any training courses provided to their new employees (PERKESO, 2020). At least 300,000 new jobs are predicted to have been created as a result of this programme.

Since TVET has traditionally been Malaysia's most important tool for combating youth unemployment, the apprenticeship programme has also been employed as a tactic for assisting the country in reducing the societal impact of the Covid-19 pandemic. Through collaboration between industries and TVET training centres,

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the government has budgeted MYR 2 billion to equip youth and jobless individuals with the critical skills relevant to the needs of the current job market (MOF, 2020).

These funds were used to provide training to at least 200,000 people, in preparation for future jobs. In addition, the government has funded upskilling programmes for industrial workers in crucial areas, such as electronics and information and communication technology at a number of TVET colleges (MOF, 2020). The government has established the Human-Resource Development Corporation (HRDF) to set up a database, so that all employers, TVET training providers, and individuals may receive better access to all of the government's incentives during the important pandemic issue (HRD Corp, 2021).

Through the Strategic Programme to Empower the People and the Economy (PEMERKASA), another MYR 20 billion will be injected by the government in 2021 to continue the time-bound wage subsidies, apprentices, as well as upskilling and new-skilling programmes, in order to assist people and those sectors still affected by the Covid-19 pandemic, while also boosting economic growth and supporting business (Malaysia Prime Ministry Office, 2021).

3.5 The Overall Findings All the above policies of the Malaysian government have been analysed and synthesised; Table 1 summarises the findings. According to these findings, the Malaysian government has actively begun programmes to connect the country's TVET system with industry from 2010 to 2021. The National Dual-Training System (NDTS) is a significant TVET programme used by the government to connect the national TVET system with local industries, as shown in the table. The Malaysian government has regularly committed a large amount of funds to improve the collaboration between industries and the national TVET system across these time periods. The Malaysian government has also made a concerted effort to encourage industry’s participation in the country's TVET system, by proactively revising and offering incentives to industries across all the policies implemented over the last ten years, in terms of levy claims, current industrial workers' benefits, and tax reductions.

To encourage more industrial involvement in the country's TVET system, the taxreduction incentive for industries that contribute to TVET programmes has been quadrupled since 2016; and pay subsidies will be introduced in 2020. Those government policies and incentives have had a substantial impact on Malaysian human-resource development by promoting more industrial engagement in the country's TVET system, which includes NDTS, internships, upskilling and newskilling programmes, as well as job-retention programmes (Department of Skills Development, 2020; Talent Corp, 2021).

Table 1: Industries-TVET system partnership initiative, incentive, and impact across Malaysian Government policies olicies/Documents

10th MDP

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11th MDP

SPV

PENJAN A

PEMERKA SA

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Initiative 1. Industry-Led Bodies 2. National DualTraining Systems 3. Funding 4. StructuralInternship Programme Incentive 1. Tax reduction 2. Current workers’ benefit 3. Claim of Levy 4. Wage subsidies Impact 1. Industrial involvement 2. Graduate employment 3. Job retention

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/ /

/ /

/ /

/ /

/ /

/ (double) /

/ (double) /

/(double) /

/(double) /

/

/

/

/ /

/ /

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

Note: [/] refers to initiative/incentive/impact of government policies to strengthen industries-system partnership.

4. Discussion 4.1 Industry-TVET System Collaboration Model in Malaysia According to Bonoli and Wilson (2019), there are three forms of ideal industrial involvement in the TVET system: (a) liberal; (b) corporatist; and (c) universalistic.

A liberal model is one in which industries play a key role in selecting their level of involvement in the TVET system, which is based on labour market logic and supply and demand equilibrium. The liberal model's government involvement is modest; and it is unable to compel corporations to participate in human-capital development in those countries. Consequently, enterprises have low expectations of mutually beneficial collaboration between industries and TVET centres.

The government's active engagement to increase industrial involvement in the country's TVET system represents the second paradigm, which is a corporatist one. Most initiatives, on the other hand, take a diplomatic approach, by cultivating industry’s interest and trust, in order to develop the country's workforce through various subsidies and incentives. However, the success of this strategy is heavily dependent on how eager corporations are to share the responsibility for humancapital development with the TVET system.

The last type, the universalistic, is represented by a government that practises a high level of macro-corporatism and which maintains that all groups have a role to play in the growth of the country. These countries have a defined policy on the extent to which industry should be involved in their country's TVET system, when it comes to training future workers.

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According to an analysis of Malaysian government policy from 2010, the country's approach to increasing industrial participation in the country's TVET system is similar to the corporatist model proposed by Bonoli and Wilson (2019). The Malaysian government works with local industry, in order to generate human capital that fulfils current job demands; because it believes that industries should lead the national TVET system. Various incentives supplied by Malaysian government policies, such as tax reductions, training funding, and wage subsidies, have sealed the relationship between industries and the TVET system.

Even during the pandemic, the government works with local industry to retain social and economic standing through apprenticeships, new employment, upskilling, new skilling, and job-retention programmes, as well as offering major incentives to those companies.

4.2 Strengthening TVET-industry’s Cooperation in Malaysia: Adapting Lessons from the German Experience The Malaysian government has successfully implemented three main policies from 2010 and 2021: the 10th MDP, 11th MDP, and PENJANA. All of these measures have prioritised improving the country's TVET system through the National Dual-Training System programme. This demonstrates that the administration believes in the apprenticeship system; and it is eager to put it in place on a wider scale. Since 2004, the Malaysian National Dual-Training System (NDTS) has been used to improve the country's TVET quality, based on the German Dual-System programme (Leong et al., 2015). As a result, in order to effectively execute the Dual-Training System, lessons must be learnt from countries that have successfully implemented the system for their own development.

The effectiveness of the German Dual-Apprenticeship System in involving firms to offer facilities, funding, venues, and trained instructors for their vocational training programmes is a major sign that makes it an exemplar for effective collaboration between industry and TVET (Postiglione & Tang, 2019). Students have a training contract with industries, and industries are accountable for the training allowance. In addition, regulations relating to the Dual VET system are in place to prevent misuse and to limit the behaviour of industry and TVET institutions. One of the key elements for effective collaboration between industry and TVET programmes, according to the German Dual-Apprenticeship System, is a federal management strategy (Gessler, 2017). The Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) in Germany is in charge of organising the country's training regulations and policies, which are produced collaboratively by companies and their employees.

They also have the Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK), a non-constitutional voluntary coordinating organisation for State ministries that are in charge of coordinating the creation of training curricula and State governments, based on real-world work procedures. Collaboration between training centres and industries is also recommended by the KMK. Through the introduction of the Department of Skill Development, the Malaysian TVET system has made the right decision by adopting this model. They are in charge of overseeing the

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implementation of Malaysia's skill-training programmes, such as the NDTS, as well as developing training curricula. based on the current job-market needs (Department of Skills Development, 2021).

Malaysia also has its own National-Skills Development (i.e., based on the Malaysian Law Act 652), which was introduced in 2006 with the aim “to promote, through skills training, the development and improvement of a person’s abilities, which are needed for his/her vocation; and to provide for other matters connected therewith.” (Law of Malaysia, 2006, p. 7). They are used as a guideline for developing and implementing training policies.

However, having a specific Act that "requires" companies and schools to collaborate in the execution of vocational education and training, such as Germany's "The Reformed National Vocational Training Act" from 2005, is one element on which Malaysia's TVET system could improve effectively, in order to implement the NDTS, based on the German model (Federal Ministry of Education and Research, 2005). The Germans have specific expectations for their industry in terms of their contribution. The appropriate laws, such as the Law of Vocational Education, Labour-Promotion Laws, and Youth-Labour Protection Laws, serve to codify the interaction between industrial and TVET systems.

There are also specialised industrial regulations that outline their responsibilities, trainer qualifications, and dual apprenticeship-training procedures (Postiglione & Tang, 2019). As previously stated, the Malaysian government has a strong belief in its corporatist model, which fosters industry-TVET system partnership through incentives and appealing initiatives, resulting in only interested corporations participating. Some changes to the present Act could be made by requiring industry, particularly large and international corporations, to contribute to the development of the country's human resources.

5. Conclusion Finally, the Malaysian government has actively pushed local industries to participate in national TVET programmes, in order to ensure that the country's human-capital development matches the demands of today's employment market. Malaysia needs to produce more qualified employees, who are competent and ready to enter the employment market, as the country moves toward in becoming a developed nation. Consequently, industry’s input has always been required, when it comes to creating and executing training and skills development. Based on industrial experience and collaboration measures, an analysis of Malaysia's three major policies (2010-2021) suggests that the country has had a considerably successful influence on industry-TVET collaboration.

Industry and TVET centres have formed effective relationships, especially through the National Dual-Training System (NDTS) programmes; while the Structural-Internship Programmes (SIPs) provide more important internship opportunities. During the difficult Covid-19 pandemic, the government has successfully collaborated with industry, in order to address social and economic difficulties, by providing various incentives and subsidies to affected

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corporations, organisations, small and medium businesses, and single individuals. However, in order to boost industry’s participation in Malaysia's TVET system, the legal framework should be changed, so that enterprises are legally compelled to contribute to the country's human-capital development.

6. Acknowledgement This paper was part of a research project entitled “A framework to facilitate and sustain the win-win partnership between industries and training centres;” and it was funded by the 2018 Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education Fundamental Research Grant Scheme. (FRGS/1/2018/SSI09/UPSI/02/20).

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Skills Malaysia Journal 1(1), 74-86. https://www.ciast.gov.my/journal/files/vol_1/9.pdf Almestahiri, R. D., Rundle-Thiele, S., Parkinson, J., & Arli, D. (2017). The use of the major components of social marketing: a systematic review of tobacco cessation programs. Social Marketing Quarterly, 23(3), 232-248. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524500417704813 Bonoli, G., & Wilson, A. (2019). Bringing firms on board. Inclusiveness of the dualapprenticeship systems in Germany, Switzerland and Denmark. International Journal of Social Welfare, 28(4), 369–379. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsw.12371 Department of Skills Development. (2021). National Dual Training Sytem. https://www.dsd.gov.my/index.php/en/service/national-dual-trainingsystem Department of Skills Development. (2020). Lapaoran Tahunan 2019 JabatanPembangunan Kemahiran Malaysia [2019 yearly report of Malaysian Department of Skills Development.

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Rahman, A. B. A., Hussain, M. A. M., & Zulkifli, R. M. (2020). Teaching vocational with technology: A study of teaching aids applied in Malaysian vocational classroom. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(7), 176-188. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.10 Tan, K. S., & Tang, J. T. H. (2016). New skills at work: Managing skills challenges in ASEAN-5. http://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2891&context=soe_r esearch PERKESO. (2020). Program insentif pengambilan pekerja dan bantuan latihan (Penjana 2.0) [Hiring program and training incentive program 2.0]. https://www.perkeso.gov.my/186-penjana/796-pelan-jana-semula-ekonominegara-penjana.html (Accessed on 5 May 2020).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 35-48, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.3 Received Sep 18, 2021; Revised Nov 29, 2021; Accepted Dec 05, 2021

The Impact of Teaching Practice on Female Students’ Preparation for Mathematics Teacher Education Programme in Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria Sunday Bomboi IJEH Department of Science Education, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8594-0584 Onoriode Collins POTOKRI Department of Education Leadership and Management, University of Johannesburg, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0850-1761

Abstract. This small sample study was conducted to investigate the impact of teaching practice on female students’ preparation for mathematics teacher education programme. The design adopted was a descriptive survey research design. A sample of 30 female students was selected from 50 students who have participated in teaching practice programme for the degree programme at Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria. Data were collected through closed-ended and open-ended questionnaires administered to the sampled students, and teaching practice supervisors, co-coordinators, and heads of Departments from the school where the students did their teaching practice respectively. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics and by categorising the responses of the participants according to the theme of the study. The findings include, amongst others that teaching practice beyond enhancing the students’ preparation for mathematics education programme, it helps female students to develop more interest and confidence in studying and teaching mathematics. Following the findings, recommendations for mathematics teacher education programme were made. It was recommended amongst others, that there is need to continue to use teaching practice programme to prepare preservice teachers in mathematics education.

Keywords: teaching practice; Teacher Education Mathematics; female students; teacher preparation

Programme;

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

36

1. Introduction Education, as the instrument for economic and political wellbeing, has teaching as its major catalyst (Potokri, 2011). Regardless the profession or field of study, teaching is the driving mechanism that makes the learning and teaching process and experience possible and meaningful. Female education and national development are fundamental to development in the 21st century. It is thus, not surprising to see an increase in the enrolment rates of females in institutions of higher learning (Potokri, 2013).

Despite the enrolment rate increase, the number of female students in mathematics and science is still low when compared to other subject disciplines (Marsh et al. 2019; He et al., 2020). Makamure’s (2016) doctoral study at the University of the Free State, South Africa underpins teaching practice as one medium by which the zeal of studying mathematics and willingness to teach the subject can be improved. With a quantitative case study approach that targets Delta State University, this study focuses on the impact of teaching practice on female students’ preparation for mathematics teacher education programme.

2. Background Teaching practice is the process whereby trainee teachers practice how to teach or the act of teaching in order to become perfect in teaching to make the learner to acquire some knowledge or experiences in a particular topic or subject (Ajaja, 2013). It is done in a particular period of time. Hence, teaching practice is a period that a student teacher spends teaching in a school as part of his or her training in a college or university education programme. From the above explanation, teaching practice is done by a student or someone who is undergoing training on how to teach. Therefore, it is compulsory for all students in the Faculty of Education at Delta State University, Abraka. Policy documents for teacher development suggest that teaching practice is mandatory for education degrees (Department of Basic Education, 2011). It is thus not surprising that teaching practice is equally compulsory for all students studying for degree and postgraduate diploma in education at the University of Johannesburg, the affiliation of the second author of this study. The purpose of teaching practice therefore is to give students the opportunity to practicalise what they learn in the classroom (Ijeh, 2013).

In Nigeria today, teaching is seen as a profession. For a teacher to be employed to teach, he/she must pass the prescribed examination and be registered as a teacher (Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria, 2018). In schools where teachers are not available, student teachers or in-service teachers may be used to augment the inadequacy of those qualified teachers. By involving themselves in teaching practice, the mathematics student teacher can adequately be prepared for the profession.

Mathematics is the study of quantity, structures, numbers, space and change (Nwoke & Nnaji, 2011). It provides the route to the scientific and technological discovery (Chand et al, 2019). To understand mathematics, researchers have introduced several strategies for the improvement of students’ learning

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(Fakomogbon, 2002). One of these strategies is the development of teaching practice programme for pre-service and student teachers. Teaching practice plays a significant role in the preparation of students for teacher education programme.

The teaching practice enables the student teachers practice what they learn during classroom instruction in colleges and universities (Aglazor, 2017). It plays a vital role in the education programme in the college and university education system (Ahawo, 2010).

Teaching practice is a practical experience which takes place for a period of six (6) to twelve (12) months at Delta State University Abraka. The student teacher must participate in this programme before he/she will be awarded a degree in Education. Therefore, the teaching practice is a significant aspect of mathematics teacher education programme in our tertiary institution. Anger (2014) noted that teaching practice exposes the student teachers on how to keep good classroom management as well as how to blend theory with practice. A good teaching practice programme is the key influence on students learning in other to achieve the desired outcome as well as the primary goal of higher educational institutions.

Biggs (2013) affirmed that all components of the curriculum must align with effective teaching and learning to take place. For instance, mathematics assessment tools and strategies must be aligned to the mathematics learning outcome.

The teacher should be trained educationally and morally to be able to perform the job of teaching effectively. During teaching and learning, the teacher should ensure that he/she establishes a good relationship between himself/herself and the students, motivate and create opportunities to increase students’ interest in the learning process. The teacher must consider as many methods as possible and know which of them is best to teach a particular topic. This study intends to find out the impact of teaching practice on the students’ preparation for mathematics teacher education programme in Delta State University, Abraka.

3. Statement of the Problem In recent time teaching practice in Nigerian institutions is gradually losing its value due to inability of the students and school management to manage teaching practice programme to the advantage of the students, institution management and the school where the teaching practice is done (Jekayinfa et al., 2012). This is because some students do not fully participate in it or inability of the management of teaching practice programme to balance the period of the programme with that of the visiting schools (Msangya et al., 2016).

In every faculty of education, someone is responsible for co-ordinating teaching practice. That person is referred to as the chief coordinator of teaching practice at the Delta State University Abraka, the research site of this study. The chief coordinator’s report on teaching practice programme in 2018/2019 showed that very few students perform above average during the teaching practice programme. The report further noted that about 35% of the students that participated in 2018/2019 score between 50% in the aspect relating to teaching and learning as well as classroom management. While a teaching practice teacher

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is expected to explore relevant knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and teaching technique to improve his/her academic achievement the subject matter content knowledge, skills as well as instructional skills and strategies displayed during supervision has not been encouraging. This may lead to the student teacher poor academic achievement or performance.

If the teaching practice is properly organized, it could improve student teacher subject matter content knowledge, skills, attitude, use of varying techniques for teaching as well as ability to be resourceful in terms of the provision of adequate instructional resources. These provisions will undoubtedly play a significant role in the student teacher preparation in mathematics education programme especially when gender is thrown into the debate. The problem of this study is therefore what is the impact of teaching practice on the female student preparation for mathematics teacher education programme?

4. Preparing Teachers for Mathematics Education Programme To prepare teachers for mathematics education programme, several factors could guide the preparation programme. These factors include school subject teachers, government policies and other relevant stakeholders. These factors have a huge role to place in the achievement of teacher education programme as the overall achievement of the objectives of tertiary education. The collective support of these stakeholders is needed if the programme will record a success. They are therefore require to find proper ways of achieving the goals of teacher education programmes (Ackerman et al. 2016). For instance, the school should be able to provide the adequate facilities and conducive learning environment for the trainee teachers and their students.

However, the Nigeria education system remain poor despite all effort made to improve the quality of teaching and learning (Onwuameze, 2013). Teacher leadership is a resource for providing unlimited resources for positive outcome in teaching and learning. The teacher’s commitment as a leader should be supported by the school management. The school principal should skilfully support, provide a conducive learning environment and organisational climate (Ackerman, et al., 2016). Good leadership should be able to provide an environment permissible for quality teaching and learning. Quality teaching should be aimed at quality learning. Students’ academic achievement is one of the criteria for measuring quality teaching.

The teacher should be given adequate workload for optimum performance.

Sichambo (2011) recommend that the teacher workload should be reduced to the level at which they should be able to conduct effective teaching and learning.

Valiandes and Neophytou (2018) established that reducing class size as well as workload with adequate training and retraining of teachers are some of the measures that can be taken to improve students’ learning experience. Inadequate staff could affect the provision of quality education. While the government should endeavour to employ quality mathematics teachers, the college and university should be able to create educational programme that can provide the qualified teachers to assist in the provision of quality education. According to Mayeku (2019), shortage of teachers can increase the workload of existing staff, thereby

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affecting the quality of instruction. Odumbe et al. (2015) on the other hand opined that low teacher-pupil ratio can enhance the teacher performance in terms of teaching and learning.

Practicing teachers should be encouraged to participate in teacher development programme. This has a huge influence on the overall quality of the teacher and will definitely aid in the achievement of the objectives of education. Adequate provision of mathematics teacher professional development has the ability to improve teacher subject matter content knowledge and confidence in delivery of the content of the mathematics lesson. With mathematics teacher professional development, more experiences with regards to teaching and learning are enhanced, and this goes a long way to improve the quality of education (Ijeh, 2013).

During teacher professional development as well as colleges and universities education programme, mathematics student teachers should be taught how to improve attitude towards mathematics teaching and learning. Such attitude may include punctuality, dedication to teaching, openness to new ideas, be resourceful to search for better method of teachings as well as create more opportunities to cover the curriculum (Nakhanu, 2019). Therefore, the impact of teaching practice on students’ preparation programmes should be investigated. In the case of this study, the focus is on the impact of teaching practice on female students’ preparation for mathematics teacher education programme in Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria.

5. Research Questions 1. How significant does teaching practice influence the academic achievement of female mathematics education students in Delta State University?

2. What are the roles of teaching practices on female students’ preparations for mathematics education programme in Delta State University?

6. Methodology of the Study This study is anchored on the quantitative case study approach, that entails the collection and usage of numerical data to understand a case that is studied. A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth understanding of an issue in its real-life context (Ebneyamini & Moghadam, 2018). The case studied is that of teacher education programme at the Delta State University Abraka, Nigeria. Descriptive survey research design was employed. This design allowed the researchers to obtain responses about questions from the respondents or participants of this study. In other words, the purpose of using this design is to explain the responses of the subject/respondents about the impact of teaching practice on female students’ preparation for mathematics education programme in Delta State University.

6.1 Population of the Study The population of the study comprised of female mathematics education students in the department of Science Education. Purposive sampling was used to determine the sample. Following Bertram and Christiansen’s (2014) writing, purposive sampling is the selection of individuals with suitable experience that

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can provide the required information for this study. A sample of 30 students were purposively selected from 50 students who have participated in at least one of the two teaching practice programmes organized for the students in the four-year mathematics education degree programme. The sample is thus 60% which is adequately representative. Grinnel and Williams (1990:127), affirm that 40% is sufficient for performing basic statistical procedures. In addition, five lecturers who supervised the mathematics education students and members of the teaching practice coordinating team were selected and five other teachers (head of mathematics department) from the schools where the student teachers did their teaching practice also served as respondents or participants.

6.2 Data Collection Instrument The instrument(s) that were used for data collection is the questionnaire. In sum, two questionnaires– one for the students and the second for the supervisor (lecturers) and head of departments (in school of practice) were used. The questionnaire for student teachers consists of twenty-item questions and made up of five different sections namely subject matter content knowledge, teaching and learning, lesson planning and preparation, attitudes and extra-curricular activities. Each section comprises of four questions. The one for the supervisor (lecturers) and head of departments (in school of practice) have five items question each focusing on subject matter content knowledge, teaching and learning, lesson planning and preparation, attitudes and extra-curricular activities. Some open-ended questions as shown in the presentation of result and analysis section of this article were used to get responses from this category of respondents. The instruments were validated by two experts in mathematics education and measurement and evaluation from two different Universities. The reliability coefficient of the questionnaire was 0.81.

6.3 Data Analysis The data collected were manually analysed with descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation. An overall mean of 2.50 and above would indicate that an item plays a significant role or not on the student teacher preparation for mathematics teacher education programme as well as an achievement in the student-teacher mathematics education programme (Sanni, 2002). Accordingly, if mean score is higher than the average of the critical mean scores, it can be interpreted that the performance has significantly improved or better.

7. Data Presentation and Analysis Research Question 1: How significant does teaching practice influence the academic achievement of female mathematics education students in Delta state University?

In answering this research question, the individual mean responses of the student teachers to the questionnaire items were determine and later the overall mean is calculated for each of the variable such as the subject matter. content knowledge, teaching and learning, lesson planning and preparation, attitudes and extracurricular activities.

Table 1. Responses of the students’ teacher on enhancing subject matter content knowledge for participating in teaching practice.

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S/N

Question Items

1

Ability to explain concept with varied examples Use of calculation Skills Problem Solving Skills Application to other subject area Total Overall Mean

2 3 4

Mean Response

% Mean Response

3.7

25.5

3.9 3.2 3.4 14.2 3.55

27.5 23.0 24.0 100

Since the overall mean response 3.55 is greater than 2.50, it means that teaching practice enhances the subject matter content knowledge of student teachers.

Table 2. Responses of the Students Teacher on enhancing effective teaching and learning.

S/N

Question Items

Mean Response

1 2

Focus on Objective Linking teaching with previous knowledge Use of Instructional technique Conclusion / Valid Assignment Total Overall Mean

4.2 3.2

3 4

2.8 3.0 13.2 3.3

% Mean Response 29.5 23.0 15.5 21.0 100

The overall mean of 3.3 is greater than 2.50. This indicates that teaching practice enhances the knowledge of teaching and learning Mathematics.

Table 3. Responses of the students teacher on enhancing lesson planning and preparation in Teaching Practice S/N

Question Items

Mean Response

1 2 3 4

Planning of lesson Use of Instructional resources Focus on objective to be achieved Classroom Organization Total Overall Mean

4.5 3.2 4.0 3.5 15.2 3.8

% Mean Response 29.6 21.0 26.4 23.0 100

From Table 3, the overall mean of 3.8 is greater than 2.50. This means that teaching practice plays a significant role in enhancing student teacher knowledge for planning and preparing of mathematics lesson for effective teaching.

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Table 4. Responses of the students teacher on enhancing positive attitudes towards teaching and learning.

S/N

Question Items

Mean Response

1 2 3 4

Mode of Dressing Students motivation towards learning Continuous Feedback Punctuality Total Overall Mean

3.6 3.8 4.2 4.8 16.4 4.1

% Mean Response 22.0 23.1 25.6 29.3 100

Table 4 showed that the overall mean of 4.1 is greater than 2.50. This indicates that teaching practice enhances students’ teacher positive attitude towards the teaching and learning of mathematics.

Table 5. Responses of the students teacher on enhancing student teacher participation in extracurricular activities S/N

Question Items

Mean Response

% Mean Response

1

Games

4.5

29.8

2 3

Checking students punctuality Class teacher

3.8

25.2

2.8

18.5

4

Meetings Total

4.0 15.1

26.5 100

Overall Mean

3.77

In table 5, the overall mean response of 3.77 is greater than 2.50. This indicates that teaching practice have influence on the academic achievement of students. The participation in extracurricular activities enhances their academic achievement in mathematics education.

Table 6. Influences of teaching practice on student teacher academic achievement in Mathematics Education Overall S/N Variables Mean 1 Mathematics Subject matter Content Knowledge 2.84 2 Teaching and Learning of Mathematics 2.84 3 Lesson Planning and Preparation 3.04 4 Attitudes 3.28 5 Extra-Curricular Activities 3.02 Total 15.02 Overall mean 3.00

Table 6 showed the overall mean score of 3.00 is greater than 2.50. This is an indication that teaching practice has some influences on the academic achievement of the mathematics student teachers.

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Research Question 2: What are the roles of teaching practices on female students’ preparations for mathematics education programme in Delta State University?

In answering this research question, references will be made to table 6 and the open-ended questions responses of the supervisors and Head of Departments of mathematics in the school where the student teachers did their teaching practice.

The mean score 3.55 of the student teacher responses to question relating to whether they were able to improve on their Subject matter content knowledge during the teaching practice programme, or not was greater than 2.50. The result is in line with the responses of the heads of department and the teaching practice supervisor’s responses to open-ended questionnaire. In the question – Does the students show any evidence of improvement on their mathematics subject matter content knowledge during the second teaching practice programme? The Head of department answered that the student teachers were better in their approaches to teaching in the second teaching practice exercise. According to him, they were able to vary the method of teaching as well as having adequate knowledge of the topics they taught and learnt by the students.

The teaching practice coordinator also reported that the score of the students in the second teaching practice exercise was better than the first one with a significant difference in favour of the second teaching practice. Following the result in table 6, the overall mean of the related variable that enhances the student teacher achievement is 3.00. It is evidence that the overall mean of those attributes that can ensure an achievement of the participants on the teaching practice programme is greater than 2.50. One can therefore deduce that teaching practice play a significant role in the students’ preparation for mathematics education programme at Delta State University. For example, when the teaching coordinator was asked, Does the teaching practice enhance knowledge of subject matter content, teaching and learning, knowledge of lesson and preparation, attitude and extracurricular activities in the school? The coordinator reported that the teaching practice provided a more adequate opportunity for the student teacher to develop adequate knowledge of the subject matter content for teaching, use various techniques, lesson planning and preparations, positive attitude towards teaching and learning and participation in extracurricular activities in the school system.

Furthermore, the teaching practice coordinator reported that while the mean score on teaching and learning in the first teaching practice was 61.50, the mean score in the second teaching practice was 68%. In terms of lesson planning and preparation, the heads of department in the school in which the teaching practice was done reported that the student teachers prepare and deliver their lessons at the appropriate time. The teaching practice coordinator also indicated that about 80% of the students can adequately prepare and deliver their lessons during their second teaching practice exercise. When the coordinator was asked, how well did they prepare and deliver their lesson? The coordinator reported that an average of about 68% of the mathematics student teachers scored above 65% in their first teaching practice exercise, but in the second one, about 80% of the students’ scores an A, which is between 70-100%.

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The Head of Department was asked, were the mathematics student teachers punctual to the school and class? How friendly were they with the students? The head of department indicated that the student teacher was always punctual to school and even classes. He further explained that they participated in organizing the morning devotions and cleaning of the classroom and school environment.

They were also dedicated and friendly with the students and staff. The coordinators of the teaching practice programme also reported that they were readily available on their duty post during the teaching practice supervision.

There were evidence of monitoring of students’ class activities in the teaching practice handbooks as well as the student class activities in the students’ exercise book. Following the above report, one can deduce that the student teachers display positive attitude that could enhance their knowledge of teaching and learning in mathematics education.

From table 6, the mean score of the students’ involvement in extracurricular activities is 3.02 greater than the critical mean of 2.50. This shows that the student participated in extracurricular activities while on the teaching practice exercise.

8. Discussion of Result It is evident in this study that the female students’ mathematics subject matter content knowledge, teaching and learning, lesson planning and preparation, attitude and extracurricular activities are developed during teaching practice.

Ability to adequately develop this knowledge and use them during classroom practice could enhance the teachers’ achievement in mathematics and as well prepare them for teacher education programme.

From Table 1, the calculated mean response of the student teacher is 3.55 which is greater than 2.50. This showed that female students mathematics teacher subject matter content knowledge could be influenced by participating in teaching practice. Consequently, the participation in teaching practice programme can prepare the student teachers for effective Mathematics teacher education programme. When the head of department was asked, “did the student teachers display evidence of improvement of their knowledge of the topic taught to the students? He answered that the students were more explicit in the teaching of the mathematics at the level of the students. This result is in line with Bruce et al.

(2013) who opined that teaching practice and the development of subject matter content knowledge for teaching could influence teacher preparation programme in a subject area such as mathematics.

The result in table 2 showed that calculated mean of 3.3 was greater than the critical mean of 2.50. This indicate that teaching practice enhance effective teaching and learning which will consequently improve student teacher preparation for mathematics education. The report of the teaching practice coordinator showed that teaching practice influence the development of the knowledge for teaching and learning of mathematics. This concurs with Ajaja’s (2013) research. He (Ajaja) argued that students learn better by practicing rather than been passive. This finding also gives credence to that of Anger (2014) who

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noted that teaching practice play a significant role in the preparation for mathematics education. According to Anger (2014), by participating in teaching practice programme, student teacher develops better knowledge for teaching and learning.

Table 3 shows that lesson planning and preparation influence the mathematics teacher preparation for mathematics education programme. This means the mean score of 3.8 was greater than 2.50. This indicates that ability to plan and prepare for the lesson influence the student teacher achievement and preparation for the mathematics education programme. While the head of department reported that student teachers adequately prepare and delivered their lesson appropriately. The teaching practice coordinator also noted that there were evidence of lesson planning and preparation in the student teaching practice handbook during supervision. This establishes the importance of student lesson planning and preparation. It is thus not surprising that student lesson planning and preparation is the key influence in the preparation of mathematics education programme (Federal Government of Nigeria, 2018). This finding agrees with Regan et al. (2016) who reported that lesson planning and preparation play a significant role in mathematics teacher programme.

In Table 4, a mean achievement score of 4.1 was greater than the critical mean of 2.50. This indicated that the student teachers’ attitude has significant influence on the mathematics students’ preparation for education programme. The response to open-ended question from the head of department showed that the student teachers display a more positive attitude towards their teaching, students and staff during their teaching practice duty as well as establishing good relationship with the students and staff. The teaching practice supervisor also indicates that there was evidence of punctuality to duty. The student teacher dress properly and gives continuous feedback to the students. This finding agreed with the report of Deveci and Seikkula-Leino (2018) who noted that the teachers’ attitude plays significant role in preparation for teacher education. According to this author, the student teacher must be prepared to participate in all that will make for effective teacher education. This involves the acquisition of the subject matter content knowledge, punctuality to duty, motivating student to learn, dressing, and providing continuous feedback to the students. Yara and Wanjohi (2011) also noted that student teacher attitude is a predictor of the achievement in mathematics education.

Table 5 showed a mean of 3.02 which is greater than the critical mean of 2.50. This showed that participation in extracurricular activities can enhance student teachers’ preparation for mathematics education. In other words, student teachers’ participation in extracurricular activities play significant role in preparation for effective teaching and learning in mathematics in the school system. Hensch (2020) noted that teacher involvement in extracurricular matters in the college matters a lot in their preparation for classroom practices. This author also noted that participation in extracurricular activities help teachers who are in this case student teachers to transfer job-related knowledge for the future preparation of students. One can also gain essential life skill by participating in

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extracurricular activities especially working with one another as well as their own students.

9. Limitation This is a small sample study that was conducted to investigate the impact of teaching practice on female students’ preparation for mathematics teacher education programme. Given that this study utilised the quantitative research approach, we thus acknowledge that the sample is indeed small, hence, can be regarded as a limitation. Nonetheless, we argue that the small sample does not compromise the quality and results of the study because the sample is representative of the study’s population which we as the researchers cannot do anything about but draw from or use. In the light of this limitation, we would like to direct future researchers to consider a research context or site with a larger population should they wish to conduct a study that is similar to this current study.

10. Conclusion The study concludes that the impact of teaching practice on female students’ preparation for mathematics teacher education programme in Delta State University, is statistically significant. It highlights that during teaching practice, female student teachers can develop their subject matter content knowledge, knowledge for teaching and learning, lesson planning and preparation, development of positive attitude to teaching and learning as well as improve their participation in extracurricular activities in the school system which are all parts of the roles of teaching practice. Consequently, the sampled students’ achievement in the aforementioned areas can meaningfully, adequately, and readily position them for their future occupation which is teaching and thus, help them to overcome the challenges that they are likely to face as beginner teachers outside their studentship terrain at the university.

When juxtaposed with literature, the roles of teaching practices on female students are not different to that of any student regardless their gender. The study therefore recommends that there is need to continue to use teaching practice programme to prepare pre-service teachers in mathematics education. Given the responses elicited from the head of department, supervisors and chief coordinator of teaching practice, the study importantly points to adequate teaching practice supervision as a crucial element for the preparation of mathematics education programme that must be ensured and encouraged in order to monitor and guide the student teacher.

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Chand, S., Chaudhary, K. C., Prasad, A., & Chand, V. (2021). Perceived Causes of Students’ Poor Performance in Mathematics: A Case Study at Ba and Tavua Secondary Schools. Frontiers in Applied Mathematics and Statistics, 7, NA. https://doi.org/10.3389/fams.2021.614408 Department of Basic Education. (2011). Integrated Strategic Planning Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa (2011-2015). Pretoria: Government Printer.

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regardless of prior achievement and attitudes. American Educational Research Journal, 56(5), 1629-1680. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218824111 Mayeku, B. (2019). Policy Guidelines and Challenges in Quality Assurance in Distance Learning Programmes in Kenyan Public Universities [M. ED Thesis: Maseno University].

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 49-63, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.4 Received Sep 25, 2021; Revised Nov 30, 2021; Accepted Dec 05, 2021

Integrating Video-Based Multimedia in Teaching Physics in Context of Covid-19 in Rwandan Secondary Schools Gabriel Janvier Tugirinshuti African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), College of Education, University of Rwanda, Rwanda https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5756-3635 Leon Rugema Mugabo African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), College of Education, University of Rwanda, Rwanda https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4962-5653 Alexis Banuza Centre de Recherche en Didactique des Disciplines et de Diffusion des Sciences (CRDS), Departement de Physique-Technologie, Institut de Pedagogie Appliquée, Université de Burundi, Burundi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9623-7878 Abstract. The Covid-19 pandemic has paralyzed the education system and lead to temporary school closure. After school re-opening, longterm responses to a resilient education system were needed. A descriptive survey research design was used to diagnose the barriers to video-based multimedia integration in teaching and learning physics in certain secondary schools. 47 physics teachers (35 males and 12 females) were purposely selected from 24 schools located in the Rutsiro and Rubavu districts. A questionnaire was given to all 47 teachers. One-onone interview with great attention to the measures of reducing the transmission of Covid-19 was conducted to all senior five physics teachers. Research findings revealed that video-based multimedia is less used in teaching and learning physics. Teachers indicated that poor infrastructure, poor teachers’ training aimed at effective integration of multimedia in education, pressure to prepare students for exams, and teachers’ lack of time for preparation are major factors that impede the use of video-based multimedia in teaching and learning physics. Results also provided proof of the necessity to provide digital devices to teachers and learners, teachers’ training, and learners’ preparation for virtual classes so that video-based multimedia could be a better ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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instructional strategy to long-term responses for Covid-19 and future shocks. The findings of this study revealed that VBM could be a consensus on education and technology competency required to support teaching and learning especially during Covid-19 and future shocks.

Keywords: Video-Based multimedia; Covid-19; physics education; elearning

1. Introduction The first case of Covid-19 was signaled in Wuhan, China in December 2019.

Later, the disease has escalated briskly worldwide, leading to a world pandemic (World Health Organization [WHO], 2020). In the 21st century, Covid-19 has been considered as one of the dangerous health crises for people in the world.

Consequently, many countries put in place measures to fight against Covid-19 and to reduce the citizens’ transmission. As a result of those measures, many countries worldwide decided to close schools. The school closure paralyzed the education system in more than 186 countries and 80% of the learners in the world were affected (UNICEF, 2020).

In sub-Saharan Africa, Covid-19 has had an enormous impact on education (UNESC0, 2021). The experience of the pandemic has been traumatic, and there has been widespread school closure across sub-Saharan Africa in response to the pandemic (Mukuka et al., 2021). The government of Rwanda reported the first case of Covid-19 on 14 March 2020 and the total number of Covid-19 positive cases has increased to 96,570 with 1,242 deaths as of September 25, 2021(Worldmeter, 2021). The Covid-19 has caused the worst education crisis in Rwanda leading to school closures in March 2020 (Mineduc, 2020; UNICEF, 2020). During the time of school closure, the government of Rwanda proposed responses to assist learners to continue learning remotely. Low-tech multimedia such as radio and television-assisted learning were used to ensure continuity of learning for all students including vulnerable students, students with disabilities, and students from disadvantaged communities (Mineduc, 2020).

After school reopening in November 2020, long-term projections to build resilient education systems were needed. Since then, according to Rwanda’s education sector Covid-19 response plan, Rwanda ministry of education and Rwanda basic education board launched several initiatives that aimed to education system the resilient (Mineduc, 2020; Mugiraneza, 2021). Adopting an appropriate integration of technology and moving a step forward on the way multimedia is used in teaching and learning were parts of the selected initiatives (Mineduc, 2020; Mugiraneza, 2021). In addition, expanding online learning, combining the use of digital and multimedia tools, teacher’ professional development, and establishing remote assessment strategies were among priorities (Mugiraneza, 2021). However, those initiatives face many challenges even before Covid-19. Therefore, this study seeks to diagnose the barriers associated with the integration of video-based multimedia (VBM) as a long-term response to Covid-19 and future shocks. Even if the Covid-19 turns all education upside down, it exacerbates the crisis that was already raging in physics

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education (Uwizeyimana et al., 2018). That is why special attention has been given to physics education in this study.

2. Literature Review 2.1. Theoretical Framework This study is based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning which suggested the use of multimedia as remedies to run-down learning (CastroAlonso et al., 2021). The cognitive theory of multimedia learning goes hand in hand with the constructivist theory that requires learners to interact with knowledge construction (Yuejue et al., 2021). The cognitive theory of multimedia learning asserts that learning can be enhanced by the use of multimedia (Chelliah & Masran, 2020; Kiat et al., 2020). This requires teachers and/or learners to choose appropriate words and appropriate pictures, arrange these words and pictures independently into clear mental models, form connections between verbal and mental models, and incorporate those models with prior knowledge (Castro-Alonso et al., 2021).

2.2 Multimedia in Education The improvement of technology has changed the way we view the world and paved the way to new opportunities. The education system also benefits from this development of technology (Oliveira et al., 2018). The progress in the digital era has stimulated the production of new interesting and effective approaches in teaching and learning contexts such as multimedia (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2020).

Multimedia in education stems from the theory of constructivism and supports self-paced learning (Bull, 2013). Multimedia based instruction support learnercentered methodology which puts learners at the center of the learning process by focusing on their needs (Yap, 2016). Within multimedia based instruction, learners are likely to work cooperatively, increase development in the economic and technological world, and equip learners with dynamic skills, value, and knowledge required for the development of the person (Kabigting, 2021; Ndihokubwayo et al., 2020). However, integrating multimedia in teaching and learning is handicapped by infrastructure and ICT tools readiness (UNESCO,

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2021), teachers’ ICT literacy (Hafifah & Sulistyo, 2020), teachers’ beliefs and confidence to use technology in teaching and learning (Martin et al., 2020; Creely et al., 2021), and national policies managing and supporting the use of technology in education (Valente & Almeida, 2020).

Video-based multimedia (VBM) is mostly used when integrating multimedia based instruction in science education (Adekoke, 2011; Gambari et al., 2014).

Researchers revealed that VBM provides and promotes a learning climate in which learners take responsibility for their own learning by solving problems, teaching one another, debating and group discussion about activity at hand (Castro-Alonso et al., 2021). Moreover, VBM increases competency to the application of levels of blooms taxonomy and enhances professional and technological skills that are crucial for a successful career in today’s global context (Akinoso, 2020). The rationale behind VBM is the use of videos in class or outclass activities where learners interact and get engaged with knowledge construction, discuss/debate and clarify doubts without embarrassments, and teachers act as a guide by the side to facilitate learning (Adi et al., 2021; Gambari et al., 2014). Thus, VBM stems from the theory of constructivism (Yuejue et al., 2021).

Multimedia based instructions have been identified to attract students’ attention, motivation, and enhance students’ achievement, and retention (Adekoke, 2011).

The use of multimedia in physics classroom revealed several opportunities such as access to knowledge that is stored beyond textbooks, solutions to manual paper based processes and procedures, better teaching and learning methods, save time, student management, motivation, and raise academic achievement and retention(Adekoke, 2011; Rusanganwa, 2013; Yap, 2016).The VBM allows students to explore and visualize physics content that is closely related to a specific form of constructivist learning theory (Adi et al., 2021). VBM is valuable in physics as it promotes students’ problem solving, builds a bridge between verbal and scientific representations, and helps students to develop images that give meaning to scientific and mathematical symbols (Rusanganwa, 2013). VBM enables physics learners to access knowledge and develop their multiple intelligence skills (Blomberg et al., 2014). VBM learning strategies help to make sense of what is happening in class and support learners’ sense of being actors, researchers, and creators (Holmes et al., 2019; Ziegelbauer & D'Errico, 2021).

2.3 Video Based Multimedia in the Context of Covid-19 Covid-19 shows that educationists are required to change their mindset on how they view the education system (Mukuka et al., 2021). When schools were closed due to Covid-19, educationalists had no other option than to shift to online classes (UNESCO, 2021). Covid-19 pushed teachers to assume virtual teaching where they had to use digital technologies, sometimes for the 1st time to facilitate their students’ learning (Code et al., 2020). Video based multimedia in multiform was used during school closure (Mugiraneza, 2021). For instance, recorded videos were shared among learners using their cellular mobile phones (Rodríguez et al., 2020), YouTube videos (Malea et al., 2020), and videos broadcasted on TV (Mugiraneza, 2021), etc. After schools reopening, it has been necessary to rethink the teaching strategies to resilient the Covid-19 and future

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shock (Mineduc, 2020). Educationists recall the mixture of face-to-face and virtual classrooms (Neuwirth et al., 2020). Researchers revealed that the use of VBM in these jointly learning strategies makes sense (Babelyuk et al., 2020).

However, the effectiveness of the said learning strategies requires various types of preparedness such as technological readiness (Nimavat et al., 2021), preparing in-service teachers (Mukuka et al., 2021), pedagogical and home-based learning (Gonzales, 2020), readiness for monitoring and assessment (Egede, 2021), and adjust learning management (Moore et al., 2021).

2.4 Research Problem and Focus In the light of the Covid-19 pandemic and its effect, the education sector is experiencing transformation (Mhlanga & Moloi, 2020). In other terms, the pandemic has changed the education system dramatically and ushered in a pressing need for the enhancement of information and communication technology (ICT) tools, digital platforms, and multimedia utilization in education (Adi et al., 2021; Mugiraneza, 2021). To ensure continuity of learning and prepare the resilience of the education system against Covid-19 and future shocks, the government of Rwanda prepared short, medium, and long-term responses to support the continuation of quality learning (Mineduc, 2020).

However, those responses would have a substantial effect on integrating technology in the education system. Therefore, this study seeks to diagnose the challenges associated with integrating video-based multimedia in physics classrooms in Rwandan secondary schools. Built on the research problem underlined above, the following research questions were sought: i) ii)

iii)

To what extent video-based multimedia is used in teaching physics?

What are teachers’ views about barriers that impended video-based multimedia implementation in the physics classroom?

How could the recognized barriers be addressed to make sure that videobased multimedia is integrated effectively in those classrooms?

3. Research Methodology 3.1. Research Design This study used a descriptive survey research design. The employed design was considered suitable for this study because statistical data can be secured, and analysis of that information can be done to infer anticipated results (Ary et al., 2020). Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected respecting measures to fight against Covid-19.

3.2. Research Participants Respondents were selected from public secondary schools within Rutsiro and Rubavu districts in western province, Rwanda. The purposive sampling method was used in this study. A purposeful sampling of schools is based on the availability of ICT equipment and physics as one of the core subjects taught in those schools. In each selected school, all physics teachers were requested to participate in this study. 47 (35 males and 12 females) physics teachers took part in this research. Participants’ experience as physics teachers ranges between 2 to 19 years.

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3.3. Research Instruments and Validation The data reported in this study were collected using a questionnaire and an interview. The questionnaire items were prepared based on previous research on the seeming barriers to integrating multimedia in education. However, since the purpose and scope are not the same as the original ones, we checked the reliability before distributing the questionnaire. SPSS Version 21 was used.

Exploratory factor analysis has shown that all the 27 items’ factor loading was greater than .40 and were all retained and presented in this study. The internal consistency showed a Cronbach alpha of .85 which exceeded .7 (Taber, 2017).

There is no multicollinearity among the items since there are no pair’s inter-item correlations of more than .80, hence all items were independent. An interview structured questions but allowed room for discussion to provide respondents time to explain their personal experiences concerning multimedia use in education. It was also used to collect qualitative data until data saturation was reached. The reason to conduct the one-on-one interview was to understand the details behind participants’ answers, make an investigation on apparent factors that impede video-based multimedia integration in teaching and learning physics, and the possible solutions to ensure effective integration of video-based multimedia. Classroom observation protocol was used to know the principals of VBM practices in selected schools. To validate the instruments, an expert in ICT education from University of Rwanda together with experienced physics teachers checked the questionnaire, interview protocol and classroom observation protocol. Their comments and suggestions were used to build the final instruments used in this study.

3.4. Data Collection Procedure Data were collected in May and June 2021. This was almost seven months after schools re-opening following the joint ministry of education and ministry of health directive measures to re-open schools. Measures emphasized the Covid19 preventive guidelines and the medium and long-term response to support the continuation of quality learning. Once the participants were selected and agreed to participate in this study, questionnaires were distributed to participants to complete. The completed questionnaires were collected back after one week. All the questionnaires were collected back at the end of the agreed time at a rate of 100%. After handing back the completed questionnaire, interviews with all senior five (grade 11) physics to each school were planned. One-on-one interviews were scheduled and conducted during working hours at the working schools and lasted approximately 50 minutes per teacher. Interviews started with structured questions associated with discussion to provide respondents time to explain their statements. Interviews were audio-recorded and then transcribed. After the face-to-face interview, teachers were then observed in an ICT classroom setting. Notes taken were analyzed to develop a common understanding of the effective incorporation of video-based multimedia in the physics classroom.

3.5. Data Analysis Data analysis involved the use of different methods to examine and interpret all the data collected, and analysis involved both qualitative and quantitative aspects. Statistical analysis such as standard error, standard deviation, mean,

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percentage, and sample t-test was used to summarize data from the 𝑀

questionnaire. Moreover, the formula 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑆𝐷𝑑𝑖𝑓 was used to calculate Cohen’s d 𝑑𝑖𝑓

to communicate the magnitude of the treatment (Lakens, 2013). To analyze qualitative data, a constant comparison method of content analysis was used to classify semantic categories into sub-themes and themes. Thereafter, the developed sub-themes and themes were pooled and synthesized through the semantic category to which it refers (Akinyode & Khan, 2018).

4. Results 4.1. Extent to Which Video Based Multimedia is Used Table 1: Descriptive statistics on instructional strategies Instructional strategies

M

N

SD

SE

Teacher's Usual Teaching Strategies

4.11

47

0.512

0.071

Technology-Based included)

3.20

47

0.512

0.071

Strategies

(VBM

Teachers’ responses under each instructional strategy were combined. Mean, standard deviation, and standard error were calculated and presented in Table 1. Results displayed in Table 1 indicated that, on average, teacher’s usual teaching strategies were more dominant (M=4.11; SD=0.512) than technologybased strategies (M=3.20; SD=0.512).

Table 2: Paired samples t-test for Teacher’s Usual Teaching Strategies (TUT Stra) and Technology-Based Strategies (TB stra) Paired difference 95% C.I. of the difference TUT stra-TB stra

For Cohen’s d 𝑑𝑠 =

M

SD

SE

Lower

Upper

t

df

p

0.91

0.51

0.07

0.81

1.09

13.15

46

0.001

𝑀𝑑𝑖𝑓 𝑆𝐷𝑑𝑖𝑓

, hence 𝑑 =

0.91 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 0.51

𝑑 = 1.78

Table 2 displayed the paired t-test for teachers’ usual teaching strategies and technology-based strategies (video-based multimedia included). The difference of 0.91, (95% CI {0.81, 1.09}) was significant, (t=13.15, p<0.05) to conclude that usual teaching strategies were statistically more dominant than technologybased strategies. Moreover, the size effect calculated of 1.78 represented a large effect size as it exceeded the threshold of 0.8. Hence, built on the findings shown above, it was revealed that usual teaching strategies were significantly more prevalent than technology-based strategies.

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4.2. Seeming Barriers Impending Video-Based Multimedia Implementation in Physics Classroom Table 3 displayed the seeming barriers to effective implementation of multimedia in education. Referring to Table 3 and taking into consideration the standards that 1= strongly disagree (sd), 2= disagree (d), 3= neutral (n), 4= agree (a), and 5= strongly agree (sa), a considerable number of respondents were likely to consent that the resulting seemed fences influenced video-based multimedia instruction implementation in their physics classroom: infrastructure (72.3%), Lack/poor adequate teacher's training (72.3%), the pressure to prepare students for exam and tests (70.2%), Time vs high teaching load (68.3%), and difficulties in assessing and monitoring learners’ progress (68%).

Table 3: Seeming Barriers to Effectively Implementation of Multimedia in Education Seeming barriers

Frequency (%) n=47 sd

D

n

a

sa

Infrastructure

0

14.9

12.8

38.3

34

Lack/poor adequate teacher's training Pressure to prepare students for exam and/or tests

2.1

10.6

14.9

40.4

31.9

14.9

4.3

10.6

34

36.2

Time vs high teaching load

6.4

8.5

17

42.8

25.5

0

19.1

12.8

34

34

Poor communication skills

10.6

12.8

17

34

25.5

Poor technology literacy

8.5

12.8

19.1

27.7

31.9

Big number of learners’ in classroom Lack/poor technology supporting materials

8.5

19.1

17

36.2

19.1

0

23.4

21.3

29.8

25.5

Problems in evaluating checking learners' progress

and

Related barriers to those reported in Table 3 were also highlighted during a oneon-one interview. Here are some of the noteworthy responses from respondents on how time for preparation, class size, and pressure to prepare students for examinations hinder the effectiveness of video-based multimedia: Respondent number 4: video-based multimedia (and other technology-related instructional strategies) is too demanding in terms of time, together with a heavy teaching load that appears difficult to use technology.

Respondent 3: it is difficult to use video-based multimedia in a big class like this one, sometimes learners’ pretend to be doing classroom activities while they are busy with social media and other computer games.

Respondent 2: our school is judged based on national examination results, so the use of video-based multimedia will not help me to prepare the students well as I am not experienced in using such kinds of instructional strategies.

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Respondents 1: it is not easy to monitor the learners’ progress under a videobased multimedia class setting.

Classroom observation revealed difficulties in preparing VBM classrooms of learners with different levels of ICT literacy. Some teachers still have difficulties setting clear objectives during the VBM class. Learners’ ICT literacy and poor communication skills were also identified as a barrier since learners struggle to use the right keywords in research.

4.3. Suggested Solution to Effectively Integrate VBM in Physics Classroom During one-on-one interviews, respondents suggested solutions to the raised barriers. Table 4 revealed the respondents’ proposed solution to ensure that VBM is effectively incorporated in classroom, and to guarantee its effectiveness in teaching and learning physics.

Table 4: Proposed solution Theme 1

ICT Skills

2

Time

3

Belief

4

Experience

5

Infrastructure

Proposed solution Teachers' training on ICT integration in education, raise the level of learners' ICT literacy Avail time for preparation, increase learners' access to ICT tools such as computer Focus discussion about the effectiveness of VBM in teaching and learning physics Share best practices with others Increasing ICT tools such as computer and internet connectivity

Frequency (%) n=47 95.8

87.3 85.1 74.5 68

To effectively incorporate VBM in teaching and learning physics and to ensure that VBM is integrated to resilient Covid-19 (and future shock) effects, respondents stressed the need for ICT professional development training.

Respondents have shown a relationship between teachers’ skills level, confidence, and competence. Classroom observation also revealed that there is a need to develop strong classroom management during VBM classes with different ICT levels of literacy.

5. Discussion This study diagnosed the barriers to integrating VBM in Rwandan secondary schools as a long-term response to Covid-19 and future shock in education.

Results of this study revealed that switching to technology integration in teaching and learning as a long-term response to resilience relevant and quality education makes sense (Mugiraneza, 2021). However, this is not unique to the Rwandan context. For instance, Hashimi (2021) reported that technology, VBM included, allows students to access content well beyond textbooks in multiple formats regardless to time and space. The results of this study showed that the incorporation of VBM is still very low (Tables 1 and 2) and has been hindered by some barriers (Table 3). Similarly, the results of this study about the barriers that impede the effective integration of VBM did not seem to be exceptional to Rwandan education. For example, the research conducted in the Philippines by

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Wenceslao and Felisa (2021) and in South Africa by Mukuna and Aloka (2020) revealed that online education was impeded by personal barriers, inadequate social interaction, technology-related issues, assessment-related issues, and concerns on learning materials and methods. According to the points raised above, the question that requires a long-term answer is how we can ensure that technology integration in teaching and learning is effectively integrated so that it responds positively to the resilience of the education system against Covid-19 and future shocks. Based on the barriers highlighted in this study (table 3), proposals on the likely solutions to some of the mentioned issues are given: First, curriculum developers, policymakers, and stakeholders in education should consider the use of specialized materials beyond textbooks. To this, videos in multiple formats can be used. The video contains lessons (regarding the curriculum) that can be stored on secure digital (SD) memory cards and used on telephones, tablets, and computers to remotely study when they are in an online or an offline environment. Moreover, those videos can be shared easily among learners. Here we concur with Holmes et al. (2019) and Blomberg et al.

(2014) that VBM technology has been recognized to be a real strategy for bridging the gap in the delivery of unlimited access to quality education and enhanced students’ achievement and retention. However, this will need to provide ICT tools such as telephones to students irrespective of their family background otherwise, learners from disadvantaged and rural families will lag (OECD, 2012). Other challenges that come with this strategy are lack/poor infrastructure such as electricity supply, learning aids, etc. Research conducted in Bangladesh by Al-Amin et al. (2021) and in Zambia by Mukuka et al. (2021) reported that poor infrastructure was among the major factors impending elearning in most developing countries.

Second, the successful integration of VBM as a long-term response to Covid-19 and future shocks requires the effective preparation of teachers through continuing professional development courses and training on effective integration of ICT in teaching and learning physics. Here we agree with Mahdi et al. (2015) that providing teachers with ICT assistance and e-learning supports will lead to the improvement of quality education in teaching and learning physics. Moreover, the brutal suspension of face-to-face classes due to Covid-19 and the spurred use of technology to maintain educational continuity have stressed the need for teachers’ relevant skills on digital platforms to ensure a long-term response (Mukuka et al., 2021). Furthermore, it has been recognized that most teachers hold a belief that they cannot assess and/or monitor learners' progress in digital-based strategy (Ziegelbauer & D'Errico, 2021). Therefore, teachers’ training on digital transformation in education will boost teachers’ confidence and motivation to teach, assess, and monitor their learners even beyond the physical classroom environment. Recent researchers echo similar findings that it becomes crucial to give teachers relevant skills on e-learning platforms (Mukuka et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2020) Third, preparing students psychologically about virtual learning should also be considered. Kaplan-Rakowski (2020) reported that students’ traditional mindset made them find a virtual class as a challenge. However, teachers and learners need to optimize new learning settings and harness technology to improve their

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teaching and learning. The psychological preparation of students should be paralleled with time management skills due to their various everyday homebased activities especially for girls and students from rural areas. There is, therefore, a need for parents to be aware of what is going on so that their plan should help these learners. Besides, students’ psychological preparation will help to raise learners’ self-motivation. A recent study reported that after shifting from face-to-face to virtual learning, many students fall behind and nurture the idea of giving up (Esani, 2010).

6. Conclusion Technology such as VBM instructions was reported to be a potent force in driving educational reforms especially during this period of Covid-19. However, the findings of this research revealed that VBM is less used compared to the traditional teaching methodologies in selected schools of Rutsiro and Rubavu districts in western province, Rwanda. Respondents reported some barriers related to VBM incorporation in teaching physics. While the results of this study, to a great extent, look like previous studies, this is one of the few pieces of research done in Rwanda about long-term Covid-19 (and future shocks) response plans. Although the Rwanda basic education board enables free access to the education content (elearning.reb.rw), researchers revealed that audiovisual lessons are more beneficial. One noteworthy point that could be of a great value is that videos could be used when learners are online or offline and are easy to share from one device to another. Consequently, VBM instructional strategy could be an effective methodology to use as a long-term response to Covid-19 and future shocks. However, a careful orientation of in-service teachers in integrating VBM in teaching and learning is required. This could be paralleled with providing digital devices to both teachers and learners and to prepare learners psychologically about the virtual learning environment.

7. Implication, Limitation and Further Research The findings of this study revealed that VBM could be a consensus on education and technology competency is required to support teaching and learning especially during Covid-19 and future shocks. Therefore, educationalists should initiate VBM as a long-term response to Covid-19 and future shocks to resilient and improve the education system. On the limitation side, the methodology used pushed the researchers to use teachers’ self-reported information. Teachers provide information according to their understanding. Their status as public secondary school teachers might have influenced their response. Another limitation of this research is that only physics teachers were involved. Although the information of other subject teachers may not vary from that of physics teachers, the selection of respondents may limit the generalization of the research findings. Given these limitations, a follow-up study can be conducted on the same topic for evaluating both public and private teachers together with science and non-science teachers. The effect of geographical location (rural, semiurban, and urban), socio-economic background of learners, and gender are other variables of interest in this area. Future research could also explore other probable barriers and how those barriers could be alleviated.

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Acknowledgment of the Financial Support I acknowledge the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) for inspiration, encouragement, and financial support it provided towards successful completion of this paper.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 64-84, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.5 Received Oct 02, 2021; Revised Nov 30, 2021; Accepted Dec 05, 2021

Development and Validation of a Model Predicting Students’ Sense of School Belonging and Engagement as a Function of School Climate Jérôme St-Amand Université du Québec en Outaouais, Gatineau, Canada https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3006-6716 Jonathan Smith Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Canada https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6451-783X Aziz Rasmy University Hassan II of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morroco https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8052-1636

Abstract. For many years, studies have explored the relationship between school belonging and engagement, two concepts that are associated with several positive outcomes. However, the relative influence that school climate may have on these components has received little attention. Based on the theoretical perspective of Janosz et al (1998), school belonging and engagement were examined as a function of multiple dimensions of school climate, and were tested across genders. The research took place in Morocco, and participants were 238 students from 9th grade (101 males, 137 females; Mage = 15.1) living in the cities of Casablanca and Témara. Students completed a questionnaire aimed at measuring school belonging, school engagement, and school climate. Correlational and structural equation modeling methods were used to analyze the aforementioned relationships. Results showed that only the climate of justice had a positive effect on school belonging, which, in turn, had a positive effect on the three types of school engagement. The multigroup analysis revealed the relation between school belonging and behavioral engagement to be partially invariant across genders. These results highlight the benefits of creating a positive school climate which can support students' belonging and engagement.

Keywords: empirical validation; theoretical model; sense of belonging; school engagement; school climate

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Since the end of the 1980s, researchers have considered that feeling a low sense of belonging to school is a factor that explains school disengagement to the point of causing school dropout (Faircloth & Hamm, 2005; Finn, 1989; Goodenow & Grady, 1993; Korpershoek, al., 2020; Smith et al., 2020; St-Amand et al., 2020b).

Furrer and Skinner (2006) cited that when the feeling of belonging is low, a number of negative consequences can lead young people to withdraw from school and, ultimately, drop out: “[…] children who feel unconnected to key social partners should find it harder to become constructively involved in academic activities; should more easily become bored, worried, and frustrated; and should be more likely to become disaffected” (p. 149). On the other hand, a strong feeling of belonging to school is a concept underlying students’ motivation to learn (Gillen-O’Neel & Fuligni, 2013; St-Amand et al., 2020a), which accounts for school perseverance (St-Amand et al., 2020b), psychological well-being (Korpershoek, et al., 2020), or prosocial behaviors (Demanet & Van Houtte, 2012). In recent years, girls, compared to boys, have tended to favor the pursuit of studies more by demonstrating better academic performance, engaging more in school tasks, and feeling a stronger sense of belonging to school (Allen et al., 2018; Kuang et al., 2019). Osterman (2000) concluded her article by raising the importance of developing the feeling of belonging to school, a psychological phenomenon present in all students: “[…] from a review of even these limited sources it is possible to conclude that belongingness is an extremely important concept. As a psychological phenomenon, it has farreaching impact on human motivation and behavior” (p. 359). However, the effect of different types of school climates on students' school belonging and their school engagement is less well documented. The objective of this article is to measure the effect of three school climates (justice, relational, safety) on students' school belonging and school engagement, and to test the invariance of these relationships across genders. We first present the literature review followed by our theoretical research hypotheses. This will be followed by the methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion of the article.

2. Literature Review The sense of belonging is a concept which, by its name, can be confusing.

Authors used different terms to designate it, such as "school membership", "school belonging", "school connectedness", "sense of school membership", and "youth connectedness" (Booker, 2007; Crooks et al., 2007; Goodenow, 1993a, 1993b; Hagborg, 1998; Isakson & Jarvis, 1999; Lewis et al., 2006; McGraw et al., 2008; St-Amand et al., 2017a, 2017b; Uwah et al., 2008). For the past many years, several definitions of school belonging have been proposed by the scientific community in educational sciences (Allen et al., 2018; Deci et al., 1991; Goodenow 1993a; Janosz et al., 1998; Langevin, 1999; St-Amand et al., 2017a, 2017b; Wehlage et al., 1989; Williams & Downing, 1998). In the light of these definitions, researchers attempted to identify the dimensions of this concept.

Using the methodology of Walker and Avant (2011), St-Amand et al. (2017a) identified four definitional attributes: students must (1) feel a positive emotion towards school; (2) maintain positive social relationships with their peers and teachers; (3) perceive a synergy (harmonization) and a certain similarity with the

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members of the group; and (4) become actively involved in the school environment. The identification of these attributes gave rise to a definition that is increasingly used in the scientific community: “School belonging is a complex and multidimensional concept that includes an emotional, social, participatory, and adaptive dimension. In this context, the sense of school belonging is achieved when students develop positive social relationships with members of the school environment; social relationships are characterized by encouragement, valorization, acceptance, support, respect, and friendship. Belonging also refers to positive emotions, which could be described as emotional attachments, more precisely to a feeling of intimacy, feeling part of a supportive environment, and a sense of pride in the school. The sense of belonging is characterized by active participation in school activities (e.g., extracurricular activities) and teacher-led activities in the classroom, as well as the adoption of norms, standards, and values conveyed within the socio-educational environment. This feeling refers to the harmonization of the needs and desires of the student to those of the members of the group, an element reflecting the positive adjustment to the school environment” (loose translation) (St-Amand et al., 2017a, p. 14).

To a certain extent, this definition refers to the work of Goodenow (1993b) who argued that the feeling of belonging in a school environment refers to a feeling of acceptance, worth, inclusion, encouragement, and harmony within the group.

This concept involves notions such as support, respect, and autonomy: “a student’s sense of being accepted, valued, included, and encouraged by other (teachers and peers) in the academic classroom setting and of feeling oneself to be an important part of the life and activity of the class.

More than simple perceived liking or warmth, it also involves support and respect for personal autonomy and for the student as an individual” (Goodenow, 1993a, 1993b) (p. 80).

There are many determinants of the sense of school belonging (Ahmadi, et al., 2020; Allen et al., 2018; Janosz et al., 1998; Slaten et al., 2016). Allen et al. (2018) categorized the determinants of the sense of school belonging into factors at the individual level (e.g., personality, self-esteem, social skills, motivation, optimism), factors at the micro level (e.g., social relationships, parents, peers, teacher support, presence of friends), and the meso-level factors (e.g., extracurricular activities, discipline in the classroom, the climate of justice, the climate of security). In a systemic model of the socio-educational environment where school belonging is a central component, Janosz et al. (1998) also suggested, among other things, that the feeling of school belonging is built and structured through the climate of security, the climate of justice, and the relational climate.

2.1 The climates contributing to school belonging 2.1.1 The relational climate Theorists suggested that the quality of social relationships contributes directly and positively to developing students' sense of school belonging. However,

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several types of relationships can be considered, including friendships, dyadic relationships, teacher/students’ relations, peer relations, social processes present in class, or peer acceptance (Dimitrellou & Hurry, 2019; Juvonen, 2006; Ibrahim and El Zaatari, 2020). Within these different types of relationships, the quality of social bonds must be present, and acceptance must prevail over social isolation.

As an element negatively influencing school belonging, the concept of social isolation refers precisely to the need for students to interact frequently with their peers (Dimitrellou & Hurry, 2019; London and Ingram, 2018; Wehlage et al., 1989). However, in order to foster quality social relations, teachers obviously have a role to play. Creemers and Kyriakides (2008) proposed in this regard an integrating model specifically highlighting that the quality of social relations depends on the work of teachers, that is to say on everything that can be put in place to promote a good social climate within the classroom. Like Juvonen (2006), other theorists also argued that the quality of social relations between teachers and students directly influences young people's sense of belonging (StAmand, 2018; Newmann et al., 1992; Roeser et al., 1996; Wehlage et al., 1989).

Still, according to Juvonen (2006): “[…] Students are presumed to comply and be motivated to learn when they feel supported and respected by their teachers” (p.

658).

2.1.2 The climate of justice Among other things, adolescents assess their school environment through the treatment they receive from their teachers (Peter & Dalbert, 2010). This experience of justice is important for adolescents because it shapes their world views and the ‘social map’ they construct in their mind (Resh & Sabbagh, 2014, p. 317). Being respected and treated fairly are elements that contribute to student appreciation of their school environment and to the development of their feeling of school belonging (Molinari et al., 2013). This perspective is also true in the workplace where employees report that being treated fairly contributes to their sense of belonging in their work environment (Tyler & Blader, 2000). In recent years, the link between the climate of justice and students' sense of belonging to school has been theoretically underlined by a certain number of theorists (Janosz et al., 1998; Molinari et al., 2013; Newmann et al., 1992). Empirical studies showed that the climate of justice has an effect on school belonging. More specifically, Resh and Sabbagh (2014) showed that the interactional climate of justice contributes to the feeling of belonging but that the climate of justice with regard to school results does not. In the same vein, Molinari et al. (2013) underlined the effect of the interactional climate of justice on the feeling of belonging. An interactional climate of justice refers to perceptions of fairness in the interpersonal treatment received by students from their teachers (Berti et al., 2010).

2.1.3 The climate of security The link between the climate of security and the feeling of belonging has been established for many decades on a theoretical level (Janosz et al., 1998; Maslow, 1970, 1962). Maslow (1970) suggested five essential needs that are important to meet in order to fulfill oneself as an individual: physiological needs (eating, drinking, breathing, sleeping); security needs (stability, protection, structure, order, laws); belonging and emotional needs (love, friendship, intimacy, family,

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children); self-esteem (development of skills, success, trust in others, independence, freedom); and personal fulfillment (moral, creativity, problem solving, exploitation of talents, capacities, potentials). When physical and security needs are met, an individual naturally seeks to develop a sense of belonging; it is at this stage that a person keenly feels the absence of friends, children, or a spouse. In this regard, Baumeister and Leary (1995, p. 497) indicated that “belongingness needs do not emerge until food, hunger, safety, and other basic needs are satisfied”. Beyond these basic needs, the climate of security relates to the feeling of security in social relationships with parents, friends, or teachers (Osterman, 2000). Peers are also those who can provide that feeling of security both at school and during weekends. This implies physical and emotional security in a context where threats are absent and peer support is present. The notion of security also implies the feeling of trust, the possibility of being able to open up to others (Einberg et al., 2015), and the preservation of this feeling of intimacy between members of the group (McMillan & Chavis, 1986).

This feeling of security ultimately allows students to feel a strong sense of school belonging (van Gijn-Grosvenor & Huisman, 2020).

2.2. School belonging and school engagement Over the past decades, theoretical work showed a link between school belonging and academic engagement. In a sequential model, Connell et al. (1994) suggested a direct link between school belonging (and a sense of competence) and school engagement, which in turn influences academic achievement. Newmann et al.

(1992) developed a model establishing the link between school belonging and school engagement, specifying that this feeling positively and directly influences school engagement. Other theoretical models also raised the importance of this close relationship between school belonging and school engagement (Finn, 1989; St-Amand et al., 2020a; Wehlage et al., 1989). St-Amand et al. (2020b) validated a model with a sample high school student suggesting a link between school belonging and the three forms of school engagement: in this case, cognitive, behavioral, and affective engagement. Finn (1989) for his part developed a dynamic model illustrating the relationship between school belonging and school engagement. This model is based on the perspective that participation in activities is fundamental to school success which, in turn, fosters a sense of belonging to school. Many other researchers suggested that school belonging constitutes the basis of school engagement (Korpershoek et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2010, 2008). Wehlage et al. (1989) emphasized the quality of teaching practices and the ability of the school to promote the importance of education. From this theoretical perspective, the relationship between school belonging and school engagement is bidirectional in nature, which differs from previous models where school belonging is more of a determinant of school engagement (Wehlage et al., 1989).

2.3. Theoretical perspective of this study In recent years, theoretical work has determined that the climates that prevail in school (security, justice, and relational) contribute to the development of a strong sense of school belonging (Allen et al., 2018; Janosz et al., 1998; Juvonen, 2006; Newmann et al., 1992). From a systemic perspective, Janosz et al. (1998) developed a model of the socio-educational environment where climates (e.g.,

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security, relational, justice) tend to directly contribute to developing students' sense of belonging to school. In turn, school belonging affects school engagement (e.g., cognitive, behavioral, and affective engagement). This theoretical line therefore implies that school belonging mediates the relationship between the dimensions of the school climate (e.g., security, relational, justice) and student behavior (school engagement). However, this has never been empirically validated. In this model, school belonging plays an essential role because it transcends all of these school climates, such as when pupils have: ““[…] the impression that their environment is meaningful, that it promotes human contact, that it ensures their protection and that it guarantees the recognition of their rights and their efforts in the same way that it sanctions in a fair and equitable way their transgressions of the norm, they develop a feeling of belonging” (loose translation) (Janosz et al., 1998, p. 294).

The present study therefore aims to explain the emergence of school engagement (behavioral, cognitive, and affective) from school belonging and the different types of school climates (e.g., security, relational, justice), and to test for invariance across genders. Derived from the work of Janosz et al. (1998), Figure 1 illustrates the determinants of school engagement from the different groups of predictor variables; one of these groups (school belonging) is directly linked with the different forms of school engagement while other variables (the different school climates) indicate indirect links with school engagement.

Figure 1: Initial model

Model inspired by the work of Janosz et al. (1998) describing the links between school climates, school belonging, and school engagement.

The organization of these relationships within the model leads us to formulate four research hypotheses: H1: The different types of school climates (security, relational, justice) have a positive effect on school belonging.

H2: School belonging has a positive effect on the three types of school engagement (cognitive, affective, and behavioral).

H3: The different types of school climates (security, relational, justice) affect the three types of school engagement (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) indirectly through school belonging.

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H4: The positive effect of school belonging on the three types of school engagement (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) is stronger for females than for males.

3. Methodology 3.1 Design and sample Participants were recruited by convenience sampling because they were readily available and easy to get in contact with. More precisely, our sample included a total of 238 9th grade students, 101 boys and 137 girls, aged between 15 to 16 (Mage=15.1) from two secondary schools located in the cities of Casablanca and Témara in Morocco. The data collection took place during the months of March and April 2019. A trained assistant visited the school during regular class time and administered the questionnaire. Students were instructed to respond to all questions and to keep their answers confidential. It took less than 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire was comprised of 26 items that we translated into Arabic, allowing for the measure of seven different constructs.

Participants had to indicate their level of agreement regarding each item on a Likert scale.

To measure the variables in this study and the quality of certain characteristics of the school environment, the authors used only part of the Questionnaire sur l’environnement socioéducatif (QES-secondaire) [Questionnaire on the socioeducational environment (QES-high school)], namely school belonging, school climates, and the different types of school engagement (Janosz & Bouthillier, 2007).

3.2 Measures 3.2.1 School belonging To measure school belonging, we used a five-item subscale that assessed students’ sense of school belonging to the school community (items: “I feel proud to be a student at my school”, “I feel like I'm really part of my school”, “The other students at this school take my opinions seriously”, “Sometimes I feel as if I don’t belong here”, and “I wish I were in a different school”) (Janosz & Bouthillier, 2007). The last two items were reverse coded, and item scores were averaged to generate a score reflecting school belonging (M = 3.91, SD = .98, α = .90).

3.2.2 School engagement Self-reported items were used to measure school engagement. These items represent three dimensions converging towards a more global concept measuring school engagement. In this study, the authors consider each of these three dimensions in a unique way, as suggested by most scholars in the field of school motivation (Fredricks et al., 2004). First, behavioral engagement measures positive behaviors such as the following of classroom rules and adherence to classroom norms, as well as the absence of disturbing behaviors (Fredricks et al., 2004). To measure behavioral engagement, participants responded to the fouritem subscale that assessed this dimension (Janosz & Bouthillier, 2007) (items: “In the past 12 months, have you missed school without a valid excuse?”, “In the past 12 months, have you missed a class while you were in school?”, ‘In the past 12 months, have you disturbed your class on purpose?”, and “In the past 12 months, have you

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responded to a teacher by being unpolite?”) (M = 2.27, SD = 1.45, α = .77). Second, affective engagement in school tasks refers to feelings, interest, perceptions, and attitudes towards school (Fredricks et al., 2004). To measure affective engagement, participants responded to the five-item subscale that assessed this dimension (Janosz & Bouthillier, 2007) (items: “I like school”, “I have fun at school”, “What we learn in class is interesting”, “I am very enthusiastic when the job to be done is quite difficult”, and “Often I don't feel like stopping work at the end of a course”) (M = 4.59, SD = 1.18, α = .75). Third, the cognitive dimension of school engagement relates to the psychological investment in learning school subjects (Fredricks et al., 2004). To measure cognitive engagement, participants responded to the three-item subscale that assessed this dimension (Janosz & Bouthillier, 2007) (items: “I willing to make efforts in mathematics?”, “I am willing to devote time to mathematics?”, and “I want to learn more about what we do in mathematics”) (M = 5.30, SD = 1.49, α = .75).

3.2.3 School climates The climate of security refers to the respondent's perception of the safety of the students, of the order and tranquility of the environment, as well as the perceived risks of their victimization (Janosz & Bouthillier, 2007). To measure the climate of security, participants responded to the four-item subscale that assessed this variable (Janosz & Bouthillier, 2007) (items: “There are risks of being assaulted in this school”, “We are easily intimidated (threatened, harassed, etc.) in this school”, “There are places in the school where the students are afraid to go”, and “In this school, many students are afraid of other students”) (M = 3.23, SD = 1.23, α = .87).

The climate of justice refers to the perceived fairness in the (disciplinary) supervision system and to the way students are treated at school. This climate also refers to the recognition of the legitimacy and fairness of the rules, judicious application of fair school rules or assessments, and the feeling that the merit or punishment goes to the behavior rather than to the students themselves (Janosz & Bouthillier, 2007). To measure the climate of justice, participants responded to the four-item subscale that assessed this variable (Janosz & Bouthillier, 2007) (items: “The rules of this school are fair”, “The punishments at this school are fair”, and “In this school, students are treated fairly”) (M = 3.70, SD = 1.47, α = .79). The relational climate refers to the atmosphere that reigns in the relationships between students in the respect they show and the warmth of their interactions.

It is indicative of the quality of social relations between them (Janosz & Bouthillier, 2007). To measure the relational climate, participants responded to the three-item subscale that assessed this variable (Janosz & Bouthillier, 2007) (items: “Students can rely on each other”, “Relations between students are warm and friendly”, and “In general, the students get along well with each other”) (M = 4.37, SD = 1.08, α = .89).

3.3 Analytical strategies 3.3.1 Preliminary analyses First, preliminary analyses indicated an acceptable distribution of the data, homogeneity of variance, and the absence of multicollinearity. Following initial data processing and the removal of outliers, missing data was processed using a technique called maximum likelihood (EM or expectation maximization). Since

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there was a very low percentage of missing data (5%), this technique correctly reflected the uncertainty of missing values and preserved important aspects of distributions, as well as important relationships between variables (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013).

3.3.2 Main analyses Second, considering that the N:q ratio (5 observations -participants- for each estimated parameter) can be as low as 5 to 1 (Bentler & Chou, 1987), structural equation modeling analyses (SEM) were carried out on the modeling presented previously (see Figure 1). To perform this type of analysis, a first hypothetical model is usually tested. To examine whether this model adequately fits the data, different fit indices are needed: chi-square (χ2), CFI, TLI, and RMSEA. As Hu and Bentler (1999) suggested, a good model should provide acceptable results on various fit tests. The global adjustment index used is χ2 (also called chi-square likelihood ratio or generalized likelihood ratio). A non-significant value at the χ2 index generally reflects a good fit (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). Other indices have been used such as the CFI (comparative fit index) and the TLI (Tucker– Lewis index). Values greater than or close to 0.95 for these two indices indicate an appropriate fit of the data (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2016). The RMSEA (root mean square residual error of approximation) requires a value of 0.06 or less to be considered as an adequate data fit (MacCallum et al., 1996).

From the various adjustment indices obtained while testing the hypothetical model, the modification indices (Lagrange multiplier) were used to improve the adjustment of the model; in modifying the hypothetical model, we made sure to respect the logic and consistency of the underlying theory (Perry et al., 2015).

The preferred estimation technique in this research is the maximum likelihood.

Maximum likelihood is a commonly used estimation method for this type of analysis. According to Kline (2016), this method is unbiased in addition to being efficient and consistent.

In order to explore whether the relationships under study varied according to the gender of the students, we used a multigroup approach, as advocated by Byrne (2016) in a confirmatory approach to comparing models. This invariance procedure confirms the equality (or not) of the estimated parameters. To achieve this, we imposed equality constraints on the parameters of the models to check if the models are equivalent according to the gender of the students. These statistical procedures are clearly explained by Byrne (2016). Two indices are used to measure the invariance of the parameters: the chi-square difference and the CFI difference (Byrne, 2016). Since the use of both methods are still the subject of debates in the scientific community, and that “it is hoped that statisticians engaged in Monte Carlo simulation research related to structural equation modeling will develop more efficient and useful alternative approaches to this decision-making process in the near future” (Byrne, 2016, p. 307), we opted to report the X²-difference test knowing that more work needs to be conducted in this area (Byrne, 2016). To perform these statistical analyses, the SPSS-AMOS software (version 27) was used.

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4. Results 4.1 Descriptive statistics Table 1 shows descriptive statistics for each variable that we included in the model and the correlations between them. Means varied from 2.27 (behavioral engagement) to 5.30 (cognitive engagement), and standard deviations varied from .87 (belonging) to 1.49 (cognitive engagement). All correlations were significant (p < .01), except for the associations between the climate of justice and the climate of security (-.07, p = .28), the climate of justice and the relational climate (-.01, p = .99), the climate of justice and cognitive engagement (.03, p = .60), the climate of security and affective engagement (-.04, p =.95), the relational climate and affective engagement (.11, p = .95), the climate of security and behavioral engagement (.03, p = .96), the relational climate and behavioral engagement (-.04, p = .54), the climate of security and cognitive engagement (.02, p = .78), the relational climate and cognitive engagement (.07, p = .27), the relational climate and school belonging (.12, p = .06), the relational climate and the climate of security (-.06, p = .40), and the climate of security and school belonging (-.04, p = .55). The significant correlations varied from weak (.20, p < .01) to strong (.75, p < .01). Four variables displayed negative correlations with behavioral engagement: belonging (-.37, p < .01), cognitive engagement (-.28, p < .01), affective engagement (-.20, p < .01), and the climate of justice (-.26, p < .01).

Our results showed that all other correlations were positive.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics (means and SDs) and Pearson correlations among all study variables Variables

1

2

3

4

5

6

1.Belonging 2.Security

-.04

3.Relations

.12

-.06

4.Cognitive engagement

.33**

-.02

.07

5.Behavioral engagement

-.37**

.03

-.04

-.28**

6.Affective engagement

.75**

-.04

.11

.20**

-.20**

7.Justice

.44**

-.07

-.01

.03

-.26**

Note. N = 238. *p<.05, **p<.01

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M (SD) 3.91 (.87) 3.23 (1.23) 4.37 1.08 5.30 (1.49) 2.27 (1.45) 4.59 (1.18)

.36**

3.70 (1.47)

74

4.2 Structural equation modeling 4.2.1 Hypothetical model In our Figure 2, we illustrate the basic hypothetical model for examining the relationships between our latent variables. More precisely, the latent variable, school belonging (Bel.), mediates the relationships made up of the different types of school climates (Cs = security, Cr = relational, Cj = justice) in order to explain the three types of school engagement (Cog = cognitive, Aff = affective, Beh = behavioral). Because our initial hypothetical model (Model 1) did not fit well according to the criteria mentioned above (see Table 1), we conducted a certain number of modifications to improve the fit of the model.

Figure 2: Hypothetical model (Model 1)

4.2.2 Subsequent models Considering the modification indices, two links were removed (the relational climate and school belonging; the climate of security and school belonging) because they were not significant. In addition, in Model 2, and according to the modification indices, several error terms were correlated (17 and 18, 26 and 29, 11 and 12, 11 and 15). In model 2, the definitive model, the fit indices were all satisfactory (see Table 1). In the final model (Model 2), two links were removed between the two types of climates (relational and security) and school belonging; all the other links of Model 1 were preserved because they are significant.

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Figure 3. Final model (Model 2)

The standardized coefficients for all the relationships between the variables of Model 2 (final model) are shown in Figure 3. The final model (with the full sample) fitted the data better than the previous model according to the fit indices (see Table 1). Consequently, the final model was used to interpret the relationships between the variables. In the final model, school belonging was significantly associated with the three forms of school engagement. The strongest positive relationships in the final model are between school belonging and affective engagement, as well as between the climate of justice and school belonging.

Table 1: Results for models 1 and 2 Models

X²

df

CFI

TLI

RMSEA

Model 1 (Full sample)

396.36

290

.91

.90

.039

Model 2 (Full sample)

207.37

144

.94

.93

.042

We then conducted an analysis to compare the fit of Model 2 (final model) in regard to gender (see table 2). When analyzed separately, both models had a borderline fit.

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Table 2. Results for model 2 (females and males, separately) Models

X²

df

CFI

TLI

RMSEA

Model 2 (Females)

187.973

144

.92

.91

.047

Model 2 (Males)

193.528

144

.89

.87

.059

However, multigroup analysis determined that the final model could not be considered equal in regard to gender; the X²-difference value was statistically significant at a probability of less than .05 (p = .004). Based on these results, we concluded that one or more of the factor loadings are not operating equivalently across the two groups. We then explored where the differences between the two models (females and males) could be by constraining each path in light of a chi square different test (Byrne, 2016). Three relations did not show any difference in regard to gender (belonging and cognitive engagement, p = .651; belonging and affective engagement, p = .620; the climate of justice and belonging, p = .800). The only significant difference in regard to gender was between school belonging and behavioral engagement (p = .008). Hence, it allowed us to determine that the positive effect of school belonging on the three types of school engagement (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) was in fact significantly stronger for females than for males only for behavioral engagement (hypothesis 4).

5. Discussion The objective of this study was to better understand the links between multiple dimensions of school climate (justice, relational, security), school belonging, and school engagement (cognitive, affective, behavioral), and to test these relationships for invariance across genders. Our hypotheses were based on the theoretical work of Janosz et al. (1998) as well as on many studies exploring academic motivation (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Gillen-O’Neel & Fuligni, 2013; Goodenow, 1993a; Goodenow & Grady, 1993), and other theorists who tried to sched light on many phenomena such as school perseverance, school failure, and academic achievement (Juvonen, 2006; Finn, 1989; Newmann et al., 1992; StAmand et al., 2020a; Wehlage et al., 1989). Our review of the literature led us to validate four hypotheses, which had not yet been the subject of empirical validation with high school students living in Morocco.

5.1 Partial confirmation of hypothesis 1 The first hypothesis indicated that the different types of school climates (justice, relational, security) have a positive effect on school belonging. This hypothesis was partially supported. Our results determined that, among the three climates, only the climate of justice had an effect on school belonging. This meaningful relationship can take root in the school's supervision system that effectively responds to behavioral issues, as well as the many acts of violence in the schools.

Despite the difficulties encountered, this system can generate mutual commitment between young people, their parents, and education agents. This social contract, described and disseminated in a disciplinary framework, can

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reflect the values and the rules of the school. These can be combined with measures seen as strategies, leading students to make responsible choices. This supervision system can favor coherent interventions with regard to a respect for oneself, others and the environment. This system can promote a democratic environment guaranteeing justice and equity while contributing to school belonging (Janosz et al., 1998; Karakuş, 2017; Moliner García et al., 2016). The non-significant relationships between, on one side, the relational climate and the climate of security and, on the other side, school belonging, can be explained by the general context of our study. In a recent report on school violence conducted

by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2019), it is clear that violence is still extremely present in schools in Morocco. The prevalence of bullying in schools reached 32.2%. This means that almost one in three students have been the victim of bullying. With regard to children and adolescents, a total of 39.7% declared having been victims of fights. The figure is on the rise for boys (53.3%), while for girls it represents only 24.6%. These numbers are way higher than the ones we find in The Caribbean, Europe, Central America, South America, and North America, while being close to the ones we find in the Middle East, and sub-Saharan Africa (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2019). These statistics may explain the poor climate of security and the difficulty for students to maintain quality social relationships with their peers at school. By extension, it can explain the non-significant relationships with the students' sense of school belonging.

5.2 Confirmation of hypotheses 2 and 3 As corollary to our second hypothesis, school belonging had a positive effect on the three types of school engagement (cognitive, affective, and behavioral). As demonstrated by St-Amand et al. (2020a), the positive emotions generated by the feeling of belonging can be an explanatory element of school engagement.

Despite considering a so-called general variable measuring positive emotions, St-Amand et al. (2020a) did not take into account other contextual emotions that may explain these relationships. Researchers have documented in recent years the notion of "achievement emotions" which are defined "as emotions that are directly linked to achievement activities or achievement outcomes" (Pekrun, 2000; Pekrun et al., 2006, 2012). In this sense, it is possible that the feeling of belonging influences the achievement emotions of the students regarding the context where they take place (e.g., class-related, learning-related, and testrelated emotions). Pekrun et al. (2002) proposed four types of achievement emotions: (1) positive activating: enjoyment, hope, pride; (2) positive deactivating: relief; (3) negative activating: anger, anxiety, shame; and (4) negative deactivating: hopelessness, boredom. Pekrun et al. (2002) suggested that attending school, studying, or completing exams generates different emotions. In this context, one could assume that school belonging influences these achievement emotions to some degree, which in turn influences school engagement. Finally, the mediating role of school belonging in the relationships made up of the climate of justice and school engagement (hypothesis 3) can be explained through the very close relationship between school belonging and engagement. For the past thirty years, in fact, this close relationship has been

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theoretically and widely recognized (Anderman & Freeman, 2004; Finn, 1989; Newmann et al., 1992; Wehlage et al., 1989; St-Amand et al., 2020a). With regard to the negative relationship between school belonging and behavioral engagement, one must take into account the items to better understand these relationships (e.g., during the last 12 months, did you miss school without a valid excuse? / in the last 12 months, did you miss a class while you were in school?). The items measuring behavioral engagement may explain these negative results, as it is possible that the more a student belongs, the less he or she will disturb the class and skip school. This negative relationship is therefore quite normal given the items measuring behavioral engagement.

5.3 Partial confirmation of hypothesis 4 The fourth hypothesis indicated that the positive effect of school belonging on the three types of school engagement (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) is stronger for females than for males. This hypothesis was partially supported by our results. It was only the case for behavioral engagement, which measured student engagement related to the norms and values of the code of life of the school (e.g., high level of attendance, anti-social behaviors). This result could be explained by the social developmental model which attempts to explain substance use and other antisocial behavior (Catalano & Hawkins, 1996; Maddox & Prinz, 2003). Indeed, during adolescence, peers are the most important influence. Opportunities for interacting with peers increase in adolescence and the level of parental supervision tends to decline, exposing young people to antisocial peers (Catalano & Hawkins, 1996). Since boys are generally more exposed to antisocial peers and girls are less likely to be influenced by them (Geven et al., 2017; Haynie et al., 2014), it is conceivable that this affects the relationship between school belonging and behavioral engagement in regard to gender.

6. Conclusion A growing body of research indicates that school climate is associated with, and can be predictive of, many students’ outcomes. Meta-analyses demonstrated that school climate influences problem behaviors over time (Reaves et al., 2018), violence in school (Steffgen et al., 2013), and academic achievement (Karadağ et al., 2016). Besides, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2009) and many researchers (Thapa et al., 2009) recommend that school climate should be used as a strategy to promote school belonging. That said, our results must be considered in the context of our study: relatively violent school environments in Morocco. The non-significant relationships between certain climates (the relational climate and the climate of security) and school belonging constitute an element which illustrates this reality. Thus, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2019) introduced a certain number of recommendations with regard to the management of potentially violent school environments in Morocco that we believe is an excellent starting point: (1) to ensure that legislation is put in place to protect the rights of children; (2) to train and support teachers so that they can not only prevent violence and bullying in school but also respond to it; (3) to provide children with information and support so that they can report violence and seek help; and (4) to pay particular

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attention to children who are more vulnerable because of their race, ethnicity, disability, gender, or sexual orientation. As in all studies, this one has limitations and other research avenues that we would like to highlight. First, our sample is made up of students from only two schools. This situation prevents us from generalizing our results to the whole student population in Morocco to other regions of Morocco. Second, the internal consistency of some scales appeared a little bit low even if they met the requirements. This suggests the subsequent use of other scales that may have a stronger internal consistency. Third, our research design was limited to one time of measurement. Therefore, a longitudinal design would make it possible to analyze the relationships under study, target periods of greater risk during the school year, and prepare interventions adapted to this situation. Although we used a general measure of the climate of justice, it would have been possible to measure more precise elements relating to this climate, and the effect of distributive classroom justice, procedural classroom justice, and interactional classroom justice on school belonging (Berti et al., 2010).

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Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of educational research, 83(3), 357-385. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0034654313483907 Tyler, T. R. & Blader, S. L. (2000) Cooperation in groups: Procedural justice, social identity, and behavioral engagement. Psychology Press.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2019).

Behind the numbers: Ending school violence and bullying. UNESCO. Uwah, C. J., McMahon, H. G., & Furlow, C. F. (2008). School belonging, educational aspirations, and academic self-efficacy among African American male high school students: Implications for school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 11(5), 296-305. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2156759X0801100503 van Gijn-Grosvenor, E. L., & Huisman, P. (2020). A sense of belonging among Australian university students. Higher Education Research & Development, 39(2), 376-389. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2019.1666256 Walker, L., & Avant, K. C. (2011). Strategies for theory construction in nursing (5th ed.).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 85-113, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.6 Received Oct 11, 2021; Revised Dec 05, 2021; Accepted Dec 15, 2021

Virtual Mathematics Education during COVID-19: An Exploratory Study of Teaching Practices for Teachers in Simultaneous Virtual Classes Faisal Aloufi Ministry of Education, Bukayriyah Education, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2236-5604 Ibrahim AL-Hussain Khalil University of Bisha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3103-7549 Abdelkader Mohamed Abdelkader Elsayed College of Arts & Applied Sciences, Dhofar University, Oman https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6882-4100 Yousef Wardat Higher Colleges of Technology, United Arab Emirates University, UAE, Alain https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2370-9808 Ahmed AL-Otaibi Ministry of Education, Taif Education, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0346-5079

Abstract. The current study has aimed to identify the status of teaching mathematics in simultaneous virtual classes, in the light of the Covid 19 pandemic, by uncovering the teaching practices in the fields of lesson planning, teaching the new mathematical knowledge, classroom management, and raising the level of interaction, and that of evaluation.

The descriptive approach was used in this study, and a random sample, which consisted of 385 mathematics teachers in the Qassim Education Department, was chosen during the first semester of the academic year 2020/21. The questionnaire was the tool used to collect the data after confirming the validity and the reliability thereof. The results of the study showed that the status of teaching mathematics in simultaneous virtual classes in the light of the Covid 19 pandemic was at a high level (3.80/5), according to the respondents' point of view. The results were respectively as follows: planning "high" 3.87; teaching new mathematical knowledge high "3.81"; the evaluation at a high degree of 3.80; and class management, as well as raising the level of interaction at a high degree of 3.67. The results of the study have revealed that there is a discrepancy in some ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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practices, a matter which requires the identification of the training needs of mathematics male and female teachers in the field of e-learning in virtual classes, such as diversifying the methods of receiving students' responses to activities (chatting - WhatsApp --... etc.); the use of electronic participatory learning strategies in building and organizing the work of cooperative learning groups, employing electronic communication applications in providing reinforcement and feedback to students, employing electronic sports activities in presenting the lesson, and by using virtual engineering tools, while solving mathematical problems.

Keywords: mathematics education; simultaneous virtual classes; teaching practices; Covid-19 pandemic

1. Introduction The teacher is the cornerstone of the educational process, as well as the pillar of every social and educational reform. The quality of education is largely related to the quality of the curriculum and the quality of the teachers, who implement it (Alarabi & Wardat, 2021). If a nation wants to progress and keep abreast of cognitive development, it must pay attention and heighten the level of the teacher, and advance the level of the profession, in which the roles of the teacher have changed, as well as the requirements of the era, and the aspirations of the future (Jarrah et al., 2020).

Mathematics teachers are considered to be the main pillars in the teaching and learning process of mathematics; and although they are just one of its inputs, they have an effective role to play; and they even specify the quality and quantity thereof (Abdallah & Wardat, 2021). Once entering the classroom and standing in front of the students, the teacher is the only one able to invest all the available resources, through the planning of the lessons, designing the learning environment, providing multiple sources and diversification of the teaching methods, in addition to directing the students to learn a particular lesson (Obaid, 2016).

Obaid refers to a set of characteristics for a successful mathematics teacher, including being a thinker, mastering the subject matter, being objective and educated, being able to relate mathematics to the areas of contemporary life, and being able to use technology in a way that facilitates the students' learning.

Mathematics is one of the most important basic scientific subjects; it is known as the key to science, so that its use extends to subjects that were believed to have nothing to do with mathematics, such as languages, social and educational sciences, and literature.

Due to the world's tremendous development in all fields, and in so many different fields, the different branches of knowledge have overlapped; and they have now become interrelated and inseparable from each other. Therefore, the development of mathematics education has become an interdisciplinary subject, a necessity imposed by the characteristics of this era, in order to raise the level of mathematics education (Al-Saeed and Al-Gharqi, 2015).

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The status of teaching mathematics is linked to a set of mental perceptions of the teaching profession in terms of strategic teaching practices and their impact on the educational process, and on the evaluation of educational outputs. The recent directions in evaluating teachers' performance focus on the link between evaluating students’ performance and the status of teaching mathematics to the teacher in the light of the student's acquisition of the knowledge that affects the building of his personality (Shakman et al., 2012).

Education has changed, because of the Corona pandemic; many countries have simply closed their schools, including that which our country has done; since the first citizen was infected with the Coronavirus on the twelfth of March 2021.

Teaching was suspended on the 14th of Rajab of the same year; and it relied on the virtual school (the unified educational system) and on the Ain TV channels.

At the beginning of the next school year, the royal order was issued to continue using remote education through the virtual school (my school platform) and via the Ain TV channels.

1.1 The Research Problem The Ministry of Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has made distinct and continuous efforts during the academic year of 1441 AH, to support electronic education financially and technically under the circumstances of the Covid 19 pandemic, through its provision of the Madrasati platform and the television channels. It has also provided many training courses for teachers to deal with elearning, in a manner that reflects positively on students' educational levels and on their abilities.

In addition to many studies that have been conducted on the effectiveness of hypothetical classes, including those of Bodie, (2009); Lu, (2011); Riegel & Kozen, (2016); Shuaib, (2016); AL-Saeed and AL-Abed, (2018); AL-Omari and Ismail, (2019) and also that which was recommended by Khalil's study (2021) for conducting evaluation studies on the current status of mathematics.

In addition to that which is mentioned above and given the field experience of the researchers and what they have observed of the possibilities for their colleagues to use virtual classes in teaching mathematics, the current study focuses on identifying the status of teaching mathematics in virtual classes during the Covid 19 pandemic. It then recognizes the level of teaching practices of mathematics teachers in simultaneous virtual classes, and the differences in these practices that might be attributed to gender, academic qualifications, and the number of years of teaching experience.

The current study has aimed to answer the following questions: 1st. What is the level of the teaching practices of mathematics teachers in simultaneous virtual classes during the Covid-19 pandemic from the teachers' point of view?

2nd. Are there statistically significant differences in the significance level (α ≤ 0.05) as regards the teaching practices of mathematics teachers in

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simultaneous virtual classes during Covid-19, due to gender, academic qualification, and the number of years of experience?

1.2 The significance of the study The importance of the study resides in two aspects: • The theoretical importance: the current study may contribute to the cumulative knowledge of the teaching performance of mathematics teachers in the light of the teaching trends in virtual classes, in addition to motivating the researchers in the field of the curriculum and the methods of teaching mathematics, in order to conduct more research and studies under the conditions of the Covid 19 pandemic, and according to the researchers' knowledge; since local and Arabic studies are still very few in this field.

• 1.

2.

3.

4.

The applied importance: it is expected that the current study will be beneficial for the following categories: Mathematics teachers in terms of using teaching applications and practices, in order to implement the teaching approach in virtual classes.

Providing experts and specialists with the standards of the status of mathematics teaching, according to the teaching approach in virtual classes, in order to benefit from them, when developing curricula suitable for the teaching practices.

It is useful for educators, specifically those responsible for curriculum development, to prepare mathematics teachers during their service, in coordination with the Faculties of Education in training, and according to the teaching approach in virtual classes.

The results of this study could be beneficial for those responsible for the professional development programs for mathematics teachers, in order to evaluate teaching, according to the teaching approach used in the virtual classes.

1.3 The definition of the terms 1.3.1 The status of mathematics teaching

Abdel Wahab (2007) defines this as a set of behaviours and practices that the teacher performs, in order to motivate the learners’ imagination and to encourage them to search, discover, and deal with the data and information, as well as to achieve the limited educational goals.

It is procedurally defined here as the set of behaviours and procedures that mathematics male and female teachers intentionally carry out, and in planning to achieve the desired educational goals in simultaneous virtual classes.

1.3.2 Simultaneous virtual classes Khleif (2009) defines such classes as one of the main methods for evaluating direct lessons and lectures on the Internet, which have the basic elements that every teacher and student needs; and this depends on the interactive teaching method.

They are called smart classes and electronic classes.

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They are procedurally defined here as advanced technical means provided by the Ministry of Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in cooperation with Microsoft, in the name of Microsoft Teams, for the use of mathematics teachers, in order to provide the necessary learning elements that students need in public schools to achieve their learning goals.

1.3.3 The Covid 19 pandemic The World Health Organization (2020) defines COVID-19 as a disease caused by the evolving Corona virus. The organization discovered this emerging virus for the first time on December 31st, 2019, after a number of viral pneumonia cases were reported in Wuhan in the Republic of China.

2. The Literature Review Several studies have been conducted on education, in the light of the Corona pandemic (Covid-19). Since it is necessary to define the concept, the literature review starts by describing the nature of virtual mathematics education and then studying thecause and effects of virtual mathematics education; it then provides the findings of the currentstudy on virtual matheamtics education .

2.1 The description or nature of virtual mathematics education Adnan and Anwar (2020) aimed to know the attitudes of Pakistani higher education students towards online education in the light of the Corona pandemic.

The study concluded that online education cannot achieve its goals in poor countries, the population of which have difficulty in accessing the Internet, due to technical and financial problems, as is the case in Pakistan. The study of O'Keefe et al. (2020) was conducted in cooperation with the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) with Harvard University.

The study aimed to document and study the status of e-learning in public education in the light of the Corona pandemic. The study also tried to come up with initiatives to develop and improve its practices in the Kingdom, according to the latest global practices and standards related to this field. The results of comparing the responses of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to education during the Corona pandemic within 37 member states have showed that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is advanced, in 13 indicators out of 16, on the average of these countries; and it revealed that teachers have received significant support, in order to overcome the obstacles in activating e-learning.

Hassan's study (2020), which dealt with teaching and learning mathematics remotely in the light of the Corona pandemic, recommended the necessity of identifying the appropriate electronic and interactive software for each school stage, and for training teachers therein. Khamisi’s study (2020) aimed to bridge the gap between home and school; and it recommended some requirements to achieve this, the most important of which were: increasing political and financial support for the Ministry of Education in its initiatives, its digital transformation, and in distance education, and legislating the regulations that are compatible therewith in regard to the organization of the study procedures, the timetable, and the evaluation methods.

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As for Khalil's study (2021), it presented a suggested teaching model in the light of the trend of the mathematical ability to teach mathematics in simultaneous virtual classes; and it recommended conducting evaluation studies, in order to teach mathematics under the current circumstances.

To continue the educational process, and in the light of the technological development in the world, e-learning has been relied on. E-learning is defined by Al-Astal and Al-Farra (2013), as education by using computers and their various programs, whether on closed or shared networks, or on the global Internet.

Mubariz and Fakhri (2013) have defined this as an education that allows individuals to learn at any time they choose, wherever they are, in any medium (personal computer, the Internet,) and with a learning speed that suits their personal abilities.

It is based on the principles of Brunner's theory of learning, in terms of observing the characteristics of the learners, thereby providing a great deal of freedom in learning situations, taking into account individual differences between the learners, being centered around the learners, and relying on their activities (Kotait, 2015).

It also provides different styles of interaction between learners, most notably the simultaneous virtual classroom, which is known as an online environment that allows students and teachers to communicate simultaneously, by using audio and video, text chat, interactive whiteboard, application sharing, instant polling, etc.

(Martin et al., 2013).

Kotait (2015) defines a simultaneous virtual classroom as "the interaction of students with one another and with the teacher at the same time, but in different places, and at great distances across the network.” It can also be defined as a virtual environment that brings the teacher and the learner together at the same time, regardless of where they are, in order to achieve specific learning objectives.

2.2 Studying the cause and effect of virtual mathematics education The simultaneous virtual classroom is characterized by the availability of many simultaneous tools, working together in an integrated framework, in order to achieve effective communication between the students and their teacher, through the various tools of communication with a large amount of interaction between them and the curriculum, and with the ability to provide continuous reinforcement and feedback.

However, there are some technical difficulties facing mathematics teachers; the most prominent of which are: the large number of students in the classroom, the lack of a device for every student, the weakness of the Internet in some areas, and the lack of experience of teachers and students in using the various techniques (Al-Ruwais, 2011; Khalil and Al-Massad, 2016; Al-Anzi and AL-Massad, 2018; Hamada and Al-Shawahin, 2019).

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The teacher has tasks in virtual classes, such as designing educational experiences and educational activities commensurate with the learner's experiences, preferences, and interests, preparing appropriate evaluation methods for this, following up on students' attendance and academic progress, creating a comfortable learning environment for students, and defining the rules of behaviour to be followed by them, asking questions that develop students’ thinking skills, and providing feedback constantly, in addition to guiding them to find additional learning resources that can be found on the network (Al-Najjar and Abu Shkir, 2014).

2.3 The findings of the previous studies onvirtual mathematics education Several studies were conducted on virtual classes from several perspectives, such as that of Bodie (2009), which aimed to explore the extent to which the teacher interacts with the learners in the educational process, with the means of communication in the virtual classroom. The study of Lu (2011) aimed to experiment with the virtual classroom in teaching mathematics via the Internet.

The results showed that the use of virtual classrooms enhances communication in teaching mathematics via the Internet, while the study of Rigel and Kozen (2016) aimed to teach and learn the skills of the twenty-first century in the virtual classroom.

The study concluded that the virtual classroom may have a lot to offer, even more than traditional classrooms in terms of acquiring and mastering the skills of the twenty-first century. Moreover, the study of Shuaib (2016) aimed to determine the most appropriate type of virtual classroom that helps in providing educational content for kindergarten female pupils.

The results found that there were statistically significant differences at the level of α ≤ 0.05 between the mean scores of the two experimental groups (simultaneous versus asynchronous). The evaluation card of electronic educational games software was produced for the benefit of the group (simultaneous virtual classrooms).

The study of Al-Saeed and Al-Abed (2018) aimed to know the effectiveness of using virtual classes in mathematics, and of logical thinking among tenth-grade students. The study found that there are statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α ≤ 0.05) between the mean scores of the experimental group of students and the scores of the control group of students in the post-application of the achievement and logical reasoning tests in favour of the experimental group.

As for the study of Al-Ahmari (2019), which aimed to give a presentation of the experience of the Saudi Virtual School, the results showed that it relied on concurrent classes, and that there is a positive trend for students and teachers to learn by using it, and that their satisfaction is directly affected by the level of technology used.

The study of Al-Omari and Ismail (2019) aimed to discover the effect of simultaneous virtual classes in achieving professional practices among

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mathematics teachers in the middle stage. The study concluded that there are statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α ≤ 0.05) between the mean scores of the experimental group in the pre- and in the post-applications, to test the cognitive aspect of professional practice skills and to note the performance side-card for professional practice skills in favour of the postapplication.

The study by Elzainy et al., (2020) was conducted at the College of Medicine, Qassim University; it aimed to describe the simultaneous procedures for elearning and evaluation, and the effect of e-learning on students' performance, faculty members, and the challenges facing their sustainability. The results found that there are statistically significant differences in the average grades of students during the electronic sessions of learning, based on solving problems. In addition, there was a high level of satisfaction of the faculty members with virtual classes, e-assessment, and e-workshops.

Eddie and José (2020) tried to uncover online mathematics learning activities for teachers in the Covid-19 period (Eddie & José, 2020). The results concluded that mathematics learning of online activities has demonstrated that students on the Internet showed excellent performance in acquiring mathematics learning skills in technology-rich settings and the availability of online platforms when compared to those groups in poor settings (Eddie & José, 2020).

While most of the previous studies tried to study the effect of the virtual classroom on mathematics education, the current study has tried to assess the status of teaching mathematics through virtual classes in the light of the Covid 19 pandemic.

3. The Methodology The descriptive approach was used to answer the study questions, and to achieve the objectives, by recognizing the status of teaching mathematics in simultaneous virtual classes in the light of the Covid 19 pandemic (Wardat et al., 2021), specifically uncovering thereby the degree of teaching practices of mathematics teachers in simultaneous virtual classes in the light of the Covid 19 pandemic from the teachers' perspectives by using questionnaires.

The descriptive approach is based on describing the phenomenon quantitatively, by giving it scores that express the degree of actual practices, in order to describe the studied phenomenon and to diagnose reality, and to reach conclusions and analyses, based on the quantitative results that contribute to understanding and diagnosing the status of these results (Obaidat, Adas & Abdelhak, 2011).

3.1 The population The population of the study consisted of all mathematics, male and female teachers, in all stages of education in the Qassim region in government schools.

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3.2 The Sample The sample of the study consisted of 385 male and female teachers, who were selected randomly. It consisted of 283 male teachers and 102 female teachers from the entire population. Table 1 shows the characteristics of the sample of the study, according to the variables of gender, academic qualification, and the number of years of experience in teaching: Table 1. Distribution of the sample of the study, according to the variables Variable Type Number Percentage % Gender Qualification Teaching experience

Male Female

283 102

73.5 % 26.5%

Bachelors

326

84.7%

Higher studies

59

15.3%

Less than 5 years From (5-10) years More than 10

45

11.7%

142

36.9%

198

1.4%

years

As shown in Table 1 above, the number of the sample of the study comprises 385 in total. The number of males was 283 teachers, representing 73.5%, while the number of females was 102, thereby presenting 26.5% of the sample members.

Those participants with a Bachelor's degree were 326, representing 84.7% of the whole sample; and the number of participants with degrees higher than the Bachelors amounted to 59, representing 15.3%.

Concerning the teaching-experience variable, the number of participants whose service was less than 5 years amounted to 45, representing 11.7% of the sample.

The number of participants with experience of 5-10 years reached 142 participants, representing 36.9%; while the number of participants with more than 10 years of experience reached 198 participants, representing 51.4%.

3.3 The study tool The questionnaire was used as a tool to collect the data. The following steps were followed to build the questionnaire: The authors identified the teaching practices for mathematics teachers that were measured in virtual classes. Many previous studies that related to the status of teaching mathematics in virtual classes were analyzed, such as those of Adnan and Anwar (2020), Hassan (2020), Al-Khamisi (2020), Lu's (20,11), Shuaib (2016), and AL-Ahmari (2019).

The questionnaire consisted of 29, items distributed in the following fields and dimensions: 1) Teaching planning: this measures the teacher's performance and behaviour at the beginning of the lesson. It includes the introduction, the activities, the identities, the introductory questions, the projects, and the problems, according to that which was planned, and which the teacher poses to the students at the beginning of the session, in order to question the students, and to link the knowledge and any previous experiences of the students to the topic of the lesson.

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This field consisted of 6 paragraphs, with serial numbers from 1-6; 2) Teaching new mathematical knowledge: this measures the teacher's performance behaviour during the lesson. It includes positive mathematical culture in the classroom; the teaching methods and the strategies used that consisted of 12 paragraphs with serial numbers from 7-18.

3) Classroom management and raising the level of interaction: this measures the teacher's performance behaviour during the implementation of the lesson, by way of the class interaction, the distribution of activities, time, class management, the participation of the students in determining the course of the lesson, and the diversification of the methods of receiving students' responses to activities (chatting - WhatsApp --... etc.), allowing mathematical dialogue among the students, and using electronic participatory learning strategies in building and organizing the work of cooperative learning groups. This field consisted of 5 paragraphs that took serial numbers from 19-23.

4) Evaluation: this measures the teacher's performance behaviour during and at the end of the lesson. It includes the evaluation methods and the strategies used, based on realistic evaluation, constructive and final evaluation, self-evaluation, and the questions that the teacher asks to implement the survey. This field consisted of 6 paragraphs that took the serial numbers from 24-29.

All the paragraphs of the fields were written positively. The response to the paragraphs was graded by following the five-point grading of the Likert method (very high, high, medium, low, very low). The open-class method was followed, in order to determine the criteria for evaluating the degree of teaching practices of mathematics teachers in simultaneous virtual classes, in the light of the Covid 19 pandemic in the questionnaire.

All the paragraphs of the fields were written positively. A high score indicates a high degree of the measured characteristic "practices." A low score indicates a low score, according to Likert's five-point grading (Likert); and it reveals the status of mathematics teaching. The range of response levels was calculated; and it was = 4. By dividing the range by the number of levels of estimating the degree of teaching practice, which is equal to 5, the result of the division = 0.80, which represents the length of the category. Thus, the criterion for evaluating practices became as clear as that used in Table 2: Table 2. The criterion for evaluating the status of teaching mathematics in simultaneous virtual classes in the light of the Covid-19 pandemic Mathematics teaching Interval Responses statuslow From 1–less than 1.80 Very low Very From 1.80–less than 2.60 low low From 2.60–less than 3.40 Medium Medium From 3.40–less than 4.20 High High From 4.20–5.00 Very high Very high

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3.4 The validity of the questionnaire To verify the validity of the questionnaire's content, and to ensure that it achieves the objectives of the study, it was presented in its initial form to a group of 11 experts and supervisors, experienced and specialized referees from the teaching staff in Saudi universities and educational supervisors, in order to benefit from their observations and experiences, intending to judge the questionnaire to ensure that the indicators of the questionnaire were all included and covered in the areas of measuring the status of teaching mathematics; and to ensure the integrity, clarity, and non-repetition of the linguistic formulation.

In the light of the directives given by the referees, linguistic amendments and reformulation were carried out. The percentage of the original paragraphs that achieved an agreement between the referees was 80% or more, belonging to the measured field; and the appropriate linguistic adjustments were then made.

The validity of the internal consistency of the paragraphs was carried out by applying the questionnaire to a pilot sample from outside the study sample, and by calculating the correlation coefficients of the degree of each paragraph with the total degree of the field, to which the paragraph belonged. All the values of the correlation coefficients came to acceptable values, as they ranged between 0.392-0.866.

In the light of these results, the internal consistency of the paragraphs of the questionnaire were validated, according to its consistency in the field. The validity of the internal consistency of the fields of the questionnaire was verified, in order to evaluate the status of teaching mathematics as well. Its correlation coefficients ranged between 0.89-0.93, a matter which indicates the consistency of the field in the questionnaire; this indicates the validity of the construction of the questionnaire, which are all statistically significant at the level of significance (0.05).

3.5 The reliability of the questionnaire Checking the reliability of the questionnaire was carried out by calculating the degree of reliability of each field of the questionnaire, by applying to the pilot sample from outside the original study sample, by using the method of internal homogeneity reliability, and by applying the Cronbach Alpha method, where the total reached 0.94; while the reliability coefficient of the fields ranged between 0.74 - 0.92. The questionnaire proved to be reliable; and it may be applied to the primary sample in the light of these results.

3.6 The data analysis The data were analyzed by using the mean, the standard deviation, t-test, the significance levels, and the one-way analysis of the variance (another VA), employing SPSS version 22. We used the mean and the standard deviation to calculate the value given by the study sample to each paragraph, as well as the general arithmetic mean for each field. We used t-tests to check the difference between the averages of two independent samples, in order to find the differences between the averages of the estimation of the status of teaching Mathematics attributed to academic qualification and gender, and the one-way analysis of the

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variance (ANOVA), in order to detect any differences, according to the number of years of experience variable (Stoica & Wardat, 2021).

4. The results 4.1 The results of the first question: What are mathematics teachers' level of teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes during Covid- 19 from the teachers' perspective? To answer this question, the general mean was calculated for each domain; and it has been arranged in descending order, according to the mean, as the results show in Table 3.

Table 3. The level of teaching practices of mathematics teachers in simultaneous virtual classes during Covid- 19 from the teachers' point-of view Sr. 1 2 4 3

Field Teaching planning Teaching new mathematic knowledge Evaluation Class management and the rising interaction level

Total

Mean 3.87 3.81

SD 0.75 0.66

Level High High

Rank 1 2

3.80 3.67

0.69 0.83

High High

3 4

3.80

0.62

High

It is clear from the previous table that the overall mean grades of teaching practices evaluation in simultaneous virtual classes of mathematics male and female teachers from the point of view of the teachers amounted to 3.80 / 5, which is a high degree and with a standard deviation of 0.62, indicating the agreement of the grades. The high degree of male and female teachers might be attributed to the technological competencies to plan, implement and evaluate the lesson in the virtual classroom because of the courses they had previously attended, the fact that the developed curricula helped them to apply this type of e-learning, the presence of the AL-AIN platform that supports the professional development of mathematics male and female teachers, and for the cooperation of all school elements, school leaders, teachers, and students.

The skills that measure the status of teaching in the field of planning came in the first rank, with a high degree, with a mean value of 3.87 / 5 and with a standard deviation of 0.75. The results indicate the similarity of the evaluation of practices from the viewpoint of the study members in this field. The reason for their appearance in the first rank is due to planning the lesson, in which the subject of the lesson and the previous learning could be linked to the students' previous experiences related to the lesson and the linkage with practical life situations.

The reason for the emergence of the results is related to planning with practical reality; this is highly justified by the fact that the teacher links the students' previous experiences related to the concepts of the lesson as an entry point to prepare for teaching practices. The field of "teaching new mathematical knowledge" came in the second rank, and also with a high degree; the value of its mean was 3.81, with a standard deviation of 0.66, thereby indicating the agreement of the estimates. The field of evaluation came in the third rank with a

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mean of 3.80 with a high degree and with a standard deviation of 0.69, indicating thereby the agreement of the estimates.

This may be explained by the fact that mathematics male and female teachers possess the skills related to the electronic evaluation required for teaching in virtual classes when teaching mathematics, such as using the electronicachievement file and sending assignments and homework projects through the electronic platform.

While the level of teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes came in the last rank in the field of classroom management, by raising the level of interaction to a high degree; the value of its mean was 3.67, with a standard deviation of 0.83, thereby indicating the agreement of the estimates. The reason for the emergence of the field in the last rank might be attributed to the fact that teaching mathematics in virtual classes requires teachers with special skills in electronic interaction.

Moreover, technical and skill factors related to students and the conditions of the state of communication between the teacher and the students may affect the outcome; but its appearance in a high degree might be related to the participation of students in determining the course of the lesson, the ability of teachers to diversify the methods of receiving students' responses to activities (chatting WhatsApp --... etc.), the potential provided by the platform in terms of providing an opportunity for mathematical dialogue between students, and the use of electronic-participatory learning strategies in building and organizing the work of cooperative learning groups.

For more details in answering the first question, the mean and the standard deviation were calculated for all the paragraphs of each field. They were also arranged, according to the mean, in descending order. In the case of equal means, they were arranged, according to the value of the lowest standard deviation, as follows: The first field: Lesson-planning skills Table 4. The level of teaching practices of mathematics teachers in the field of lessonplanning Sr. 1

2

3

4

Paragraph Identify the applications and the programs appropriate to the topic of the lesson.

Specify previous experiences related to the lesson to compensate for the educational losses.

Design (visual diagrams - videos ...) around the most prominent ideas of the lesson.

Discuss with my fellow teachers the proper way to communicate mathematical ideas in the Virtual Classroom.

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Mean 3.96

SD 0.92

Sequence 3

Level High

3.92

0.94

4

High

3.22

1.24

6

Middle

3.52

1.35

5

High

98

5

6

Take into account the distribution of class time, to ensure that the lesson is presented in an integrated manner.

Use the internet to get references, enrichments, and various lesson formats.

Total

4.25

0.87

1

Very High

4.22

0.93

2

3.78

0.75

Very High High

It is evident from the results of Table 4 that the general mean of the grades of the study members of mathematics male and female teachers of the practices of teaching mathematics in simultaneous virtual classes in the light of the Covid-19 pandemic in the field of lesson planning, was of a high degree; where the value of the mean was 3.87 with a standard deviation of 0.75, thereby indicating the agreement of the estimates of practices; and the values of the standard deviations of the paragraphs that ranged from 0.87-1.35. These values indicate the agreement of the estimates of the practices.

Through the results of the arrangement of the paragraphs that measure the teaching practices in the field of planning the lesson, two paragraphs came to a very high degree; the paragraph "Take into account the distribution of class time to ensure that the lesson is presented in an integrated manner”, was in the first rank with a mean value that reached 4.25.

The reason for this result is that the nature of teaching in virtual classes is related to a time program; and the teacher tries to manage the class time and to overcome communication problems, as well as technical communication problems, as a result of emergency malfunctions or defects in the network.

The teacher is keen to invest the time of learning and teaching by taking advantage of the technical features provided by distance education in a planned way, and by enriching the share with interactive exercises. The paragraph "Use the Internet to obtain references, enrichment and different models for the lesson” came in the second rank, with a very high degree in terms of practice. Its mean (4.22) and the standard deviation (0.93), as the educational platform, contributed through the ease of linking the lesson to the rich activities via the Internet.

As for the paragraphs: "Identify the appropriate applications and programs for the subject of the lesson" and "Specify the previous experiences related to the lesson, in order to compensate for the educational loss"; and "discuss with your classmates the appropriate method for communicating mathematical ideas in the virtual classroom".

They came with high degrees of practice. The values of their means ranged from 3.52-3.96. It was noted that the value of the standard deviation for the paragraph: "I discuss with my fellow teachers the appropriate method for communicating mathematical ideas in the virtual classroom." This amounted to 1.35, thereby indicating the existence of a large difference and variation in its practice and possible differences in the interests of male and female teachers, as well as the conditions related to teachers’ professional development activities, which may have contributed to the existence of variations in practice.

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For the paragraph: "Design visual diagrams – video clips ... about the most prominent ideas of the lesson", this came into the last rank, with a middling degree, and with a mean of 3.32, together with a large standard deviation of 1.24, thereby indicating the different levels in its practice. The reason for this may be explained by the lack of interest in applying this approach to elementary school students; and perhaps because teachers lack the skills to design visual diagrams – video clips ... about the most prominent ideas of the lesson for the adoption of the majority of male and female teachers on the electronic content in the educational platform, a matter which requires training teachers to employ electronic mental maps and to be prepared for the preparation and design of an interactive video, in order to display the lessons’ ideas.

The second field: Teaching the new mathematical knowledge Table 5. The level of teaching the practices of mathematics' teachers in the field of teaching new mathematical knowledge Sr 7 8

9

10 11 12 13 14 15

Paragraph I take into account the time spent using in-class technology.

I use visual presentations and multimedia programs to explain the lesson.

I link new mathematical experiences with previous experiences, in order to compensate for educational losses.

I relate the different lesson ideas to one another.

I refer to the relationship of the lesson to the possible applications in life.

I balance the conceptual and procedural knowledge of the lesson.

I use virtual engineering tools, while solving mathematical problems.

I use electronic mathematical activities in the presentation of the lesson.

I use electronic communication applications to provide reinforcement and feedback to the students.

16

I use 3D models to display mathematical shapes and symbols.

17 I employ electronic games to develop various mathematical skills.

18 I use a variety of teaching methods and strategies.

Total

Mean 4.15

SD 0.79

3.89

1.06

Sequence 2

Level High High

7 4.14

0.88

High 3

4.38

0.72

4.10

0.85

3.99

0.76

3.61

1.09

3.63

1.02

3.79

1.19

1 4 5 10 9

Very High High High High High High

8 3.24

1.12

2.89

1.21

3.94

0.83

3.81

0.66

11 12 6

Middle Middle High High

The results of Table 5 show that the general mean of the practices of teaching mathematics in virtual classes in the field of teaching new mathematical knowledge was of a high degree. The value of the mean was 3.81, with a standard

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deviation of 0.66, thereby indicating the agreement of the estimates in practice; and the values of the standard deviations of the paragraphs ranged from 0.72-1.21.

Most of these values indicate the agreement of the estimates of practices.

Through the results of the arrangement of the paragraphs, the paragraph "I connect between the different ideas of the lessons came in the first order, where the value of its mean was very high (4.38).

The reason for this result is that the nature of the mathematics lessons depends on each other; and it is necessary to emphasize the complementarity of the content.

When presenting the electronic content of the new lesson and linking the students' previous experiences with their experiences gained from previous lessons, and linking the ideas of one lesson, it is important that a smooth transition is made to organize the ideas correctly.

Some other paragraphs came with high degrees of practice, where the means ranged from 3.61-4.15; and they are arranged respectively: "I take into account the time allocated for the use of techniques within the class and I link new mathematical experiences with the previous experiences, in order to compensate for educational losses". "I refer to the relationship of the lesson with life applications". "I balance between conceptual and procedural knowledge for the lesson". "I use various teaching methods and strategies". "I use visual presentations and multi-media programs to explain the lesson". "I use electroniccommunication applications to provide reinforcement and feedback to my students". "I employ electronic mathematical activities in presenting the lesson"; and "I use virtual engineering tools, while solving mathematical problems" that exhibit high values.

However, there is a difference between male and female teachers in four paragraphs, including the use of visual presentations and multi-media programs in explaining the lesson, the use of electronic communication applications in providing reinforcement, and in feedback to students, the use of electronic mathematical activities in the presentation of the lesson, and the use of virtual engineering tools, while solving mathematical problems. Their standard deviations ranged from 1.02-1.19, thereby indicating the difference in the degrees of practice.

This may be due to the existence of individual differences related to electronic skills in teaching new mathematical knowledge, and the different interests of male and female teachers in employing them; and some teachers may need training in them, and in developing their level of skilled knowledge therein.

As for the paragraph: "I use 3D models in displaying mathematical figures and symbols,” it came in the next-to-last rank, with a mean score of 3.24, and with a large standard deviation of 1.12. This indicates the difference in the level of practice. The reason for this may be explained by the lack of some teachers possessing the related skills in mathematical modelling. Consequently, 3D models are used to display mathematical shapes and symbols, a matter which requires

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sufficient training and experience for the teacher in the field of information technology and educational techniques.

As for the paragraph: "I employ electronic games to develop various mathematical skills", it came into the last rank, with a medium degree and with a mean of 2.89, and with a large standard deviation of 1.21. This indicates the difference in the levels of practice. The reason behind this may be explained by the lack of some teachers possessing the skills to employ electronic games and to develop mathematical skills, the lack of teachers' knowledge of the methods of manipulation in teaching, and the lack of programs that support the employment of educational games in teaching, a matter which requires the development of teachers’ skills in this aspect.

The third field: Classroom management and raising the level of interaction Table 6. The level of teaching practices of mathematics teachers in the field of classroom management and raising the level of interaction Sr. 19 20

21 22

23

Paragraph I share the responsibility of setting the course of the lesson with the students.

I vary the ways to receive students' answers to activities (chatting WhatsApp - ... etc.).

I allow a mathematical dialogue between the students.

I use the e-participatory learning strategies in building and organizing the work of the collaborative learning groups.

I use electronic means to communicate with the parents.

Total

Mean 4.03

SD 0.91

Sequence 1

Level High

3.75

1.25

2

High

3.78

1.05

3

High

3.46

1.11

4

High

3.34

1.26

5

Middle

3.67

0.83

High

The results of Table 6 show that the general mean of the scores for teaching mathematics practices in virtual classes in the field of classroom management and thereby raising the level of interaction, is high. Where the value of the mean was 3.67, the standard deviation was 0.83, thereby indicating the agreement between the estimates of practices.

The paragraph: "I shared the responsibility in setting the course of the lesson with the students, who came in the first rank, where the mean was 4.03. The reason for this result is the awareness of mathematics male and female teachers on the importance of taking into account the interactive element in implementing virtual classroom lessons and motivating students to participate by adopting learning methods and considering the learners’ styles. Then, most of the other paragraphs came with high scores; and their means ranged from 3.46-3.78. They are ordered respectively, as follows: "I allow a mathematical dialogue between the students; "I vary the ways to receive students' answers to activities (chatting - WhatsApp ... etc.)"; and "I use the e-participatory learning strategies in building and organizing the work of the collaborative-learning groups."

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As for the paragraph: "I use electronic means to communicate with parents". This came in the last rank with a medium degree and a mean of 3.34 and with a large standard deviation of 1.26. The reason for this may be attributed to the lack of communication with the students' parents on the increase of their work duties related to preparing for the lesson and the lack of time in their program, a matter which may not contribute to allowing the teacher to communicate with the parents of students, especially since the quorum is large for most teachers; and there are usually a large number of students in the virtual classes.

The fourth field: Evaluation Table 7. The level of teaching practices of mathematics' teachers in the field of evaluation Sr. 24 25 26 27 8

29

Paragraph I use electronic tests to assess students' levels.

I keep electronic achievement files for each student.

I direct students to perform tasks with a variety of ideas.

I vary in evaluation paragraphs (multiple choice - true and false ...).

Mean 4.28

SD 0.87

3.42

1.12

5

Level Very High High

3.57

1.01

4

High

4.18

0.95

2

High

I direct students to make reflective summaries to relate their lesson ideas.

I provide feedback after evaluation.

3.21

1.14

6

Middle

4.04

0.93

3

High

Total

3.80

0.69

Sequence 1

High

As shown in the results of Table 7, the general mean of the grades of the assessment of the level of mathematics teaching practices in the virtual classes in the field of the evaluation, was high. Where the value of its mean (3.80) was very high, with a standard deviation (0.69), thereby indicating the agreement of the estimates of practices, the values of the standard deviations of the paragraphs ranged from 0.87-1.14. The emergence of practices was related to their evaluation to a high degree, due to the presence of high competencies among mathematics teachers in using electronic tests to assess the level of their students, as well as their ability to diversify questions, and to provide feedback and to make achievement files.

Through the results of the ranking of the paragraphs that measure the teaching practices in the field of evaluation, the paragraph "I use electronic tests to evaluate the level of students" came first; since its mean value reached 4.38. The reason for this result is related to the digital platform and communication forums between the teachers, which provided opportunities for the improvement and the development of the professional performance of mathematics – both male and female teachers, in the field of building electronic tests.

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Most of the other paragraphs came with high scores. Their means ranged from 3.42-4.18; and they are arranged in order: "I vary in the evaluation paragraphs (multiple choice - true and false…)"; "I provide feedback after evaluation"; and "I instruct students to tackle performance tasks with ideas". It was noticed that there is a difference in the practices of male and female teachers in directing their students to conduct performance tasks with various ideas; and to keep the electronic files of achievement for each student. The values of their two standard deviations, respectively, (1.01, 1.12) indicate the different levels of practice. This is due to the difference in the skill levels; since not all mathematics teachers can provide various tasks for the evaluation or for the design of electronic files of achievement (electronic portfolios) due to the difference in the level of teachers' ability to master the skills associated with such.

The paragraph: "I ask students to make reflective summaries to link the ideas of the lesson", came in the last rank, with a medium degree, and with a mean of 0.21, together with a large standard deviation of 1.14, thereby indicating the difference in the estimates. The reason for this may be explained by the lack of sufficient time to implement such tasks. Perhaps the lack of support for the implementation of this practice is due to the lack of consideration for making summaries to link the lesson ideas with the educational platform.

4.2 The results of answering the second question: Are there statistically significant differences at the significance level (α ≤ 0.05) in the level of the teaching practices of mathematics' teachers in simultaneous virtual classes during Covid19, due to gender, academic qualification, and the number of years of experience?

Two independent samples (Independent sample t-tests) were used to reveal the significance of differences attributed to gender and academic qualification; while the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to reveal the significant differences attributed to experience, as follows: A. Gender To reveal the statistically significant differences in the degree of estimating the status of mathematics teaching in simultaneous virtual classes in the light of the Covid 19 pandemic attributed to gender, the T test was used for two independent samples; and the results are shown in Table 8.

Table 8. The difference between the means of the male teachers and the females on the teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes during Covid- 19 Field Teaching planning Teaching new mathematic knowledge Class management and raising interaction level Evaluation Total

Gender Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

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N 283 102 283 102 283 102 283 102 283 102

Mean 3.83 3.98 3.77 3.92 3.63 3.81 3.76 3.93 3.75 3.91

SD 0.76 0.73 0.65 0.67 0.87 0.70 0.68 0.70 0.62 0.62

t-value -1.743

p-value 0.082

-1.950

0.052

-1.891

0.059

-2.167

0.031

-2.222

0.027

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Table 8 shows that there are statistically significant differences on the level of significance (α≤0.05) between the averages of estimating teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes for mathematics teachers, due to the gender variable; as the value of T on the total score was -2.222; and its statistical significance was less than the level of significance (0.05).

This indicates the existence of differences in the evaluation of teaching practices in the simultaneous virtual classes of mathematics male and female teachers.

These may be attributed to gender; and it was in favour of the female teachers.

There were also differences in the evaluation field, where the value of T (-2.167) was less than the level of significance (0.05). The differences were in favour of the females. This may be explained by the fact that female teachers show a higher interest in documenting evaluation procedures in virtual classes due to the high competitiveness of female students. This leads directly to interest in the evidence of evaluation.

(B) Academic Qualification To reveal the statistically significant differences in the degrees of estimating the status of teaching mathematics in simultaneous virtual classes in the light of the Covid 19 pandemic, which is attributed to (academic qualification), the T test was used for two independent samples; and the results are shown in Table 9.

Table 9. The difference between the means of the teachers on the teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes during Covid- 19, according to their academic qualification Field Teaching planning

Teaching new mathematical knowledge Class management and raising the interaction level Evaluation

Total

Academic Qualification BA Higher than BA BA Higher than BA BA Higher than BA BA Higher than BA BA Higher than BA

N

Mean

SD

tvalue 1.771

pvalue 0.077

326 59

3.89 3.71

0.79 0.48

326 59

3.82 3.76

0.68 0.48

0.701

0.484

326 59

3.76 3.76

0.85 0.71

0.021

0.983

326 59

3.84 3.57

0.70 0.58

2.776

0.006

326 59

3.82 3.69

0.65 0.40

1.385

0.167

It is evident from Table 9 that there are no statistically significant differences in the levels of significance (α≤0.05) between the averages of estimating teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes for mathematics teachers due to the academic qualification variable. The value of (t) on the overall degree was (1.385) and its statistical significance exceeds the level of significance (0.05), a matter which indicates that there are no differences in the evaluation of teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes for mathematics teachers, which could be

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attributed to scientific qualification. This result is attributed to the similar perception of mathematics teachers in evaluating teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes of mathematics; since they are similar in their use of teaching strategies, which appeared to be high, as evidenced by the results of Table 9 that there are no statistically significant differences in the level of significance (α≤0.05) in the fields (planning the lesson, teaching new mathematical knowledge, classroom management and raising the level of interaction) due to scientific qualification.

There, the T value ranged from 0.021-1.771; and its statistical significance was greater than 0.05. This indicates that there are no statistically significant differences in estimating the degrees of teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes. This result is a sign of the similarity of practices in the field of lesson planning, teaching practices of new mathematical knowledge, classroom management practices, and raising the level of interaction for mathematics teachers, regardless of their academic qualification.

On the other hand, it was found that there were differences in the field of "evaluation", where the T value reached 2.776; and its statistical significance was less than the level of significance specified in the study (0.05). This means that there are statistically significant differences in favour of Bachelor's degree holders; since they enrolled in training and acquired skills that were reflected in their teaching practices, especially as they do not possess higher educational qualifications, a matter which contributed to their practice to a higher degree than those with higher qualifications; and most of the male and female teachers and school members have obtained a Bachelor's degree, which contributed to the similarity of their estimates for the teaching of mathematics.

(C) Years of Experience To reveal the statistically significant differences in the degrees of estimating the status of teaching mathematics in simultaneous virtual classes in the light of the Covid 19 pandemic, which is attributed to (number of years of experience), the one-way ANOVA test was used, as in Table 10.

Table 10. Descriptive Differences between the levels of the teachers on their teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes during Covid- 19, due to their number of years of experience Field Teaching planning

Teaching new mathematic knowledge Class management and raising interaction level Evaluation

Years of experience Less than 5 years From (5-10) years More than 10 years Less than 5 years From (5-10) years More than 10 years Less than 5 years From (5-10) years More than 10 years Less than 5 years From (5-10) years

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N 45 142 198 45 142 198 45 142 198 45 142

Mean 2.70 3.50 4.39 2.77 3.42 4.33 2.58 3.37 4.14 2.80 3.46

SD 0.48 0.49 0.44 0.39 0.30 0.34 0.56 0.66 0.63 0.32 0.43

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Total

More than 10 years Less than 5 years From (5-10) years More than 10 years

198 45 142 198

4.27 2.73 3.44 4.30

0.49 0.28 0.22 0.31

The results of Table 10 show that there are apparent differences between the arithmetic averages of the practices in teaching mathematics in virtual classes, according to the levels of the number of years of experience. To reveal the statistically significant differences between these averages, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used, as shown in Table 11.

Table 11. Inferential Differences (ANOVA) between the levels of the teachers on the teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes during Covid- 19 due to their number of years of experience Field Sources of Sum of Degrees Mean of F-value pvalue variance squares of squares freedom Teaching Between 135.778 2 67.889 313.881 0.000 planning groups Within 82.622 382 0.216 groups Total 218.400 384 Teaching new Between 123.486 2 61.743 554.909 0.000 mathematic groups knowledge Within 42.504 382 0.111 groups Total 165.990 384 Class Between 110.665 2 55.333 138.016 0.000 management groups and raising Within 153.149 382 0.401 interaction groups level Total 263.814 384 Evaluation Between 104.419 2 52.209 257.165 0.000 groups Within 77.553 382 0.203 groups Total 181.972 384 Total Between 119.444 2 59.722 775.971 0.000 groups Within 29.400 382 0.077 groups Total 148.884 384

Table 11 shows that there are statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α≤0.05) between the averages of estimating teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes for mathematics teachers, due to the variable number of years of experience. The value of (F) on the overall practices was 775.971; and its statistical significance was less than the level of Significance (0.05). This indicates the existence of differences in the evaluation of teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes for mathematics teachers; and this difference is attributed to experience.

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The results of Table 11 also show that there are statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α≤0.05) in the fields (planning the lesson, teaching new mathematical knowledge, class management and raising the level of interaction, and evaluation) due to the number of years of experience. The F value ranged from 138.016-554.909; and its statistical significance was less than 0.05, a matter which indicates the existence of statistically significant differences in estimating the degrees of teaching practices in simultaneous virtual classes. To determine the direction of these differences, the Scheffe test was used for dimensional comparisons; and the results are shown in Table 12.

Table 12. Scheffe test results for averages, comparison of mathematics teaching practices in virtual classes, according to the levels of experience Field

Years of experience

Mea n

Teaching planning

Less than 5 years From (5-10) years More than 10 years Less than 5 years From (5-10) years More than 10 years Less than 5 years From (5-10) years More than 10 years Less than 5 years From (5-10) years More than 10 years Less than 5 years From (5-10) years More than 10 years

Teaching new mathematic knowledge

Class management and raising interaction level Evaluation

Total

From (510) years

2.70

Less than 5 years --

--

More than 10 years --

3.50

*0.803

--

--

4.39

*1.69

*0.89

--

2.77

---

--

--

3.42

*0.65

--

--

4.33

*1.56

*0.95

--

2.58

---

--

--

3.37

*0.78

--

--

4.14

*1.56

*0.77

--

2.80

---

--

--

3.46

*0.66

--

--

4.27

*1.47

*0.804

--

2.73

---

---

--

3.44

*0.71

---

--

4.30

*1.57

*0.86

--

The results of Table 12 show that there are statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α≤0.05) in the overall degree and in the fields (lesson planning, teaching new mathematical knowledge, classroom management and raising the level of interaction, and evaluation). These differences are attributed to the number of years of experience in favor of male and female teachers, whose

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experience is more than (10) years compared to those with less than five years; and compared to those whose years of experience ranged from 5-10 years.

There were also differences in favor of the category of 5-10 years, when compared to those who had less than five years. These results may be attributed to the impact of the experience factor; since, as the male and female teachers pass the experiences in their years of teaching service, they gain knowledge and skill in teaching mathematics through virtual classes; where they have had opportunities to apply such knowledge during their years of teaching experience, in exchange for newly experienced male and female teachers.

5. Discussion The Saudi Arabian kingdom Ministry of Education has taken careful steps to apply distance learning, in order to help limit the spread of COVID-19, by employing both synchronous and asynchronous learning in schools. However, the current study revealed a high degree in the status of teaching mathematics, from the point of view of male and female teachers, on the total score with the other studies. The reason for the appearance of the general result with a high degree may be attributed to the technical features that characterize the educational platform that supports the interactive teaching approach in virtual classes.

This study has implicitly agreed with the results of many studies that emphasized the impact of technological and technical preparations on the success of teaching through virtual classes in the light of the Covid 19 pandemic, such as the study of Adnan and Anwar (Adnan & Anwar, 2020), which confirmed that online education cannot achieve its goals in poor countries, in which it is difficult for the citizens to access the Internet, due to technical and financial problems, as is the case in Pakistan.

Moreover, the study of O'Keefe et al., (2020) showed the progress of Saudi Arabia in 13 indicators out of 16 indicators on average of these countries. The study also revealed that teachers received great support to overcome obstacles in activating e-learning. The study also agreed with the results of Hassan's study (2020), which emphasized the role of electronic and interactive software in activating the educational platform. The study also agreed with the study of Al-Khamisi (2020), which emphasized the role of organizing teaching procedures in virtual classes, their schedule, and the evaluation methods.

This study also implicitly agreed with the results of Bodie (2009), who found that there is a high level of interactivity and a correlation between the teacher's behaviors and the educational method, a matter which contributed to increasing learners' satisfaction. It also agreed with the results of Lu’s study (2011), which found that the use of virtual classes enhances communication in online mathematics teaching. It also tacitly agreed with the results of the Rigel and Kozen study (2016), which found that virtual classes may have many benefits to offer, rather than traditional ones in terms of acquiring and mastering the skills of the twenty-first century.

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Moreover, the study agreed with the results of Shoaib (2016), which revealed the existence of an effect of simultaneous versus asynchronous teaching in favor of simultaneous virtual classes. It also tacitly agreed with the results of AL-Ahmari (2019), which revealed the success of the Saudi Virtual School experience; and the results showed its reliance on simultaneous classes; and that there is a positive trend for students and teachers to learn by using such classes.

The results of the study of Al-Saeed and Al-Abed (2018) and the study of AlOmari and Ismail (2019) confirmed the effectiveness of using virtual classes in mathematics achievement, and in achieving professional practices among mathematics female teachers.

Based on the previous results and in the light of the researchers' experience in the field of teaching mathematics and their use of the educational platform during the Covid 19 pandemic, the preparedness and awareness of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's since before the Covid 19 pandemic on the importance of educational platforms and virtual learning, parallel to traditional learning and the readiness of the educational environment for the transmission of distance teaching contributed to the success of the idea of distance education, a matter which was reflected positively in their teaching experiences, as revealed by the results of the current study.

It has also confirmed the results of many studies that revealed the role of virtual class readiness in the success of distance education in various educational institutions. A good example is the study by Elzainy et al., (2020), which confirmed the effectiveness of the virtual classes and online assessment, as was also confirmed by the results of the study of Eddie and José (2020) that revealed the effectiveness of online mathematics learning activities for teachers in the COVID-19 time; and that the students demonstrated excellent online performance in acquiring mathematics learning skills in technology-rich environments.

The results of the study in this area reveal differences at the significance level (α ≤ 0.05), as regards the teaching practices of mathematics teachers in simultaneous virtual classes during Covid- 19, due to gender, academic qualification, and the number of years of experience. These results agreed with the results in the study of Elzainy et al. (2020), in which it was found that there was a statistically significant increase in the average scores of female students during the electronic sessions for problem-based learning compared to those of males.

While at the level of practices in other fields (lesson planning, teaching new mathematical knowledge, classroom management, and raising the level of interaction) there were no differences that appeared in the degree of practice; since the values of T ranged from 1.743 - 1.950; and its statistical significance exceeded the level of significance (0.05), a matter which indicates the similarity of practices between male and female teachers in the three fields.

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The reason for this may be attributed to the similar perceptions of mathematics teachers and the similarity of teaching practices in the simultaneous virtual classes of mathematics, regardless of gender, because of the similarity of conditions, school infrastructure and equipment, and the similarity of teaching strategies and those of evaluation and teaching practices.

6. Conclusion Mathematics education has changed, due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Most countries in the world, including Saudi Arabia, have turned to teaching Mathematics through virtual education, after the schools were closed in those countries. Thus, the current study aimed to identify the status of teaching Mathematics in simultaneous virtual classes in the light of the Covid-19 pandemic, by uncovering the teaching practices in the fields of: - lesson planning, teaching the new mathematical knowledge, classroom management and raising the level of interaction and evaluation.

The descriptive approach was used in the study; and this involved a random sample of 385 teachers of Mathematics in the Qassim Education Department, which was chosen during the first semester of AY 2020/21. A questionnaire was used to collect the data after confirming the validity and reliability thereof.

The results of the study showed that the status of teaching Mathematics in simultaneous virtual classes in the light of the Covid-19 pandemic was at a high degree (3.80/5), according to the respondents’ point of view, the results were as follows: - Planning “high”3.87”, teaching new mathematical knowledge “high”3.81”, and class management and raising the level of interaction was at a high degree of “3.67”.

7. Recommendations In the light of the results of the current study, the following recommendations can be made: • The results of the study revealed that there is a discrepancy in some practices, a matter which requires identifying the training needs of mathematics male and female teachers in the field of e-learning in virtual classes, such as diversifying the methods of receiving students' responses to activities (chatting - WhatsApp --... etc.), the use of electronic participatory learning strategies in building and organizing the work of cooperative learning groups, employing electronic communication applications in providing reinforcement and feedback to students, employing electronic sports activities in presenting the lesson, and using virtual engineering tools, while solving the mathematical problems.

• Emphasizing the importance of continuing to maintain the level of practices that appeared to a high and very high degree in aspects related to teaching mathematics through virtual classes in the levels of planning the lesson, the acquisition of new mathematical knowledge, classroom management, interaction, and evaluation.

• Improving the practices of teaching mathematics in virtual classes that showed a moderate degree of practice, such as using three-dimensional

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•

•

models in displaying mathematical shapes and symbols, employing electronic games to develop various mathematical skills, using electronic means to communicate with the parents, and directing students to make reflective summaries, in order to link with the ideas of the lesson.

Developing the skills of mathematics male and female teachers in the field of electronic design, such as mind maps and interactive videos, through the use of the educational platform.

Enabling the teachers of gaining gaming skills and designing electronic games that would enhance mathematics learning.

8. Limitations The limitations of this study focused on 385 male and female teachers, who were selected randomly. The study consisted of 283 male teachers and (102) female teachers from the entire population. Table 1 shows the characteristics of the sample of the study, according to the variables of gender, academic qualification, and the number of years of experience.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 114-126, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.7 Received Sep 28, 2021; Revised Nov 27, 2021; Accepted Dec 05, 2021

Factors Affecting Secondary School Students’ Academic Achievements in Chemistry Aimable Sibomana African Center of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda - College of Education (UR-CE), Republic of Rwanda https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9452-9145 Claude Karegeya School of Education, University of Rwanda - College of Education (UR-CE), Republic of Rwanda https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5855-7122 John Sentongo Department of Science, Technical and Vocational Education (DSTVE), Makerere University, College of Education and External Studies, Kampala, Republic of Uganda https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8693-2639 Abstract. Secondary school students continue to consider chemistry as difficult to learn and develop a negative attitude towards it. This leads to low achievement in the subject and reduces their interest. Studies on students' achievement in chemistry have been conducted and different instructional strategies of teaching and learning have been provided.

Nonetheless, there are persisting misconceptions and factors that hinder the achievement of students, even after the implementation of suggested strategies. By applying innovative teaching approaches as remedial to teaching and learning barriers, students' achievement may be improved; and the retention of the learned material may be enhanced. In this study, we conducted a literature search to collect any related literature. Sixtyone studies were obtained; some of them were not related to our investigation; and those which did not answer the research question were excluded, we remained with 13 studies. The selection of studies was based on year of publication, and language. These studies were published in English and between 2011 and 2021. Consequently, this review highlights the influence of teaching methods on students' achievements, updating teachers on the factors affecting students' achievements in Chemistry, misconceptions in chemistry instruction, and ways for remedying those misconceptions, as well as methods for improving students’ academic achievements.

Keywords: achievement; chemistry education; constructivism; innovative teaching methods; misconception in chemistry ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Chemistry students’ academic achievement refers to their educational accomplishment at school, and it is characterized by score or percentage (Ajayi, 2017a). As an indicator, academic achievement is an important milestone for learners; it is the vital goal of learning Chemistry the world over. However, learners in an identical set of academic situations vary in their scholastic accomplishment (Imomotimi, 2013). Learning is a process of concept formation and positive permanent change; it is not just the acquisition of correct responses (Broman et al., 2018). Studies have indicated the challenges associated with quality Chemistry education. For example, Akram et al. (2017), Bunujevac and Durisic (2017), Imomotimi (2013), and Tümay (2016) revealed the challenges of effective Chemistry teaching, including attitude and learning experiences; nonprofessionalism; time constraints; class size; conditions of service, or remunerations, laboratory adequacy; learning style, parental involvement; examination malpractices and the choice of a subsequent career.

However, according to Ajayi (2017b) a Chemistry teacher aimed at changing the instruction from lecture to innovative learning strategies, such as learning cooperatively, using concept maps by making improvised materials where there is no standard equipment, would not necessarily succeed in teaching Chemistry .

On the other hand, one of the roles of instruction to any nation is to produce trained persons with competencies in different fields, and not to consider chemistry to be difficult to teach and study (Dwyer & Childs, 2017; and Mahdi, 2014). The problem of misconceptions and low achievements in Chemistry, have also been highlighted by several researchers, such as Adu-Gyamfi et al. (2020), Ajayi (2017a), Ejidike and Oyelana (2015), Graulich (2015), Hanson (2017), Luoga et al. (2013), Mari and Gumel (2014), and O’Dwyer and Childs (2015).

Effective chemistry teaching that involves learners' active engagement when properly used by teachers leads to socio-economic development, as well as developing countries embarked on programs that support the development of science education at secondary and higher educational levels (Mahdi, 2014). Flexible teachers need to employ innovative teaching methods directly to a conducive classroom environment, and which adjust the content to learners with different backgrounds and talents (Sibomana et al., 2021). Academic achievement relies hugely on teaching and learning, as well as on the fulfilment of the aims of education. Instruction dominated by lecturing does not inspire students to learn; and no single teaching method fits all (Tümay, 2016); whereas good teaching methods influence students’ interest in the topic; since good teachers consider students’ perspectives by managing and helping them to change their misconceptions about the subject. Consequently, strategies of teaching are attractive; they shape students’ attitudes positively towards the subject; and it is the role of the facilitator (teacher) to manage such factors(Ejidike & Oyelana, 2015; Farzaneh & Nejadansari, 2014).

Furthermore, using one teaching method is not good enough; because students have different learning styles; and they are likely to develop attention when the

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teaching approaches stimulate their intention to know (Okwuduba, 2018). In this regard, Chemistry teachers could apply different techniques, in order to optimize students’ achievement by involving them in learning activities and by arranging concepts to be taught from simple to complex, so as to facilitate them in understanding the abstract or complex concepts; since if not, students tend to memorize what they are taught without understanding it (Yusuf, 2014).

Some teachers adopt a traditional teaching approach, which is teacher-centered; while the students are only a mute and passive audience. Consequently, the previous knowledge is not properly activated (Akram et al., 2017). Ineffective teaching methods lead to students’ low achievement in Chemistry; and the World Bank report indicated their low achievements, while doing the end cycle examinations among Sub-Saharan Africa, where large numbers of African youths lack skills and the necessary knowledge to qualify for jobs and for post-secondary courses in STEM, which would prepare them for well-paying jobs (World Bank, 2016).

For learners to actively construct meaning, there are various instructional approaches that should be adopted by Chemistry teachers. Nkemakolam et al.

(2018) opine that no approach can be regarded as the best for every teaching situation. According to Ejidike and Oyelana (2015) and Tenaw (2015), Chemistry teachers should be aware of certain general rules, which facilitate the selection of appropriate approaches for developing skills for students. Such rules for selecting approaches for teaching a Chemistry lesson include consideration of the student's age, their previous knowledge of the topic, and their general ability, among other issues.

Good teaching methods influence students' interest in the topic (Tolsdorf et al.

2018); and learning is a societal advancement that includes language, everyday situations, communication, and teamwork among learners, who are considered to be central in the learning process, which is enhanced by assimilation and accommodation (Amineh & Asl, 2015; Kara, 2018).

Studies have reported that different innovative teaching approaches improve students' achievement in Chemistry, such as cooperative learning; peer teaching, (Amedu and Gudi, 2017; Gagne's learning hierarchy, Yusuf’s (2014); inquiryteaching strategy, Harcourt (2017); computer simulations, Nkemakolam et al.

(2018); problem-solving instructional strategies, (Shadrec et al. 2018); Tetrahedral in-zone of Proximal Development (T-ZPD), Yitbarek (2011. Context-based learning approaches (CBL) also improve students’ interest and learning outcomes by the clear linkage between Chemistry, society, research and practice (Vogelzang et al., 2020).

Learners' conceptual understanding was also identified to be developed by the use of the jigsaw model of cooperative learning; and consequently, this also enhances students' achievement in Chemistry (Mari & Gumel, 2014). Although most innovative teaching approaches have been reported to be significant in comparison with traditional approaches (lecture methods, in most cases) being

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applied by some chemistry teachers; there are inconsistent extents regarding the effects of different teaching methods on learners' scholastic accomplishment in Chemistry, depending on the sample and the methods used. For instance, the study of Yüksel (2014) with the sample of 252 students in a vocational high school, found that the academic achievement in Chemistry course was observed to be related with cognitive and affective characteristics that comprise the nature of students.

Research has shown difficulties in learning chemistry; and it is perceived to be a pertinent subject; but the students do not see themselves occupied in the field of Chemistry in their future life; others find it to be difficult to learn and teach; and they feel that they are ineffective when engaged in it (Graulich, 2015; Hanson, 2017; and Tümay, 2016).

Some of the conceptual areas of students’ misconceptions are: Organic chemistry (O’Dwyer and Childs 2015); stoichiometry (Shadrec et al. 2018); chemical reactions (Stojanovska et al. 2012); chemical compounds, the oxidation-reduction concept, Adu-Gyamfi et al. (2020); electrochemistry, (Murniningsih et al. 2020); colligate properties (Luoga et al. 2013); hybrid orbitals’ notation, (Farias 2017), chemical thermodynamics and kinetics, and chemical solutions (Broman et al., 2018).

The above views may differ from one person to another, depending on the learning environment. Taking organic chemistry as difficult to learn for students depends on its nature, like the three dimensions of thinking and the specific vocabulary to be used (Tenaw, 2015). The nature of Chemistry concepts and the technique of their representation (macroscopic, microscopic) conflict with the nature of science regarding their methods of teaching; what is taken by Organic Chemists for approval in their particular problem-solving is not similar to how students answer questions (there are no algorithms for solving problems in Organic Chemistry); but problem-solving depends more frequently on the mediating trends in reactivity, developing mechanisms to analyze chemical calculations (Graulich, 2015). One major cause of students’ indifference towards Chemistry is the non-connectivity between Chemistry and one’s personal life.

Some students are incapable of associating Chemical concepts with everyday life; and when teachers introduce topics, the students then ask about the importance thereof in their lives (Hanson, 2017).

Students of dissimilar ages may have comparable misunderstandings that influence the way they understand complex concepts. The language can also enhance these misconceptions; as the meaning of a similar term in Chemistry may be different from the language applied in one’s daily life (Üce & Ceyhan, 2019).

Similarly, some representations used in textbooks provide only descriptions of phenomena that have their strengths and limitations relative to some possible misconceptions (Graulich, 2015). Chemistry education aims at equipping students with a strong understanding of the discipline, in order to enable them to explain, predict and control nature (Tümay, 2016).

Future chemistry teachers need to be prepared to identify and handle inconsistencies in their classrooms, being involved more strongly in student-

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teachers’ internships, in order to equip them with deep knowledge of their students’ prior knowledge, on how to plan for their suitable learning outcomes (Tolsdorf et al. 2018). They should arrange lessons logically from simple to complex, using a variety of symbolic representations; and while assessing any problems, they should vary the questions, in order to measure all learning objectives and to plan for future instructions accordingly (Yitbarek, 2011).

A list of general indicators of qualified teachers includes an adequate understanding of the topic to teach with confidence, knowledge, and skills with a range of suitable and mixed teaching methods, as well as mastering the language of instruction. A qualified teacher is characterized by the capability to reflect on teaching practice and children's responses, ability to change teaching and learning methods, as a result of reflection, as well as the ability to generate and sustain an active learning environment, and not consider Chemistry as being too difficult to teach, as well as other science subjects (Mahdi, 2014). A teacher could also understand the curriculum and its determinations, particularly when improvement plans and new models of instruction are introduced. They could be characterized by overall competence, good self-esteem, and a firm commitment to the objectives of teaching. Furthermore, a qualified teacher should be able to communicate successfully, be conscientious, and able to apply individual discipline, to build good relationships with others, with the school, as well as with the community (Tenaw, 2015).

2. The Methodology To answer the research question related to the factors that affect secondary school students’ academic achievement in Chemistry, we conducted a literature search to collect the related literature. Sixty-one studies were obtained; some of them were not related to our investigation; and those which did not answer the research question were excluded; we remained with 13 studies. The selection of studies was based on the year of publication, and on the language. These studies were published in English, and in the years of 2011 and 2021.

Since the duty of the researchers was to communicate knowledge, we opted to analyze the written literature by searching through Google Scholar, ERIC, Web of science, and related Websites as the database during the period of the total lockdown caused by the Covid-19 pandemic. This was motivated by the fact that researchers reported the literature analysis as an approach that could be used to support and communicate the knowledge; and that in such a situation, the validity of the study should be well managed (Mohammed & Ahmed, 2019).

According to Onwuegbuzie et al. (2012), analyzing literature is researching written materials, studying a text, interpreting its meanings, and exploring why the author made certain choices. The reviewed studies are presented in Table 1, showing 8 categories, of which 17 factors were explored.

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Table 1. Factors affecting secondary school students' achievement in chemistry and their significance level S/N

Category of factors

Factors

Author (s)

1

School factors

Laboratory adequacy and instructional materials

(Banyoko et al., 2016)

Influence of school characteristics

Anditi et al., 2013

Chemistry practicals

(Mwangi & Kibui, 2017)

Research design

Results and/or statistical significance

Crosssectional survey research design

Science laboratory, Yes (+) instructional materials and laboratory adequacy had a probability value less than 0.05 (P<0.05) Single-sex school Yes (+) learners performed significantly better than their colleagues from co-educational schools

Quasiexperiment al of the pretestpost-test design Instrumenta (Onuekwusi, tion and 2015) survey research Descriptive (Baanu & survey Oyelekan, 2016)

The experimental and control groups differ significantly in the post-test

Effect

Yes (+)

2

Content area

Subject content

3

Self-efficacy

Willingness to succeed

4

Teachers and Shortage of Descriptive More than half of the No (-) students' trained teachers (Hassan et al., survey teachers (64%) were not factors and lack of 2017) qualified; and they saw proficiency in this as a contributing the language of factor to the low level instruction of achievement Teachers’ qualifications

There was no significant relationship between self-efficacy and students’ achievement

No

There is a correlation Yes (+) between learners’ achievements and teachers’ qualifications (r= 0.72) Teachers’ (Ajayi, 2017b) There is a correlation Yes (+) content between educators’ knowledge, and content knowledge experience with learners’ achievements (r= 0.89); and a correlation between educators’ years of teaching experience and learners’ achievements (r=0.51) Teachers' Questionnai The negative No (-) perception of (Ogembo et re and perceptions of their learners' al., 2015) interview Chemistry instructors ability schedule towards their learners'

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(Ajayi, 2017b)

Ex-post facto research design

There was a significant Yes (+) influence on the achievement

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abilities was linked to persistent low levels of achievement Students' attitudes towards chemistry Students’ age

5

6

7

8

Innovative teaching approaches

Innovative teaching methods

School leadership styles

Democratic style

Momanyi et al., 2015

(Okwuduba, 2018)

Ex-post facto research design Metaanalytic review

There is a significant Yes (+) relationship between students’ achievement and their attitude towards chemistry Students’ age has a Yes (+) significant effect on their performance Effective use of innovative teaching methods improves students' academic achievement

Yes (+)

Correlation Students managed by Yes (+) survey principals who used research democratic leadership No (-) Authoritarian design style to achieve higher style than those under authoritarian and laissez-faire leadership styles Support Phenomeno The school leadership No (-) provided by the (Byusa et al., logy in teaching was school 2020) research dominated by 30% of leadership design respondents Effect of class Class size Structured There was a significant Yes (+) size (Bello et al., questionnai difference in the class 2016) re size on students' achievement Family socio- Family factors Causal It has been reported Yes (+)/ economic (Akram et al., comparativ that parents or No (-) status 2017) e study guardians’ level of education, family size, and family occupational status have a very significant influence on students’ achievement.

(Achimugu & Obaka, 2019)

3. Results and Discussion The reviewed literature places the emphasis on eight categories that include seventeen factors influencing students' achievement in chemistry. Table 1 displays the factors studied in one or more of the reviewed studies; and their significance level on students’ academic achievement in Chemistry were grouped according to authors, research design, results, or statistical level of significance and effect. Among the 8 categories, there are 17 factors where 12 were perceived to affect the students’ academic achievement positively; and that 3 affect their achievement negatively; while 2 showed no significant influence on the achievement of students in Chemistry as a subject.

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According to Banyoko et al., (2016) laboratory adequacy and the school’s materials influence the students’ achievements. Also, Anditi et al. (2013) revealed that there is an influence of school characteristics on students’ achievement in Chemistry, and that learners from single-sex schools performed significantly better than their colleagues from co-educational schools. A study by Achimugu and Obaka (2019) discovered that students under the leadership of democratic principals perform better than their colleagues under authoritative and laissezfaire principals; a discovery which accords with that of Paul and Toyin (2017) that the most influential leadership style on the performance of students is democratic.

Moreover, Ahosani et al., 2017 reported that students’ achievements are influenced by the way school leaders focus on the core business of teaching and learning, and how they inspire the school community, which is the same as that which Karadag (2020) reported.

A research project conducted by Momanyi et al., (2015) reported that students’ age has a significant effect on their academic performance; this agrees with the findings of Akram et al. (2017), who revealed that adult students were less interested in chemistry than younger students. The same author reported that the content area influences students’ academic achievements.

Teachers are central to any consideration in schools. Educators are the pillars on which the instructive processes hang. According to Vivian (2018), educators can influence the teaching-learning results; since they regulate the delivery of educational instruction.

Consequently, teacher-related factors are among the factors that influence students’ achievement; this has been reported in a study by Muzaffargarh and Ameeq (2018) that the absenteeism of teachers hinders students’ achievement for the reason that their absence from school affects the students’ progress and concentration on the lessons; their use of lecture-teaching methods, the way they perceive their learners’ ability and their qualification also influence the achievement of students (Ajayi, 2017b; Mahdi, 2014; Ogembo et al., 2015; Okwuduba, 2018).

The availability and use of teaching and learning materials, like textbooks in the sciences and laboratory equipment, affect the effectiveness of the lessons and the learners' motivation. It makes the teacher's lesson more concrete; and students learn more easily by doing. Thus, students’ achievement is highly improved by the availability and good use of teaching and learning materials; and students enjoy an activity-based lesson; and they then participate actively in the course (Banyoko et al., 2016; Ejidike & Oyelana, 2015; Tolsdorf et al., 2018).

Students' attitude towards Chemistry was reported to influence their academic achievement (Ogembo et al., 2015). Attitude is another important learning concept, which denotes an interest in studying a particular subject. Students with an affirmative attitude to a chemical subject spend more time learning it, without becoming bored (Mahdi, 2014). Students may have a negative attitude towards Chemistry, and take it as difficult to learn; because they did not get any guidance

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from their schools; but if done successfully with good teaching methods, it becomes a motivational task to enhance their attitude towards Chemistry as a subject (Akram et al., 2017; Yitbarek, 2011).

It is also true that home influence (parents’ or guardians’ level of education, family size, and family occupational status) in the education of children is identified as a very significant variable that has the potential for influencing directly or indirectly students’ academic achievement; and these factors have a great impact on their success (Akram et al., 2017). Parental contribution in students’ education begins at home by providing basic needs, suitable learning experience, care, and a constructive attitude towards school and Chemistry as a subject; this involvement can be seen in six areas, which are: parenting, learning at home, cooperating, volunteering, decision-making, and partnership with the community of the school.

In addition, children who are economically advantaged and those whose parents have a good level of education receive enough stimulation at home, thereby enhancing their academic achievement (Bunujevac & Durisic, 2017).

4. Conclusion and Recommendations From the review study conducted in exploring those factors influencing students’ academic achievement, it was found that among the important factors which are grouped in eight categories are: school factors; content area; teachers and students’ factors; innovative teaching approaches; effect of class size; family socioeconomic status; and leadership styles.

Students' scholastic achievement in Chemistry has been seen to depend on the good process of instruction by applying innovative teaching methods that take into account learners’ prior knowledge in a conducive environment with motivated teachers. Misconceptions of students can be attributed to the absence of interest in a subject; inappropriate instruction methods employed by teachers; and these can be stopped by updating teachers through advanced education and regularly planned pieces of training. A list of factors that hinder students’ achievement in chemistry can be regulated by the good application of innovative instructional strategies by educators, good school leadership styles, availability of teaching and learning materials combined with good participation of parents or guardians in the learning of their children. The role of innovative teaching strategies and motivated teachers is of crucial importance in Chemistry education.

In addition to the above, the application of innovative teaching strategies for the remedies of misconceptions in teaching and learning chemistry may be combined with the application of teaching principles to capture learners’ intention to know; since they are complementary and interdependent in a Chemistry classroom; because sometimes they are present in the same lesson; and they all contribute to its success and effectiveness. In reality, when teachers use concrete examples (Concretization), they keep the learners’ attention (motivation) and they encourage the learners to use the newly acquired skills at school and at their homes in their everyday lives (transfer). Moreover, the teacher calls upon the

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learners’ participation by applying cooperative learning (cooperation), or by asking them to do work individually (activities + individualization). They can choose tasks that are better adapted to the learners’ level (progression); and they can start with what the learners are familiar with, and then move on to the unfamiliar; so that the understanding of the learners is thereby boosted. When they have enough time, all the seven principles are incorporated in a single lesson; and this makes the teaching and learning of Chemistry so much more successful. They can also work interdependently; and one complements another, for more pedagogical effectiveness. Failure to use one of the above principles affects the effectiveness of the entire lesson.

Chemistry as a science that studies the composition and the properties of substances with the changes it experiences; it could be taught in a favorable milieu with willing learners and favorably disposed educators. Furthermore, in Chemistry instruction, students need to be given the opportunity for a hands-on approach; since it is intended to permit learners to gain meaningful learning, to instruct students’ awareness and meaning; to obtain suitable competencies that allow playing their roles in social development. Preconceptions and school-made misconceptions can be identified and discussed with in-service and pre-service teachers; and to equip them with innovative teaching methods, to be applied in Chemistry instruction effectively. Teachers or facilitators could learn how to choose suitable teaching methods; and they could introduce new lessons to capture the students’ desire to know.

Also, the crucial role of school leadership in Chemistry education should be taken into account by planning and monitoring students’ and teachers’ achievement goals (performance contract); planning the school-based in-service training and in collaboration with parents, different education stakeholders could provide all the needed learning facilities accordingly. During the period of total lockdown by Covid-19, while we conducted this research, the participants could not be met; and some online alternatives had not yet been trained; consequently, there is a need for further research on the effects of identified innovative teaching strategies, in order to improve students’ achievement in different science-related subjects and contexts.

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International Journal of Education and Practice, 8(1), 106–120. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.61.2020.81.106.120 Ahosani, A. A., Singh, S. K., Nahyan M.T. A., (2017). Role of school leadership and climate in student achievement: The mediating role of parental involvement. International Journal of Education Management. 31(6), 843-851. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijem-052016--0113 Ajayi, O. V. (2017a). Effect of Hands-On Activities on Senior Secondary Chemistry Students Achievement and Retention in Stoichiometry in Zone C of Benue State.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 127-138, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.8 Received Jul 15, 2021; Revised Dec 08, 2021; Accepted Dec 17, 2021

An Examination of the Correlation between South African Grade 12 students’ Mathematics Self-Concept and their Academic Achievement James Bill Ouda Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9492-4586 Tawanda Runhare, Ndileleni Mudzielwana, Hasina Cassim and Shonisani Agnes Mulovhedzi University of Venda, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6142-7858 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1212-0483 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5168-8656 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8355-3377

Abstract. This study measured the correlation between mathematics selfconcept and academic achievement of students at four schools in Vhembe District, South Africa. The study targeted Grade 12 candidates for the South African National Senior Certificate (matric). A sample of 236 respondents – 112 boys and 124 girls – was selected from four schools using purposive and stratified random sampling. Two schools were in a rural area and two in an urban area. A questionnaire that included items from the Academic Self-Concept Questionnaire, and document analysis, were used to measure mathematics self-concept and academic achievement. Each respondent's mathematics achievement score was determined by averaging their mathematics scores over three consecutive terms. The multiple linear regression model and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to test the hypotheses. The results of the study show that mathematics self-concept positively and significantly predicted academic achievement. Based on findings, the study makes recommendations for effective methods that teachers and other stakeholders can employ to increase students’ mathematics self-concept and boost students’ academic achievement.

Keywords: mathematics mathematics; correlation

self-concept;

academic

achievement;

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Achievement in mathematics is a prerequisite for deciding to enrol in courses related to science and technology, not only in South Africa, but the world over (MacGregor, 2009; Blaine, 2009). Self-concept is considered to be a predictor of student academic achievement and subject choices (Trautwein et al., 2006; Schnyder & Niggli, 2006). Studies have also found that students’ mathematics achievement has some correlation with their achievement in sciences, especially at high school and tertiary levels (Trautwein et al., 2006). Students with positive attitudes towards mathematics give more academic time to the subject, which can, in turn, positively influence achievement (Trautwein et al., 2006).

The view that most of the outcomes of learning are a result of intra and interpersonal factors is evident from research that explores factors that influence school achievement (MacIntyre & Ireson, 2002). Mathematics is not an exception in this regard. Teacher motivation, a positive perception of schooling, classroom atmosphere, self-esteem, resilience in academic engagement, anxiety, social and emotional school adjustment are some of the personal factors that have bearing on students differences in academic achievement. With regard to mathematics, Erdogan and Sengul (2014) tested students’ learning anxiety and found that “children became more anxious about Mathematics testing situations as they progress through school”. The age and grade level of students determines the level of influence of anxiety on student achievement in examinations (Erdogan & Sengul, 2014).

Research in the field of learning mathematics identified several variables, namely student resilience, socioeconomic background, parental influence and provision of subject-related resources in both the school and the home, which influence mastery of cognitive skills for mathematics in Grade 12 students. Mwangi and Githua (2003) state that the provision of learning material, pressure from family members, and the language of the tests influence the performance of students in mathematics. According to Nagy et al. (2010), the cultural context to which individuals are exposed contributes to self-concept formation through exposure to norms, such as gender-role stereotypes.

MacGregor (2009) observes that, in South Africa, mathematics skills and achievement are important for all students in their schooling. It is a prerequisite for any postsecondary career development, even in fields that are not related to mathematics, science and technology. The minimum compulsory requirement of the National Senior Certificate is a 40% pass in Grade 12 in mathematics.

According to MacGregor (2009) and Blaine (2009), this requirement, though a necessity, seems to militate against massive skills development in the country, because of low mathematics achievement by both high school and higher education students. This paper examines the relationship between high school students’ self-concept and actual achievement in mathematics, based on a study of four schools in Vhembe District of Limpopo province in South Africa.

2. Literature Review Mathematics self-concept refers to students’ perceptions of their skills and interest in and capability of learning mathematics (Liu et al., 2005). Liu et al. (2005) point out that mathematics self-concept is a product of confidence, as well as effort.

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Confidence refers to the feeling that students have in relation to their ability in a subject, while effort refers to the amount of physical and mental energy dedicated to the study of mathematics. Mathematics self-concept, therefore, refers to academic self-concept, but with a bias toward mathematics, and is a product of a students’ effort and confidence in mathematics. Though some studies highlight the link between academic self-concept and achievement (Kwena, 2007; Osei, 2014), they have not specifically isolated mathematics self-concept. Other studies in the field have determined that there are significant relationships between academic self-concept and gender, as well as between cooperative learning and performance in the science subjects (Momanyi et al., 2011; Visi, 2015) Studies reveal the existence of gender differences in self-concept, which has an impact on student learning and achievement at school (Visi, 2015). Boys have been found to have higher self-concept in mathematics, while girls tend to have higher self-concept in languages (Nagy et al., 2010). Visi (2015) also observed that male secondary school students in Namibia had a more positive attitude about mathematics classroom learning situations than their female counterparts, and that students of a particular gender have more favourable perceptions about the subject when they are taught by a teacher of the same gender. A similar study in Ghana, by Obilor (2011) in relation to applied sciences, reveals gender differences in learning aspirations and outcomes in tertiary students, which favoured female students over their male counterparts. Trautwein et al. (2006) found out that most teachers held gender-informed perceptions about their students, especially in mathematics, sciences and technology. Students showing a positive attitude towards a subject tend to be motivated, self-regulated and more efficacious in content mastery than those reflecting negative feelings (Trautwein et al., 2006).

Vaughan (2002) compared students in individual and cooperative academic engagement in classrooms, and concluded that there were more gains when students studied mathematics in cooperative teams than as individuals. In the same vein, Manger and Eikeland (1998) had earlier found that the individualised approach to learning mathematics resulted in students memorising conceptions of the subject, while learning in cooperative teams helped them to perceive mathematics as a creative and applicable subject. This means that allocating students to groups has the potential of boosting the collective self-concept of students, which is a catalyst for positive achievement in mathematics learning.

Engaging students in cooperative groups provides them with the opportunity to share ideas, freely ask each other questions, express their thoughts, justify their answers and debate processes (Hellum-Alexander, 2010; Geist, 2010) Zahra et al. (2010) studied whether different types of self-concept of individual students, such as academic, physical, and social self-concept, were correlated with their academic achievement. In their study, 1,500 female university degree students in Islamabad who completed a questionnaire were selected through a two-stage cluster sampling technique. The questionnaire by Marsh (1992) was used to collect data on self-concept. Factor analysis and Kendalls-Tau-b revealed that social and physical self-concepts were not related to academic achievement.

In contrast, the relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement was found to be significant, with a weak correlation.

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A study by Kwena (2007), on factors that influence academic performance of primary school students in Bondo District, Kenya, found that the relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement was significant and positive. The sample comprised 972 students, of whom 497 were male and 475 were female. The focus was on primary school students of Class 6 and Class 8 in a rural area, and considered academic achievement in all subjects. Data were collected using academic self-concept ladders for academic self-concept, and questionnaires for other factors. The possibility of generalizing the results is limited, and findings cannot be extended to students in secondary or primary school, or in an urban environment.

3. Problem Statement Mathematics forms the basis of most scientific subjects and, therefore, finds its application in several fields. Hence, performance in mathematics is critical at all levels of education. A good score in mathematics is also a prerequisite for most courses offered by science-learning colleges and universities. MacGregor (2009) observes that, in South Africa, mathematical skills and achievement are important for all students. It is a prerequisite for any post-secondary career development, even in fields that are not related to mathematics, science and technology. Studies have underlined the link between academic self-concept and achievement (Erdogan & Sengul, 2014; Kwena, 2007; Osei, 2014), though they have not specifically isolated the role of mathematics self-concept. Other studies in the field have found significant relationships between academic self-concept and gender, and achievement in science subjects (Manger & Eikeland, 2006; Visi, 2015).

In South Africa, the minimum requirement of the National Senior Certificate is a 40% pass in Grade 12 mathematics. This requirement, though a necessity, seems to militate against massive skills development in the country, because of low mathematics achievement by both high school and higher education students (MacGregor, 2009; Blaine, 2009). This trend of low mathematics achievement may be inverted if the factors that lead to low mathematics achievement can be understood. Once the factors have been identified, devising a plan to overcome the barriers is key to helping students succeed.

Research on the relationship between academic self-concept and mathematics achievement report contradictory findings. Some studies report a positive correlation, while others found no correlation. Due to the contradictory findings and limited information in the literature on the link between academic selfconcept and mathematics achievement, the researchers of this study sought to examine the extent to which the mathematics self-concept of 236 matric candidates at four South African schools was related to their actual achievement in mathematics.

4. Hypothesis This study was premised on the following hypotheses: H01: Mathematics self-concept does not significantly predict academic achievement of Grade 12 students.

H02: There are no significant gender differences for mathematics self-concept and academic achievement of Grade 12 students.

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H03: There are no significant differences in mathematics self-concept and academic achievement of Grade 12 students in rural and urban schools.

5. Methodological Approach This study was conducted at four schools using a correlational research design that involved the measurement of two or more variables and the relationship between or among those variables (Stangor, 2011). The main reason for using this design was because it involves the measurement of variance on the dependent variable relative to variance on the predictor variable(s). No variables were manipulated, and student examinations were used to measure academic achievement. It was presumed that the dependent variable would be determined, to some extent, by the independent variable; thus, the study drew conclusions based on the predictive levels of each of the independent variables on the dependent variable. In this case, the link between students’ mathematics selfconcept and academic achievement was investigated.

5.1. Target Population The study targeted 4,321 Grade 12 students (2,074 boys and 2,247 girls) in secondary schools in the Vhembe District of South Africa. Students in Grade 12 were chosen for the study because they had already completed 12 years of schooling and were likely, by this time, to have formed a well-defined academic self-concept. Students in Grade 12 were also preferred because they had already chosen their matric subjects, were in their final year of school, and could be expected to be well-established in their studies.

5.2. Sample and Sampling Procedures Purposive and stratified random sampling approaches were used to select the sample. Two rural schools and two urban schools were selected using purposive sampling. The location of the school, the gender of the students, who had to be in Grade 12 and have mathematics as a subject, were considered. Grade 12 was chosen through purposive sampling. Students in Grade 12 were selected through stratified random sampling. Gender was used to stratify the participants (Stangor, 2011).

The sample size was arrived at by applying the formula of Yamane, as cited in Israel (1992). Using the formula, a sample size of 236 was obtained, which comprised Grade 12 candidates. In terms of gender, 112 (47%) were male and 124 (53%) were female. In terms of location, 124 students (52.1%) were drawn from rural schools and 114 (47.9%) were enrolled at urban schools. The sampled students were, therefore, almost balanced in terms of gender and location of their schools – there were slightly more girls at rural schools. There were two students whose data could not be captured. All the sampled respondents from the four schools were due to sit for the South African matric or National Senior Certificate at the end of 2012.

5.3. Research Instruments Questionnaires and document analysis were used to obtain data for this study.

Mathematics self-concept was measured using a questionnaire that included items from the Academic Self-Concept Questionnaire. The questionnaire was

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analyzed by research professionals who critically reviewed the items and provided feedback in the form of ideas for revisions, insertions, and deletions, to ensure content validity. Teachers at secondary schools were also consulted, because they are knowledgeable about what is appropriate for students at various levels of study. The researchers then tweaked the items based on these experts' recommendations. In addition, a pilot study was conducted, and the feedback was used to make the necessary adjustments to improve the validity of the questionnaire.

The items were tested for internal consistency using Cronbach's alpha to measure the questionnaire's reliability, and the coefficients obtained per sub-scale were used to compute the overall instrument reliability. The Cronbach coefficient of reliability of the instrument was given as between 0.74 and 0.89. The instrument was piloted with a group of 30 Grade 12 secondary school students, and the overall reliability of the instrument was calculated to be 0.79.

5.4. Data Collection Procedures Before data collection at the four schools, permission to conduct the study was obtained from the relevant gatekeepers, including the Department of Education.

The research team visited schools to explain the purpose and expected outcomes of the study to the students and schoolteachers. In order to uphold confidentiality, it was clarified that the reporting of the results of the study would be anonymous and, therefore, participants were instructed to refrain from writing their names on the questionnaire.

5.5. Data Analysis Data that were collected were coded and keyed into a computer for analysis using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The following null hypotheses were tested at α = 0.05.

H01: Mathematics self-concept does not significantly predict academic achievement of Grade 12 students (statistical test: multiple linear regression).

H02: There are no significant gender differences for mathematics self-concept and academic achievement of Grade 12 students (statistical test: independent sample t-test).

H03: There are no significant differences in mathematics self-concept and academic achievement of Grade 12 students in rural and urban schools (statistical test: one-way analysis of variance [ANOVA].)

6. Results 6.1. Demographic Data The sampled schools were classified into rural and urban location. In total, the sample consisted of 112 (47.46%) male and 124 (52.54%) female Grade 12 students from four (two rural and two urban) secondary schools in Vhembe District. The students’ demographic data is shown in Table 1.

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Location Rural Urban Total

Table 1. Distribution of sample by location of school Boys Percentage Girls Percentage Total 60 53.57 65 52.41 125 52 46.43 59 47.59 111 112 100.00 124 100.00 236

Percentage 53.00 47.00 100.00

Table 1 shows that the variance of location of schools was not significant and, therefore, it would not have contributed to differences in mathematics selfconcept and academic achievement of students.

Hypothesis 1 The study's null hypothesis assessed the extent to which mathematics self-concept predicts academic achievement of Grade 12 students in Vhembe District. The null hypothesis that was tested was as follows: Mathematics self-concept does not significantly predict academic achievement of Grade 12 students. The predictive levels of the domains of mathematics self-concept were tested using multiple linear regression analysis.

Table 2. ANOVA for mathematics self-concept model Model

Sum of Df Mean F Sig. squares square 1 Regression 530.12 2 265.06 3.00 0.05 Residual 40,605.46 460 88.27 Total 41,135.58 462 Df – Degrees of freedom, F-statistic is a ratio of two variances, Sig. - statistically significant result

Table 2 reports the ANOVA for the academic self-concept regression model. The analysis in Table 2 shows that the predictive value of academic self-concept is statistically significant, F(2, 460) = 3.00, p = 0.05. The null hypothesis is, therefore, rejected.

Hypothesis 2 The second hypothesis focused on gender differences related to students’ mathematics self-concept and academic achievement. The tested null hypothesis stated the following: There are no significant gender differences in mathematics self-concept and academic achievement of Grade 12 students.

To test the hypothesis, an independent sample t-test was carried out for the study variables. The findings show no gender differences in terms of students’ mathematics self-concept and academic achievement. The null hypothesis is, therefore, not rejected. The findings are presented in Table 3.

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Table 3. Mean differences for mathematics self-concept and academic achievement by gender Levene’s test t-test for for equality equality of of variances means

Academic achievement Mathematics self-concept

F Sig. Equal variances 0.13 0.72 assumed Equal variances 0.01 0.92 assumed

Mean difference

Sig. (2tailed)

Std. error difference

T Df 0.85 461

0.40

0.76

0.89

-0.60 461

0.55

-0.33

0.54

The findings in Table 3 indicate that the mean differences in academic achievement and mathematics self-concept were not statistically significant, assuming equal variances for academic achievement, t(461) = 0.85, p = 0.89 and t(461) = -0.60, p = 0.54, for mathematics self-concept. Thus, there appears to be no significant gender differences in mathematics self-concept and academic achievement. Not only were the differences in means marginal, but they were also statistically insignificant. Macharia (2011) and Agarawal and Kumar (2015) revealed similar findings in their investigations of gender differences in chemistry and mathematics achievement respectively, hence, the null hypothesis was not rejected.

Hypothesis 3 The third hypothesis focused on determining differences between respondents’ mathematics self-concept and academic achievement based on the location of their school. The following null hypothesis was tested: There are no significant differences in mathematics self-concept and academic achievement between students at rural and urban schools. A one-way ANOVA was used to test the hypothesis. The results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. ANOVA of mathematics self-concept and academic achievement

Academic achievement

Mathematics self-concept

Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total

Sum of squares 10,080.13

2

Mean square 5040.07

31,055.45

460

67.51

41,135.58 11.82

462 2

5.91

14,595.42

460

31.73

14,607.24

462

Df

F

Sig.

74.66

0.00

0.16

0.72

Significant differences existed between the means of academic achievement of schools based on location —F(2,460) = 74.66, p < 0.01. The mean differences for mathematics self-concept—F(2,460) = 0.16, p = 0.72—between schools based on location were, however, statistically insignificant. The differences between locations of schools in relation to mathematics self-concept were statistically

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insignificant. These results show that the level of mathematics self-concept of students is not determined by the location of their schools, whether urban or rural.

7. Discussion The first hypothesis relates to the extent to which a student's mathematics selfconcept predicts their academic achievement. The two variables had a positive and significant relationship. These findings suggest that attempts to strengthen students' mathematics self-concept should be intensified, as doing so will boost their confidence and, hence, lead to improved academic achievement. If students’ confidence is strengthened, they will be more inclined to exert greater effort to learn mathematics. These findings corroborate those of Ajogbeje (2010), Kwena (2007), and Macharia (2011). In a sample of secondary school students, Ajogbeje (2010) found a strong link between students' academic self-perception and their mathematics performance. In her study of elementary school students, Kwena (2007) found a link between academic self-concept and mathematics achievement of primary school students These findings of previously cited authors, therefore, suggest that the level of education does not necessarily influence the relationship between self-concept and academic achievement. Students’ personal beliefs about their capability to learn influence their motivation and learning (Gwirayi & Shumba, 2007). Trautwein et al. (2006) concur that students with a positive attitude towards mathematics give more academic time to the subject, which, in turn, positively influences achievement. A study by Chang and Lin (2017) demonstrated that students with higher academic self-concept tended to invest more time in learning activities related to learning the corresponding subject.

The second hypothesis focused on gender differences in relation to mathematics self-concept and academic achievement. The findings indicate that male and female students were not significantly different in mathematics self-concept and academic achievement. These findings correspond with those reported by other researchers in the field (Agarawal & Kumar, 2015; Macharia, 2011). Agarawal and Kumar (2015), in their study on gender differences in academic self-concept of boys and girls, found no differences between the two genders. Furthermore, the results of Macharia’s (2011) investigation into the effects of gender and mathematics ability on academic performance, found no significant difference in the performance of male and female students in chemistry. Thus, these studies imply that, environment notwithstanding, gender does not have any significant effect on mathematics achievement.

The third hypothesis focused on determining differences in mathematics selfconcept and academic achievement in relation to the location of school. Findings reveal that the location of the school – whether in a rural or urban area – had a significant influence on mathematics self-concept and academic achievement.

These findings are similar to those of Baran and Maskan (2011) and Srivastara and Joshi (2015). Baran and Maskan (2011) investigated the link between students' academic self-concept and factors such as location of school, school type, gender, and family background. Students in vocational high schools had a lower selfconcept than students at other institutions. Srivastara and Joshi (2011) conducted a study on the effect of school and area on academic self-concept and academic

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achievement, and found that adolescents in schools in urban centers had greater academic self-concept and achievement than those at schools in rural areas.

8. Conclusions and Recommendations The study findings demonstrate that mathematics self-concept plays a significant role in students’ academic performance and, therefore, self-concept should be encouraged. It is also worth noting that gender differences do not influence how mathematics self-concept affects academic achievement of students. The findings reveal that the location of the school, that is, whether in a rural or urban area, had a significant influence on mathematics self-concept and academic achievement of students.

Based on the findings, the study recommends the following: • Mathematics teachers should be empowered through training to improve students’ mathematics self-concept and their confidence regarding learning mathematics, which should improve their academic performance in the subject.

•

Mentoring programs should be introduced to expose students to successful role models and motivational speakers, who could boost their mathematics self-concept and encourage them to work hard in mathematics. Doing so is likely to improve students’ academic achievement.

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Israel, G. D. (1992). Sampling the evidence of extension program impact. Program Evaluation and Organizational Development, IFAS, University of Florida, PEOD-5. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/PD/PD00500.pdf3/6/2011 Kwena, A. J. (2007). An investigation into selected factors on academic self-concept among primary school pupils in Bondo District [Unpublished PhD thesis, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya].

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MacIntyre, H., & Ireson, J. (2002). Within-class ability grouping: placement of learners in groups and self-concept. British Educational Research Journal, 28(2), 249–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/01411920120122176 Manger, T., & Eikeland, O. (1998). The effect of mathematics self-concept on girls’ and boys’ mathematical achievement. School Psychology International, 19(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034398191001 Marsh, H. W. (1992). Content specificity of relations between academic achievement and academic self-concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(1), 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.84.1.35 Momanyi, J. M., Too, J. K., & Simiyu, C. (2011). Influence of type of school on academic motivation and academic performance among secondary schools in Kenya.

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Nagy, G., Watt, H. M. G., Eccles, J. S., Trautwein, M., Lüdtke, O., & Baumert, J. (2010). The development of students’ mathematics self-concept in relation to gender: Different countries, different trajectories? Journal of Research on Adolescent, 20(2), 482–506. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00644.x Obilor, I. E. (2011). Relationship between self-concept and mathematics achievement of senior secondary students in Port Harcourt Metropolis. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 1(4), 39–46.

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Schnyder, I., & Niggli, A. (2006). Predicting homework effort: Support for a domainspecific, multilevel homework model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 438– 456.

Srivastara, R., & Joshi, S. (2011). The effect of school and area on academic self-concept and academic achievement of adolescents. Delhi Psychiatry Journal, 1(2), 331–336.

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Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2006). Self-esteem, academic selfconcept, and achievement: how the learning environment moderates the dynamics of self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(2), 334– 349. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.334

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Vaughan, W. (2002). Effects of cooperative learning on achievement and attitude among students of color. The Journal of Educational Research, 95(6), 359–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670209596610 Visi, N. (2015). The relationship between students’ academic self-concept, motivation and academic achievement. Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 5(4), 270–276.

Zahra, A., Arif, M., & Yousuf, M. (2010). Relationship of academic, physical and social selfconcepts of students with their academic achievement. Contemporary Issues in Educational Research, 3(3), 73–78. https://doi.org/10.19030/cier.v3i3.190

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 139-158, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.9 Received Oct 20, 2021; Revised Dec 12, 2021; Accepted Dec 21, 2021

Religious Instruction for Students with Autism in an Inclusive Primary School Hakiman Hakiman* Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Mas Said, Surakarta, Central Java Province, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4241-9136 Bambang Sumardjoko and Waston Waston Universitas Muhammadiyah, Surakarta, Central Java Province, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5138-0467 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8495-9822

Abstract. This study describes religious instruction for students with autism conveyed by classroom teachers, Islamic Education teachers, shadow teachers, and parents through a mentoring program in school and family environments. This qualitative phenomenological study was carried out in an inclusive primary school in Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia. Five students with autism and their parents, five classroom teachers, five shadow teachers, and three Islamic Education teachers were involved in this study. Data were collected through in-depth interviews, participant observation, documentation, and focus group discussions (FGDs). They were analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis and an interactive approach. This study reveals that optimal outcomes of religious instruction entail collaboration among Islamic Education teachers, classroom teachers, shadow teachers, and parents with the assistance of psychologists, counsellors, therapists, pedagogues, and school policies. Such collaboration is particularly required in the implementation of an adaptive curriculum, lesson plans, learning implementation, evaluation, mentoring and the habituation of worship. The modification of learning methods, media, and evaluation is also required.

Keywords: religious instruction; students with autism; inclusive education; phenomenology

1. Introduction Learning is a lifetime activity carried out by humans as an attempt to achieve human perfection. In this context, perfection is indicated by critical thinking,

*

Corresponding author: Hakiman Hakiman, hakiman.iman@gmail.com

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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physical intelligence, and spiritual intelligence. As stipulated by the law, the purpose of national education is to cultivate the potential of students to possess religious and spiritual strength, self-control, personality, intelligence, a noble character, and the skills required by individuals, society, the nation and the state.

The personality of Muslims is represented by the extent to which they carry out Allah's command and practice worship, one of which is Salat as an obligatory prayer for Muslims. Salat represents one's submission to the Creator, a form of obedience and piety shown by the humble servants of Allah. Furthermore, Chapter II Article 3 of Act Number 20 of 2003 stipulates that the National Education System generates students with faith in and reverence of God Almighty (Republik Indonesia, 2013). The Muslims express their faith and piety through the five daily prayers.

Islamic Education is listed as a compulsory subject at every level of education.

This subject comprises Qur’anic studies, Aqeedah, Morals, Worship, and History of Islam. In Indonesia, religious instruction must be delivered to students regardless of their background, including students with special needs or autism.

Religious instruction fulfils a spiritual need for children with special needs as spirituality is an essential element for their lives, while spiritual practices bring a sense of well-being and strength to those with disabilities (Poston & Turnbull, 2004). The provision of religious instruction allows Muslim students, both normal and those with special needs, to participate in religious beliefs and practices (Brooke & Smith, 2009). However, an inclusive pedagogy approach to eliminating discrimination among students (Raguindin & Ping, 2020) is required. It can be done by providing a platform to support the needs of autistic students.

Despite their weaknesses and strengths, students with autism are entitled to proper education, including religious instruction. In Bakker et al., (2019) the American Psychiatric Association explains that autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by qualitative impairments in social interaction, social communication, and repetitive and stereotyped patterns in behaviours.

According to Sha'arani and Tahar (2017), autistic children have some social problems, including weakness in bilateral interactions, communication, and imagination. Individuals with autism tend to be aggressive, hyperactive, or hypoactive (Usop & Lilik, 2017). According to Heward et al., (2013), children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show impairment in communication skills and social interactions and engage in repetitive and stereotyped behaviours.

Therefore, in the educational process, they need special support and treatment.

In a study, Hanum (2012) reveals the lack of references to Islamic Education for students with special needs, which becomes an obstacle for Islamic Education teachers. Meanwhile, there is a need for a distinctive Islamic Education curriculum for these students (Zulaikhah et al., 2020). This requires the government’s support to assist inclusive schools, one way of which is by providing guidelines for Islamic Education or religious instruction for students

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with autism (Arlinwibowo et al., 2020). In addition, the provision of internal training and professional development regarding the strategies for teaching students with learning difficulties can be a part of the government’s policy

(Matolo & Rambuda, 2021).

An inclusive school is a representative place for providing religious education for students with autism. According to the Committee on Educational Interventions for Children with Autism (2001), education for children with autism entails the access to an educational program that best meets their special needs. For Muslim children with autism, such knowledge and skills involve independence and the ability to practice worship. Schaap-Jonker et al., (2013) suggest that religion or religiosity is fundamental for children with autism, and serves as a clinical medium for them. There is a high level of expectation that worship education delivered to students with autism in inclusive schools will have a positive impact on them.

According to Drame & Kamphoff (2015), educating children with special needs under inclusive education involves being able to improve their academic achievement, skills, peer acceptance, self-esteem, and friendship networks with lifelong benefits. Special education acknowledges and accepts a greater plurality of perspectives about the nature of disability (Baglieri et al., 2011). The ultimate goal of inclusive education for children with special needs is to support and teach them to carry out daily activities independently (Rahman & Dahlan, 2015), including performing worship.

As suggested by Asiyah (2018), inclusive schools offer adaptive education programs and special services for students with special needs, particularly to optimize student satisfaction and learning outcomes. Koh & Shin (2017) suggest

that inclusive education becomes a preferred educational service for children with special needs. Religious instruction delivered by Islamic Education teachers, shadow teachers, and parents is deemed important for fostering knowledge, skills, and habituation for students with autism. In addition, the implementation of religious instruction for these students requires learning modification and collaboration among Islamic Education teachers, classroom teachers, shadow teachers, parents, and experts in order to support its effectiveness.

This study provides important information on how religious instruction is delivered to students with autism by using an inclusive pedagogic approach, namely by involving an inclusive team that consists of psychologists, counsellors, and pedagogues, and by initiating collaboration between multiple teachers and parents in the planning, implementing, and evaluating of learning.

This study provides input for practitioners, school administrators, and teachers, particularly in providing religious instruction for students with autism.

2. Literature Review Worship is also known as ibadah (‫)عبادة‬, an Arabic word meaning ‘service’ or ‘servitude’. In Indonesian terminology as stated in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia

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(KBBI), worship means i) an act or declaration of devotion to God based on religious teaching, ii) the physical and spiritual efforts based on religious teachings that must be performed by the adherents, and iii) religious rituals.

Carrying out worship, such as daily prayers, is perceived by Muslims as a command from God that must be carried out as ordered in the Qur’an (Tim Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, 2016). According to Rasyid (2002), prayer is a practice of worship composed of prescribed repetitive actions and recitations, started with Takbir and ended with Taslim.

Every Muslim must understand and have skills in praying regardless of their background. Despite their limitations, children with autism are also required to perform prayers. Several jurists and Islamic scholars have discussed the obligation of mandatory prayers for children with autism (Mian, 2012). Many studies have also discussed teaching strategies for students with autism, including those of Puspitaningtyas & Pratiwi (2018) Lal & Ganesan (2011), and Sha’arani & Tahar (2017). These studies, however, discussed the teaching methods of Islamic Education in a general context. Meanwhile, previous studies that focus on the methods for conveying religious instruction, including Sugiarti et al., (2019), Abas et al., (2015), and Rahmawati (2018), have not addressed the

special needs of students with autism. These studies only involved Islamic Education teachers instead of all related teachers such as classroom teachers and shadow teachers.

Special services are required to convey proper religious education for students with autism. In Islam, the provision of educational institutions, programs, and self-development for children with special needs is a shared responsibility for all members of society (Al-Aoufi et al., 2012). It emphasizes that children with special needs require special education services. According to Morad et al.

(2001), caring for individuals with special needs is the duty of every Muslim and every Islamic State and society, which is in accordance with the Islamic humanistic philosophy encompassed in the Qur’an and Islamic theology.

Inclusive schools are the best option for students with autism to be taught and to participate in worship practices along with their peers. Villa & Thausand (2005) highlight the capacity of inclusive education in embracing all groups and ensuring the rights of all students in society. Breakey (2006) proposed the following requirements of inclusive education: i) classroom management that consists of the seating arrangements in classroom, lighting, and a constructive environment; ii) communication skills that involve the use of a clear voice and being concise, the avoidance of euphemisms and physical touch, the use of verbal and visual instructions supported by visual media, and memory assistance; and iii) the implementation of suitable learning methods, for example visual and kinaesthetic methods supported by videos, games, simulations, pictures and diagrams, social stories, and cartoons.

According to Breakey (2006), the Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children (TEACCH) is the most widely used approach to treat children with autism. The National Autistic Society (2020)

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explains the principles of TEACCH, as i) improving adaptation through modified education and learning environment, ii) collaborating with parents and professionals, iii) determining individual needs using an educational assessment program based on individual abilities, iv) structured teaching, v) improving skills through training for parents and educators, vi) cognitive and behavioural therapy, and vii) generalist training for all professionals, not just psychologists or therapists, involved in the TEACCH system.

The roles of shadow teachers are integral to the education of students with autism. According to Iswandia et al., (2017), these roles are i) to collaborate with classroom teachers in preparing learning activities; ii) to assist children with special needs by providing concise and clear instructions to complete their tasks; iii) to socialize and select peers for children in performing various activities; iv) to direct children with special needs in the habituation of positive routine activities; v) to arrange both indoor and outdoor activities for children with special needs; vi) to give rewards and punishment for children with special needs; vii) to minimize the failure of children with special needs; and viii) to deliver fun teaching to children with special needs.

Furthermore, parents make a major contribution to the milestones attained by students with autism. Gunarsa (2003) claims that parents’ support and motivation will accelerate a child’s recovery from autism. McDonald (2014) suggests four activities initiated by parents for children with autism, namely i) endeavouring to seek a diagnosis for their children; ii) endeavouring to find, obtain, maintain, and provide appropriate education for their children; iii) finding solutions to resolve the constant difficulties associated with their children’s education; and iv) planning for the future of their children. Worship education for students with autism can be carried out comprehensively by classroom teachers, Islamic Education teachers, shadow teachers, and parents.

The adaptive curriculum is specially devised according to the needs of students with autism.

Previous articles could be relevant to the topic discussed in the present study; however, this study attempts to specify the discussion about religious instruction for students with autism from the perspective of teachers, parents, and experts. In addition, this study proposes a new approach to deliver religious instruction to these students in inclusive schools, namely through collaboration and modification in learning outcomes, learning processes, and mentoring.

3. Research Methods This study is qualitative research using a phenomenological approach in which researchers attempt to understand the substantial meaning of events and experiences by conducting direct investigations on individuals involved in worship education. Hansen (1983) and Watson & Thompson (2016) have suggested the feasibility of the phenomenological approach for studies on religious education in schools. The present study was conducted at the Islamic Elementary School Surakarta, the first school in Central Java, Indonesia to offer an inclusive education. It involved five students with autism and their parents,

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three Islamic Education teachers, and five shadow teachers. The description of research participants is presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Research subjects Code

Status

MR

Student of Class 2A

FR

Student of Class 2 B

MI

Student of Class 3

KN

Student of Class 4

MT

Student of Class 5

ZN

Shadow teacher of Student KN

NC

Shadow teacher of Student MR

LL

Shadow teacher of Student MI

RB

Shadow teacher of Student MT

FT

Shadow teacher of Student FR

AF

Islamic education teacher of Class 2 A and 2B

FH

Islamic education teacher of Class 3

NR

Islamic education teacher of Class 4 and 5

SR

Classroom teacher of Class 2

FH

Classroom teacher of Class 3

AT

Classroom teacher of Class 4

YN

Classroom teacher of Class 5

TN

Parent of Student KN

AP

Parent of Student MR

SA

Parent of Student MI

DJ

Parent of Student FR

AC

Parent of Student MT

In addition to the primary research subjects in Table 1, this study also involved other respondents such as school principal, an inclusive education team, and other academic staff.

The data were collected using an in-depth interview technique. Subsequently, they were analyzed using the interpretative phenomenological analysis [IPA] proposed by Smith et al., (2009), namely i) reading and re-reading; ii) initially making notes and becoming familiar with the text; iii) developing emergent themes; iv) searching for connections across emergent themes; v) moving to the next cases; and vi) looking for patterns across cases. Observations, documentation, and FGDs were also carried out to obtain data. Subsequently, a triangulation technique was used to validate the data. As for the data analysis technique, the interactive analysis developed by Miles et al., (2014) was conducted. It involved data collection, data reduction, data display, and

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conclusion drawing. This study was conducted from July 2019 to December 2020.

4. Results and Discussion In Indonesia, the world's largest Muslim country, religious instruction is a compulsory subject that must be delivered to every Muslim child. Salat prayers are the most fundamental worship for Muslims, and every child must know, understand, and practice these prayers. Accepting and practicing worship based on one’s belief are among the core competencies for students that are stated in the Islamic Education Curriculum issued by the Ministry of Religion of the Republic of Indonesia (Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia, 2019). In inclusive Islamic schools, including Elementary School Surakarta, religious instruction is one of the prioritized programs. This school is committed to ensuring that all students perform and are accustomed to praying five times a day. Religious instruction is the commitment of the school community and worship is the noble goal of the school.

Religious education is delivered to students with autism through learning activities and mentoring. It entails the collaboration among the classroom teacher, Islamic Education teacher, shadow teacher, and parent. However, before the implementation of religious education, an individual assessment is conducted by an inclusive education team. This team consists of counsellors, psychologists, pedagogues, and therapists. Principally, assessment is done to identify the condition of students before they carry out learning activities and it is the responsibility of Muslim teachers (Hakiman et al., 2020). Religious instruction for students with autism in inclusive Islamic schools is carried out through classroom learning, mentoring inside and outside the classroom by shadow teachers, and learning and mentoring by parents at home. Worship education for elementary school students is mainly concerned with purification or tahāra and prayer.

4.1. Religious Instruction for Students with Autism Religious instruction for students with autism in schools is carried out by Islamic Education teachers, classroom teachers, and shadow teachers. From the FGD with the principal as policymaker, the inclusive education team, classroom teachers, and shadow teachers, religious instruction can be summarized as being carried out through learning activities, mentoring, and habituation. Religious instruction also involves the participation of the inclusive education team and parents. The role of the inclusive education team (counsellors, pedagogues, and psychologists) in the development of religious instruction is significant.

Furthermore, learning actions are devised according to assessments, observations, and consultations with the parents and the inclusive education team. The results become the basis for teachers in planning, implementing, and evaluating the results of worship learning activities. The learning outcomes are based on the needs of students instead of the needs of teachers. Therefore, individual learning is regarded as a suitable basis for learning for children with special needs or autism. The modification of learning strategies and objectives or outcomes is a part of multicultural learning.

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The implementation of religious instruction for students with autism uses an adaptive curriculum, also known as an accommodative curriculum. This curriculum is tailored to the unique characteristics of these students (Leytham et al., 2020). In the accommodative curriculum, teachers modify instructional strategies, learning media, assessments, and relevant activities based on student needs. It confirms the views of Kustawan (2013) on the use of an adaptive curriculum to optimize the learning process in inclusive schools. Worship curricula and learning are designated to facilitate students with autism to enhance their self-reliance in worship. Onwumere et al., (2020) support an independent curriculum to improve student skills for their future needs.

Religious instruction, however, are the needs of autistic Muslim students as religious human beings.

Religious instruction for students with autism is complemented by an inclusive education program and an individualized education program [IEP]. In religious instruction, the IEP is vital to ensure the effectiveness of learning. The significance of an individualized program for the successful learning process is also suggested by Zee & Koomen (2016) and Love et al., (2020) Moreover, the IEP is devised according to the needs of each student (Zulyan et al., 2020). It covers the targets to be achieved in each worship lesson, which are described comprehensively. As far as the learning outcomes are concerned, it is expected that students should be able to perform the functions of worship (such as ablutions and prayers) correctly and in an orderly fashion. The goals of children's education are clearly defined in individual learning programs. Briefly, learning objectives are clearly illustrated in the IEP (Fiorenzo & Barbara, 2020).

The lesson plan for students with autism comprises three components, namely an inclusive education program, an individualized education program/IEP, and a special education program. The inclusive education program is devised and implemented by the Islamic Education teacher in the conventional classroom.

On the other hand, the individualized education program/IEP is devised by shadow teacher and classroom teacher and implemented by shadow teacher in the classroom; while the special education program is devised by the shadow teacher based on the inputs from the subject teacher, classroom teacher, parents, and inclusive education team. Furthermore, it is implemented by the shadow teacher during mentoring and learning in school. The composition of the inclusive education program and IEP is based on the modified syllabus, while the special education program is mostly based on the inputs from the shadow teacher and the parents.

The IEP of religious instruction is tailored according to the assessment, observations, subject matter, and abilities of each student. During the preparation of the IEP, the shadow teacher will observe and communicate with parents in order to attain the expected outcomes and fulfil the needs of each student. According to Richardson-gibbs et al., (2012), learning modification is required, namely by adjusting the regular material to suit the needs of students with autism.

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The implementation of worship education in inclusive schools is carried out by the Islamic Education teacher, classroom teacher, and shadow teacher. The involvement of shadow teachers and parents in preparing lesson plans is a hallmark of inclusive education. Moreover, inclusive education requires the collaboration of teachers in the classroom (Carrington et al., 2020). While collaboration is essential in teaching students with autism, Van Der Steen et al.

(2020) emphasize the significant role of professionals.

The use of visual learning media such as PowerPoint presentations, videos, and images, is also useful to engage the attention of students with autism. Merdan & Ozcan (2020) and Wright et al., (2020) report the effectiveness of video as a medium in teaching these students. The Islamic Education teachers modify the steps of worship (ablution and prayer) into colourful and large-sized images to make the concept more comprehensible for students. The teachers also hang the images on the walls of classrooms and mosques to help students with autism recall and practice worship. In addition to videos, virtual reality images are a useful learning medium (Cihak et al., 2016).

Ablutions comprise an orderly set of movements consisting of being clean by washing the face, washing hands, wiping the head/hair, and washing the feet.

Therefore, simulation and practice are considered to be suitable learning methods. Likewise, prayers comprise several movements, beginning with Takbir and ending with Taslim. A direct visual model, such as teacher demonstration, is more efficient than an auditory model since it better enables students with autism to memorize the steps. Owing to problems in receiving verbal instructions, the audio model is less efficient for students with autism.

In carrying out learning activities, the Islamic Education teacher is assisted by the classroom teacher with particular role. The classroom teacher serves to set up the class during teaching-learning activities and assists students with autism to stay focused during the class. Meanwhile, shadow teachers participate by sitting next to these students, directing them, and repeating the material to each individual. Shadow teachers provide individual repetitions both inside and outside the classroom for the enrichment of worship education.

The Islamic Education teacher demonstrates the worship movements of ablutions and prayers, while the students imitate the movements with the assistance of the shadow teacher. The shadow teacher physically guides the students, while classroom teacher manages and helps provide instructions for the students. Maftuhin & Fuad (2018) suggest that the learning strategies for students with special needs should involve various approaches. Therefore the creativity and skills of teachers are very important in providing religious instruction to students with autism (Kistoro et al., 2020).

In addition to the learning activities in a conventional class and beyond, the school also encourages students to perform ablutions, attend congregational prayers, and perform the Duha prayer to improve student understanding, skills and experiences in worship activities. Congregational prayer is a strategy in

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worship education. According to Syamsuri et al., (2021), habituation is a learning strategy used by the Islamic Education teachers for students with special needs.

Similarly, Angdreani et al., (2020) assert that habituation is an effective method for instilling religious values in elementary school students.

Evaluation of religious instruction for students with autism is emphasized as a continuous process or an ongoing evaluation (Anshar et al., 2020). In addition to the evaluation process, student learning and performance are also evaluated through examinations. Worship is a skill that students with autism need to have.

Therefore, assessment is done during the practices in the classroom as well as the actual implementation of worship at school. Practical evaluation involves the active participation of students with autism in the classroom (Sparapani et al., 2016).

Furthermore, student knowledge about worship is evaluated through a final examination set by the shadow teacher with the approval of the Islamic Education teacher and classroom teacher. The questions are presented in images, such as sorting out images of ablutions and prayers. According to Spector (2011), learning evaluation must be supported by visual media, including images. While learning evaluation highlights the characteristics of each student with autism, it should focus on the student’s needs. Oktari et al., (2020) suggest that the evaluation of Islamic Education must be adjusted to each student’s special circumstances.

The evaluation of students’ skills carried out by teachers during the learning process and worship activities at school is a measurable evaluation. It means that students’ performance can be continuously improved with the assistance of shadow teachers. Moreover, regular information from parents who monitor their children while carrying out worship at home is valuable in the evaluation process. Essentially, in learning evaluation for students with autism there is more emphasis on direct observation or authentic assessment, namely how they perform worship. Authentic assessment is stipulated in the Education and Culture Minister Regulation Number 104 of 2014 as the main approach for assessing learning outcomes (Republik Indonesia, 2014). In the context of worship education, such assessment is conducted by observing students in practicing ablutions and prayers.

4.2. Worship Mentoring for Students with Autism The shadow teachers have a major role in the effectiveness of worship instruction for students with autism, particularly in the classroom. The presence of shadow teachers enables the optimization of learning interactions (Rämä et al., 2020). They provide individual repetition of material to the students with short and clear instructions during the class (Iswandia et al., 2017), and help them stay focused (Nur’aini et al., 2014). Good communication is a fundamental factor in teaching Islamic Education (Bosra et al., 2020).

Shadow teachers have multiple roles, namely as teacher, mentor, trainer, and parent in school. Shadow teachers also act as a bridge between students with autism, and their peers and the environment. Kustawan (2013) emphasizes the

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role of shadow teachers in the curriculum development. It is in line with Article 41 of the Government Regulation Number 19 of 2005 of the National Education Standards Republik Indonesia (2005) that every education unit that carries out inclusive education must have professional educational personnel capable of organizing learning for students with special needs.

Shadow teachers are required to provide teaching, mentoring, coaching, and religious guidance for students with autism. The Elementary School mandates the shadow teachers to provide worship assistance to students with autism so that the students can worship independently. The collaboration between shadow teachers and the inclusive education team is invaluable in enriching the knowledge about inclusive education for these students. They can exchange experiences and share their skills regarding the treatment of these children.

During the conventional class, shadow teachers are required to sit next to students with autism, assist and direct them to pay attention to PowerPoint or videos presented at the front of the class. Shadow teachers assist these students by holding their hands to imitate ablution or prayer movements and giving short and clear instructions related to verbal information. They perform individual repetitions both in inside and outside the classroom. They also bring modified learning media. Among the duties and roles of the shadow teachers, according to Iswandia et al., (2017), is providing short and clear instructions for completing their tasks to students with autism.

The shadow teachers assist students with autism who experience difficulties in learning by offering repetition, enrichment, or remedial tasks. They also guide the students to practice worship on an ongoing basis and record notes for the follow-up mentoring activities. Regarding worship education, students with autism require a particular form of assisted learning or heilpedagogy, which is necessary considering that students with autism face challenges in learning.

According to Kok et al., (2014), teaching students with autism requires assisted teaching, namely the assistance from shadow teachers.

Mentoring is carried out by shadow teacher by sitting next to students with autism to direct and help them concentrate on lessons. It is confirmed by Nur’aini et al., (2014) that shadow teachers assist the students to focus and participate in the class.

The shadow teachers assist students with autism in the school environment. In teaching students how to perform ablutions, the shadow teacher promotes habituation by escorting them to the mosque to perform their ablutions before praying. In addition to using learning media such as images and videos, the shadow teacher also teaches the theory and practice of ablutions that cover practice methods, practice with instructions, and independent practice. Before the practice, the shadow teacher instructs students with autism to observe peers who perform their ablutions appropriately and then instructs them to imitate the steps. For students with autism, mentoring is carried out comprehensively, not only during the conventional class, but also outside the class. While the students

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are at school, the classroom teacher and shadow teacher are required to provide assistance to them. Shadow teachers are the spearhead of inclusive schools as the success of learning mainly depends on them. Hamid et al., (2020) contend that shadow teachers have a key role in inclusive schools in the development of the academic and social abilities of students with special needs.

4.3. The Role of Parents in Worship Education Muslim parents expect their children to live according to Islamic values, and to be independent in carrying out the five daily prayers. McDonald (2014) suggests that most parents attempt to provide the best education for the future of their children.

Elementary School Surakarta requires parents’ participation in several school activities. The formulation of the IEP, for example, is a medium of communication between schools and parents, a medium for dialogue between schools and parents, and a medium for parental involvement in arranging educational programs for their children. Consultation services have been suggested by Azad et al., (2020) as a means to improve communication between teachers and parents.

Schools and parents have the same vision in providing religious education for students with autism. Therefore, there should be a synchronization of worship programs held at schools and at home. The involvement of parents in religious instruction will support the learning achievement of students with autism (Jauhari & Rafikayati, 2018). Parents are involved in planning and implementing worship education as they act as informants, partners, observers, and evaluators.

Parents also provide information to the shadow teacher about the condition and the needs of their children. Parents further become school partners and teachers in formulating mentoring programs, and also partners in providing learning and worship assistance to students with autism. In addition, parents are the observers at home by communicating and interacting with these students. In the process, parents will determine the needs and development of their children.

Mentoring is carried out by shadow teachers at school and home. Therefore, it needs cooperation with parents that will enable parents to observe the child’s progress in practicing worship. Parents simultaneously, continuously, and naturally monitor and supervise the development of their children in performing worship, making them evaluators at the same time. The participation of parents in providing religious instruction at home includes the repetition of worship lessons conducted at school. Moreover, parents help shadow teachers in delivering religious instruction by playing worship-related videos on YouTube.

The implementation of religious instruction at home is done by accompanying children in memorizing ablution and prayer movements, dua, and recitation during prayers, the shortest letters in the Qur'an, and dua for parents. Moreover, flexible learning time allows the children to learn whenever it is convenient and when they show enthusiasm for it. There is no restriction of a learning time and place. Learning while playing is a strategy used by parents at home.

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Using rewards such as appreciation, praise, and gifts (favorite foods and toys) is among the learning strategies of parents. The verbal and non-verbal advice given by parents will have a positive impact on their children. Their support is the motivation for children to learn. It has been stated by Sarafino & Smith (2011) that parents' support comprises rewards, emotional appreciation, and physical and emotional support as a member of family or community.

At home, parents create fun learning by providing learning resources such as pictures, picture books, and puzzles of ablution and prayer movements to engage and interest children. One of the characteristics of children with autism is their fondness for visual media; hence parents can use visual learning facilities such as Islamic videos on YouTube. In addition to improving their visual skills, parents can hang various illustrations such as recitations in daily prayers, dua before entering the toilet, and dua before and after ablutions, on the walls or doors. For families with children with autism, visual media is a valuable tool. It has been suggested by Rutherford et al., (2020) that it stimulates children with autism to carry out independent learning.

The involvement of parents in worship education entails their wholehearted guidance in mentoring children for performing ablutions, praying independently, and encouraging congregational prayers at home and a nearby mosque. With stereotyped limitations of children with autism, parents attempt to provide guidance and direction to children to pray. Nevertheless, this finding is contrary to that of Afrionita (2014) who revealed that parents of children with special needs tend to practice permissive indulgent parenting, perceiving that praying is not a family obligation. Parents can provide guidance to their children by reminding them of prayer times and providing guidance in their ablutions and prayers. Guidance is carried out continuously until the child is able to perform ablutions and pray independently.

Parents instil the habituation of prayer by instructing, guiding, and observing children while praying, reminding children of the time of prayer, monitoring and supervising children while praying, correcting inappropriate movements, and providing guidance on how to perform prayers correctly and to memorize them. The exemplariness and habituation of parents in carrying out their prayers are the main factors in instilling worship in children with autism. Through the process of guidance, training, and habituation of prayers at home, students with autism are able to pray independently at home until ultimately, they can be disciplined and punctual in carrying out their prayers. Habituation also involves parents' invitation to attend congregational prayers in the mosque with the expectation that children with autism will pray diligently alongside their peers in the congregation. It is exhilarating for parents to see their children attending the mosque.

Students with autism can attend prayers at the mosque together with peers.

Congregational prayers at the mosque are also a means of interaction and socialization of children with autism, particularly with peers. They can initiate interaction with their peers and the surrounding community through their

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participation in spiritual activities. It is suggested by Carter (2013) that one of the important aspects in the lives of children with autism is that they can socialize with other people in spiritual and religious activities.

Praying in the congregation at the mosque is an experience as well as a social engagement for students with autism. Prayers are the spiritual activities that will comfort them. Poston & Turnbull (2004) suggested that religious education is the most fundamental aspect in the lives of children with special needs because spiritual activities bring a sense of wellbeing and strength to them. Worship activities both at school and home are beneficial for students with autism, both psychologically and socially.

It is suggested that prayers can be one of the strategies for parents to adopt to reduce anxiety in children with autism. Prayer can be a solution for the anxiety experienced by children with autism (Adams et al., 2019). The habituation of prayers by parents can be a strategy to cope with this issue. Generally, parents reduce the anxiety experienced by children with autism by creating a quiet, safe, private zone, and by eliminating any potential triggers.

Intensive communication between teachers and parents will enrich the knowledge in the management of students with autism. According to Vassallo et al., (2020), it strengthens the positive outcome of the collaboration between school and family. Parents have an important role in the success of religious education.

5. Conclusions and Implications Religious instruction for students with autism is carried out by prioritizing diversity and respect for all students. Worship education for these students is carried out based on adaptive learning through the modification of learning outcomes, instructional methods, learning media, and the evaluation process.

The learning process emphasizes the collaboration between the Islamic Education teacher, classroom teachers, and shadow teachers. Mentoring is done by shadow teachers both at school and at home. For students with autism, mentoring implements the individualized education program [IEP] devised by teachers, an inclusive education team, and parents. Parents play a key role in children’s religious education through the habituation of worship at home.

Moreover, they can guide and accompany their children while praying at the mosque.

The present study emphasizes the importance of special education for students with autism, which differs from that of students in general. Despite the limitations in time and research subjects, this study proposes collaboration among teachers, policymakers, and parents, as well as the modification of learning strategies to support religious instruction for students with autism.

Innovation and creativity initiated by the school (i.e., policymakers, classroom teachers, Islamic Education teachers, shadow teachers, an inclusive education team, and parents) is required in providing religious education for students with autism.

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Furthermore, this study recommends the necessity of providing a guideline for religious education curricula and modules as references for inclusive schools in delivering worship education to students with autism. Principally, the provision of education for students does not necessarily only involve direct parties such as teachers, therapists, counsellors, pedagogues, psychologists and parents, but also religious leaders to provide more comprehensive knowledge. Finally, considering the increasing number of inclusive schools in Indonesia it is important to prepare prospective Islamic Education teachers who understand the characteristics of children with special needs. Further research using the case-study approach to obtain in-depth information about inclusive education for students with autism is required.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 159-173, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.10 Received Oct 21, 2021; Revised Dec 14, 2021; Accepted Dec 21, 2021

Assessing the Higher Education Settings after the Transition to Online Learning: Exploring Teaching, Assessments, and Students’ Academic Success Nahla Moussa* American University in the Emirates, Dubai, UAE https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1342-8201

Abstract. This empirical research report intended to explore the impact of the sudden transition to online learning and teaching and assessment at higher education institutions in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

Furthermore, the study assessed the difference in students’ academic achievement and their perception of the transition to online learning. A mixed-method research design was adopted to achieve the purpose of this research paper. Content analysis, the Correlation Coefficient, and Simple Linear Regression were supportive analysis tools. Data analysis proved that the higher education system in the UAE embraced appropriate teaching and assessment approaches to the online mode of teaching and learning. Moreover, higher education students maintained high academic success after transitioning to online learning. Students’ perception of the transition to online learning positively correlated to students’ academic success. Thus, higher education students maintained a decent level of academic success after transitioning to the online mode of learning.

Keywords: teaching approaches; assessment; academic success; online learning; higher education

1. Introduction Higher education is a critical stage that is worthy of focus and study. Higher education refers to any post secondary educational setting that provides a dynamic environment for teaching and learning in all fields of knowledge where students are enrolled to earn an academic degree. Many educators focused heavily on pedagogies at the college level (McMinn et al., 2020; Sandri, 2020).

Recently, higher education has experienced a dramatic transition and expansion in many countries around the globe. Many components such as teaching approaches, assessment tools, and students' academic success could reflect the

*

Corresponding author: Nahla Moussa, nahla.moussa@aue.ae

©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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quality of learning and learners. Analyzing the higher education system entails focusing on these components. Many research studies (e.g., Chaturvedi et al., 2021; George, 2020; O’Brien & Blue, 2018) discussed and focused on teaching approaches, assessment strategies, and academic success in higher education from different perspectives, and the results differ based on the study perspective.

The past decades witnessed a rapid growth in tertiary education in the Middle East. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a fast-growing Middle Eastern country located in the Gulf area. The UAE Ministry of Education (MoE) continuously puts forth the effort to enhance higher institutions' productivity, strengthen scientific inquiry, and aims to graduate human cadres ready to face the challenges of this rapidly developed future and achieve development in all fields. The UAE Ministry of Education embraces a well–structured context, supported with an effective global criterion to inspire learners from all grade levels. The country aims to encourage students’ competencies and abilities throughout their education journey to facilitate lifelong learning and prepare them to face the changes of the dynamic future (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2019).

In alignment with achieving the strategic goals of the UAE’s Ministry of Education, the current research study is aiming at exploring the quality of teaching and learning depending on two dimensions; (1) exploring the change in teaching and assessment during the unexpected transition to online learning, and (2) measuring students’ perception of the sudden transition to online learning and the change in their academic success pre and post the transition.

Thus, the findings will provide a clear picture of teaching and assessment models that have been implemented during online learning. On the global level, the study summarizes the educational context implemented in higher education settings in the UAE as a multicultural country that hosts a diverse group of residents from across the globe. The findings of this study could help students who aim to study abroad in the exchange programs in the UAE. Furthermore, other universities can benefit from the findings in many ways to improve their practices.

2. The Research Problem Early at the beginning of 2020, the acute influence of COVID surprised the world—19 Pandemic, which urged applying safety measures to limit the prevalence and the impact of the COVID – 19. One of the safety measures is the transition of work and education to online operation, which interrupted the education system across all grade levels and affected work performance and academic success. Yang and Ma (2020) revealed that people’s emotions and subjective well–being deteriorate by 74%, which could influence people’s performance. The recent research of Daniels (2021) and a group of researchers discovered that students’ perception of success, engagement in a learning experience, and objectives achievement had significantly deteriorated; simultaneously, there is a wave of widespread normalization of cheating (Daniel et al., 2021). Furthermore, the transition to online learning is challenging for

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higher education settings, and there is a need for implementing new curriculum and teaching approaches to suit the online learning demands (Toquero, 2020).

Thus, the mentioned factors and the transition to online teaching and learning may impact the education system negatively. The research on assessing higher education and academic success after the sudden transition to online learning in the Middle East is insufficient; as a result, there is a need for further investigation.

3. Literature Review 3.1. Teaching, Learning, and Assessment in the UAE The view of teaching at the higher education level has shifted radically from a traditional way of content delivery to embracing active learning strategies in teaching and learning. Traditional teaching strategies focus on transferring subject content to students instead of considering their learning styles and consistent teaching strategies. Pozo Sanchez et al. (2019) revealed that active learning is more applicable than traditional learning techniques. According to Park and Choi (2014), active learning classroom strategies inspire students and motivate them towards learning more than traditional classrooms do.

Furthermore, students’ learning is influenced by instructors’ quality and pedagogies (Canales & Maldonado, 2018). Active learning strategies focus on engaging students in learning activities and providing them opportunities to perceive the content effectively. The UAE puts forth efforts to develop the higher education sector. As the UAE is a fast-growing country, higher education embraces advanced technology in teaching and learning (Al-Qirim, 2016).

According to the UAE Vision 2021, 2030, Knowledge-Economy Initiative is added as a key performance to achieve the Vision, which facilitates the UAE’s progress towards pioneering world knowledge economy by approaching 2030 (UAE Strategic Report 2021, 2010).

It was revealed that the education was Islamic constructed and oriented as social constructivist, which was based on critical thinking ability and questioning regarding the content (Jackson, 2015). The increasing attempts of the UAE to bring its education to a world-class and advanced level push it to adopt the updated teaching approaches and shift to the student-centered approach to facilitate the learning process. The student-centered approach depends on thinking actively during the teachings. The recent research study of McMinn et al. 2020 uncovered that instructors in higher education institutions in UAE adopt a student-focused approach effectively in teaching and delivering the content; however, some instructors and faculty use a combination of a student-focused approach and a teacher-focused approach. Moreover, the study of Al-Naqbi and Alshannag (2018) showed that the higher education students have a high level of awareness with positive attitudes toward sustainability in education, which emphasizes embracing an advanced education system. This era has been recognized with the identification of skillful individuals as the base for economic growth and social welfare in the 21st century. In this perspective, the higher education sector designates a vital component in developing human capacities and innovation and plays an essential role in the knowledge economy's prosperity and sustainability (Al-Naqbi & Alshannag, 2018).

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3.2. Transition to Online Learning The consequences of the COVID-19 have disrupted the education system across the globe, which necessitated surpassing preparation to find an urgent address to that issue. In no time, the education systems entirely across all grade levels, including higher education, mandated a total transformation to implement remote teaching and learning (Mishra et al., 2020). As the education system is transformed into a virtual learning mode, some challenges are expected to be faced. As revealed by Carolan et al. (2020), the sudden transition to online learning came with new expectations and demands from both instructors and students, such as rapid adaptation to e-learning platforms. As a result, an immediate need for curriculum and instructional design modification to align with the online learning environment has emerged (Dwivedi et al., 2020).

Like many other countries, higher institutions in the UAE responded to the shutdown of COVID – 19 Pandemic by transitioning to an online mode of teaching and learning. As stated by Nathan (2020), the online learning experience uncovered some challenges that need to be addressed to provide an effective online learning environment. Transitioning to online learning has its consequences and requirements, including a comprehensive readiness of the universities, faculty members, curriculum, pedagogies, and assessment. Nathan (2020) conducted an informal survey to investigate higher education leaders’ perceptions of the transition to online learning in the UAE. The findings revealed that many leaders viewed the online learning experience positively and showed effective results than the expectation.

3.3. Perception of Academic Success Success or academic achievement is a broad concept that incorporates various meanings. Investigating the meaning and perception of academic success revealed several perceptions of academic success. Some researchers and educators identify academic success by evaluating students’ grades; however, students view success as learning through gaining knowledge and skills (Cachia et al., 2018). One of the definitions of students’ academic success is the concept of personal and academic achievement, which describes students’ engagement in meaningful learning activities to acquire preferred knowledge and skills that promote accomplishing academic goals. According to White (2015), academic success can be described as students’ endeavors towards obtaining an academic degree associated with their area of specialization or concentration, averting no academic weakening or failure; the view of success differs among students.

Success has been investigated by researchers such as York (2015) and a group of colleagues, and their research findings revealed six mechanisms of grounded definition to explain academic success to include: satisfaction, academic achievement, skills and competencies procurement, persistence, accomplishing learning objectives, and career success (York et al., 2015). In the context of achievement, academic success can be considered an indicator of students’ capacities, including their gained skills and abilities. In some educational settings, the concept of academic success is associated with obtaining high marks in the course assessment.

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Nonetheless, Hepworth et al. (2018) discovered significant predictors of students’ success, such as academic preparedness, social integration, and perceived institutional commitment to student success. Mihaela (2015) suggested that psychological factors play a great role in intellectual ability.

Besides, faculty and instructors need to understand the components of students’ success to help them increase their success (Jaquette & Curs, 2015). This research paper views academic success as attaining desired learning outcomes assessed by students with Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA).

4. Methods and Study Design A mixed-method design was implemented to help readers understand any inconsistencies between quantitative results and qualitative findings and allow instructors and professors to generously explain how their teaching and assessment have been changed radically because of the transition to online learning.

4.1. Research Questions Two types of questions are proposed to achieve the study objectives.

The Qualitative/Interview Questions: 1. How instructors have adapted their teaching approaches after transitioning to online learning in higher education settings?

2. How instructors have adapted their assessment approaches after transitioning to online learning in higher education settings?

The Quantitative Questions: 1. How students’ GPAs have been changed after transitioning to online learning in higher education settings?

2. What is the students’ perception of the sudden transitioning to online learning?

3. What is the relationship between students’ GPA and the perception of the transition to online learning?

4.2. Data Collection Two stages were implemented to collect data (1) qualitatively: semi-structured interviews with higher education professors and instructors were conducted.

The interviewees were contacted via emails. The invitation was sent to more than 30 educators; a total of 22 educators from the largest higher institutions in the UAE accepted the invitation. The interviews were conducted individually and virtually via the Zoom video communication technology and continued for 1 hour each. Interviewees were asked about the teaching strategies and assessment pre and post the transition. All interviews were recorded and saved for content analysis. Data was coded/described in categories to form a general response/theme. (2) Quantitatively: a Likert scale survey was distributed to students in which Liaw’s model ( 2008) was adopted to evaluate students’ perception of the transition. The questionnaire was designed on Google forms, including the demographic survey, which requires providing the students’ CGPA 1 (pre the transition) and CGPA 2 (post the transition). The consent form was attached to the survey, in addition to the procedure for responding to questions. The researcher invited students to attend a virtual session and

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respond to the questionnaire. SPSS 22.0 was used for data analysis and conclusion.

4.3. Instrumentation For this study, students’ CGPA 1 & 2 was the indicator of the difference in students’ academic success. To determine the students’ perception of the transition to online learning, Liaw’s model (2008) was employed. Although Liaw’s model (2008) comprehends eight domains, all measure students’ perception towards e-learning from variable perspectives, and for this research study, only three domains are the most relevant to achieve the study objectives. The three domains were adopted to measure students’ perception of the transition to online learning including, Perceived satisfaction (4 questions), Perceived usefulness (3 questions), E-learning effectiveness (3 questions). Liaw’s model as Likert scale consisted of 7 points varied from 1 = strongly disagree to 7= strongly agree.

Calculating the total score of each domain can be achieved by finding the mean score of each domain. Based on that scale, positive perception was determined by a total score higher than 4.

4.4. Instrument Reliability and Validity According to Liaw (2008), the model has a high internal consistency, indicated

by Cronbach’s α = 0.97 for the model entirely, and items’ coefficients ranged from 0.57 to 0.80, indicating sufficient reliability of the scales. For the current study, Cronbach’s α was calculated, ranging from .735 to .822 for three domains indicating satisfactory reliability (See Table 1). For the instrument validity, the scale has been tested over time by many researchers, showing high validity. In addition, it was sent to a panel of experts in the measurement in the UAE to ensure its validity for the higher education students in the UAE. Questions were carefully reviewed, and the final version was distributed to the respondents.

Table 1: Internal consistency of the perception of the transition to online learning Domain Perceived satisfaction

Cronbach's Alpha .822

No of Items 4

Perceived usefulness

.808

3

E-learning effectiveness

.735

3

4.5. Sample Demographics This research study combined two groups of participants (1) educators’ group: 22 educators aged 35 to 48 years. Academically, from a master’s degree to a Ph.D., their academic rank ranged from instructor to associate professor with more than seven years of teaching experience in higher education settings, and they have a current teaching role in either federal or private institutions.(2) Students’ group: a total of 598 respondents were distributed as follows; male students and female students were 257 (43%) and 341 (57%), respectively.

Students were enrolled in federal or private institutions and represent different colleges (See Table 2 & Figure 1). Students were allowed to participate in the study only if they were in the second year (sophomore) to provide their CGPA pre and post transition; sample educational level is shown in table 3. The sample

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came from a diverse group of students (See Table 4). Descriptive analysis showed that the sample’s age varies between 18 to 39 and averaged 22.186, with a median of 21 and a mode of 20, SD= 3.8451.

Table 2: Distribution and percentages of participants by institution

Valid

American University in the Emirates American University of Sharjah University of Sharjah Higher Colleges of Technologies Ajman University United Arab Emirates University American University in Dubai Others Total

Frequency 170 144 95 59 27 56 29 18 598

Percent 28.4 24.1 15.9 9.9 4.5 9.4 4.8 3.0 100.0

Valid Percent 28.4 24.1 15.9 9.9 4.5 9.4 4.8 3.0 100.0

Cumulative Percent 28.4 52.5 68.4 78.3 82.8 92.1 97.0 100.0

Figure 1: Sample distribution by college Table 3: Sample distribution by education level

Valid

Undergraduate Sophomore (second year) Undergraduate Junior (third year) Undergraduate Senior (fourth year) Total

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Frequency Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

240

40.1

40.1

40.1

226

37.8

37.8

77.9

132

22.1

22.1

100.0

598

100.0

100.0

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Table 4: Sample distribution by nationality Valid

UAE Egypt Lebanon Syria Palestine Jordan Yemen KSA Iraq Algeria USA India Pakistan Sudan Iran Other Total

Frequency 188 64 16 50 61 36 19 16 13 11 12 11 24 11 43 23 598

Percent 31.4 10.7 2.7 8.4 10.2 6.0 3.2 2.7 2.2 1.8 2.0 1.8 4.0 1.8 7.2 3.8 100.0

Valid Percent 31.4 10.7 2.7 8.4 10.2 6.0 3.2 2.7 2.2 1.8 2.0 1.8 4.0 1.8 7.2 3.8 100.0

Cumulative Percent 31.4 42.1 44.8 53.2 63.4 69.4 72.6 75.3 77.4 79.3 81.3 83.1 87.1 89.0 96.2 100.0

5. Data Analysis and Results 5.1. Qualitative Data Findings Content analyses were utilized to generate data from semi-structured interviews with 22 college professors and instructors. Two themes were presented to answer the first research question.

5.1.1. Teaching Adaptation Data analysis revealed that traditional teaching techniques were common approaches that were adopted by both federal and private higher education institutions in the UAE. However, the practices differ among institutions and instructors. Since the accreditation authority is the same for all institutions; as a result, all institutions follow the same criteria released by the accreditation authority. According to content analysis, most respondents used to implement the traditional teaching techniques, including preparing the lesson heavily depending on the main textbook enriched with additional resources such as published articles or other reliable resources. Most of the class activities were implemented in printed papers. As stated by respondents, the teaching process started with a general introduction to the topic, oral discussion implemented by “think – pair – share” activity, and then “mind mapping” represented by written activity.

Moreover, technology-based learning was limited to video analysis for most of the interviewees, except for three out of 22, who stated that they sometimes flipped their classroom; however, that was not applicable to all courses; it depends on the course nature. The teaching material was constrained to a visual presentation by Microsoft PowerPoint PPT. Instructors used to post the material on the students’ university portal a few days before the class time. No recorded sessions were available.

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As stated by some respondents, “Before the transition to online learning, the lack of recorded sessions influences the learning process, if a student is not attending, the class activities and group discussion will be missed, a main part of learning will be missed, which creates a gap, when a student comes back, it is difficult to fill in that gap.”

Before the transition, all office hours, meetings, the extra-curricular activity includes a guest speaker, field trips, peer lectures, and forums, were conducted physically and used to enhance the social communication skills and learning outcomes.

As content analysis revealed, professors and students were unprepared for that sudden movement. Nonetheless, the continuous professional development activities helped them to quickly adapt to appropriate strategies and enhance their online teaching capacities.

As mentioned by two respondents, “I was surprised by the sudden transition that was decided in no time, how and when I will practice it? how can I succeed in an online classroom like I was in my traditional classroom”. Respondents continued, “I need enough time to practice and impress my students with my performance in the virtual classroom.”

“Now, I need to transfer my teaching experience into e-teaching experience. How long does it take me to build a solid e-experience?”.

The content analysis demonstrated that implementing online learning followed the exact outlines of face-to-face teaching but with different practices. All higher education institutions in the UAE transferred directly to synchronous online learning where instructors meet students at the same time of the session.

Moreover, the sessions were recorded and saved in the repository for students’ reference. Participants stated that “to align with the transition demands, each institution chose its platform to facilitate online learning and conveying the content.”

The difference between federal and private institutions lies in the choice of Learning Management System (LMS). The federal universities have their own LMS, which were employed, whereas private institutions integrated additional communication technologies such as Zoom, MS Teams, and Moodle.

Based on the provided data, instructors need to alter their teaching and learning activities to e–activities. The online teaching process starts with accessing the meeting channel virtually, where the instructor and students can see and hear each other. The instructor can share his/her screen to reflect the teaching material. However, the PPT was shared with students in the virtual session, but instructors found it insufficient to keep students engaged and focused; as a result, most of the respondents (16 out of 22) stated that they needed to be more creative in online teaching, learning activities and classroom management. As revealed by respondents, the traditional teaching methods were not helpful.

Hence, instructors need to develop many professional skills to meet the online learning demands. Technology-based learning has been mandated and should be developed. Some respondents stated that they enrolled in online courses to enhance their capacity to teach remotely. Some respondents emphasized the preferred technology aspects to keep students grouped, engaged, and focused;

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and this could be possible with the use of Padlet, Kahoot, Wakelet, and Linoit, in addition to YouTube videos. Respondents agreed that “the transition was not just from teaching mode to another; the transition was from traditional instruction design to creative instructors and instructions.”

5.1.2. Online Assessment Content analysis proved the quality of the assessment that was implemented. As stated by the interviewees, higher education gave considerable attention to assessment to ensure the quality of learning and achieving the course and the program learning outcomes and adhere to the criteria of the accreditation authorities in the UAE. Based on the respondents, most assessment’s title remains the same. However, the implementation and techniques differed distinctly. During the transition, assessments such as quizzes, exams were conducted physically on a hard copy and required direct proctoring, and some assignments were to be submitted on the students’ portal. After the transition, “quizzes and exams still conducted. Yet, the difference underlies the implementation techniques”, and all assessments were conducted online. As there are many assessment forms, each institution decided which assessment type need to be implemented based on the validity of the assessment and its relevance to the course level and nature, theoretical or practical course. The assessment models were carefully selected based on the feedback received from the instructors and being discussed and evaluated by the exam committees in each institution to ensure validity and relevance. A matrix of the range of possible assessment and questioning techniques was available for the faculty to assign and a map to course level and nature of the subject material could further serve as a benchmarking tool. Besides, the guidelines described the different types of assessment characteristics and assign a final assessment checklist for assessment moderation purposes.

Data revealed that multiple online assessment methods were embraced, including but not limited to quizzes, written assignments, exams, group projects and presentations, case studies, article reviews, and any appropriate assessment.

The questions varied among assignments to include selected responses, essays, short essays, and critical thinking and problem-solving questions. Each category has its pros and cons in measuring various learning outcomes. For instance, a selected response, or a sequence of multiple-choice questions, allows learners to assess areas of knowledge proficiency but limited reasoning skills. Essays refer to answering essay questions or writing an entire essay; it enables creative and subjective responses but limited output and requires careful writing and analysis skills. Multiple types of assessment formats were implemented; ClosedBook Exam, Open-Book Exam, Project-Based Assessment linked with presentation to identify the verbal communication skills. As it was revealed, each university formed Exam Committee to facilitate the examination process. The exam committee was accountable for the moderation of the final assessment checklist, aiming to moderate the assessments to ensure the fairness, validity, and reliability of the assessment. Moderation is especially needed upon transitioning to online modes of delivery and administration of exams. For the online examination process and proctoring, both federal and private institutions used “Respond us techniques” connected with the lockdown browser. However,

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recently, some federal universities conducted the final examination process on campus following face-to-face examination guidelines and ensuring safety measures.

5.2. Quantitative Data Analysis All issues related to outliers, missing values, and normality have been addressed prior to the analysis. To answer RQ 1 and 2 about students ‘academic success and perception of the transition, students showed positive perception represented by the results of the three domains that measure students’ perception. For perceived satisfaction (M= 5.394, SD= 1.0478), for perceived usefulness (M= 5.277, SD= 1.194), and for perceived e-learning effectiveness (M= 4.999, SD= 1.313). For the change in students’ academic success as a result of the transition, it was revealed from the descriptive analysis that higher education students maintained the same level of success based on the grade scale in the UAE, CGPA1 (M= 3.358, Median = 3.40, Mode = 4.00 and SD=1.2318). For CGPA 2 (M= 3.376, Median = 3.50, Mode = 4.00 and SD=.6332), Cohen’s d was performed to support the findings, d= .0182, indicating no change in students’ CGPA. To answer RQ 3 and discover whether students’ perception of the transition is associated with their academic success (CGPA 2_post the transition), Correlation Coefficient analysis demonstrated a positive medium correlation between students’ perception and their CGPA 2 (See Table 5 & Figure 2).Simple Linear Regression was performed to predict the explanation of students’ success through their perception of the transition to online learning. Data analysis discovered that R2 =32.1 % of the total variance in students’ academic success (GPA) is accounted for their perception of the transition, F (1, 596) = 281.789, p<.001 is statistically significant, demonstrating a linear association between students’ success and their perception of the transition. The following equation symbolizes the regression model.

Grade Point Average = 1.952 + .398* Students’ Perception Therefore, students’ success increased by 0.4 units for each 1 unit in their perception of the transition (See figure 1).

Table 5: Pearson correlation between GPA 2 and transition to online learning Trans_Perception _Total CGPA 2_Post Trans_Perception_Total

Pearson Correlation

1

Sig. (2-tailed) N **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

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.567** .000

598

598

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Figure 2: The Correlation between students’ perception and their CGPA 2

6. Discussion This research report discussed issues related to higher education teaching and learning and the post transition to online learning. Findings related to teaching approaches revealed that instructors were not prepared for the sudden transition.

Nevertheless, their institutions' continuous professional developments helped them cope with the transition and adapt appropriately to online teaching. These findings are supported by McMinn et al. (2020), who explained that higher education in the UAE embraces effective teaching pedagogies, which could be interpreted in the context of commitment. Higher education adheres to the quality assurance criteria. In addition, findings on the lack of preparation agreed with Coman et al. (2020), who revealed that Romanian professors are not prepared appropriately for the transition.

Furthermore, the study of Nathan (2020) discovered some challenges that hinder online learning effectiveness. These results are expected because the transition was unexpected and took place in no time. The rapid adaptation, because of the continuously offered professional development workshops, indicated that higher education promotes professors’ capacities. These findings can be implemented in higher education when offering faculty orientation, and emphasis should be given to faculty preparedness to ensure the continuous improvement of professors’ competencies. The discoveries of the assessment strategies revealed that higher education adopts appropriate assessment tools that are related to the course nature, level, and the course learning outcomes, which demonstrates the quality of teaching and assessment in the UAE higher education sector, which can be implemented through students’ recruitment to increase the enrolment.

The finding of student academic success is expected as it was revealed by Moussa and Ali (2021) that students in higher education institutions in the UAE show medium to high academic success as it was considered by CGPA. Furthermore, the outcomes of the stability of students CGPA after the transition could be interpreted as the dedicated work of students and their resilience to cope with the transition to online learning and their technical skills that enable

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them to succeed. Thus, these results were supported by the positive perception about the transition and the effectiveness of e-learning among students. Thus, higher education appears to embrace a robust e-system to ensure the learning quality, which sheds the light on the efforts done to enhance the higher education system in the UAE. The positive correlation and the regression model of students’ perception and their CGPA are anticipated; those students who perceived the transition as a new learning experience and adapted rapidly have maintained the same academic achievement. Moreover, the positive perception shows the efforts made to facilitate the transition. The students’ positive perception supported the findings of Nathan (2020) who found that higher education leaders in the UAE perceive the transition positively. These findings could be implemented in the college counseling centers to enhance students’ perceptions of sudden transition and to ensure their ability and resilience to cope with unexpected challenges. The limitations of this research study underlined the correlation design because it does not reflect direct causation but just an association between variables.

7. Conclusion This paper analyzed the higher education teaching, assessment, and students’ achievement after the transition to online learning. Above and beyond, the study explored the relationship between students’ perception of the transition to online learning and academic success. The findings demonstrated the professors’ lack of readiness. In addition, higher education institutions adapted appropriately and adjusted their teaching styles and assessment techniques by considering course nature and level to match the online learning demands.

Moreover, students showed a positive perception of the transition and were identified with outstanding academic success with a medium positive correlation between these two variables. Moreover, those students who perceived the transition as a new learning experience successfully maintained a stable academic achievement.

8. Recommendations The findings of this research paper can be implemented by embracing a blended learning platform throughout academic programs to allow students gain experience of the blended learning environment. Furthermore, students’ forums, study groups, and social engagement can be offered as an alternative way of the physical activities. Nonetheless, students’ orientation can include training sessions to help students adapt and cope with challenges to ensure their wellbeing for better academic success. Future research should focus on discovering the factors that support students’ academic achievement stability from face-toface to online learning. Moreover, future work can examine students’ acceptance to continue online learning as an alternative learning mode.

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Carolan, C., Davies, C. L., Crookes, P., McGhee, S., & Rox-Burgh, M. (2020). COVID 19: Disruptive impacts and transformative opportunities in undergraduate nurse education. Nurse Education Practice, 46. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2020.102807 Chaturvedi, S., Purohit, S., & Verma, M. (2021). Effective teaching practices for success during COVID 19 pandemic: Towards phygital learning. Frontiers in Education. 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.646557 Coman, C., Țîru, L. G., Meseșan-Schmitz, L., Stanciu, C., & Bularca, M. C. (2020). Online teaching and learning in higher education during the coronavirus pandemic: Students’ perspective. Sustainability, 12(24), 10367.

Daniels, L. M., Goegan, L. D., & Parker, P. C. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 triggered changes to instruction and assessment on university students’ self-reported motivation, engagement, and perceptions. Social Psychology of Education, 24(1), 299-318. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-021-09612-3 Dubai Knowledge. (2017). Higher education in Dubai. Guidelines for advertising and marketing. https://www.khda.gov.ae/Areas/Administration/Content/FileUploads/Publi cation/Documents/English/20170523085007_Dubai_Higher_Education_Guide. pdf Dwivedi, Y., Hughes, L., Coombs, C., Constantiou, I., Duan, Y., Edwards, J., …

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Jackson, L. (2015). Challenges to the global concept of student-centered learning with special reference to the United Arab Emirates: ‘Never fail a Nahayan’, Educational Philosophy and Theory, 47(8), 760-773. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2014.901161 Jaquette, O., & Curs, B. R. (2015). Creating the out-of-state university: Do public universities increase nonresident freshman enrollment in response to declining state appropriations? Research in Higher Education, 56(6), 535-565.

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McMinn, M., Dickson, M., & Areepattamannil, S. (2020). Reported pedagogical practices of faculty in higher education in the UAE. Higher Education (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00663-7

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Ministry of Education. (2019). Ministry of education launches national higher education strategy. https://www.moe.gov.ae/En/MediaCenter/News/Pages/higherstra17.aspx Mishra, L., Gupta, T., & Shree, A. (2020). Online teaching-learning in higher education during lockdown period of COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100012 Moussa, N. M., & Ali, W. F. (2021). Exploring the relationship between students’ academic success and happiness levels in the higher education settings during the lockdown period of COVID-19.

Psychological Reports, https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294121994568 Nathan, S. (2020). Where does higher education go from here? https://www.alfanarmedia.org/2020/05/future-higher-education-go-from-here/ O’Brien, M., & Blue, L. (2018). Towards a positive pedagogy: Designing pedagogical practices that facilitate positivity within the classroom. Educational Action Research, 26(3), 365-384.

Park, E. L., & Choi, B. K. (2014). Transformation of classroom spaces: Traditional versus active learning classroom in colleges. Higher Education, 68(5), 749-771.

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Toquero, C. M. (2020). Challenges and opportunities for higher education amid the COVID-19 pandemic: The Philippine context. Pedagogical Research, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/7947 UAE Vision 2021. (2010). UAE vision 2021 report. https://www.vision2021.ae/en/uaevision White, P. (2015). What makes a successful undergraduate? The relationship between student characteristics, degree subject and academic success at a university.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 174-194, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.11 Received Sep 17, 2021; Revised Dec 15, 2021; Accepted Dec 21, 2021

Harnessing the Power of Reflective Journal Writing in Global Contexts: A Systematic Literature Review Anselmus Sudirman* Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa, Yogyakarta, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5520-9838 Adria Vitalya Gemilang Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa, Yogyakarta, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7784-7811 Thadius Marhendra Adi Kristanto Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa, Yogyakarta, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8976-8486

Abstract. This research aimed to describe a critical framework of reflective journal writing that has significant impacts on student writers worldwide and identify the qualities of reflective journal writing that foster transformative practices involving personal, relational, and intellectual activities. This systematic literature review incorporated important theoretical frameworks into acceptable convictions. A thorough analysis of 20 recently published research articles (out of 450) from 2016 to 2021 aimed to present written arguments that support thesis positions and credible evidence, as well as determine the global contexts of writing practices. The findings showed that reflective journal writing reinforced a profound transformation to further explore selfdiscovery, self-inquiry, and critical ideas. It is also concerned with writing performance, as well as the advancement of cognitive and metacognitive writing skills. Reflective journal writers' voices empowered significant changes in a variety of writing aspects, including personal idea exploration, creativity, self-organization, and professional practice development. These findings have implications for encouraging critical reflection, self-expression, and critical thinking among students.

They should write reflective journals that can have an impact on a global community and allow them to bring about transformations.

Keywords: reflective writing; reflective transformative practice; self-inquiry *

journal;

writing

skills;

Corresponding author: Anselmus Sudirman, anselmus.sudirman@ustjogja.ac.id

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction In higher education, reflective journal writing is a means of presenting wellorganized ideas about cognitive and metacognitive knowledge, invaluable learning experiences, and authorial truths. Students can confirm what they have learned and how they have described learning experiences through reflective writing. Recent trends in reflective journal writing have resulted in a slew of studies focusing on two essential elements: (1) integrating theory and practice of formal learning materials (Al-karasneh, 2014), and (2) identifying them through the author's lens of personal experiences, point of view, and professional practice (Boud, 2001). Students investigate such critical aspects of reflective writing to improve critical thinking skills and vocabulary achievement (Laqaei, 2015). This learning model of academic context encourages them to look at things critically.

On the one hand, there is currently a scarcity of specific literature on critical reflection for scholarly journal writing. Journal writing, as a reflexive practice, has the potential to shape emotion, intuition, and empathy (Corbett, 2014).

Students improve their ability to solve problems, communicate ideas, and reflectively express emotions. They recognize that an academic writing genre can even foster deep emotions, skills, and academic identity (Cameron et al., 2009). On the other hand, without these characteristics, academic writing, particularly reflective writing, cannot present self-discovery, self-inquiry, and critical reflections. Marsh (2014) referred to this writing practice as "the power and emotional investment" – a motivating factor for student writers to develop a reflective writing tone, human voice, and emotional risks of vulnerability that may shake them in difficult times.

The effectiveness of reflective journal writing has widened the theoretical and practical gap between self-reflection and analysis reflection (Nagao, 2018; Nagao, 2019). The former refers to either a hands-on framework or selfawareness that improves the writing performance of students. This experiential learning is increasingly becoming important for improving writing skills in the intellectual society of the twenty-first century. The latter contributes to critical thinking skills by modelling how reflective journals are assessed more dynamically using given rubrics. The context of reflective journal writing entails acknowledging creative possibilities and actual performance. Thus, the purpose of writing reflective journals is to improve performance-based self-efficacy, flexibility, attitudes, and situational skills. To fill in such a gap, two research questions (RQs) arise in the hope of solving and addressing the problems under discussion and are as follows: • RQ 1 – What are the powerful aspects of writing reflective journals in global contexts?

• RQ 2 – What attributes does reflective journal writing have in terms of fostering transformative practices?

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2. The Literature Review 2.1. Reflective Journal Writing A reflective journal is used in the medical profession to examine self-reflections that include a critical appraisal, peer group discussion, and self-awareness (Riley‐Douchet & Wilson, 1997). It can also be used to capture experiences, record events, explore feelings, and advance in-depth understandings through narrations. Writing a reflective journal, on the other hand, is a form of selfreflective practice in formal or informal learning contexts (Boud, 2001). When dealing with informal topics, students use descriptive writing to take into account previous knowledge, experiences, and observations (Carroll & Wilson, 2014), but their reflective journals will be less complete if they do not recognize the importance of self-discovery and critical reflection to conceptualize ideas formally.

In a global framework, reflection is a slogan in education that accentuates the consistent use of critical reflections (Liu, 2020), the depth of reflections, and the value of reflective activities (Moon, 2006). Within an academic discipline, students’ reflective journals describe both critical thinking and arguments to explore previous common knowledge, learning experiences, and observations (Carroll & Wilson, 2014). Allan and Driscoll (2014) emphasized that a reflective writing model assesses learning outcomes and fosters learning activities. The faculty gets involved in promoting the professional development of the prospective teachers. However, Lengelle et al. (2013) stressed the importance of reflective writing in the narration of students' real-life experiences to gain insights into the meaning and direction of several expressions that they convey.

Reflective writing is a technique for promoting students' self-development (Rushton & Duggan, 2013). Reflective journals can ensure the quality of reflective learning and metacognitive thinking (Allan & Driscoll, 2014). A reflective journal includes self-taught topics like describing imaginations, applying theories, descriptions, and problem-solving issues (Sangvanich & Chinokul, 2018). In addition, reflective journal writing allows students to improve their self-reflection, personal potential, and problem-solving skills (Rushton & Duggan, 2013).

Prospective teachers use reflective journals to hone their reflective skills, which include discussion, peer-reviewing, and journal keeping, while internalizing and problematizing the issues at hand (Arikan, 2006). The findings of Arikan's study (2006) showed that prospective teachers are very satisfied with the writing feedback or critical comments made about the content of the reflective journals.

In general, prospective teachers can enrol in the writing course to improve their reflective writing skills, practical knowledge, and reflective inquiry. Journal writing has an impact on students' writing styles to elicit information in informative, expressive, and formal tones of topics. Journal writing reflectively identifies students' real-life problems that require feasible solutions in learning English as a foreign language (Hashemi & Mirzaei, 2015)

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2.2. Reflective Practice in Reflective Journals King et al. (2017) defined reflective practice as a learning process that necessitates personal reflection and reaction to a variety of learning experiences.

This didactic concern seeks to articulate critical thinking skills and introspections of ultimately core values of learning and self-awareness of emerging broader issues to investigate. Reflective practice, as the name implies, modifies academic literacies that resonate with perceptions, participation, and reasoning abilities (Abednia et al., 2013). Students use reflective practice to adopt academic rhetoric (Shaw & Vassileva, 2009), demonstrate reflective practice (Bailes et al., 2010), and foster self-awareness when discussing issues (Abednia et al., 2013). Similarly, reflective practice articulates the socio-cultural or multicultural contexts of learning outcomes, student learning, and engagement (Allan & Driscoll, 2014; Rushton & Duggan, 2013; Liu, 2020). Hence, reflective practice is a clear example of academic activity that presents criticism, participation, arguments, and assessment.

More importantly, Bain et al. (1999) contended that journal writing encourages student-teachers to initiate professional reflective practice based on their field experiences while remaining focused on the constructive journal feedback that provides some notes to support the development of reflective skills. The study discovered that giving students feedback on the value of reflections helps them improve their reflective journal writing. Reflective practice has proven to be effective in medical education by enhancing clinical learning, professional growth, and professional development through the creation of reflective journals (Mahlanze & Sibiya, 2017a). Reflective practice in a pedagogical discipline can improve both theory and practice of teaching. Critical reflective practice is also important for fostering teacher development (Brandenburg & Jones, 2017), assisting students in deepening their understanding of learning materials, promoting lifelong learning, minimizing clinical errors, and advancing professional autonomy (Harris, & Jones, 2016). Thus, the reflective practice emphasizes a deeper exploration by checking details, reflecting on the meaning of what is happening, or adding learning experiences to theories.

3. The Research Methodology 3.1. Research Design This research is classified as a systematic review of literature because it follows steps in the systematic review process to investigate relevant theoretical frameworks and produce a comprehensive review, which leads to the importance of academic success, as well as the disclosure of ideological and theoretical assumptions (Goagoses & Koglin, 2020). The systematic literature review focuses on (1) presenting written arguments that support a thesis position by establishing a case using credible evidence from previously published research articles, and (2) determining the context and background of current knowledge of the topics under investigation (Machi & McEvoy, 2016).

The combination of both theoretical frameworks and lines of argument produce what is known as a comprehensive outlook of current research trends, while also sharpening ideologies of writing reflective journals and the extent to which they condone the praxis of transformation in real settings.

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3.2. Searching and Identifying the Literature This research is essentially reliant on literature searches conducted through online academic databases. First, EBSCO offers a variety of research outcomes, including cross-disciplinary e-journals that allow access to high-quality research publications. Second, SAGE Premier is a service that focuses on providing highquality peer-reviewed journals in which papers can be found, with a focus on peer-reviewed publications relevant to the research being investigated. Third, Scopus-Elsevier has a large and growing database where scholars can familiarize themselves with peer-reviewed articles, book chapters, and other related literature. Fourth, Taylor & Francis Online offers a series of databases from which high-quality peer-reviewed publications can be found in a wide range of fields. Fifth, Springer Link is likely to provide a database of outstanding peerreviewed papers that are still relevant to this research.

To make searching easier, search key terms such as reflective journal, writing, reflective journal writing, and transformative practice of reflective writing were utilized in a wide range of 2016-2021 publications. However, publications published before 2016 were excluded from the query, which was paired with keyword and abstract searches to identify the most relevant published articles.

3.3. Selection Criteria The researcher's main selection criteria included qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-method research for review, as well as primary and secondary literature studies. The article publishing years of 2016-2021 (N=20) were strictly selected from the total of 450 articles in the tabulation database, with no regard to the date of publication. For the sake of eligibility, data relevance, and claim qualification (Machi & McEvoy, 2016), 430 articles were excluded from the initial screening. Similarly, the purpose of incorporating this policy was to examine current research trends or to see how such studies communicate novelties. The following table shows the criteria for inclusion and exclusion.

Table 1: Article review criteria for inclusion and exclusion Aspects Article category

Inclusion 1. Qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-method research 2. Systematic literature reviews 3. Relevance of the topics (reflective journal writing, writing, transformative practice) 4. Articles were peer-reviewed and published in peerreviewed journals.

5. The coverage of publishing years: 2016-2021 (emphasis on currency) 6. Every full-text article was written entirely in English.

7. Comprehensiveness and availability of the articles

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Exclusion 1. Articles of conference proceedings 2. Opinions or scientific articles 3. Articles that are unrelated to the topics 4. Non-currency or out-ofdate articles

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Types of writing conditions or backgrounds

1. Reflective journals, writing, reflective journal writing, and transformative practice articles are conditioned to highlight various writing genre backgrounds.

2. They can back up the authors' arguments and assertions in expressing their research findings and results, which are all based on authorship, breadth, topical relevance, and currency criteria.

Themes of research

1. Reflective writing 2. Writing 3. The praxis of transformation in writing, and 4. Reflective journal writing

1. Because of their lack of topicality, breadth, relevance, and authorship considerations( Efron & Ravid, 2019), articles on academic writing contexts, opinions articles, and scientific reviews are excluded from the database.

2. They are the outcome of untrustworthy sources, such as articles that are published without going through peer review procedures.

Articles that do not match the themes include: 1. Reflective writing, 2. Writing, 3. Transformational writing praxis, and 4. Reflective journal writing

3.4. Risk of Bias and Quality Assessment This systematic literature review employed a research methodology (Snyder, 2019) to identify articles that have been thoroughly investigated. Researchers can be vulnerable to bias by ignoring the critical attitude that the conduct of the review must follow quality standards, especially in observing aspects of scientific writing, trust in the results and findings from an in-depth exploration of the articles, due to the wide variety of research approaches used to assess aspects of writing from a transformative point of view. In a nutshell, the focus of the systematic literature review is on the reliability and quality of the review articles (Snyder, 2019).

Systematic literature reviews, like other studies, run the risk of bias in source selection due to factors closely related to the formal protocols developed and made public before conducting the review. Reporting bias may occur if the researcher deviates from the protocol in terms of data selection. Furthermore, when a systematic review fails to identify all available data on a topic, evidence selection bias occurs (Drucker et al., 2016). As a result, the researcher carefully examines ideas and establishes the relationship between content and concepts, a process known as context-sensitive (Harris, 2020), which refers to the purpose of writing based on context and sensitivity to the issues raised by the authors of the articles.

The quality assurance assessment is carried out by providing checklists that outline the points at which the correlations of the review section are linked, such as how the researcher determines the type of review, database search, and categorization (Goagoses & Koglin, 2020), specifically in the field of reflective journal writing, writing, and transformative practices across disciplines.

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3.5. Data Extraction It is critical to extract data from the studies that have been included (Jonnalagadda et al., 2015). In a systematic literature review, researchers created and evaluated standard extraction in line with the applicable provisions. A conceptual framework related to the discussion areas of reflective journaling, writing, reflective journal writing, transformative practice of writing in global contexts, year of publication, type of research, and the author are among the essential information that will be extracted from the database.

In addition, sorting aspects of the suitable research approach, geographical location of the country, and research costs, if necessary, are crucial extraction components. Researchers also look at whether literature research has to be packaged as a scientific work that has gone through rigorous peer-review processes and takes a long time to complete, as evidenced by the article history.

Ultimately, they must map the research gaps to maintain the accuracy of the documents provided while also identifying relevant articles and theoretical information to extract (Goagoses & Koglin, 2020).

3.6. Data Analysis The researchers analyzed the data in several ways, including (1) studying the research findings to elicit information on the relevance of the methodologies and the results, (2) evaluating ways in which articles on reflective journal writing can be identified as having assessment scales, (3) measuring conceptualizations as seen in the tabulated database, (4) coding the data within the research coverage to compile the range of measurement (Tai et al., 2020; Machi & McEvoy, 2016), and (5) evaluating ways in which articles on reflective journal writing can be identified as having assessment criteria scales.

4. Results and Discussion 4.1. The Powerful Aspects of Writing Reflective Journals in Global Contexts According to the research findings, a powerful aspect that contributes to positive vibes is required when writing a reflective journal. Reflective journals have proven to be a useful tool for encouraging critical thinking in the health sector.

Furthermore, self-criticism about the likelihood of expressing ideas and the extent to which key principles are represented clearly in written work is a major emphasis of reflections. Students can write confidently in reflective journals because they are not subject to censorship. They can prioritize humanity, local culture, comprehensive patient care, self-evaluation, self-study, self-knowledge, and problem-solving abilities (Murillo-Llorente et al., 2021).

In other cases, reflective journal writers focus on personal and professional development, to maximize self-aptitude and potential in future professions.

Problem-solving abilities, proactive decision-making, and corrective action, as well as extending self-awareness and strengthening writing skills, are all challenges for therapeutic learning in reflective journal writing (Murillo-Llorente et al., 2021). As a result, reflective journal writers must maintain self-reflection, self-emancipation, and full engagement to improve comprehension, self-efficacy, critical thinking abilities, critical reflection, and positive assessment (Hwang et al., 2018). Reflective thoughts, transformative experiences, and learning

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reflections are becoming increasingly common among nursing students' reflective journals. They can do cognitive tasks and evaluate writing performance using an evaluation tool with a scoring rubric if they maintain consistency in their writing. To preserve academic achievement, they keep the track record of autonomous learning, self-awareness, personal growth, and selfreflection (Or, 2018).

In the social sciences, reflective journal writing shapes students' perspectives on enriching personal experiences, enhancing comprehension of transferrable skills, core values, and self-awareness. Reflective journaling, according to other experts, necessitates full engagement, self-expression, and critical reflection when expressing ideas. Nursing students can engage in transformative practices, build investigation skills, and provide detailed descriptions (Szenes &Tilakaratna, 2021). In essence, self-reflection and ongoing metacognitive growth are re-articulated in reflective journals. When writing reflectively, they call into question their self-control, self-awareness, and self-evaluation (Ramadhanti et al., 2020).

In the field of language/EFL, reflective journal writers emphasize the nature of reflective writing as a medium for developing writing abilities and cultivating desired educational knowledge. Cognitive development demands behaviour management, and critical reflection that can strengthen reflective practice and increase self-awareness (Arthur & Arthur, 2021). In this sense, writing a reflective journal can help students become more active in cooperative learning and problem-solving. Forming a habit of negotiation and critical thinking is another way to improve students' rational thinking skills. This justification is based on their ability to think in a way that allows them to continue learning throughout their lives (Ahmed, 2019). The problem of how students acquire critical reflection is another important aspect of this review. Critical thinking is never separated from metacognitive skills, and it is completely supported in the development of writing skills through self-editing and self-inquiry (Sudirman et al., 2021).

Because this activity emphasizes accuracy, diversity, and growth in reflective thinking, the features of reflective writing facilitation, namely reflectivity, thoroughness, variety, and growth, are a primary concern in educational sciences. Classroom management, lecturer flexibility, and time management are all factors that encourage students to be improved cognitively and metacognitively by demonstrating class performance and reflective thinking (Barham et al., 2019). They can use reflective practice and metacognitive strategies to bridge the gap between theory and practice, while also promoting critical reflection, feedback efficacy, self-awareness, and evidence-based learning (Bruno & Dell’Aversana,2017). That way, they promote academic literacy, reflective thinking, transformative practice, and transitional writing as contested and negotiated discourses (Vassilaki, 2017).

Since students reflectively engage in dialogue, reflective journal writing intends to generate effective and lifelong changes, making learning more relevant,

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contextual, and meaningful. They focus on personal development, observation skills, reflective learning, and uncensored writing (Ahmed, 2020) through critical and reflective thinking, so that the use of social skills and personal voice continues to receive mutual support in the struggle for teamwork, reflection, criticism, self-analysis, and metacognitive skills (Bashan & Holsblat, 2017). All of these activities can help individuals achieve long-term goals by promoting personal and professional development, personal reflection, critical thinking, independent learning, and intrinsic motivation(Yu & Chiu, 2019).

Through reflective journal writing, students can acquire critical awareness and new views in the music, applied sciences, and learning domains, allowing them to solve problems, engage in self-directed learning, express feelings, and stimulate personal growth (Woronchak & Comeau, 2016). They follow a cycle of self-evaluation, learning-related actions, positive ideals, and values through independent learning (Hensley & Munn, 2020). In short, reflective journals can certainly assist them with critical thinking and conceptual learning. This trigger also can shape knowledge transformation, such as conceptual problem solving that leads to metacognitive and rhetorical transformation, the actual writing, direct instruction, corrective sequences, and reflective practice (Herder et al., 2018). The table below reflects the complete description.

Table 2: Powerful aspects of writing reflective journals worldwide No 1

Type of Research Qualitative

2

Qualitative

3

Qualitative

4

Qualitative

5

Quantitative

Powerful Aspects of Writing Reflective Journals Nurturing critical thinking, selfcriticism, core values, skills, selfconfidence, humanity, local culture, comprehensive care, self-evaluation, self-learning, self-knowledge, and problem-solving skills (MurilloLlorente et al., 2021) Enriching personal experiences, transferrable skills, core values, selfawareness, engagement, selfexpression, critical reflections, transformative practice, exploratory and explanatory skills (Szenes & Tilakaratna, 2021) Re-articulating self-reflection, metacognitive growth, selfquestioning, self-regulation, selfcontrol, self-awareness, and selfevaluation (Ramadhanti et al., 2020) Emphasizing desirable pedagogical skills and knowledge, cognitive growth, behavioural management, critical reflections, reflective practice, and self-improvements (Arthur & Arthur, 2021) Regarding personal and professional development, a tool for clinical

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Country

Field

Spain

Health sciences

Australia

Social sciences

Indonesia

Social sciences

Ghana

Language

South Africa

Nursing

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6

Qualitative

7

Quantitative

8

Mixed methods

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learning, problem-solving skills, proactive decision-making, corrective actions, self-awareness, and writing skills (Mahlanze & Sibiya, 2017b) Maintaining self-reflection, selfemancipation, full engagement, increased understanding, selfefficacy, critical thinking skills, critical reflections, critical reflective journaling, and positive evaluations (Hwang et al.,2018) Facilitating dimensions reflective writing, classroom management, teacher flexibility, time management, classroom performance, and reflective thinking (Barham et al., 2019) Implementing reflective practice, metacognitive strategy, theory and practice linkages, critical reflection, feedback efficacy, self-awareness, and evidenced-based learning (Bruno & Dell’Aversana, 2017) Enhancing cooperative learning, students’ problem-solving, negotiations and critical thinking, thinking skills, and lifelong learning (Ahmed, 2019) Stimulating critical reflections, conceptual learning, knowledge transformation, conceptual, metacognitive, and rhetorical problems, the actual writing, handson instructions, correction sequences, and reflective practices (Herder et al., 2018) Developing critical reflection, critical thinking, metacognitive skills, selfediting, self-inquiry, and writing skills (Sudirman et al., 2021) Practicing academic literacy, reflective thinking, transformative practice, transitional writing, contested and negotiated discourse (Vassilaki, 2017) Understanding abstract concepts, individual and collective development, self-evaluation, critical thinking, reflective practice, and analytical skills (Power, 2017) Reflective thinking, transformative experiences, learning reflection, cognitive activity, assessment tool,

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Nursing

Qatar

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self-reflection, academic performance, self-regulated learning, self-awareness and personal growth (Or, 2018) Promoting effective and lifelong changes, reflectively engaged in dialogue, making more relevant, contextual, and meaningful learning, critical thinking, personal development, improving observation skills, critical reflections, reflective learning, and uncensored writing (Ahmed, 2020) Harnessing social skills, personal voices, teamwork, reflection, criticism, self-analysis, and metacognitive skills (Bashan & Holsblat, 2017) Promoting professional development, local EFL contexts, narrative practice, improvement of communication abilities, critical thinking skills, and language skills (Yoshihara et al., 2020) Developing critical awareness and new perspectives, problem-solving abilities, and self-learning abilities, expressing feelings, and promoting personal growth (Woronchak & Comeau, 2016).

Fostering self-regulated learning, a cyclical process of self-evaluation, learning-related actions, positive thoughts, and feelings (Hensley & Munn, 2020) Enhancing personal and professional growth, personal reflections, critical thinking, self-learning, and intrinsic motivation (Yu & Chiu, 2019)

Qatar

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Education

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4.2. Reflective Journal Writing and its Determining Factors Writing is an essential component of performance. Several factors contribute to the advancement of this academic act, particularly those related to the effect, virtuality, abstraction, and embodiment of performance (Harris & Jones, 2016).

One of the primary goals of writing is to encourage student writers to continue developing their writing skills, and a more comprehensive approach to teaching writing necessitates teachers attempting to show a growing interest in optimizing students' cognitive performance (Zarrabi & Bozorgian, 2020).

Teachers can track their students' writing performance throughout this approach and set examples of other performance makers (Harris, & Jones, 2016) to

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motivate others to make progress. A high frequency of revisions, consultations, and active writing is required for the best writing performance (Zarrabi & Bozorgian, 2020). This pedagogical model promotes students' understanding of writing theories and their application in learning settings. They are capable of meeting the required writing standards. The lecturers' critical comments, on the other hand, should embody writing principles in order to help students gain insights into revisions, reorganize ideas, and resubmit them.

The effectiveness of an e-portfolio in improving writing performance is greater than that of a traditional portfolio because it can retain accessibility, flexibility, and interactive features when students are subjected to social pressures that cause them to be more reflective and sensitive to writing stages (Barrot, 2020). It implies that reflectivity and sensitivity can both provide a wide range of writing practices. Students demonstrate writing performances that foster inherent interconnections of ideas and self-discovery within this scope of learning. The paradigm of self-inquiry can be derived from analytical and critical perspectives (Herrero-Martín, 2021) that shed light on endless opportunities to write on the internet (Şentürk, 2021). Students should become acquainted with technologyenhanced instructions in an English writing course (Zou & Xie, 2019) by using devices such as: Myspace, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Google docs, multiple blogs, and national media sites (Şentürk, 2021). Another researcher claimed that Moodle English journal writing influences students' writing performance, performance assessment to improve students' writing skills (Suastra & Menggo, 2020), and conjunction preferences and self-efficacy (Yang, 2020). In summary, technology-enhanced writing has been a viable option for students seeking to develop writing skills that positively correlate with the use of technological devices.

Meanwhile, metacognitive knowledge (conditional knowledge, procedural knowledge, declarative knowledge, monitoring, planning, and evaluating) and other related regulations are important factors in improving the writing performance of students (Teng, 2020b). Writing performance is associated with performative pedagogies of creative writing practice (Williams, 2019), which emphasize the transformation of the creative writing program through collaborative writing. To consider the reflective practice in developing ideas that leads to a framework of thoughts, students must explore a series of reflections in the program (Cendon, 2020). The goal of writing performance is to improve students' metacognitive strategy regarding either knowledge of writing proficiency or self-evaluation in multimedia situations (Qin & Zhang, 2019).

Aside from the obvious concern, students should demonstrate their writing quality, which includes dimensions of a strong authorial voice and textual quality (Zabihi et al., 2019). Writing performance, as a whole, focuses on the development of metacognitive skills, performance-based pedagogies, and reflective practices to maintain desirable writing quality.

Within a context of active learning and thinking, writing performance requires both cognitive and metacognitive levels of abilities (Michel et al., 2019; Lee & Mak, 2018; Teng, 2020a) using the assessment indicators of Online Peer Feedback (OPF), Automated Corrective Feedback (ACF), Indirect Codded Correction

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Feedback (ICCF), and short affective comments involving grammatical accuracy, sentence complexity, lexical density, motivation, and guidance (Shang, 2019; Mujtaba et al., 2020). This writing performance presents performativity through the assessment of academic writers’ assignments (Reinertsen & Thomas, 2019), each of which contains evident errors or flaws concerning arguments (Hennessy, 1997). Reflective journal writing can improve course performance if students get engaged in reflective thinking (Cisero, 2006) through reflective writing and mentoring activities (Stevens et al., 2010), as summed up in the following diagram.

- Improve writing skills

Reflective journal writing performance

Cognitive performance (Arthur & Arthur, 2021; Bruno & Dell’Aversana, 2017)

- Arrange thoughts critically - Involve linguistic features

- Participate in reflective thinking - Encourage mentoring and guidance - Use a rubric for evaluation

Metacognitive performance (Ramadhanti et al., 2020; Herder et al., 2018; Sudirman et al., 2021)

- Conditional knowledge - Procedural knowledge - Declarative knowledge - Monitoring, planning, and evaluating

Diagram 1. Performance in reflective journal writing 4.3. The Attributes of Reflective Journal Writing that Foster Transformative Practices The practice of reflective journal writing in the digital age aims to improve students' critical thinking and reflection skills. The textual messages underlying the efficacy of writing have been used to generate ideas reflectively. This is understandable given that the goal of reflective writing is to promote educational concepts that transcend time and space and are aligned with transformative practices (Phillips & Archer-Lean, 2019; Coleman & Tuck, 2020).

Etymologically, the term transformative refers to a significant change in a person's attitude or character. A transformative practice is another term for a planned activity in which changes in performance, work systems, and living arrangements are directly related to mental attitudes, conditions, and social structures.

Transformative practice in reflective writing is mainly concerned with personal, relational, institutional, and global issues that bring about pedagogical changes (Coleman & Tuck, 2020). Such fundamental aspects continue to encourage students to express human values, honesty, and justice. At this level, writing can stimulate self-inquiry, self-discovery (Matousek, 2017), critical explorations of ideas (Fisher, 2011), and the likelihood of taking on a series of assignments.

Writing, as a result of personal and intellectual activities, has become an important component of the digital revolution, giving rise to digital writing outputs (Brennan, 2018). Therefore, a student writer provides a space for digital

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writing activities (Christiansen, 2017; De Pew & Miller, 2005). It aims to mold the personality, mindset, behaviour, and lifestyle of digital readers. In this sense, digital writing necessitates a mental revolution because its goal is to transform online readers and the digital society. The author's voice will have transformative power (Black, 2019; Matousek, 2017), echoing significant changes embodied in various aspects of life, particularly creative writing on political, economic, educational, tolerance, multi, and socio-cultural topics. In the digital age, the author's voice is the voice of character education (Jerome & Kisby, 2020; Jerome & Kisby, 2019). Reflective journal writing leads to transformative practice within communities or groups of writers, as shown in the diagram below.

Personal: Self-discovery Self-inquiry Self-reflection

Global: Universally accepted principles Globally rooted inspirations

Relational:

Transformative Practice in Reflective Journal Writing

Socio-cultural musings Mores Well-shared knowledge

Institutional:

Supporting system Policies Rules

Diagram 2. Transformative practice in reflective journal writing

5. Conclusion and Recommendations Reflective journal writing is a thinking process in which students describe a series of real and imaginary activities. Its strength lies in the depth of critical arguments, inquiry-based interactions, and self-reflective thoughts in learning contexts involving personal emotions and social circumstances. This idea dispels the notion that reflective journal writing is not only descriptive but also explorative. Students must check scientific details of data, reflect on academic activities from previous learning sessions, and relate them to existing theories and points of view.

Reflective journal writing, on the other hand, entails descriptions and explorations of various academic activities, cognitive and metacognitive skills.

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Writing academic works that involve subjects, thought processes, and lines of argument are not always easy. Writing about worries, feelings, and mistakes, on the other hand, may lead to the pitfall of interacting without clarity of reasoning because students are subjective in how they express their ideas. This tendency leads to additional insights, self-inquiries, and self-discoveries, and reflective journal writers are unable to avoid the temptation of subjectivity in describing events.

The power of reflective journal writing encourages students to achieve a writing performance that is divided into two major categories. First, cognitive performance is intended to assist them in developing writing skills, organizing critical ideas, engaging in reflective thinking, mentoring, assessment, and guidance. Second, metacognitive abilities produce conditional, procedural, and declarative knowledge, as well as monitoring, planning, and evaluating performance. Further researchers are recommended to use an application to analyze articles concerning reflective journal writing as an intellectual activity aiming at voicing transformations of a global community. One of the reflective writer's responsibilities is to address educational ideas that can cross time and space boundaries so that readers are fully aware of transformation in all circles.

6. Practical Implications In global contexts, reflective journal writing is a process of expressing critical and reflective ideas. Students make an effort to write independently even when they are experiencing anxiety, worry, grief, and stress. In this sense, a reflective writing journal, also known as expressive writing, is a panacea for painful emotions that improves health by narrating distressing life experiences (Park et al., 2016). Emotive writing is another term for a writing cure that promotes the recovery of stress and working memory. Emotive writing is another term for writing therapy that promotes stress and working memory recovery (Klein, 2002). Writing a reflective journal expresses psychological conditions within the context of social difficulties in life. It has a wide range of effects on stressful experiences and their psychological effects on health. Globally, the goal of expressive writing is to promote the recovery of fragile emotions.

7. Research Limitations This research has two limitations: (1) the number of reflective journals is small, and they do not completely strengthen transformative actions. Even students rearticulate personal, relational, institutional, and global writing powers without using technological platforms; and (2) using articles from various disciplines cannot determine the transformative effects of reflective journal writing because it does not result in a significant change in a person's attitude or character.

Transformative means the total awareness achieved through changes in performance, work systems, and living arrangements that are directly related to mental attitudes, conditions, and social structures. Students use reflective journals to gain access to challenges and opportunities in big data, mobility, and extensive information coverage.

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Acknowledgment The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Institute for Research and Community Service (LP3M), Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, for providing the research funding (Research Grant No.37/UST/LP3M/PUSLIT/PDU/K/VII/2020).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 195-211, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.12 Received Sep 29, 2021; Revised Dec 11, 2021; Accepted Dec 16, 2021

Game-Based Didactic Resources as a Strategy in Foreign Language Pedagogy Valeria Sumonte Rojas, Lidia Fuentealba Fuentealba and Ranjeeva Ranjan* Faculty of Educational Sciences Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca, Chile https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8873-1892 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9908-2928 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7667-2191 *

Abstract. Gamification is a method widely used in recent years in the educational field to facilitate the teaching and learning process using different game elements and mechanics. The objective of this study was to analyze the use of non-digital game-based (NDGB) didactic resources as a strategy to facilitate the learning of Haitian Creole and its culture by native Chilean adult professionals. The study followed a qualitative approach, the design of which was a case study corresponding to the implementation of a Haitian Creole language-learning program. Sixty Chilean adult professionals participated, of which thirty-one belonged to the police department and twenty-nine to the local health department.

These professionals have to help Haitian migrants who arrive in the country without the capacity to communicate in the target language, Spanish. The instruments used in this case study were participant classroom observation and a semi-structured interview, both implemented by the researchers. The results show that NDGB didactic resources facilitate language learning, favor situated work, and motivate learners to learn. In addition, it enables the co-construction of knowledge, based on collaborative work where all learners play a participatory role in the game. Participants showed greater commitment to language learning, those they have to attend to, and the needs of those they have to serve in their professional life.

Keywords: Chilean adult professionals; gamification; non-digital; strategy

game-based

learning;

1. Introduction The theory of evolution proffered by Darwin in the 19th century is as true for the human species as it is for languages. The field of education and language *

Corresponding author: Ranjeeva Ranjan; ranjan@ucm.cl

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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education, in particular, is constantly evolving to cope with the upheavals brought by globalization at individual and professional levels. The chain of current events, such as technological access, the COVID-19 pandemic, and migration, demands responses to different challenges that each of these events brings to society. Migration is experienced globally. It refers to the number of individuals living in countries other than that of their birth or origin. According to the United Nations Organization (UNO, 2019), this number stands at 272 million people in the world.

Chile also experiences the reality of migration (UNO, 2019). Out of a population of 19 in 2016 million, 2.7% were migrants (CASEN, 2016). This number has increased significantly in a few years, reaching 8.3% at present, corresponding to 1,492,522 individuals, according to the National Institute of Statistics and Department of Foreigners and Migration (NIS & DFM, 2020). Most of the migrants are from Venezuela (455,494), Peru (235,165), and Haiti (185,865). Even though Haitians are the smallest of these three groups, they are the group that brings the greatest challenges in the Chilean context in terms of the learning and teaching of the second language.

The majority of Haitian migrants are adults (92.93%) (Table 1). They speak Haitian Creole, which means that they do not possess the language skills to communicate with the receiving community. Furthermore, Haitian Creole is spoken by a minority who live in Chile in vulnerable conditions (Sumonte, 2020).

Table 1: Haitian migrants by age and gender Age range 0–19 years 20–onwards Total

Male 6,317 112,751 119,068

Female Total 6,819 13,136 59,978 172,729 66,797 185,865 Source: Adopted from NIS & DFM (2019)

Haiti was a French colony inhabited by slaves who attained freedom in 1804. As such, the Haitian State became the first country on the continent to become independent. Since its discovery in the 15th century and its subsequent independence, Haiti has had to overcome different events of violence, political and economic instability, as well as natural disasters. Regarding the violence and political instability, it is notable that around 80 presidents have ruled the country up to date and most of them have ended their mandate irregularly. Some were assassinated, others fled the country (Jaramillo & Sancak, 2007), and some had to endure natural disasters such as floods, droughts, tsunamis, and earthquakes.

Regarding the economic sphere, considering the Gini coefficient,† the standard measure used to establish the differences in income between the poorest and the richest, the numbers yield a 0.61 level of inequality (Ceara-Hatton, 2017). In 2012, the official poverty rate in Haiti was 58.7% and the extreme poverty rate was †The

Gini coefficient is a statistical measure of the degree of variation represented in a set of values, used to analyze income inequality, going from 1 to 0, with 0 being the perfect equality and 1 expressing maximal inequality.

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23.9%. Subsequently, Haiti’s history offers sufficient proof as to why Haitians are migrating. The events that have occurred from the discovery of the island to the present, namely political instability and social and economic problems owing to an elite concerned with their own interests, have left citizens with no choice but to migrate.

In order to favor Haitian inclusion in the Chilean context, an educational program for teaching and learning Haitian Creole by Chilean police officers and health care professionals was developed. These professionals are adults from two governmental entities who have direct contact with the different migratory groups. Nevertheless, these professionals have been unable to provide quality care to the migrant group from Haiti because of communication challenges owing to language barriers from both sides. Consequently, we designed a set of didactic resources as a non-digital game-based (NDGB) strategy to be used with the professionals in order to facilitate the teaching and learning of Haitian Creole.

As such, the objective of this study was to analyze the use of NDGB didactic resources as a strategy to facilitate the learning of Haitian Creole and its culture by adult native Chilean professionals. The study tries to fill the gap by advancing the theoretical knowledge base and making academic developments within the second language acquisition (SLA) domain by looking at learners’ perception of gamification and its effects on language learning in adult professionals. It also provides empirical evidence on how adult foreign language learners perceive the use of NDGB didactic resources.

Most of the literature on gamification and game-based learning (GBL) focuses on digital games in the educational process. However, non-digital games as learning tools have not received sufficient consideration owing to little intellectual corpus being available on this topic (Alfallaj, 2020), and this is a gap considered in this work. In some studies, some comparisons associated with these two types of games have been made. Petri et al. (2018) reported that both digital and non-digital games have contributed positively to students’ learning; however, non-digital games have been shown to yield better achievement of learning objectives. Alfallaj (2020) recommended that for meeting efficient learning needs, there should be a collaborative effort between language educators and learners for designing non-digital games. Using this type of game is advantageous in that it provides face-to-face communication incorporating different forms of learning, such as reading, chatting, seminars, tasks, community activities, video clips, and presentations (Alfallaj, 2020). However, there is a lacuna in the research in the area of the usage of non-digital games as learning tools in the foreign language classroom, which the present study wants to fill.

2. Literature Review This section presents a brief discussion of the theoretical framework encompassing the concepts of gamification, GBL, and its role in the educational context.

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2.1. Gamification and Educational Context The term “gamification” was coined at the beginning of the 21st century and its first documented use dates back to 2008 (Deterding et al., 2011). Gamification is a key concept that has attracted attention and holds significance in academia and practice, especially in education (Manzano-León et al., 2021; Sailer & Homner, 2020), and has turned out to be a subject of interest for educational researchers (Swacha, 2021). Earlier, this concept was used in business to refer to the application of game elements in order to attract, encourage, and persuade users to perform a certain action. The concept of gamification is quite complex and related to applied fields of business, management, and education, among other fields. Deterding et al.’s (2011) definition of this concept as “the use of game design elements in non-game contexts” (p. 9) is perhaps a bit simple. The academic world has been interested in this area, with education being among the top fields conducting gamification research (Dichev & Dicheva, 2017; Sailer & Homner, 2020; Seaborn & Fels, 2015). Kapp (2012) provided a more comprehensive definition of this concept, describing it as the use of “game-based mechanics, aesthetics and game thinking to engage people, motivate action, promote learning, and solve problems” (p. 10). Thus, gamification may be considered as the application of game principles and elements in a learning environment to influence behavior, increase motivation, and encourage student participation.

Gamification, as a concept, has positive outcomes that have been investigated thoroughly in various fields both “conceptually and empirically” (Dehghanzadeh et al., 2019). In the context of English as a second/foreign language, gamification has been seen as one strategy to engage learners (Huang et al., 2019; Landers & Landers, 2014; Tan & Hew, 2016), to motivate them (Ghasemi et al., 2017), to influence the learning outcomes (Tan & Hew, 2016), and to help in facilitating collaborative learning (Buckley & Doyle, 2014). In their quasi-experimental research, Lukas et al. (2020) established the potential of educational games as a strategy to enhance learners’ memory retention and promote learning motivation.

They highlighted the use of games in creating more interesting, useful, and meaningful teaching. In another study, Idris et al. (2020) underlined the effectiveness of Kahoot, a GBL platform used to reinforce English grammar to learners. The researchers concluded that gamification, through its captivating features, facilitated reducing the learners’ affective filter when learning grammar and then enhancing their motivation. Ni et al. (2020) stated that educational games help in improving cooperation, collaboration, communication, creativity, and critical thinking skills among students. This research also highlighted the potential use of games in English as a second language (ESL) classrooms for better memory retention of the vocabulary learned. Muntean (2011) pointed out that gamification allows learner engagement through the use of extrinsic elements such as levels, points, and badges and promotes intrinsic motivation by generating appreciation of one’s mastery, autonomy, and connectedness.

The advantages of gamification have been researched and explained under the theoretical framework of motivation, engagement, and psychology (Le, 2020). The theory of self-determination (SDT) embodies a broad framework studying human motivation and personality (Ryan & Deci, 2020). SDT articulates a meta-theory for

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explaining the intrinsic and extrinsic sources of motivation and their roles in cognitive and social development in individual differences (Ryan & Deci, 2020).

The theory encompasses three important psychological elements of human motivation: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy refers to “a sense of initiative and ownership in one’s actions” (Ryan & Deci, 2020, p. 1), which is weakened by experiences of external control. Competence, in this context, concerns the feeling of mastery that “afford[s] optimal challenges, positive feedback, and opportunities for growth” (Ryan & Deci, 2020, p. 1). Finally, relatedness is seen as a “sense of belonging and connection” (Ryan & Deci, 2020, p. 1). In a way, this may also lead to the collaborative effort in learning. These elements are important to comprehend “the what (content) and why (process) of goal pursuit and goal-directed behaviour” (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci. 2000).

2.2. Gamification vs Game-Based Learning The real value of game-based mechanics is to create meaningful learning experiences (Kapp, 2012). Wiggins (2016) offered two scenarios in trying to distinguish between gamification and GBL. In the first, gamification is included under the umbrella term of GBL, whereas in the second, these terms are used distinctly. In the first case, Wiggins (2016) referred to gamification as a “re-imagination of traditional educational strategies” (p. 19) employed to infuse both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation within the learner. In the latter, GBL may be defined as “the use of games (digital or non-digital) in educational contexts as a part of a learning objective” (Wiggins, 2016). In many instances, these two terms have been used interchangeably, referring to the same idea (Callaghan et al., 2013; Epper et al., 2012).

2.3. Collaborative Learning Chandra’s (2015) understanding of collaborative learning is that “collaboration is a way of interaction and personal attitude where individuals are responsible for their own actions, learning, their abilities and contributions of their peers as well” (p. 1). The same author further stated that collaborative activities are based on the learner being at the center of instruction and interaction and that groupwork is essential for learning to occur.

Vygotsky (1997) established that through dialogical and collaborative work, learners reformulate a problem and then search for and develop a possible solution. What thus begins as a collective task can be transformed by the learner into a task to be individually comprehended. Even more, Vygotsky (1997) stated that from a sociocultural perspective, if the acquisition of new concepts arises from a given context, they tend to be more meaningful for learners.

Subsequently, learning is socially constructed by the simple act of interacting and carrying out activities with others collaboratively. It offers opportunities to (re)construct one’s own models of reasoning and ways of thinking, and to develop problem-solving strategies according to the conceptions gathered by those with whom one interacts.

Mitchell and Myles (2004) noted that a learner learns a language to the extent that it is meaningful to them, which is possible through the collaboration of others who

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belong to the culture that encompasses the second language being learned.

According to Sumonte et al. (2019), collaborative learning is understood as equal interaction of participants when learning another language. As such, contributors collectively build intercultural knowledge through the exchange of experiences in a specific context. This context becomes the space where interaction takes place, where those who participate in each educational encounter negotiate meanings, and where whoever guides each encounter provides opportunities for the conscious construction of knowledge. The relevance of the context is an element that makes such knowledge concrete, practical, and applicable.

2.4. Interculturality According to Dietz (2018), the concept of interculturality is used to refer to the relationships that exist between people who are culturally diverse, as related to their ethnicity, culture, language, and religion, among other constructs.

Interculturality is not only about accepting others but also about understanding their way of seeing the world (González-Alonso, 2019). In this sense, migratory groups bring ethnocultural characteristics and diverse languages with them.

Therefore, for an inclusive society respectful of diversity, the goal is not only to learn the linguistic elements of the second/foreign language but also to move towards developing the establishment of human skills that facilitate the construction of a horizontal dialogue avoiding monocultural educational and social practices. This inclusion is configured as a dynamic process of reciprocal rapprochement and empathy, which involves the recognition of the differences and similarities of the other (Torres, 2002, cited in Barrios-Valenzuela & PalouJulián, 2014, p. 409). For their part, Rojas Pedemonte and Koechlin (2017) pointed out that it is necessary to favor intercultural coexistence environments that benefit the psychological well-being of all members of the community. For this to happen, these members must recognize the cultural richness of the other. Likewise, diversity constitutes a valuable component that enriches the community, but at the same time poses multidimensional challenges, one of these being related to mutual understanding using a common language and cultural recognition.

Research on language learning and the development of intercultural competencies that facilitate the inclusion of non-digital GBL in a foreign language learning (FLL) program is almost unexplored. Therefore, the implementation of GBL as an FLL strategy in the classroom activities would motivate and stimulate learners to develop competencies in the use of a foreign language as well as collaborative work and intercultural exchange.

2.5. General Objective and Research Questions The objective of the current study is to analyze the use of NDGB didactic resources as a strategy to facilitate the learning of Haitian Creole and its culture in adult native Spanish-speaking professionals.

The present study aims to respond to the following research questions: • RQ1. What are Chilean adult professionals’ perception of using NDGB didactic resources in their learning trajectory of Haitian Creole as a foreign language?

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• RQ2. How do NDGB didactic resources facilitate collaborative work among adult Haitian Creole learners?

• RQ3. How does a NDGB strategy facilitate the intercultural acquisition process of Chilean adult professionals who are learning Haitian Creole as a foreign language?

3. Methodology This research was developed under a qualitative paradigm of the non-experimental type. We examined Chilean adult professionals’ perceptions on the use of NDGB didactic resources in their FLL process, as well as how these resources facilitate the collaborative and intercultural learning of the participants.

Qualitative researchers investigate natural and inductive processes with the purpose to describe multiple realities to deeply understand the object under study. In this case, learners’ discourses and their behavior while learning a foreign language using non-digital games were analyzed. The games used were bingo, scattergories, role-playing, mimicry, and card games.

3.1. Participants of the Study The participants (N = 60) of the study comprised two groups of adult professionals. One group comprised police officers (n = 31) and the other health care professionals (n = 29). The non-probabilistic sample of convenience was composed of 51.6% women and 48.4% men, giving the sample a homogeneous character. The participants’ age varied from 28 to 60 years. In Chile, these two groups of professionals are motivated to learn Haitian Creole to facilitate communication with Haitian migrants who do not possess Spanish-speaking skills. Haitian migrants visit the offices of police officers to legalize the documents that allow them to stay in the country and, at the same time, to start being part of the society. Nevertheless, when there is misunderstanding because of the language barrier, migrants retain their illegal status. Haitian migrants also attend Chilean health care institutions when they have health problems. Doctors and nurses find it hard to comprehend the health problems of these migrants because of language barriers and cultural differences. These two obstacles have had as consequence the death of some of these migrants.

3.2. Instruments Used The data collection tools used in this study are a semi-structured interview and participant observation. Both instruments, developed by us, underwent a content validity process, with a score of 0.8, and a methodological design proposed by Galicia Alarcón et al. (2017). This validation includes three evaluation categories: clarity, coherence, and relevance. Experts from different areas of expertise validated both instruments. Two experts were from the second/foreign language learning area, one was an English teacher from a teaching training program, and one was an expert in research methodology. The kappa statistic (κ) was used to test interrater reliability, which was calculated to be 0.92.

For applying both instruments, a protocol was developed to consider ethical aspects, with informed consent signed by the participants. Both data collection tools focused on the participants’ perception of using game-based didactic

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resources in their Haitian Creole learning, as well as on how this strategy facilitates collaboration, motivation, and comprehension of the target language.

Participant observation was employed once a week during the Haitian Creole language-learning program. This program ran for three months, twice a week.

The duration of each session was one and a half hours. Interviews were carried out 15 days after the completion of the program as per the participants’ availability. The interviews were transcribed and thereafter analyzed by each researcher separately using the NVivo 10 program to validate the results obtained.

The information was codified to identify the number of the question asked; for example, Q10 means question number 10. In the same way, the field notes during participant observation were codified as FN and the week as W.

4. Results and Discussion of the Study As has been said previously, research on gamification has demonstrated its positive impact on learners. It engages learners in their learning tasks (Huang et al., 2019; Landers & Landers, 2014; Tan & Hew, 2016), motivates them (Ghasemi et al., 2017), favors their learning outcomes (Tan & Hew, 2016), helps in facilitating collaboration (Buckley & Doyle, 2014), and enhances learners’ memory retention (Lukas et al., 2020). The current work also verifies these positive impacts. By analyzing participants’ discourses extracted from their responses to the semi-structured interview and participant observation, we respond in this section to the three research questions raised in this paper.

4.1 Professionals’ Perceptions of Using Non-Digital Game-Based Didactic Resources The first research question deals with the implementation of NDGB didactic resources and the participants’ perception of their learning using this methodology. One of the participants mentioned that: “(...) I really liked the methodology implemented in this course (...), the games were something different. I found it very entertaining; we moved around the room; we were not always seated.” (Q2) Gamification is not a new resource used in education and seeks to enrich students’ learning. Research in this area is far from being completed, as the strategy has high potential strategy to be implemented (Surendeleg et al., 2014). The group of participants noted they had participated in several training courses, although this one was different from all the others. None of them had used a GBL approach before. Rather, the class methodology comprised mainly theoretical work, memorization, and no movement; they had to sit down during the whole course.

One of the participants stated: “When different courses are given (...) everyone is seated; it is not in a group, you do not move, only the teacher talks (...), but the method of this course strengthens the connections between students. I did not know some colleagues who are working in other clinics (...). The methodology is entertaining.” (Q2) All the participants agreed that the games used in class were entertaining and dynamic, and they felt that they were motivated to think and be attentive to the content developed in the class. We can say that this confirms the purpose of

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gamification; it is not for enjoyment, but rather favors motivation, engagement, and user experience (Bencsik et al., 2021). The dynamics made it easier to remember the content when they had to apply it outside the classroom, in their workplace, where they were confronted with Haitian migrants without any knowledge of Spanish. Surendeleg et al. (2014) mentioned some studies that have discovered that knowledge can be deeply absorbed through gamification and also include not only young people but also adults.

The different games allowed for various contents to be learned using several dynamics. For example, cards were used to learn vocabulary. In this game, participants were shown a printed word on a card, and if they knew its meaning, had to run to take it and make a sentence using that word on a whiteboard. The participant who constructed the sentence correctly received a score, which would be part of their evaluations. Regarding this exercise, one participant responded: “For example, when we worked with the cards, we had to run out and make a sentence, so we all had to make a sentence.” (Q2) Mimicry is mainly structured to facilitate the learning of actions (verbs).

Participants who guessed the action represented through mimicry had to stand up from their seat, verbalize the action, and perform it themselves. The participant then had to choose a classmate for the next representation. Regarding this game, a participant stated: “The verbs are always difficult, but mimicry helped me to understand them because, later, in the evaluation or when I had to use them at work, I tried to remember the game and it allowed me to make the relationship between the mime and the verb.” (Q6) Another game used for learning was bingo (Figure 1), whose objective is to connect the number mentioned orally with its respective number on a cardboard card. First, participants had to listen to a number read out by the teacher. Then, they had to mark it on their cards and repeat the number. This game involved three levels: first, the one who completed one line of five numbers on the cardboard card, then two lines, and finally, the one who completed all the numbers. For each level, the participant who achieved that level first was rewarded with an object (Figure 1).

a

b

Figure 1: a) Playing bingo and b) receiving a reward after finishing the task (W2)

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4.2 Collaborative Work through the Non-Digital Game-Based Didactic Resources Collaborative work and the joint construction of intercultural knowledge are favored among students based on their knowledge in the process of learning. This involves the development of linguistic competencies of the foreign language by employing games. In this context, each participant is responsible for their learning, but at the same time is part of the learning of the other. According to Hiltz and Turoff (1993), collaborative learning can be defined as a process that favors group or cooperative efforts among teachers and students. They further added that in this process of collaborative learning, knowledge is seen as a social development, which facilitates the educational process in an environment, which assists peer interaction, evaluation, and cooperation.

Interaction enriches the learning process because it allows learners to experience different starting points (Bencsik et al., 2021). Therefore, learning occurs by collaborating with each other and placing individuals’ own understanding at the service of others. In these tasks, all participants worked as a team to accomplish the same objectives, contributing from their own expertise. Currently, considering the diverse daily cultural reality, social contexts call for didactic strategies directed to favor interactive situations (Barrera Vázquez & Cabrera Albert, 2021). In this case, learners understand that each one has certain knowledge that can be shared allowing them to achieve the objective. Regarding this, one of the participants stated: “We got together to study, and we were willing to do it, to review; each one contributed what we knew to finish the task.” (Q5) According to the Vygotskian view, “learners appropriate cultural practices and tools through interaction with more experienced members” (Díaz, 2003, p. 3). This was noticed in the following observation during a class.

“When groups of five to seven members must be formed to solve assigned tasks, each participant contributes his or her knowledge to achieve the objective. During this process, it is observed that everyone contributes and complements each other until the work is completed.” (FN, W4) An example of this is scattergories (Figure 2). In this game, groups are formed, standing in front of a whiteboard. They choose someone to write a word using a given letter. The rest of the group helps to find the word that has that letter. The first one to write the word receives extra credits for the whole group. The enhancement of this type of context promotes participation in the learning activities because of the opportunities to collaborate, which means more chances to achieve the assignment.

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Figure 2. Collaborative learning by using scattergories (W4)

Vygotsky (1997) pointed out that dialogic and collaborative work allows learners to reformulate a problem and search for and develop a possible solution. In this case, the game that begins as a collective task allows the internalization of the language initiated from the knowledge common to all and then applied in the professional environment individually. From this perspective, learners develop, as a group, the construction of knowledge, which constitutes both collective and individual knowledge (Wink & Putney, 2002).

4.3 Intercultural Acquisition through Non-Digital Games At the beginning of the Haitian Creole language-learning program, games were used for learning language in a concrete manner. After a while, these games were used in a non-concrete manner to build cultural awareness and knowledge exchange among participants.

For example, one of the contents was to learn the days of the week. For this purpose, seven different cards, each with a day of the week, were displayed.

When reaching Sunday, the instructor in the classroom asked what was done in Chile on a Sunday, because Sunday is a religious day for Haitians. In this case, the concrete element (the card) allows sharing a cultural aspect that is not concrete.

We made the following observation regarding this: “The days of the week are taught. Cards with each day are shown; students work in groups of seven people, each reading one day. By the time they get to Sunday, a Haitian person in the classroom asks what they do in Chile on Sundays. At this point, the group stops and begins to share what Chileans and Haitians do on Sundays in their respective countries.” (FN, W2) The cultural-knowledge exchange allows students to represent their worldview through the learning of a language. It could also be explained from the affective dimension of intercultural communication which implies establishing relationships with interlocutors whose cultural referents differ from each other (Chen & Starosta, 1998). In this context, it is important to consider including cultural aspects when working on a foreign/second language-learning program.

Regarding this, a participant stated: “All of this is also important (...) to know their country, their language; we got to know them, what they do, their family, what they like; we

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comprehend better how they understand things, we get to know their culture.” (Q5) The instructors who led each session of the program were native speakers of Haitian Creole. The teaching of native speakers may favor what Mitchell and Myles (2004) pointed out, that a language is learned to the extent that it is meaningful to the learner. In this case, the interaction between the participants and the native speakers who were willing to answer all their questions regarding the use of the language may possibly be a plus. These instructors also facilitate the development of activities using role-play, where Chilean learners and instructors use real situations of both countries to practice the language and understand how to deal with these situations in both cultures. Blatner (2009) pointed out that roleplaying is a strategy that facilitates the development of skills such as taking initiative, communication, problem solving, confidence, and teamwork. Likewise, it offers the student the possibility of personifying or simulating real situations about the cultural differences, values, and beliefs of the citizens of both countries.

The student uses Haitian Creole, on the one hand, and comprehends their ways of understanding reality, on the other. One of the participants stated: “The role-play is one of the activities that I liked the most, since we were able to imitate, for example, how to face a Haitian couple when they go to the doctor’s office, with the differences and similarities with our own ways of acting.” (Q4) Regarding couples, the Chilean participants highlighted the differences between the way in which men and women relate to each other as a couple. The conversation led to them concluding that Haiti has what they considered a male-dominated culture. Accordingly, Lamour (2021) stated that Haitian society is sexist. One participant pointed out that: “I liked learning about their culture. I considered them a macho society.

A few days ago, a couple came to be seen, and I told her to sit down, but he sat down – that bothered me. Now, I understand that it is part of them, that it is their way of understanding each other and it is part of their culture.” (Q11) The participants’ discourses demonstrate a favorable perception of the use of non-digital games in that it facilitates the acquisition of the target language, promotes collaborative work, and develops intercultural componence. The favorable perception is achieved because the focus of learning is on how it is learned (Manca et al., 2019). In this regard, second/foreign language learning processes address not only external factors but also psychological ones (Ranjan & Philominraj, 2020). Therefore, learning in this type of context with the use of GBL provides opportunities to enhance learner commitment in language acquisition.

These types of student-centered teaching methodologies provide meaningful learning (Philominraj et al., 2021) and ensure greater success in language learning.

5. Conclusion This paper introduced and analyzed the use of NDGB didactic resources as a strategy and learning approach for learning a foreign language spoken by a minority group. In this sense, the study could successfully achieve its main

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objective and respond to the research questions raised. The research study highlighted that NDGB didactic resources can serve as a useful strategy to learn a language. It allows the student to be engaged in the activities, resulting in active participation in their own learning and that of their peers. In the same line, both types of motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) could be identified in this research.

The participants were first extrinsically interested in communicating using Haitian Creole because they needed to offer qualified assistance. Nevertheless, learning the language and at the same time its culture through a gamified context allowed them to develop intrinsic motivation by showing their interest in continuing their learning beyond the end of the program. GBL strategy supports educational processes. This strategy is at the learning service and not the other way around. Hence, learning experiences should be designed considering the elements of a game. The study was limited to two groups of professionals; we therefore propose the inclusion of other groups and younger people for further study. Based on the findings of the research, we recommend a systematic teacher-training program and continuous development in using NDGB didactic resources to enhance learners’ engagement and motivation.

Funding The research was sponsored by the Fondecyt of Initiation Project N° 11190448 National Research and Development Agency – ANID and by the Advanced Human Capital Training Program CONICYT N° 21182041, both from Chile.

Acknowledgments We would like to express our cordial thanks to all the participants, who voluntarily took part in this study.

Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 212-231, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.13 Received Sep 27, 2021; Revised Dec 18, 2021; Accepted Dec 30, 2021

Resetting Integrity Through Communication on Plagiarism: University Classrooms Weaving Values into the Social Fabric Arniza Ghazali* and Azniwati Abdul Aziz Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9188-351X https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8105-0701 Abstract. Academic dishonesty manifested in the proliferating acts of plagiarism can be eradicated by returning to value teaching. In a study involving 37 first-year students in one academic year, a single-group quasiexperimental procedure with mixed qualitative and quantitative analyses of students’ assignments was performed. The procedure involved diagnosing plagiarism by strategic manual detection and classification of occurrences and recording the frequency of occurrence. The objective was to examine the effects of communicating about plagiarism by the designed plagiarism-integrity narratives (PIN) intervention on students’ integrity based on their source-attribution practices. In the first semester, an assignment was administered without any word on plagiarism as the baseline data for students’ academic integrity at pre-test. In the second semester, the post-PIN-intervention assignment set with similar cognitive demand as the first was administered. The post-PIN intervention showed 76% of students taking steps to not succumb to plagiarism, far outweighing the 5% not taking heed. Of those who acknowledged information sources, 14% showed excellent referencing skills, capturing the potential first-year role model. In terms of outsourcing and attribution combined, the PIN intervention offered a 95% transformation of moral values, hinting at the possibility of resetting academic integrity via communication and clear directives. Lifting plagiarism rules as a “litmus test” (third assignment) revealed 28% integrity-ready students applying the fundamental attribution rules. Outstanding referencing skills and honesty were portrayed by a selfregulated student who had internalized academic integrity. The findings signal the possibility of curbing plagiarism in university classrooms and nurturing students to start weaving values into the social fabric.

Keywords: integrity; higher education; plagiarism; values

*

Corresponding author: Arniza Ghazali, arniza@usm.my

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Executed by the Ctrl + C and Ctrl + V functions of the computer keyboard, verbatim copying is the easiest and quickest way to commit plagiarism. Besides ease of execution, tips for bypassing plagiarism detection software are also widely available, masking plagiarism misconduct and depriving human civilization from moral values and academic integrity.

1.1 Plagiarism in the Academia – Distorted Learning Culture Plagiarism, the act of using an idea, work, or workpiece without proper attribution of the source or the creator was concisely marked by His Royal Highness Sultan Nazrin Shah, the Chancellor of Universiti Malaya, as an academic crime (Bernama, 2017). False claiming credits for others’ work oppose academic integrity due to dishonoring intellectualism, creativity, and efforts.

Within the locus of an innovative product, Williams (cited in Ibegbulam & Eze, 2015) specified that others’ “work” is inclusive of “creativity, ideas, and language” (p. 121).

First identified in the 18th century, plagiarism in academia has been trending (Perkins et al., 2020) and is projected to skyrocket with the growing scientific merit and competition (Visser et al., 2012). The onset of plagiarism coincides with the era of recognizing knowledge as a commodity (Zejno, 2018) and the number of output as impression for performance leading to titles and status. The desire for social recognition paired with an unwillingness to invest in resource-intensive learning and an ethical-succeeding process are two critical drivers for plagiarism.

Tremayne and Curtis (2021) identified an impeded self-control as the underlying factor for dishonesty, explained in neuroscience as the silenced impulsive control from the frontal cortex (Watts et al., 2018).

The fluidity of plagiarism breeds endemic across the developing and developed world. The tendency to cheat has increased with online learning, although it is insignificantly prevalent among the more mature students (Ison, 2014). Artificial intelligence- (AI) wired plagiarism monitoring during online learning throughout the Covid-19 pandemic recorded a spike in cases. Analysis has shown that plagiarism was notable in science courses, higher in magnitude in the arts, and common practice in engineering courses (Davis, 2021). Lack of academic skills (Jereb et al., 2018), poor knowledge of plagiarism, and students’ unawareness of learning expectations were additional driving factors to cheat “to level the playing field” (Davis, 2021, para 23). On the last note, Chan et al. (2014) regarded the phenomenon as a “social construct” (p. 120). Experts have reckoned that if unchecked, the criminal minds behind plagiarism could grow to become fraudsters, taxing a seventh of global gross domestic product (GDP), worth £7.22 trillion (Zee et al., 2016).

Graduates’ confessions suggest that plagiarism has long plagued teaching, learning (Mohamed et al., 2018; Zejno, 2018), and research in Malaysia. In reality, the phenomenon manifests itself as countless educational stigmata, diffusing into the social fabric. The ripple effect was marked explicitly by Royal Professor Ungku

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Abdul Aziz Abdul Hamid that “the teaching and learning process are the fundaments in effecting the woes faced by society” (Azahari & Ramjit, 2008, para 6).

Malaysian junior youths performing below par globally (Cheah, 2015; Kok, 2020; Perera & Asadullah, 2019; Tan et al., 2019) mirrors the distorted learning culture.

Poor learning skills, which lead to plagiarism or vice versa, attests to the argument that “[p]lagiarism breeds poor study habits” (Ibegbulam & Eze, 2015, p. 122). The phenomenon raised bears concerns over its repercussion on education quality due to the circular nature of human capital – a student last decade, a teacher in the present time. Although factors behind poor performance vary, plagiarists among the educational workforce are more likely to repeat their undergraduate dishonesty at work (Payne & Nantz, 1994). The great concern is that such misconduct will be passed on as a survival tip to the succeeding generation.

Thus, when the 60% of Malaysian graduates (Table 1) are compared with the meager 28% of Malaysian parents possessing a tertiary education qualification (Perera & Asadullah, 2019), this figure reveals that only 10% of guardians possess authentic learning experience.

Table 1: Self-reported plagiarism cases and stance for a specific penalty by locality or nationality Period 1940s 1990s 1999 2003

Cases by locality/nationality United States of America United States of America Duke University Rutgers University

%

Reference

20% 90% 10% 38%

McCabe (2006)* McCabe (2006)* McCabe (2006)** Rutgers University (2003)** 1999–2009 Malaysia 60% Dannian (2009)** 2012 Nigeria 60% Babalola (2012)** 2013 Portsmouth 54%*** Ubaka et al. (2013)** 2004–2019 Australia 60– Tremayne and Curtis 80% (2021) 2015 Nigeria 44% Ibegbulam and Eze (2015) Until 2010 Various nations 61% Dante (2010)**** Stance with regard to plagiarism penalty Favor penalty Nigeria 44% Ibegbulam and Eze (2015) Favor penalty Malaysia 41% Zejno (2018) For expulsion Nigeria 18% Ibegbulam and Eze (2015) *Cited in Chan et al. (2014) | **Cited in Ibegbulam and Eze (2015) | ***Nigerians majority population | ****Ghost authorship service

The proportion is only about a third of the figures reported by Perera and Asadullah (2019) for Korea (57%) and Singapore (47%).

The underperformance of locals in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) (Perera & Asadullah, 2019) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) (Phang et al., 2020) has a direct link to the poor teaching and learning practices. Malpractices such as the leaking of

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examination questions and memorization of essays instead of teaching writing processes advance plagiarism as an educational issue. Resetting academic integrity is therefore a priority to break the cycle of the known record of best-performing Malaysian students failing in the Singaporean education assessment system (Tan et al., 2019).

In higher education, the effects of academic misconduct are outrageous and twosided. While the prey (students and/or staff) suffer silenced agony, depression, or withdrawal (Clark & Wallace, 2018), the predators (the plagiarists) amass false credits, productive impressions, position, and an exhaustive recognition list that attracts allies. In research publications, collusion can occur through various “research briberies” disguised as “success strategies”. False authorship in exchange for a student’s monthly stipend offered by a researcher not recognized as the actual working team, for instance, is a vivid form of plagiarism, and plagiarism is a violation of research integrity (Garcia-Carbonell et al., 2021; Labib et al., 2021). Unfortunately, the misbehavior generates an impressive list of selfclaimed scholarly works “harming scholarship” (Clark & Wallace, 2018, p. 133) and producing like-minded graduates who then operate the various segments of the education sector.

1.2 Problem Statement Although plagiarism is a distortion, it is unfortunately not acted upon, with the view to be “humanitarian” towards students. As such, plagiarism is regarded insignificant by the university community under study. As students advance in their university years, they confuse plagiarism with a TurnitinTM similarity index (TSI), their scores often exceeding 30% without realizing that this figure indicates an outright counter-integrity nature of 30% tolerance of detectable pathologic cheating. TSI as plagiarism metrics can be manipulated by changing terms and words to bypass the text-match algorithm. While plagiarism persists, students’ assignments are approved for grading. A stringent TSI setting serves better to ensure quality learning. The 1% tolerance embraced by Batane (Ison, 2014), a professor in instructional technology, has also been embraced by other academics, who fear the repercussions from undermining morality and the ultimate paralysis of the nation-building agenda. It is apparent, thus far, that despite AI and the conquest of technology-driven services, educators remain the most well-suited to engender value education by detecting and rectifying the situation. The mission sheds light on the remedy of the system, commensurate with the study’s objectives.

1.3 Objectives Strategic manual tracking of plagiarism involving ideas, texts, and visuals was performed on three batches of assignments in a single-group quasi-experimental study with a pre- and post-test to achieve these objectives: i. to determine if plagiarism exists among 2020/2021 first-year students; ii. to identify the types of plagiarism versus percentage of students committing plagiarism; and iii. to assess if communicating plagiarism with students by the designed plagiarism-integrity narratives (PIN) intervention could drive behavioral changes.

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1.4 Research Questions In the quest to achieve the research objectives, we have formulated three specific questions: i.

Does plagiarism happen among 2020/2021 fresher students enrolled in the selected course? ii.

What are the plagiarism types versus the percentage of students involved? iii.

How does communication about plagiarism (by PIN intervention) affect the trend in students’ attribution of information sources?

2. Methodology 2.1 Research Design A single-group pre-test and post-test quasi-experimental design was employed.

The study integrated mixed qualitative and quantitative analyses (Figure 1) of students’ plagiarism behavior, adhering to the principles of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) research described by Miller-Young and Yeo (2015).

The methodological framework adopted for this study is summarized in Figure 1 and will be discussed below.

Figure 1: The mixed qualitative-quantitative framework adopted in the single-group pre-test-post-test quasi-experimental design

2.2 Participants and Course Materials In the first semester of the 2020/2021 academic year, the portion of the university course titled Basics of Materials Analysis was presented synchronously via WebexTM and deposited as micro-credential modules in Universiti Sains Malaysia’s OpenLearningTM platform. The materials acted as a primary reference to the students enrolled in the course. The study’s focus was the cohort constituting 37 first-year students from the Division of Bioresource Technology (BRTech). At the time of study, the students were between 20 and 21 years of age from the bottom 40% (B40) and middle 40% (M40) income groups.

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2.3 Learning Resources Strategized for Plagiarism Detection Consistent in all cases, rich learning resources were availed to the students. The resources were deposited in Universiti Sains Malaysia’s OpenLearningTM platform and as e-books presenting active and inactive links to the recommended industrial and academic references. The created e-books contained “hidden” grammar and spelling mistakes to ease tracking of plagiarism. Exaggeration of reference listing was detectable as the instructor-cum-author cited hardcopies of the personally subscribed industrial newsletters. Mishandling of artwork not detectable by such plagiarism software as TurnitinTM was also possibly detected as most images were digitally drawn by the instructor to represent ideas formulated from numerous references. Related e-books were made available at an online platform with analytics recording access. All digital learning materials were accessible on and storable in students’ smartphones in favor of Gen Z’s preference (Annamalai et al., 2021).

2.4 Data Collection Students were assigned higher order thinking tasks requiring analysis of learning materials and synthesis of ideas. The resultant monitoring time was between September 15, 2020 and July 15, 2021, totaling one academic year.

2.4.1 Pre-Test In the first semester, students formulated ideas and presented a video and script proposing the actions required to investigate “why the orange pumpkin turned purple (YPTP)”. The essential requirement was to indicate team member contribution and sources of ideas. No instruction on plagiarism was given.

2.4.2 Post-Test and Plagiarism-Integrity Narratives (PIN) Intervention A briefing on the semester two assignment explicitly instructed students to formulate ideas on a poster related to the multiple-choice question (MCQ) paired with the related descriptive question. The MCQ-descriptive paired question is from here onwards abbreviated MCD or Assignment 2. Students were introduced to plagiarism and why it reflects integrity and should never be regarded as “a small matter” (Table 2). As guidance was given on MCD, the instructor recommended that students indicate the sources precisely, as shown on lecture slides, OpenLearningTM modules, and e-books. No strict rules on correct paraphrasing or format were set. The main goal was to inculcate academic integrity by honestly stating the source or reference used from which the ideas formulated on the poster were derived. The gist of the communicated narratives is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Plagiarism-integrity narratives (PIN) as an intervention in communication on plagiarism What is plagiarism How plagiarism ties to integrity

Basic definition and types in Ghazali (2021) and Nabee et al. (2020) Quoted a statement by a popular, reputable, and civilized figure and their academic qualification.

The instructor also related plagiarism to a Malay proverb, “Lembu punya susu sapi dapat nama.” The proverb depicts an ironic situation of a person

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Consequences

gaining credit from someone else’s work by an analogy of a cow producing milk, but the oil produced from the milk is sapi’s oil. In Malay, lembu and sapi are synonymously used for cow.

Global record for penalties on plagiarists: - high-ranking officers; politicians, and a rector, - students from selected international universities, - Malaysian candidate denied a PhD from a UK university for not attributing his supervisor’s ideas.

2.5 “Litmus Test” for Academic Honesty The students’ academic honesty was further tracked in the third assignment requiring them to formulate ideas and write a one-page (A4) media review, abbreviated MR or Assignment 3. The writing assignment was given without any referencing instruction. Plagiarism rules were lifted, and students’ honesty in crediting ideas, facts, and figures was monitored.

2.6 Analysis Qualitative analysis was employed by going through each submitted assignment to identify plagiarism involving visuals, ideas, and collusion, which was not detectable by TurnitinTM. Imperfections in rephrasing were tolerated. Plagiarism types were classified, counted, and the percentage was calculated as per the total number of participants.

Supplementary data capturing the students’ learning goals were acquired using the 13th item in the survey embedded in the Universiti Sains Malaysia micro-credential module titled Fundaments of Plagiarism at https://learning4life.usm.my/courses/fundaments-of-plagiarism.

The candidate who achieved the best attribution practices was contacted to talk informally about the reasons behind their determination to avoid plagiarism. The communication took place via WhatsApp messaging as the semester break started.

2.7 Terminology The quantitative analysis of assignments submitted by students had a particular trend of referencing issues. Table 3 defines each classification used as labels on the graphics in section 3 (Results). Note that the qualitative analysis was solely for research and future strategic actions. Students were not severely penalized for plagiarism or incorrect referencing as the aim of the assignments was to track their ability to grasp the course while learning to apply academic honesty.

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Table 3: Attribution labels by issues Attribution labels (status in bracket) 1. Verbatim plagiarism (severe dishonesty)

2. Fake list/citation (dishonesty/erroneous)

3. List only (erroneous)

4. Skilled referencing (commendable) 5. Surface knowledge I (lack in learning effort)

6. Surface knowledge II (favored when instructed)

7. Recommended citations (favored)

Criteria & issues Copying of texts or visuals in their entirety, with or without removing words; changing tense; or modification in the case of visuals.

“Fake list/citation” refers to a mismatch between the references cited in-text and the ones listed. Points described differently from those in the listed references are also considered a mismatch.

The listed references match the presented facts, thus not regarded as dishonesty, but still in the domain of plagiarism. An exaggerated list is considered dishonesty.

The references are cited in the text and listed accurately with or without an elaboration.

The presentation contains misinterpreted points from the lecture materials – no outsourcing of the recommended references.

Closed-book examination types of correct answers not requiring citation or reference listing. Students digested the course contents and linked various points from the syllabus.

In-text citations complying with the format recommended by the instructor.

3. Results 3.1 Baseline Data from the Pre-Test At the start of their fresher year, 76% of the students went the extra mile with literature searches in the problem-solving assignment, while the rest were comfortable presenting surface knowledge (I and II) (Figure 2a). No student adopted the minimal referencing demonstrated in lecturer materials despite accessing and using the references. In outsourcing facts and figures, 42% of the students neither cited nor listed the references, 9% presented contradicting citations and reference listing, while 21% listed their references without in-text citations (Figure 2b). While correct surface knowledge (II) was given marks for accuracy, attribution of sources was essential for an assignment with multiple reference repositories and offered a multiple-day working duration. Applying a stringent rule could have placed all students on the brink of plagiarism.

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Surface Knowledge 24%

Fake List & Citation 9%

Surface Knowledge 24% List Only 21% (+4% exaggerated)

Outsourced Materials 76%

No Referencing 42%

(a)

(b)

Figure 2: Students’ handling of assignment 1 (why the orange pumpkin turned purple [YPTP]) differentiating (a) commitment and (b) source attribution profiles

3.2 Baseline Data from the Post-Test The submitted MCD on the concepts of zero-waste biomass management shows that 95% (Figure 3a) of the students went the extra mile to analyze the given materials and outsource the recommended references. The change in attribution profile is also positively apparent, indicating a majority attempting to declare the references they used, giving an honest list of references and less recall-type answers post-PIN intervention. As opposed to the presentation of misleading surface knowledge, students engaged in more reading and outsourcing and attributed the references accordingly. The PIN intervention shifted the trend in students’ referencing and outsourcing positively, with higher records for honesty and simultaneously zeroing down the fake listing of references.

Confined Resources (Surface Knowledge I) 5% Percentage (%)

50

Extensive Outsourcing 95%

Pre-test Series1

40

Post-test Series2

30 20

10 0 Attribution Honest List

Skilled Surface Referencing Knowledge

Fake List

No Misled attribution Attribution

Attribution Profile

(a)

(b)

Figure 3: Students’ handling of reference attribution after PIN intervention showing (a) 95% of students outsourcing for references and (b) comparison of referencing practice with baseline data

The 5% of students who chose to present surface knowledge (Figure 3b) defeated the purpose of higher order thinking skills required of the poster construction.

These students missed the processes of linking and translating the formulated ideas into graphics. The targeted cognitive exercise was also misunderstood by one candidate as mere “cartoon time”, as shown on the student-given filenames.

Competing duties from extra-curricular activities and a spiking volume of assignments could be factors that slowed down participation in semester 2’s WhatsApp interaction. The disengagement was typical of the few who seek soft

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skills from co-curricular activities. Among those who invested tremendously in the poster construction, 43% attributed the references as per the minimal recommendation from the instructor, and 14% skillfully cited the sources, amounting to 57% adhering to the minimal referencing guidelines set by the instructor (Figure 3b).

With the attribution rules in place, the students in the change-resistant group, who believed that reference-listing was the means to avoid plagiarism, increased from 20% to 38% (Figure 3b). The situation could have been aided if students had consulted the course instructor for guidance. The numbers demonstrate Asians’ (Anyanwu, 2004) misconception of reference-listing to rule out plagiarism, seeming deep-seated or deceptively well-received. Despite the error, the absence of a fake exhaustive list and the distinctive match between presented ideas and listed references indicate enhanced academic honesty.

Unexpectedly, 14% of the students presented skilled attribution of sources, while two candidates in the group cracked the code for space-economy referencing. By opting for the Vancouver referencing system, these two managed to do in-text citations and list the sources.

3.3 Baseline Data from the Litmus Test The third assignment, denoted MR or Assignment 3, was administered before the semester ended and required the students to read the recommended laymen article, identify the issue, and relate it to the course contents. As a basic assignment presentation practice, the essential references deposited at the university’s OpenLearningTM portal and the recommended article were cited and listed appropriately in students’ write-ups.

It turns out that when decision autonomy for source attribution had been transferred to the students, 28% adhered to the basic referencing rules (Figure 4), expanding the “count of honesty” captured in Assignment 2 twofold.

Verbatim Plagiarism 3%

Integrity Fake List 22%

Faded Integrity

Retained Honesty 28% Paraphrased Course Contents 16%

List Only 31%

(a)

(b)

Figure 4: Students’ (a) referencing practice in the absence of plagiarism rules, yielding (b) a stringent divide between students with integrity and those with faded integrity

B40-2 and M40+, two candidates in the B40 and M40 groups, respectively, complied with referencing for undermining plagiarism by wonderfully applying

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the APA referencing system. M40+ informed the instructor of the decision for retaining some of the sentences in their original form. This was based on the need to permit, temporarily at least, the “error tolerating culture” (Labib et al., 2021, p. 6) to encourage fresher students to openly share their circumstances and feel safe about making mistakes during the learning period. Unlike B40-1, who abandoned proper referencing once plagiarism rules were lifted, both B40-2 and M40+ prevailed in attributing ideas despite their equally hectic study schedules.

Students may have associated the firm determination to uphold academic integrity with their fear for long-term enculturation of dishonesty and fear for failure due to plagiarism as contained in intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. On this note, M40+ expressed: “Doctor reminded that it is wrong to take credit for others’ ideas. I want to do the right thing,” portraying a reasonable degree of integrity leadership. The case also relates well with earlier findings that plagiarism is affected by students’ level of understanding (Nabee et al., 2020; Tremayne & Curtis, 2021) and internalization (Labib et al., 2021) of plagiarism and its impact. Beyond comprehending the issue, M40+ internalized the need to abandon the misconduct for the long-term divine blessing mentioned extremely briefly by the instructor in reference to a specific section of the holy book of Islam (the Quran), while welcoming similar input from other religions.

Students were asked to explain why they chose to pursue education at the university level. The results are depicted in Figure 5.

80

40%

VOTE COUNT

70 60 50

27%

25%

40

7% 30 20

Series1

Paper Qualification

To be Educated

Good Job, Good Life

Survival Skills

33

45

73

49

Figure 5: Self-reported reasons for entering university

Twenty-five percent of the students indicated that to be educated was their primary reason for entering university (Figure 5), which signals transformation by gradual improvement (in the case of M40+, particularly). Students whose goal gravitates towards “good job, good life” may be less committed and usually avoid painstaking tasks, cutting corners to quickly exit the system for a job, by all means.

The priority set by this group is passing rather than subject mastery, a typical self-reported reason for plagiarism reported by Jereb et al. (2018) for selected European nationals. Considering the mentioned moral self-image concept and Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior, it becomes self-explanatory that the 14% who

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meticulously strove to reference correctly were among the B40 group and those who were pleased to abide by morality.

4. Discussion 4.1 Norm & Alert for Educators The study provides evidence of plagiarism, the known hindrance to academic goals that would otherwise remain silenced. Paralyzing policies and educational practices that directly or indirectly tolerate plagiarism need to be scrutinized to halt its proliferation. Among the practices are: i.

Setting too high a text-matching similarity index such as TSI as a prerequisite for passing an assignment or as a gauge for readiness for submission and grading. ii.

Teaching students the trick to bypass the text-matching algorithm of plagiarism detection software by changing words. Not only has the trick acclimatized students to verbatim plagiarism, but it has also contributed somewhat to the plateauing trend in plagiarism cases, as captured by Curtis and Tremayne (2021). iii.

Allowing leniency to retain a 100% pass rate by availing opportunity for work resubmission and appointment of a new examiner when plagiarism is reported. iv.

Silencing cases to avoid the tedious regulatory procedure. v.

Exempting senior academics from integrity education when it is available or lacking intervention to actualize academic integrity education, which should by right be for all involved in scholarly communication. vi.

Recognizing output numbers or assessing only the output over the more timely knowledge-skills-abilities (KSA) assessment tool proposed by Garcia-Carbonell et al. (2021).

On the last note, the number of graduated students and the number of publications students have their names on (rather than assessing if the academic communication skills have been acquired) can be non-cognitive achievements. As much as it is an issue to address for learners, assessing skills is timely for educators, as illuminated by integrity experts such as Garcia-Carbonell et al. (2021), to suit the unique demand of the present time (Powell, 2021).

Lack of integrity captured in the baseline data plunged students into verbatimcopying plagiarism, outright dishonesty, and low morality, which could be fixed by learning the correct way of presenting ideas. Unlike the trends in other nations (Curtis & Tremayne, 2021) within this study’s radar, the verbatim plagiarism led to improper referencing stemming from under-nurtured integrity and poor mastery of the instructional medium. Long-term tolerance of the error would aggravate the situation, engendering the clear divide between integrity learners and the “faded integrity” group (Figure 4b), with the latter outnumbering the desired former.

Changing words and tenses were also actions taken to hide verbatim plagiarism.

The findings share a commonality with an earlier study led by forensic linguist Sousa-Silva (Sousa-Silva et al., 2010). Word changes may escape a text-matching

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algorithm but still count as plagiarism, marking one other loophole associated with plagiarism detection software, its approval of tricks and its improper use as a tool to inculcate moral values. The findings call for human teachers to play a role in integrity education and the need to define precise limits to the relevance of plagiarism software to halt the distorted learning culture.

Fine detailing of verbatim plagiarism was captured in the inappropriate use of scientific visuals. One of the instructor’s figures was used without basic attribution such as “Reproduced from (source) with alteration”. Instead, one student claimed: “Illustration hand drawn by (student’s name) on iPad Ms PowerPoint.” Such error is marked as “misled attribution” in Figure 3b. The student succumbed to plagiarism by undervaluing the volume of intellectual skills required to research and connect the complex science involving biochemistry, geochemistry, and inorganic chemistry with an industrial feedstock. The incident is reminiscent of the Malaysian student who was denied a PhD in a UK educational institution for undermining the supervisor’s idea as common knowledge and not attributing the idea. The fact that the student was among the top three in the course suggests that language mastery alone is insufficient. Integrity and moral values are critical factors for teaching instructional and communication media for meaningful learning. In a similar vein, Briggs (cited in Anyanwu, 2004) illuminated: “The problem with the moralistic attitude underpinning policies of plagiarism is that such moralism is so institutionalized – and so easily offended – that we are prone to forget the very straightforward and obvious idea that plagiarism constitutes a learning and communication problem too.” (p. 184) The findings also signal the more technical measure for curricular improvement.

Education prior to tertiary level should serve as a preparatory program. The missing, unachieved learning outcome creating a performance gap signals the need to retrain educators and re-examine their work scope. Focus on integrity or value education should prepare teachers to communicate PIN messages customized to their target group. Policing plagiarism (Stabingis et al., 2014), formerly mandated to educators by experts, lie detection, and reformatting tasks are programmable with AI. However, every opportunity to communicate PIN, whether in curricular or extra-curricular activities, should be maximized by human educators. Given the outcomes-based education system already in place, actualizing integrity narratives into outcomes should be an enjoyable task and not an additional burden to teachers. Integrity education should better prepare teachers for the next skill-demanding level for mitigating language for ethical communication courses. The strategy is necessary as students’ aptitude in the instructional media correlates with good learning (Ghazali & Ghazali, 2020; Ibegbulam & Eze, 2015; Kok, 2020). The course in itself is the powerful preparatory channel to actualize good learning and integrity education. As Thomson (cited in Davis, 2021) illuminated: “There’s no need to cheat when you’re having good learning” (para 17).

Mastery of the communication media assists, to a great extent, in preventing cheating. On a neuro firing scale, plagiarism can be prevented by the ability to think (cognitive, C) with self-control, evaluate, weigh the underlying effort, and

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responsibly honor (affective, A) idea sources by proper attribution (behavioral, B).

These are learning variables that occur in equilibrium at varying skill levels and domains. The continuous triple-domain interaction is condensed in equilibrium equation 1:

A+B⇌C

[1]

Self-control The higher order thinking skills which can be learned and mastered through writing tasks are in line with the scholarly view on achieving educational goals strategized (Drach & Slobodianiuk, 2020). Regarding this, Tulus (2020) posited: “The purpose of written projects and schoolwork is to help students think, create and communicate critically in writing. If we plagiarise, we bypass this educational goal” (p. 4).

Through its Civil Services Department, Malaysia has spent billions grooming critical intellectual mass through education and training abroad. Survival in stringent systems has equipped graduates to understand the link between plagiarism and the impeded achievement of educational goals. Dialogues on mitigation should include the group revisiting the goals set in the National Higher Education Strategic Plan (NHESP) (see Table 4). The NHESP targeting the generation of a first-class mindset is the profound reason for initiating integrity education. The mission is mandatory in the phase of “developmental challenges in knowledge and innovation-based economy” (Mohamed et al., 2018, p. 248).

Table 4: NHESP key thrusts Phase 1 2 3 4

Key thrust Laying the foundation (2007–2010) Strengthening and enhancement (2011–2015) Excellence (2016–2020) Glory and sustainability (2020 and beyond)

Relaying the foundation through integrity education will aid in redefining excellence, placing plagiarism as an essential predictor on the radar. It is also alarming that Malaysia is nowhere near advancing from Phase One of the NHESP key thrusts (Table 4). Marking an action in the timeline sheds light on the possibility of achieving the good a decade from now.

4.2 Plagiarism-Integrity Narratives Dosage Lesson from the Litmus Test The students’ readiness to comply with the appropriate work standards suggests that plagiarism is rectifiable through simple narratives. We coded the two best candidates for referencing practice as B40-1 and B40-2. They are the glaring evidence of self-regulated learners (SRLs) with the skills to take complete strategic control of learning and achieving the goal, meeting the SRL definition set by Anthonysamy et al. (2021). The fact that the portion violating academic integrity outnumbers those respecting academic integrity calls for continuous efforts to detect and prevent plagiarism (Curtis & Tremayne, 2021). In a less formal setting, there is a need in integrity education to deploy PIN intervention repetitively in various creative ways and enforce an “error accepting culture” (Labib et al., 2021, p. 6).

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PIN intervention, simple and doable at zero cost, should be accessible to all who desire to relearn moral values. A formal first input can be suitably administered to the fresher students across all courses to ensure a consistent call to uphold moral values. The frequency can be lessened but sustained once enculturation has been achieved. More experts can participate in the dialogue to empower the narratives so that PIN can touch more hearts, even of the recalcitrant 3% (Figure 4a) experiencing “amotivation”. On that note, Ryan et al. (2009) described amotivation as a phenomenon arising from the instruction-outcome disconnection due to the intangible nature of the outcome of being either honest or dishonest. Doing good only when policed and ignoring rules without law enforcement resemble a thirdworld mindset. Fear for a penalty as an extrinsic motivation or intention for recognition (Ryan et al., 2009) can also be used as intervention for enhancement to rule out reported license-to-cheat thinking (e.g. “getting caught [is] negligible”) addressed in the literature (Nabee et al., 2020, p. 66). The value-teaching strategy is also of no discord to “encourage people to live according to higher ethical standards”, as reckoned by Ayal et al. (2016, p. 1521) from a broader dishonesty perspective.

4.3 Plagiarism-Integrity Narratives for Taming the Brain In the discussion on behavior, Zejno (2018) associated religiosity with the manifestation of academic integrity. The account on religiosity also guides one’s delineation between right and wrong and the courage to be amanah (trustworthy) or, in contrast, to disservice the nation, in line with Bukuri’s analysis of Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior (Zejno, 2018). In moral self-image sciences, Jordan et al. (2015) rationalized “internalized moral identity as a stable trait” (p. 22), and the moral trait manifested by B40-2 and M40+ reflects the identity of morality preached in the Islamic and other divine teachings (Scott, 2021). In this regard, M40+ asserted that she tried to avoid what the instructor communicated as wrong (to prevent plagiarism and cheating from becoming her habit), and her effort points to a determined attempt at morality. Equally important is a notion shared by an expert in change leadership, Scott (2021), who illuminated that people are willing to change when such criteria as reliability, feasibility, clarity, desirability, relevance, and values are portrayed in the directives. Emphasizing values being the “engine house of change”, Scott (2021) also posited that values are linked to the world’s religions and underpin the lives of successful graduates and leaders.

The abstract nature of religiosity is backed up by the science of brain response. In this regard, Tremayne and Curtis (2021) associated integrity and moral compass with being governed by self-control. Imaging technology mapped the origin to specific brain functions (Watts et al., 2018), suggesting the requirement of conditions to enculturate value instructions into practice.

The deployed PIN intervention should be dialogued for improvement and enforced through policy, as also recommended in earlier findings: “Plagiarism has no borders. The cases of plagiarism could be found in students’ written works around all over the world, but more numerous cases could be met in countries having comparatively poor legal regulation on copyright and quality of studies as well as in higher education institutions missing ethical norms, policies, and procedures on plagiarism prevention. But most sad is missing of open and wide

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discussion on this issue in academic communities.” (Stabingis et al., 2014, p. 690)

5. Conclusion The strategized manual tracking of plagiarism through several learning resources created by the course instructor served as the diagnostic tool sensing plagiarism among the 2020/2021 fresher students of the Bachelor of Technology program. The assignments submitted at the pre-test stage showed the normality of plagiarism in students’ work. Communication about plagiarism, its ties to integrity, and its implications via the PIN intervention employed increased students’ outsourcing for references and attribution of the sources to 95%. The behavioral changes reflected the transformation of moral values and enhanced academic honesty. This proves that specific narratives in a brief communication about plagiarism could impact academic practices and integrity. The students who cracked the code for the space-saving referencing technique and those who continued to avoid plagiarism when rules were lifted were potential trendsetters and agents to echo academic integrity. Students were willing to change, mainly when they had clearly understood the instruction and outcome. Among the 28% who honestly attributed reference sources, one candidate internalized plagiarism as academic misconduct and chose not to act against moral values even when plagiarism rules were lifted.

Students abandoning integrity outnumbering those who retained honesty suggests that PIN intervention should be deployed repetitively at the right intervals. The prevalence of verbatim plagiarism alerted us to revisit the NHESP for its profound actualization using the unoptimized resources. The shared behavioral transformation and learners’ willingness to meet standards shed light on the possibility of resetting integrity in university classrooms to weave moral values into the social fabric.

Acknowledgement The presented Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) research is part of a continuous effort to improve students’ learning commensurate with the United Nations’ fourth sustainable development goal (SDG4), instructing quality education.

The data in this presentation could not have been acquired without input from the Program Chair, Associate Professor Dr Leh Cheu Peng, to whom big thanks are due.

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Appendix 1

Item 13 was administered for the extended quantitative and qualitative analyses described in section 2.3.

Complete questionnaire is available at: https://learning4life.usm.my/courses/fundaments-of-plagiarism

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 232-254, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.14 Received Sep 30, 2021; Revised Dec 20, 2021; Accepted Dec 22, 2021

Theoretical Models of Integration of Interactive Learning Technologies into Teaching: A Systematic Literature Review Laila Mohebi Zayed University, Dubai, United Arab Emirates https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2640-4532

Abstract. With the fast progress of technology and the vast amount of research papers related to technology integration in education being published yearly, a study that reviews models used in these papers is needed. Therefore, this paper (1) reviewed and analysed theoretical frameworks with models used for integration of technology in classrooms, (2) reviewed studies that discussed the impact of technology integration on students’ learning capabilities, and (3) discussed the importance of preparing teachers to effectively integrate technology in teaching. The models reviewed were: Teacher Thoughts and Action Process (TTAP), Theory of Planned Behavior, Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation (EVAM), Substitution Augmentation Modification Redefinition (SAMR), Technology Acceptance (TAM), Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), and Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK).

Keywords: technology integration; technology models; technology in classrooms; technological pedagogical; content knowledge

1. Introduction Technology has become an inseparable part of our daily lives, and therefore it warrants its usage in training teachers in order to enhance learning and teaching in the 21st century. Today, updating software and educational materials have been made easier through the use of technology. Students and teachers can be connected worldwide through Internet-enabled devices and learners, therefore, can communicate across the globe and share vital information and the experience of learning. Several studies provided evidence that technology is essential in modern learning environments and that technology being readily available in many countries (; Pavlou, 2019), yet its application in education is still ineffective. Different theories and models have been developed to assist teaching and learning using different forms of technology to support the challenging integration of technology in education. In their analysis of e-learning

©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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theories and models, some authors (Cheng et al., 2020; Avci et al., 2020) suggested that in order to successfully adopt technology, it is essential to understand how to facilitate technology integration in educational settings and the importance of this. They further define theories as “an empirically-based explanation of factors that affects learning when integrating technology with education” (Sang et al., 2010, p. 109).

In the last few decades, various models and theories have been used to study technology integration in classrooms and teachers’ roles, preparedness and capabilities. Ideally, theories and models are sources that support educators in the integration process. Studies have shown many learning theories, but the dominant categories are cognitivism, behaviourism, and constructivism (Mahini et al., 2012). With the fast progress of technology and the vast amount of research papers about technology integration being published yearly, a study that reviews models and analyses is needed. In addition, a thorough review of theoretical frameworks used the integration of technology in classrooms is scarce. Therefore, this paper has the following research objective: 1- To review and analyse theoretical frameworks with models used for integration of technology in classrooms; 2- To review and understand the impact of technology integration on students’ learning capabilities; and 3- To review the importance of preparing teachers to effectively integrate technology in teaching.

2. Theoretical Framework The below sections will review and analyse the following models: 1Teacher Thoughts and Action Process (TTAP).

2Theory of Planned Behaviour.

3Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation (EVTAM).

4Substitution Augmentation Modification Redefinition (SAMR).

5Technology Acceptance Model (TAM).

6Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT).

7Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK).

These models were selected because they are widely used by researchers when reviewing papers that focus on integrating technology in classrooms. The frameworks complement each other and can investigate different elements of technology integration into the educational context. For instance, to examine influencing factors of ICT integration in China, Sang et al. (2010) used the Teacher Thoughts and Action Process model (TTAP), the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), and the Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation (EVAM). What follows will focus on each model and the researchers that chose it as their framework.

2.1.Teacher Thoughts and Action Process (TTAP) Model The Teacher Thoughts and Action Process (TTAP) model explains the common relationship between teacher thought processes and related teacher behaviour.

The model was developed by Peterson and Clark in 1978. They presented and

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advocated the teaching profession and the role of teachers as important and as specialized as that of a doctor, lawyer or any other professional. While their research aimed to understand the overall dynamics of a classroom and the quality of education imparted, they maintained that it is imperative to understand the thinking and the mindset of a teacher which is at the base of planning, decision-making and the demonstration of certain interactive behaviours within a class and with the students. Therefore, the overall objective of TTAP is to dig deeper into understanding the fundamentals and underlying intricacies of the teaching process, and how it is closely associated with the thought process of the teachers and observable actions that take place as a result of that. In general, the model consists of two aspects: • Teacher’s thought process: an individual thought process is a phenomenon which takes place inside the brain and cannot be measured directly. It can only be measured based on the actions taken as a consequence and their overall impact. The thought process includes the engaging thoughts and decisionmaking, the belief system and the associated theories built around it, and finally, the overall planning part which can include the three stages of pre-, post- and interactive thoughts. It can also be used to categorize teachers according to these three stages as teachers distinguish themselves in their thought processes.

• Teacher’s actions and their effects are observable and can be easily demonstrated, measured and assessed while the teacher is engaged in a classroom activity. The parameters that can determine the teacher's measurable actions would include the engagement and overall behaviour of the teacher as well as the students and e students’ overall achievements.

The core of the model is that interactions between the underlying factors in both streams (i.e., the thought process and the observable actions) are cyclic and not linear. Whereas, teacher's thought process cannot be directly measured; it can however be influenced by a number of factors that limit or inhibit it in a certain direction, either for the best or for the worse. For instance, the autonomy given to the teacher in designing a curriculum as well as the involvement and participation in the overall decision-making process would determine the flexibility and level of effort put in place by the teacher in his/her thought process. Similarly, the student-teacher and teacher-student interaction is reciprocal and closely associated with the overall achievement of the students.

2.2. Theory of Planned Behaviour The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) by Ajzen (1980) is an extended work towards the earlier known model which is the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). In this regard, Ajzen stated that: human behaviour is guided by three kinds of considerations: beliefs about the likely consequences of the behaviour (behavioural beliefs), beliefs about the normative expectations of others (normative beliefs), and beliefs about the presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of the behaviour (control beliefs) (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980, p. 2).

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This model argues that a particular action by a person is driven by the attitude towards that particular behaviour. In general, the TPB advocates that there are certain parameters and factors which all come to contribute to a person’s intent towards a particular behaviour. The overall intent of a person is believed to be driven by the following three factors: • Attitude to Use (ATU): the attitude towards certain behaviour; • Subjective Norm (SN): the suitability and importance of exhibiting certain behaviour as perceived on behalf of the people significant in certain scenario; • The perceived behavioural control (PBC): the overall controlling factor and the pre-conceived level of difficulty or ease in exhibiting a certain behaviour. PBC is said to have a major impact in making strong correlations with one's intent to use technology.

Once an insight is created in a person’s positive or negative intent towards certain behaviour, the behaviour can easily be understood. In this case, the TPB concept has been effectively used to evaluate the intention for adoption of technology in pre-service as well as in-service teachers.

2.3. Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation The Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation (EVTAM) is a model developed by Wigfield and Eccles (2000). This model was originally proposed to measure children’s keenness in performing, achieving and carrying on a certain task. The EVTAM is primarily used “to explain how expectancies and values directly and indirectly influence achievement, choices, performance, effort, and persistence across a wide range of academic and physical domains and age groups” (Hood et al., 2012, p. 73).

The three main factors of the expectancy-value theory framework are presented as follows: • Expectation of Success: the expectations of an individual about the completion of a task or the adoption of a technology both in the present as well as in future scenarios; • Achievement Related Choices: the overall goals and objectives of an individual in achieving and completing certain tasks; • Associated Task Value: the value proposition from an individual committed to the task. This includes the importance of the task, its overall usefulness, the value to oneself, and the cost of completing.

In real-life scenarios, every individual has a different belief system, exhibits different attributes and acts differently to changes or new requirements. Some individuals would be quick learners and would adapt very easily to the change in their environment, whereas others would not. Overall performance of an individual is a direct derivative of the overall belief system, expectations and the value associated with that task. . Additionally, it allows researchers and policy makers to work effectively on the areas which directly impact the overall performance. Applying this model in a classroom environment provides a very useful insight in the end results. To make it clearer, any combination of beliefs and evaluations developed about a certain classroom management technique

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could be either positive or negative. If positive, the teacher would likely continue to use it, but if negative, he/she would avoid it.

2.4. Substitution Augmentation Modification Redefinition (SAMR) Model The Substitution Augmentation Modification Redefinition (SAMR) model, developed in 2010 by the education researcher Ruben Puentedura (Terada, 2020), is an important guideline and a fundamental framework for the integration of technology in today’s classrooms. In today’s fast pacing and technologically evolving the world, every student is a carrier of a technological intervention which is a substitute and an augmented aid to conventional means of teaching. SAMR discusses the use and integration of these technological interventions/devices such as smart phones, iPads, Kindle, smart tabs, etc. into the conventional means of teaching so that both of these streams can be clubbed together to enhance the effectiveness of the teaching methods. According to Chou et al. (2012), SAMR is a method for both staff and students to gain expertise in new consumer technologies and software in order to enhance 21st century skills. SAMR views each technological intervention/device as a new task and offers a structural model which defines the stages of these transitions.

Broadly segregated into ‘Enhancing’ and ‘Transforming’ SAMR within these two broad categories have the following four stages: • Substitution: specifies the incorporation of technology into the conventional classroom system whereby the technology (digital) acts as a better substitute for the already existing teaching methods (analogue) and practices. This is the realization part of the framework. Students, for example, can utilize a voice thread software to build a presentation that allows viewers to remark and annotate.

• Augmentation: centres around the technology modalities which is to be used as a direct or indirect tool for assisting and aiding the entire education process. It is seen as a functional improvement. Students, for example, can utilize Google Doc's comment function to engage with others, or Google Earth to "visualize" geography and tag specific spots.

• Modification: requires the modification in the existing processes and practices to make room for the technology to play its new role. Tasks are redesigned according to the technology used. For example, students can use audio-books to add audio to stories.

• Re-definition: allows teachers to create new avenues, new streams and new tasks keeping in view the offerings technology has to make that could not have been imagined before. For example, instead of paper and pencil, pupils can choose a word processing tool.

At the first two levels, technology is used for the enhancement of the learning experience, whereas in the last two levels, the technology is used to transform learning tasks and experiences through modification and redefinition. Thus, the use of technology can better promote student outcomes. In this sense, Angelo´s study (2017) explored teachers´ and administrators´ perception of the SAMR model in integrating technology into the classroom environment. The study found that educators using the SAMR model were more capable of facilitating technology adoption at the service of better pedagogical results. Also, it

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underscored that SAMR altered teachers' observable practices by pushing them to incorporate technology on a greater degree.

2.5. Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is a working model developed by Davis (1989) and is an extension of the originally known Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). TAM discusses the behavioural assessment of the entities which are the end-user or adopters of the use and adaptation of technology. In education, teachers are the integral part of the equation which would pave the way for technology adoption. The original TAM is influenced primarily by two basic factors from a user´s point of view. The enhanced Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) suggests that perceived usability and perceived usefulness are direct drivers of technological acceptance behaviours. As Gong et al. (2004) stated “Perceived usefulness is defined as the prospective user’s subjective probability that using a specific application system would increase his or her job performance within an organizational context” (p.

366). Perceived ease of use, on the other hand, refers to “the degree to which the prospective user expects the target system to be free of effort” (Gong et al., 2004, p. 366).

• Individual’s Perceived Usefulness: the mindset and the benefit that one thinks would get from adopting and using a certain technology; • Individual’s Perceived Ease of Use: is the overall keenness of an individual driven by the motivation that the work would be facilitated and simplified by adopting a certain technology.

There are, however, many intrinsic and extrinsic factors that might exert an influence on an individual in exhibiting these elements. These factors can be cultural barriers, linguistics, social factors, and the political framework of a country or an organization. There have been many changes to the original TAM and researchers have added a number of other interrelated factors to this model.

TAM2 is an extended mode of the original work which also takes into account parameters like voluntariness of a user, social image, social influence and perceived importance and relevance of the technology to one’s tasks, output quality, and end results. Various studies used the Enhanced Technology Acceptance Model (ETAM) as their theoretical background for explaining technology use and adoption (Goh & Wen, 2020; Vanduhe et al., 2020; Sukendro et al., 2020). These studies have found confirmation that perceived usefulness affects attitudes and degree of approval of a specific technologically-enabled practice.

2.6. Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) is created

by Venkatesh et al. (2003) to understand the acceptance process. They integrated eight previously used models in the field of technology acceptance research into a single model based on conceptual and empirical commonalities between them.

These eight models are: the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the Motivational Model (MM), the combined TAM and TPB (C-TAM-TPB), the

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Model of PC Utilization (MPCU), the Diffusions of Innovations Theory (DOI) and the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT). The UTAUT model contains five direct dimensions of behavioural intention and use: • Performance expectancy: “the degree to which an individual believes that using the system will help him or her to attain gains in job performance” (Venkatesh et al., 2003, p. 447); • Effort expectancy: “the degree of ease associated with the use of the system” (Venkatesh et al., 2003, p. 450); • Social influence: “the degree to which an individual perceives that important others believe he or she should use the new system” (Venkatesh et al., 2003, p.

451); • Facilitating conditions: “the degree to which an individual believes that an organizational and technical infrastructure exists to support the use of the system” (Venkatesh et al., 2003, p. 453); • Behavioural intention: the person’s intention to use a certain technology system.

The UTAUT model also explains how moderating factors can influence the five dimensions and cause individual differences in technology usage. Gender, age, experience, and voluntariness of usage are the four moderating factors. By combining and improving upon existing information and communication technology (ICT) acceptance models, it is argued that the UTAUT model should now serve as a standard for the technology acceptance literature. It is worth mentioning that Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, and Davis (2003) developed UTAUT in 2003 and progressed it into UTAUT2 in 2012 by incorporating three new constructs , such as hedonic motivation, price value, and habit (Tamilmani et al., 2021).

2.7. Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK) The TPACK framework builds on the work of Shulman (1986), who was the first to shed light on the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) concept. He paid attention to the problem regarding the requirement of a more cohesive theoretical framework with is in respect to teachers' knowledge, as well as what they are able to undertake. To provide a comprehensive explanation of the relationship between content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge, Shulman (2013) came up with the concept of PCK. He envisioned PCK as crossing the boundaries of the ordinary knowledge on subject content to inculcate ideas on how to approach and deal with special subject matter. Teachers need to go beyond mere possession of content or subject knowledge. It is equally essential that teachers should have the requisite skills to teach that particular knowledge in a manner which is easily comprehensible for the students. Hence, it is the expression of the subject in such a manner that facilitates its understanding to other individuals.

Shulman (1986) first presented the concept of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in his book “Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching”.

Through this concept, he emphasized the importance of finding the method of demonstrating and conveying the subject that makes it comprehensible to others

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(content). He also outlined the need to equip teachers with knowledge delivery strategies (pedagogy). Shulman (1986) described how teachers’ understanding of educational technologies interacts with pedagogical content knowledge to produce effective teaching through technology. In addition, Shulman (1986) presented that the understanding of what causes a particular subject to be either simple or complex to learn is in fact a part of PCK. In the pursuit of effective teaching of a subject, the teacher should be thoroughly aware of the difficult areas where students (or student teachers) often struggle with. These areas can vary depending upon the notions which the students possess along with their respective ages and backgrounds. Students may get inaccurate information and develop misunderstandings about the topic area if there is no broad basis of content knowledge. If the students’ conceptions are based on false information, teachers should possess a set of strategies which could potentially be successful in identifying the wrong learning patterns.

As a progression of the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) framework initiated by Shulman in 1986, Mishra and Koehler (2006) conceptualized the TPACK framework. Shulman (as cited in Young et al., 2013) defined PCK as a teacher’s ability to transform subject-matter knowledge into accessible forms that all learners could master. However, Mishra and Koehler (2006) added that it also means that knowing and understanding how ICT may be used to obtain and process information can support learning in combination with PCK. TPACK can be said to be a natural extension of the PCK concept as it incorporates the technological aspect. Hence, TPACK not only stimulates the use of technology in education, but also provides understanding to the teachers about the integration and interaction of technology with pedagogy and content knowledge (Tondeur et al., 2016). The TPACK framework can be visualized by three overlapping circles, with each circle representing an element of teachers’ professional knowledge. This framework resulted in seven aspects of teachers’ professional knowledge with TPACK positioned at the linking core of these circles. These different forms of knowledge are the context in which teachers obtain and transmit their knowledge.

• Content Knowledge The content knowledge is the teacher’s knowledge about the actual subject matter to be learned or taught. For every subject taught in school―such as science or history―other content knowledge is critical for teachers. As a result, teachers must comprehend the principles of the fields in which they teach.

Knowledge of concepts, theories, ideas, organizational frameworks, evidence and proof, as well as established procedures and techniques to producing such knowledge, are examples that constitute content knowledge.

• Pedagogical Knowledge Pedagogical knowledge is described as the profound understanding of the processes and strategies of teaching and learning. This type of knowledge pertains to understanding how students learn, general classroom management abilities, lesson preparation, student evaluations, classroom procedures or methods, the nature of the intended audience, and methodologies for assessing

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students' comprehension. Cognitive, social and developmental theories can support the teacher when designing and shaping teaching in the classroom. A teacher with deep pedagogical knowledge knows how to stimulate student learning in the form of constructing knowledge and acquiring skills (Koehler & Mishra, 2009).

• Pedagogical Content Knowledge Shulman (1986) described pedagogical content knowledge as the knowledge of pedagogy that is applicable to teaching specific content. A teacher with deep pedagogical content knowledge is able to select the appropriate teaching methods and instructional materials that fit the content.

•Technology Knowledge Koehler and Mishra (2009) described how technology knowledge is always a difficult domain, because with the fast pace of technological developments, any definition of technology knowledge is in danger of becoming outdated. They used the definition of ‘Fluency of Information Technology (FITness)’ as described by the National Research Council (NRC). For information processing, communication, and problem solving, FITness necessitates a deeper grasp and command of information technology than the standard notion of computer literacy. A teacher with a strong understanding of technology is able to do a wide range of activities utilizing information technology and to devise novel approaches to completing a particular work.

•Technological Content Knowledge Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) is the knowledge about how technology and content are related and influence each other. Consequently, teachers not only need to have a deep knowledge about a subject matter, but also should have the insight about how a subject matter can be changed when certain technologies are applied. Also, they need to know which particular type of technology is best suited for addressing subject-matter learning.

•Technological Pedagogical Knowledge Technological pedagogical knowledge is defined as the knowledge about the existence, components and capabilities of various technologies in teaching and learning settings (Mishra &Koeler, 2006). If a teacher is familiar with up-to-date technologies, he/she can make an informed choice about which particular technology fits best with the purpose of a learning activity, thereby creating and maintaining an effective, high-quality learning environment.

•Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Mishra and Koehler (2006) described Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) as “an emergent form of knowledge that goes beyond all three components (content, pedagogy, and technology)” (p. 1028). They further added that: TPACK is the basis of effective teaching with technology, requiring an understanding of the representation of concepts using technologies; pedagogical techniques that use technologies in constructive ways to teach content; knowledge of what makes

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concepts difficult or easy to learn and how technology can help redress some of the problems that students face; knowledge of students’ prior knowledge and theories of epistemology; and knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existing knowledge to develop new epistemologies or strengthen old ones (Koehler & Mishra, 2009, p. 66).

As a result, it reflects a type of knowledge that is essential to instructors' work with technology. Quality teaching requires a deep understanding of the relationship between these three concepts and how to make the best use of these three concepts. Insight and deep knowledge is needed to create the best possible learning environment in each unique situation, because there is no technology solution or a method that works for every instructor. Hence, TPACK could be fine-tuned, broadened and developed upon to consider numerous variables which impact―either positively or negatively―on the quality and frequency of technology usage in the field of education (Koh et al., 2015).

For instance, TPACK was used as a framework to audit the capabilities of finalyear teacher education students in Australia and to review teacher education programs in regard to their student preparation in TPACK capabilities.

Similarly, TPACK can be used to implement an instructional design model in a technology integration course and help teachers, trainers, policymakers, and other educators who are directly or indirectly responsible for the professional development of teachers.

Tondeur et al. (2012) investigated how Teacher Education Institutes (TEI) prepare pre-service teachers for integrating information and communication technology (ICT) in their classroom practice. Their findings showed that the participating institutes were shifting away from ICT as a "stand-alone" subject towards incorporating ICT throughout the curriculum. Furthermore, the institutions sponsored initiatives to improving pre-service teachers' TPACK. They claimed that improving teachers' TPACK abilities should be viewed as part of the overall policy development of teacher education institutes with an emphasis on curriculum redesigning, vision building, ICT-planning, leadership, and collaboration within and between institutions and training personnel.

Harris and Hofer (2014) argued that regardless of the different understandings of TPACK’s seven areas among college educators, professional development individuals need to understand how to operationalize the model in teacher training efforts on district level in North America. The researchers held a symposium where educators participated and narrated their experience in using TPACK in professional development workshops. Their findings indicated that universities operationalizing of TPACK was different from the in-service educators who lacked efficacy in doing so.

The study of Hao and Lee (2016) aimed at understanding pre-service teachers concerns related to flipped classrooms’ technology integration. The results indicated that the pre-service teachers’ main concerns were related to technology knowledge. Based on these results, they recommended updating curriculums and instructions in higher education institutes in a manner where pre-service

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teachers get equipped with fundamental knowledge and skills to teach in 21st century classrooms.

Moreover, TPACK is widely proposed as the body of knowledge that teachers should acquire for them to have proper capabilities of constructively integrate technology in their teaching. Teachers with TPACK capabilities can use instructions that assist their students to quickly understand and use technology in their learning. In a study by Harris and Hofer (2014) on different views regarding the use of TPACK, participants reported that the model helped them learn from their past experiences. Teachers with TPACK capabilities can use the different experience to assist students’ learning. In this respect, as Sang et al.

(2010) argued, teachers who are TPACK competent are aware that technology cannot replace content or pedagogical knowledge, but they see technology as an added dimension.

Another study investigated how an online learning environment might affect the participants and technology integration capabilities in a certain course (Ellis et al., 2016). The participants who were pre-service teachers created lessons to be used in an online learning environment and the results showed that the online learning environment had supported the development of abilities to link content with technology and to choose the proper technology that could contribute constructively during the learning process.

A study that complements Ellis et al.’s research (2016) was conducted by Yeh et al. (2017). This study asserted that teachers can select the appropriate technology and implement it in the classroom based on their TPACK, particularly when it comes to in-service teachers whose TPACK is built and consolidated by trialand-error throughout the years of teaching. By using video and disciplinefocused questionnaires to measure TPACK, they concluded that: in-service teachers´ TPACK can be very different from that which preservice teachers develop, because teaching experiences and beliefs can personally vary and interact. Teachers´ knowledge should first be developed for practice and then in practice, and ultimately become of the teachers (Yeh et al., 2017, p. 61).

Further, it is worth mentioning that literature (Miguel-Revilla et al., 2020; Castéra et al., 2020; Tondeur et al., 2019) indicated that TPACK model has been used extensively in research and teacher training, however it doesn’t indicate how teachers can acquire a better grasp of the interaction between content, pedagogy, and technology. Most researchers see that teachers can unlock this understanding by acquiring basic competences in hardware and software programs. This argument cannot be established without proper teacher training that requires TPACK, therefore, more studies are needed.

3. Implications There are numerous implications that need to be highlighted. The following sections will address ICT in education, impact of technology in the classroom, implications for students, implications for teachers such as factors that influence teachers’ willingness and abilities to integrate technology and required

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knowledge and skills for teachers, as well as the importance of teaching the instructors.

3.1. ICT in Education ICT, in general, refers to technology that provides access to information via telecommunications. ICT is an abbreviation for Information and Communication Technologies, and it refers to a broad range of technical tools and resources used to communicate, distribute, generate, store, exchange, and manage data. Some of the components of ICT include wireless networks, the internet, cell phones, and other communication media. The application of ICT is making changes in economic and social development worldwide (United Nations, 2017). Certainly, technology has significantly improved teaching and learning and is expected to impact education in many ways. Learners of today grow up with numerous technological tools, and therefore, the way of teaching is being adjusted to the possibilities of the new modern technologies. In order to cater to the needs of ‘digital natives’, it is relevant to pay attention to the medium used. As discussed earlier, technology integration has reinforced the learning surroundings and classroom guidelines by allowing learners to complete their assignments using internet-enabled devices.

The school curriculum entails the infusion of technology to heighten learning in multi-disciplinary settings. Technology integration equips the learners with a sense of power and allows for more improved learning in broad topics.

Concordant with the extant literature, the study, design, development, application, implementation, and administration of computer-based information systems is referred to as Information and Communication Technology (ICT).It encompasses all types of computer and communications equipment and software used to produce, design, store, transmit, interpret, and modify data in various formats (Chandler & Munday, 2012). In education, personal computers, laptops, tablets, and mobile phones are commonly used tools.

Because of the above, several types of technologies have been identified to facilitate learning. These technologies include the use of computers in the classroom, creating class websites and blogs, and the use of digital microphones in class, mobile devices, smart interactive whiteboards and online media. This section discusses two tools: the use of computers in classroom and creating class websites and blogs. In the modern society of the 21st century, it is not strange to see at least one computer in every classroom. A classroom computer is any electronic device that allows students to connect to the internet to study, create, and accomplish assignments and schoolwork. As such, a laptop or tablet can also be considered as a computer. Teachers can use these computers to assign work to students and create study groups in a classroom. They can also use computers to illustrate visually-related subjects, which help students learn easily and gain more insight. Thus, applications can be installed on modern computers which help students learn better than the conventional way. For instance, students are in a position to use windows explorer to learn complicated concepts. The Encarta was one of the earliest applications used by students as a learning aid.

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Using computers in class comes with a number of benefits. For instance, computers provide engaging activities, which make learning more interesting and profound, and enable the development of a broader range of personalised and varied instruction plans. Doubtless, before the emergence of computers―and due to time restrictions― it was difficult to provide students equal opportunities and therefore they were struggling with all the help they needed for a particular subject because the class had to move forward. The use of computers has enabled the division of work and attention amongst students (Stockwell & Liu, 2015). On the other side, computers have their disadvantages.

Firstly, students have to be taught how to use computers before they can start learning with them. This can take time away from the traditional subjects to ensure the students are competent with these gadgets. Also, these gadgets come with a significant amount of potential distraction to the students. For example, students can log into social media sites like Facebook and YouTube without teachers’ knowledge.

The second tool is the use of websites and blog posts. Today, it is very easy to create a website or blog platform. On this platform, teachers can post assignments or even start a debate on a certain topic. The ability to create these websites gave birth to the concept of e-learning. E-learning refers to the use of electronic technology to access educational content outside of the traditional classroom setting. Correspondingly, most of the colleges in the United States and Europe have their e-learning portals where students can learn from the comfort of their homes or workplaces. What is important to note is that although many people still adhere to traditional universities, online learning using these websites proves to be an attractive alternative, as it can be attributed to the fact that students can study in their own time and with reduced or no costs. As a result, it is presented as a great way to study many different fields and is regarded as pivotal in boosting self-motivation and self-improvement. Secondly, it is also effective because students can finish homework quickly and a lot of time is spared, which can be used to work or play.

Finally, it is particularly noticeable that e-learning websites enable students with an internet connection to learn from any place and on a wide variety of subjects.

However, the use of this system is accompanied by a few disadvantages. Firstly, online learning does not offer human interaction, so some participants of online education may not learn other life skills such as patience, getting rid of disappointments, and how to compete. Also, in some cases, online learning cannot fully cope with the large number of students looking to join the discussion on the websites. Last but not least, using websites or blog platforms can also be difficult for disciplines that involve hands-on practice, such as engineering.

3.2. Impact of Technology in the Classroom While media are the vehicle to deliver instruction, any benefit comes from the instructional method itself. Hence, it should be borne in mind that digital devices have different features that produce a unique experience for learners.

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Some observers argue that technologies are incompatible teaching requirements and that it is difficult for teachers to incorporate computers into regular classroom instructional practices. However, in the last few years, the positive impact of integrating technology in the educational context became undeniable.

Different studies (Johnston et al., 2019; Woo, Dondanville et al., 2020) have proved the importance of technology in the learning environment. For instance, evidence supports the finding that ICT can serve different purposes if used effectively. It can provide a platform for professional development for both preservice and in-service teachers. It can also aid in teaching and learning processes and increase teacher knowledge and skills.

Similarly, it can improve educational management systems, and the steadiness and quality of instruction both for formal and non-formal education, and increase prospects for more student-centered pedagogical methods. Likewise, since ICT can overcome gender disparity and language and disability obstacles, it can broaden sources of information and knowledge, nurture collaboration, promote creativity, and strengthen higher-order thinking skills. Finally, it can provide flexibility of delivery and reach learners outside the traditional educational systems. Because education is paramount for development, ICTenabled interactive learning is considered a way to support change, improve students’ skills, and prepare for a global economy and the current knowledgebased society. Further, it is well known that the way that technology is used in education improves the quality of teaching and learning more than the technology itself. Hence, ICT can play an influential role in studying, communication and flexibility. Modern technology requires the work force to become life-long learners, and the effective use of ICT can maintain that.

3.2.1. Implications for Students The use of technology in teaching can have a profound effect on students’ learning. Brown (2017) highlighted this positive impact of technology when he stated that with access to technology, students can engage in tasks which demand higher cognitive inputs than was required in original versions of the task. This implies the development of higher cognitive capabilities among students when they use technology appropriately. He found higher levels of reasoning and vocabulary in students who used educational media both with and without teacher mediation. Numerous research papers (Harrison et al., 2002; Tamim et al., 2011; Hardman, 2019) demonstrated that ICT increases students’ achievements and supports their learning and attainment. For instance, a second-order meta-analysis in a recent study was used to synthesize diverse research findings from 25 meta-analyses addressing technology integration and its impact on students’ achievement. The review synthesized data from 1,055 primary studies and summarized 40 years of research into the effect of computer technology on students’ achievements. The findings showed that students in technology integration classrooms perform 12% higher than students in the traditional settings.

There is evidence from 17 impact studies and surveys carried out at the national and international levels that the technologies used in the classroom positively

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impact students’ learning. Thus, ICT improves students´ attainment and increases their performance in mathematics and other disciplines. In a study that involved 6th and 8th graders in investigating the impact of technology on students’ performance in mathematics, students who were provided with videoclip instruction improved their math achievement compared to students who received traditional classroom instructions without technologies. Additionally, studies have shown that technology can impact language acquisition, enhance literacy development, support learning, enhance self-esteem, and motivate students. Indeed, studies showed that technology provides many opportunities for students to improve their literacy. Notably, several studies indicated that learning in a multimedia environment helps students gain better language skills than students using a traditional environment, as technology can be used to improve language development by enhancing efficiency of access, authenticity, and comprehensibility. In addition, research evidence indicated that technology can be used to improve quantitative assessment performance in several subjects.

If students are introduced to computers at early stages of learning, they will be motivated to learn and have better learning outcomes than those who are not introduced to computers.

3.2.2. Implications for Teachers The positive effect of interactive learning technologies is not limited to students, but it also benefits teachers. Because of a more collaborative approach among instructors, ICT improves efficiency in work planning and preparation.

Interestingly, scholars stress that the maximum positive impact is found when teachers are experienced users and have a certain level of mastery in ICT integration in their teaching. Although in surveys, some teachers were strictly on the view that ICT cannot replace the teacher, it is clear that the addition of ICT has provided a new facet to effective teaching. Creating an interactive forum to the quicker distribution of knowledge can overcome distance challenges and allow a more agile learning process. Thus, this exemplifies how ICT can propel academics towards a newer horizon. Statements regarding the appropriate use of ICT shed light on several managerial advantages. These include the ability to use a dual shift system (day/evening) within the university, multi-grade schools, a more dynamic scheduling, and better transparency regarding policy development right from admission until graduation. Several other advantages include increased capabilities of learning due to the wealth of information, efficacious teaching through ICT tools and breaking down geographical challenges through virtual classrooms. In addition, it provides a wider approach to students who are challenged with the use of assistive technologies and assistance of radio and satellite to expand beyond geographical masses and increased speeds of communication.

3.3. Factors that Influence Teachers’ Willingness and Abilities to Integrate Technology There are many obstacles to technology integration in the classroom, such as scarcity of funds, hardware and software. However, the main obstacles are teachers’ weak capabilities. It is well proven that teachers´ skills and attitudes determine the success of technology integration. Through research and observation, eight main areas of consideration were important for teachers to

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integrate technology. These areas were: 1) fear of change; 2) training in basics; 3) personal use; 4) teaching models; 5) learning base; 6) climate; 7) motivation; and 8) support. Thus, if higher education institutes contribute in enhancing some of these areas before student graduates, it would ease the pressure on schools once the pre-service teachers become in-service teachers. Thereby, enhancing the chance of successful technology integration in schools is required.

Additionally, it can be pointed out that there are several disadvantages concerning the use of ICT in the field of education. Several of such disadvantages are: increased demand for monetary resources, frequent critical training of the staff for the correct use of such material, and increased risk of distraction of students due to the availability of chat forums and PC games which requires constant supervision that adversely hinders the quality of teaching provided. Also, accidental entry into illegal sites containing unsuitable material, and strain on the teacher-student bond as opposed to the more traditional talk-and-chalk method. The most significant constraints are the discipline and attention of the student’s personal views of the teacher within the class preparation for such.

Among the environmental factors, teachers mentioned barriers, such as issues related to computer facilities, available support, management of resources and human resources provided by the school, and varied educational disciplines are allotted different amounts of time to use the computer lab. Moreover, opportunities for in-service training provided by the school influenced their initiatives of using technology in the classroom. Personal characteristics, such as instructors' opinions about teaching, their experience with technology, and their willingness to try new things were found to be affecting their willingness to integrate technology.

The most frequently mentioned social factors were having colleagues to work with as a team, an open atmosphere within a school society, and reactions from students, parents and the community. The attitudes of school management were also a critical factor. The teachers were concerned about the fact that low-income families might not have the financial resources to provide their children with the necessary technological tools. Finally, curricular factors were issues related to the goals and instructional settings within particular courses and the level of control about the use of technology. Also, teachers showed concern for integrating new strategies with existing strategies. Some teachers needed more time and effort to learn new skills and prepare new activities using ICT. Similarly, other researchers attempted to comprehend how pre-service programs aided in the preparation of future teachers to incorporate ICT in order to increase students' information literacy abilities. While the findings covered some areas, one important significant conclusion suggested that the pre-service teachers also perceived lack of training and time constraints as main barriers to developing students’ information skills.

Teacher motivation and attitude towards technology are other main factors that influence the success of technology integration into the classroom. A study by

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Blackwell et al. (2016), who put emphasis on the importance of support provided by the school management, found that support provided by the school affects the traditional view and attitudes of the teachers. The study stressed the requirement for preschool teachers and teacher trainers to understand the critical contextual factors pertaining to technology use within the preschool setting and respond to such factors.

3.4. Required Knowledge and Skills for Teachers Teachers, according to UNESCO, must have the knowledge and abilities to exploit new digital tools and resources to assist pupils attain high academic standards. Teachers must have fundamental ICT skills and competences in order for education to be of maximum advantage. Education must create new pedagogical models for ICT integration and learning, as well as techniques to improve the teaching-learning process within teacher education programs and ensure that all future instructors are well-prepared to use the new learning resources. Their primary role is to facilitate means for students to access technological applications for learning in a dynamic learning environment.

Unlike the traditional learning environment where the teacher has more control than the student, teachers in technology-based learning environments―which are student-centered―need to have knowledge and skills on how to organize elearning programs to assist students in learning (Mahini et al., 2012).

Proper integration of ICT in education requires certain variables as defined by numerous studies. These variables are resources, rewards and incentives, the time factor, pedagogical factors, teacher attitudes, professional development, pedagogy, leadership, and attitudes of administrators. Consequently, the teachers’ role is vital in the integration process because they need to have proper skills and knowledge to develop technology-rich learning experiences (Sang et al., 2010). Additionally, other authors identified the following competencies required by lecturers in ICT utilization in education: a) competence to make personal use of ICT in instruction; b) competence to master a range of educational paradigms that make use of ICT in instruction; c) sufficient competence to make use of ICTs as mind tools; d) competence to make use of ICT in instruction as a tool for teaching; e) competence in mastering a range of assessment paradigms which make use of ICT in instruction; and f) competence in understanding the policy dimensions of ICT use. Moreover, it can be underscored that a teaching competency matrix includes five competency areas needed for teachers to successfully integrate technology into their teaching. The five competency categories are: 1) community and netiquette; 2) active teaching/facilitating; 3) instructional design; 4) tools and technology; and 5) leadership and instruction.

It is important to note that ICT is never a substitute for good teaching. Without capable instructors, no electronic delivery can accomplish good results.

However, neither traditional classroom teaching nor ICT driven classrooms can be successful if the teacher does not have the necessary skills. Nonetheless, ICT may be utilized in education to provide teaching and learning materials to teachers and students, increase teachers' and students' ICT abilities, provide

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teachers and students with access to information sources from across the world, and exchange ideas on education and learning. Furthermore, by working together on cooperative initiatives, ICT can deliver courses from a remote place while improving administrative efficiency.

3.5. Integrating Technology into Teacher Professional Development Since the rise of technology in the 80s, there have been extensive improvements by schools and educators to create strategies to use technology for the advancement of learning and teaching. These have not generally been converted into practical implementation, which has brought more attention to developing pre-service teachers´ education programs before these students join the teaching profession. Technology must be integrated into teacher training to develop and maintain ICT capabilities to prevent the capabilities and competencies from becoming underutilized or isolated. Tondeur and colleagues (2016) pointed out that it is a truly difficult task for teacher training institutions to assist pre-service teachers in developing an ICT-based lesson and providing the necessary aid for them.

Teacher Training Institutes (TTIs) such as universities in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the world have incorporated technology into teacher training modules to give pre-service teachers an understanding of not just the usage of but also the pedagogical significance of technology usage in the 21stcentury teaching environment. Technology offers an efficient medium for communication and hence it can be used to accentuate teachers’ pedagogical knowledge. Furthermore, the constant developments in technology make it imperative for in-service and pre-service teachers to continue learning about new technological tools, its capabilities, and applications in learning and teaching (Haines, 2016). Thus, it is very important to train teachers, not just in the use and application of technology, but also to constantly upgrade their capabilities to keep abreast of the latest developments in technology that can be applied in teaching. Furthermore, teachers are ongoing learners of ICT. As a result of accepting and adjusting ICT as an essential component of their employment, professionals will increase their ICT comprehension, leading to pedagogical benefits. Therefore, it is vital to offer teachers’ training and professional development on both the technical and pedagogical aspects of ICT use across the curriculum.

In this respect, a Dutch study emphasized on the reasoning provided by the teachers concerning the application of technology in teaching (Heitink et al., 2016). The results highlighted that most of the technological use was directed to enhance and improve either pedagogy and subject matter or just pedagogy singly. Reasons addressed transformed learning into a more attractive activity, achieving goals of education and assisting the process of learning. Technology tools were utilized to assist an educational activity; technology was only required in a handful of the video cases. Nearly, half of the cases showed an adequate association between the reasoning offered and practice. The results assisted in obtaining a clearer picture of the professional reasoning offered by teachers to justify their use of technology. The study showed how teachers were

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developing their understanding and purposes of the use of technology over time. However, the focus should be on understanding the practical implementation of the different concepts of TPACK and its interaction, and how to implement the technology in the classrooms.

In a study conducted by Hargis et al. (2014) about faculty perceptions of iPad deployment in Higher Colleges of Technology in UAE, it was noted that the use of technology had a positive impact on faculty engagement, unofficial professional development activities, and adoption of dynamic student-centred pedagogy. The study indicated the following: 1) students´ engagement increased as they were empowered and became more independent; 2) assignments´ submission deadlines were met more often; 3) teachers’ role was transformed into a facilitator rather than a lecturer; 4) peer coaching among faculty has been increased; 5) instructors started catering to different learning styles; 6) students and teachers started generating better quality material and deliverables by using applications; 7) courses then became more accessible due to the videos and materials posted in the iPad; and finally 8) students and teachers got more involved and enthusiastic with the new experience (Hargis et al., 2013).

4. Conclusion Educators need to have adequate knowledge of the theoretical models of technology integration.

Koehler and Mishra (2009) believed that some technologies have bias that makes it more applicable in some situations than others. Hence, understanding the theoretical models of integration of interactive learning technologies opens up lines of inquiry and suggestions for education policy development. It is imperative to implement funding models over and above the basic technology access to incorporate continuous educator support by establishing new modalities that strengthen professional development built upon learning-centred practices that the educators are motivated to use.

Moreover, understanding the impact of technology integration on students learning capabilities is a way forward to better developing courses, subjects, and activities to foster quality attainment, as it goes beyond students’ efforts, since teachers play a big role in achieving this objective.

5. Limitations Every study has limitations, and the main limitation of the paper is the small number of models studied. Other models are worth covering and analysing.

6. Recommendations A systematic review and meta-analysis should be conducted so that there would be a paper that contributes to the body of knowledge in this area. In addition, with the current COVID-19 situation, it is suggested to review studies that used these models and identify the context and outcome. Also, it would be interesting to see any new models emerging as a model of choice after the pandemic.

Funding This study did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 255-266, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.15 Received Oct 20, 2021; Revised Dec 21, 2021; Accepted Dec 24, 2021

Learning Potentials of Job Shadowing in Teacher Education Makovec Danijela Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8077-3446

Abstract. This article dealt with the topic of practical training of students in teacher training programmes. Workplace learning represents an important contact between students and the world of work and can have several positive effects. In the text, we presented job shadowing as a possible learning activity that can complement other forms of practical training. The aim of the study was to identify the learning potential of this activity and how it should be structured to achieve this potential.

Data were collected from 19 participants, and the qualitative analysis of the text (students' reflections) showed that students gain valuable experience through job shadowing, which helps them to overcome their fears and enables them to enter the workplace with more confidence. In addition to the results of the analysis, the text also provides practical guidance on how the activity should be planned so that students can learn through it.

Keywords: learning activity; job shadowing; learning potential; teacher education; workplace learning

1. Introduction Linking theory and practice is an important part of any education, even at tertiary level. While students need to have the opportunity to test theoretical assumptions in a real work environment as part of their studies, it is also useful to be able to translate the insights gained from practice in a professionally supported environment of activities taking place at the faculty. Workplace learning, which is described as an ongoing process of participation, both individual and social, shaped by social, organisational, cultural, and other contextual factors (Hager, 2013), and therefore a suitable way to learn. Interest in workplace learning has grown in recent decades due to the changing nature of work and the recognition of the workplace as a learning environment (Mikkonen et al., 2017).

©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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The definition developed at the University of Glasgow (Glasgow Caledonian University) suggests that workplace learning defined as: Achieving planned learning outcomes through experience by performing a job role or function. In contrast, experiential learning is complemented with focused reading, research, or group work at a faculty, which ensures that learning is placed in the context of current theory or practice (Burke et al., 2009, p. 21).

The Foundation Degree Forward (FDF) identified some features of workplace learning for educational purposes which reflect, among other things, Dewey’s position on the importance of experiences for learning (Burke et al., 2009).

Maier and Thomas (2013) conducted a longitudinal study among hospitality students, which compared the effects of classroom learning and experiential learning. They summarised the phases of experiential learning according to Kolb’s model. For the students, they organised activities that took place in a work environment but were simultaneously supported by learning activities in online classrooms. They found that activities based on the principles of experiential learning offer the students more in-depth learning through integrated real-life experiences, because they take place in a carefully structured environment of activities for which the students are being trained. They highlighted that bridging the gap between theory and practical application of knowledge was of essential importance, since it contributed to students who found it easier to place theoretical knowledge in the context of work or align it with the business context in real life (Maier & Thomas, 2013). Other authors (Armstrong, 2003; Ruhanen, 2005; Grimwood et al., 2015) also reported several positive effects of this type of learning, especially compared to the so-called “classical learning” which takes place in simulated situations in an educational institution (instead of in the work environment).

Considering the above, workplace learning is at the forefront of pedagogical programmes, but we need to think carefully about how we can offer students different forms of workplace learning over time. We see it as a good opportunity in job shadowing, where students can observe the work of teachers (or other professionals) and learn by observing the actions of others, overcoming fears, and gaining important first practical experience. But even though this is quite an interesting activity, there is little material in the scholarly literature dealing with this topic. Mader et al. (2017) agreed that noting of the published literature review revealed many anecdotal entries in publications by practitioners. Far fewer are the entries in academic journals. Therefore, this activity was also offered as a study activity to explore students’ professional interests. Analysis of the transcripts showed that students found the activity informative and relevant to their goals. Despite the somewhat specific methodological approach, the results showed the great potential this type of activity can bring.

2. Theoretical Framework Job shadowing is a form of workplace learning that can be formal or informal and involves gaining work experience (i.e., performing work tasks). The starting

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points of workplace learning come from Lewin's cycle of experiential learning (Kolb, 2015), as Lewin understood learning as an integrated growth process that occurs in four phases. Lewin's model of experiential learning was further developed by Kolb, who introduced learning phases. Today, Kolb's cycle of experiential learning is better known than the cycle envisaged by Lewin, but the starting points of both are cited by authors who study workplace learning. One of them is Raelin (1997) who based his model of workplace learning on Lewin's model and identified four phases of workplace learning (conceptualisation, testing, experience, and reflection).

There are different forms of workplace learning. Kwong et al. (2012) wrote about forms such as field visits, project implementation, simulations, and case studies as part of experiential learning. All the above forms can include practical teaching, exercises, and job shadowing. As far as job shadowing for educational purposes is concerned, this means that the job shadowing activity is carried out by students who are in training for their future profession. At Manchester Metropolitan University job shadowing is defined as an activity as well as an educational programme that enables the student to gain a comprehensive insight into the type of work a person does in a particular workplace. Similarly, Reese (2005) stated that job shadowing is “an opportunity to learn in the workplace, in which students explore work by spending their working day observing an experienced employee at work” (p. 18).

First and foremost, job shadowing is an opportunity to learn about or explore an occupation (or job) that interests the student. However, this does not mean that job shadowing only involves the elements of one's career planning. On the contrary, job shadowing allows the student to see how the knowledge and skills acquired at the faculty can be applied in real-life situations, which the author believes can strengthen the individual's learning (Reese, 2005). In addition to observing and getting to know the work processes, job shadowing also envisages asking relevant questions to get additional information and explanations about what the student (“the shadowee”) sees and is interested in.

Service et al. (2017) directly linked the job shadowing phases to Kolb’s experiential learning model. Accordingly, they suggested that students learn from monitoring the activities they are witnessing, and which represent concrete experiences for them. They learn by observing and listening, as well as through the daily reflection which they perform with their host.

The latter can be associated with thoughtful observation. Afterwards, students will think about the experiences they have gained during job shadowing and, on their basis, conceptualise their knowledge (abstract conceptualisation). When they return to their work environment, they will use what they have gained at the workplace (active experimentation) (Service et al., 2017).

2.1. Job Shadowing in Relation to Different Types of Practices in Teacher Education In the general comparison between teaching practice and job shadowing, we can see that the main difference between them lies in the derivation. In job shadowing, the students have no predetermined tasks to perform during the

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observation. Their task is to act like a shadow, following their host and observing them at work without interfering in the work process (or only in exceptional cases). Job shadowing differs from other forms of practice in that the student observes what a working day (or several) of their host looks like. The primary purpose of the shadowee's briefing with his host is to familiarise himself with the job and the work tasks, and to clarify or reflect on what he has seen. However, this does not mean that the student is not prepared for the job shadowing. Before job shadowing, there must be thorough preparation as part of the activities at the faculty, but this preparation is based on the students' own chosen goals for job shadowing. This is one of the differences with teaching practice, where the objectives are derived from practical training and are the same for all students each year. The preparatory and follow-up job shadowing activities at the faculty are planned in a similar way, due to the reflection results from what the students have seen and experienced and how they felt about it.

It is very important to establish links between faculties and institutions where students can do internships or other activities to learn about the profession for which they are being trained. Real experience in a workplace that is the future work environment for students brings other positive aspects to their studies and their perceptions of their role (Chaaban et al., 2019). Oswald et al. (2017) wrote that the experiences students gain during job shadowing can increase students' engagement and commitment to their studies. This is certainly helped by the fact that students find it easier to understand the knowledge they have acquired at the faculty after the practical experience. Moreover, they can get answers and solve their dilemmas in a professionally supported environment of activities that take place at the faculty. This can be related to the findings of other authors.

Wilks and Ross (2014) have developed a job shadowing programme for prospective teachers and believed that job shadowing programmes allow students to link practical knowledge with theoretical assumptions while helping them to overcome fears and giving them the extra confidence they need before starting work. Similarly, Darling-Hammond (2006) noted that: ... beginner teachers with classroom experience find it easier to make sense of the ideas discussed at the faculty, whilst the same teachers see and understand both theory and practice differently if training at the faculty is taking place simultaneously with fieldwork (p. 307).

According to Mader et al. (2017), job shadowing can enrich the experience for the student and create a database of real-time responses to bring local reality into the classroom. Based on the positive aspects of job shadowing, we offered this activity to the students of the second year of the Master's programmes in Pedagogy and Andragogy at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Ljubljana, mainly with the aim that students get an insight into the work they might want to do in the future and thus explore their career options.

2.2. Purpose and Objectives The general aim was to explore how job shadowing was experienced by students who were about to graduate. The aim of the study was also to find out whether job shadowing can also be a suitable learning experience for student teachers,

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and explore what they gain from this kind of study activity. We set four research questions: 1) Was job shadowing also a learning experience for the students?

2) How the students were received by their hosts?

3) What were their main content insights related to job shadowing?

4) What dilemmas and problems they faced during or after job shadowing?

3. Method 3.1. Research Design The research design was based on the assumptions of qualitative research, specifically qualitative content analysis (Bryman, 2016). Through the analysis of reflections, we aimed to gain deeper insights into how the activity was experienced by students and to capture nuances in student accounts that would be missed through quantitative approaches. For the further research, we followed the steps suggested by Altheide and Schneider (2013). First, we defined the research questions and familiarised ourselves with the context in which the reflections emerged. For the analysis and extraction of codes and categories, we brought in two researchers who carried out the analysis in two steps. Finally, we compared the identified categories and created a common set of cross-sectional categories. The final step of the research was the preparation of the interpretation.

3.2. Collecting Data Data were collected using qualitative content analysis. We collected analyses from 19 students who wrote a reflection on their study activity after job shadowing. Each student submitted a reflection by summarising the experience based on some pre-determined starting points. These included notes on their motivations for choosing a particular institution and host, as well as their insights, dilemmas and problems encountered during and after their job shadowing.

3.3. Data Analysis The reflections were analysed by two researchers according to the principles of qualitative research (Creswell, 2007). The first step was decomposition, i.e., breaking down or segmenting the text into its component parts to obtain the coding units. By defining the coding units, the parts of the text that were to be further analysed were determined. The coding process was then the central process in formulating the further interpretations. An inductive approach (open coding) was chosen for the coding process, where the codes are determined during the analysis of the text itself. The codes were compared with each other and those that referred to similar phenomena were grouped into categories. The categories were formed by abstracting a common feature from several different descriptions and identifying the links between the individual codes. After analysis, common themes were identified that reflected the content views of the reflections analysed. In the second phase, the categories reflecting the deep content of the reflections were identified for each of the identified themes.

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3.4. Research Instrument The research tool was the students' reflections. These were shorter notes of up to three pages of text. The students submitted the reflections after the activity and described in them the main findings from the job shadowing. The reflections were evaluated in an anonymous form, without the identity of the person who wrote the reflection being established.

4. Results In the analysis of the reflections, the results are presented in the order of the research questions.

4.1. Motives for Choice The students had a free hand in choosing the institutions in which they wanted to do job shadowing, which is very vividly reflected in the records of their motives for selection. Their motives for choosing the institution varied widely.

The most frequently expressed motive for choosing a facility was to learn about the profession. In most cases, it was to learn about the profession they would like to pursue in the future. In the reflections, we found that the students were interested in different aspects of getting to know their future profession, from the concrete work tasks that the employees perform to the way they prepare for their work. They wanted to know what problems they encounter in their work and how they solve them. They also wanted to explore very specific areas of work, such as supervising staff training.

Among the motives for choosing a particular institution was interest. Students chose a facility because they were interested in working with certain target groups (e.g., people with special needs, long-term sick children, juvenile offenders, etc.). They were also interested in working in a certain area of the institution (e.g., in the human resources department) or they were curious about how work is done in large (also international) companies. One of the motives for choosing an institution was the desire to introduce work in a home or family business.

Despite the variety of motives put forward, it emerged from most records that students saw job shadowing primarily as an opportunity to learn about a particular occupation or its individual aspects, which is in line with the original idea of job shadowing as understood by other authors. Reese (2005), for example, pointed out that job shadowing is an"… opportunity for workplace learning in which students explore work by spending their working day observing an experienced employee at work" (p. 18).

4.2. Questions and Dilemmas In addition to what the students experienced and saw, they also had some questions and dilemmas that they considered in their reflections. Some dilemmas (and consequently questions) were related to the content of the company's work: why a company works the way it does? , and what are the reasons for this work?. In addition, students had questions and dilemmas related to the use of certain forms. It has been revealed that:

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"Although they try to offer a wide variety of training to meet the needs and wishes of their employees, they still encounter a lot of criticism and dissatisfaction. What surprised me most is that despite the extraordinary effort they put into finding different ways to involve as many staff as possible in training, they still do not have sufficient support from management. How can these two problems be addressed?"

The next aspect and set of dilemmas concerned job shadowing itself, but more importantly how job shadowing should take place. For the students, it was the first time they had encountered job shadowing, so most of them could not imagine how it would work. In this context, the students had various questions (e.g., would they be allowed to participate in the host's activities?, how would the hosts accept them?, would they get along well with the host?, and so on) as well as fears (what impression they would make on the host?, would they just sit and watch what other people do?, how much would they take away from the job shadowing?, and so on).

4.3. On the Organisation and Preparation for Job Shadowing In analysing the reflections, we also noted reflections on the organisation and preparation for job shadowing. Students emphasised the organisation of job shadowing and the importance of preparing questions.

In the first highlighted category, they wrote mainly about the importance of the activities we carried out in relation to job shadowing as part of the elective.

Regarding the choice of institutions, they rated the possibility of being able to choose each institution or job themselves as extremely positive: "The job shadowing experience has really enriched me. It has given me so much in such a short time. It also helped me a lot that I was free to choose the job", "I like the idea that we can choose any job we are interested in...", as well as discussing all the details of the job shadowing with the host himself: "I liked the fact that I could agree the exact date of the job shadowing with the company and was not restricted in doing so".

Regarding the preparation for the job shadowing, they also pointed out the preparation of the questions we had formulated in the seminar. They saw the added value mainly in the fact that their preparation of the questions was supervised by the respective institution, which reminded them of the content aspects of the questions as well as the structure of each question. During the preparation, we talked about the different sets of questions (within each set we also prepared very specific questions), which the students found very useful and practical. In this way, we highlighted the aspects they might not have thought of on their own.

For students, a good organisational preparation for the job shadowing can strengthen their sense of independence, as they know what to organise before the job shadowing, how they should behave during the job shadowing and which aspects they should pay special attention to. All these reduce their fear of

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the unknown. Adequate preparation in terms of content has the main effect of ensuring that students experience job shadowing in a structured and in-depth way and benefit as much as possible from the activities.

5. Discussion The discussion presented some important findings on learning activity. Three fundamentally different categories have been identified. The first category refers to the findings related to the content of job shadowing. Students indicated that job shadowing gave them an insight into how the institution/host worked (what their typical working day was like, what their most common work tasks were, how important it was to work with others, how varied the work tasks were, etc.) looks like. Job shadowing also gave them an insight into working with different target groups. In several written reflections, there were comments on the working atmosphere in the company and in this context, the students' reflections on how they would feel working in such a working environment was the second identified category. These were mainly about whether they could imagine themselves working in the observed position, whether they would be able to work in a large company and manage the tasks involved, and the conclusion that they came to because of the job shadowing that they would not want to work in a place where there were bad relationships between employees. In the third aspect, they wrote about what job shadowing was like for them. The activity itself was mainly described as a positive, inspiring, and interesting experience. Such feedback was even recorded in the reflection, where one student wrote that the job shadowing was poorly done mainly because of the host. The students described their experience as "a really good, educational, extremely interesting and useful experience ...", and justified it mainly with reasons such as "… job shadowing gave me a (real) insight into the world of work; I learned a lot about my host's profession and work; the job shadowing experience will help me in my job search; it will allow me to think anew about my interests and future profession; I will be able to focus on aspects other than teaching practise and so on."

The questions and dilemmas that arise in the job shadowing experience are a good starting point for learning. An experience is not a learning situation if the individual does not have the opportunity to get answers to his/her questions and reflects on his/her dilemmas and experiences. Everything starts with a concrete experience, but it is the attentive observation of what is happening that stimulates the learning process of the individual, because they must find the answers to their questions or dilemmas. They may find it in existing knowledge, or experience may awaken their need to search for new solutions and acquire new knowledge. It is important not to leave the student alone in this process.

Part of the learning can take place during the job shadowing itself, when the student raises his/her questions and dilemmas in conversation with his/her host. Otherwise, this part needs to be supported by faculty activities. Even if we do not find concrete answers or solutions to the dilemmas, it is important that we talk to the students about them, put things in a wider context, discuss the theoretical background and so on. Huang (2021) also reports that reflection is an important component of learning.

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Empirical studies have shown that teachers' reflection on their own teaching is an important informal workplace learning activity (Kyndt et al., 2016; Louws et al., 2017). If students are not given the appropriate support and guidance to process and make sense of the experiences gained in this way, we talk about the so-called unprocessed experiences, which, especially if they are not positive, can inhibit or undermine the growth of future experiences (Dewey, 1997). As can be seen from the students' notes, the problems and dilemmas encountered during the job shadowing experience may be related to the content of the experience or to the problems and dilemmas related to the process of the activity. The latter can be somewhat mitigated, especially through good preparation for job shadowing. The job shadowing activity was organised as part of the elective course to familiarise them with the profession they were trained for or any other profession that interested them. According to the records of reflections, we can say that we chose the right activity for this purpose because most of the students reported that job shadowing gave them insights into the segments of the profession or how to perform certain professional tasks.

Through the activity, we also wanted to give students an experience from which they could learn. The records of the reflections (especially in the second and third categories) showed that it was an experience that they found educational.

Certainly, the faculty activities contributed to this, as learning has always been at the heart of the activities, we have undertaken in relation to job shadowing as part of the elective. Indeed, we think it is important that students can reflect on their experiences in their studies and discuss their questions and dilemmas together with their peers and the lecturer, who also helps them to (re)conceptualise their knowledge. This is, in our opinion, the most important aspect of this kind of learning.

Similar findings have been made by other authors (Burke et al., 2009; Seward & Gaesser, 2018). Wilks and Ross (2014) regarded the strength of job shadowing programmes in the fact that students remain engaged in their theoretical and methodological units at the faculty during job shadowing. Moreover, they were able to put the theoretical starting points into practice and reflect on their experiences and observations in discussions with their hosts. However, further reflection and discussion that took place at the faculty helped students to make connections between their observations and conversations with their hosts on lectures and other activities within their studies (Wilks & Ross, 2014). These authors added that the job shadowing programme not only rethinks the process of professional experience, but also brings about profound changes in the way the different partners in this process connect with each other at different points in the overall professional development of future teachers (Wilks & Ross, 2014).

We cannot write about such applications of our implementation of job shadowing as it was a small-scale implementation. Nevertheless, we received some feedback from the hosts who indicated that the job shadowing (but especially the interviews with the shadowees) made them reflect on some areas of their own work while answering the students' questions.

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6. Implication for Practice In the paper, we presented job shadowing as a learning experience that can be offered to students during their studies. Based on the theoretical starting points and the analysis of the considerations presented, we come to the following recommendations: • Job shadowing can be an appropriate activity for students preparing for educational careers. It is very important that we plan the activity well and integrate it meaningfully with the activities that take place in the faculty as part of the study programme.

• Job shadowing and student teaching practise are based on the same starting point, but we see several differences between job shadowing and teaching practice that indicate that the two activities cannot be equated. In job shadowing, the student has no predetermined tasks to perform during the observation. His/her task is to accompany the hosts and observe them at work without interfering in the work process (or only in exceptional cases).

In addition, during job shadowing, the student observes what a working day of their host looks like. The briefing of the shadowee with his/her host serves primarily to get to know the job and the work tasks as well as to clarify or reflect on what has been seen. The preparation is also different as it is based on the students' own chosen goals for job shadowing. This is one of the differences with teaching, where the objectives come from practical training and are the same for all students in a year. Students recognised the difference between the two activities and highlighted it in their reflections.

• Job shadowing is not an activity that could in any way replace the goals achieved through various forms of practical training. In summary, we see it more as an opportunity through which students can get to know the profession better at the beginning or end of their studies. If we offer students this activity at the beginning of their studies, it can help them identify with the profession they are studying. This can not only have a positive impact on the development of their professional identity, but also increase their motivation for the studies themselves, as job shadowing gives them an insight into how the knowledgethey have gained at the faculty translates into their daily work (Radovan & Makovec, 2015).

A limitation of the study could be the lack of quantitative results on student satisfaction with job shadowing to support the findings of the qualitative analysis. For future research, it would be useful to explore and investigate this area of practical training in a structured way, which could also help to make the subject more scientific.

7. Conclusion We offered the job shadowing activity to students who were graduating. In their reflections, the students wrote that during the job shadowing, they thought about their careers. Some of them began to think about their career choices in ways they had not before. This suggests that job shadowing influenced their perception of the profession or individual job roles. Job shadowing was thus a learning experience that initially raised questions and dilemmas for the students,

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but later (and especially through reflection) contributed to clearer thinking about the profession and their perception of it.

On this basis, we believe that job shadowing can become an experience from which learning emerges. As such, it is an appropriate activity for students preparing for a career in education. However, it is true of this activity (and other experiences) that it only has learning potential if it is meaningful. It is important that the teacher plays his/her role in preparing or reflecting after the job shadowing activity has been completed, otherwise, job shadowing becomes a mere visit to a work environment.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 267-293, December 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.16 Received Sep 29, 2021; Revised Dec 18, 2021; Accepted Dec 30, 2021

Instructional Leadership Capacity of Secondary School Science Heads of Department in Gauteng, South Africa Cynthia B. Malinga, Loyiso C. Jita and Abiodun A. Bada University of the Free State, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2567-6504 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6871-6820 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7540-1974 Abstract. Natural sciences (NS) is an amalgam of five science disciplines, but the teachers of this subject are usually generalists, or have specialised in a maximum of two of the disciplines. This poses a major challenge to heads of department (HoDs), who are expected to lead instruction in these disciplines. We investigate science HoDs’ capacity to provide instructional leadership in South African secondary schools. The study was quantitative in nature and adopted the survey design. The investigation involved 77 secondary schools out of the 243 schools in the Gauteng province of South Africa. A data set from 142 participants (HoDs = 30; teachers = 112) was used to explore the capacity of science HoDs to provide instructional leadership in secondary schools, using questionnaires. The findings suggest that the capacity of science HoDs to lead instruction is limited by their inability to differentiate between curriculum management and instructional leadership and the relatively insufficient time allocated to provide instructional leadership. Unless schools and local district offices review the grouping of subjects in science departments and in the allocation of natural science teachers and HoDs, much stronger subject-based instructional leadership may potentially continue to remain a mirage. We recommend more focused subjectspecific training in natural sciences for both teachers and HoDs, and that leadership should be distributed along science disciplines.

Keywords: department head; instructional leadership; natural sciences; secondary schools

1. Introduction Many high school learners, some of whom might have excelled in natural sciences in primary school, often struggle with physical sciences possibly because of the kind of foundational grounding they might have received. The fact that natural sciences combines five science disciplines and that no teacher can be a specialist ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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in all of these disciplines complicates the preparation for the transition from natural sciences to physical sciences. Natural sciences is a federal subject that includes agricultural, environmental, life, and physical sciences and a geography discipline. Teachers of natural sciences are recruited as generalists that might not have specialised in any of the science disciplines; or conversely, they are specialists in one or more disciplines, but rarely are they specialists in all five of the science disciplines. Even when acknowledged as adequately qualified, in reality, it is quite impossible for natural sciences teachers to be adequately sound in all the natural sciences disciplines or subject strands. If they are generalists, the tendency is that they do not address the depth of the subject in any particular discipline (Umalusi, 2008). Teachers often focus their teaching only on what they are comfortable with (Ng et al., 2015), omitting topics or sections of the syllabus that they are unfamiliar with (Wanzare, 2013). It is not that teachers are irresponsible or not accountable; rather, they need help to address their own areas of weakness. Where teachers fall short, help has to come from the school or, more specifically, the Head of Department (HoD) because of their proximity to classroom teaching and learning (Highfield, 2010).

In this paper, we unpack some of the data on science HoDs in Gauteng schools, in terms of their practices and capacity for instructional leadership to assist natural sciences teachers in the rather complex context of this blended subject. We begin with a review of literature on the roles of HoDs and then explore some definitions of instructional leadership. From the review of the literature, we develop a conceptual framework for analysing the leadership practices of the science HoDs in the selected schools, before presenting the methodology and key findings. This paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings to science education systems in South Africa and makes recommendations on how the capacity of HoDs can be enhanced.

2. Reviewed Literature and Conceptual Framework Literature has indicated that HoDs are better suited to lead teaching and learning (Bush et al., 2010), central to effective teaching and learning (Busher et al., 2000) and an essential link to the continuum of best practices in teaching and learning (Weller, 2001). Furthermore, HoDs are the driving force behind the achievement of school goals (Collier et al., 2002) and possess frontline knowledge of classroom issues and teacher needs (York-Barr & Duke, 2004). Moreover, they are a missing link between efforts to improve schools and current practices (Kabeta et al., 2015; Melville et al., 2007) and are pivotal to any strategy to develop learning-centered leadership in schools (Klar, 2012). More specifically, science HoDs are mostly specialists in one or two natural sciences domains but are unlikely to be experts in all five of the natural sciences domains.

2.1 Head of Department Role and Responsibility Very little is known about how HoDs go about doing their work and what their perspectives are on what their role should entail (Stephenson, 2010). Wise (2000) stated that the legitimation of the HoD’s role emanates from the acceptance by members of the subject department. The HoD is generally knowledgeable about the subject and the development of school-based assessment tasks in the South

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African context. Furthermore, HoDs are expected to conduct class visits, model best practices, and provide teachers with templates and feedback on their teaching (Robinson & Timperley, 2007). As part of their role, HoDs are also expected to set subject goals and direction and expectations for achievement (Lashway, 2002), monitor the quality of instruction and achievement levels (for both teachers and learners) and evaluate instructional practices and learning. In addition, they need to maximise the effort of the instructional organisation, conduct appraisal (Smith et al., 2013) and participate in staff recruitment. Kabeta et al. (2015) opined that HoDs perceive themselves to be practising instructional leadership more than their teachers. However, in performing these duties, HoDs face many challenges, ranging from lack of time (Glickman et al., 2018), role conflict and ambiguity (Zepeda & Kruskamp, 2007) and limited authority to the multi-disciplinarity of the subject. This situation is no different in South Africa.

The complexity of the role of HoDs is influenced by contextual factors and is often compounded by conflicting expectations from principals and teachers (Collier et al., 2002). Part of the challenge is that HoDs have multiple roles: teacher, and administrator, manager and leader (Lai & Cheung, 2013). Siskin (1994) suggested that the HoD role is multi-dimensional because the HoD is neither a full teacher nor a full administrator. HoDs are the interface between management and teachers, but they also represent teachers in the school management team (SMT), and they represent management in the subject-department meetings with teachers. At the same time, HoDs work within a team, for the team and lead the team (Stephenson, 2010). Some literature suggest that the HoD’s time is sometimes consumed by administrative work, with many not being afforded adequate release time (Glickman et al., 2018; Ndoziya, 2014; Ng et al., 2015; Seobi & Wood, 2016) to focus on instructional issues, thus compromising their instructional leadership capacity. Anecdotal evidence has revealed that some HoDs do not even get time to lead and influence teachers in their departments.

Natural sciences teachers are also at an interface between science at the junior secondary or middle school level and the high school level and take responsibility for aligning and ensuring conceptual progression and continuity of both human resources and key instructional goals (Lai & Cheung, 2013). At the same time, HoDs work within a team to provide the guidance, support and development that teachers need (interact on structural issues). They also work for the team (escalating teachers’ requests to the SMT, procuring and organising laboratory equipment, communicating urgent demands) and they lead the team (Stephenson, 2010). The role demands that HoDs become close to those they lead and where learning actually occurs (Aubrey-Hopkins & James, 2002).

According to the Department of Education (DoE) guideline policy document (South Africa. DoE, 2002) that guides HoD functions and mandates in South Africa, HoDs are expected to teach 85% of the time and to dedicate only 15% of their time to HoD functions. HoDs tend to work for teachers (escalating teachers’ requests to SMT, procuring and organising laboratory equipment and communicating urgent demands) rather than working with teachers, guiding

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them, and providing the support and development that teachers need (interacting on instructional issues).

HoDs have very little opportunity to lead by example, identifying and modelling good practice and sharing them with the teachers they lead. Kabeta et al. (2015) supported this assertion by opining that HoDs are not actively practising instructional leadership. It is not far-fetched therefore to suggest that HoDs could enhance their leadership practices by delegating some of the duties, depending on the task at hand, through the engagement of distributed leadership (Munje et al., 2020; Spillane et al., 2004) and the agency of the teachers. This is because leadership is one of the factors that can influence the quality of teaching and learning in schools (Kabeta et al., 2015; Lai & Cheung, 2013). HoDs also have limited authority (Weller, 2001) to discipline and appraise teachers and they also experience strained relationships with teachers (Schmidt, 2000), especially those who are not teaching up to the expected quality of instruction and expected learning outcomes. In the next section, we discuss the structure and organisation of subject departments which have a bearing on the work of HoDs. 2.2 Subject Departments The subject department is a school subsystem that is organised to minimise the workload of principals, especially secondary school principals (Aubrey-Hopkins & James, 2002). In addition, the subject department focusses on curriculum support (Harris et al., 2001) to improve the performance of learners. The generalisation on what the department should be and what it should aim to achieve complicates the appointment of departmental leaders, with the result that leaders who do not possess the appropriate credentials are sometimes appointed (Lai & Cheung, 2013). Unfortunately, appointment to the HoD position in South Africa is sometimes offered as a reward and anyone can apply, sometimes with little preparation to lead teaching and learning (Smith et al., 2013). Even when HoDs are appointed based on reward, they do not receive training that prepares them for the new roles they occupy, as Kabeta et al. (2015) opined. Research has focused more on the practices of HoDs or department chairs where a department houses one school subject (Brown et al., 2000; Harris et al., 2001) as opposed to a group of subjects.

In South Africa, HoDs lead departments that usually comprise a group of subjects instead of one subject only (Naicker et al., 2013). There are exceptions for bigger and core subjects such as mathematics, mathematical literacy and English—for which most learners in the school are enrolled—in which case it forms a department on its own. The opposite is true for natural science, where the HoD would be responsible for all the different science disciplines offered in the school, with each one then becoming an independent subject in high school. Anecdotal evidence has suggested that some schools may even include mathematics, mathematical literacy and technology education in their science department. In South Africa, there is no uniform grouping of subjects into departments and the demarcation of departments is school context specific (Naicker et al., 2013). In other countries, there seems to be a clear structure for the department to be subject-based, except for blended subjects such as science (Harris et al., 2001; Ng

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et al., 2015; Stephenson, 2010). Interestingly, very few countries organise their science departments in such way to include non-science subjects or even mathematics.

HoDs are not likely to have the professional capacity and expertise in all subjects offered in a federal department such as the sciences. Professional credibility (Angelle & DeHart, 2011; Ghamrawi, 2010) is necessary for the HoD’s self-esteem, but also for the teachers who are being led or influenced by the HoD. Member teachers need to have confidence and be convinced that the person who leads them has the professional expertise, skills and experience to provide the guidance and support that they need (Wanzare, 2013). This has been found to not be the case, as the HoD role tends to be limited to “final checker” of teacher reports of work done (Seobi & Wood, 2016). It is expected that the HoD will have a proven track record and experience in the knowledge and teaching of a particular subject.

Literature has reported opportunities for distributed or shared leadership in schools at multiple layers (Munje et al., 2020; Spillane et al., 2001), depending on the task at hand (Spillane et al., 2004) and the agency of the teachers (Sherer, 2008).

We explore some of the credentials that are expected of the HoD by the department members and senior school leadership, and the capacity of HoDs to allocate resources and lead the department.

2.3 Instructional Leadership Instructional leadership involves sharing the vision of the organisation with followers, monitoring the instruction and assessment standards, allocating resources, and reflecting on the outcome of the instruction (Lashway, 2002; Ritchie et al., 2006). According to Kabeta et al. (2015), instructional leadership is leadership that prioritises teaching and learning in school in order to improve student learning. Instructional leadership also helps lead teachers, such as HoDs, and students to reach their full potential by creating a conducive environment in which teaching and learning can take place (Kabeta et al., 2015). Lashway (2002), however, suggested that there has been a shift in instructional leadership in education. The focus used to be on the leader having a vision and sharing it with followers (coherence in improvement efforts), allocating resources (both physical and human) to instruction, managing the curriculum, monitoring lesson plans (not learning) and evaluating teachers (focus clearly not on learning). More recently, instructional leadership has been focusing more on teaching and learning. This focus includes aligning curriculum instruction and assessment standards (Robinson, 2010); professional development; using of data to make decisions on professional development, resources, and instructional practice (Brown et al., 2000); and creating a safe, secure, and conducive environment for teachers using dialogue on key issues. Using classroom data, the instructional leader can make decisions about professional development needs, interventions and grouping of learners where needed. The leadership process involves the leader’s capacity to involve their colleagues collaboratively in mutual development and learning, with the aim of improving teaching and learning. The HoD as an instructional leader influences many of the activities listed above, and the type of leadership is also influenced by the followers (teachers). In the next section, we describe our conceptual framework for this paper.

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2.4 Conceptual Framework Researchers have reported on several factors that contribute to the HoD’s ability to lead instruction. These range from HoD characteristics and behaviour (Bolam & Turner, 2003; Harris et al., 2001) and contextual factors (York-Barr & Duke, 2004) to leadership practices such as facilitating collegiality and sharing decisionmaking (Kabeta et al., 2015). The role of the HoD is context-dependent and there is no single hymn sheet for leading a department in different schools (Ritchie et al., 2006). Harris et al. (2001) asserted that the HoD role is characterised by complexity and contingency and understanding this helps to explain how and why HoDs practise (their role) instructional leadership in the ways they do. The actions of HoDs often depend on the leader themselves, the task that needs to be performed, the departmental staff or followers and the situation (Timperley, 2005). Ng (2019) outlined three domains of instructional leadership to include defining the mission statement of the school, managing the instructional programme and promoting a positive learning climate in the school. Inculcating adequate instructional leadership can assist school leaders in the achievement of these goals, as identified in the different domains. Chambalala and Naidoo (2021) therefore opined that effective instructional leadership can successfully influence others to utilise appropriate practices with the exceptional knowledge of the relevant subject matter. It was also the view of Chambalala and Naidoo (2021) that emphasising the three domains of instructional leadership can provide a clear explanation of the functions of general instructional leadership.

This paper proposes a conceptual framework based on the provisional model (Turner & Bolam, 1998) and the teacher leadership framework proposed by YorkBarr and Duke (2004). The framework shows how the instructional leader’s characteristics and knowledge of the context and its problems can be integrated to provide leadership through effective interactions with department members and how it can influence the teaching choices (Robinson, 2010). Six major components of instructional leadership by HoDs have been identified in the literature and are discussed below. An abridged version of the conceptual framework is presented in Figure 1.

Management and administration (5) HoD personal attributes (1)

Leadership work (2) Means of influence (4)

Feedback and evaluation of effectiveness (6)

School conditions (3)

Intermediary outcome of leadership Figure 1: Abridged version of the conceptual framework for leading instruction (adapted from York-Barr & Duke, 2004) http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlteroutcome of leadership

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The first component of the framework is the leader’s characteristics, such as subject proficiency, experience in the subject (Stein & Nelson, 2003), professional credibility, trustworthiness, and agency in resourcing the department. These contribute to how the department members perceive the leader (HoD). The second component is the leadership practices, such as vision setting, building collegiality, developing teachers, building relationships, and the manner in which leadership is distributed among the department members (Hallinger, 2005).

The third component includes how the HoD negotiates their influence through the school’s social, political, economic, cultural and other contextual problems (Robinson, 2010). This requires the HoD to be creative with their time and to be able to balance their own administrative and instructional leadership duties. In some schools, as explained by Klar (2012), principals assist in fostering instructional leadership practices. The fourth component looks at how the HoD influences teaching choices through setting instructional objectives, planning instruction and developing reflective practice using classroom observation and feedback sessions and action research (York-Barr & Duke, 2004).

The fifth component is administration and management, which overarches with the role of managing people and resources. The subject department co-creates and uses routines and artefacts as a means of influencing the followers. The HoD is then expected to monitor the interaction of departmental staff through the artefacts and routines. This is the one component where many HoDs tend to spend most of their time, and it is difficult to strike a balance between this component and all four of the previous components. The sixth and final component introduces the feedback loop and evaluation of the effectiveness of leadership. It involves critical reflection by individuals, teams and the organisation as well as following up on and mentorship and dialogues about the effectiveness of instructional practices, learners’ work (Lashway, 2002) and their own leadership practices.

The HoD consistently monitors the alignment of curriculum, instruction and assessment standards using data and technology to ensure accountability for performance in the classroom (Busher et al., 2000). This component provides the feedback to other components of the framework. To achieve the set goals, the findings from the evaluation have to form the basis on which the other components are modified or enhanced. The main focus of the framework is to achieve improved and effective teaching and learning practices within a department and school. Using the conceptual framework developed above, we ask the key question of our study: how is science-HoDs’ instructional leadership capacity perceived by natural science teachers?

3. Methodology 3.1 Research Design A quantitative research approach based on survey design was used to investigate science HoDs’ capacity to lead instruction, in four districts in the Gauteng province of South Africa.

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The survey design, although easier to distribute to a large number of respondents and cost-effective, is not without limitations. The accuracy and honesty of answers is difficult to ascertain and the reasons for any given answer or interpretation of options cannot be solicited. To do this successfully, we used two different questionnaires to obtain data from science HoDs and teachers from the same schools. The first questionnaire was used to explore data on the instructional capacities of science HoDs, while the second questionnaire provided data on the guidance and support available to natural sciences teachers. The questions on instructional practices were asked in different ways and under different sections to elicit rich information on the capacities of HoDs to provide instructional leadership.

3.2 Sampling Technique We invited 243 secondary and intermediate schools from four districts in Gauteng to take part in this study. The necessary ethical measure were observed, including seeking informed consent and providing for confidentiality of the participating schools and teachers, by using pseudonyms (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). The questionnaires were sent out through the district postal system. Only 77 secondary schools consented to participate and sent back their questionnaire.

Included were 30 ex-Model C schools, 42 township schools and 5 independent or private schools (Table 1). The learner enrolment of the schools ranged from 429 to 1548 learners. Model C schools are fee-paying schools which are usually well resourced in terms of teaching staff and educational opportunities. The township schools are no-fee paying schools hence, they are usually less resourced when compared to the Model C schools. The independent schools are privately governed and usually received subsidy from the government.

Table 1: Participating schools School Type

Race

Number of Schools Participating

Ex-Model C

Mixed

30

Township

African

42

Independent

Mixed

5

The size of the science departments of the participating schools varied, ranging from two to twenty teachers. Departments also varied in the subjects that the science HoD was responsible for. Some comprised life sciences (life sciences), physical sciences and natural sciences, while others also included mathematics, mathematical literacy and technology education. Although 112 teachers from 77 schools responded, not all HoDs from these 77 schools responded, with only 30 HoDs responding altogether (Table 2).

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Table 2: Study respondents District B E J W Total

Number of Schools 16 16 8 37 77

Number of HoDs 13 8 5 4 30

Number of Teachers 31 26 13 42 112

Most of the HoD respondents were middle-aged or older (Table 3). The number of female respondents (17) was slightly higher than that of male respondents (13).

Most of the HoD respondents (20) had professionally qualified from teachers’ colleges as opposed to those who had university qualifications (10). This could also explain the reason for middle-aged or older age range because the majority of older teachers had qualified during the era of teacher colleges of education.

Table 3: Profile of the heads of department respondents Variable Overall Gender Age range

Subject of specialisation

Type of institution where qualification was obtained Highest qualification

Position held in school

Level Male Female 20 – 29 years 30 – 39 years 40 – 49 years 50 – 59 years > 60 years LS PS NS Other Teachers college University Matric/unqualified

Frequency n (%) 13 (43.3) 17 (56.7) 0 4 (13.4) 13 (43.3) 13 (43.3) 0 10 (33.3) 10 (33.3) 7 (23.4) 0 20 (66.7) 10 (33.3) 0

Total (N) 30 30

PTD/PTC STD ACE Bachelor’s degree Post-graduate Other HoD Master/lead teacher Teacher

1 (3.3) 11 (36.7) 3 (10.0) 4 (13.3) 10 (33.4) 1 (3.3) 26 (86.7) 4 (13.3) 0

30

30

30

30

30

Research Instrument We used two questionnaires to obtain data on how science HoDs’ leadership capacity is perceived by natural sciences teachers. The development of the questionnaires included adapting the instructional management rating scale developed by Hallinger and Murphy (1985) from the principal focus to the

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department head focus. The Personnel Administrative Measure framework of the Department of Education (1999) was incorporated to formulate department headspecific leadership roles. Opinions of three experts in the instructional leadership field and a practitioner in the field were sought to ensure the content validity of the questionnaires. Feedback on language clarity, understanding and reliability was gathered during a pilot study that was conducted on three HoDs from township and informal settlement secondary schools. The questionnaires were distributed to 243 secondary and intermediate schools from four districts in Gauteng, South Africa. Only 142 of the 400 distributed surveys were returned, which consisted of 112 teachers and 30 HoDs. The questionnaires consisted of a Likert-type scale for responding to the items, and some background questions concerning gender and teaching experience were also included in the survey. The questionnaires were both validated and their reliability was adequately ensured.

Procedure for Data Collection The HoDs’ involvement in instructional leadership activities was rated based on how frequent the activity was practised (1 = never; 5 = always). The HoDs’ general instructional leadership activities and skills were categorised, and the means of each category was taken to indicate the general trend in the subcategories. In addition to the Likert-type questions, participants also had to respond to questions on gender and teaching experience. Administration of the questionnaires was done over a period of three months.

Data Analysis The data obtained from this investigation were analysed using descriptive statistics. This included the use of frequency counts, percentages, means, and bar charts.

4. Findings Natural sciences is a conglomerate subject comprising five science disciplines, namely physical sciences, life sciences, mathematics, mathematical literacy and technology. This is not a new subject in South Africa nor is it any different in other countries, although it may be called integrated science instead of natural sciences, as in USA and Japan, or basic science, as in Nigeria. The subject curriculum is divided into four strands, namely 1) life and living, 2) matter and materials, 3) energy and change and 4) earth and beyond. The newly introduced curriculum (CAPS) specified when which strand is to be taught and that teachers must administer a school-based assessment task (SBAT) at the end of each strand. This assessment task needs to be standardised within the school and moderated before it is administered. Subject heads therefore have the huge task to ensure the quality of the assessment and the learners’ responses after writing the task. This requires the HoD, who both knows and teaches the subject, to be able to understand the challenges in the subject from both the learners and the teachers’ perspective.

The HoD engages in certain practices to share the subject goals, develop a climate of high expectations and standards in the subject, monitor the instruction and assessment standards and model the desired teacher behaviours as well as promote school-based professional development. An account of these practices is given under the following subheadings.

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% of HODs

Teaching of Natural Sciences Of the 30 HoDs who responded to the questionnaire, 18 (60%) actually taught natural sciences (Figure 2). These HoDs would likely understand the subject challenges, prove to have the needed subject expertise and be in a position to work with the teachers in the subject instead of working for them.

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

60 43

40

NS

PS

LS Subjects

6.7

3.3

Maths

Chem

Figure 2: Subjects taught by the participating heads of department

The HoD respondents did not teach natural sciences only; they also taught either physical sciences or life sciences or mathematics. The number of HoD respondents who taught physical sciences (12; 40%) was almost equal to the number of those who taught life sciences (13; 43%).

Qualifications/Specialisation of Heads of Department with Regards to Natural Sciences Because of the interdisciplinary nature of natural sciences, the HoD is expected to have the ability and knowledge to assist the teachers, who may not have expertise in other science disciplines. Figure 3 shows the specialisation of the 30 HoDs that participated in this study.

Specialisation

Maths specialisation NS only PS (Phys & Chem) only Specialisation without PS Specialisation with LS and PS Specialisation without LS LS only 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Number of HODs Figure 3: Subject specialisation of the participating heads of department

Figure 3 shows that almost half of the HoD respondents (12) had specialised in physical sciences or life sciences and almost a third (9) had specialised in

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mathematics. Those without life sciences specialisation may not be confident teaching 25% of the natural sciences syllabus, and those without physical sciences specialisation may not be confident teaching 50% of the syllabus. At the same time, HoDs themselves cannot be specialists in all five or six science disciplines.

They are likely to support teachers only in the area of their expertise. HoDs that did not specialise in the sciences are likely to use other teachers in the school, such as senior teachers in the subject, to assist them with monitoring the said subject.

This provides an opportunity for shared or distributed leadership, as advocated

by Spillane et al. (2004). The teaching experience of the 112 teacher respondents is presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Teaching experience of the teacher respondents Teaching experience

NS Grade 8

NS Grade 9

PS Grade 10

PS Grade 11

PS Grade 12

1-2 years 3-5 years

17 18

13 17

12 12

11 7

4 5

6-10 years

20

18

4

4

4

> 10 years No experience

14 27

18 31

10 58

6 73

3 81

Of the 112 teacher respondents in this study who taught natural sciences, at least 58, or a little more than half (52%), had not taught the physical sciences strand beyond Grade 9. Even more respondents had not taught Grades 11–12 (73 and 81, respectively). Perhaps these respondents did not have experience in teaching Grades 10–12 physical sciences and therefore may not be in a position to lay the proper physical sciences foundation for Grades 10–12.

These respondents are more likely to need classroom support in 50% of the natural sciences syllabus in order to teach it effectively and to the correct depth. They may be weary of doing experiments in science and to set the prescribed common assessment tasks on their own. They may need the HoD to assist them more closely for 50% of the time. This study did not focus on the earth and beyond strand of natural sciences. If these respondents are inexperienced in earth and beyond as well, then they will only be comfortable teaching 25% of the syllabus.

The teacher respondents were asked to indicate their HoD’s subject expertise (Figure 4).

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279

40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5%

0%

Strongly disagree

2

3

4

Strongly agree

HOD is familiar with content

33%

25%

18%

10%

13%

Understands expectations at different grades

36%

25%

19%

9%

11%

Figure 4: Teacher respondents’ rating of their head of department’s subject expertise

Figure 4 shows that 58% of the teacher respondents disagreed that their HoDs were familiar with the subject content, and 61% believed that their HoDs did not understand the subject expectations at different grades. Familiarity with subject content means that the HoD knows how deep and wide the teachers should present the subject. This involves understanding the subject progression, sequencing and the coherence of topics so that the building blocks and anchors for the subject are formed. Teachers expect the HoD to know areas that are problematic and to also prepare and caution teachers, accordingly, giving them tips and transferring the necessary skills on how to tackle those problematic sections. With the new curriculum, there are assessment standards, expectations and demands that need to be met for natural sciences.

Natural sciences has a practical component, and the new curriculum specifies that all leaners must do a common assessment task, which is based on the practical task. Practical work demands that the teacher prepares the experiment/investigation, ensures that the equipment is available and in working condition and understands the experiment and what could go wrong in order to assist the learners. The development, design, and moderation of the task as well as the scheduling of the time and space for doing the common assessment tasks by all learners in the grade on the same day requires the HoD’s coordination. Once the task has been marked, the HoD can use the scores to analyse the level of understanding of the particular concept by learners and identify areas of support for groups of learners.

About a quarter of the teacher respondents (23%) agreed that their HoDs were familiar with the natural sciences content (Figure 4), while 20% agreed that their HoDs understood the subject expectations at different grades. Figure 2 showed that almost two thirds of the HoD respondents were teaching natural sciences.

This means that more than a third were not teaching the subject that they were leading. The fact that they did not teach the subject contributes to their lack of

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understanding of the expectations of subjects per grade and their non-familiarity with the subject content, a matter confirmed by the teacher respondents.

How Heads of Department Spend Their Time The HoD respondents were asked how much time they spend on some leadership practices (Figure 5). On average, less than a quarter of them agreed to providing any form of professional development to the teachers. Over half of the HoD respondents (60%) in the study disagreed to practising any form of professional development activities. Fifty-five percent (55%) of the participating HoDs did not provide opportunities to learn and 60% both did not coordinate professional development and take responsibility for teachers to do well. In addition, 51% did not take responsibility for improving instruction and 53% did not provide classroom observation feedback. Predominantly, more than half of the HoD respondents in this study did not coordinate professional development (60%) or take responsibility for improving instruction (60%) or for teachers to do well. Only a quarter of the respondents (25%) agreed to providing opportunities for teachers to learn and taking responsibility to improve instruction (25%) (Figure 5).

40%

Percentage of HODS

35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Provides opportunity to learn

Coordinates professional development of teachers

Takes responsibility for teachers to do well

Takes responsibility to improve instruction

Provides classroom observation feedback

Strongly disagree

29%

34%

27%

32%

26%

2

26%

26%

33%

19%

27%

3

19%

22%

21%

24%

24%

4

11%

8%

8%

15%

13%

Strongly agree

14%

9%

10%

10%

9%

Figure 5: How participating heads of department spend their time

HoD respondents were also asked how much time they spend doing administrative work (Figure 6). It was found that they spend most of their time doing administrative work. Almost three quarters (72%) of the HoD respondents indicated that they spend most of their time doing internal administration at the school. In addition, almost two thirds (62%) indicated spending time on paperwork, two thirds (66%) indicated spending their time responding to e-mail or fax correspondences, while three quarters (75%) of the respondents indicated

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spending most of their time managing late coming at the school and 62% indicated spending their time responding to local district office demands.

70%

Percentage of HODs

60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%

0%

Internal administrati on

Personnel issues

Least time

0%

2

7%

3 4 Most time

Emails and faxes

Responding to district demands

Paperwork

Managing late coming

14%

3%

7%

7%

7%

17%

10%

3%

17%

10%

21%

31%

24%

14%

10%

21%

31%

10%

17%

34%

28%

59%

41%

28%

45%

41%

38%

3%

Figure 6: Time spent on administrative work by heads of department

Curriculum Management HoD respondents were asked to indicate whether they spend time on different aspects related to curriculum management (Figure 7). 72% of participating HoDs indicated that they spend almost all their time preparing lesson and teaching. An equal number of participating HoDs (52%) spend their least time in training teachers or providing instructional leadership while 48% spent the least time of given demo lesson to teachers

Percentage of HODS

80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Professiona l developme nt

Teaching and preparatio n

Giving a demo lesson

Training teachers

Providing instruction al leadership

Least time

24%

0%

48%

52%

52%

2

10%

0%

38%

31%

31%

3

31%

3%

10%

14%

14%

4

17%

24%

0%

3%

3%

Most time

17%

72%

3%

0%

0%

Figure 7: Time spent on curriculum management by participating heads of department

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Teacher respondents were also asked to indicate the frequency with which HoDs engaged in curriculum management activities (Figure 8).

45%

Percentage of teachers

40% 35%

30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Calls staff meetings

Provides conducive environment

Provides policy information and guidelines

Provides updates on SMT decisions

Always

24%

39%

34%

40%

Frequently

32%

24%

26%

16%

Occasionally

31%

23%

24%

22%

Seldom

9%

10%

11%

7%

Never

1%

2%

2%

13%

No response

3%

2%

3%

1%

Figure 8: Time spent by heads of department on curriculum management according to teacher respondents

More than half of the teacher respondents (56%) indicated that their HoDs called subject staff meetings and provided feedback on SMT decisions more frequently.

Almost two thirds of the respondents (63%) indicated that the HoDs frequently provided a conducive environment for instruction, whereas 60% indicated that time was spent providing policy information and guidelines. Again, more than half (56%) of the teacher respondents agreed that HoDs provide updates on SMT decisions.

The teacher respondents indicated that HoDs performed curriculum management. Curriculum management in this context relates to all the activities that involve compliance to the demands of the SMT, district and provincial office for a particular subject offering. Most schools expect HoDs to have subject meetings. Fifty-six percent (56%) of the participating HoDs did this frequently, although the meaning of frequently may vary from school to school. The content of what is addressed at the subject meetings also varies from school to school.

HoDs are also responsible for ensuring that all teaching and learning resources and teaching spaces, such as adequately equipped laboratories, are available and conducive.

The Most Helpful Person The participating teachers were asked to indicate which person they found most helpful regarding instructional matters (Figure 9). Across broad, 35.1% of the

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Percentage of teachers

responding teachers indicated that the HoD was most helpful, while 37.7% indicated that the senior teacher was most helpful leaving out 27.2% of the responding teachers indicating that the subject advisor was most helpful.

50 40

30 17

20 10

43

40 22

19 12

4 2

21

15 8

3

27

31

14

0 HOD

senior teacher

subject advisor

No help needed

least helpful

less helpful

neutral

helpful

most helpful

Figure 9: Teacher respondents’ perspectives on the most helpful person

Instructional Leadership and In-Classroom Support The HoD’s key role, other than teaching, is providing instructional leadership. Inclassroom support is one of the ways in which the HoD provides leadership. The capacity of HoDs to provide in-classroom support and leadership in general was explored. This section discusses how the participating teachers and responded to the questions regarding instructional leadership. Figure 10 illustrates how teacher respondents rated the frequency with which HoDs monitored standards.

Percentage of teachers

40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0%

Control of learner activity books

Monitors content coverage

Tracks learners' progress

Knows what is going on in classrooms

Monitors quaity of science instruction

Always

25%

28%

24%

19%

13%

Frequently

37%

30%

29%

13%

15%

Occasionally

25%

25%

23%

25%

27%

Seldom

11%

14%

13%

31%

29%

Never

1%

2%

9%

11%

14%

No response

1%

1%

2%

1%

2%

Figure 10: Frequency of monitoring standards by heads of department according to teacher respondents

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Regarding activities that HoDs did to monitor instructional activities, 62% of the teacher respondents indicated that their HoD more often than not controlled the learners’ activity books, and 58% agreed that HoDs monitored the subject content coverage. Over half of the respondents (53%) indicated that their HoD frequently tracked learners’ progress. Thirty-one percent (31%) indicated that the HoD seldom (31%) or occasionally (25%) made time to understand what was going on in the science classrooms. Fifty-six (56%) of the respondents indicated that the HoD occasionally or seldom monitored the quality of the science instruction.

Percentage of teachers

Furthermore, teacher respondents were asked how frequently they interacted with the HoD regarding instruction and in-classroom support (Figure 11).

45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Always

Frequen tly

Occasio nally

Seldom

Never

No respons e

Provides professional development

13%

8%

26%

19%

32%

2%

Discusses how to teach

12%

18%

32%

17%

20%

1%

Jointly prepares instructional material

9%

18%

35%

23%

14%

1%

Allows observation in own class

8%

23%

22%

26%

18%

3%

Does classroom observation

9%

20%

41%

16%

13%

1%

Provides feedback after observation

15%

31%

24%

18%

10%

2%

Figure 11: Frequency of instructional leadership activities by heads of department according to teacher respondents

Forty-one percent (41%) of the teacher respondents indicated that their HoD occasionally did classroom observations. Over a third (35%) indicated that the HoD occasionally developed instructional material jointly, and 32% that they occasionally discussed how to teach natural sciences. Almost half of the respondents (46%) indicated that they frequently or always received feedback from the HoD after classroom observations. About a third (32%) indicated that their HoD never provided professional development, while almost half (44%) indicated that the HoD seldom or never allowed teachers in their classroom for observations or demonstrative lessons.

Subject Meetings Subject meetings are formal organisational routines and are one of the aspects of organisational infrastructure that can enable or constrain leadership practice.

HoDs use these routines as monitoring tools to see if various components of the

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department are working as intended. Both teachers and HoD respondents were asked about the content of the subject or departmental meetings. Table 5 shows the responses of both the HoD and teacher respondents.

Table 5: Items discussed at departmental meeting S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Agenda items at meetings Question-paper monitoring Account of the term’s work or content coverage Learner-assessment issues Analysis of learner scores to inform instruction Curriculum and learner outcomes Start and end-of-term issues Plan of next remedial or enrichment steps Clarification of the department’s direction Textbook and course material Development and sharing of lesson plans Distribution of leadership activities School improvement plan Instructional evaluation Professional development Policy reviews Budget

HoDs Mean Rank 4.6 1 4.4 3

Teachers Mean Rank 4.09 1 3.82 2

4.5 3.5

2 12

3.73 3.71

4 4

4.2 4.2 4.0 3.8 3.97 2.67 3.93 3.9 3.83 2.83 3.27 2.6

4 5 6 11 7 15 8 9 10 14 13 16

3.71 3.61 3.61 3.5 3.5 3.42 3.38 3.37 3.33 3.32 2.94 2.23

4 6 6 8 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Both HoD and teacher respondents indicated that they discussed question-paper monitoring more than any other item, as this was ranked as the top item in the frequency of subject or departmental meeting agenda items. Instructional assessment included setting, moderation and administration of tests, examination question papers and school-based assessment tasks. The teacher respondents ranked account of the term’s work as the next most frequent agenda item discussed, whereas the HoD respondents, on the other hand, identified learnerassessment issues as the next item most discussed and account of the term’s work third. The teacher respondents ranked “development of lesson plans” tenth, while HoD respondents ranked it fifteenth among the items discussed. Professional development, instructional evaluation, and policy reviews were among the agenda items that were least discussed. Respondents from both groups corroborated that budget was the item least discussed in subject or departmental meetings.

5. Discussion The capacity of the HoD respondents in this study to lead instruction was limited in many ways. First, they could not differentiate between curriculum management and instructional leadership. For most of them, they could tick the checklist in terms of management issues such as monitoring curriculum coverage from learner-books, calling subject or departmental meetings, counting the number of assessment tasks given etc. Only a few, however, were able to influence

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the quality of what was happening in the classroom. Curriculum management does not require the HoD to visibly interact with the teachers on a personal level.

Instructional leadership, on the other hand, involves constant interaction and professional dialogue in the form of one-on-one face-to-face meetings, or group meetings, classroom observation and feedback, lesson demonstrations of best practices, and leading by example. This is the actual sphere and means of influence and this is how leadership works.

Any HoD can call the meeting and tick that output from the checklist; however, what is discussed at the meetings determines the difference between management and leadership. Schools have routines such that on certain days all learner-books are submitted to the HoD for moderation. If the HoD signed and stamped the learner-books, it can be ticked from the management checklist. However, an instructional leader will look at the content of the learners’ activity books and the quality of the science writing to pick up areas for development. In addition, they will create interventions in the classroom or work with the teacher(s) concerned depending on the trend that is picked up. In this study, 62% of teacher respondents indicated that their HoD frequently monitored the learners’ activity books, but that they occasionally or seldom monitored the quality of instruction.

These managerial duties are what Peacock (2013) referred to as simply clerical tasks that detract the HoDs from their instructional duties. They are often listed as official HoD responsibilities but are not instructional leadership activities. This situation also causes HoDs to suffer a similar fate experienced by principals. As Ndoziya (2014) reported that principals spend most of their time on administrative functions and disciplinary issues. Peacock (2013) identified these managerial processes as those that support instruction, such as budgeting, scheduling/routines, and recruitment of teachers. Spillane and Hopkins (2013) also suggested that organisational infrastructures, which include routines, processes, and structures, are important for instructional delivery.

More than half of the teacher respondents (58%) indicated that they occasionally or seldom spend time preparing instructional material as a group (Figure 11).

Helterbran (2008) asserted that collaborative planning assists teachers to reflect carefully on what works, and what does not, in a particular school context and within a group of learners. These teachers can then work together to address challenges in the curriculum and with their teaching choices. The HoD respondents in the study missed the opportunity to develop, facilitate, monitor, and support common instructional material, such as lesson plans and assessment tasks. HoDs do not have to develop this on their own but can do it jointly with teachers as this offers an opportunity to distribute leadership and develop the teachers professionally. Most teachers prepare their own materials, which can be appreciated, but the quality of the materials may be compromised.

Second, just over half of the HoD respondents (57%) taught natural sciences in either Grades 8 or 9. This means that more than a third (43%) did not teach the subject and would therefore find it difficult to know what goes on in natural sciences classrooms (42% seldom or never know what is going on). They would

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therefore not be able to monitor the quality of natural sciences instruction (43% seldom or never). More than half of the teacher respondents (58% and 61% respectively) agreed that their HoDs were neither familiar with the content nor understood the subject expectations at the different grades. HoDs that do not teach the subject would normally pay more attention to the subjects that they teach and very little to natural sciences.

If 45% of the teacher respondents indicated occasional classroom visits by HoDs, how likely is it that the HoDs know what goes on in the classroom or where instructional practice is enacted and actualised? How can HODs possibly ascertain the quality of instruction at a distance, apart from the products of instruction evident in learner books and learner progress reports? How do HoDs know where to intervene and support teachers in the classroom? They will not be in a position to know first-hand what learners are struggling with and how to approach such challenges and will not be able to share it with the other teachers in the grade. Therefore, their capacity to provide instructional leadership is challenged. The minimum that they could do is to resort to curriculum management, which can be achieved through paperwork and does not involve physical presence of visible leadership in the subject (Southworth, 2002). Almost half of the teacher respondents (46%) agreed that their HoDs provided feedback after observation (Aubrey-Hopkins & James, 2002). Providing feedback encourages the teachers to look back at their own instructional practice. The HoD uses this opportunity to identify areas on professional development and identify any other intervention in the classroom or even in the whole grade or school. In addition, half of the teacher respondents (49%) indicated that their HoDs occasionally or seldom allowed teachers in their classrooms to demonstrate best practice (Benedict, 2009). These HoDs failed to position themselves as models of best professional and instructional practices. This is partly because they do not teach natural sciences and it would thus be difficult to go out of their way to plan and prepare a subject that they do not teach Third, the subject specialisations of the HoD respondents could contribute to their capacity of providing effective instructional leadership. Subject specialisation provides the HoD with professional credibility as a specialist in a particular subject (Stein & Nelson, 2003). It boosts the professional esteem and confidence of the HoD as they professionally interact and engage with the teachers that they are leading. In this study, few of the HoD respondents (15%) had a qualification that enabled them to teach all subject strands of natural sciences. Half of the HOD respondents were only specialised enough to teach 50% of the strands (physical sciences – physics and chemistry specialisation) and another 46% were specialised to teach only 25% of the strands (life sciences – zoology and botany specialisation).

This affects the HoD’s capacity to provide effective instructional leadership in the whole subject and all the subject strands. More than half of the teacher respondents (78.5%) did not have physical sciences teaching experience, which would have enabled them to teach 50% of the syllabus. This implies that they would have needed plenty of support in teaching those strands. These teachers are likely to rely on the senior teacher or the HoD in order to teach these strands effectively and confidently. This reliance might have resulted in the teacher

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respondents rating senior teachers in the subject as being the most helpful person (37.7%).

A senior teacher is a specialist in the subject who may not be formally appointed to a particular position in the school and most of the time would lead the subject under the supervision of the HoD. The presence of senior teachers allows distributed leadership to be enacted where necessary. In some schools, the HoD allocates the subjects to the senior teachers, and in some cases, the teachers’ own agency (Sherer, 2008) and professional credibility (Stein & Nelson, 2003) lead them to practice as a senior teacher. The challenge of departments being a group of subjects could be addressed by recognising senior teachers and allocating them to provide instructional leadership in order to achieve learner outcomes.

The last HoD-capacity challenge is the availability of time in order to provide the much-needed instructional leadership. Most of the HoD respondents’ time is spent on teaching and doing administrative work. Administrative duties outweigh curriculum management and instructional leadership (Collier et al., 2002). HoDs are challenged by the urgency to balance the competing responsibilities of managing the department, teaching, and enacting instructional leadership (Feeney, 2009; Zepeda & Kruskamp, 2007) without receiving any release time for these responsibilities. They often have to find time outside working hours to fulfil some of the responsibilities. 96% of HoD respondents indicated that they spend most of their time teaching and have no time to help other teachers teach better or to observe what they do in class in order to support them whereas only 85% of their time as stipulated by the department should be spent on teaching and preparing to teach.

HoD respondents seemed to know what was expected of them, even if they did not practise it. The views of the teacher respondents in terms of what the HoDs say they do seem to differ. This is evident in the subject meeting agenda items; there was no alignment in terms of the frequency of what is discussed. These capacity challenges are not necessarily unique to HoD research or to South Africa, but they can be seen in other countries that are yet to adopt the distributive leadership style.

6. Conclusion Natural sciences HoDs had either a physical sciences qualification or an life sciences specialisation. When the HoD possesses a physical sciences qualification, this implies that their expertise lies in 50% of the natural sciences syllabus, whereas the HOD with a life sciences specialisation may only be comfortable with 25% of the syllabus. This affects the support that the HoD can provide to the teachers. The survey also showed that teachers may not know the subject demands and expectations beyond Grade 9 and may not know the challenges in physical sciences that learners might have. If the HoDs themselves have capacity challenges and cannot leverage the senior teacher opportunity, the quality of instruction may be compromised. The participating HoDs in this study were therefore only doing their curriculum managerial duties instead of providing instructional leadership. The specialisation shortcomings might have led to a lack

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of subject teacher professional development and a lack of willingness to model best practice in terms of demo lessons and common planning. The majority of the HoD respondents had qualifications that limit their ability to support and develop teachers within natural sciences.

What is unique about these findings is the subject-specific demands of natural sciences and how schools have adapted their systems to accommodate a complex subject such as natural sciences in their own contexts. The HoD’s capacity is compromised because they do not teach the subject and therefore do not know what is going on in natural sciences classrooms. HoDs rarely coordinate or provide professional development or even discuss it at meetings, which compromises their interaction with the teachers and them being seen as professional leaders in the subject. In addition, HoD capacity is highly affected by the lack of release time, because most of the HoD respondents indicated that they spend most of their time teaching and doing administrative work.

Recommendations We recommend that HoDs receive more focused subject-specific training in the natural sciences subdisciplines, especially the physical sciences strand. It is envisaged that HoD capacity can further be improved by allocating release time from teaching duties in order to attend to some instructional leadership activities.

Where schools still have the opportunity to appoint science HoDs, it is recommended that they consider an HoD for junior secondary science that is separate from the senior secondary science. This is so that senior secondary issues and urgency to provide matric results do not overshadow junior secondary issues.

Furthermore, we recommend the need to re-examine the structures and functions within science departments to enhance the potential for much stronger instructional leadership by the appointed HoDs. Since HoD positions cannot be reversed, it is recommended that appointing senior/lead/master teachers be encouraged to address the instructional leadership deficit, especially for natural sciences teachers.

Limitations In this paper, we only reported on the survey data that were collected in 77 schools as part of a bigger study on the instructional leadership of middle management.

We did not report on the follow-up interviews and observational data that were collected from the schools.

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