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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.20 No.11

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 20, No. 11 (November 2021) Print version: 1694-2493 Online version: 1694-2116

IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 20, No. 11

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the fields of learning, teaching and educational research.

Aims and Objectives The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators, teachers, trainers, academicians, scientists and researchers from over the world to present the results of their research activities in the following fields: innovative methodologies in learning, teaching and assessment; multimedia in digital learning; e-learning; m-learning; e-education; knowledge management; infrastructure support for online learning; virtual learning environments; open education; ICT and education; digital classrooms; blended learning; social networks and education; etutoring: learning management systems; educational portals, classroom management issues, educational case studies, etc.

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Foreword We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research. The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal committed to publishing high-quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website http://www.ijlter.org. We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board and the reviewers for accepting only high quality articles in this issue. We seize this opportunity to thank them for their great collaboration. The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the world. Each paper is reviewed by at least two blind reviewers. We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal with this issue.

Editors of the November 2021 Issue

VOLUME 20

NUMBER 11

November 2021

Table of Contents Turning Windows into Mirrors: Digital Stories as a Teaching Strategy to Explore the Apprenticeship of Observation in Pre-Service Teachers .................................................................................................................................... 1 Carolina S. Botha Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Online Teaching during COVID-19 Pandemic in Qatari Governmental Schools ......... 17 Amani M. Allouh, Saba M. Qadhi, Mahmood A. Hasan, Xiangyun Du The Motivations and Barriers of Teachers’ Professional Development Activities during the Movement Control Order (MCO) – A Preliminary Insight ............................................................................................................................... 42 Asraf Hadzwan Ahmad Safian, Anidah Robani, Muliati Sedek Language Learners’ Willingness to Communicate and Speaking Anxiety in Online versus Face-to-Face Learning Contexts.................................................................................................................................................................................. 57 Nada Alqarni Teacher Perspectives on the Impact of the Cyber Press on the Development of Religious Knowledge among Hearing-Impaired Students ................................................................................................................................................. 78 Ihsan Ghadivan Ali Assaree, Ibrahim Khalaf Suleiman Al-Khalidi Engaging Pre-Service and In-Service Teachers in Online Mathematics Teaching and Learning: Problems and Possibilities ............................................................................................................................................................................ 96 Roland G. Pourdavood, Xuan Song Development of a Problem-Based Learning Management System-Supported Smartphone (PBLMS3) Application Using the ADDIE Model to Improve Digital Literacy ................................................................................................... 115 Rahmat Rizal, Dadi Rusdiana, Wawan Setiawan, Parsaoran Siahaan Character Education in the Pandemic Era: A Religious Ethical Learning Model through Islamic Education ....... 132 Nadri Taja, Encep Syarief Nurdin, Aceng Kosasih, Edi Suresman, Tedi Supriyadi Factors Associated with Student Enrollment, Completion, and Dropout of Massive Open Online Courses in the Sultanate of Oman .............................................................................................................................................................. 154 Vinu Sherimon, P. C. Sherimon, Leena Francis, Disha Devassy, Teresa K. George The Impact of Teacher Feedback Via Google Doc in L2 Learners’ Writing ................................................................ 170 Mohammed Abdullah Alharbi, Abdulrahman Alqefari Factors Inducing Literature Anxiety for Students Studying Literature in English .................................................... 195 Agnes Wei Lin Liau, George Boon Sai Teoh Effectiveness of the Flipped Classroom Strategy in Teaching Qur’an Recitation Skills and Attitude Towards It among First Grade Students in Saudi Arabia.................................................................................................................. 215 Ali Tared Aldossari, Munirah Saud Alhamam

“Let Me Enjoy Teaching” Improving Academic Quality Assurance Practices to Attain Teaching Excellence: Case Study of Selected Private Higher Education Institutions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ..................................... 237 Randa Hariri Toward an Early Start for Head Start Children: Evidence from a Literacy Enrichment Starting at Age Three ..... 255 Haiyan Zhang Fusing the Jigsaw Method and Microsoft Teams: A Promising Online Pedagogy .................................................... 272 Malissa Maria Mahmud, Shiau Foong Wong The Effects of Media Literacy-Based Activities on Writing Skills in the EFL Classroom .......................................... 288 Ji-Hyun Lee Effectiveness of Gender Education in Ukraine as the Implementation of the Principle of Gender Parity ............. 306 Olga Shcholokova, Olena Karpenko, Zhanna Petrochko, Vira Kuzmenko, Tetyana Holubenko Pre-Service Teachers’ Computer Self-Efficacy and the Use of Computers ................................................................. 325 Admire Chibisa, Mswazi Gladson Tshabalala, Mncedisi Christian Maphalala Assessing for Learning: Teacher Training in Practice Involving 14 Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) Students................................................................................................................................................................................ 346 Elize (E. C.) Du Plessis Predictors of Behavioural Intentions of Teachers to Adopt and Use Information and Communication Technologies in Secondary Schools in Zimbabwe .......................................................................................................... 366 Norman Rudhumbu, Elizabeth Du Plessis, Patience Kelebogile Mudau “I Teach the way I believe”: EFL Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs in Technology Integration and its Relationship to Students’ Motivation and Engagement in the COVID 19 Pandemic Year .................................................................. 387 Russell D’ Souza, Jayashree Premkumar Shet, Joel Alanya-Beltran, Korakod Tongkachok, Geena Hipolito-Pingol, Mohamed Aboobucker Mohamed Sameem Improving Students’ Critical Thinking through Oral Questioning in Mathematics Teaching ................................. 407 Muhammad Sofwan Mahmud, Wan Ahmad Munsif Wan Pa, Mohd Syazwan Zainal, Nadia Fasha Mohd Drus The Autonomy of Indonesian EFL Students: A Mixed Method Investigation ........................................................... 422 M. Melvina, Nenden Sri Lengkanawati, Yanty Wirza The Use of Critical Thinking Activities through Workshops to improve EFL Learners' Speaking Skills ............... 444 Eliana Pinza-Tapia, Vanessa Toro, Karina Salcedo-Viteri, Fabian Paredes Recommendations to Improve the Usability of Mobile Learning for Preschool Teachers in Africa: A Systematic Scoping Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 461 Monique De Wit, Nicola Ann Plastow Enhancing Virtual Learning during the Crisis of COVID-19 Lockdown - A Case Study of a Higher Education Institution in Maldives ....................................................................................................................................................... 476 Mariyam Shareefa, Mohamed Muneez, Aaidha Hammad, Mariyam Shihama Do EFL Teachers Reduce the Reading Gap in Qatar? A Study of Strategy Instruction in Government Schools ... 494 Wafaa H. M. Morsy, Michael H. Romanowski, Xiangyun Du

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 1-16, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.1 Received Aug 25, 2021; Revised Nov 04, 2021; Accepted Nov 18, 2021

Turning Windows into Mirrors: Digital Stories as a Teaching Strategy to Explore the Apprenticeship of Observation in Pre-Service Teachers Carolina S. Botha COMBER, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1693-5575

Abstract. This article shares the critical reflections of a teacher educator who utilised digital stories as a teaching strategy in a professional development module for final-year pre-service teachers. Action research, through a participatory narrative inquiry approach, was employed, and data were gathered from digital stories, scripts, and reflective essays. The findings suggest that a platform was created for students to collaboratively share their perceptions, beliefs, and memories regarding teaching as a profession and to reflect on the impact that this lived experience had on their developing professional identity and ideas of good practice. Suggestions are made for recognising autobiographical stories as essential to all facets of teacher education and for acknowledging the influence of the apprenticeship of observation on individual pre-service teachers and on teacher-training programme curriculums. Keywords: apprenticeship of observation; digital stories; narrative inquiry; pre-service teachers; professional identity

1. Introduction Regardless of the specific motivation individuals may have for initially deciding to study teaching, they will be confronted with a significant transition once they enter tertiary education and, subsequently, the teaching career. As early as 1975, Dan Lortie, in his apprenticeship of observation, postulated that students did not enter tertiary studies as blank slates, but instead came with a set of predetermined ideas about good practice in teaching that had a profound influence on their developing professional identity (Lortie, 1975). In 2009, Palmer et al. (2009) speculated that these perceptions and experiences that students had before they entered university might not receive the adequate academic scrutiny that they deserved and needed.

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

In traditional lecture halls, students are often required to only look through windows, as they are often only confronted with the lenses of the epistemological and ontological view of the lecturer or the institution instead of being empowered to, through critical thinking and reflective practice, turn those windows into mirrors. This article reflects on a teaching strategy where space was created, through digital storytelling, for final-year pre-service teachers to explore the abovementioned aspects by unpacking their lived experience and memories that influenced their career choice and the subsequent conceptualisation of their professional identity (Gholami et al., 2021). Stories are an effective and emotional tool to create context and to explain, understand, and share phenomena and emotions. It is a way of seeking meaning and making sense of experiences, and a positive way of creating identity. Since Schön (1983) advocated the significance of reflection for learning, many approaches have been utilised to explore teacher experience and practice and to offer a platform for the voices of teachers to be heard (Botha, 2017). Freire’s (1970) theory of critical pedagogy postulates that a person’s lived experience should be the foundation for learning. This paper is grounded in the notion that autobiographical experience, memories, and life history should be recognised as essential to all facets of teacher education and that these stories have the power to influence their professional identity as future praxis. Lambert (2010, p. 10) comments that “finding and clarifying stories helps people to understand the context of their lives”. This process of selfreflection helps one “move from an awareness of ‘I am’ to a deeper awareness of ‘I have been … I am becoming … I am … and I will be …’” (Lambert, 2010, p. 10). In line with the recommendation of Dwyer et al. (2017) and Eichsteller (2019), I choose to use the term “narrative inquiry” instead of “storytelling” when referring to the unpacking of these experiences. As rationalisation, Dwyer et al. (2017) emphasise Aristotle’s use of narrative as the natural framework for representing the world of action. Narratives provide explanations of everyday sense making through stories. Within this framework, this paper, therefore, utilises digital storytelling as a form of participatory narrative inquiry to explore the apprenticeship of observation in pre-service teachers.

2. Evidence and theories overview 2.1 The apprenticeship of observation Together with constructivist thinkers such as Piaget (1970), Lortie (1975) and Vygotsky (1978) have explored the powerful influence that prior learning and previous experiences can have on the perceptions and experiences of pre-service teachers. The notion of the apprenticeship of observation refers to the lasting influence of the years that students spent as observers as learners in schools where they formed an idea of what they thought good teaching practice was, based on what they saw their teachers doing (Lortie, 1975). These pre-conceived notions are largely one-dimensional, imaginary, unexamined, and remarkably resistant to change and do not encompass the true complexity of teaching (Botha, 2020; Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; Mewborn & Tyminski, 2006; Reyneke &

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Botha, 2019). Lortie (1975) warns that by only seeing what teachers do in class and not having any insight into their thinking, planning, and pedagogical decision making, pre-service teachers will most probably never connect teaching objectives and teacher actions. They may not realise that teachers are constantly making pedagogical choices between different teaching strategies or considering the various types of knowledge, skills, and values they have to convey during a lesson. In addition, this apprenticeship of observation has an impact on and contributes to the conceptualisation of the already developing professional identity of a preservice teacher. In light of this, teacher educators may seek to provide opportunities for individual deconstruction and the unpacking of these perceptions instead of avoiding the acknowledgement of the presence of this apprenticeship in the lives of their students (Botha, 2020; Darling-Hammond, 2006). Digital stories, through the lens of participatory narrative inquiry, provide a suitable vehicle to explore these autobiographical memories of students to elicit the impact that this apprenticeship could have on their developing professional identity. 2.2 Digital stories Digital life stories are grounded in critical pedagogy (Freire, 1970) and the social learning theory (Bandura, 2001), which develops the idea of modelling and selfmodelling. Such stories, according to Kim and Li (2020, p. 1), are three- to sixminute video vignettes through which students can “engage in critical reflection about their experiences, participate actively in the learning process, and give voice to their identities”. In such videos, a first-person voiceover is used with selected visual material that has been sourced specifically to address a particular theme. Creating these stories inevitably becomes an emotive experience. Additional advantages of these stories over traditional storytelling comprise the option of including emotional and affective content through enhanced creativity and the freedom to use one’s imagination, involve personal motivation, and offer opportunities for collaboration (Fleer, 2018; Lambert, 2010; Robin, 2008; Yocom et al., 2020). Further benefits identified in the literature include the user’s development of personal and professional identity (Fleer, 2018; Kim & Li, 2020), the enhancement of academic skills (Marais, 2021), such as digital searching or oral and writing, and its service as a transformative tool for a variety of contexts (Dahlström & Damber, 2020; Kearney, 2011). Digital stories are often interdisciplinary and participatory (Robin, 2008) and have the potential to be a catalyst for great power and personal growth (Kim & Li, 2020). This strategy is, therefore, a deliberate effort to combine technological applications with predetermined pedagogical approaches. This may include using embodied pedagogies on a real-life platform for authentic stories that portrays not only ownership of the story but also a reflection on past and future motivation and behaviour. 2.3 Participatory narrative inquiry Clandinin and Rosiek (2007) build on the work of Dewey when they advocate a pragmatic ontology of experiences where all of an individual’s experiences grow from other experiences that are located somewhere on the continuum of that

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person’s past, present, or future. In addition, Connelly and Clandinin (2006, p. 477) highlight the following: [P]eople shape their daily lives by stories of who they and others are and as they interpret their past in terms of these stories. Story, in the current idiom, is a portal through which a person enters the world and by which their experience of the world is interpreted and made personally meaningful. Such a participatory paradigm requires a focus on critical subjectivity where knowledge is created through critical self-reflection and reflexive dialogue (Wood, 2020). This promotes the acceptance of multiple ways of knowing, multiple realities, and an openness to alternative ways of understanding the world and contexts people live in. In addition, it creates space for narrative inquiry as a valid methodology. Narrative inquiry thus presents a suitable vehicle for an action research approach to exploring the stories and lived experience of pre-service teachers (Ding & Curtis, 2020). Lived experience and experiences of a specific personal and social context are explored (interaction) whilst transcending boundaries of past, present, and future (continuity). According to Bell (2002), researchers should acknowledge that stories do not exist in a vacuum but are constantly restructured and retold as new events unfold and new interpretations of older events become available. When storytelling, in this case digital storytelling, is considered as a way of participatory narrative inquiry, the content of and reflection on the story become more important than the making and telling of the story. The hidden meanings are explored, and both the storyteller (pre-service teacher) and the listener (researcher) are invited to critically reflect on their own experience and the influence of this story on their conceptualised reality. In the context of this study, digital stories are used to explore the impact of the apprenticeship of observation and the subsequent development of the professional identity of pre-service teachers. The principles of narrative inquiry were employed to answer the following research question that guided the study: How can digital storytelling be used as a participatory tool to explore the developing professional identity of pre-service teachers?

3. Methodology The original intent of this digital story assignment was to explore the life stories and lived experience of participants as part of an academic module in a preservice teacher education programme. It soon became clear that there was much to be learnt from this endeavour, and the subsequent aim became to analyse these stories as a means of exploring the impact of the apprenticeship of observation on the creation of these stories. In addition, I realised that there was an opportunity to explore the value of these stories in the development of the professional identity of these pre-service teachers. As this was an activity that span several weeks, had several components, and fostered self-reflection with the goal of personal and social transformation, an action research approach was used for the study. In the following section, the methodology used during this endeavour will be unpacked by introducing the participants (the storytellers), exploring the ethics of care with

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which this research was undertaken, and sharing the process of data gathering and analysis. 3.1 The storytellers The participants in the study were enrolled for an eight-credit, 12-week teaching methodology module in a pre-service teaching programme at a university in South Africa. This second-semester module is presented in the fourth and thus final year of the pre-graduate programme, and the focus of the module is the culmination of modules scaffolding professional development. The students were, therefore, expected to display the knowledge, skills, and values regarding the development of their professional identity throughout their pre-service teaching programme and teaching practice experiences at schools. The demographic composition of the students was very diverse in terms of gender, language, and race. The cohort of the study consisted of 44 students, of which 74% were female and 26% male, and 65% spoke Afrikaans and 35% English. Of the 44 students, 34 were white, five coloured, and five black. 3.2 An ethics of care Sharing stories and experiences can be a very personal experience, and it is, therefore, crucial that a culture and a relationship of trust and mutual respect exist between the teacher educator and the students before such an activity is undertaken. Connelly and Clandinin (2006) point out that in a narrative inquiry endeavour, negotiation about respect, mutuality, and openness to include multiple voices is essential. Building a relationship and creating rapport are essential parts of preparing for an action research endeavour. In an effort to create trust and a feeling of safety for the students to share their stories, I introduced the assignment by presenting my own digital story about the development of my professional identity as a teacher and, subsequently, as a teacher educator. I was honest and shared both the joys and the struggles I had experienced in my career thus far. I acknowledged my own apprenticeship of observation and admitted that I regarded it as both a joy and a burden that I possibly played a role in the forming of the apprenticeship of observations of my students. Sharing my own story in the format expected for the assignment served as an opportunity not only to create a safe space but also to motivate the students to share their own lived experience, expectations, and perceptions regarding teaching as a career. It also served to address power imbalances in the room. Ethical approval for this study was obtained through the appropriate institutional channels. At the onset of the assignment, all students enrolled for the module were invited to provide informed consent should they agree to their stories being shared on the online learning platform of the university. In this way, it would be also available for other students in the class to view. Two students opted not to provide such consent. Subsequently, at the end of the semester, after grading and the marks had been released, the students were also requested to provide informed consent for their digital stories and other data resulting from this assignment to be used in the study and possible future presentations. All of the

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students provided their consent, including the two students who had not agreed to their stories being shared on the electronic platform. As a gesture of respect, I undertook not to use any of the material they had created in this paper. To guarantee anonymity, the students were offered the option of choosing pseudonyms for this paper. 3.3 The process The assignment reported on in this paper was designed as a six-week activity making up the largest part of the formative assessment for the module. Students were expected to submit three separate components over the allotted time. First, a script for the envisioned digital story was submitted. After submitting the digital story and taking part in class discussions, the students submitted a reflective essay on their experience. The process was divided into four phases. These phases can be regarded as cycles in a participatory action research design. As part of a complete assignment document, the students were given the following theme for their digital story: Becoming a teacher Look back, look inward, or look forward … Reflect on the following questions and use them as inspiration for your digital story. You can choose to address only one, or more, of these issues. Which people, events, and factors led to your decision to enrol for a teaching qualification? Which teachers or other people in your life had an influence on your career choice? How was your own experience of being a learner, and how did it influence the type of teacher that you are going to be? What are the greatest lessons that you have learnt through your years as a BEd student? How do you experience being a BEd student? Are you still sure that you want to become a teacher? Who or what has influenced your point of view? Which factors do you currently regard as influential in the development of your professional identity? What are your fears and concerns about your future as a teacher? Which aspects of professional development do you still need to give attention to before you will feel prepared to enter a full-time teaching position? 3.3.1 Cycle 1: Conceptualisation During the first cycle, the students were tasked with only conceptualising the script of their digital story that could ultimately be used as a voiceover for their story. As a lecturer-researcher, I was cognisant of the danger of letting students get caught up in the excitement of using new technology and focusing more on the process of creating the digital story than on the content of the story. Therefore, by writing a script of 250 words as a first submission, the students were forced to concentrate their efforts on examining their own perceptions, expectations, and experiences. After the submission of the scripts, I provided detailed individual feedback to each student, including prompting questions to foster more critical thinking and self-reflection. The students then had the opportunity to consider the feedback

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and improve their scripts, after which they started the process of creating their digital stories. I also invited the students to a face-to-face conversation, should they want to discuss any matters relating to their script or my comments. 3.3.2 Cycle 2: Creation The assignment allowed the students the freedom to design the structure and content of the story to allow them to be creative and fully represent themselves in the final product. The only prerequisites were a time limit of three to five minutes and a 250-word limit on the script for the voiceover. They were given the option of using a variety of free software, such as PowerPoint with a voiceover, Animoto, MovieMaker, Videoscribe, or Powtoons. Relevant training was provided through a list of websites providing information and online facilitators. The completed digital stories were submitted via the online learning platform of the university. In as much as I dislike quantifying effort and performance, the assignments had to be graded with an analytical rubric, where different levels of achievement were awarded to a variety of assessment criteria. An analytical rubric was chosen over a holistic rubric because it tends to provide more detailed feedback, allows for consistent grading, and gave me the option of including additional comments that provided feedback on a much more personal and detailed level. 3.3.3 Cycle 3: Sharing After grading, a viewing party, with soda and popcorn, was held during two classes, where the students viewed the digital stories of their peers. Before the viewing, we collaboratively negotiated house rules that, firstly, respected the privacy of the students and, secondly, fostered a caring environment where the students felt safe to share their work. After every few stories, I facilitated a conversation that started with positive feedback and appreciation for both the story and the effort that went into the making of the digital story. 3.3.4 Cycle 4: Reflecting In the final cycle of the assignment, the students were tasked with writing a reflective essay in which they were invited to critically reflect on their expectations and experiences and evaluate the influence of the assignment on the conceptualisation of their developing professional identity. The reflective essays were not graded, as I did not want to assign a numeric value to this very personal form of feedback. I did, however, read each reflection and returned a personal thank-you note that validated their effort and shared how their stories had touched me and influenced my own thinking and practice. 3.4 Data analysis Scripts, digital stories, rubrics, reflective narratives, observations, and notes of class discussions were used as sources of data to enhance the validity and reliability of the study. A three-phase inductive approach, consisting of preparing, organising, and reporting, was followed to analyse the data. The preparation involved a decision to use words and sentences as the unit of analysis. I attempted to make sense of the data by reading several times through all the data and attempting to identify themes. Organising the data was initiated through open coding, and then the data were analysed using content analysis, one of the qualitative research techniques.

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To ensure justice, beneficence, and respect, I shared my findings and subsequent themes with the students via a forum discussion on the online learning platform. They were invited to do member checking and contribute to the process of ensuring the validity of the data. This was valuable to assure outcome validity (in acknowledging unexpected outcomes), dialogic validity (to ensure that all of the participants felt that their voices were heard and their contribution acknowledged), democratic validity (in that we followed a collaborative process throughout the study), and process validity (that the core principles of action research were adhered to). During the conceptualisation of this paper, I expected to use several excerpts from various stories to illustrate the themes that had been identified. But I eventually made the decision to share the full scripts of four students instead of sharing isolated excerpts from various students’ work. This is intended to facilitate a more detailed narrative and thereby capture the context and emotion shared in their digital stories. In addition, such an approach provides a more lifelike and authentic view of the data and invites the reader into the holistic experience of individuals. The digital stories of Alicia, Mary, Rene, and Pieter (pseudonyms) are shared in the next section. Their reflective narratives were also utilised in the data shared in this study.

4. Sharing in some stories Through thematic analysis, the following themes of the digital stories and in other supporting data sources were identified: • Academic excellence • Empathetic caring • Tradition • Empowering mentorship 4.1 Academic excellence: Alicia’s story of being inspired When I was at school, I had teachers who were not very, how shall I put it, enthusiastic about their subjects. They would rather sit behind their desk while they left us to our own devices. I do not want to be that type of teacher. I choose to remember the teachers who inspired me and who had a great influence on my life. My Hospitality Studies teacher inspired me to become a teacher. In her classes I found my passion. She was always prepared and ready to give advice. Once I started my teaching studies, she was the mentor for my first teaching practice. She really took me under her wing and showed me the other side of being a teacher. I was astounded at her subject knowledge. It was so much more than what I realised when I was a learner in her class. I want to be that type of teacher. A subject specialist. A lifelong learner. I want to give them a reason to work hard at academics. I think academic teaching is the primary job of a teacher and we have a responsibility to foster a love for learning in children. We must set the example of academic excellence. Like my Hospitality Studies teacher did.

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4.2 Empathetic caring: Mary’s story of overcoming being bullied I was bullied at school. I felt alone, no one wanted to help me. My life was useless. They called me names and said there’s nothing I can do about it … if I do, they will tell everybody I am the school slut. How could you ruin someone’s life like that? People just kept saying “Be the strong one …”, “Be happy, it’s not the end of the world.” How can you say this to a child? My world is falling apart, and you DON’T even see it! It felt like the whole school was against me. At break time I would sit in the classroom, just to avoid the people. One day a teacher came to me and said she was worried. That day she adopted me and started treating me like her own daughter. Made me feel self-worth. She never gave up on me. I was more at peace because I knew someone at school was looking after me. Because of that one teacher, the one person who saw me as me, and who saw that I did not fit in, I wanted to become the best teacher that I could be. For the children like me, the losers, the outsiders. To remind them that there is a plan for each and every one of them. I am looking forward to becoming a teacher, to journey with the misunderstood children until they also find a reason to live. I will succeed! 4.3 Tradition: Rene’s story of filling big shoes I come from a family of teachers. My grandfather was a school principal. My mother and father are both still teachers. I did not have much of a choice for my career. It almost feels like I have been teaching my dolls since I was in nappies myself. I am very proud of my family history. Although it sometimes feel[s] as if my identity has been imprinted on me without giving me the choice to choose another path. I have big shoes to fill. I, however, admit that my first opportunities to stand in front of a class during teaching practice have given me a new founded respect for this family tradition. They made it look so easy. I am quickly learning that it is not. I never realised how much work goes into being a teacher. I thought all that you needed was a love for children and a desire to change lives. Teaching practice taught me that being a teacher is very time-consuming. Don’t think your day is over when the school bell rings. I never thought about when marking happened, and I never realised how much planning one had to do before a lesson. This was indeed an eye-opener! So I am very grateful for the shoulders of giants that I can stand on. I know they will be there to guide me when my time comes. 4.4 Empowering mentorship: Pieter’s story of overcoming adversity I had to work very hard while I was at school. I have a learning disability. But I received so much extra support and encouragement from my teachers. I thought that I would never be able to become a teacher myself, I was not meant to go to university. But my rugby coach instilled faith in

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myself that was not rooted in marks on a report card. He was there to support me when I was sad about a poor report card or overjoyed after scoring a winning try. He taught me that a great teacher did more than teach academics, he invested in his learners. He saw past their adversities and embraced their potential. He helped them to believe in themselves. I struggled with the transition of moving between school and university. It took me a few years longer than my peers to get it done. I failed some subjects along the way, but I will eventually be graduating at the end of this year. I found my feet and learnt the tricks of the trade. I want to start teaching to be a mentor to children like me, who felt dumb and disabled and like a disappointment. I want to help them see that anything is possible, if they just believe and work hard enough.

5. Discussion 5.1 A snapshot of identity in time I found great joy in watching the variety of digital stories with my students. The true privilege and value of participatory work were, however, the facilitation of the reflective discourses and the subsequent identification of four very strong themes emerging from their efforts. I found pleasure in hearing students collaboratively deconstructing their thought processes and sharing in the emotions behind the stories. In her reflective essay, Rene linked her experience to that of her peers and the stories she had learnt from them: I have always felt very emotional when I heard the reasons people was inspired to become teachers. In my situation I never had that ‘wow’ moment. It was a given. But for the first time I really understand how to translate my own feelings and thoughts into being a good teacher. It was almost like being invited into someone’s home after initially only having been allowed to look in through a window. The digital stories portrayed the outside façade of the house, but the discourse and reflective essays invited the reader in. Mary’s courage to share her story of being bullied and marginalised created a platform for other students to share their difficult stories as well. Having courageous conversations about what had happened in their past or even what they were going through at that very moment contributed to the group of students having empathy for one another and committing to an awareness of such issues in their future careers. This added depth and insight to the reflective essays that were written after those conversations during the viewing parties. Although the themes were visible in almost all of the stories, comparing and contrasting the content of class discussions and reflective essays also provided valuable insight. It was interesting to note, in the tradition of narrative inquiry, that the continuity of time was prominent. Almost all of the stories had a component of reflection on the influence of the past on their decision to study teaching. They also included a realistic component of the present time, indicating that they all had more to learn and realised that they still needed more preparation to become the great teachers they envisioned to be in their future. Pieter’s story is

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a good example of the influence of time on his story of becoming a teacher. In his reflective essay, he explains: I never thought I would look back to my difficulties at school and be grateful for what it has taught me. Making this digital story helped me to see that my past does still have an influence on my future, but in a good way, and that I have the power to dictate the terms of that influence on my future. However, I had to ask myself how critical these reflections on past experiences were. Were the students, in the script of their digital stories, merely sharing experiences from the past, or were they possibly acknowledging the influence of the apprenticeship of observation on their perceptions of what teachers did on a daily basis? This study begs the question of whether the students might have lived and relived these stories for years, but maybe then, for the first time, they might really understand the true impact of the story on not only their career choice but also the development of their professional identity. Could the class discussions and reflective essay support these students’ attempt at linking context and time for professional development? The new meaning that they had made had the potential to transform thinking and empower them. I could clearly see the impact of the apprenticeship of observation on their perception of good teaching practice, personal mentoring, or empowering learners. As the creators of their stories, many of the students recognised that past experiences not only shaped their current practice but also defined their visions of career development grounded in specialised subject knowledge, student mentoring, or a love of learning. The stories also showed that the final-year preservice teachers held particular ideas about teaching and learning that paralleled the practices they themselves had experienced and how they aimed to engage their own learners in a passion for their chosen discipline. The love for teaching that Alicia’s hospitalities studies teacher had instilled in her reminds one of the vital role that teachers play in the holistic development and support of learners. Individual teachers have the power to inspire and instil a passion for learning and teaching that can have a lasting impression on their personality, career, and overall being. After holding the viewing parties and analysing the reflective essays, I was, however, still unclear on whether the ways in which the influence of the apprenticeship of observation was illuminated were intentional or incidental. As both a teacher educator and a researcher, I was not sure whether the deeply ingrained influence of the apprenticeship had truly been deconstructed through the process. Was there a deliberate decision and effort to overcome this influence, or might the students now only be more aware of the existence of this apprenticeship? Table 1, through reference to the digital stories and reflective essays of the students whose stories are shared in this paper, explores the challenges that the apprenticeship of observation possibly still poses for preservice teachers.

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5.2 Exposing the challenges of the apprenticeship of observation Table 1: Challenges posed by the apprenticeship of observation Challenges posed by the apprenticeship of observation Perceptions of teaching are based on only their own preferences, needs, and experiences

Concept of good and bad practice is limited to that which they had seen when they were in school

Only obtain a partial view of the complexity of teaching; students are not aware of the thought processes involved in the planning, preparation, and teaching of lessons Underestimate the administrative load

Underestimate the different roles teachers play

Implication for the development of professional identity and teaching practice Pre-service teachers may not have an extensive understanding of teaching strategies and interventions for children who learn in different ways (learning styles, challenges, etc.) than they do. They may teach in ways that work for themselves instead of what other individuals may need. Without first-hand experience of alternative teaching approaches, pre-service teachers may lack the knowledge and the will to move beyond the models they have experienced, which are very often teachercentred. Differentiation techniques by which teachers engage learners in different activities or assignments based on students’ unique interests, learner preferences, or needs are obscured in the apprenticeship of observation. Pre-service teachers oversee these complexities during teaching practice when they are just attempting to cope. As learners, and even as preservice teachers, students only receive graded papers without being aware of the time it takes to grade these and the great administrative burden that is continuously placed on teachers. Pre-service teachers are not always aware of the various roles that teachers play. They often think that the subject specialist, assessor, and

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Evidence of this challenge from digital stories or reflective essays

“This assignment taught me that not all learners who struggle will have the same needs that I did.” (Mary) “I have to learn that a good teacher cannot teach all learners in the same way. I never realised that when I was experiencing my own learning difficulties.” (Pieter)

“I now only realise that what I considered good teaching might not necessarily have been that good. I now see how teacher-centred my teachers at school were and I might have more innovative ways to teach the same material.” (Alicia)

“I thought I knew what being a teacher encompassed. But it took teaching practice and this assignment to realise that I might have romanticised the career. I grew up amongst teachers but I didn’t really have an idea how hard they worked.” (Rene)

“As a child you never wonder when that teacher marked your test. As a student teacher I suddenly realised that these things happened at night and at a great cost to the personal live and family of a teacher.” (Alicia)

“I saw the job of a teacher as teaching, coaching sport and sometimes helping a child in need. I never knew about other tasks like being an agent of change in the community, managing

pastoral role are the only roles of the teacher. Underestimate the emotional toll of teaching

Underestimate the gap between theory and practice

Pre-service teachers are often only exposed to academic interaction with learners and are not exposed to the personal challenges teachers may experience. Many pre-service teachers reported that they expected that teaching would be as teaching practice, and in their observation, beginner teachers were doing just as well as veteran, experienced teachers. It does, however, seem that during times of stress, they fall back on apprenticeship instead of what they learnt at university.

diversity and inclusivity, and addressing democracy and other political issues.” (Mary) “Neither of my parents ever showed the stress of their job. When they were at home, they were there for me. I now only respect them even more.” (Rene)

“I thought you just show up and everything falls into place. I suspect that I will have a lot of challenges to overcome when I start teaching next year. What if university has not taught me enough? I can’t rely on what I thought I knew.” (Alicia) “I spend a lot of time planning lessons. But the moment I start struggling with classroom discipline or things start going wrong, I forget all the cool teaching strategies I learnt at university and I grab a textbook. Because experience tells me that is what works.” (Pieter)

6. Turning the window into a mirror I experienced the joy of joining my students to look through the windows of their digital stories and then had the privilege to be invited into some homes. A true reflective practitioner, however, will not only observe the new house in which he or she is standing, but will turn that window into a mirror and utilise the opportunity to explore and improve his or her own praxis. Thus, I had to acknowledge the complexities of this assignment and be open to critical reflection and feedback. In this manner, I was also confronted with my own apprenticeship of observation and the role that I played in contributing to the apprenticeship of my students. I had to be willing to deconstruct and disrupt my own perceptions, beliefs, and expectations of teaching. This process also included gaining an acute awareness of addressing issues of diversity and inclusivity in my classes. I had to acknowledge the importance of modelling good practice to the pre-service teachers under my tutelage and critically reflect on my successes and failures in this regard. I was invited to look in the mirror at my own identity, my own story, and my own house and acknowledge the new knowledge I had gained and the meaning I had made through this endeavour. This assignment not only challenged my students to critically unpack their understanding of their identity as teachers and to reevaluate their own epistemological and ontological positioning, but I was challenging myself to do so as well. I had to critically assess the learning from this assignment in my own teaching and learning practice and explore the implications of this for the greater initial teacher education programme.

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7. Implications for practice It is generally accepted that pre-service teachers struggle once they stand in fulltime teaching positions. The data from this study have shown that the influence of the apprenticeship of observation cannot be overlooked. Teacher educators have the responsibility to assess the curriculum of their modules and programmes to invite stories and lived experience into their classrooms. Adopting an action research approach to teaching will not only enhance and develop the scholarship of teaching and learning of the teacher educator but also acknowledge and address the apprenticeship of observation in both the student and the teacher educator. It was clear that there were, in essence, two narratives in each digital story − the overt narrative heard in the voiceover and the hidden message that not even the creator of the story might have been aware of. The reflective essays were valuable in identifying these hidden stories. Teacher educators should be acutely aware of their role as facilitators of such hidden narratives. Apart from facilitating critical thinking skills as a graduate attribute in their students, they also have the responsibility of motivating and guiding students to become reflective practitioners. Narrative inquiry and storytelling allow students the opportunity for reflecting, considering alternative views and possibilities, and engaging in participatory methodologies designed to assist in the process of developing an ethical professional identity and eventually becoming agents of change in their schools and classrooms. When the teaching in university lecture halls is relevant, authentic, and meaningful, pre-service teachers can be exposed to a new apprenticeship that will enable them to provide the same atmosphere in their own classrooms where space is created for diversity, inclusivity, creativity, and individuality of all.

8. Conclusion This endeavour has taught me that by encouraging pre-service teachers to value the stories they are living and the stories they hear, they may become teachers who create conditions that will allow their learners to reflect on their own stories, and by deconstructing the meaning and lived experience they bring, they may cultivate a classroom where personal growth and development are at the fore. This assignment has enhanced my own teaching practice, and I am now cognisant of always attempting to include some of the following outcomes in all my assignments: • Create space for new meaning, new knowledge, and new understanding. • Embrace diversity and inclusivity, and invite individual voices. • Promote self-reflection and critical thinking. • Enhance active learning and focus on alternative ways of teaching. • Foster a sense of transformation and growth. • Develop a sense of urgency for becoming agents of change in the educational landscape. • Continuously conceptualise a professional identity that is built on the foundation of integrity, ethical behaviour, and good practice.

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Through this adventure, I was not only invited to look through a window, but I was also given the opportunity to turn that window into a mirror. I was offered the chance to not only look at the façade of student teachers’ houses through the digital stories they had created, but I could also join in their search for the professional identity that supported their vision of being a teacher. Moreover, I could observe how the window turned into a mirror and invited me to critically reflect on my own identity and practice.

9. References Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1 Bell, J. S. (2002). Narrative inquiry: More than just telling stories. TESOL Quarterly, 36(2), 207-2013. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588331 Botha, C. S. (2017). Using metaphoric body-mapping to encourage reflection on the developing identity of pre-service teachers. South African Journal of Education, 37(3), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v37n3a1377 Botha, C. S. (2020). The impact of the apprenticeship of observation on preservice teachers’ perceptions of teaching. Journal of Education, 81, 50-64. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v37n3a137710.17159/2520-9868/i81a03 Clandinin, D. J., & Rosiek, J. (2007). Mapping a landscape of narrative inquiry: Borderland spaces and tensions. In D. J. Clandinin (Ed.), Handbook of narrative inquiry: Mapping a methodology (pp. 35-75). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452226552.n2 Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (2006). Narrative inquiry: A methodology for studying lived experience. Research studies in Music Education, 27, 44-54. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103x060270010301 Dahlström, H., & Damber, U. (2020). Meanings made in students’ multimodal digital stories: Resources, popular culture and values. Designs for Learning, 12(1), 45-55. https://doi.org/10.16993/dfl.145 Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Constructing 21st-century teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 57(3), 300-314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487105285962 Darling-Hammond, L., & Bransford, J. (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. Jossey-Bass. https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.43-1083 Ding, F., & Curtis, F. (2020). ‘I feel lost and somehow messy’: A narrative inquiry into the identity struggle of a first-year university student. Higher Education Research & Development, 40(6), 1146-1160. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2020.1804333 Dwyer, R., Davis, I. D., & Emerald, E. (2017). Narrative research in practice: Stories from the field. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1579-3 Eichsteller, M. (2019). There is more than one way – A study of mixed analytical methods in biographical narrative research. Contemporary Social Science, 14(3), 447-462. https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2017.1417626 Fleer, M. (2018). Digital animation: New conditions for children’s development in playbased setting. British Journal of Educational Technology, 49(5), 943-958. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12637 Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum. https://doi.org/10.5958/2231458x.2015.00027.5 Gholami, K., Faraji, S., Meijer, P. C., & Tirri, K. (2021). Construction and deconstruction of student teachers’ professional identity: A narrative study. Teaching and Teacher Education, 97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2020.103142

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Kearney, M. (2011). A learning design for student-generated digital storytelling. Learning, Media and Technology, 36(2), 169-188. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2011.553623 Kim, D., & Li, M. (2020). Digital storytelling: Facilitating learning and identity development. Journal of Computers in Education, 8(2), 33-61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-020-00170-9 Lambert, J. (2010). The digital storytelling cookbook. Digital Diner Press. Lortie, D. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.1177/019263657505939422 Marais, E. (2021). A journey through digital storytelling during Covid-19 students preparedness to use technology for learning in the language classroom. Research in Social Sciences and Technology, 6(2), 169-182. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.17 Mewborn, D. S., & Tyminski, A. M. (2006). Lortie’s apprenticeship of observation revisited. For the Learning of Mathematics, 2(3), 30-32. Palmer, M., O’Kane, P., & Owens, M. (2009). Betwixt spaces: Student accounts of turning point experiences in the first-year transition. Studies in Higher Education, 34(1), 3754. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070802601929 Piaget, J. (1970). Genetic epistemology. W. W. Norton. https://doi.org/10.7312/piag91272 Reyneke, E. M., & Botha, C. S. (2019). The professional orientation of first year student teachers in a non-placement work-integrated learning program. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(3), 303-316. Robin, B. (2008). Digital storytelling: A powerful technology tool for the 21st century classroom. Theory into Practice, 47(3), 220-228. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405840802153916 Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Wood, L. (2020). Participatory action learning and action research: Theory, practice and process. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429441318 Yocom, D., Bashaw, C., Price, D., & Cook, M. (2020). Perceptions of digital storytelling in the classroom. Teaching and Learning in Nursing, 15(3), 164-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teln.2020.01.010

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 17-41, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.2 Received Aug 19, 2021; Revised Oct 31, 2021; Accepted Nov 08, 2021

Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Online Teaching during COVID-19 Pandemic in Qatari Governmental Schools Amani M. Allouh Qatar University, Qatar https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8284-4009 Saba M. Qadhi Core Curriculum Program, Qatar University, Qatar https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6087-5683 Mahmood A. Hasan Institutional Research and Analytics Department, Strategy and Development Office, Qatar University, Qatar https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1716-762X Xiangyun Du Education Research Center College of Education, Qatar University, Qatar UNESCO PBL Center, Alborg University, Denmark https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9527-6795 Abstract. This study investigated primary school teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs regarding online teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic and whether it determines any significant differences in self-efficacy levels based on different demographic data. A quantitative and qualitative survey method was employed. The data was collected from primary school teachers in Qatar public schools using a web-based survey that assessed self-efficacy in three areas: Students Engagement, Classroom Management, and Instructional Strategies. Four open-ended questions were included in determining the challenges faced by teachers, coping strategies, and the support needed and received. A total of 514 teachers voluntarily completed the survey. The results showed that elementary school teachers actively reported self-efficacy beliefs in online teaching. T-test and ANOVA analysis revealed significant differences between primary school teachers’ self-efficacy and years of experience in the three fields. However, no significant differences were found between selfefficacy, gender, and age in the area. Results indicated that the more years of experience teachers have, the more self-efficacy they perceive. The open-ended questions’ results showed that unmotivated students were the most frustrating challenge primary teachers faced in online teaching. ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

Therefore, contacting parents was highly prioritized by teachers for coping with this challenge. Besides, professional training was the main support received, but more practical and interactive workshops are still needed. This research can provide educators with insights on implementing technology effectively in their online classrooms and adapting to challenging times to achieve a smooth and effective learning process. Keywords. self-efficacy; online teaching; COVID-19 emergency online teaching; teachers’ self-efficacy

pandemic;

1. Introduction The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic has exposed teachers to the pressures of potential uncertainty. Rapid changes in educational delivery techniques have hampered teachers’ ability to adapt to changing situations (Baloran & Hernan, 2020). Given that the epidemic is far from over, online learning is seen as the best answer for the time being since teachers will need to become proficient and adaptable to this new standard in a pedagogical context. Therefore, educational researchers have repeatedly stressed the importance of teaching efficacy, as it is the key contributor to both students’ and schools’ academic achievement (Hodges et al., 2020). One essential goal of Qatar’s educational reforms is to improve teaching quality to ultimately develop student achievement (Al-Thani & Nasser, 2012). Since all schools aim to offer quality education, it is essential to investigate personal teaching efficacy regarding emergency online teaching (EOT). Research findings have demonstrated that teachers’ effectiveness required for EOT is somewhat different from that demanded by traditional face-to-face instruction (Loeb, 2020). In EOT, mainly when teaching lower grades, it is much more challenging to maintain students’ attention, carry out discussions, progress tracking, and provide student assistance (Hallman, 2020; Hechter & Vermette, 2013). Qatar’s Government Education system is comprised of four school levels: preschool levels (aged 3-5); primary levels (age 6-12, grade 1-6); preparatory (Grade 7-9), and secondary levels (Grade 10-12). The population of teachers in Qatar’s government schools is nearly 12,500 (Planning and Statistics Authority, 2019). Almost half (52%) of Qatar’s government school teachers are primary school teachers (Planning and Statistics Authority, 2019). According to the Qatar Statistical Profile (Planning and Statistics Authority, 2019), there are 6500 primary teachers in Qatar. 516 are male teachers, constituting just 8 percent of the total population, while female teachers account for 5,984 of the targeted population or 92 percent. The primary government school teachers are divided across 122 government schools, with 63 boys’ schools and 59 girls’ schools (Planning and Statistics Authority, 2019). As for the Qatari government schools’ response to COVID- 19, the Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MOEHE) adapted distance learning to efficiently prevent the spread of COVID- 19, ensuring that all learners can continue their education and that their studies are prioritized (MOEHE, 2020).

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Accordingly, teachers had to acquire new skill sets quickly. Additionally, they had to liaise with other educators to shed some light on the accelerated transition from face-to-face teaching to distance learning (Loeb, 2020). In this regard, most existing studies of teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs have mainly focused on the traditional face-to-face classroom context. However, little is known about selfefficacy in emergency online classrooms. This requires research in the online teaching self-efficacy context. Thus, the research aimed to investigate primary teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs related to full-scale online teaching in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the study aimed to determine if there are variations in self-efficacy in relation to variables such as gender, age, and teaching experience.

2. Literature Review The conceptual framework on which this study is based on Bandura’s theory (1993) that describes teacher efficacy as a cognitive mechanism in which persons build perceptions about their ability to succeed at a specified performance level. In a similar sense, a person’s self-efficacy is confidence in their capability to complete particular tasks (Goddard et al., 2004). Goddard et al. (2004) asserted that it is not an evaluative judgment about what has been done; instead, it is a judgment about what can be done. This study identifies teacher self-efficacy as primary governmental school teachers’ perceptions about their abilities to accomplish the professional tasks to facilitate the students’ knowledge development. Based on Bandura’s (1977) theory, four factors affect efficacy beliefs. First, the mastery experiences act as ability indicators. The second factor that affects efficacy beliefs is vicarious experiences that modify efficacy perceptions by communicating qualifications and contrasting them with other people’s achievements (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). A further efficacy impact factor is verbal persuasion, which influences teachers’ self-efficacy by encouraging and supporting their abilities (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Finally, the concluding impact factor is states of physiology, both negative and positive emotions, such as tension/stress and excitement/happiness, that can influence efficacy (TschannenMoran et al., 1998). 2.1 Teacher efficacy As Bandura’s (1977) self-efficacy construct began to spread, educators and researchers observed a significant difference between Rotter’s theory, which focused on effective behavior, and Bandura’s theory, which focused on efficacy beliefs. Irrespective of their differences, both approaches are deemed equivalent (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Rotters’ self-efficacy discusses a person’s perception of the impact of behavior on outcomes, in contrast to the theory of selfefficacy, where Bandura discusses the assumption that a person’s acquired traits can achieve such results (Bandura, 1977). Following both approaches, TschannenMoran et al. (1998) conducted a teacher efficacy model. Within the integrated model, the four critical factors of self-efficacy beliefs are assumed to influence teacher efficacy. Moreover, it is within the social cognitive process, indicating that teacher efficacy beliefs are developed within social parameters.

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Regarding the teacher efficacy model, Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998) recommended that the teacher efficacy measurement assess two central components: analysis of teaching tasks and assessment of personal teaching competency. Teachers primarily analyze the required tasks and then evaluate their teaching competency to judge their efficacy (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). One of the most powerful features of this model is its cyclical nature, as every newly mastered experience influences potential expectations regarding selfefficacy. Higher efficacy expectations lead to better efforts and perseverance, which ultimately leads to improved outcomes. Hence, it can be concluded that better short-term effects contribute to higher long-term efficacy expectations (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Several studies have demonstrated the importance of teachers’ self-efficacy as the main factor of education quality and learning outcomes (Affouneh et al., 2020; Allinder, 1994; Infurna, 2016; Lin & Zheng, 2015; Riggs & Enochs, 1990;). Teachers’ perception of their self-efficacy can affect students’ success (Lin, & Zheng, 2015), as teachers’ self-efficacy affects their decisions in choosing learning activities within the classroom (Sahertian & Soetjipto, 2011). The stronger the belief in selfefficacy, the more successful one’s coping attempts (Bandura & Adams, 1977). Highly officious teachers tackle disruptive situations with the belief and confidence that they will exert power to reduce disruption. They tend to put extra effort into displaying higher organizational and planning skills (Allinder, 1994). In contrast, a low level of teaching efficacy correlates with teachers’ attitudes regarding their ability to positively influence their students and improve their learning skills (Robinia & Anderson, 2010). Less assertive teachers can feel hopeless, avoid complex tasks, and often give up quickly because they do not believe in a successful outcome (Riggs, 1995; Lin & Zheng, 2015). As a result, the lower the teachers’ self-efficacy, the less time they devote to their duties (Wong, 2003). 2.2 Teacher self-efficacy and Online Teaching Extensive studies have examined teachers’ self-efficacy in the face-to-face teaching mode (Alhasni, 2017; Mehdinezhad, 2012; Infurna, 2016; Lumpe et al., 2012; Voris, 2011). Positive results were reported in some studies, such as Voris’ (2011) study carried out on special education teachers in Kentucky, Kim and Kim’s (2010) survey on early childhood teachers’ self-efficacy in South Korea, and Chang et al. (2001) survey on university teachers in Taiwan. However, these studies pose a direct conflict with Wong’s (2003) study, which revealed low selfefficacy levels when undertaking online tasks. Although numerous studies have explored teachers’ self-efficacy, there has been little study on self-efficacy in an online setting. However, in Canada, school and university teachers reported low to intermediate levels of self-efficacy in both educational methods and student interaction domains (Sokal et al., 2020). while teachers revealed low self-efficacy levels in undertaking online tasks during the pandemic in United States (Pressley & Ha, 2021) and Italy (Cataudella et al., 2021)

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Several studies have been conducted to explore the relationship between specific demographic variables and teacher self-efficacy. Several researchers have observed a positive relationship between self-efficacy levels and the number of years in teaching experience. It was discovered that more experienced teachers perceived themselves as highly efficient in teaching compared to those with less experience (Alhasni, 2017; Mehdinezhad, 2012; Chang et al., 2011; Infurna, 2016). In contrast, Lee and Tsai (2010) found a significantly greater self-efficacy among less experienced teachers than those with more experience. Several studies indicated no notable correlation between teachers’ age, gender, and their levels of self-efficacy in the online learning environment (Mehdinezhad, 2012; Wee-Loon’s, 2011; Robinia & Anderson, 2010). On the other hand, some studies revealed that female teachers displayed higher self-efficacy than males (Chang et al., 2011), whereas another study found that males exhibited higher selfefficacy beliefs than females counterparts (Lumpe et al., 2012). In addition, Chang et al. (2011) reported a significantly greater self-efficacy among younger teachers than older ones. Based on what has been discussed so far, although teachers’ self-efficacy is not a new topic, there are no apparent patterns regarding population demographic information, gender, age, and years of experience in an EOT setting. This study, therefore, sought to analyze the burnout levels of teachers in Qatar by answering the following research questions: 1. How do Qatari primary government school teachers report their level of selfefficacy in emergency online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic? 2. How does the level of self-efficacy vary according to gender, age, and years of experience?

3. Research method 3.1 Participants Study participants included government primary school teachers in Qatar, which take up almost half (52%) of Qatar government school teachers (Planning and Statistics Authority, 2019). Participants in this study were male and female who were selected randomly. The research had a total of 514 teachers as participants who responded and completed the questionnaire. The questionnaire survey was conducted online using Survey Monkey, and the link was emailed to all governmental primary school teachers. The total population of primary teachers is 6500 divided across 122 government schools (92% female, n=5,984; 8% male, n= 516). The primary government schools are 122, with 63 boys’ schools and 59 girls’ schools (Planning and Statistics Authority, 2019). According to the demographic data are shown in table 1, the response rate was 8%, resulting in a 2.3% sampling error. Table 1. Demographic Data Characteristic

Levels

Frequency

Percent

Gender

Female

458

89.1%

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Age

Teaching Experience

Male

10.9%

21- 30

112

21.8%

31- 40

226

44.0%

41- above

176

34.2%

5- 10 Years

135

26.3%

Less than 5 years

18.3%

More than 10 years

285

55.4%

3.2 Research design, instrument, and procedures A quantitative and qualitative survey method was employed to gain insight into personal teaching efficacy regarding EOT as emergency online classrooms using a questionnaire. After obtaining permission from the primary researcher, the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) was used as a survey instrument in the present study. The social cognitive theory of Albert Bandura (1977), which the current research is based on, was used to direct TSES items. Besides, four openended questions were introduced after the survey within the qualitative part of this study to allow for further elaboration. After finalizing the scale, Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) tested it in three trials. Teachers and preservice teachers were polled on three different studies. The scale was lowered from 52 to 32 items in the first study, then to 18 items in the second study. Consequently, 18 new items were created and reviewed. Following the completion of the scale, Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) developed a scale with 24 items and three sections: Student Engagement, Classroom Management, and Instructional Strategies. The questionnaire items were graded on a 9-point frequency rating scale ranging from (1) “nothing” to (9) “a lot.” It was written in English as well as Arabic. We developed the survey in English and then translated it into Arabic to fit the Qatari framework since Arabic is the native language of the majority of the targeted participants. Two expert translators translated the Arabic version back to English to ensure that ideas and concepts had the same meaning in both languages. 3.2.1 Validity Specialists fluent in Arabic and English at the College of Education evaluated the content validity; two professors were experts in schoolwork; Senior Professional Development Specialists at the National Center for Educational Development. Professors and experts were given the survey to evaluate, and they remarked on the issues regarding clarity in connection to the study’s goals. Minor changes were made to the questionnaire based on the experts’ advice. Some statements have been changed to make them more relevant to the duties of teachers in Qatari schools in the online environment (19, 22, 23). Changes were

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also made to the wording of the items to make them more appropriate for use in an online environment, with an emphasis on altering statements like “in your classroom” to “in your online class.” Statement (24) has been removed, and other statements have been reduced to eliminate repetition and make them simpler to comprehend and apply (2, 3, 7, 13, 14). In addition, statement 17 has been modified from “How much can you do to adjust your online lessons for various learning styles?” to “How much can you do to make your online lessons match learning styles?” Confirmative Factor Analysis (CFA) was used to ensure construct validity using AMOS software 26. The factor loadings for all subcategories were significant and above the recommended cutoff level of 0.5, as shown in Table 2 below for all factors (F1 online student engagement, F2 online classroom management, and F3 online instructional methods) (Hasan, 2019). Table 2. Items loading to each factor based on Confirmative factor Analysis using AMOS program. Item

factor

Load

Q1.1

How much can you do to help your students think critically in an online class?

<--

0.51

Q1.2

How much can you do to get through to students in an online class?

<--

0.584

Q1.3

How much can you do to motivate students who show low interest in online work?

<--

0.724

Q1.4

How much can you get students to believe that they can do well in an online class?

<--

0.795

Q1.5

How much can you do to help students’ value online learning?

<--

0.775

Q1.6

How much can you do to foster individual student creativity in an online course?

<--

0.698

Q1.7

How much can you do to improve lower achievers in an online class?”

<--

0.546

Q1.8

How well can you facilitate collaborative learning online?

<--

0.540

Q2.1

How much can you control disruptive behavior (e.g., disrespectful posting or failure to adhere to outline policies for posting online)?

<--

0.693

Q2.2

To what extent can you make your expectations clear about student behavior in an online class?

<--

0.642

Q2.3

How well can you establish routines (e.g., facilitate or moderate student participation) in coursework to keep online activities running smoothly?

<--

0.649

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Q2.4

How much can you get students to follow the established rules for assignments during an online class?

<--

0.635

Q2.5

How much can you do to control students dominating online discussions?

<--

0.731

Q2.6

How well can you organize an online course (e.g., convey expectations; standards; course rules) with each group of students?

<--

0.676

Q2.7

How well can you facilitate student responsibility for online learning?

<--

0.649

Q2.8

How well can you respond to defiant students in an online setting?

<--

0.565

Q3.1

How well can you respond to questions from online students

<--

0.508

Q3.2

How much can you do to gauge student comprehension of what you have taught in an online mode?

<--

0.604

Q3.3

How well can you craft questions or assignments that require students to think by relating ideas to previous knowledge and experience?

<--

0.685

Q3.4

How much can you do to make your online meet learning styles?

<--

0.75

Q3.5

How much can you do to use a variety of assessment strategies for an online course?

<--

0.765

Q3.6

To what extent can you provide an alternative explanation or example when students in an online class seem to be confused?

<--

0.671

Q3.7

How well can we provide good online learning experiences for students?

<--

0.535

3.2.2 Reliability Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001), the scale’s developers, reported the following about the scale’s reliability: Cronbach’s alpha of .94 indicates complete score dependability. Teachers’ self-efficacy subscale Cronbach’s alpha coefficient values varied from.87 to.91, suggesting a good level of internal consistency (see Table 3). The factor analysis showed three reasonably linked variables, including Efficacy in instructional methods was 0.91, student management was 0.90, and student engagement and interaction was 0.87.

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Table 3. Internal consistency of the TSES (Tschannen-Moran and Hoy’s, 2001)

After the instrument modifications, we have tested the reliability, and Cronbach’s alpha was .92 for the entire survey, with subscale reliabilities of self-efficacy in student engagement at .83, efficacy in classroom management at .86, and efficacy in instructional strategies at .81 (see table 4). Table 4. Reliability Statistics of the survey. Self-efficacy domains

Cronbach’s Alpha

N of Items

Student Engagement

0.83

Classroom management

0.86

Instructional Strategies

0.81

Whole Survey

0.92

3.3 Data Collection The data for this study were collected using a web-based data collection system. Primary teachers in Qatari government schools received a survey link via emails in October 2020. After two weeks, a follow-up message was sent to the nonrespondents to remind them about the importance of their participation. We contacted primary school principals via emails to receive their permission to administer the survey to their teachers and encourage them to participate in the study. 3.4 Data analysis Descriptive statistics are processed using version 26 of the Social Science Statistics Package (SPSS). Tables were used to define the data; the mean, standard deviation, and weighted average of the measured item were reported. Quantitative tests such as t-test, ANOVA, and post hoc tests (Multiple comparisons based on LSD tests) were used to discuss relationships between teacher efficacy scores and the demographic variables. Furthermore, Alpha Cronbach was used for reliability, and Confirmative factor analysis was used for Constructive validity.

4. Results The results of the research questions within three aspects of self-efficacy are recorded in this section: student engagement, classroom management, and instructional strategies.

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4.1 Quantitative data results To address question one, we utilized the SPSS software to obtain descriptive statistics. The scores were divided into five groups, ranging from extremely low to very high, on a nine-point scale ranging from nothing (1) to a great deal (9). (Very Low: 1- 2.59, low: 2.60- 4.19, Middle: 4.20- 5.79, High: 5.80- 7.39, and very High: 7.40 -9). Table 5 shows the mean (M), standard deviations (SD), and weighted average (WA) scores for the three domains from participants (N=514). Table 5 shows that the overall findings in the three categories correlated to the high self-efficacy category among instructors, with a mean of 6.69 and 74 percent of the total. Teacher self-efficacy, on the other hand, differed across the three areas. Table 5. Means, Standard Deviations and Weighted Average of self-efficacy domains

Student Engagement Classroom Management Instructional Strategies Total

N 514 514 514 514

Mean/9 6.78 6.46 6.84 6.69

Std. Deviation 1.329 1.544 1.314 1.215

Std. Error Mean 0.059 0.068 0.058 0.054

Weighted Average 75% 72% 76% 74%

We used a t-test, ANOVA with post hoc testing to determine any important differences between demographic variables on self-efficacy levels. Teacher self-efficacy and Gender The t-test findings on teachers' self-efficacy beliefs by gender are shown in Table 6. There was no gender difference in any of the three factors studied: student engagement (t= -0.99, df=512, p=0.3180 >0.05), classroom management (t=-0.96, df=512, p=0.3340 >0.05), and instructional strategies (t=-1.01, df=512, p=0.3100 >0.05). Table 6. Independent Sample T-test results of teacher self-efficacy beliefs by gender (group samples test) Gender Male

N 56

Mean 6.61

73%

Std. Deviation 1.1254

Female

458

6.80

76%

1.3519

Male

6.27

70%

1.6386

Female

458

6.49

72%

1.5324

Male

6.67

74%

1.3247

Female

458

6.86

76%

1.3123

Male

6.51

1.1771

Female

458

6.71

72% 75%

Domain Student Engagement Classroom Management Instructional Strategies Overall self-efficacy

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Weighted Average

1.2193

Sig. (2tailed)

0.999

512

0.318

0.968

512

0.334

1.016

512

0.310

1.143

512

0.254

Teacher self-efficacy and age Table 7 shows the results of the ANOVA test, which was used to evaluate teachers’ perceptions in relation to the years of age. Age was classified into 21-30 years old, 31-40 years old, and 41- above. The findings of the ANOVA test revealed no significant differences between the three domains, overall self-efficacy, and years of age (F=0.133, p=0.875> 0.05). (See table 7) Table 7. ANOVA test result of teacher self-efficacy believes by age

Student Engagement Classroom Managemen t Instructiona l Strategies Overall self-efficacy

Std. Error 0.113

Weighted Average

6.64

Std. Deviation 1.183

Age 21- 30

Mean

110

Sig

1.770

0.171

0.874

0.418

0.133

0.875

0.133

0.875

74%

31- 40

226

6.75

1.415

0.094

75%

41- above

176

6.93

1.288

0.097

77%

21- 30

110

6.30

1.375

0.131

70%

31- 40

226

6.54

1.532

0.102

73%

41- above

176

6.47

1.664

0.125

72%

21- 30

110

6.80

1.202

0.115

76%

31- 40

226

6.84

1.364

0.091

76%

41- above

176

6.88

1.319

0.099

76%

21- 30

110

6.57

1.055

0.101

73%

31- 40

226

6.70

1.283

0.085

74%

41- above

176

6.75

1.223

0.092

75%

Teacher self-efficacy and years of teaching experience Table 8 shows the ANOVA test results for teaching experience, which were used to examine the relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and years of experience. Years of experience were classified into three categories: Less than five years, five to ten years, and more than ten years. The results of the ANOVA test revealed a significant difference in overall selfefficacy across the three levels of teaching experience (F=8.522, p=0.000 <0.05). (See table 8). The differences in general self-efficacy across the three levels of teaching experience were determined using LSD post hoc test (see table 9). Differences were found between teachers with more than ten years of experience and those with five to ten years of experience (mean contrast =0.41498, p=0.001<0.05). A substantial difference existed between instructors with more than ten years of experience and those less than five years (mean difference =0.46947, p=0.001<0.05). It may be inferred from this that the longer a teacher has been teaching, the higher their self-efficacy. Table 8. ANOFA-test result of teacher self-efficacy beliefs by years of experience.

Student Engagement

6.4548

Std. Deviation 1.36917

Std. Error 0.14122

6.5852

1.34851

0.11606

Experience

Mean

Less than 5 years 5- 10 years

94 135

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Sig (p)

7.752

0.000

Classroom Management

Instructional Strategies

Overall

6.9820

Std. Deviation 1.27530

Std. Error 0.07554

6.2354

1.47946

0.15259

135 285

6.1352 6.6934

1.45077 1.57327

0.12486 0.09319

6.5729

1.33954

0.13816

135 285

6.7175 6.9895

1.32578 1.28341

0.11410 0.07602

6.4144

1.18721

0.12245

135 285

6.4689 6.8839

1.18502 1.20713

0.10199 0.07150

Experience

Mean

More than 10 years Less than 5 years 5- 10 years More than 10 years Less than 5 years 5- 10 years More than 10 years Less than 5 years 5- 10 years More than 10 years

285

Sig (p)

7.419

0.001

4.433

0.012

8.522

0.000

Table 9. Multiple Comparisons based on LSD Test. Dependent Variable Student Engagement Classroom Management Instructional Strategies Overall

Years of Experience More than 10 years More than 10 years More than 10 years More than 10 years

self-efficacy

Years of Experience Less than 5 years 5- 10 years Less than 5 years 5- 10 years Less than 5 years 5- 10 years Less than 5 years

Mean Difference (I-J) .52723*

Std. Error 0.15608

Sig. 0.001

.39683* .45805*

0.13710 0.18140

0.004 0.012

.55824* .41653*

0.15934 0.15521

0.000 0.008

.27201* .46947*

0.13634 0.14246

0.047 0.001

5- 10 years

.41498*

0.12514

0.001

As far as student engagement is concerned, the results of the ANOVA test also revealed a significant difference in student engagement among teachers based on their years of experience t (F=7.752, p=0.000<0.05). Less than five years of teaching experience (M=6.45, SD=1.36), 5-10 years of teaching experience (M=6.58, Sd=1.34), more than ten years of teaching experience (M=6.98, SD) = 1.27) According to the LSD test (Table 9), it is found that there is a difference between teachers with more than ten years of experience and 5-10 years of experience (average difference=0.39683, p=0.004<0.05). In addition, there are also significant differences between teachers with more than ten years of experience and those with less than five years of experience (mean difference=0.52723, p=0.001<0.05). According to this data, the more years of work, the higher the sense of self-efficacy.

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Based on tables (8 & 9), the classroom management domain differs significantly across the three levels of teaching experience (F=7.419, p=0.001 <0.05). The differences were found between teachers with more than ten years of experience and those with 5-10 years of experience (mean difference =0. 55824, p=0.000<0.05). There is also a significant difference between teachers with more than ten years of experience and less than five years of experience (mean difference =0. 45805, p=0.012<0.05). In the classroom management domain, teachers with more than ten years of experience (M=6.45, SD=1.36) had greater levels of self-efficacy than teachers with five to ten years of experience (M=6.58, SD=1.34) and teachers with fewer than five years of experience (M= 6.98, SD= 1.27). There are also significant differences among the three years of expertise in teaching strategies (F=4.433, p=0.012<0.05). The LSD test (Table 9) reveals a distinction between teachers with more than ten years of experience and those with 5-10 years of experience (average difference = 0.27201, p=0.047<0.05). There is also a significant difference between instructors with more than ten years of experience and those less than five years (average difference=0.41653, p=0.008<0.05). 4.2 Qualitative data Results As part of the study’s qualitative aspect, four open-ended questions were included towards the end of the questionnaire to acquire a more elaborated perspective from the participants involved. 4.2.1 Challenges teachers encountered in online teaching during the pandemic period Being cognizant of the challenges teachers face in online teaching is essential for understanding the key factors that affect self-efficacy levels and scoping the future landscape regarding these challenges. An in-depth examination of the first openended question revealed three significant themes teachers face while conducting online classes: unmotivated students, uncooperative parents, and technical issues. (See figure 1).

Figure 1. Main challenges faced by teachers in online teaching

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Unmotivated students were a recurrent theme in primary teachers’ responses, as shown in figure 1. The responses of 48% of inexperienced teachers, 47% of expert teachers, and 52% of teachers with 5 to 10 years of experience were in unison, suggesting that their students were unmotivated to learn and complete online tasks. 4.2.2 Strategies teachers used to cope with online teaching challenges during the pandemic period

Figure 2. Frequently addressed coping strategies with challenges in online teaching

Figure 2 reflects that problem solving was the most considered option, with the participants strongly affirming that they strive to overcome these challenges in every way possible. The majority of participants selected contact with parents as the first option for bridging the distance between teachers and their students caused by physical barriers. Teachers interact with parents in various ways, including phone calls and text messages to their students before and after school hours. Teachers have met with parents for several reasons involving their children. 4.2.3 Support teachers received in online teaching during the pandemic period

Figure 3. Main support teachers received in online teaching

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From figure 3, it is clear that the workshops provided to teachers, and the cooperation of school faculty members such as administrators, coordinators, and the IT department, proved to be a critical support system in assisting teachers in adapting to the new pedagogical life. The school administrators and coordinators spent time assisting teachers and students to ensure that the system operated smoothly and that parental expectations were met. 4.2.4 Support teachers need to develop their self-efficacy in distance education

Figure 4. The primary support teachers require in online teaching

The survey findings reveal that over 54% of teachers believe that interactive and practical technological professional development is required to develop selfefficacy in online teaching and overcome challenges. Participants suggest providing training workshops to coach teachers on utilizing and practicing online teaching techniques effectively (See figure 4).

5. Discussion ` This study aimed to investigate primary level teachers’ perceptions concerning self-efficacy in online teaching amidst a pandemic setting within the three domains: instructional strategies, student engagement, and classroom management. Teachers in primary schools indicated high levels of self-efficacy in online teaching, with mean scores ranging from 5.80 to 7.39 in the three areas of student engagement, classroom management, and instructional strategies. Results also did not report any correlation between self-efficacy and demographic variables, including age and gender. However, it is noteworthy that a higher selfefficacy level was more prominent among teachers with more years of experience than those with much less experience. 5.1 Teacher efficacy The high self-efficacy beliefs are found in Horvitz et al. (2015) ’s study of online instructors from various universities. Other research on face-to-face education, such as Voris’ (2011) study on special education teachers in Kentucky, Kim and Kim’s (2010) study on early childhood teachers’ self-efficacy in South Korea, and Chang et al. (2001) study on university teachers in Taiwan, all reported positive results. However, Sokal et al. (2020) research on online teachers’ self-efficacy in the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada, Robinia and Anderson’s (2010) study, and Wong’s (2003) study all reported the opposite, low self-efficacy levels.

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Bandura (1977) identified two major factors that had a substantial impact on teacher efficacy. Vicarious experience, in which teachers observe other successful teachers. Observing successful people, according to Bandura (1977), increases the belief in achieving professional success. Teachers responded in the open-ended questions that they were encouraged by workshops and attending external training programs outside work hours. This shows that vicarious experiences and self-efficacy are correlated. Verbal persuasion is the second factor that influences teachers’ self-efficacy. Teachers are often convinced of their self-belief in their ability to overcome obstacles by vocal support from others. Verbal persuasion enhances teachers’ selfefficacy by encouraging and supporting their skills and providing strategies for dealing with difficulties (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Numerous teachers reported getting verbal influence from their school officials, supervisors, and colleagues in response to the open-ended questions. The self-efficacy beliefs of primary school teachers were investigated to see any significant differences between self-efficacy scores and demographic factors. Surprisingly, the results of this research revealed a statistically significant correlation between self-efficacy and years of teaching experience. Indicating that the more years of experience teachers have, the greater their self-efficacy in online teaching. Experienced teachers had better mean scores, which is not surprising given that research has shown that experienced teachers are well-versed in subjects and specialists in creative teaching techniques. As a result, they had a lot of time to perfect their teaching methods (Dinc, 2019). Furthermore, these findings corroborate with Tschannen-Moran and Hoy’s (2007) hypothesis that experienced teachers demonstrate higher self-efficacy than novice teachers due to variations in teaching techniques. There was no significant difference between gender and self-efficacy in online teaching in this research. One possible reason for this result is that, in contrast to earlier decades, computers are now more widely available and simpler to use for both men and women (Dinc, 2019). This result is consistent with Mehdinezhad’s (2012) research on university teachers’ self-efficacy in Iran, Wee-(2011), Loon’s research on primary science teachers’ self-efficacy in Singapore, and Robinia & Anderson’s (2010) Michigan research on nurse educators’ self-efficacy in online teaching in Michigan. The previous research differs in terms of Gender showed more significant levels of self-efficacy. Female teachers had greater self-efficacy than male teachers in specific research (Chang et al., 2011), while men had firmer self-efficacy beliefs than females in another study (Chang et al. 2011, and Lumpe et al., 2012). This research also shows no notable link between teachers’ age and their levels of selfefficacy in any of the three areas; all three age groups had high levels of selfefficacy. Many of the studies discussed in the literature review did not consider differences in teachers’ self-efficacy based on their age. Similar results were observed in

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Robinia & Anderson’s (2010) research, and another study found that younger teachers had substantially higher self-efficacy than older teachers (Chang et al., 2011). 5.2 Challenges and coping strategies for teacher efficacy online The qualitative data looked at the challenges that teachers faced while teaching online during the epidemic. With the changed education structure, primary level teachers faced tremendous difficulties in the face of the pandemic (Ma et al., 2021). According to the qualitative results, unmotivated students, reluctant parents, and technical issues are three of the most important difficulties instructors encounter in online education during the pandemic. The initial shock of adapting to a new way of life due to the epidemic may have caused these problems. However, as compared to teachers with a lot of experience, novice teachers acknowledged their difficulties in other more areas. Workload, difficulties in evaluating students, lack of resources, and lack of creative teaching methods were all mentioned as problems. When these disparities are considered, it becomes clear that teachers with fewer years of experience may be overwhelmed by the stress of concurrently completing online teaching tasks, overseeing courses, monitoring student conduct, and developing new methods. Expert teachers can give their full attention to their students’ and parents’ problems because they are armed with a developed skill set that enables them to adjust rapidly, possibly due to their years of experience (Alhasni, 2017). Another qualitative finding indicates that teachers with more years of experience are better adaptable under challenging circumstances. “A good teacher constantly strives to overcome difficulties,” they said, and “Patience is the key to relief,” which all show the impact of their self-efficacy. Novice instructors, on the other hand, are more likely to exchange ideas and discuss problems with colleagues to overcome them and improve their methods. This was apparent in the answers of several instructors who responded to the open-ended questions by saying, “We helped one other by exchanging ideas and new methods to teach online successfully.” Teachers’ coping methods for dealing with difficulties differed in the current research. Despite this, they persisted in keeping in touch with their parents, even though it was one of the most challenging tasks. A closer look reveals that the experienced teachers in the research sample were optimistic about what would work best, focusing more on increasing students’ excitement and parents’ awareness of the benefits of online learning. In contrast, novice teachers were receptive to a wide range of solutions to their problems. However, 14% of novice teachers said they could not effectively handle the difficulties. This discussion reveals a link to Sahertian and Soetjipto’s (2011) theory that teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs indicate their teaching skills, their choices in selecting learning activities in the classroom, and how they deal with those difficulties. The greater one’s self-efficacy, the more effective one’s coping efforts

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are at overcoming challenges (Bandura & Adams, 1977). As a result, some expert teachers showed their success by vocalizing how they overcome difficulties, which aligns with Allinder’s (1994) theory that highly effective teachers confront disruptive circumstances with the confidence to exercise control over the obstacles. Teachers’ views of the needed and received support were also examined in this research. According to the qualitative data, although teachers were given workshops and the school collaboration took an active part in creating a support system that assisted teachers in adapting to online education, the situation is still unsatisfactory. Given the present technological era, most participants recommended offering a practical professional development program led by professionals who have the skill set to educate teachers in online teaching methods. 5.3 Limitations of the study and future perspectives Some limitations in this research have been identified and must be considered. To begin with, the study’s data is primarily based on a self-reported questionnaire survey. Therefore, it is recommended to consider qualitative data collection methods or mixed methods such as interviews to provide an in-depth analysis of why expert teachers report higher self-efficacy beliefs than novice teachers. In addition, if the data is gathered from people with different views, such as students or school administrators, the results might have been varied. Further, due to the study’s limited scope, which provides an insight into the selfefficacy degree of primary-level teachers only, a comparison of teachers’ selfefficacy views at all levels of education, including middle and secondary school, may have contributed to the study’s findings. Furthermore, exploring more reasons for the impact of teacher self-efficacy, such as their life background and their health conditions – physical and mental is significant. This can give a more detailed analysis of why some teachers positively embrace change while others cannot.

6. Conclusion To summarize, primary school teachers positively identified their self-efficacy beliefs in online teaching in the following three domains: instructional methods, student participation, and classroom management, according to the research findings. The findings also showed no correlation discovered between selfefficacy and demographic variables, including gender. Based on the reported findings, the study imparts suggestions for improving future online teaching practices of teachers and school leaders. First, teachers must develop an increased awareness of their online teaching self-efficacy, particularly in the lower-reported domains, such as classroom management. Furthermore, teachers should move away from conventional teaching approaches favoring a more dynamic approach to online teaching, which involves learning creative and productive techniques that appeal to their students’ interests.

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Secondly, school leadership and administration must strengthen their grasp on these matters and provide support based on quality professional training. Additionally, school leaders should consider teachers’ challenges and needs, especially during the pandemic, and inspire the teacher with new ideas and resources that provide coping strategies and practical tools in online teaching. Moreover, schools must consider delivering professional development programs in classroom technology implementation for teachers, especially those with higher self-efficacy, to improve confidence and technological skills. Consequently, well-trained teachers can, in turn, support and coach their peers, bringing forth increased levels of motivation and confidence for other teachers in an online environment. All the factors mentioned above can be achieved if there is an adequate focus on studying how school teachers receive coaching and support in online teaching, particularly in their first attempts. The findings of this study support research that sheds light regarding increasing online teaching self-efficacy, which can be used as a starting point to study the current practices.

7. References Affouneh, S., Salha, S., & Khlaif, Z. N. (2020). Designing Quality E-Learning Environments for Emergency Remote Teaching in Coronavirus Crisis, Interdisciplinary Journal of Virtual Learning in Medical Sciences, 2(2), 135–137. AlHasni, F. (2017). Exploring teacher efficacy and job satisfaction beliefs: A mixed methods study on language teachers at a college of technology in Oman [Doctoral thesis, University of York]. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/20830/ Allinder, R. M. (1994). The relationship between efficacy and the instructional practices of special education teachers and consultants. Teacher Education and Special Education, 17, 86-95. Al-Thani, A., & Nasser, R. (2012). Little steps at improving preschool teachers’ practices through counseling skills in Qatar. International Education Studies, 5(5). http://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v5n5p163 Baloran, E. & Hernan, J. (2020). Crisis Self-Efficacy and Work Commitment of Education Workers among Public Schools during COVID-19 Pandemic. Preprints, 2020070599. http://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202007.0599.v1. Bandura A. (1993). Perceived Self-Efficacy in Cognitive Development and Functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28(2), 117–148. https://www.itma.vt.edu/courses/tel/resources/bandura(1993)_selfefficacy.pdf Bandura, A. (1977). Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavior Change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. Bandura, A. (2006). Adolescent development from an agentic perspective. In F. Pajares& T. Urban (Eds.), Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents (pp. 1–143). Information Age Publishing. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED480818.pdf Bandura, A., & Adams, N. E. (1977). Analysis of Self-Efficacy Theory of Behavioral Change’. Public Health Research Grant, 6(4), 1–24. Cataudella, S., Carta, S. M., Mascia, M. L., Masala, C., Petretto, D. R., Agus, M., & Penna, M. P. (2021). Teaching in times of the COVID-19 pandemic: A pilot study on teachers’ self-esteem and self-efficacy in an italian sample. International Journal of

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Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(15). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158211 Chang, T. S., Lin, H. H., & Song, M. M. (2011). University faculty members ’perceptions of their teaching efficacy. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 48(1), 49–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2010.543770 Dinc, E. (2019). Prospective teachers’ perceptions of barriers to technology integration in education. Contemporary Educational Technology, 10(4), 381–398. https://doi.org/10.30935/cet.634187 Goddard, R. D., Hoy, W. K., & Hoy, A. W. (2004). Collective Efficacy Beliefs: Theoretical Developments, Empirical Evidence, and Future Directions. Educational Researcher, 33(3), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X033003003 Hallman, L. (2020, April 27). Maslow Before Bloom: Educators Need to Meet Learners’ Basic Needs in Time of Pandemic. https://www.salzburgglobal.org/news/latestnews/article/maslow-before-bloom-educators-need-to-meet-learners-basicneeds-in-time-of-pandemic.html Hasan, M. (2019). Developing A Two-Phase Post-Stratified Inverse Sampling to Reduce the Nonresponse Bias for Students’ Satisfaction Survey in Qatar University. Master thesis, College of Arts and Science, Qatar University. Hechter, R. P., & Vermette, L. A. (2013). Technology integration in K-12 science classrooms: An analysis of barriers and implications. Themes in Science and Technology Education, 6(2), 73--90. http://earthlab.uoi.gr/theste/index.php/theste/article/view/123 Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020, March 27). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning.Educause Review. https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergencyremote-teaching-and-online%20learning Infurna, C. J. (2016). Preschool teacher self-efficacy in an urban school district. [Doctoral Dissertation, St. John Fisher College]. Kim, Y. H., & Kim, Y. E. (2010). Korean early childhood educators’ multi-dimensional teacher self-efficacy and ECE center climate and depression severity in teachers as contributing factors. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(5), 1117–1123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.06.009 Lee, M. H., & Tsai, C. C. (2010). Exploring Teachers' Perceived Self Efficacy and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge with Respect to Educational Use of the World Wide Web. Instructional Science: An International Journal of the Learning Sciences, 38(1), 1-21. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/106346/ Lin, C., & Zheng, B. (2015). Teaching Practices and Teacher Perceptions in Online World Language Courses - Learning & Technology Library (LearnTechLib). Journal of Online Learning Research, 1(3), 275–304. https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/171055/ Loeb, S. (2020, March 20). How Effective Is Online Learning? What the Research Does and Doesn’t Tell Us. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2020/03/23/how-effective-is-onlinelearning-what-the.html Lumpe, A., Czerniak, C., Haney, J., &Beltyukova, S. (2012). Beliefs about teaching science: The relationship between elementary teachers’participation in professional development and student achievement. International Journal of Science Education, 34(2), 153–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2010.551222 Ma, K., Chutiyami, M., Zhang, Y., & Nicoll, S. (2021). Online teaching self-efficacy during COVID-19: Changes, its associated factors and moderators. Education and Information Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10486-3

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Mehdinezhad, V. (2012). Faculty Members’ Understanding of Teaching Efficacy Criteria. Education Inquiry, 3(1), 49–69. https://doi.org/10.3402/edui.v3i1.22013 MOEHE. (2020). The Covid-19 Challenge. https://www.edu.gov.qa/en/pages/corona.aspx). Pressley, T., & Ha, C. (2021). Teaching during a Pandemic: United States Teachers’ SelfEfficacy During COVID-19. Teaching and Teacher Education, 106, 103465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103465 Riggs, I. M., & Enochs, L. G. (1990). Toward the development of an elementary teacher’s science teaching efficacy beliefs instrument. Science Education, 74(6), 625637. Robinia, K. A., & Anderson, M. L. (2010). Online teaching efficacy of nurse faculty. Journal of Professional Nursing, 26(3), 168–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2010.02.006 Sahertian, P., & Soetjipto, B. (2011). Improving employee’s organizational commitment, self-efficacy, and organizational citizenship behavior through the implementation of task oriented and relationship-oriented leadership behavior. Business Review Cambridge, 17, 48-60. Sokal, L., Trudel, L. E., & Babb, J. (2020). Canadian teachers ’attitudes toward change, efficacy, and burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 1(October), 100016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100016 Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A. W. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17(7), 783–805. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742- 051X(01)00036-1 Tschannen-Moran, M., Hoy, A. W., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68, 202–248. https://doi.org/10.3102/ 00346543068002202 Voris, B. C., & Bjork, L. B.-F. T. (2011). Teacher efficacy, job satisfaction, and alternative certification in early career special education teachers (Vol. 3492202). Wee-Loon, N. G. (2011). A study of Singapore female primary teachers ’self-efficacy for teaching [Doctoral thesis, Durham University]. http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/606/ Wong, D. L. (2003). Teaching online: Toward a development of an understanding of the personal teaching efficacy of online teachers. Dissertation Abstracts International. The Humanities and Social Sciences, 64(2), 401.

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‫‪APPENDIX: TEACHER SELF- EFFICACY IN EMERGENCY ONLINE‬‬ ‫‪TEACHING SURVEY‬‬ ‫استبانة الكفاءة الذاتية للمعلمين في التدريس الطارئ عن بعد‬ ‫االستبانة التي بين أيديكم تُعد جزءا ً من رسالة الماجستير في تخصص "المناهج والتدريس والتقويم" في جامعة قطر‬ ‫وتهدف هذه االستبانة إلى جمع معلومات متعلقة بتصورات المعلمين حول كفاءتهم الذاتية في التدريس الطارئ عن‬ ‫بعد‪ ،‬ونظرا ألهمية إجابتكم في تحقيق أهداف البحث‪ ،‬نرجو تعاونكم في اإلجابة عن أسئلة االستبانة بكل دقة‬ ‫وموضوعية‪ ،‬شاكرين لكم مقدما حسن تعاونكم ومقدرين جهدكم ووقتكم‪ .‬علما أن البينات المجمعة ستبقى سرية ولن‬ ‫تستخدم إإل ألغراض البحث العلمي فقط‪.‬‬ ‫البيانات الديموغرافية‪:‬‬ ‫الجنس‪……………………:‬ذكر‪/‬أنثى…………‪..‬‬ ‫العمر‪.:‬‬ ‫‬‫‬‫‪-‬‬

‫‪Demographic data:‬‬ ‫‪Gender: Male/‬‬ ‫…‪Female‬‬ ‫…‪Age:‬‬ ‫‪21- 30‬‬ ‫‪31- 40‬‬ ‫‪Above 40‬‬

‫‪21- 30‬‬ ‫‪31- 40‬‬ ‫‪ -41‬فما فوق‬

‫خبرة التدريس‪:‬‬ ‫ اقل من ‪ 5‬سنوات‬‫ ‪ 10 -5‬سنوات‬‫‪ -‬أكثر من ‪ 10‬سنوات‬

‫‪Teaching Experience‬‬ ‫‪Less than 5 years‬‬ ‫‪5-10 years‬‬ ‫‪More than 10 years‬‬

‫التعليمات‪ :‬حدد مدى توافق كل عبارة من العبارات التالية مع تصوراتك الشخصية ( ‪ =9‬بدرجة كبيرة جدا‪ =5 ،‬بدرجة‬ ‫متوسطة‪ =1 ،‬بدرجة قليلة جدا‪ .‬أجب عن كل سؤال آخذا باالعتبار مدى قدرتك على أداء هذه المهام في الوقت الحالي‪،‬‬ ‫باإلضافة إلى مدى توفر المصادر والفرص للقيام بها‪ ،‬ثم حدد االجابة قائال قبلها‪ " :‬أستطيع أن‪."....‬‬ ‫‪Instruction: Please indicate your opinion about each of the questions below by‬‬ ‫‪marking any one of the nine responses in the columns, ranging from (1) “None‬‬ ‫‪at all” to (9) “A Great Deal” as each represents a degree on the continuum.‬‬ ‫‪Please respond to each of the questions by considering the combination of your‬‬ ‫‪current ability, resources, and opportunity to do each of the following in your‬‬ ‫‪present position. A helpful prefix to each answer is, “I can do….”.‬‬ ‫العبارة ‪Statement‬‬

‫‪1.‬كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله في مساعدة‬ ‫طالبك على التفكير النقدي في فصل دراسي‬ ‫عن بعد؟‬ ‫‪How much can you do to help your‬‬ ‫‪students‬‬ ‫?‪think critically in an online class‬‬ ‫‪ .2‬كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله لضمان اندماج‬ ‫الطلبة في التعليم عن بعد؟‬ ‫‪How much can you do to get‬‬ ‫‪through to students in an‬‬ ‫?‪online class‬‬

‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪Great‬‬ ‫‪Deal‬‬ ‫بدرجة‬ ‫كبيرة‬ ‫جدا‬ ‫‪9‬‬

‫‪Some‬‬ ‫بدرجة‬ ‫متوسطة‬

‫‪8‬‬

‫‪7‬‬

‫‪6‬‬

‫‪5‬‬

‫‪Not‬‬ ‫‪hing‬‬ ‫بدرجة‬ ‫قليلة‬ ‫جدا‬ ‫‪4‬‬

‫‪3‬‬

‫‪2‬‬

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‫‪1‬‬

‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله لضبط السلوك‬.3 :‫ مثل‬،‫الفوضوي في الحصص عن بعد‬ ‫( المشاركات غير المحترمة أو عدم االلتزام‬ ‫بالسياسات العامة للمنشورات أو المشاركات)؟‬ How much can you do to control disruptive behavior (e.g. disrespectful posting or failure to adhere to outline policies for posting online) ‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله لتحفيز الطلبة‬.4 ‫الذين يبدون قليال من االهتمام باألعمال‬ ‫المدرسية عن بعد؟‬ How much can you do to motivate students who show low interest in online work? ‫ إلى أي درجة يمكنك تكوين توقعات‬.5 ‫واضحة عن سلوك الطلبة في الحصص عن‬ ‫بعد؟‬ To what extent can you make your expectations clear about student behavior in an online class? ‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله لجعل الطلبة‬.6 ‫يؤمنون بقدرتهم على األداء الجيد في‬ ‫الحصص عن بعد؟‬ How much can you do to get students to believe that they can do well in an online class? ‫ إلى أي درجة يمكنك اإلجابة على أسئلة‬.7 ‫الطلبة عن بعد؟‬ How well can you respond to questions from online students? ‫ إلى أي درجة يمكنك وضع نظام روتيني‬.8 ‫( تسهيل أو متابعة مشاركات الطلبة‬ ‫على سبيل المثال) يضمن قيام الطلبة‬ ‫باألنشطة عن بعد وبسالسة؟‬ How well can you establish routines (e.g. facilitate or moderate student participation) in coursework to keep online activities running smoothly? ‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله لمساعدة الطلبة‬.9 ‫على تقدير قيمة التعلم عن بعد؟‬ How much can you do to help students’ value of online learning? ‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله لقياس مقدار‬.10 ‫استيعاب الطلبة لما علمتهم عن بعد؟‬ How much can you do to gauge student comprehension of what you have taught in an online mode?

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‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله في صياغة األسئلة‬.11 ‫أو الواجبات التي تتطلب من الطلبة‬ ‫التفكير من خالل ربط األفكار بالمعرفة‬ ‫والخبرة السابقة؟‬ How well can you craft questions or assignments that require students to think by relating ideas to previous knowledge and experience? ‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله لتعزيز اإلبداع‬.12 ‫لدى الطلبة في الفصل عن بعد؟‬ How much can you do to foster individual student creativity in an online course? ‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله القناع الطلبة‬.13 ‫بااللتزام بقوانين تسليم الواجبات في‬ ‫الفصل عن بعد؟‬ How much can you do to get students to follow the established rules for assignments during an online class? ‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله لتحسين فهم‬.14 ‫الطلبة ذوي التحصيل المنخفض في‬ ‫الفصل عن بعد؟‬ How much can you do to improve lower achievers in an online class? ‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله لضبط الطلبة‬.15 ‫الذين يسيطرون على المنقاشات في‬ ‫الفصل عن بعد؟‬ How much can you do to control students dominating online discussions? ‫ إلى أي درجة يمكنك إنشاء نظام إدارة‬.16 ‫صفي يتناسب مع كل مجموعة في‬ ‫الفصول عن بعد؟‬ How well can you organize an online course (e.g. convey expectations; standards; course rules) with each group of students? ‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله لتكييف الدروس‬.17 ‫عن بعد لتتناسب مع أنماط التعلم‬ ‫المختلفة للطلبة؟‬ How much can you do to make your online meet learning styles? ‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله الستخدام أساليب‬.18 ‫تقييم متنوعة في الفصل عن بعد؟‬ How much can you do to use a variety of assessment

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strategies for an online course? ‫ كم من الجهد يمكنك بذله لغرس قيمة‬.19 ‫مسؤولية التعلم عن بعد عند الطلبة؟‬ How well can you facilitate student responsibility for online learning? ‫ إلى أي درجة يمكنك تقديم أمثلة‬.20 ‫وتوضيحات بديلة للطلبة عندما يجدون‬ ‫صعوبة في فهم الموضوع في الفصل‬ ‫عن بعد؟‬ To what extent can you provide an alternative explanation or example when students in an online class seem to be confused? ‫ ما مدى قدرتك على الرد على الطالب‬.21 ‫الجريئين في بيئة التعلم عن بعد؟‬ How well can you respond to defiant students in an online setting? ‫ ما مدى قدرتك على تسهيل عملية التعلم‬.22 ‫التعاوني للطلبة عن بعد؟‬ How well can you facilitate collaborative learning online? ‫ ما مدى قدرتك على توفير تجارب تعليمية جيدة للطالب‬.23 ‫عن بعد؟‬ How well can you provide positive online learning experiences for students?

.‫ تحديات من فضلك‬3 ‫ ما هي التحديات التي واجهتها في التعليم عن بعد خالل فترة الجائحة؟ صف أهم‬.24 What challenges have you encountered in online teaching during the pandemic period? Please elaborate three most important ones. ‫ كيف تعاملت مع تلك التحديات؟‬.25 How did you cope with these challenges? ‫ ما هو الدعم الذي تلقيته حول التدريس عن بعد خالل فترة الجائحة؟‬.26 What support did you receive in online teaching during the pandemic period? ‫ ما هو الدعم الذي تحتاجه لتطوير كفاءتك الذاتية في التعليم عن بعد؟‬.27 What support do you need to develop your self-efficacy in distance education?

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 42-56, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.3 Received Aug 26, 2021; Revised Nov 01, 2021; Accepted Nov 08, 2021

The Motivations and Barriers of Teachers’ Professional Development Activities during the Movement Control Order (MCO) – A Preliminary Insight Asraf Hadzwan Ahmad Safian and Anidah Robani Institute of Technology Management and Entrepreneurship, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2579-9958 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6268-7758 Muliati Sedek Centre For Language Learning, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2613-6451

Abstract. Due to the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV-2) or COVID-19 pandemic, the education sector in Malaysia opted for the practice of online communication as a new norm. However, even during the pandemic, teachers in Malaysia are obliged to involve with professional development (henceforth, PD) activities for at least 42 hours annually. This article is prepared from a preliminary study to report the motivating factors and barriers on teachers’ PD activities during Malaysia’s Movement Control Order (henceforth, MCO). Also, this article studied the prevalence and trend of the teachers’ online communication during the period. A survey was conducted as a pilot study on 35 teachers from Sri Laksamana Primary School (henceforth, SLPS) in Melaka. The data gained were analysed descriptively using the SPSS software. In general, the results indicate that teachers are motivated to involve with online PD activities by getting rewarded with annual performance evaluation marks, which is beneficial for their career mileage. Next, the most significant barrier for their online PD is time limitation due to other workloads. In conclusion, even though the teachers are well-accepting online PD activities, teachers should be given a higher portion of evaluation marks regarding their annual PD involvement than the current five per cent portion. Next, the school’s administrators should act on teachers’ work distribution issues that became the main challenge for effective online PD, thus creating a favourable working ecosystem.

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

Keywords: online motivations; barriers

communication;

telecommuting;

pandemic;

1. Introduction This pilot study aims to discover teachers’ motivations and barriers for their online PD sessions during the Movement Control Order (MCO). In Malaysia, the MCO was enforced starting on the 18th of March, 2020, due to the quick spreading of COVID-19 (Shaha et al., 2020). During the MCO, the social and physical limitations prevented more spreading of COVID-19 and have transformed formal programmes such as courses, workshops, or any official gatherings to be done online. Even though the government sectors in Malaysia were trying to avoid the virus from spreading, public schools were found to function as usual. Teachers and schools staff were opted to work from home, practising telecommuting using internet-based technologies. As far as the PD process is concerned, teachers should proceed regularly (Zakiyuddin, 2019) even during the MCO as Malaysian teachers must fulfil their PD obligations and record their participation in the Continuous Professional Development Credit Point System (MyPPB). The teachers must achieve at least 42 credit points annually, equivalent to 42 hours of PD participation. The PD activities can be in the form of activities listed in Table 1 and are usually carried out by in-house training programmes in schools where teachers are gathered to learn about new information or skills (Jamil et al., 2011). Therefore, even by telecommuting using internet-based technologies, PD is an important activity that teachers should regularly do as an obligation to share new knowledge with their colleagues, be trained, and be constantly updated with the latest information and skills, including during the pandemic period. This pilot study also tested the questionnaire items and validated the instrument’s reliability for the planned actual research. By questioning the teachers’ motivating factors and barriers during their online PD sessions and the prevalence and trend for their online PD activities, their readiness to do so during the MCO is exposed.

2. Literature Review However, there are other ways for teachers to learn even during the MCO in Malaysia. Teachers can continue to learn during the pandemic as they are provided with opportunities to learn more about learning through digital methods (Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021). Since they need to adapt to online learning (Konig et al., 2020), education administrators also are recommended to provide proper and safe guidelines for teachers to continually learn through the pandemic (Muhayimana, 2020). Facing changes in teachers’ working environment, from physical attendance to online communication, can be stimulated with proper motivations such as support and influence by people around (Savvidou, 2020) and spending less on commuting expenses (Fadzilah et al., 2021). Motivations to work from home occur when the proper distribution of workloads is done among employees, having fewer networking issues, having government support with effective

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employment act that covers the safety of working from home, and the employees’ intrinsic motivation to be fulfilled by themselves (Marimuthu & Vasudevan, 2020). Teachers also require support systems in ICT literacy training (Khan & Kazmi, 2020) and the freedom to choose PD activities that suit their interests (Moekwa, 2020). Meanwhile, many researchers reported that teachers faced obstacles such as limited ICT literacy (Alea et al., 2020), juggling personal responsibilities, and being unable to properly manage time while working from home (Marimuthu & Vasudevan, 2020). Also, previous research showed that network connectivity issues (Savvidou, 2020), financial issues, other job scope conflicts (Badri et al., 2016), ineffective online PD design (Quinn et al., 2020), and unsatisfactory telecommuting using technologies (Alvarez, 2020) are among the barriers too. As most teachers in Malaysia were reported to practise limited use of technology such as word processing applications, spreadsheets, presentations, and email applications (Singh & Chan, 2014), this study is conducted to know more about the motivations and barriers on teachers’ PD activities that were done online during the MCO. Teachers in Malaysia can join any of the listed activities below as their PD involvement, and these activities can be credited into the MyPPB system: Table 1: Examples of PD activities acknowledged by the Malaysian Ministry of Education (MOE) (Malaysian Ministry of Education, 2019) No. 1.

PD Program Training

Learning

Self-learning

Examples of Activities Courses, seminars, convocations, workshops, forums, symposiums, colloquium, official trips, any form of formal and semi-formal meetings Peers learning community (PLC), executive talks, monthly assembly, celebration / festive programs, mentor-mentee meetings, presentations, career counselling sessions Online portal sessions, reading book / journal / report / research readings, news

In conclusion, motivating factors and barriers exist for teachers who work from home using online-based communication technologies. Therefore this pilot study investigated the motivations and barriers for teachers from the selected school to use technologies in fulfilling their annual PD obligations, specifically during the MCO. Also, studying how they perceived online communication during that time examining their readiness to work remotely during the pandemic. This research also gave details on what can be suggested to improve the situation or practices with online PD among teachers in Malaysia. This literature review section in this article is followed by research methods, findings, discussions, conclusion, and references sections.

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3. Methods A quantitative approach was taken to investigate the issues stated. A questionnaire was designed to probe all the research questions. Then the printed questionnaire was distributed to the samples. The samples are teachers from Sri Laksamana Primary School (henceforth, SLPS), a public primary school located in the district of Alor Gajah in Melaka. This pilot study was done in person rather than online because the samples helped provide direct feedback regarding any improvements that could be made to the questionnaire. The data collected are analysed descriptively in Social Packages for the Social Science (SPSS) Statistics software. The frequency, standard deviation, and interpretation will be shown in tables to show precise numbers and charts to be further elaborated. 3.1 Participants From the total of 55 female (85.93%) and nine male teachers (14.07%) (N=64) in SLPS, 35 samples (n=35) were selected randomly to answer the questionnaire as pilot study samples were recommended to be more than thirty samples (Bujang et al., 2018). The samples’ specialisation and backgrounds are varied, but they are all obliged to achieve 42 MyPPB credit points annually. 3.2 Procedure Protocols and permission for this research were approved by the State Education Department (SED) of Melaka and the Ministry of Education (MOE) of Malaysia. Permission letters by both parties were presented during the survey containing the basic details of the research. The questionnaire’s responses were noted, including typing errors, ease of answering questions, and time for the questionnaire completion. All participants received a token of appreciation in the form of a custom-made SLPS’s blazer button badge.

4. Research Instruments All data from this pilot study were collected using a validated printed questionnaire. The pilot study will benefit the actual research by helping the researcher to understand the samples’ feedback, thus providing the researcher’s readiness for the actual research (Malmqvist et al., 2019) while answering the questionnaire. The questionnaire is prepared in five parts with 44 questions, probing different information for this research. The first section recorded respondents’ basic information with six questions. Then another section investigated the samples’ motivating factors for their online PD activities. The third section consisted of eight questions that probed the samples’ barriers to doing so. Section D and E of the questionnaire, respectively, consisted of 18 and seven questions. The sections investigated the samples’ experience acquiring their prevalence and trend during the activities, while the last section asked the samples’ suggestions on what can be improved to help them be involved with online PD activities. The Likert Scale was used in parts B, C, D and E of this questionnaire. There are two parts of four points and five points scale, respectively. Different scales are used because some questionnaire sections require only an agreement (strongly

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agree and agree) and disagreement ideas only (strongly disagree and disagree), depending on the section’s objective (Joshi et al., 2015). 4.1 Data Analysis Data analysis procedures were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 26. Descriptive analyses were conducted using the software. The frequencies and means of the variables were analysed to support interpretations related to the research questions.

5. Findings 5.1 Demographic Profile The samples for this pilot study are academic teachers, with six and one of them respectively serving in the SLPS Special Education Classes and Preschool Class. The administrators of SLPS are not involved with this pilot study. Three of the respondents are male since only 14.07% of the teachers in the school are male. They mainly were born before the internet was provided domestically in Malaysia (1970 – 1979: 54.30%), with most of them not living in a city area (80.00%). The most popular internet connectivity type among them is by WIFI connection (57.14%). The data will help to further elaborate the prevalence and trend of teachers’ online PD during the MCO. Table 2 shows the exact results for these 35 pilot study respondents. Table 2: Respondents’ Demographic Profile

Teachers’ Category

Gender Birth Year

Residential Location Primary Internet Connectivity

Academic Teachers Special Education Teachers Preschool Teachers Male Female 1990 and above 1980 – 1989 1970 – 1979 City Rural

Frequency (n = 35) 28 6 1 3 32 3 13 19 7 28

Valid Percentage (%) 80.00 17.10 2.90 8.60 91.40 8.60 37.10 54.30 20.00 80.00

Wireless Fidelity (WIFI) LAN Cable Connection Mobile Network Hotspot Tethering

20 1 12 2

57.14 2.86 34.29 5.71

5.2 Motivations for Participating in Online PD Activities Section B for this questionnaire probed the samples regarding their motivating factors for online PD participation using a 5-point Likert Scale. For this section, as shown in Table 3, the values are interpreted as 1.0 - 1.8 = Strongly Disagree; 1.9 - 2.7 = Disagree; 2.8 – 3.6 = Neutral; 3.7 – 4.5 = Agree; and 4.6 – 5.4 = Strongly Agree. Cronbach’s alpha score for this section is 0.626. There are no Strongly Disagree or Disagree interpreted means in this section. However, the means between factors still differ from one another.

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The highest mean of motivating factor is reward in the form of Annual Achievement Evaluation Report (AAER) (M = 4.3, SD = 5.22968), followed by feeling responsible to achieve the minimum MyPPB credit points (M = 4.1, SD = 0.60112), the interest of involving with the PD activities (M = 3.9, SD = 0.50709), and support from colleagues (M = 3.8, SD = 0.68966) which are all interpreted as agree. The respondents are responding neutrally on other factors which are support from their superiors (M = 3.4, SD = 0.84714) and feeling motivated by having gadgets given by the government (M = 3.0, SD = 1.04278). Table 3: Responses Regarding Samples’ Motivations during their Online PD Activities from the 18th of March 2020 to the 31st of December 2020. Section

Item

D27

Interest in professional development activities involved. Feeling responsible to achieve 42 MyPPB credit points. Gadgets given by the government. Support from superiors (SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS / DEO / SED / MOE). Support from colleagues. Reward in the form of Annual Achievement Evaluation Report marks.

D28 D29 D30

D31 D32

Mean (M) (n=35) 3.9

Standard Deviation (SD) .50709

Verbal Interpretation

4.1

.60112

Agree

3.0

1.04278

Neutral

3.4

.84714

Neutral

3.8 4.3

.68966 5.22968

Agree Agree

Agree

5.3 Barriers for Online Professional Development Participation. Another 5-point Likert Scale was used in the next section, recording the barriers for online PD activities joined by the samples. This section, as shown in Table 4, interpreted the mean values as 1.0 - 1.8 = Strongly Disagree; 1.9 - 2.7 = Disagree; 2.8 – 3.6 = Neutral; 3.7 – 4.5 = Agree; and 4.6 – 5.4 = Strongly Agree. The highest mean of barriers is time limitation due to other primary workloads (M = 4.0, SD = 0.89066), followed by family responsibilities (M = 3.9, SD = 1.02244), and limited internet coverage (M = 3.7, SD = 1.02244). All of the mentioned barriers were interpreted verbally as agree. There are four barriers where the respondents respond and interpret as neutral. They are poorly working gadgets used during the PD sessions (M = 3.5, SD = 1.05169), limited internet quota (M = 3.7, SD = 1.09391), limited ICT literacy (M = 3.4, SD = 0.94824), and lack of support from their superiors (M = 3.0, SD = 0.70651). However, there is one questionnaire item that is interpreted as disagree: lack of support from colleagues (M = 2.6, SD = 0.55761). The Cronbach’s alpha for this section is 0.764.

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Table 4: Responses Regarding Samples’ Barriers during their Online PD Activities from the 18th of March 2020 to the 31st of December 2020. Section

Item

E33 E34 E35 E36 E37

Limited internet coverage. Limited internet quota. Poorly working gadget/device. Limited ICT literacy. Time limitation due to other primary workloads. Family responsibilities. Lack of support from the superiors (school administrators / DEO / SED / MOE). Lack of support from colleagues.

E38 E39

E40

Mean (M) (n=35) 3.7 3.5 3.5 3.4 4.0

Standard Deviation (SD) 1.02244 1.09391 1.05169 .94824 .89066

Verbal Interpretation

3.9 3.0

1.02244 .70651

Agree Neutral

2.6

.55761

Disagree

Agree Neutral Neutral Neutral Agree

5.4 Prevalence and trend: Activities Joined for Online PD As mentioned in Table 1, there are three types of PD activities recognised by the MOE. For this section, respondents can choose more than one activity they have joined online during the MCO. There are 19 types of activities joined by the samples from all three types of PD activities listed. In Table 5, the respondents’ frequency of each activity is entered, with the valid percentage representing each activity’s portion among all of the joined activities recorded. The most frequent activity joined by the respondents with 26 respondents is knowledge sharing which can be in the form of PLC, formal or informal sessions. An equal number of participants is also shown for the Digital Education Learning Initiative Malaysia (DeLIMA) self-learning portal. Online assembly and briefing also are reported to be commonly joined by 23 respondents. The sessions are usually conducted for a particular group of teachers, for example, for a committee, or it can be performed for all SKSL teachers. The listed activities without participation by any samples are convention, symposium, colloquium, official trip, field trip, mentor-mentee meetings, paperwork presenter, and giving lectures. Table 5: PD Activities Joined by the Respondents from the 18th of March 2020 to the 31st of December 2020 Activities Category Training

Activity

Frequency

Courses Seminar Convention Workshop Forum Symposium Colloquium Official Trip Field Trip

16 17 0 14 7 0 0 0 0

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Valid Percentage (%) 45.70 48.60 0.00 40.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Learning

Self-Learning

Counselling Clinic Knowledge Sharing Talk Assembly and Briefing Celebration Programme Launching Ceremony Mentor-mentee Meeting Discussion Paperwork Presentation Audience Paperwork Presenter Organisational Counselling Attending Lectures Giving Lectures

1 26 19 23 7 9 0 18 0

2.90 74.30 54.30 65.70 20.00 25.70 0.00 51.40 0.00

0 2 14 0

0.00 5.70 40.00 0.00

Use EPSA Learning Platform Use EP-MABLS Learning Platform Use DeLIMA Learning Platform Use Other Online Learning Portal Read Printed Materials Read Digital Materials

7 10

20.00 28.6

26 14

74.30 40.00

17 21

48.60 60.00

The samples’ experiences related to their online PD activities are recorded in the next part of this questionnaire section. Among all of the samples, most of them showed positive responses for items related to their experience regarding online PD. Most of the respondents (91.40%) used their selected gadgets for online PD before the MCO. They also managed to fulfil their required MyPPB credit points during the MCO (97.10%), and only a small number (17.10%) did not manage to finish at least one online PD activity due to any barrier. Table 6: Responses Regarding Samples’ Experiences during their Online PD Activities from the 18th of March 2020 to the 31st of December 2020 Item Have you ever used the gadget(s) you have chosen for any PD activities before the MCO? Did you manage to fulfil the required credit points of PD during the MCO (18/3/2020 – 31/12/2020)? Have you ever not completed any PD activity during the MCO (18/3/2020 – 31/12/2020) due to any barriers?

Yes No

Frequency (n=35) 32 3

Valid Percentage (%) 91.43 8.57

Yes No

34 1

97.14 2.86

Yes No

6 29

17.14 82.86

The following part of this section probed the respondents using a 4-point Likert scale. The mean and standard deviation (SD) are indicators of determining the respondents’ responses regarding the prevalence and trends of their online PD (Table 8). Throughout this result section, the SD pertains to how the data were spread out. Next, for this section with a 4-point Likert scale, the values are

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verbally interpreted as 1.00 - 1.75 = Strongly Disagree; 1.76 - 2.51 = Disagree; 2.52 3.27 = Agree; and 3.28 - 4.03 = Strongly Agree. Table 8 shows the responses of samples regarding their trend of online PD activities during the MCO. The Cronbach alpha’s score for this section is 0.833. The samples managed to improve with using teleconferencing applications (M=3.43, SD=0.50) during the MCO. Even though they are already familiar with using digital gadgets even before the pandemic (M=3.14, SD=0.60), they also strongly agree that their skills in using digital devices improved during the period (M=3.43, SD=0.50). They also accepted the trend of online PD well, admitting that, rather than attending PD activities physically, online PD activities are easier to fulfil their minimum MyPPB credit points (M=3.37, SD=0.49), easier to learn (M=2.80, SD=0.58), and more comfortable (M=3.26, SD=0.56). They are also ready to participate with online PD (M=3.09, SD=0.61) without being forced to (M=3.14, SD=0.55) and prepared to learn new ICT-based skills that are related to online PD (M=3.26, SD=0.56). Despite being interpreted verbally as agree, with a relatively low value of mean (M=2.54, SD=0.70), the samples perceived their superiors gave enough ICT-related skills training to them, which will elaborate more later barriers and motivating factors as variables. Table 7: Responses Regarding Samples’ Experiences during their Online PD Activities from the 18th of March 2020 to the 31st of December 2020 and How they Perceive Technology Section

Item

C15

You were capable of using your choice of gadget(s) above before the MCO. You were already capable of using teleconferencing applications such as Google Meet, Zoom, Webex, etc., before the MCO. You have increased your skills of using digital gadget(s) that you have chosen above during the MCO (18/3/2020 - 31/12/2020) You have increased your skills of using teleconferencing applications such as Google Meet, Zoom, Webex, etc., during the MCO (18/3/2020 - 31/12/2020) Online professional development is easier to fulfil the required credit points rather than in person. I can learn a content of a professional development session easier by online rather than in person. I am ready to participate in online

C16

C17

C18

C19

C20

C21

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Mean (M) (n=35) 3.14

Standard Deviation (SD) 0.60112

Verbal Interpretation

2.14

0.77242

Not Agree

3.43

0.50210

Strongly agree

3.43

0.50210

Strongly agree

3.37

0.49024

Strongly agree

2.80

0.58410

Agree

3.09

0.61220

Agree

C22

C23

C24

C25

C26

professional development activities during the early stage of MCO (18/3/2020 - 31/12/2020). I am ready to learn new skills related to ICT during the early stage of MCO (18/3/2020 31/12/2020). I agree that online professional development is done continuously rather than face-to-face. I am more comfortable to involve with online professional development rather than in person. My online professional development involvements are done without being forced to. School / DEO / SED / MOE gave me enough training to be skilful in using internet-based applications for professional development.

3.14

0.49366

Agree

3.23

0.64561

Agree

3.26

0.56061

Agree

3.14

0.55002

Agree

2.54

0.70054

Agree

5.5 Suggestions for Improving Online PD The last section of this questionnaire probed the respondents using another 4point Likert scale, similar to section C, as shown in Table 9. The mean values are interpreted as 1.00 - 1.75 = Strongly Disagree; 1.76 - 2.51 = Disagree; 2.52 - 3.27 = Agree; and 3.28 - 4.03 = Strongly Agree. This section obtains the samples’ suggestions on improvements for their online PD activities and with a recorded Cronbach alpha score of 0.839. The purpose of this section was to propose recommendations based on the ideas given by the teachers who went through the whole process themselves so that the ideas will be more realistic and relevant. All responses are interpreted as agree in this section; however, the values of mean in each suggestion are different. The suggestion with highest value of mean is ICT literacy-related training programmes provided by the superiors (M = 3.23, SD = 0.54695), followed by special package from the network provider to buy gadgets (M = 3.17, SD = 0.98476), government monetary incentives for gadget purchasing (M = 3.15, SD = 1.04830), special packages from the network provider to purchase internet data (M = 3.14, SD = 0.91210), government monetary incentives for internet data purchasing (M = 3.09, SD = 0.96508), more user-friendly self-learn online platforms (M = 2.97, SD = 0.66358), and more user-friendly teleconferencing applications (M = 2.94, SD = 0.68354). Table 8: Responses Regarding Respondents’ Suggestions that can Improve their Online PD Activities. Section

Item

F41

Self-learn platforms that are easier to use rather than the current platforms (DeLIMA,

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Mean (M) (n=35) 2.97

Standard Deviation (SD) .66358

Verbal Interpretation Agree

F42

F43

F44

F45

F46

F47

EPSA or EP-MABLS. Meeting application that is easier to use rather than the current applications (Zoom, Google Meet, or Cisco Webex) Schools / DEO / SED / MOE can organise more training programmes regarding gadgets and online applications learning. Monetary incentive from the government for gadget purchasing. Monetary incentive from the government for internet data purchasing. Special packages from the network provider for gadget purchasing. Special packages from the network provider for internet data purchasing.

2.94

.68354

Agree

3.23

.54695

Agree

3.15

1.04830

Agree

3.09

.96508

Agree

3.17

.98476

Agree

3.14

.91210

Agree

6. Discussion 6.1 Motivations for Online PD Activities The result indicates that the samples were highly motivated by getting rewarded in Annual Achievement Evaluation Report (AAER) marks. Teachers in Malaysian Government Schools have the freedom in preparing their Annual Work Target (AWT), a document used to generate AAER marks. By May and October every year, they can write any scope of work within their expertise and responsibilities that they want to achieve in the AWT. The AWT then will be verified and evaluated into AAER marks by their superiors. Annual AAER marks can be used to expand teachers’ careers. However, the AAER marks from teachers’ annual PD participation can only be rewarded by five per cent (Malaysian Ministry of Education, 2021). It is a relatively small amount for a motivating factor related to teachers’ process of improving their practices. With the smallest number of means recorded among all listed motivating factors, the samples also perceived neutrally that the government’s free gadgets are motivating. This indicates that the teachers were not encouraged by free gadgets given to them to practise online-based activities. In SLPS, the teachers were given free smartphones and tablets in 2017 and 2018, respectively, by the Malaysian MOE. However, the devices’ specifications were lower than the current standard requirement for multipurpose work use. Therefore, the Ministry should thoroughly plan any further plans to get teachers equipped with gadgets as motivation. 6.2 Barriers for Online PD Activities Teachers in Malaysia are burdened with teaching workloads and other additional duties, thus resulting in time strain (Kamarudin & Taat, 2020; Hizan & Rodzalan, 2020). Therefore, it is evident that time limitations due to other

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workloads are the main barrier for the samples to be effectively involved with online PD. This indicates that teachers struggled to get used to working remotely during the pandemic period. In addition, the second-highest barrier recorded in this section is ‘Family responsibilities’, which is in line with teachers’ time strain to work from home. The result can be concluded that school administrators should be aware of teachers’ teaching workloads and additional duties. The issue should be managed with proper guidelines of work distribution, creating a less stressful working environment. Also, the MOE should consider employing more teaching assistant personnel in schools too. The samples perceived neutrally to other barriers, including lack of support from the superiors and expressed disagreement to lack of colleagues’ support, as barriers to participating with online PD activities. This indicates two possibilities; either they do not perceive the absence of assistance from colleagues as a barrier, or they do have support from their colleagues. The second possibility can be correlated with points stated in 5.1 and the paragraph noted above, proposing that colleagues support is also a motivating factor for the samples, thus becoming a part of a positive working environment. Therefore, it is worth noting that a productive working ecosystem is essential to workers’ productivity, and administrators should always play their role in maintaining it. 6.3 Prevalence and Trend As many as 54.30 per cent of the samples are digital nomads (Kincl & Strach, 2018) who adapted themselves in blending well with technologies for work. Next, even though 80.00 per cent of the samples live in a rural residential area, that did not prevent them from getting online since all the samples recorded to be connected to the internet, with 20 (57.14%) of them using wireless fidelity (WIFI) connection. This result indicates that all the respondents can be involved with online PD and not affected by their location of living and which generation they are. Based on Table 5, all activities, except for ‘Reading printed materials’, were adapted to be done online. As ‘Knowledge sharing’ and ‘Using DeLIMA learning platform’ recorded the same highest frequencies, both are due to different reasons. ‘Knowledge sharing’ can be widely translated into activities such as formal (compulsory) and informal (self-initiated) PLCs or even small group teleconferencing. As long as the discussion topics are beneficial for their profession, the samples are allowed to key in the details to be acknowledged by their superiors through the MyPPB portal. Therefore, the frequencies recorded show that the samples were actively involved with mandatory and self-initiated online PD activities during the MCO. Also, some activities which used to be done by physical attendance can be adapted into online-based methods. In this research, as shown in Table 7, we can conclude that the samples improved themselves by using teleconferencing applications and devices for online PD during the MCO. Also, they perceive online PD activities and carry them out well to achieve their requirement. However, a relatively low mean (M=2.54) is recorded for agreeing that their superiors gave them enough training

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in ICT-related skills. Therefore, the teachers may initiate self-learning or carry out PLCs to improve their ICT-related skills during the MCO.

7. Conclusion This preliminary study gave early insights regarding the actual research that will explore the readiness of a larger group of teachers with online PD in Malaysia. In conclusion, the results from this study have provided the readers with an early understanding of what teachers face during the early stage of this pandemic period. First, as teachers value getting rewarded for their participation in PD activities, it is suggested that Malaysian school administrators increase the amount of AAER marks given to teachers rather than only five per cent of the maximum marks currently allocated. This might promote a more positive working ecosystem where teachers are appreciated for their learning efforts. Further studies regarding the correlation between AAER mark portion and teachers’ work satisfaction are recommended. Second, further actions should be taken regarding Malaysian teachers’ workload and work distribution issues as supported by previous research in Section 6.2. Teachers’ assistant positions and more management employees are recommended to be placed in schools to reduce teachers’ educational management workloads. Third, despite having some struggles, the teachers involved perceived well on adapting with online PD based on their participation and activities recorded. This can be correlated to the suggestions section, where the findings in Section 5.5 support that the teachers suggest being trained to update their skills by their superiors rather than getting monetary assistance. Malaysian educational administrators could use this insight to get more information on better funding allocations on human resource training. Training should be provided from time to time to make sure that Malaysian teachers are futureproofed. To be constantly updated with the latest skills and knowledge, teachers can provide the best learning experience for their students. Therefore, educational administrators in Malaysia, especially in SLPS, should know what can stimulate teachers’ willingness to learn and what prevents them from doing so.

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Marimuthu, P., & Vasudevan, H. (2020). The Psychological Impact Of Working from Home During Coronavirus (COVID 19) Pandemic: A Case Study. CnR’s International Journal of Social & Scientific Research, 6(11), 18-29. Moekwa, B. C. (2020). The Effects Of Continuing Professional Teacher Development On Teachers’ Workload In The Gauteng Province. Johannesburg: University Of South Africa. Muhayimana, T. (2020). Teacher Professional Learning During the Pandemic: Five Critical Areas to Address. Open Journals in Education, 5, 266-279. https://doi.org/10.32674/jsard.v5iS2.2840 Pokhrel, S., & Chhetri, R. (2021). A Literature Review on Impact of COIVD-19 Pandemic on Teaching and Learning. Higher Education for the Future, 8(1), 133-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/2347631120983481 Quinn, F., Charteris, J., Adlington, R., Rizk, N., Fletcher, P., & Parkes, M. (2020). The potential of online technologies in meeting PLD needs of rural teachers. AsiaPacific Journal of Teacher Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2020.1849538 Savvidou, C. (2020). The Impact Of Covid-19 In An Online Teacher Education Course. Cyprus: University of Nicosia. Shaha, A. I. M., Safri, S. N. A., Thevadas, R., Noordin, N. K., Rahman, A.A., Sekawi, Z., Ideris, A., & Sultan. M. T. H. (2020). COVID-19 outbreak in Malaysia: Actions taken by the Malaysian government. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 97, 108-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.05.093 Singh, T.K.R, & Chan, S. (2014). Teacher Readiness On ICT Integration In TeachingLearning: A Malaysian Case Study. International Journal of Asian Social Science 4(7), 874 – 885. Zakiyuddin. (2019). Teacher Professional Development. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. 434, 327-331. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200427.066

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 57-77, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.4 Received Aug 22, 2021; Revised Nov 07, 2021; Accepted Nov 13, 2021

Language Learners’ Willingness to Communicate and Speaking Anxiety in Online versus Face-to-Face Learning Contexts Nada Alqarni King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9238-2258 Abstract. Foreign language instruction has moved from face-to-face to online learning in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to explore the extent to which Foreign Language Classroom Enjoyment (FLCE), Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety (FLSA) and demographic variables (i.e., age, gender, and course grades) are linked to English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ Willingness to Communicate (WTC) in English under two conditions: online learning and conventional (face-toface) learning. The study sample consisted of 106 Saudi undergraduate EFL learners. The research instrument was an online questionnaire. The data were analysed quantitatively through t-tests, Pearson correlational tests, and a hierarchical regression analysis. The research findings indicated that: (1) higher levels of WTC were found in the online learning context than in the face-to-face context; (2) FLCE was a positive predictor, while FLSA was a negative predictor, of WTC in the online and face-toface learning contexts; (3) a high course grade seemed to be a positive predictor of EFL learners’ WTC only in the online learning context. These findings imply that utilizing online-based learning, particularly in the context of developing speaking skills, may foster EFL learners’ communication in the foreign language. Therefore, it is recommended that language teachers should support their students in practicing L2 communication during online classes in a more supportive atmosphere. Keywords: willingness to communicate; speaking anxiety; classroom enjoyment; online learning; learner’s psychology

1. Introduction Several studies have examined language learners’ affective states and how these have an impact on their foreign language communication and language use (Khajavy et al., 2018; MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012). In the context of language learning psychology, the term ‘affect’ refers to positive feelings, such as selfconfidence, motivation, enjoyment and willingness to communicate, or to negative feelings, such as language anxiety and boredom (MacIntyre & ©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

Gregersen, 2012). Among the positive emotions, the willingness to communicate (WTC) in the second language has been the focus of several recent studies on Second Language Acquisition (SLA). It has been argued that preparing learners who are willing to communicate in the target language is one of the most significant goals of language instruction worldwide (Dewaele, 2019; Lee & Hsieh, 2019; Wang et al., 2021). WTC can be defined as an individual’s preference to speak without any pressure (MacIntyre, 2020). In this study, WTC has been examined from two main perspectives. The first is a trait-like perspective whereby WTC is investigated alongside other affects, such as self-confidence in the Second Language (L2), language learning motivation (Yashima, 2012) and language anxiety (Hashimoto, 2002). The second perspective is dynamic and situated (Kang, 2005), whereby the influences of personal, contextual (i.e., learning environment, teacher support, classroom activities and topics) (Khajavy et al., 2018) and linguistic factors (Cao, 2011) are examined. Language learners show a wide range of individual differences regarding their WTC (Khajavy et al., 2018). However, there is still a literature gap on the extent to which WTC varies, depending on the type of language instruction setting, for example, face-to-face or online learning environments. Language anxiety is one of the most affective reactions to language communication (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012). Different types of language anxiety, namely writing, reading and speaking anxiety, are related to various language skills (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012). In this study, the focus is limited to the impact of foreign language speaking anxiety (FLSA) on WTC. Although it has been argued that language anxiety plays a crucial role in predicting language learners’ WTC, the role of positive emotions, such as foreign language classroom enjoyment (FLCE) (Khajavy et al., 2018), and the role of other contextual factors, such as the classroom environment, should be studied in terms of how they support or detract from WTC. Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) have emphasized that enjoyment should be considered in the research literature in order to provide a balance with studies that have examined the role of negative emotions, such as foreign language anxiety. FLCE has been defined as “a complex emotion, capturing interacting dimensions of challenge and perceived ability that reflect the human drive for success in the face of difficult tasks.” (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2016, p. 216). Among the external variables linked to WTC are factors related to the learning environment, which are understood as “variables embedded in the immediate classroom environment that exerted influences on learners’ WTC” (Cao, 2011, p. 471). Although previous studies have focused on the role of certain environmental factors, such as teacher support, peers and social interaction, in learners’ WTC (e.g., Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014), the role of the type of communicative context – especially contexts utilizing technological devices – in WTC, FLSA and FLCE remains unexplored. In the light of the current literature, the main assumption of this study is that if foreign language learners are situated in a language environment where there is

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a deliberate effort made to minimise student anxiety and which provides a pleasant learning atmosphere, they might be willing to speak in the target language. If these conditions are not met, learners would be unwilling to volunteer answers and communicate in the classroom (MacIntyre, 2020). Therefore, learners’ positive emotions can help them absorb more linguistic input and more importantly, boost their ability to overcome the effects of negative emotions (Dewaele, 2021). The key question, however, is whether or not the levels of and the relationship between these variables differ when instructors are forced to switch their method of instruction to emergency remote teaching, as they were with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. This study attempts to answer this question. While a growing body of previous studies has addressed FLSA, FLCE and WTC in conventional–traditional classroom settings, little research has specifically compared these variables in traditional versus online learning contexts in the case of undergraduate students. This study is an attempt to fill a gap in the FLSA and the WTC literature on undergraduate EFL learners. Thus, the purposes of this study are to focus on the impacts of both positive (i.e., FLCE) and negative emotions (i.e., FLSA) on WTC, taking into consideration the type of communicative context (face-to-face versus online learning), and to investigate the main predictors of WTC in both learning settings. The findings of this study might offer insights into how L2 teachers can utilize the learning context to develop their students’ psychological states, thereby helping them become more willing to communicate in the foreign languages they are learning, particularly during the pandemic.

2. Literature Review 2.1. Foreign language anxiety Existing research has focused on learner emotions, including both positive and negative types (enjoyment, frustration, boredom, hope, motivation, anxiety, shame and anger), in language education for some time. Among the negative emotions, language anxiety is the most affective reaction in terms of second language communication (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012) and one of the main individual differences among language learners, as reported in SLA research (Dewaele, 2021). Generally, anxiety can be classified as follows as: (1) a stable personality trait that a person can have in a variety of situations; (2) state anxiety, which is considered a temporary state affected by a particular moment; and (3) situation-specific anxiety, which is more likely to occur in particular circumstances (MacIntyre, 2020). Language anxiety has been classified as situation specific, thereby occurring in language learning settings such as classrooms (MacIntyre, 2020). As argued by MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012), certain feelings are associated with language anxiety, such as tension, nervousness, worry and being upset. Those “feelings associated with language anxiety typically precede avoidance or escape; we want to leave a situation that makes us anxious as a means of self-protection. We are at a risk in a situation where we cannot understand what is being said” (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012, p. 195). Certain physiological reactions, such as

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sweating, blushing or a racing heart, and internal and behavioral reactions, such as self-deprecating thoughts, fidgeting, talking too much and stuttering, are also associated with language anxiety (Woodrow, 2006). In a few studies, it has been argued that language anxiety can play a positive or a facilitative role in the learning process, for example, to keep learners alert and more focused (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012; Woodrow, 2006). However, other studies have reported negative effects or the debilitating role of anxiety in language learning achievement (Dewaele, 2009). More specifically, one study found that more anxious students had lower course grades than those of their non-anxious counterparts (Dewaele, 2009). Anxious learners also avoided volunteering answers in the classroom, participated less, forgot previously learned language materials (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012) and dropped out of the language course (Dewaele, 2009). Jiang and Dewaele (2019) found that Chinese undergraduate EFL learners reported higher levels of FLCA compared with other international students. The authors attributed this finding to the educational system in China, which is characterized as exam oriented, and to the relatively few opportunities for Chinese EFL learners to communicate with native English speakers. The term ‘language anxiety’ encompasses feelings of worry or fear-related affective states that are usually associated with using/learning a foreign language (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012). Additionally, language anxiety covers different language skills, namely speaking, writing and comprehension. In a qualitative study that explored the sources of FLSA among senior high school students in Indonesia, Mukminin et al. (2015) found that poor speaking skills, low self-esteem in relation to speaking English and fear of negative responses from the teacher and peers were the most common reasons. The authors also found other reasons, such as lack of English vocabulary and grammar skills as well as cultural influences on speaking English due to a more teacher-centered style in the language classroom. Woodrow (2006) found L2 speaking anxiety to be a significant predictor of oral achievement among 272 advanced English students in Australian universities. The author also reported causes of anxiety, such as interacting with native speakers. 2.2. Foreign Language Classroom Enjoyment (FLCE) FLCE is the most studied positive emotion in recent SLA research (Piniel & Albert, 2018). Csikszentmihalyi (2008) described enjoyment in its broad meaning as a sense of accomplishment experienced when someone achieves something unexpected. According to Fredrickson (2004, 2013) – the founder of the broadenand-build theory – positive emotions constitute an important factor for broadening people’s momentary thought–action and attention capacities, building their personal resources for the future, promoting their resilience in difficult times and expanding their creativity in relation to problem solving. Based on this theory, MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012) added that learners’ positive emotions can contribute to overcoming their negative emotions when learning/using L2. They also argued that positive emotions can boost the ability of learners to learn and process foreign languages.

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Research aims to explore the effects of certain learner variables, such as trait emotional intelligence (Li, 2020), WTC (Khajavy et al., 2018), foreign language anxiety (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; Jiang & Dewaele, 2019) and learners’ positive attitudes (Dewaele & Dewaele, 2018), on FLCE. Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) investigated the effects of learner variables, mainly anxiety, on FLCE, among a multilingual sample of 1746 learners in different multilingual contexts. The authors found that older learners who reached higher levels of academic achievement and had higher levels of foreign language proficiency tended to experience higher levels of FLCE. Moreover, they reported a moderate negative correlation between FLCE and FLCA, indicating a degree of interrelation yet independence between the two variables. Based on that evidence, Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) conceptualized anxiety and enjoyment as two different emotions that might be negatively correlated rather than as opposite ends of a single continuum (i.e., extreme ends of the same construct). In a follow-up study on the same database, Dewaele and MacIntyre (2016) found that positive and negative emotions were essential in helping students regulate their emotions. They stated, “the goal is not to eliminate FLCA any more than a runner would wish to eliminate one of her feet (even the sore, aching one). Learners will find their balance when both feet, enjoyment and anxiety, are brought into equilibrium” (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2016, pp. 233–234). In their recent meta-analysis of 21 studies on the relationship between FLCE and FLCA, Botes et al. (2021) found a moderate negative correlation between the two dimensions. They concluded that language learners who experienced more enjoyment in the classroom tended to feel less anxious. A few studies found that FLCE varied, depending on certain factors. For example, female students experienced more enjoyment than their male peers (Dewaele & Dewaele, 2017). In their pseudo-longitudinal study, Dewaele and Dewaele (2017) investigated the changes in FLCE and FLCA over time among three groups of students from two British secondary schools. The authors found that the two constructs were stable over time, but FLCE was predicted by the students’ attitudes towards both the foreign language and their teacher, as well as multilingualism. The role of multilingualism in predicting FLCE was also reported in some studies (Botes et al., 2020; Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014). Students’ positive attitudes towards both the foreign language (De Smet et al., 2018) and their language teachers (Jiang & Dewaele, 2019) were found to be linked to higher levels of FLCE. FLCE was predicted by levels of proficiency in the foreign language; advanced foreign language learners tended to experience higher levels of FLCE than beginner learners (Botes et al., 2020). Thus, the feeling of being fluent when speaking an L2 might help students feel proud in the classroom and allow them to initiate communication (Dewaele & Alfawzan, 2018). A few researchers who focused on the relationship between FLCE and academic performance found that higher levels of academic achievement could be associated with higher levels of FLCE (Botes et al., 2020; Dewaele & Alfawzan, 2018; Jiang & Dewaele, 2019). FLCE thus seems to be “the fuel that drives the learning and it is strengthened and replenished by the performance and progress in the FL” (Dewaele, 2021, p. 20).

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Several studies also found that enjoyment was mediated by social interactions with friendly peers, supportive and humorous teachers, as well as an encouraging and positive classroom environment (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; Khajavy et al., 2018; Saito et al., 2018). Additionally, interesting and adequately challenging classroom activities could contribute to increasing students’ enjoyment (Khajavy et al., 2018). The school context was reported be an important predictor of FLCE. Interestingly, Resnik and Dewaele (2021) found that students reported lower levels of FLCE when schools shifted to online learning during the pandemic. However, the relationship between these variables might not be based on causality but could be bi-directional. Thus, the relationships among FLSA, FLCE and WTC in different learning contexts remain unexplored. 2.3. Willingness to communicate in a second language Early research on WTC showed that individual trait-like factors, such as selfconfidence, motivation and language anxiety, affected learners’ WTC (Peng & Woodrow, 2010; Yashima, 2002). MacIntyre (2020) argued that those students who were willing to communicate might feel self-confident in their conversations and answers. Accordingly, certain conditions (i.e., self-confidence, lack of anxiety and communicative competence) are crucial in order for language learners to volunteer answers in class. It has also been argued that WTC can be considered the main goal of language instruction, incorporating linguistic and communicative competence, along with other factors (MacIntyre, 2020). The evidence of this perspective was shown previously in an empirical study by MacIntyre and Legatto (2011), who found that participants attributed a decline in their dynamic WTC to their perceived lack of competence and inadequate vocabulary knowledge. The central research question in several studies concerns the relationships between WTC and certain psychological variables such as FLCE and FLCA (Dewaele, 2019; Khajavy et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2021). In his quantitative study, Dewaele (2019) found that anxiety was the strongest negative predictor of WTC. He observed that enjoyment and frequency of foreign language use by teachers were positive predictors of WTC in a traditional face-to-face classroom. As suggested by Dewaele (2019), “creating a friendly and sufficiently challenging and interesting emotional classroom environment and picking conversation topics that match the students’ interests” can boost students’ WTC (p. 533). In their study on the role of social climate, language mindset and academic emotions (enjoyment, pride, anxiety and boredom) in predicting WTC among 811 Chinese college and university students, Wang et al. (2021) found that the effects of language mindset on WTC in class were fully mediated by academic emotions (enjoyment, pride and boredom). The effects of the social climate on WTC in class were fully mediated by the four academic emotions. Khajavy et al. (2018) examined the role of enjoyment, anxiety and classroom environment (CE) in WTC among 1528 secondary school learners of English in Iran. Their findings showed that higher levels of WTC were positively associated with a positive classroom environment. They also found that higher levels of FLCE and lower levels of language anxiety were linked to higher WTC, indicating

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the role of enjoyment in predicting WTC. In a more recent study, Lee (2020) investigated the role of grit (perseverance in terms of effort and consistency of interest) and CE in learners’ WTC. Three groups of Korean EFL learners, totaling 647 participants, were involved in that study. The findings showed that grit (when defined as perseverance in terms of effort) and CE were indicators of WTC, but grit (when defined as consistency of interest) was not predictive of learners’ WTC. These findings suggest that FLCE may help students utilize more opportunities to speak English. The author also concluded that FLCE tended to play an important role in learners’ L2 communication and enhanced their WTC. As shown by previous studies, WTC appears to be mediated by several psychological and environmental factors. One of the environmental factors is the type of instruction, which seems to play a crucial role in motivating L2 learners to initiate communication in the L2 (Resnik & Dewaele, 2021). The present study focuses specifically on the impact of the learning setting on WTC. A learning setting that needs to be considered is online learning compared with traditional learning. 2.4. Online learning context Online learning refers to e-learning or virtual learning, which means delivering information or conducting instruction through the use of technology, primarily over the internet (Wang et al., 2010). During online classes, the interactive communication between teachers and students relies on the use of technological devices. In anticipating the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, many educational institutions worldwide, including those in Saudi Arabia, decided to shift from offline to online learning to continue the teaching–learning process safely and securely. This required students to study from their homes through online classes. Previous studies have shown that the classroom environment (conceptualized as involving teacher support, task orientation and student cohesiveness) might be a predictor of the psychological states of students (Cao, 2011). The classroom environment refers to “all the things that are present in the classroom that can affect individuals’ engagement” (Khajavy et al., 2018, p. 6). The type of learning environment itself (e.g., conventional learning face-to-face versus online learning) can influence the positive or negative emotions of learners (Xiangming et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021). In their experimental study, Rahimi and Soleymani (2015) explored the effects of using a mobile learning device (to access podcasts) on practicing listening skills and the levels of listening anxiety among EFL learners. The researchers compared the levels of listening anxiety between 25 participants in the control group and 25 participants in the experimental group. Their findings showed reduced listening anxiety and enhanced listening comprehension in the experimental group after the experiment. The researchers concluded that “computer-based learning environments have been found to contribute to more successful listening” and could also provide students with more opportunities to listen in informal situations (p. 157). In their study using a qualitative design, Reinders and Wattana (2015) discussed EFL students’ perspectives on their emotions in a digital game environment. The students reported that they were more reticent because they often felt worried about making grammatical errors

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and being judged negatively by their teachers and peers in an English language classroom. In contrast, in a digital game environment (where the students used pseudonyms and avatars while playing with others), they were more likely to feel safe and relaxed when interacting using English. In relation to the impact of online learning on language learners’ emotions, some studies have reported that learners’ emotions tend to change, depending on the communicative context. For example, Xiangming et al. (2020) conducted a longitudinal study on 158 postgraduate language learners to investigate the changes in language anxiety levels over a 10-week period in a technology-assisted learning setting (the mobile learning app for the Rain Classroom). The researchers found that the learners felt less anxious about language learning in the technology-assisted learning setting. They also noticed that the students developed positive attitudes towards learning technology, participated more and showed a heightened awareness of their learning progress. Xiangming et al. (2020, p. 9) reported that “In the technology-based surroundings, students felt more secure and relaxed when interacting with the technology tool or with other peers via the technology tool”. A study by Zhang et al. (2021) focused on language learners’ enjoyment and emotional regulation in an online collaborative learning environment. Their findings showed that the participants used different types of emotional regulation (self-, co- and socially shared) to achieve learning enjoyment through collaborative online learning. Furthermore, the effects of automatic speech recognition-based websites on Indonesian EFL learners’ vocabulary knowledge, enjoyment and speaking anxiety were assessed by Bashori et al. (2021). Their findings revealed that using websites successfully increased the students’ knowledge of vocabulary, reduced their speaking anxiety and stimulated their enjoyment. Lee and Hsieh (2019) explored the relationships between affective variables (second language self-confidence, anxiety, motivation and grit) and WTC in inclass, out-of-class and digital environments among 261 Taiwanese undergraduate EFL students. The quantitative data showed that the students with higher levels of grit and self-confidence had higher levels of WTC in all three communicative settings. The researchers reasoned that if EFL learners remain steadfast and persistent in their language learning and confident about their L2 communication, they are more likely to initiate communication despite the type of communicative setting. They also found that a lack of anxiety could be an important predictor of students’ WTC in a non-digital environment but not in the digital context. This interesting finding needs to be backed up with further empirical evidence. Until now, a large body of research has focused on language learners’ psychological states in traditional classroom learning, where they often talk with their teachers and peers in a relatively predictable face-to-face L2 scenario (e.g., Dewaele & Dewaele, 2017; Yu, 2011). However, probing into rapidly emerging elearning contexts, in which learners communicate in the L2 through technological devices, as well as their effects on students’ WCT, speaking anxiety and enjoyment remains unexplored.

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3. Research Methodology 3.1. Research goal This study investigated the impacts of FLSA, FLCE and demographic variables on EFL learners’ WTC in English in face-to-face versus online learning environments. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions: 1. Is there a difference in the levels of WTC, FLSA and FLCE between face-toface and online learning contexts? 2. To what extent do FLSA and FLCE correlate with WTC in face-to-face and online learning contexts? 3. Which demographic variables (i.e., age, course grades, FLSA and FLCE) are significant predictors of EFL students’ WTC in face-to-face and online learning contexts? 3.2. Context and participation A total of 106 EFL university students (36 males and 70 females) from the English language department at King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia, participated in this study. Their ages ranged from 19 to 24 years (M = 20.88, SD = 1.28). All participants were Saudi citizens with no overseas experience. All participants spoke the Arabic language as their native language while they were studying EFL. With respect to their academic 5-point grading scores, they had the following GPAs: 4.51–5 (64% of the participants), 4.01–4.50 (24%), 3.51–4 (6%), 3.01–3.50 (5%) and below 3.01 (1%of the participants).1 Generally, Saudi university students in the English department were placed in different classes and levels (levels 1 to 8), taking English courses for a maximum of 24 hours per week. The English language courses varied in terms of their content, covering reading, writing, listening and speaking to more advanced courses in linguistics, applied linguistics, English literature and Arabic–English translation. Only the students who were above level 3 were included in this study because it aimed to examine the students’ self-perception of their WTC concerning their FLAS and FLCE when learning the English language in two contexts: faceto-face and online. At the time of this study, the participants were taking online English courses (elearning) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Before COVID-19, the students had attended traditional face-to-face classes for at least three semesters. Thus, all the participants had experienced both learning contexts. 3.3. Instrumentation This study adopted a cross-sectional design using online questionnaires distributed to the participants.

GPA means grade point average, which is a number that indicates the score that students have achieved in their college courses on average. According to the Saudi Arabian higher education grading system, a 0–5 grading scale has the following levels: 4.76–5 (exceptional), 4.51–4.75 (excellent), 4.01–4.50 (superior), 3.51–4 (very good), 3.01–3.50 (above average), 2.51–3 (good), 2.01– 2.50 (high pass), 1.01–2 (pass) and 0–1 (fail). 1

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The main instrument used in this study was an online questionnaire that consisted of three main parts: (1) demographic information; (2) questions on the traditional face-to-face learning setting (WTC, FLSA and FLCE); and (3) questions on the online learning setting (WTC, FLSA and FLCE). Table 1 gives a detailed description of the instrument used. 3.4. Procedure The study was carried out during the summer term of the 2020-2021 academic year. The participants were recruited through a snowball sampling technique, which is a form of non-probability sampling (Rooney & Ness Evans, 2018). This technique was achieved by asking participants to share the online survey via their university email accounts with their classmates who were EFL students. One of the advantages of an online questionnaire is that it allows the collection of large amounts of data from participants within a short time (Dörnyei, 2007). However, one of the disadvantages of using a questionnaire is that it does not allow complex meaning or causes of factors (Dörnyei, 2007) to be explored. Since the main purpose of this study was to explore the interrelationships between the variables, the quantitative approach was adopted.

To ensure the validity of the questionnaire, each item was presented in Arabic and in English in order to allow participants to confirm their understanding of the content of the scales. The online survey took about 15 minutes to complete. Instructions were given at the beginning of the survey, and confidentiality and anonymity were ensured to encourage honest responses. Participation was voluntary. The questionnaire was translated into the Arabic language by the author and rechecked by a proficient bilingual Arabic–English translator. The questionnaire was also assessed by two experts who agreed that it was a valid measure. All the scales used in this study had previously been used in several other studies (see Table 1), and had been determined as being valid and reliable to measure the constructs. The research design and the questionnaire obtained ethical approval from the ethics board at the author’s research institution.

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Table 1: A detailed description of the instrument used in this study Variables

Part 1: Demographic information

Age, gender, and academic GPA grade

No. of items

Example item

Rating scale

What is your academic GPA grade?

Short answer questions

When are you given a chance to talk freely in an English (face-to-face) class? I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking in my English (face-to-face) class. The face-to-face English class has a positive environment.

1= definitely not willing to 5= definitely willing 1= strongly disagree to 5= strongly agree

(Dewaele, 2019; Wang et al., 2021)

1= definitely not willing to 5 = definitely willing 1= definitely not willing to 5= definitely willing 1= strongly disagree to 5= strongly agree

(Lee, 2020; Dewaele & MacIntyre,2014)

1= definitely not willing to 5 = definitely willing

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Part 2: 1) WTC

2) FLSA

3) FLCE

Face-to-face learning setting

Part 3: Online learning setting

Reference

1) WTC

2) FLSA

3) FLCE

When are you given a chance to talk freely in an English (online) class? I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking in my English (online) class. The online English class has a positive environment

(Woodrow, 2006)

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3.5. Data analysis Before the statistical analysis, the data were statistically analyzed for reliability. Cronbach’s alpha for the WTC scale was good ( = .93 in the face-to-face learning context and  = .90 in the online learning context). The reliability estimates for

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FLSA and FLCE in both learning contexts were also good. To test the normality of the scores for the dependent variable (i.e., WTC), the difference between the WTC scores in the online and the face-to-face learning contexts was computed, and then, the normality of this new score was checked using the Shapiro–Wilk test2 (see Field, 2009, p. 329 for more details about the assumption of normality in the case of dependent t-tests). Based on the Shapiro–Wilk test results, the data were normally distributed (statistics = .981, p = .135); therefore, parametric tests could be used for the data analyses. A paired t-test was performed to find out the differences between the scores for each variable (i.e., WTC, FLSA and FLCE) in the two learning contexts. To examine the impacts of the independent variables (FLSA, FLCE, age, gender and course grades) on the main dependent variable (WTC) in both learning contexts, the quantitative data were analyzed statistically using hierarchical regression analyses separately in the two contexts. Pearson correlational tests were also performed to examine how FLSA and FLCE were linked to WTC in both contexts. All statistical calculations in this research were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, version 21).

4. Results 4.1. Descriptive data for WTC, FLSA and FLCE in the face-to-face and online learning settings Table 2 demonstrates that the participants reported above-neutral levels of WTC (M = 3.26, SD =1.29; M = 3.68, SD = 1.08) and FLCE (M = 3.59, SD = 1.15; M = 3.70, SD = 1.04) in the face-to-face and the online learning contexts, respectively. The mean score was above 3 (neutral agreement) on a five-point Likert scale. This result indicated that EFL learners generally had high levels of WTC and FLCE in both learning contexts. Interestingly, the results indicated that the mean score for FLSA in the online EFL context (M = 2.89, SD = .88) was lower than that in the face-to-face EFL context (M = 3.01, SD = .89), indicating that the participants reported lower levels of FLSA during online classes than face-to-face classes. There were no significant differences between males and females regarding their WTC, FLSA and FLCE in both learning settings. Table 2: Descriptive data for the WTC, FLSA and FLCE variables in the two settings (N = 106) EFL context Face-to-face learning Online learning

Variables

Mean

Std. deviation



WTC FLSA FLCE WTC FLSA FLCE

3.26 3.01 3.59 3.68 2.89 3.70

1.29 .89 1.15 1.08 .88 1.04

.93 .91 .92 .90 .90 .87

Note: WTC= Willingness to Communicate, FLSA = Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety, FLCE = Foreign Language Classroom Enjoyment,  = Cronbach’s Alpha

According to Field (2009, p. 221), “the predictors do not need to be normally distributed”.

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4.2. The statistical comparisons between WTC, FLSA and FLCE in the face-toface and online learning settings Paired sample t-tests and correlational tests were conducted to find out the differences and the correlations between the variables in both learning contexts. First, the statistical analysis showed that the participants self-reported significantly higher WTC scores in the online learning setting (M = 3.68, SE = .125) than in the face-to-face learning setting (M = 3.26, SE = .104), t (105) = -2.39, p = .01 (see Table 3). There was a negative correlation between the WTC scores in both learning contexts although it was not statistically significant (see Table 3). Second, the results did not show any difference between the mean scores for FLSA and FLCE in both learning contexts. Interestingly, the results indicated a positive and significant correlation between the FLSA levels in the face-to-face and the online learning contexts (r = .341, p < .001), indicating that those participants who reported high levels of speaking anxiety in the face-to-face learning context did the same in the online context (see Table 3). Table 3: Paired sample t-tests for WTC, FLSA and FLCE variables in the two learning settings (N = 106) Paired differences Mean

Pair 1 WTC (face-to-face)WTC (online) Pair 2 FLSA (face-to-face)FLSA (online) Pair 3 FLCE (face-to-face)FLCE (online)

Std. deviation

Sig. (2tailed)

Correlat ion

Sig

-2.392

0.019

-0.155

.112

-0.420

1.81

Std. error mean 0.175

0.120

1.02

0.099

1.218

0.226

0.341

.000

-0.108

1.64

0.159

-0.679

0.499

-0.115

.241

Note: df = 105.

4.2.1. The correlational analyses of WTC, FLSA and FLCE in the face-to-face and online learning settings As presented in Table 4, WTC in the face-to-face learning context had a negative and significant correlation with FLSA and a positive and significant correlation with FLCE. These results indicated that the EFL students who reported high levels of WTC reported low levels of speaking anxiety and high levels of enjoyment in the face-to-face learning context. The correlation analysis also showed a negative and statistically significant relationship between FLSA and FLCE (r = -.0523, p < .001) in the face-to-face learning context. This result revealed that the participants with high levels of FLSA might have low levels of FLCE. Similarly, the Pearson correlational analysis between WTC in the online learning context and FLSA and FLCE showed a negative and significant link between WTC and FLSA (r = -.628, p < .001). Meanwhile, a positive and significant link between WTC and FLCE (r = .646, p < .001) was found. There was a negative and significant relationship between FLSA and FLCE (r = -.379, p < .001) in the online learning

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context. These results indicated that the EFL students with high levels of FLSA seemed to have lower levels of WTC, as well as FLCE, during online classes. Table 4: Pearson correlational analyses between WTC, FLSA and FLCE in the two settings (N = 106) Face-to-face FLSA (Face-to-face learning FLCE (Face-to-face learning context) learning context) context Pearson’s WTC -0.754** 0.701** correlation FLSA --------0.523** coefficient Online FLSA (online learning context) FLCE (online learning learning context) context WTC -0.628** 0.646** FLSA -------0.379** **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

4.3. Predictors of EFL students’ WTC in the face-to-face and online learning contexts 4.3.1. Face-to-face EFL learning context The regression analysis produced a sample multiple correlation coefficient of 0.84, indicating that approximately 71.4% of the total variance in the WTC levels in the face-to-face learning context could be explained by the predictor variables, F (4, 105) = 63.01, p  .001. In the first block, the age and the course grade were slightly significant (p < .01), explaining 7.8% of the total variance (see Table 5). In the second block, the effects of FLSA and FLCE were strongly significant,  = -.509 and .435, respectively, all ps < .001. More specifically, this model accounted for 63.6% of the variance. Thus, as shown in Table 4, FLSA (B = -.73) was a negative predictor of WTC, while FLCE (B = 0.489) was a positive predictor of WTC in the face-to-face learning context. Table 5: Hierarchical regression model for predicting WTC in the face-to-face learning environment (N = 106) 1



Std. E

(Constant)

-3.61

2.41

Age Course grade (Constant) Age Course grade FLSA- face-to-face learning context FLCE- face-to-face learning context

.244 .279 2.08 .027 .167 -.735

0.09 .125 1.564 .058 .072 .094

.027 .131* -.509***

.489

0.70

.435***

Model

Note: В = Unstandardized coefficients;  = Beta (standardized regression coefficient); R2 = 0.078, R2 = 0.06, F Change = 4.38** for Model 1. R2 = 0.714, R2 = 0.703, F Change = 112.16*** for Model 2. (*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001).

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.242** .219*

4.3.2. Online EFL learning context The regression analysis produced a sample multiple correlation coefficient of 0.77, indicating that approximately 60% of the total variance in the WTC levels in the online learning context could be explained by the predictor variables, F (4, 105) = 37.64, p  .001. In the first block, the age and the course grade were not significant, explaining only 4% of the total variance (see Table 6). In the second block, the effects of FLSA and FLCE were strongly significant,  = -.461 and 0.45, respectively, all ps < .001. More specifically, this model accounted for 55.9% of the variance. Thus, as shown in Table 5, FLSA (B = -.563) was a negative predictor of WTC, while FLCE (B = .464) was a positive predictor of WTC in the online learning context. Table 6: Hierarchical regression model for predicting WTC in the online learning environment (N = 106) Model 1

(Constant) 4.450 Age -0.085 Course grade 0.159 (Constant) 4.954 Age -0.076 Course grade 0.037 FLSA - in online learning -0.563 context FLCE - in online learning 0.464 context Note: R2 = 0.040, R2 = 0.022, F Change = 2.17 for Model 1. R2 = 0.599, R2 = 0.583, F Change = 70.205*** for Model 2.

Std. E



2.046 0.084 0.106 1.541 0.057 0.070 0.085

-0.091 0.034 -.0.461***

0.72

0.450***

-0.101 0.150

(*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001).

5. Discussion This study sought to advance the understanding of how foreign language anxiety and enjoyment are linked to EFL university students’ WTC in traditional face-toface and online learning settings. The data yielded the following results: first, the participants self-reported higher WTC scores in the online setting than in the faceto-face learning setting. This finding suggests that those EFL learners who might be unwilling to initiate L2 communication in the traditional classroom might be willing to do so during online learning. This suggests that online-based communication might encourage students to initiate communication in their L2. This finding reflects Lee and Hsieh’s (2019) suggestion that generally, the digital environment could help students feel more comfortable communicating in and using their L2. It can also be speculated that EFL learners tend to prefer to initiate communication and speak in online classes than in face-to-face classes. Today, individuals are more likely to rely on digital media for communication in their daily lives, in both their L1 and L2, which may, in turn, enhance their WTC, even during their learning process. Second, the results revealed that the mean scores of FLSA in the face-to-face and the online learning environments were very similar (M = 3.10 and M = 2.89, respectively). In other words, EFL learners who experience high levels of FLSA in

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the classroom may still have that negative psychological state even during online classes. Third, the correlational results regarding the link between WTC and FLSA and FLCE in both learning settings revealed that FLSA had a negative association with WTC in both learning contexts. Thus, EFL learners with high levels of FLSA might have low WTC levels, regardless of the learning context. This finding supports the findings of other studies, conducted in conventional–traditional classrooms, which found that speaking anxiety might be the main obstacle to fostering WTC (Dewaele, 2019; Khajavy et al., 2018). This study’s results confirm previous findings but in another learning context, which is online-based learning. As has been discussed before, these findings may be attributed to several external or internal factors. For example, language learners may have fears of being negatively evaluated by peers or teachers or being corrected if they make mistakes when speaking. A closer analysis of the data revealed that the participants selfreported a high mean anxiety score (M = 4.01, SD = 1.06) in the item “I feel very self-conscious about speaking English in front of other students” in the online learning setting. They also self-reported a high mean score in the same item in the face-to-face learning setting (M = 3.46, SD = 1.28). The participants also had a high mean score in the item “I am afraid that my English teacher is ready to correct every mistake I make” (M = 3.59, SD = 1.37) during online classes. Thus, it can be speculated that the fear of making mistakes orally and the fear of a negative evaluation from peers may significantly contribute to an increase in students’ speaking anxiety, which, in turn, decreases their WTC. However, enjoyment might increase the willingness to initiate communication in the classroom or during online-based learning. This suggests that EFL students who maintain their enjoyment when learning their L2 are more likely to initiate interaction in the classroom. This interpretation is supported by previous studies (e.g., Khajavy et al., 2018) that have reported enjoyment as an important factor for increasing students’ WTC. Thus, enjoyable classroom activities under supportive conditions might facilitate students’ L2 communication (Khajavy et al., 2018; Yashima, 2002). Moreover, an enjoyable classroom can provide a learning environment that fosters social bonds and interpersonal relationships among language learners (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014). The role of FLCE in fostering WTC in different learning environments therefore emerges clearly from the data in this study. When considering the impacts of FLSA and FLCE on WTC in the two learning contexts, the regression analysis demonstrated that FLSA was a negative predictor of WTC in both contexts, while FLCE was a positive predictor of WTC in both contexts. This echoes the findings of Khajavy et al. (2018) and Peng and Woodrow (2010), who reported that an enjoyable classroom (e.g., the English teacher is supportive, and the classroom is encouraging) results in a greater interest in providing the students with more opportunities to speak English and become more relaxed and less anxious. However, to the best of the author’s knowledge, the current study is the first research that shows a positive association between FLCE and WTC, as well as a negative association between FLSA and

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WTC, among EFL university students in an online learning environment. Thus, this study adds to the previous literature on the foreign language learning process and communication, which indicates that a positive classroom atmosphere might help students overcome their psychological difficulties, such as L2 speaking anxiety (Dewaele & Dewaele, 2018; Khajavy et al., 2018; Saito et al., 2018), and encourage them to speak using foreign languages in both online learning and traditional classroom settings. In this regard, the significant role of positive emotions (e.g., enjoyment) and negative emotions (e.g., anxiety) in WTC and language use in different contexts, both inside and outside the classroom, merit further investigation. Interestingly, the results indicate that course grades might constitute a positive predictor of WTC only in the online learning setting. As college grades in most Saudi universities are based on performance-based examinations, university students are generally required to obtain high GPA scores to apply for jobs. Thus, it is not surprising that students with high grades might be motivated to communicate and practice using their target language in the classroom. However, this result was observed in the online learning setting, indicating that digital technologies could foster students’ WTC, as well as providing them with more opportunities to speak English and practice communication with others. This finding is a new contribution in the field of research on the foreign language learning process and communication.

6. Conclusion The current study has examined the extent to which FLCE, FLSA and demographic variables are linked to EFL learners’ WTC under two conditions: online and during conventional learning. The results indicate that EFL learners tend to have greater WTC during online classes than in conventional ones. This shows that digital technology can foster EFL learners’ WTC and help them practice foreign language communication. However, the effectiveness of using technology in language learning might depend on external (e.g., classroom atmosphere or the teaching style) or internal factors (e.g., the language learner’s personality). The findings also suggest that EFL learners who maintain their interest and enjoyment in learning English may have higher WTC levels, regardless of the context of EFL learning. Additionally, the present data provide evidence that WTC in online and traditional classroom settings may be affected by speaking anxiety. Theoretically, these findings uphold an emerging view of the role that language learners’ psychological states can play in second language teaching and learning. As more data are generated on the internal and external factors that influence L2 communication and use, language teachers or researchers gain greater understanding of WTC and speaking anxiety.

7. Pedagogical Implications The results of this study have several pedagogical implications for foreign language teachers and researchers. The first implication is that language teachers should support their students in practicing L2 communication during online classes. They should also develop their technical skills to utilize different

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technological tools that would help students perceive their L2 use as taking place in a more supportive atmosphere. Second, students, specifically those with low language proficiency levels, need to be encouraged to foster their WTC and practice L2 communication in different contexts. Online courses should be employed to delve deeper into how students’ feelings and expectations maximize their language performance and use. Third, teachers ought to integrate different technological devices (e.g., online websites or audio/video materials) into the classroom activities in order to help students enjoy the classroom and increase their WTC (Peng, 2012). Fourth, teachers could deliver information to students focusing on the importance of managing their negative emotions, such as speaking anxiety, in fostering their communication in the target language. Teachers can also increase enjoyable tasks and activities through which students would have additional opportunities to put in more effort to speak English. Since speaking anxiety negatively predicts low WTC levels in both online and traditional classrooms, teachers should be more tolerant of students’ speech errors, particularly when the focus is on fluency, not accuracy. They could change their teaching styles, based on their students’ communicative needs, to foster students’ WTC. At the institutional level, administrators could give language teachers more autonomy in terms of designing online activities and tasks to help students practice their L2 use in a non-threatening manner. However, as with any research, there are certain areas for improvement in this study. First, since the present findings are based on correlational analyses, the study only supports the statistical link between the independent variables (FLCE, speaking anxiety and demographic variables) and the dependent variable (WTC in English in two settings: online and traditional learning classrooms). In other words, the current data cannot provide any evidence of a causal relationship between the variables. Second, the nature of the study sample – Saudi EFL learners from one university – makes the interpretation of the results limited to this context; they cannot be generalized to other EFL contexts. Thus, future experimental or longitudinal studies are needed to understand how these variables influence one another in different contexts, with a large number of participants. Qualitative studies are also necessary to delve deeper into foreign language learners’ psychological states during the online learning process to obtain nuanced details about L2 communication and speaking anxiety. Declaration of conflicting interest The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 78-95, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.5 Received Aug 21, 2021; Revised Oct 26, 2021; Accepted Nov 17, 2021

Teacher Perspectives on the Impact of the Cyber Press on the Development of Religious Knowledge among Hearing-Impaired Students Ihsan Ghadivan Ali Assaree and Ibrahim Khalaf Suleiman Al–Khalidi Al al-Bayt University, Al Yarmouk, Jordan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6734-7365 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7642-4200

Abstract. The electronic press has constituted a real civilized renaissance in the field of media, and the younger generation has benefited from it. This will make it the first medium during the coming period to become a new media system that enjoys the characteristics and advantages acquired from the traditional press, of which the electronic press is an extension, and those from the new method. The study identifies the impacts of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students from their teachers’ point of view. Hearing-impaired students need more attention to develop their religious knowledge through the electronic press, as hearing impairment has many adverse effects on their learning. It affects their ability to move freely and interact with the environment. In addition, it affects their skills in interacting with others and their insecurity and confidence, resulting in an isolated social life. We used means, standard deviations, and two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to identify the impact of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students. The study sample consisted of 80 teachers who teach hearing-impaired students. A questionnaire about teachers’ perspectives on the impacts of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students was used to collect data after checking the validity and reliability indicators. Results show that the impact of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge is moderate. The results also show statistically significant differences in the gender variable in favor of males, and in the years of experience variable in favor of 10 years and more. Results also show statistically significant differences attributable to the impact of academic qualification in favor of the postgraduate category. We recommend that the cyber press pay more attention to religious education for hearing-impaired students through a broader and deeper presentation of contemporary religious issues. Keywords: cyber press; hearing-impaired students; religious knowledge

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

1. Introduction The presence of news media on the Internet is growing (Fayad & Melih, 2019). The cyber press (electronic journalism) reaches a broader audience than the traditional newspaper. Electronic journalism is a modern media phenomenon closely related to the technological revolution in communications and information. It is now available to everyone and at all times, covering various topics (Abdul Fattah, 2016). People who have a hearing impairment often use the Internet for accessing information and to communicate (Roe et al., 2012). Identifying their needs is necessary for both the media and electronic press and associations and institutions interested in their needs. The cyber press seeks to provide the best service for users with hearing impairment and to provide a free flow of information (Conti, 2017). In a study including hearing and hearingimpaired students, Jelinek Lewis and Jackson (2001) noted a correlation between understanding and reading ability, based explicitly on language skills. Individuals with hearing impairment use the Internet for socialization, entertainment, learning, business, and other purposes. They also use the Internet to form new links and alliances locally and globally, giving them access to a wide range of information (Power & Power, 2009). Individuals with hearing impairment have a fundamental right to full and equal participation in all aspects of life in society. Individuals’ value and dignity are not measured by personal effectiveness and competitiveness, but by them being citizens with fundamental rights (Al-Khatib, 2011). News websites enable students with hearing impairment to search for information and to communicate with others by writing and sharing their opinions or asking their questions through websites. They are aware of the difficulty of accessing audio information imposed by hearing-impairment characteristics (Mardiyanti & Haryanthi, 2018). The press contributes to religious education and awareness through its explanations, advisory opinion (fatwas), information, and various topics in all spiritual fields. It works to improve the understanding of individuals in society about what is happening around them and to develop their knowledge (Amara, 2012). It also provides individuals in the community with all news in the religious field (Albur, 2017). The Internet and social media enable news production to contribute to richer knowledge, provide more diverse perspectives, and enable users to verify the authenticity of news (Ekström & Westlund, 2019). Judgment on the credibility of the information from the electronic press to form knowledge depends on examining the source of information, confirming the cognitive position. This requires skills, experience, interest, effectiveness, motivation, and writing style analysis (Dailey, 2020). Religious knowledge is strongly linked to an individual’s daily life activities. People who do not face hearing problems are characterized by greater confidence and peace, have a more organized life, and are more motivated to adhere to religious activities. This religious knowledge, in particular, provides hearing-impaired students with strong emotional and social support, greatly enhancing their likelihood to have a healthy lifestyle (Mohad et al., 2015). Accordingly, media in general and the cyber press in particular play an essential

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role in shaping behavior and developing knowledge among members of society in general, including students with hearing impairment. Hence, this study investigates the impact of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge among students with hearing disabilities from the point of view of their teachers. 1.1 Significance of the Study This study is critical because it highlights the impact of the cyber press on religious knowledge development. It forms the basis on which plans for the development of the cyber press can be built to benefit individuals with hearing impairment in general in Jordan. This is because any effective developmental plan must be based on an accurate description of reality in all its aspects. This is what the study seeks to achieve in light of the impact of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students from their teachers’ perspective. It is hoped that the results of this study will help those concerned in the media, press, universities, and relevant ministries in the context of planning for the implementation of appropriate information-awareness practices. Specifically, this study could contribute: • To provide information on the cyber press’s impact on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students from their teachers’ perspective. • To provide and develop awareness, training, and rehabilitation journalism programs to prepare and qualify individuals with hearing impairment with appropriate religious awareness and knowledge within their actual needs and abilities. 1.2 Problem Statement There is a deficiency in the cyber press concerning information and awareness regarding religious knowledge. The first realm of perception is that they depend on informing and developing religious knowledge, leading them to identify the essential religious aspects in shaping and improving religious knowledge. Religious knowledge is also one of the foundations on which students’ misconception may lead to misunderstandings, misdeeds, and deviations. This is in light of the lack of studies that have dealt with the study variables applied to students with a hearing impairment. This study aims to identify the impact of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge among students with hearing impairment from their teachers’ point of view. 1.3 The Study Questions This study aims to answer the following questions: • What is the impact of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students from their teachers’ perspective? • Are there any statistically significant differences (α = 0.05) in the cyber press’s impact on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students from their teachers’ point of view due to gender, years of experience, and academic qualification?

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2. Theoretical Framework and Literature Review 2.1 Theoretical Framework 2.1.1 The impact of the cyber press on hearing-impaired students The cyber press is one of the most significant press industries to emerge in recent years, taking advantage of computer and networking technology. It has brought about intense competition between different newspapers in attracting readers and advertisers (Amer, 2018). The cyber press is also defined as the manner through which existing media such as newspapers, radio, and others release news to users via the Internet. Part of the content consists of messages and media information that affects users’ attitudes, preferences, and convictions due to its strong influence on individual orientation and behavioral patterns (Olayan, 2019). The content of the electronic media message is not very different from that of traditional media. The difference is in the ease of access to messages and of saving and storing content. The cyber press is characterized by being non-rigid. Videos rely on novel technology (Abdel Moneim, 2015). The electronic newspaper is published periodically to include current events related to topics of a general or special nature (Abdul Fattah, 2016). Newspaper websites provide access to a varied range of knowledge and information from various sources, with content tailored to users’ choices and needs (Hassan, 2019). The cyber press is one of the essential communication alternatives provided by the Internet through its readable, visual, and audio elements (Da’mi, 2017). It has gained importance as an integrated newspaper in terms of content. These characteristics allow the cyber press to provide information beyond news and picture (Abdul Fattah, 2019). It uses web-based technologies for data storage, interactivity, speed in dealing with breaking news, and monitoring the development of events (Radwan, 2011). The nature of the use of the data available in the electronic newspaper in its sophisticated form depends on computer technology that makes it easier for the recipient to see the article’s content in an electronic version. It also makes it possible to review and analyze news through the presentation, research, and classification of information (Abu Mutlaq, 2013). Al-Hadidi (2018) stated that news through electronic newspapers is processed and enables the individual through the electronic archive to search for old information very quickly, unlike traditional newspapers. In addition, new advances enable hearing-impaired users to take advantage of this technology by providing aids that can improve knowledge, communication, interaction, and motivation (Hamed & Mohammed, 2017). Hearing-impaired individuals suffer from social adjustment problems due to the lack of their most important means of social communication, the language of speech. As a result, they find it very difficult to express themselves and to understand and interact with others in the social environment in their reality

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(Al-Saeed, 2016). Hearing-impaired individuals are at a disadvantage compared to other people with disabilities because of their inability to communicate. Sign Language is the only way for them to communicate with the outside world. Unfortunately, not many individuals with hearing impairment can use or understand Sign Language; hearing impairment significantly affects these individuals’ communication, educational achievement, and social interactions (Perkins-Dock et al., 2015). The cyber press provides an alternative solution for hearing-impaired students, as it includes the arts, mechanisms, skills, and information technologies. The critical factor in judging the hearing-impaired individual’s mental capabilities is to provide visual stimuli that achieve full communication with the individual. In some cases, the hearing-impaired individual may outperform the normal individual and better solve problems and interact with society if they have the appropriate and complete communication conditions (Issa, 2017). The cyber press has contributed to direct and indirect interactive communication and increased user engagement to maximize interactivity. Interactivity is now an important criterion in evaluating press websites (Al-Dulaimi, 2011), where it is one of the most important features distinguishing the cyber press from the traditional newspaper. The effect of interactivity in the presentation of media material is evident in the reader’s perception (Amer, 2018). Hearing-impaired students use the cyber press to meet their social needs. According to the dependence theory, the public relies on the press and the media to provide information that meets their social needs (Al-Mousa, 2009). The theory of reliance rests on a set of critical hypotheses, including that the individual increasingly depends on the media in the case of ambiguity and confusion caused by lack of information or insufficient or difficulty in the correct interpretation of events that hearing-impaired students may experience. Simultaneously, an individual’s reliance on the media increases when an individual’s ability to receive information from personal communication sources is restricted (Hassan, 2018). The power of the cyber press varies depending on personal goals. For hearingimpaired students, the power comes from social levels and expectations regarding the potential usefulness and ease of access to media content (Al-Mazharah, 2012). The cyber press increases the motivation of hearingimpaired students towards personal achievement and improves self-efficacy (Salem, 2009). Access to and interaction with information through visual and audiovisual media, including a range of interactive media, can increase knowledge acquisition (Arellano et al., 2015). The cyber press allows interviews to be conducted, allowing the person to understand the information they receive through each participant’s opinions and interests, rather than simply receiving it, which may affect human behavior (Brennan, 2013). Theories of media and journalism emphasize the need for the media in all its categories by audiences, including students with hearing disabilities.

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2.1.2 Development of religious knowledge among students with hearing disabilities The cognitive theory focuses on the cognitive environment and cognition. It integrates all elements of text, graphics, static and animated images, audio and video clips, and colors that will help improve perceptual importance in acquiring knowledge (Hassani, 2012). It also contributes to the understanding of abstract concepts (Çakiroglu & Taskin, 2016). Moreover, improved teaching is based on the vocabulary and abstract concepts needed to shape knowledge through contrast and organization of images. It also plays an influential role in the education of hearing-impaired students (Sugiarti, 2016). The individual acquires knowledge by forming simple concepts through sensory perceptions. Cognitive processes are based on cognition and mental organization, where religious knowledge sources are diverse and include reason, sense, and experience. Humans receive information through these diverse means, as knowledge cannot be confined to one source while ignoring other sources (Ameli, 2008). When a large amount of information is provided for people with hearing impairment, it is subject to cognitive and sensory processing within the timeframe to review the available information (Pascual et al., 2015). Therefore, the content of a website should be understandable, operable, and powerful for those with weak hearing. Effective solutions should be implemented to address the inability to perceive phonemes by providing alternatives such as captions, multimedia, or video accompanied by Sign Language (Hargittai et al., 2012). The perception of knowledge is based on the sensory effects that reach the brain with the addition of previous information and experiences related to the sensory effects after the brain has influenced and understood them (Kahla, 2012). Religious knowledge is all real knowledge of religion and its origins, whether from reason or the text, related to matters of the world or the afterlife. Religious knowledge does not include knowing the opinions that fall within the circle of religious thought and knowledge of it. Religious knowledge consists of three frameworks: dogmatic knowledge, legal doctrinal knowledge, and moral knowledge. Religious knowledge includes the practical aspect of human life (Ameli, 2008). The Islamic electronic press specializes in religious issues. For this study, the focus is on the development of Islamic religious knowledge. Coverage of religion-related politics requires appropriate journalistic skills and use of all modern technological means (Mason, 2019). However, their credibility is dependent on Muslim editors and writers who present these issues with deep knowledge of Islam, goals, and ideals of the Islamic values (Bosnan, 2017). The plurality of electronic journalism and its continuous and gradual transformation from old media to digital media subject it to slow and sudden changes that challenge the role of journalism in society by opening new paths to access and distribute news via a variety of social platforms, mobile phones, and applications. This has weakened and decreased the size of newsrooms and their ability to provide reliable information (Fletcher & Park, 2017). Moreover, the

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emergence of entities contributes to doubts by misleading or providing alternative facts in the sudden change in the rapidly expanding information landscape (Woolley & Howard, 2019). Tandoc et al. (2018) referred to it as the dramatic spread of erroneous information. Religious knowledge relies on truth and adherence to Islam’s values, principles, and instructions. The Islamic-oriented press aims to increase religious knowledge through interpretation, guidance by Islamic values and regulations, and creating a society with its social issues and behavioral and intellectual experiences in addition to the dogmatic goal (Albur, 2017). It is based on the values of the Islamic religion and the origins of the Quran and the Sunnah to establish a variety of content by collecting information on and addressing issues and events and directing them through various editorial skills and marketing them authentically and adequately (Al-Shamiri, 2013). Khayal (2017) demonstrated that electronic newspapers play an essential role in providing the youth with religious culture. The only reason young people interact with the contents of religious culture through electronic newspapers is to acquire new or useful information in their lives, in addition to satisfying their curiosity, desire, exploration, and control in the surrounding environment. 2.2 Literature Review Khayal (2017) conducted a study to identify the cyber press’s role in spreading religious culture among Algerian youth. The study sample consisted of 120 media and communication sciences students at Arabi Bin Mahdi University in Algeria. The study was based on a descriptive approach, and data were collected using a questionnaire. The results showed that the cyber press plays a significant role in spreading religious culture among Algerian youth. Alawneh and Al-Nasser (2016) aimed to identify the editorial and direct characteristics of specialized electronic journalism and to know the cyber press’s role in shaping the knowledge of Jordanian university youth. The study was based on the descriptive survey method and used content analysis and questionnaire tools. The sample of the study consisted of 486 students from Yarmouk University. The results showed that the majority of the respondents followed specialized electronic newspapers. The political field was ranked second to last among the categories of educational news followed by students. Educational news specializing in educational issues was ranked first among the specialized websites visited by the sample members. It was followed by the Irbid news website specializing in the news of the Irbid Governorate. It also showed that ARABIA News influences knowledge among university youth. Al-Shannaq (2013) conducted a study to reveal readers’ reliance on electronic and paper daily newspapers in Jordan. The sample of the study consisted of 257 people from Yarmouk University. The study results showed that 9.6% of the sample depended on daily newspapers. In comparison, 47.8% obtained access to information and knowledge through newspapers and websites, and 32.2% depended on satellite channels.

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Agha and Al-Aswad (2012) conducted a study on 980 students from Al-Azhar University, Al-Aqsa University, and Islamic University to identify the role of the Palestinian cyber press in supporting the knowledge and values of citizenship among university students in Gaza. They found that the websites of the press contribute to a high percentage (65.5%) of the knowledge and values obtained by students. In addition, the study showed statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the students in the two study groups in all dimensions of the role of the cyber press and the total degree of the role of journalism. Furthermore, the differences were in favor of female students. Al-Daqas (2010) conducted a study on 733 students from the University of Jordan in Jordan to identify their attitudes towards the cyber press and its relation to some variables. The study showed that most of the respondents preferred electronic newspapers, and that there were no significant differences between gender and place of residence. Taylor (2010) conducted a study to uncover the best ways to increase knowledge and awareness among university students in the United States and showed that press and documentary websites enhance students’ knowledge and awareness of international issues. Al-Enezi (2010) conducted a study to identify university students’ trends towards the cyber press on 700 male and female students at the University of Jordan in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. The study results showed that 41.1% of the respondents preferred electronic newspapers. The study also showed that most respondents believed that the cyber press helps and gives young people a significant platform to express their opinions and from which to gain knowledge and access to events. Schoenbach et al. (2002) conducted a study to identify the impact of electronic and print journalism on the public’s knowledge and concerns in Germany. The sample consisted of 986 members of the public. Results showed that 40% of respondents used the electronic press. However, respondents acknowledged that the electronic and printed press does not achieve the desired effect and does not increase their knowledge and information. It is noteworthy that some previous studies have addressed the cyber press’s role in forming knowledge and providing access to information among young people (Alawneh & Al-Nasser, 2016; Schoenbach et al., 2002). Furthermore, studies have investigated the attitudes of students towards online journalism (Al-Daqas, 2010; Al-Enezi, 2010). In previous studies, samples were composed of university students (e.g., Alawneh & Al-Nasser, 2016). This study is similar to that by Khayal (2017), who revealed the cyber press’s role in spreading religious culture among young people. Still, this study differs in the target population. We focus here on hearing-impaired students. To our knowledge, there are no previous similar studies. Furthermore, the study variables dealt with the cyber press and religious knowledge among people with hearing disabilities. Therefore, the present study is different in that it reveals the

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impact of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge as related to hearing impairment.

3. Method and Procedures This section describes the respondents of the study, the research instrument, the data collection method, and the data analysis. 3.1 Research Methodology We used means, standard deviations, and two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to identify the impact of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students from their teachers’ point of view. These measurements were appropriate in achieving the objectives of the current study. 3.2 Research Participants The respondents were teachers selected from schools with hearing-impaired students in Amman, Irbid, Mafraq, and Karak. Eighty teachers were chosen according to the intentional (specific) method. Table 1 indicates different variables of the sample. Table 1: Distribution of study sample according to variables (gender, years of experience, and academic qualification) Variable Gender Total Years of Experience

Total Academic qualification Total

Category Male Female Less than ten years Ten years and more Postgraduate Bachelor

Number

Percentage

45 35 80 33

56.25 43.75 100 41.25

58.75

80 25 55 80

100 31.25 68.75 100

3.3 Research Instrument We constructed a questionnaire based on previous studies (Agha & Al-Aswad, 2012; Al-Daqas, 2010; Al-Shannaq, 2013). The final questionnaire consisted of 20 items. 3.3.1 Validity of the questionnaire The apparent validity of the study tool (questionnaire) was confirmed by presenting it in its initial form consisting of 24 items to 10 arbitrators with experience in the field of media for their opinion. The arbitrators recommended the deletion of some of the items. Eighty percent of the arbitrators agreed that these items be deleted because they did not belong and did not measure the impact of electronic journalism, which could be measured with other items. Thus, the final questionnaire included 20 items.

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3.3.2 Reliability of the questionnaire The questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 20 respondents selected from outside the original sample and from the study population. Cronbach’s alpha was used and the reliability coefficient for the instrument as a whole was 0.88. 3.4 Study Procedures After the questionnaire had been finalized, we took certain actions. First, we identified the study problem. We then built the questionnaire in its initial form after referencing the theoretical literature. The questionnaire was then arbitrated and its validity and reliability determined. This was followed by selecting the sample from teachers of hearing-impaired students through communication with the relevant governorates’ directorates (Amman, Irbid, Mafraq, and Karak). We then distributed the questionnaire to the study respondents, after which questionnaires were returned for data collection and analysis. Lastly, we captured the data to conduct statistical analysis, after which the data were interpreted and recommendations made. 3.5 Study Variables The present study dealt with independent and dependent taxonomic variables. The independent variables were gender (male, female), years of experience (less than 10 years, 10 years and more), and academic qualification (postgraduate, bachelor). The dependent variable was the impact of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students. 3.6 Data Analysis Means and standard deviations were calculated and two-way ANOVA was used.

4. Results and Discussion The first research question was: What is the impact of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students from their teachers’ point of view? To answer this, means and standard deviations were extracted of the impact of the cyber press on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students from their teachers’ points of view (Table 2). Table 2: Means and standard deviations of questionnaire items Rank

Item No.

Item

Mean

Standard deviation

Degree

3.65

1.051

Average

3.64

0.974

Average

The cyber press develops the personal capacity of students with hearing disabilities The electronic press considers the needs and wishes of students with hearing disabilities regarding religious information The electronic press answers religious questions for students with hearing disabilities

3.61

0.863

Average

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The electronic press presents religious and educational information for students with hearing disabilities The cyber press provides easy access for students with hearing disabilities to religious information I believe that the cyber press provides religious information of interest to students with hearing disabilities The electronic press respects the customs and traditions affirmed by the Islamic religion The cyber press is a good source of religious fatwas The electronic press presents religious issues in terms of problems and solutions The cyber press does not promote extremist religious ideas I trust the religious information on the websites of newspapers The cyber press contributes to correcting wrong religious concepts and beliefs The electronic press draws its religious information from reliable religious sources The cyber press helps educate students with hearing disabilities about the pillars of Islam and faith correctly The cyber press explains religious ethics and ethics in a way that students with hearing disabilities can easily understand The electronic press deals with crises and modern Islamic issues adequately and moderately The cyber press for students with hearing disabilities explains religious worship appropriately The cyber press encourages students with hearing disabilities to be good to others The cyber press urges students with hearing disabilities to respect and honor scientists and not to offend them The cyber press urges students with hearing disabilities on the righteousness, respect, and reverence of parents

Total degree

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3.60

1.141

Average

3.59

1.210

Average

3.59

0.988

Average

3.58

0.841

Average

3.56

0.820

Average

3.55

0.963

Average

3.52

1.101

Average

3.51

1.045

Average

3.50

1.121

Average

3.48

0.920

Average

3.47

0.987

Average

3.46

0.961

Average

3.46

1.221

Average

3.45

1.045

Average

2.18

1.187

Low

2.17

1.978

Low

2.16

1.848

Low

3.33

0.687

Average

Table 2 shows that the mean scores ranged between 2.16 and 3.65, with item 4 ranking first place, with an average of 3.65 at a moderate level. Item 15 ranked last, with a mean of 2.16 at a low level and an overall mean of 3.33 at an average level. Analysis yielded mean scores between 2.16 and 3.65. We attribute this to the frequent use of the cyber press by hearing-impaired students as their source of information and their tendency to communicate. We also attribute this to the frequent use of the cyber press by hearing-impaired students, who read and view the electronic press’s religious materials to get news faster and at any time. However, some aspects of the impact of the cyber press received a low score. Examples are item 13 (The cyber press encourages students with hearing disabilities to be good to others) and item 2 (The cyber press urges students with hearing disabilities to respect and honor scientists and not to offend them). We attribute this to the lack of electronic journalism to address these topics. The previous result is attributed to the fact that the cyber press has reduced the burden on people with hearing impairments in accessing and reading news. In addition, it has opened new avenues for communication between persons with hearing disabilities. Furthermore, it has created a large space of freedom in terms of how they browse and choose what they are exposed to from religious topics and expressing their opinions and thoughts about the various events. It has also improved their communication with others on many religious issues raised in society. The result in Table 2 is due to the ability of the cyber press to influence what is published. It does this through a set of visual stimuli such as pictures and videos sometimes supported with Sign Language, the way of presentation, ease of moving between slides, and an increased curiosity for and love to access information. This has caused some changes in the acquisition of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students. In addition, the cyber press displays opinions and religious topics that arouse the public interest and influence the setting of public-interest priorities towards prominent issues in the field of religious knowledge. Using Sign Language with pictures and video clips for hearing-impaired students in the electronic press supports the explanation. Visual stimuli clarify the cognitive content of the religious topic by using brief texts in parallel with explanations in Sign Language. Furthermore, it enables the students to link the abstract religious concepts and their meaning by enriching them with Sign Language and writing. The diversity of methods and means of obtaining religious knowledge accompanied by pictures, graphics, video clips, written effects, Sign Language, and the ability to view and repeat them at any time strengthens sensory nerve connections and helps to develop remembering and understanding of religious knowledge. The cyber press has added a continuous interactive environment that maintains students’ motivation to receive knowledge. They link theoretical information with practical situations that help establish religious knowledge and clarify ambiguous concepts by enhancing interaction with visual stimuli.

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The results of this study are consistent with those of Al-Daqas (2010), Al-Shannaq (2013), and Taylor (2010). However, they differ from Schoenbach et al.’s (2002) study results, where most of the study sample admitted that the electronic and print press does not achieve the desired effect and does not increase their knowledge and information. The second research question was: Are there any statistically significant differences (α = 0.05) in the cyber press’s impact on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students from their teachers’ point of view due to gender, years of experience, and academic qualification? Means and standard deviations were calculated to measure whether the impact of each of the three variables was statistically significant (Table 3). Table 3. Means and standard deviations of study sample responses as per gender, years of experience, and academic qualification Variable

Category

Mean

Standard deviation

Repetition

Gender

Male Female Less than ten years Ten years and more Postgraduate Bachelor

3.61 3.10 3.01 3.56

0.587 0.541 0.585 0.543

45 35 33 47

3.68 2.26

0.619 0.541

25 55

Years of experience

Academic qualification

Table 3 shows the apparent variation in the means and standard deviations of the cyber press’s impact on the development of religious knowledge among hearing-impaired students from their teachers’ point of view. A triple variance analysis was used to illustrate the significance of statistical differences between the variable averages (Table 4). Table 4: Triple variance analysis for the impact of gender, years of experience, and academic qualification Contrast source

Sum of squares

Degrees of freedom

Mean of squares

Value (F)

Statistical significance

Gender Years of experience Academic Qualification ERROR Total

1.731 3.111

1 1

1.731 3.111

7.141 12.888

0.009 0.003

2.437

10.092

0.001

18.335 28.625

79 82

0.43

Table 4 shows a statistically significant difference (0.009) attributable to the impact of gender on the role of journalism in favor of males. The table also shows a statistically significant difference (0.003) attributable to the impact of years of experience in favor of the category 10 years and more. Finally, the table

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shows a statistically significant difference (0.001) attributable to the impact of academic qualification in favor of the postgraduate category. We attribute the finding of the gender variable to the fact that religious knowledge is more concentrated on males. In addition, male teachers are more interested in and follow the cyber press. This result contradicts that of Agha and Al-Aswad (2012). Usually, male teachers are primarily responsible for the management of the cyber press and they therefore follow its impact in various fields, including religious knowledge. Furthermore, males are more inclined than females towards subjects that may include religious knowledge, such as political subjects. The results may be attributed to the fact that males are more skilled and inclined than females to use electronic media means and techniques. Also, they have better ability than females to deal with technical malfunctions while using a computer. As for the finding on the variable of years of experience, teachers with experience of 10 years and above are more experienced and knowledgeable in the religious field and its values. In addition, their choices vary according to what they are exposed to and most of them are parents seeking to enrich their children’s religious knowledge. Concerning the finding of academic qualification, this may be because those with a postgraduate qualification have to deal more with the cyber press and websites while collecting information. In addition, they might deal more with the issue of religious awareness or religious knowledge in their research and studies. Furthermore, they deal more with other tools of research, and therefore the result was in their favor. More skills are formed through browsing the cyber press and they thus have more knowledge and previous experiences in identifying the most reliable sources and sites. This differs with the results of the study by Al-Daqas (2010), which showed that there are no statistically significant differences in students’ attitudes towards the cyber press due to gender and place of residence. It also differs from the results of the study by Agha and AlAswad (2012), which showed statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the two study groups in all dimensions of the role of the cyber press, with the total score of the role of electronic journalism in favor of female students.

5. Conclusion and Recommendations The cyber press has a great effect on students’ attitudes, especially religious and cultural attitudes. This effect is greater among hearing-impaired students, who are not able to interact in the society in the same way as ordinary students. Hearing-impaired students benefit more from the cyber press and Internet sources than traditional media. This study proved through investigating their teachers’ perspectives what role the cyber press has in formulating their religious knowledge. Based on the findings, we have made three recommendations. First, there is a need to use Sign Language for hearing-impaired students in the cyber press,

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especially in the use of videos. This will strengthen the published material to facilitate their learning and increase their religious knowledge. Second, the cyber press needs to pay more attention to religious education for students with hearing disabilities through a broader and deeper presentation. It can focus on modern issues such as extremism and terrorism, different religions, warning against irresponsible fatwas, and dealing with crises and Islamic issues moderately. Lastly, media and electronic publishers should create specialized, accessible electronic religious newspapers that will provide Deaf and hard-ofhearing students with the necessary religious information and knowledge.

6. References Abdel Moneim, S. (2015). Economic media. Thebes Foundation for Publishing and Distribution. Abdul Fattah, A. (2016). Cyber press under the technological revolution. Al Yazouri Publishing. Abdul Fattah, A. (2019). Arabic electronic press. Dar Al Yazouri Scientific Publishing & Distribution. Abu Mutlaq, M. (2013). The effectiveness of a multimedia program in developing concepts of worship for the seventh grade (Unpublished master’s thesis). Faculty of Education, Islamic University, Gaza. Agha, S., & Al-Aswad, F. (2012). The Palestinian cyber press’s role in promoting citizenship values among university students in Gaza Governorate [Master Thesis, Al-Azhar University, Gaza]. Alawneh, H., & Al-Nasser, T. (2016). Specialized cyber press and its role in shaping the knowledge of Jordanian university youth. Studies, Humanities and Social Sciences, 43(2), 815-840. Albur, M. (2017). Means of communication in the Islamic State and its role in spreading religious awareness. Modern Academic Book University. Al-Daqas, M. (2010). Attitudes of university students towards electronic journalism: A field study on a sample of university students [Master Thesis, University of Jordan, Amman. Al-Dulaimi, A. (2011). New media and electronic journalism. Wael Publishing & Distribution House. Al-Enezi, S. (2010). Attitudes of university students towards electronic journalism: A field study on the students of the University of Jordan [Master Thesis, University of Jordan, Amman]. Al-Hadidi, H. (2018). Dependence of Jordanian business people on the cyber press in obtaining economic information and its impact on them [Master Thesis, Yarmouk University, Irbid]. Al-Khatib, J. (2011). Strategies for teaching students with special needs. Dar Al Fikr: Amman. Al-Mazharah, M. (2012). Communication theories. Dar Al Masirah for Publishing, Distribution, and Printing. Al-Mousa, E. (2009). The entrance in mass communication (5th ed.). Ithraa Publishing House. Al-Saeed, H. (2016). Hearing impairment is a scientific and practical guide for parents and specialists. Anglo Egyptian Library. Al-Shamiri, S. (2013). Religious media means, methods, and elements of advancement. Journal of Social Studies, (36), 13-86.

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Al-Shannaq, Y. (2013). The extent to which the reader depends on the Jordanian daily newspapers in obtaining news and information [Master Thesis, Yarmouk University, Jordan]. Amara, M. (2012). Islamic media and future challenges (1st ed.). El Shorouk International Library. Ameli, M. (2008). The role of the mind in shaping religious knowledge (2nd ed.). Dar El Hadi for Printing and Publishing. Amer, F. (2018). Electronic journalism: Present and future (1st ed.). Arab Publishing & Distribution. Arellano, B., De la Garza, L., & Zermeño, M. (2015). Communicative competency development for high-school students with a multimedia learning strategy. International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology, and Learning (IJCBPL), 5(4), 18-30. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijcbpl.2015100102 Bosnan, R. (2017). Religious electronic journalism, a descriptive and critical study. Journal of Humanities, (25), 785-826. http://revues.univbiskra.dz/index.php/fshs/article/view/2399/2109 Brennan, B. (2013). Qualitative research methods for media studies. Routledge. Çakiroglu, Ü., & Taskin, N. (2016). Teaching numbers to preschool students with interactive multimedia: An experimental study. Çukurova University Faculty of Education Journal, 45(1), 1-22. Conti, G. (2017). Accessibility and social responsibility: Exploring barriers to access on news websites for people who are d/Deaf or hard of hearing [Doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri, Columbia]. Dailey, K. (2020). Exploring secondary students’ abilities in judging the credibility of digital content on the Internet [Thesis prospectus, Eastern Illinois University]. Da’mi, G. (2017). New media: Rising reliability and renewable means. Dar Amjad for Publishing and Distribution. Ekström, M., & Westlund, O. (2019). Epistemology and journalism. Oxford Research Encyclopedias. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.806 Fayad, F., & Melih, H. (2019). News trends in the Iraqi Council of Representatives election in 2010 in electronic journalism. Journal of Al-Frahedis Arts, 2(24), 296321. http://search.mandumah.com/Record/1111079/Description#tabnav Fletcher, R., & Park, S. (2017). The impact of trust in the news media on online news consumption and participation. Digital Journalism, 5(10), 1281-1299. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1279979 Hamed, S., & Mohammed, M. (2017). Effectiveness of a multimedia program in teaching and learning for students with hearing disabilities (Case study at Umm Kulthum Foundation for the Deaf, Al-Jazirah State, Sudan, 2016). Journal of the College of Basic Education for Educational and Human Sciences, (34), 96-107. http://search.shamaa.org/FullRecord?ID=127315 Hargittai, E., Neuman, W. R., & Curry, O. (2012). Taming the information tide: Perceptions of information overload in the American home. The Information Society, 28(3), 161-173. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2012.669450 Hassan, H. (2019). Persuasion technology in web newspaper design. Arab Publishing & Distribution. Hassan, Z. (2018). Fatwas of satellite channels and their impact on the behavior of the public. Arab Publishing & Distribution. Hassani, S. (2012). The effectiveness of using multimedia computing in teaching a unit of intonation course in Holy Quran proficiency for fifth grade students in the Holy Capital (Unpublished master’s thesis). Umm Al-Qura University, Mecca, Saudi Arabia.

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Issa, S. (2017). Designing an interactive computer learning environment to develop academic achievement and survive the learning impact of some mathematical concepts for hearing impaired students in the primary stage. Arab Research in the Fields of Specific Education, 1(5), 101-124. https://raes.journals.ekb.eg/article_24250_55a6b8d7969876ddecda6e90ea89b7a6 .pdf Jelinek Lewis, M. S., & Jackson, D.W. (2001). Television literacy: Comprehension of program content using closed captions for the Deaf. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 6(1), 43-53. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/6.1.43 Kahla, E. (2012). Neuropsychology. Anglo Egyptian Library. Khayal, R. (2017). The role of electronic journalism in spreading religious culture among Algerian youth [Master Thesis, Elaraby Ben Mehidi University, Oum El Bouaghi, Algeria]. Mardiyanti, N., & Haryanthi, L. (2018). Challenges on learning Islam among Deaf Muslims in an Indonesian context: Deaf teachers’ perspective. International Medical Journal Malaysia, 17(1), 17-21. https://doi.org/10.31436/imjm.v17i1.1017 Mason, D. L. (2019). Religion coverage. The International Encyclopedia of Journalism Studies, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118841570.iejs0214 Mohad, A. H., Mokhtar, R. A. M., Omar, N., & Muda, Z. (2015). The Deaf community’s attitudes towards Islamic education. International Journal of Arts & Sciences, 8(8), 573. Olayan, I. (2019). Electronic media and human rights (1st ed.). Arab Publishing & Distribution. Pascual, A., Ribera, M., & Granollers, T. (2015). Impact of web accessibility barriers on users with a hearing impairment. Dyna, 82(193), 233. https://doi.org/10.15446/dyna.v82n193.53499 Perkins-Dock, R. E., Battle, T. R., Edgerton, J. M., & McNeill, J. N. (2015). A survey of barriers to employment for individuals who are deaf. Journal of the American Deafness & Rehabilitation Association (JADARA), 49(2), 66-85. Power, D., & Power, M. R. (2009). Communication and culture: Signing Deaf people online in Europe. Technology and Disability, 21(4), 127-134. https://doi.org/10.3233/TAD-2009-0287 Radwan, A. (2011). Cyber press in Jordan. Department of Publications and Publishing. Roe, K., De Cock, R., & Abeele, M. V. (2012). Blind faith in the web? Internet use and empowerment among visually and hearing-impaired adults: A qualitative study of benefits and barriers. Communications: The European Journal of Communication Research, 37(2). https://doi.org/10.1515/commun-2012-0007 Salem, R. (2009). Relationship between self-efficacy and academic branch motivated by academic achievement in Ajloun University College. Journal of Educational and Psychological Research, 2(23), 134-169. Schoenbach, K., De Waal, E., & Lauf, E. (2002). Research note: Online and print newspapers: Their impact on the extent of the perceived public agenda. European Journal of Communication, 20(2), 245-258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323105052300 Sugiarti, S. (2016). Upaya meningkatkan kosa kata anak tunarungu melalui media variasi gambar pada siswa Kelas V/B di SLB Negeri Surakarta [Efforts to improve the vocabulary of Deaf children through image variation media for Class V/B students at SLB Negeri Surakarta]. Prosiding Ilmu Pendidikan, 1(2), 254-260. https://jurnal.fkip.uns.ac.id/index.php/pip/article/view/7730/5554 Tandoc, E., Lim, Z., & Ling, R. (2018). Defining “fake news”. Digital Journalism, 6(2), 137-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143

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Taylor, T. (2010). Youth connected: Technology and journalism shape world views. Youth Media Reporter, (4), 92-95. https://www.youthmediareporter.org/2010/08/30/youth-connectedtechnology-and-journalism-shape-world-views/ Woolley, S., & Howard, P. (2019). Computational propaganda: Political parties, politicians, and political manipulation on social media. Oxford Scholarship Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190931407.001.0001

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 96-114, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.6 Received Sep 06, 2021; Revised Nov 03, 2021; Accepted Nov 17, 2021

Engaging Pre-Service and In-Service Teachers in Online Mathematics Teaching and Learning: Problems and Possibilities Roland G. Pourdavood and Xuan Song Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2777-7867 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4003-4195

Abstract. Many pre-service and in-service mathematics teachers have reflected vulnerabilities and unpreparedness for online teaching during the period of the COVID-19 pandemic. They searched for supports and resources to enhance their knowledge, skills, and dispositions relative to online teaching and learning. However, there is no clear path towards reaching these goals. This qualitative and interpretive research focuses on 48 pre-service and in-service teachers’ online teaching and learning experiences; while they were engaged in a semester-long mathematicsmethod course. The findings of this study suggest that factors, like interactions, communication, and peer support impact the pre-service and the in-service mathematics teachers’ beliefs and practices toward online teaching and learning. The findings also suggest that social and cultural factors, such as knowing and understanding students’ cultural background, access and equity in mathematics education, learners’ social and emotional development, and parents’ involvement influence mathematics teachers’ practices regarding online teaching and learning. The findings indicate that the transformation from in-person to online learning requires the enhancement of pre-service and in-service mathematics teachers’ online preparations, particularly in the areas of technology, pedagogy, communication skills, and classroom management. Keywords: mathematics online teaching; teaching and learning; preservice and in-service teachers; teachers’ collaboration

1. Introduction The COVID-19 pandemic has situated school education in an unprecedented level of online teaching. However, many teachers experience challenges when they are trying to implement online teaching during this specific time, including planning, instruction, communication, and assessment challenges. This phenomenon is particularly salient in the subject of mathematics in K-12 schools. A considerable ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

number of mathematics teachers’ (pre-service and in-service) search for additional resources to advance their knowledge, skills, and dispositions relative to online teaching and learning demands. In a qualitative study gathering feedback from elementary Indonesian teachers on how the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced their teaching, it was reported that 73.9% of teachers considered online learning to be ineffective; and 80% of those teachers were dissatisfied in general (Fauzi & Khusuma, 2020). The most significant concerns reported by these teachers include limited availability of resources, network and internet issues, limited time to plan, difficulty with the implementation of lessons and the evaluation of students’ performance, and difficulty collaborating with parents (Fauzi & Khusuma, 2020). Although this study took place in Indonesia, when looking at the technological tools used by teachers (e.g., Zoom, Google Classroom, YouTube), they are like the tools used in the United States and around the world. It can be assumed that the struggles teachers and students face are very similar around the world. Adedoyin & Soykan (2020) detail several challenges and opportunities of online learning, as they relate to the pandemic. The challenges reported were pandemic-related anxiety affecting students’ performance, socio-economic and racial differences affecting students’ ability to access resources, the lack of digital competence to effectively use online programs, intrusions from families and pets during instructional time, difficulty assessing and supervising students, heavier workloads, the need for in-person experiences for certain content areas, and the general ability of instructors to adapt to the new format quickly enough, in order to effectively deliver instruction (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020). Another concern regarding online teaching and learning is the comparison and the adaptation between the traditional onsite classroom model and the online model from many students’ perspectives. In a study conducted in Pakistan, undergraduate and graduate students’ experiences and opinions related to online learning were recorded. The study found that many students did not have access to good internet connection (51.6%); they did not think they were getting the same education as they would in-person (67.5%); they thought that their courses were not effectively taught (50.8%); and they thought that it was difficult to complete projects and assignments digitally (42.9%). A number of the students surveyed stated that in-person learning is more motivating; and face-to-face contact with the instructors is necessary (78.6%), even though most students felt qualified to use a computer (71.4%) and were comfortable communicating electronically (61.1%) (Adnan & Anwar, 2020). Many teachers seem to agree with students that online teaching and learning is ineffective and challenging; but this does not change the reality that this is the current state of the world; and adaptations need to be made for the best interests of all the students. Studies also show that many pre-service mathematics teachers face technological and pedagogical challenges, while engaging mathematics teaching online. To help these teachers to be well prepared in their future mathematics classes, a few solutions have been proposed by some mathematics educators, including the

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curriculum-wide integration of technology (Kay, 2006), content-specific technology integration (Koehler and Mishra, 2009), and collaboration with mentor teachers on the integrative use of technology throughout their teaching and learning processes (Bullock, 2004). Dorner & Kumar (2016) further found that oneon-one mentoring and group mentoring are the most effective approaches to assist pre-service mathematics teachers to use technologies in their lesson planning and classroom teaching. Exploring the above issues and searching for possible pedagogies regarding online mathematics teaching and learning may benefit pre-service and in-service mathematics teachers, who are in serious need of assistance to enhance their knowledge, skills, and dispositions.

2. Review of the Literature The topic of effective online mathematics teaching has been a hot topic among many mathematics educators since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. In the following section, we discuss the studies about the “why”, “what”, and “how” of online mathematics teaching, learning, and assessment. Why Can Mathematics Be Taught Online? Educators have a long history of discussing why mathematics can, or should be, taught online. Online mathematics teaching and learning originated in a context of the educational shift from traditional onsite learning to the method of utilizing internet services for teaching and learning. Over the past few years, as the internet has been integrated into a multifaceted communication platform, including instruction, interaction, and evaluation, it has provided a stimulating learning environment for engaging learners in meaningful learning (Macdonald et al., 2001). The number of online courses has increased rapidly; and this has become a significant constituent of education worldwide. The web-based pedagogy brings about not only a shift in the mode of educational delivery, but also in the teaching approaches. Czerniewicz (2001) emphasizes that network education is not only characterized as a paradigm shift in its promise of anytime and anywhere, but the paradigm shifts have also occurred in the interaction between the pedagogy and the technology in the instructional design of online courses (Engelbrecht & Harding, 2005). This idea was also supported by Macdonald et al. (2001), when they wrote “Some instructors may need to adopt a more constructivist approach to their teaching. This would require a role shift from authoritative teacher to facilitator.” (Engelbrecht & Harding, 2005, p. 236). Indeed, the interactive approaches and instant feedback offered by well-designed online courses win over the traditional chalk-featured approach. That might be the claim by Quoting Bookbinder (2000) that “enhancing the mathematics curriculum with web-based technology takes time and effort; but the effort is well worth it.” (Engelbrecht & Harding, 2005, p. 238). The booming of online mathematics teaching and learning is also due to the advancement of distance learning. The development of distance learning has increased exponentially over the past few years across the globe. A quick search of this topic results in hundreds of academic journal articles. Educators have

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developed a variety of technologies and platforms to promote distance learning. One salient approach of distance education is to use Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to promote online sharing, discussions, and collaboration (Gueudet et al., 2012). By interacting with such networks, teachers can be involved in their own professional development. In addition, online exchanges, and collaborations by teachers in their daily educational practices inform their instruction; and it enhances students’ learning. Through the model of ICT, “teachers can be involved in the activities of inquiry and exploration, as well as collaboration, in addition to the sharing, of mathematical (teaching) problems and projects, of resources and documents and the development of their teaching experiences.” (Gueudet et al., 2012, p. 718). ICT provides a dynamic platform for mathematics teachers, educators, researchers, and curriculum developers to come together and engage in educational activities. What Is Online Mathematics Teaching? The definition of online mathematics teaching may not have a compatible consensus, but it purports to derive from a general online teaching category; and it has its distinctive features. Rapanta et al. (2020) have defined online learning as the following: “A type of teaching and learning situation in which (1) the learner is at a distance from the tutor/instructor; (2) the learner uses some form of technology to access the learning materials; (3) the learner uses technology to interact with the tutor/instructor and with other learners; and (4) some kind of support is provided to learners.” (p. 925).

Herzig (2020) explains online teaching and learning as one specific means of distance learning, which utilizes many tools, such as: Zoom, Skype, Dropbox, Blackboard, Canvas, Slack, VoiceThread, email, online chats, video chats, MS teams, Google docs, and many others, in order to conduct subject teaching and learning. As the application-oriented nature of the mathematics courses, there is no consensus on the definition of online mathematics teaching. Akdemir (2010) interprets this term from three categories, namely course materials, teaching process, and course assignments, which are combined in one theme termed as online-course teaching. Based on this explanation, online mathematics teaching and learning utilizes virtual materials, such as lectures, demonstrations, videos, games etc., rather than using actual tools like pens, rulers, calculators to cognate concepts. In online situations, the teaching and learning process can take place 24 hours per day, all year long, in which the student organizes his or her training process; while the teacher guides that action by allowing unlimited access to the network resources. How Do We Teach Mathematics Online? In the field of online mathematics teaching, some models may provide teachers with insights and the necessary tools to engage their students. Moreno-Guerrero (2020) summarized certain models, such as the MCIEC model (motivation, context, interactivity, evaluation, and connectivity). The MCIEC model allows the students to increase their ability to attempt to understand the mathematical content, as well as to increase interest, motivation, and adaptation to the context.

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Another model is the Working Memory Capacity (WMC) method. This method leads to an improvement in students’ abilities to acquire various mathematical concepts, which then improve students’ academic performance. The next two models are even more influential. The Mentored Innovation Model (MIM) is one of them. The MIM is an online collaborative mentoring approach focusing on the authentic, problem-based classroom application of technology integration. The MIM combines multiple strategies for scaffolding the integration of pre-service and in-service teachers’ technology in the teaching and learning process (Dorner & Kumar, 2016). The MIM model was the result of the European Pedagogical Information and Communications Technology Licensed (EPICT) project and the Calibrate project, involving schools, educational organizations, and the ministries of education from eight European countries. The MIM consists of three phases that aim to support the integration of pre-service and in-service teachers’ technology into their teaching practices. In the first phase of the model, the pre-service teachers identified pedagogical and methodological problems in the technology integration in collaboration with teacher educators, a subject-specific mentor, and educational researchers. Once these pre-service teachers had identified a problem that involved technology integration, they created project plans for materials, resources, or lesson plans, and a joint research agenda for the targeted content areas, in order to guide the team of mentors and peers. Throughout this second phase, the pre-service teachers were provided with sustained and ongoing professional support from their mentors, as well as a collaborative opportunity to engage hands-on with the complex technical, and pedagogical issues of applying technology to specific content areas (Dorner & Kumar, 2016). In the third phase, existing learning objects, activities, lesson plans etc. were identified and further developed in collaboration with peers through scratching input from their peers and teacher educators. Throughout the three phases, Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) environments were implemented for the online collaborative mentoring processes. Dynabook development is another framework offering mathematics teachers a useful tool for engaging students with online learning. Dynabook is an interactive web-based tool that assists teachers to more effectively teach mathematics strategies. Dynabook was developed at San Diego State University through a collaboration between the Stanford Research Institute (SRI), Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST), and Universal Design Learning (UDL) developers and graduate students. The framework has become a unique combination of expertise in mathematics, mathematics education, special education, teacher training, technology-supported mathematics instruction, UDL pedagogy, and evaluation (Courey et al., 2012). Dynabook initiated, as an interactive mathematics platform for teacher candidates to teach general and special education subjects, to exchange mathematics pedagogy, and to utilize technology integration.

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Dynabook is based on Alan Kay’s (1972) Dynamic Computational theory that “the dynamic, interactive capabilities of computational media as opening up new ways to playfully engage with powerful ideas, through activities like programming, interacting with visualizations, exploring mathematical models, and engaging with simulations.” (Courey et al. 2012, p. 1). The salient feature of Dynabook is that it incorporates interactive problems, video, and aspects of UDL, in order to increase access for teacher candidates to better understand proportionality, and how to teach it during their instructional practices. In this sense, Dynabook allows teachers access to, and engagement with, challenging mathematics. There are certain sporadic studies beginning to address the issues of online teaching and learning within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Rapanta et al. (2020) argued that online learning ought to be based on the materials (e.g., readings, videos, exercises), rather than on the actual interactions (e.g., discussions, presentations). They stated that students should be more autonomous in their own learning, be very alert to what they need, and be sure to keep asking and listening, while the extra communication channels remain open. Teaching and learning in an online format should be a student-centered approach, where their ideas and feedback are valued. Students should be assigned good tasks that are doable and make sense to them (i.e., expectations that are clear, and students understand the “why”). Regarding what makes online teaching and learning successful, students and teachers need to have access to technology and a good internet connection. More than this, however, students and teachers need to have autonomy (i.e., the ability to set goals, manage time, avoid distractions) during learning, as well as outside the “virtual classroom” (Rapanta et al. 2020). Therefore, this study suggests that activities should be based on a mixture of design approaches (i.e., online, offline) and be related to authentic contexts, in order to increase engagement and to be accessible. Similarly, assessment should be strongly tied to the desired learning outcome, as an opportunity for students to demonstrate their mastery. However, teaching and learning online have made the assessment process increasingly difficult for many teachers. How does a teacher make sure that she is providing her students with the best educational experience possible, and that she is accurately assessing them virtually? According to Rapanta et al. (2020), a continuous assessment model must be adopted, such as using several smaller, formative assessments, rather than one large summative one. These authors encourage the expectation of self-regulation (students’ efforts to manage their learning processes to achieve their goals), and even to use these in their assessment by way of self-reflection assignments, or by using portfolios. Another way to promote self-regulation is to utilize self-paced, asynchronous assignments with an established timeline to foster the responsibility of their own (Rapanta et al. 2020). These authors suggest that the method the teacher chooses for assessing students and gathering data depends on the level of comfort the

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teacher has with online learning, in addition to what would be developmentally appropriate for his/her students.

3. The Context of the Study This study is conducted in a State-supported university located in a large metropolitan area of Midwestern America. All the participants are enrolled in a semester-long three-credit hours course, called Mathematics Instruction Methods in Grades P-5. The course has a dual-numbered section that includes both graduate and undergraduate students. There were 48 students registered in these two online classrooms in the fall semester of 2020 (40 females and 8 males). Thirty-five students were undergraduate pre-service teachers and 13 were graduate inservice teachers. Among the 48 pre-service and in-service teachers, sixteen were special education majors, with an emphasis on a mild/moderate intervention specialty. The other 32 participants were in the early-childhood program. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the course is offered remotely via zoom meetings.

4. The Methodology This research focuses on 48 pre-service and in-service mathematics teachers’ online teaching and learning experiences, while they were engaging in a semesterlong mathematics method course. The purpose of the study was to understand and interpret the participating mathematics teachers’ lived experiences regarding online teaching and learning. In this sense, the study chooses socio-cultural theory, as the theoretical lens; and it uses the Interpretive Phenomenological Approach (IPA), as the research method to search for meanings. Two research questions were designed. First, what kind of teaching supports the participating mathematics teachers’ need for online teaching? Second, how do we help the pre-service and the in-service mathematics teachers to fully embrace online teaching and learning? The data cover a wide range of sources, including the participants’ reflections, problem-solving activities, lesson plans, peer critiques, group discussions, assessments, in addition to the researchers’ filed notes.

5. The Theoretical Framework The study chose the socio-cultural theory as its theoretical framework (Cobb, 1994; Cobb & Yackel, 1996; Radford et al., 2018; Roth & Walshaw, 2015; Rowlands, 2010; Vygotsky, 1978). Creswell (2013) argued that knowledge is a product of humans; and it is socially constructed. The basic idea of the socio-cultural theory is that all learning and knowledge are inherently constructed within the social and cultural milieu. Green and Piel (2010) view the construction of knowledge as a complete cultural entity; and it is taking place through a negotiation of meaningful dialogue with the participants in its various socio-cultural contexts. Engelbrecht and Harding (2005) argue that the socio-cultural theory is the process of knowledge acquisition; and it is constrained by what one already knows and by cultural artefacts, such as shared language and cultural tools. Socio-cultural conditions significantly impact the construction of knowledge and understanding (Cobb, 1994; Cobb & Yackel, 1996). This perspective provides a viable way for

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understanding, describing, and interpreting the 48 participating pre-service and in-service teachers’ experiences of mathematics learning and teaching in this study.

6. The Research Method Based on the socio-cultural perspective, the study designs its research method as a qualitative approach. The utilization of the qualitative approach is suitable for understanding, describing, and interpreting the participating teachers’ experiences of online mathematics teaching. Denzin and Lincoln (2011) argue that qualitative researchers “study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.” (p. 3). The quality interaction between the researchers and the participants would generate valuable information relative to the understanding and the interpretation of the research findings. Creswell (2013) contends that qualitative researchers are connected to their theoretical perspectives to the research problems, in order to address the meaning that individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human activity. Smith et al. (2009) argued that IPA is an interpretive research approach in qualitative studies, with the emphasis on capturing “the ‘lived experiences’ of people, who have experienced similar (common) phenomena.” (p. 4).

7. The Data Collection and the Analytical Method The data collection and the data analysis for this research continued for one semester (the Fall semester of 2020). The data sources include zoom observations, pre-service and in-service teachers’ verbal and written responses to reading reflections, participants’ reactions to the films’ assignments, reflections on the course activities, such as non-routine problem solving and lesson-plan critiques, presentations, and a final reflective paper. The instructor of the course and the primary researcher, acted as the participant-observers, a facilitator, and a coach in the classroom. The co-researcher was the classroom teaching assistant, who is a third-year doctoral student in the research institute. The on-going process of sharing understandings and interpretations of the findings between the researchers and the participants (i.e., triangulation of data processing) plays an important role for the establishment of a caring community and for one of trust. Triangulation occurs in three ways. First, we triangulate the data via an ongoing conversation with the participants via email, Blackboard, Zoom meetings, and phone throughout the semester. Second, we triangulate the data by comparing multiple data sources (i.e., reading reflections, zoom discussions, email, blackboard, and phone conversations). Third, we triangulate the data through member checking (i.e., the exchange of ideas between the researchers). The data collection occurs throughout the course of a semester. The data analysis consists of coding, which includes descriptive, summative, and holistic codes. Descriptive codes are the key words, which capture the participants’ concrete reactions in a particular context. Summative codes are the codes, which represent the main ideas from the participants toward a specific

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research area. Descriptive and summative codes are integrated, synthesized, and then evolved into holistic codes, which provide the emerging patterns. The codes are generated by using NVIVO. NVIVO is a qualitative data analytical computer software package produced by QSR International; and it helps qualitative researchers to organize, analyze and find insights in unstructured or qualitative data, such as interviews, open-ended survey responses, journal articles, social media, and web content, where deep levels of analysis on small or large volumes of data are required (McNiff, 2016). Based on the emergent patterns, the categories of themes are identified, such as the beliefs and problems related to online mathematics teaching, learning, and assessment, realizations, and possibilities.

8. A Search for Meaning Throughout the semester, the primary researcher engaged the participating preservice and in-service teachers via online teaching and learning activities. These activities included the discussions and reflections on reading assignments, as well as non-routine problem-solving activities by using a variety of virtual tools for mathematical modeling and representations. In addition, the primary researcher incorporated small-group interactions and collaborations via Blackboard for sharing ideas and information, thereby creating a learning community by developing and sharing lesson plans and providing peer critiques, and teaching presentations. In what follows, we present four samples of the participating pre-service and inservice teachers’ reflections on their online lesson plans and teaching strategies. The first sample is presented by a female special education pre-service teacher developing her first online lesson plan. The critiques from my colleagues helped me to improve my lesson plan; and fill in the missing gaps. My assessment originally lacked depth. My colleagues all suggested in one way or another to add to both my formative and summative assessments. One of my colleagues gave me good advice. He said, ‘Always start with the end of your lesson in mind, this will help you develop a strong and explicit lesson that anyone could come in and teach if needed.’ Peer’s name). I do treasure the wise words of my fellow classmates who were gracious in giving both accolades and constructive criticism (Special Education Pre-service Teacher’s Reflection on Online Lesson Plan).

The second sample is presented by a female early-childhood in-service teacher, developing an online-lesson plan for the first time. “Preparing this lesson plan was an arduous and confusing endeavor. This was particularly true for me, as I do not have to generate this type of lesson plan [online] with the type of students I teach; nor do I have extensive experience writing lesson plans for online teaching in general. My classmates assisted me immensely in their constructive criticism. (In-service Early-Childhood Teacher’s Reflection on Online-Lesson Plan)

The third sample lesson plan reflection is presented by a special education inservice teacher. He starts by saying that he designs his lesson from a diagnostic perspective, small group instruction, manipulatives, and technology.

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“The feedback I received from my peers, such as virtual manipulatives and circle manipulatives were very helpful for modification of my lesson plan. I also received feedback about a brain-break. Generally, lessons are 45 to 60 minutes; a brainbreak for third graders is necessary.” (Special Education In-service Teacher’s Reflection on Online Lesson Plan)

The fourth lesson plan reflection is presented by a female pre-service earlychildhood teacher. As a beginning teacher, she appreciates the challenges of stepping into a new and unfamiliar territory. In addition, she values the collaboration with her colleagues and peer critiques’ aspect of the lesson plan processes. “At first, I was nervous. I did not have any prior experience about writing online lesson plans and teaching them. I think that we teachers should shift away from the traditional style of teaching, where students are passive recipients. I appreciate the feedback given to me by my colleagues; and I used these to adjust my lesson.” (Pre-service Early-Childhood Teacher’s Reflection on Online Lesson Plan)

The participating pre-service and in-service teachers discuss their beliefs regarding online mathematics teaching, learning, and assessment in terms of their realizations, concerns, struggles, and limitations related to their online mathematic instructions. The participants agree the benefits of online mathematics teaching and learning; and they acknowledged their problems. We use a categorized themes table to summarize the participants’ beliefs of the benefits and problems, as regards teaching mathematics online. Table 1: Categorized Themes of the Beliefs and Problems Regarding Online Mathematics Teaching and Learning Categories Benefits Problems Resources range of multi-modality lack of internet, devices, resources technology, and family support Applicability convenience, flexibility, and hard to implement in special accessibility, differentiated, education Individualized and special education Capability creativity, innovation, lack of training including technology, and independent knowledge, skills, and learning, confidence in online teaching Assessment a variety of forms, efficient, fast, issues in integrity, authenticity reviewable and struggles in assessment Relationship connection, interaction, lack intimate participation, collaboration, communication, connection, interaction, and socialization communication, and socialization Environment learning environment out of control in learning management, participation, environment management involvement, and distraction including participation, involvement, and distraction

Benefits: Range of Multi-Modality Resources The multi-modality aspect of available educational resources is recognized by participants as the number-one benefit of online mathematics teaching. Almost all

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the participants (45/48) said that the internet provides a vast number of resources, like websites, tools, and media that support online mathematics education. For example, one participant said, “online teaching allows the teacher to take advantage of a ton of digital-learning tools, platforms, and online resources.” Another teacher stated, “there is a wide range of educational materials available in an online classroom – for both the students and the teachers to enjoy.” The participants not only acclaimed the extensive resources for onlinemathematics instruction; but they also reflected that the application of multimodality resources provides self-exploration opportunities for both teachers and students. They stated that using multi-modality resources online helps students to become engaged and motivated to understand mathematical concepts and to build up one’s mathematical skills. One teacher narrated: “teachers can utilize helpful online software. This could include relying on and using different digital learning tools for students to use, in order to help them to improve their mathematical skills and understanding.” Another teacher expressed a similar idea, that “online learning is an engagement that offers kids with all of the moving parts and vibrant colors of mathematical instruction, which really helps to motivate and engage the students.” Benefits: Convenience, Flexibility, Accessibility, Comfort, Less Distraction The second benefit reflected by participants regarding mathematics teaching and learning online is the convenience, flexibility, and accessibility of being able to teach anywhere, at any time, and when using any format. One teacher said, “students are not necessarily constrained to the lessons at any given time of the day; they can access the course content whenever it is convenient for them, by day or by night.” Another teacher claimed, “one of the many benefits to online teaching is the flexibility of the schedule with the online school. You can schedule assignments and have students do assignments at their own pace and in their own time.” A third teacher reported, “a benefit to online teaching and learning mathematics is the flexibility of the online schedule. An online schedule allows students to work at their own pace, and in their own time. Students can log on when they want, and take as much time as they need to complete an assignment.” The participating pre-service and in-service teachers argued that online learners can learn at their own pace and from the comfort of their own homes, which prevents social distraction, like behaving inappropriately, making a noise, or participating in classroom gossip. Benefits: Creativity, Innovation, Technology, and Independent Learning The third major benefit of teaching mathematics online lies in the advantages of creativity, innovation, technology, and independent learning. One of the participating teachers explained how online learning fosters creativity: “the internet provides a nearly endless supply of resources and ideas with regard to mathematics. You can easily find interactive teaching aids, videos, games, and so forth, for use during just about any lesson you could want to teach.”

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Another benefit of online teaching is that there are so many technological innovations that allow an educator to integrate face-to-face classroom practices into an online learning environment. To explain this advantage, one teacher said, “online education can help students to develop their technological skills; since students are learning to use different forms of technology, like computers and tablets, to complete assignments and assessments, and to compute mathematical equations.” The participants also reported that online mathematics learning cultivates students’ independent learning ability. Benefits: Interaction, Connection, Collaboration, and Involvement The participants stressed that online teaching provides creative ways to facilitate lessons, collaboration, and learning. Students are more engaged through different technological tools, such as interactive games, forums, email, Zoom, and Google Classroom. Each platform allows students and teachers to interact and enhance their collaboration, because “students can collaborate with their peers, as well as with their teachers, which complements the needs of the students;” and “it enhances teachers’ and students’ virtual communication and collaboration skills.” The nature of online teaching and learning has the benefit of helping students feel more connected with each other in the absence of a classroom, and with others nationwide and globally, which provides learning experiences in a global way. One teacher mentioned, “a virtual classroom can be utilized anywhere around the world, so students could possibly be working and interacting with peers from other countries or states.” The participants also emphasized that online learning helps to create a relationship between a teacher and the students; and it allows teachers to know their students better. Benefits: Differentiation, Individualization, and Special Education The fifth benefit of teaching mathematics online comes from the aspects of differentiation, individualization, and special education. The participating teachers argue that online learning provides teachers with more opportunities for tailored instruction and individualized instruction, especially for struggling students and special education students in the general education classroom settings. One teacher says “online teaching and learning opens up opportunities for both students and educators with special needs. Disabilities can restrict both educators and students from attending school. By being allowed to attend school in their homes, disabled individuals on both sides of the educational spectrum would be able to be part of the educational experience.” The Internet gives teachers the opportunity to take into consideration the needs of this new generation that is so tuned into technology, and which prefers receiving information quickly from the multiple sources of the media.

Problems: Knowledge, Skills, and Confidence Some participants resist teaching mathematics online (16 out of 48 participants), although they agree with its benefits. Objections include a lack of time,

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knowledge, skills, and confidence in teaching mathematics online, lack of effective dynamic interaction and communication online, lack of internet access, lack of technological support in poor communities, feeling out-of-control of the learning environment and distraction, as well as issues related to the authenticity of the assessment, and the needs of special-education students. The participating teachers mentioned their level of knowledge, skills, and confidence relative to adequately presenting the material in a virtual setting. One teacher reported, “I had difficulty with teaching skills online, especially since there was a lack of knowledge to deal with issues like limited attention span, lack of attentiveness. It seemed as if there were too many things online, it’s overwhelming.” Another teacher echoed, “Many teachers who are in the workforce do not have high-tech skills; and they struggle to manage the computer. How to use a digital tool, how to access different software, and to make it learnable, how to deal with poor internet connections, or with the unaffordable internet costs, in order to sustain the long hours of online-learning connections.” The lack of technological skills often leads to reducing teachers’ confidence in online-mathematics teaching. “The issue would be my confidence to teach a complex lesson, without being able to fully explain or gauge my students.” Problems: Participation, Connection, Interaction, Communication, and Socialization There are widespread concerns about the lack of interpersonal relationships, when teaching mathematics online, including the lack of participation, connection, interaction, communication, and intimacy. Other issues mentioned by the participants are relative to social and emotional concerns, such as not being able to get the same interactions with students online. One teacher pointed out that “one of the things I have observed over this past semester is that students have a very difficult time interacting with one another. I feel as though a plethora of students’ social skills have regressed over the period that we have been attending school in the virtual format.” The participating teachers mentioned the limitations of online learning relative to social and emotional development. They argued that it is difficult for children to play, and to interact with each other. Problems: Internet Access, Equity, and Family Support The participating teachers stated the lack of necessary resources, such as the internet, devices, and technology as the third major problem with teaching mathematics online. One of the participating teachers said, “one of the biggest obstacles regarding online teaching and learning is the fact that not all students would have access to the computers or to the internet, when necessary.” Another teacher said, “One obstacle and limitation relative to online teaching and learning mathematics is the home situations and the home life. There are times that students do not have very good Wi-Fi at their homes; and many schools do not supply laptops or iPads.”

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Some students were unable to navigate the internet without the help of an adult. This leaves students to rely on their parents’ schedules to help them complete their schoolwork. Some students also have poor internet connections. Poor internet connection can make it difficult for students to log on, to hear directions, and to participate in conversations. Accessibility and technical issues are two concerns that go hand-in-hand. One teacher said, “if students do have internet at their house, they might not have computer accessibility, or they might be sharing a computer with a number of other relatives in their home. This could be hard for students to have time to complete the work they need to. It could also be a scheduling issue.” As one teacher observed, “online teaching mathematics requires the support of family or caregivers. Many younger students are going to need assistance with technology, in order to study online.” The dilemma is that, on the one hand, younger children may struggle when using the keyboard, while on the other hand, many parents have full-time jobs, so that they cannot afford to stay at home. They may also not have the money to pay for a helper to assist their child during the school day, which could cause personal issues. This issue was best expressed by one teacher, “one of my biggest struggles with online teaching and learning in mathematics is the students relying on their technological support, while nobody is nearby for help, so that they simply get stuck and cannot figure out a problem.” Problems: Integrity and Authenticity in Assessment Many participating teachers show concerns about integrity and authenticity regarding online assessment. The most frequent words reflected from participants are “challenging”, “hard”, “difficult”, “inefficient”, and “less integrity”. One teacher stated, “I believe that assessing students’ learning online is extremely difficult.” Another teacher expressed the same concern, “assessments are less authentic. I do not believe that online assessments can accurately tell a student’s full independent knowledge. I am concerned about inefficiency and maintaining academic integrity.” From analyzing teachers’ responses, we found several reasons for the above concerns. First, generating an authentic assessment for all students from a variety of locations is difficult; because the teacher cannot fully monitor the learner’s environment. Second, teachers face the outside sources that they do not have control over, such as students searching for answers online, getting help from family members or parents. As a result, it is a huge challenge for many participating teachers to truly assess the students and to get a gauge on what they know. Realizations Relative to Online Instruction The participating pre-service and in-service teachers discuss their realizations regarding the curriculum, technology, pedagogy, and culture. Many teachers realize the pros and cons of lesson planning, material choosing, and implementing. One teacher responded, “one of the things that influenced my growth in this area is logging into my zoom classes and being excited to teach every lesson. Students respond more effectively and tend to participate more when their teacher is positive and excited about what they are teaching.”

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Although shifting teaching to the online format causes a plethora of technological challenges for teachers, many teachers reported the necessity of incorporating technology in online mathematics teaching. In addition, the participating teachers reflected on the socio-cultural aspect of online teaching and learning. One teacher said, “one of the major realizations I had this semester was learning the concept of ethno-mathematics, which focuses on the integration of history, culture, and mathematics. Mathematics is interconnected with history, culture, and social activities. Mathematics relates to people’s culture, and it should be relevant to specific cultures. This is an important aspect of teaching.” The participating teachers reflected on their realizations throughout the semester, such as access and equity in online teaching and learning, culturally responsive online pedagogy, and mathematical connections to students’ experiences. The possibilities of Online Mathematics Teaching and Learning The participating teachers provided many insights about how to engage students in online mathematics learning. One teacher said, “it is important for teachers to incorporate four key skills (the 4 C’s) in the online mathematics curriculum, in order to prepare the students for effectively connecting with a global society: critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity.” In addition, they argued that to plan a meaningful lesson, teachers must be knowledgeable about the content they are teaching. Many participants mentioned the critical role of creativity in online teaching. Another important factor of successful online teaching that was expressed by the participants was flexibility and adaptability during this time of uncertainty. The participating teachers stated that online teaching and learning ought to be a student-centered approach, where content and learning experiences are connected. To achieve this goal, they suggested hands-on and experimental activities throughout a variety of engaging apps and activities. Incorporating technology into mathematics instruction leads to inclusion. The participants discussed the crucial role of technology, such as Zoom, Google docs, forums, online apps, and games. Online teacher-student and student-student relationships also play an important role in students’ social and emotional development and successful learning. This connection is stressed by many participating teachers. Establishing a good relationship between teachers and parents was also highlighted by the participants. To this point, one teacher said, “Closely working with parents and families and creating positive relationships with them would be helpful when teaching online.” The participants asserted that while maintaining a supportive environment, teachers should also be aware of the importance of communication, interaction, reflections, and adaptability for online teaching and learning.

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9. Discussions The findings of this study suggest that a range of factors impact the participating teachers’ beliefs and perspectives towards online mathematics teaching and learning during the time of the COVID-19 pandemic. These factors include interactions, communication, and peer support. In addition, the findings of the study show that a few social and cultural factors impact online mathematics teaching and learning, such as knowing and understanding students’ social and cultural background, technological access and equity in mathematics education, learners’ social and emotional development, as well as parents’ involvement. The results of the study support similar findings by other scholars, thereby demonstrating the challenges that mathematics teachers face regarding online teaching and learning during the pandemic (Wachira & Keengwe, 2010; Engelbrecht & Harding, 2005). In addition, the study’s findings echoed the call for better collaboration among pre-service and in-service mathematics teachers through a mentoring model, in order to facilitate mathematics teachers’ professional development (Gueudet et al., 2012). Engaging the participating pre-service and in-service teachers in online mathematics teaching and learning must be understood within the socio-cultural context in which they live and interact. Most of the participating teachers had little knowledge, skills, and experiences regarding online mathematics teaching prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings of the study suggest that about 33% of the participating teachers were not comfortable in online mathematics teaching. One possible explanation for this is their uncertainty regarding how to incorporate technology in their day-to-day mathematics teaching and their lack of knowledge and skills for online teaching. Although almost 67% of the participating pre-service and in-service teachers were supportive of online teaching and learning, we argue that ultimately, it is the actions of the participants that define their interests, beliefs, and practices. Transformation from traditional teaching to online instruction requires a change in perspectives. In addition, it requires adequate resources, technological support, and onsite professional development opportunities.

10. Concluding Remarks Teaching mathematics online is challenging; but exploring the mechanism of engaging pre-service and in-service teachers in online mathematics instruction is rewarding. Our findings indicated that the teaching transformation from inperson, to online teaching requires the enhancement of pre-service and in-service teachers’ competencies with online teaching, including technological support, pedagogical updates, communication skills, and classroom management strategies within a virtual setting. The findings of the research also suggest that strengthening pre-service and in-service teachers’ collaboration and mentorship requires a pragmatic solution for addressing these needs.

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Our findings offer mathematics teachers insights and the means for proceeding in online mathematics instruction. Below, we provide some suggestions and approaches for successful online-teaching methods. In our study, we used course materials that are manageable, meaningful, and contextual, such as Electronic Reserved articles and Films on Demand, for reading, observing, and critically reflecting; Blackboard interactions and discussions; Zoom meetings for wholeclass discussions; and non-routine problems for mathematical modeling, representation, and communication. Teachers and teacher-educators can utilize a variety of strategies and methods for meaningful mathematical engagement, including zoom meetings, small-group meetings, one-on-one interactions, Blackboard discussions, and project-based teaching presentations. The key is to be found in making teaching simple and feasible. Contextualizing online mathematics teaching and learning methods geared towards the participating pre-service and in-service teachers’ needs, is pivotal for active engagement. Establishing social norms for online teaching and learning with clear communication of expectations is a necessary component for successful online instruction. In addition, transparency through open conversation and creating a safe and riskfree climate are crucial for online learning. Active listening, meeting students where they are, keeping the teaching and learning manageable and meaningful, valuing students’ voices, one-on-one interactions, small-group cooperative learning, collaborating with colleagues, project-based activities, and critical reflections are important factors for successful online teaching and learning. About the Authors: Roland G. Pourdavood is a professor of mathematics education at Cleveland State University, Department of Teacher Education. His research interests include mathematics teachers’ dialogue and reflection for transformation and school reform. In addition, he focuses on cultural diversity, the socio-cultural aspects of education, and emancipatory action research for personal and social praxis. Xuan Song is a third-year doctoral student of learning and development in urban education at Cleveland State University. His current research interests include curriculum development and instruction, teacher immediacy and teacher-student relationships, motivation, parenting style and students’ well-being. He is also interested in second-language acquisition, bilingualism, and the relationship between language and thinking.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 115-131, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.7 Received Sep 15, 2021; Revised Nov 06, 2021; Accepted Nov 18, 2021

Development of a Problem-Based Learning Management System-Supported Smartphone (PBLMS3) Application Using the ADDIE Model to Improve Digital Literacy Rahmat Rizal Universitas Siliwangi, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7509-7180 Dadi Rusdiana, Wawan Setiawan and Parsaoran Siahaan Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1172-1730 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4016-4125 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7611-9636 Abstract. This research aims to describe the development process of a problem-based learning management system-supported smartphone (PBLMS3) application using the ADDIE Model (analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation) and to determine its effectiveness in improving digital literacy. Data were collected from 40 physics education students in Tasikmalaya, consisting of 13 males and 27 females with an average age of 20 years. Data collection techniques included a literature study, expert validation, digital literacy test, and a questionnaire on student perceptions. Expert validation was obtained from three experts using a Likert scale and processed by the validation value equation developed by Aiken. The expert validation resulted in a value of 0.92, which met the minimum validation requirements. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the PBLMS3 application in improving digital literacy in online physics learning was determined by a statistical process using the Wilcoxon test. Based on its results, the t-value was -0.4752, with a p-value of 0.00 < 0.05. This means that the PBLMS3 application is effective for and capable of improving students’ digital literacy. Further research is recommended to determine other factors capable of improving digital literacy. Keywords: digital literacy; learning management system; online physics learning; problem-based learning *Corresponding author: Dadi Rusdiana, dadirusdiana@upi.edu

1. Introduction

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Information and communication technology (ICT) is rapidly developing, significantly impacting people’s lifestyles and community needs in various fields (Rizal et al. 2020a; Shopova, 2014). According to Rizal et al. (2019), teachers need to become professional educators to utilize ICT to organize educational development activities. Technology in the educational world is manifested in learning reformation. Furthermore, the need to utilize it in teaching students was influenced by the fact that external communities were already familiar with its use in communication, information searching, and various commercial activities. Technology is an important strategic media tool used to support the achievement of learning-reformation goals. Technology plays three main roles in the learning process. It creates pleasant and exciting learning conditions. It also equips students with the ability to use high technology. Furthermore, it functions as a learning tool with application programs used to simplify and speed up work as well as increase variation and interpretation techniques (Susilawati et al., 2020). One of the skills in using technology in educational activities encompasses digital literacy, which relates to the competencies and skills needed to use the internet, ICT, and media. Its main focus is problem-solving and knowledge-building through technology and media in a critical, creative, flexible, and ethical manner (Ferrari, 2012). Vuorikari et al. (2016) stated that digital literacy competence consists of information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, e-safety, and problem-solving. Meanwhile, Rizal et al. (2020b) reported that one can be trained in digital literacy through a physics learning process covering three areas of competence, namely information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, and digital content creation. According to several preliminary studies, many physics education students have low digital literacy. For instance, the research carried out by Kurniawati and Baroroh (2016) in Bengkulu found that the digital literacy of physics education students was “basic”, with a medium ability to operate, analyze, and communicate through the media. In Merauke, Nikat (2020) also found that students’ digital literacy was low and required the development of lectures to provide space for training. Furthermore, Rizal et al.’s (2020c) research in Tasikmalaya also found that physics education students had low digital literacy, with an average score of 50. In detail, the study found that the mean literacy competencies of information and digital data, communication and collaboration, and digital content creation were 36 (low), 68 (medium), and 47 (low), respectively. Amhag et al. (2019) recommended the use of technology in learning activities to train digital literacy. According to He (2014), using technology strengthens one’s confidence in online learning and trains student teacher candidates in using ICT for their future classes. Learning management systems (LMSs) to assist learning administration have been widely used in e-learning content platforms (Gutman, 2017). An LMS allows students to learn wider, irrespective of the time and location. The learning material is also more varied in words (text), visual, audio,

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and motion, better known as multimedia (Kean et al., 2012). An LMS has various functions in learning and training activities. It has to: 1) concentrate and automate administration, 2) provide personal services and guidelines, 3) arrange and present learning content regularly, 4) support portability and better standardization, and 5) manage reusable learning content (Raza et al., 2021). LMSs have already provided positive benefits for their users, especially in academic achievements. In a study by Marineo and Shi (2019), the literacy module integrated into the LMS had a positive impact on the students’ academic achievements. Mijatovic et al. (2013) stated that students using an LMS had better performance and academic achievements. Theoretically, the LMS provides several benefits and diverse effects due to the inappropriate design of lectures. In most cases, students are confused about what they have to do, making it difficult to achieve their learning goals (Emmamoge et al., 2020). An LMS makes learning slow and boring and focuses more on administration (Cho et al., 2014). Additionally, Abuhassna et al. (2020) stated that the use of Moodle (an LMS) in learning does not provide optimal outcomes due to its inability to achieve usability and reliability. We analyzed the various weaknesses of the existing LMSs. Firstly, LMSs function as a face-to-face learning support media facilitated by administrative learning. Secondly, it is unable to support synchronous online learning, thereby making it less interactive. Thirdly, it is unable to facilitate lectures by fully implementing learning models or methods. Lastly, it is unable to facilitate strict learning supervision, thereby reducing students’ learning motivation and frustrating their success in achieving the lecture goals. Due to the various weaknesses of LMSs, it is necessary to develop an independent system capable of facilitating synchronous online learning by applying specific models. Problem-based learning (PBL) is one of the recommended models in physics learning. According to Ceker and Ozdamli (2016), the various characteristics of PBL are as follows: 1) learning is student-centered, 2) authentic problems are used to focus on learning, 3) new information is acquired through self-directed learning, 4) learning occurs in small groups, and 5) teachers act as facilitators. The characteristics of PBL strongly encourage users to search for valid and relevant information, collaborate and communicate in groups, and generate creativity in problem-solving. All of these activities provide a positive learning environment to practice digital literacy. Therefore, the learning process carried out through the LMS is directed by using PBL syntax. Due to the benefits of PBL in optimizing digital literacy, it is necessary to integrate the PBL syntax into the LMS. Barrett (2017) developed PBL syntax, which can be adapted into the LMS through the following five stages: 1. Problem-finding: Students discover the problems they find independently. 2. Group discussion: Students engage in group discussions to clarify problems, define them, exchange ideas based on their understanding, and determine the things needed to solve the problem. 3. Independent exploration: Students conduct independent studies related to the problem by searching for information in libraries, databases, the internet,

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personal sources, or making observations. 4. Problem-solving: Students return to the initial group discussion to exchange information, learn from peers, and work together to solve problems. 5. Presentation of results: Students present the solutions found individually and evaluate the learning activities together in class. A smartphone is one of the most reliable online digital devices due to its ease of use (Turnbull et al., 2019). An LMS with smartphones provides new meaning in learning activities (Dreamson et al., 2018) and develops scientific inquiry and digital literacy (Marty et al., 2013). According to Alhasanat (2019), smartphones provide numerous benefits, such as supporting independent and collaborative learning experiences, eliminating the rigidity of learning experiences and involving lazy students, improving focus for longer periods of time, providing flexible and efficient learning, as well as facilitating positive flexibility to students with visual or audio deficiencies. Because of LMS advantages, it is necessary to develop an innovative LMS by integrating synchronous learning activities using PBL. This has led to the development of the problem-based learning management system-supported smartphone (PBLMS3) application capable of fulfilling the needs of the newest LMS. These needs include online synchronous learning activities at a scheduled time, virtual experiments, information engine search, and synchronous collaboration room. The PBLMS3 application was developed using the ADDIE Model, which is a series of instructional design processes consisting of five stages, namely analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (Reinbold, 2013). These five stages are guidelines for the makers of an efficient learning application. This model was chosen because it is often used to describe a systematic approach to instructional development as a result of its sequential and interactive processes. This research has two main objectives, namely to explain the development of the PBLMS3 application and to ascertain the effectiveness of the PBLMS3 application to improve digital literacy.

2. Method This research used the ADDIE Model, which consists of five steps, analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. The activities carried out at each stage of the ADDIE Model are explained in Table 1. Table 1: Research activities in every stage of the ADDIE Model No.

Stage

Activities

Analysis

▪ ▪ ▪

Study students’ digital literacy Analyze LMS for online physics learning Study PBL for online physics learning

Design

▪ ▪ ▪

Design a PBLMS3 application flowchart Design a PBLMS3 application storyboard Design PBLMS3 application material content

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No.

Stage

Activities

Development

▪ ▪ ▪

Implementation

▪ ▪ ▪

Evaluation

▪ ▪

Develop the PBLMS3 application by professional programmers Fill in the content of the PBLMS3 application according to the learning objective Validate the PBLMS3 application by pedagogical and media experts Conduct brief socialization and training in using the PBLMS3 application Conduct synchronous learning Test digital literacy through the PBLMS3 application Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the PBLMS3 application Collect data on students’ perceptions

This research involved three experts in learning media and pedagogy as well as 40 physics education students, consisting of 13 males and 27 females in the third semester at a university in Tasikmalaya, a city in the province of West Java, Indonesia. The instruments used in this research were a digital literacy multiple-choice test, expert validation, and a student perception questionnaire. The digital literacy multiple-choice test used in this research was a valid and reliable test developed in previous studies conducted on pre-service physics teachers in Tasikmalaya. The test accommodates three competency areas, namely digital data and information literacy, communication and collaboration, and digital content creation (Rizal et al., 2020d). The expert validation questionnaire and student perception questionnaire evaluated the PBLMS3 application using a five-point Likert scale. The validation of the PBLMS3 application was determined using the Aiken validation value (Equation 1) (Aiken, 1985). In the equation, V denotes the validation value, s the difference between the expert (1) and lowest scores, n the number of experts (evaluators), and c the highest value on the scale. The PBLMS3 application will be considered a valid media assuming it meets the minimum validation value requirements depending on the number of evaluators and rating categories, as shown in Table 2 (Anggraini et al., 2020). Table 1: Aiken minimum validation value Item no. Evaluator (n) 2 3 3 4 4

3 V

1.00

0.037

1.00

0.012

Number of rating categories 4 5 6 V p V p V p 1.00 0.040 1.00 0.028 1.00 0.008 1.00 0.005 1.00 0.016 0.92 0.32 0.87 0.046 1.00 0.004 0.94 0.008 0.95 0.004 0.92 0.020 0.88 0.024 0.85 0.027

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7 V 1.00 1.00 0.89 0.92 0.83

p 0.02 0.003 0.029 0.006 0.029

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The student perception questionnaire was used to determine the percentage of students’ acceptance based on their experience in using the PBLMS3 application at the implementation stage. An analysis of digital literacy scores from the pre-test and the post-test was conducted to determine the effectiveness of the PBLMS3 application. A parametric test using paired t-test is performed supposing the data are normally distributed. Conversely, a data non-parametric test using Wilcoxon is carried out when data are not normally distributed.

3. Results and Discussion The development of the PBLMS3 application in this research was analyzed using the ADDIE Model, where all stages of development intersect and have an impact on each other. The changes in one stage affect the others, therefore they need to be performed in synergy (Aldoobie, 2015). 3.1 Analysis In the analysis stage, the problem is identified and the student needs are determined. According to Cheung (2016), the educator needs to craft educational objectives and determine what needs to be taught to accomplish set goals. The analysis stage consisted of many activities. The first was to study the three most important aspects of students’ digital literacy in the first semester. In a study by Rizal et al. (2020b), the competencies of information and digital data, communication and collaboration, and digital content creation were scored 36 (low), 68 (medium), and 47 (low). Students’ habits in utilizing digital devices influenced these values. The second activity was to analyze LMSs for learning development in online physics, which provides synchronous online learning activities to facilitate students’ training in digital literacy and provide online virtual experiments (Susilawati et al., 2020). Table 3 provides a detailed analysis of the use of the PBLMS3 application in online physics learning. Table 2: Needs analysis of the PBLMS3 application in online physics learning No.

Competency

Browsing, searching and filtering information and digital content Storing data, information, and digital content Evaluating data, information, and digital content Sharing information through digital technologies Interacting through digital technologies

Student activities Search for valid and credible information related to the topic or problem Store information in easily accessible spaces Filter information using comparative sources Be actively involved in scientific discussions by paying attention to the ethics of digital communication

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Features needed in the PBLMS3 application Availability of an information search engine integrated with the PBLMS3 application Availability of storage space to save and report search results Availability of an information search engine integrated with the PBLMS3 application Availability of discussion space in limited groups or in one large class that are interactive and synchronous. The lecturer can monitor the

121

No.

Competency

Engaging in citizenship through digital technologies The netiquette Developing digital content in various formats Copyright and licenses

7 8

Features needed in the PBLMS3 application discussion room to achieve Solve problems based the objectives of the lecture. on facts and also valid Interactions between students and credible information or students and lecturers. Engage in virtual Availability of file storage physics experiment space to store reports of activities virtual experiments in various formats Report their activities in various formats using Word, Excel, and PowerPoint by capturing data sources or supporting information Student activities

The third activity in the analysis stage was a study of PBL for online learning. A literature study was carried out at this stage to learn the PBL syntax integrated into the LMS and its advantages in learning activities. 3.2 Design After collecting references and performing a needs analysis of LMSs, we made a PBLMS3 application design consisting of home, pre-test, post-test, learning process, and learning material at the design stage. The pre- and post-tests provided space to capture questions in the form of multiple choice and essays. The PBL syntax was integrated into the learning process by applying five learning steps, namely problem-finding, discussion in small groups, independent exploration, problem-solving, and presentation of results. The learning process follows the synchronous learning system regulated by the PBLMS3 application only when the lecturer opens a learning space with a sequential timeframe. The PBL model was integrated with the PBLMS3 application because it is considered to have the right characteristics needed to achieve the learning objective. The characteristics of PBL are student-centered learning, using authentic problems to focus on learning, requiring new information through self-directed learning, teacher as a facilitator, and group learning (Ceker & Ozdamli, 2016). Figure 1 depicts a system flowchart designed to visualize the design of the PBLMS3 application integrated with PBL.

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Figure 1: Flowchart system of the PBLMS3 application for physics school lectures

After creating a flowchart, the next step was to design a storyboard, which is where illustrations are displayed sequentially to visualize a program or an application. During the design phase, activity scenarios were added to the main ideas on user requirements to determine high-level functionality introduced by new systems that are capable of inherently influencing current user activity. Furthermore, in creating a storyboard, the designer creates information design scenarios to determine object representations and task actions to help users understand and interpret the proposed functionality (Mou et al., 2013). The storyboard used brings up the display design and the functions of each part of the LMS displayed. An example of the storyboard for each page is shown in Figure 2. The material used in the PBLMS3 application is for online physics learning. It is limited to dynamic electricity with three main concepts, namely electric current and Ohm’s law, the electrical resistance of a conductor, and a series-parallel circuit.

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(a)

(b) Figure 2: The example storyboard made to develop the PBLMS3 application (a) Example of page views designed in developing the PBLMS3 application, and (b) Example of page description and function for each PBLMS3 icon

3.3 Development The activities at the development stage include creating resources and preparing program or application readiness (Baharuddin, 2018). The storyboard was prepared, submitted, and discussed with professional programmers. During the development process, each part of the page was separately compiled, and the production process was completed in four months. The PBLMS3 application was developed as a web-based application that can be accessed from various digital devices. However, in this study, its use focuses on smartphones. This application is accessible on the website http://lms3.saena.web.id/ and can be downloaded at http://lms3.saena.web.id/LMS3.apk. Several of the page displays on the PBLMS3 application after completion are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Examples of page displays of the PBLMS3 application

An assessment of the seven important items related to the PBLMS3 application was needed to determine the LMS quality. These items are layout, user interaction, usability, navigation, typography, learning process, and material

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substance. The expert validation was based on a five-point Likert scale. Assessment of the PBLMS3 application was performed by media and pedagogical experts, with results according to the Aiken validation value (equation 1). The results of the expert validation of the PBLMS3 application are shown in Table 4.

Evalua tors

Table 3: Expert validation of PBLMS3 application items

1 2 3 ∑s V

Layout

R 4 5 5

s 3 4 4

11 0.92

User interaction

R 5 4 5

s 4 3 4 11 0.92

Usability

R 5 5 4

s 4 4 3 11 0.92

Navigation Typography

R 5 5 5

s 4 4 4 12 1

R 5 5 5

s 4 4 4

Learning process

Material substance

R 5 5 4

R 4 5 5

12 1

s 4 4 3 11 0.92

s 3 4 4 11 0.92

The expert validation of the PBLMS3 application yielded V values of 0.92 for five items and 1 for the other two. The minimum criteria for a V value, as shown in Table 2, were thus met. Therefore, it was concluded that the PBLMS3 application had met the validity criteria and was ready to be implemented. 3.4 Implementation During the implementation stage, the online physics learning activities were carried out using a one-group pre-test-post-test design (Creswell, 2012), as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Implementation design for online physics learning using the PBLMS3 application O1 = pre-test of digital literacy O2 = post-test of digital literacy X = online physics learning using the PBLMS3 application

During the implementation stage, the PBLMS3 application was used by 40 physics education students to allocate time during the pre-test and post-test processes and after the lecturer had opened the system. The participants conducted learning processes sequentially for each stage, with repetition or jumping from one stage to another. The learning process automatically moves to the next stage when the time has been exhausted. The digital literacy scores yielded for the implementation stage of the PBLMS3 application for online physics lectures are recapitulated in Table 5.

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Table 5: Digital literacy scores yielded during the implementation stage N Pretest Posttest

Mean

Median

Mode

63.00

57.00

51.00

85.50

86.00

85.00

Valid

Missing

40 40

Standard deviation

Variance

Min

Max

12.74

132.62

51.00

75.00

6.52

38.92

74.00

96.00

Shapiro Wilk was used to determine the results of the normality test of the digital literacy pre- and post-tests, as shown in Table 6. Table 6: Result of the normality test using Shapiro Wilk Shapiro Wilk Statistic df.

Sig.

Pre-test

0.69

0.000

Post-test

0.875

0.007

Based on the normality test results using Shapiro Wilk, the significance of the pre- and post-tests were 0.000 and 0.007, respectively, with a p-value lower than 0.05. Therefore, it can be concluded that the pre- and post-test scores were abnormally distributed. The effectiveness of the PBLMS3 application in improving digital literacy was analyzed using the Wilcoxon test, as shown in Table 7. Table 7: Results of the application’s effectiveness using the Wilcoxon test Gain Z

-0.4752

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

0.0000

The Wilcoxon test yielded a t-value of -0.4752, and the p-value was 0.00 < 0.05. This means that the PBLMS3 application was effective in improving participants’ digital literacy. According to Pöntinen and Räty-Záborszky (2020), it is necessary to involve technology in learning activities to optimize students’ digital competence. Therefore, digital devices need to significantly feature during the learning process (Tejedor, 2020). Online physics learning activities using the PBLMS3 application can be performed with the support of digital devices, such as smartphones. Learning activities are carried out to allow students to optimize the use of smartphones, which have become more useful as learning media to improve digital literacy. Ilomäki et al. (2016) stated that teachers need to provide opportunities for their students to practice these digital competencies through complex, challenging, and authentic learning activities. Learning frameworks capable of training digital literacy also need to be practice-based, comprehensive,

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and oriented towards the required competencies and problem-solving (Guitert et al., 2020). The PBLMS3 application, integrating PBL in the learning process, provides challenges in overcoming physics concepts and phenomena observed in everyday life. Therefore, participants tried to solve problems by searching, processing, analyzing, and synthesizing online information and then discussing it through online group discussion forums to exchange ideas and understand the concepts using the PBLMS3 application and digital devices. It also enabled them to carry out simple virtual-experiment activities to prove the problem-solving plan compiled together. The experiment results and their analysis need to be reported in Excel format and presented with PowerPoint. All stated activities use PBL syntax, which is oriented towards the digital literacy competencies observed in the study. This means that the three competency areas in digital literacy will be developed and facilitated through online physics learning using the PBLMS3 application (Rizal et al., 2021). 3.5. Evaluation At the evaluation stage, the advantage of the PBLMS3 application in online physics learning and students’ perceptions were examined. We identified the following advantages of the PBLMS3 application in online physics learning: 1. It realizes innovative and quality lectures while providing better learning outcomes. 2. Learning activities can be held anywhere without being limited by the lecture room. 3. It creates a more interactive and fun learning atmosphere. 4. It engages students to express their opinions through group and classroom discussions. 5. It helps the lecturer to assess the process and the results of learning. We also identified the following obstacles: 1. Some participants were late in conducting online learning activities at every stage. 2. Access to the PBLMS3 application was occasionally interrupted by weak network conditions. The questionnaire on student perceptions consisted of a number of statements related to the PBLMS3 application as well as participants’ changes in knowledge and skills. Students’ perceptions are valuable in the evaluation process because they directly experience the implemented program (Ceroni et al., 2016; Rizal et al., 2020d). The main perception of participants was that the PBLMS3 application and

the learning process needed improving for the user to be satisfied when using the application. The results of participants’ perceptions are shown in Table 8.

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Table 8: Results of students’ perceptions Percentage of student responses (%) No 1 2 3

8 9

Statement The PBLMS3 application is easy to use The PBLMS3 application is easy to download The PBLMS3 application operates smoothly on the device The display on the PBLMS3 application is simple and attractive The combination of colors presents a harmonious display The letters used in the application are easy to read The display menu in the application is attractive and interactive The navigation is clear and works well Virtual experiments can be accessed and used easily The PBLMS3 application presents online lectures interactively The PBLMS3 application provides communication facilities between users during lectures The PBLMS3 application increases learning motivation The PBLMS3 application provides a new atmosphere in lecture activities The PBLMS3 application is integrated in learning and supports mastery of concepts The PBLMS3 application facilitates skills in digital literacy literacy

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Strongly agree

Mean

Agree

Neutral

Disagree

Strongly disagree

57.5

7.5

4.13

42.5

2.5

4.35

42.5

37.5

4.13

27.5

2.5

4.55

7.5

2.5

4.10

22.5

2.5

4.73

4.50

72.5

2.5

4.58

7.5

2.5

4.28

67.5

2.5

4.55

27.5

2.5

4.43

77.5

2.5

4.73

87.5

7.5

4.83

52.5

42.5

2.5

4.40

4.65

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The information in Table 8 shows that the average perception of participants regarding the PBLMS3 application is above 4, which means that their level of agreement is high. Therefore, the PBLMS3 application, which was applied in online physics learning, received a positive rating from the participants. The participants’ perceptions expressed through the questionnaire were reinforced by representative sample interviews, which provided several main points. Most of the participants were motivated by the PBLMS3 application in online physics learning because they can carry out synchronous online learning. This activity uses systematic and mutually supportive stages to stimulate students to practice problem-solving activities supported by valid internet-sourced information. Every idea to solve a problem needs to be proven using virtual experimental activities and communicated in group and class discussions without rejecting the opinions of others. Students need to also focus on the learning process because synchronous learning activities are very strict in managing time. The PBLMS3 application was well received by the participants because during the learning process, they were assessed continuously. Furthermore, it provides an access link to conduct virtual experiments for students to carry out observations, process data, and report experiments in one system.

4. Conclusion The PBLMS3 application is an application that provides synchronous online learning and is practically accessible using a smartphone. The PBLMS3 application was developed using the ADDIE Model and has several advantages when implemented in online lectures. Field and literature studies were conducted at the analysis stage to collect information regarding previous profile digital literacy, PBL, and LMSs for online physics learning. At the design stage, the flowchart, storyboard, and material content of the PBLMS3 application were arranged. The development stage involved the production and validation of the PBLMS3 application by experts. The next stage was the implementation stage, where digital literacy tests and online synchronous learning were conducted. Lastly, participants’ perceptions were collected at the evaluation stage, and the strengths and weaknesses of the PBLMS3 application were analyzed. All online physics learning activities using the PBLMS3 application provide a learning environment that allows students to practice various digital literacy competencies. Online physics learning using the PBLMS3 application is a development that creatively meets students’ educational needs. The results of this study can also be used as a reference in developing professional teachers that use technology for learning purposes. Further studies need to be conducted to identify factors that support online physics learning using the PBLMS3 application to improve digital literacy.

Funding This research was funded by the Deputy for Research Strengthening and Development, Ministry of Research and Technology, and the National Research and Innovation Agency, Republic of Indonesia, through the doctoral dissertation grant.

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Reinbold, S. (2013). Using the ADDIE Model in designing library instruction. Medical Reference Services Quarterly, 32(3), 244–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/02763869.2013.806859 Rizal, R., Rusdiana, D., Setiawan, W., & Siahaan, P. (2020a). Digital literacy test: Development of multiple choice test for preservice physics teachers. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 29(3), 7085–7095. http://sersc.org/journals/index.php/IJAST/article/view/7567 Rizal, R., Rusdiana, D., Setiawan, W., & Siahaan, P. (2020b). Creative thinking skills of prospective physics teacher. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1521(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1521/2/022012 Rizal, R., Rusdiana, D., Setiawan, W., & Siahaan, P. (2020c). The digital literacy of the first semester students in physics education. Jurnal Pendidikan Fisika Universitas Muhammadiyah Makassar, 8(2), 101–110. https://doi.org/10.26618/jpf.v8i2.3293 Rizal, R., Rusdiana, D., Setiawan, W., & Siahaan, P. (2020d). Students’ perception of learning management system supported smartphone: Satisfaction analysis in online physics learning. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 9(4), 600–610. https://doi.org/10.15294/jpii.v9i4.25363 Rizal, R., Rusdiana, D., Setiawan, W., Siahaan, P., & Ridwan, I. M. (2021). Gender differences in digital literacy among prospective physics teachers. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1806(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1088/17426596/1806/1/012004 Rizal, R., Setiawan, W., & Rusdiana, D. (2019). Digital literacy of preservice science teacher. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1157(2), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1157/2/022058 Shopova, T. (2014). Digital literacy of students and its improvement at the university. Journal on Efficiency and Responsibility in Education and Science, 7(2), 26–32. https://doi.org/10.7160/eriesj.2014.070201 Susilawati, S., Satriawan, M., Rizal, R., & Sutarno, S. (2020). Fluid experiment design using video tracker and ultrasonic sensor devices to improve understanding of viscosity concept. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1521(2), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1521/2/022039 Tejedor, S., Cervi, L., Escoda, A. P., & Jumbo, F. T. (2020). Digital literacy and higher education during COVID-19 lockdown: Spain, Italy, and Ecuador. MDPI Publications, 8(48), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/publications8040048 Turnbull, D., Chugh, R., & Luck, J. (2019). Learning management system: An overview. In A. Tatnall (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Education and Information Technologies (pp. 1–7). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60013-0 Vuorikari, R., Punie, Y., Carretero, S., & Van den Brande, L. (2016). DigComp 2.0: The digital competence framework for citizens. Publications Office of the European Union. Joint Research Centre (European Commission). https://doi.org/10.2791/11517

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 132-153, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.8 Received Sep 20, 2021; Revised Nov 09, 2021; Accepted Nov 16, 2021

Character Education in the Pandemic Era: A Religious Ethical Learning Model through Islamic Education Nadri Taja*, Encep Syarief Nurdin, Aceng Kosasih, Edi Suresman and Tedi Supriyadi Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung-Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5233-9837 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2759-5046 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1151-0685 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4552-1574 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0307-1958

Abstract. The social distancing policy in the COVID-19 outbreak has influenced the non-holistic learning process, causing several moral problems. The learning process tends to promote the cognitive aspect, while the affective aspect tends to be neglected. This research aims at offering a learning model that promotes religious ethical values through religious education in junior high schools (SMP/Sekolah Menengah Pertama) in an effort to develop effective attitudes. The development of the model is carried out in five stages of research, namely analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (ADDIE). This research involved two groups of participants consisting of 376 students and 45 Islamic Education (PAI/Pendidikan Agama Islam) teachers in junior high schools in West Java. The research results explore the PAI learning model that develops religious ethical values as learning objectives. The process of internalizing these values is developed through the processes of knowing, of doing, and of being. Religious ethical values that are developed in students are the crystallization of four prophetic characters, namely fathonah, siddiq, amanah, and tabligh. The test results of two junior high schools, both public schools and religious-based schools, concluded that the application of the religious ethical learning model was able to improve students' religious ethical character at a high level. This research contributes to the development of PAI learning designs in the pandemic era based on the development of prophetic characters. In addition, this research can be a guideline for teachers or academics in developing research related to student character within the framework of character education.

Corresponding author: Nadri Taja; Email: nadritaja@upi.edu

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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Keywords: ethical-religious; character education; learning model; pandemic; prophetic

1. Introduction The new format of the learning process during COVID-19 pandemic era, namely through a virtual learning system, has raised several problems, such as the issue of students' moral ethics (Baloran, 2020). This has been unsettling among educators regarding the process of character education in students through virtual learning. This concern is motivated by a principle that in addition to transferring knowledge, the educational process also transfers values (Muhtar et al., 2020; Suherman et al., 2019). In online learning at home, teachers place more emphasis on developing cognitive domains. It is challenging for teachers to observe virtuous practices as a part of the learning process because the school serves as an arena for students to practice character (Milliren & Messer, 2009). Thus, they become unable to carry out their functions. Therefore, efforts are needed to formulate the learning of moral ethics values specifically in the pandemic era so that the learning process can still take place holistically. It is important to explore the formulation along with the phenomenon of student behavior during the learning process, which tends to lack discipline and responsibility (Intania, 2020) such as playing games during the learning process. This also indicates the lack of respect in students for knowledge and teachers during the learning process (Wardhani, 2018). Moreover, the lack of direct social interaction causes a great deal of deviant behavior (Krings et al., 2021), hence the importance of a learning formulation based on the development of ethical-moral values in the pandemic era. On the other hand, this is a challenge and an opportunity for teachers to create learning innovations in a pandemic situation. The professionalism of a teacher in a pandemic situation continues to be tested. Research related to education for the moral development of students has attracted the attention of researchers in various countries. Soto-Pérez et al. (2021) analyzed the influence of ethical ideology and students' moral significance on the level of student performance and academic achievement. By using partial least squares path modeling (PLS PM) statistical analysis, the research results reveal that the ideology of justice and deontology can increase moral significance, which also positively increases students’ citizenship behaviors, students’ in-role performance, as well as academic achievement. In other words, justice, deontology, and moral significance are factors that can improve student academic performance and achievement. Duperon (2018) explored the gap between ethical theory and ethical practice in ethical learning in American colleges. Through the teaching approach of Confucianism, the moral formation must be led by a consistent ethical theory and manifested in prosocial behavior that is focused on self‐direction, openness, and the acquisition of skills in line with attention and will. Boonsong et al. (2018) developed learning management devised for the improvement of moral ethics and a student code of ethics at Rajamangala Thanyaburi University of Technology (RMUTT) Thailand. The research results showed that educators can promote a code of ethics and moral ethics for the desired character of the teaching profession through integrated learning techniques consisting of role-playing, service-learning, contract system, value

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clarification, and concept mapping through three steps. The first step is to warm up to understand learning, the second step is to carry out the procedures, namely clarification of values and role-playing for development, and the third step is to conclude and evaluate student learning for mapping their results. Lukviarman et al. (2018) explored the factors influencing a person's commitment to the code of ethics. The results of his research reveal that religious feelings and moral maturity have a positive relationship with commitment to the code of ethics In contrast to these studies, this research is focused on developing a learning model that promotes religious ethical values through Islamic education (PAI) at the junior high school level in a virtual learning platform during the COVID-19 pandemic.

2. Theoretical Framework At the conceptual level, values are realized as 'principles' and fundamental beliefs, which serve as general guidelines for behavior, and as standards for determining whether an action is considered good or desirable (Halstead & Taylor, 1995, p. 169). In relation to religion, religious values are principles of moral ethical behavior that are constructed by traditions, texts, and religious beliefs. These behaviors include kindness, obedience, submission to God, self-discipline, boldness, trust, generosity, respect for one's religious symbols and leaders, obedience to religious instructions, and openness to correction when someone makes a mistake (Saluun & Timin, 2020). Ethical studies are necessary to explore behaviors relevant to human traits (Bertens, 1993; Auweele, 2015). In the modern world, an ethical theory is associated with the issue of goodness and truth (Graham, 2011), and God's commandments (Copp, 2006). In other words, ethics are relevant when they are associated with religion. Since religion has become the key characteristic of human life as homo-religious (Albright & Ashbrook, 2001), religion has also become one of the most powerful forces in guiding one's actions (Fridayanti, 2015), even as an important social power that has a strong influence on the social environment (Emmons & Paloutzian, 2003). Therefore, religion is significant in human daily life (Lewis & Cruise, 2006). This emphasizes that religion and morals cannot be separated (Albulescu, 2019), and these become an important part in the moral education process (Suleymanova, 2020; Yusupova, 2020). In relation to ethics and religion, Izutsu (2006) introduced them with the term ‘religious ethics’, which are interpreted as moral principles to guide humans in behaving ethically in accordance with the world view of religion (Abdurrahman, 2005). By analyzing the main source of Islam, namely the Qur'an, ethics were classified by Izutsu (2006) into three different criteria, namely criteria that show and describe the nature of divinity, criteria that describe aspects of the fundamental attitude of human relations to God, and criteria that describe the principles and rules of normative life in an Islamic society. The first category was developed into theories about the attributes of God or the Divine Ethics by theologians. The second and third criteria are referred to as religious ethics (Izutsu, 2006). For a Muslim, the perfection derived from the practice of religious ethics is embodied in the figure of the Prophet Muhammad PBUH (Ali, 2015; Katz, 2010). Among Muslims, the Prophet Muhammad PBUH became an example for his

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followers in all forms of words, deeds, and behavior of the prophet in building relationships with God and humans. Muslims always strive to be what was practiced and taught by the Prophet (K̲h̲ān̲, 2009; Schoeler, 2010). The practice of religious ethics is reflected in the four main characteristics of a prophet, namely intelligence (Fathonah), honesty (Siddiq), trustworthy (Amanah), and fluency in conveying God's message so that it is easily accepted (Tabligh) (Burge, 2020; K̲h̲ān̲, 2009). These four characteristics are the crystallization of the practice of religious ethics. The terms of morality or ethics or character relate to the question of values. Solving value problems can only be done through value education because values are the core of education both in theory and in practical activities (Halstead & Taylor, 1995). Therefore, value education has a vital role in solving the value problems that arise among students. Education is not only understood as a form of knowledge but a part of life based on ethical values (Ryan et al., 1999). Cultivating and developing character values must involve methods, techniques, and materials so that the goals of character education are achieved (Licona, 1991). In other words, a learning model is required to attain the goal of character values (Metzler, 2017; Wortham, 2006; Yun-fei, 2004). The learning model is a conceptual framework describing a systematic procedure for managing learning experiences to attain certain learning objectives, and assists as a guide for learner designers and teachers in planning and implementing learning activities (Joyce et al., 2009; Rusman, 2011; Tayeb, 2017). The necessity of a learning model within the context of developing religious ethical values is a real manifestation in achieving the goals of character education and in designing a character learning model, in which at least four components are needed, namely an Instructional Objective, Entering Behavior, Instructional Procedures and Performance Assessment (Glasser, 1999; Rusman, 2011). Moral education, ethics, or character education has long been the concern of public schools (Figley, 1984; Mouratidou et al., 2007).

3. Methodology 3.1. Design To achieve the research objectives in developing a learning model for religious ethics, the ADDIE steps were used as a development research design (Branch, 2009; Cheung, 2016; Gagne et al., 2005; Hsu et al., 2014). In addition, the ADDIE model has been widely used by several researchers in pedagogic development (Lafleur et al., 2021; Oh et al., 2021; J. Yu & Jee, 2021; S.-J. Yu et al., 2021). ADDIE is an acronym that describes the five steps of development, namely analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (Branch, 2009; Gagne et al., 2005). The design of the development of religious ethical learning was conducted in sequence from the analysis phase to the evaluation phase. The recommendations made during the evaluation phase are to advise future revisions of other phases. 3.2 Research Procedure 3.2.1 Analysis Phase This phase describes the needs related to the religious ethics learning model through PAI subjects. This phase comprises two analytical activities, namely the

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empirical conditions of religious ethic learning analysis and literature analysis. In analyzing the empirical conditions of PAI learning during the pandemic, two forms of questionnaires, namely questionnaires to teachers and questionnaires to students, were distributed. The questionnaire to teachers consisted of 10 openended questions. The substance of the questions focused on three aspects, namely learning, psychology, and social while the questionnaire to students consisted of 15 open-ended questions to explore information related to religious insights and attitudes as well as their assessment of the PAI learning process during the pandemic. The questionnaires were distributed to PAI teachers in junior high school using Google Forms. The results were followed up in the form of interviews and documentation studies on learning media. In the second activity, a literature analysis was conducted by tracing a number of relevant articles in Scopus indexed journals in 2016-2020. The search was carried out using the Publish or Perish application (Supriyadi et al., 2020) by inputting three keywords, namely ethic, religious, and education. The results delivered 268 bibliographies consisting of articles, proceedings, reviews, and book chapters. Furthermore, the results were filtered by setting four criteria to be analyzed. First, the selected bibliography concerned the type of articles, producing a total of 203 articles. Second, the series of titles contained two words, namely ethical and religious. This search was carried out to focus on the research topic. In this second stage, 20 articles were analyzed and then inputted into the reference manager for the import process on the N-VIVO 12 application for coding. A systematic literature review was conducted to explore what universal values were promoted in shaping religious ethical behavior. Afterwards, these values were linked to the theory of religious ethics in the Qur'an to focus on an Islamic perspective (Izutsu, 2006). 3.2.2. Design Phase The design phase aimed at formulating the learning products designs based on the needs in the previous stage. At this stage, the focus was on setting learning objectives, applying approaches, learning scenarios, designing learning materials, and selecting evaluation formats. The initial product was in the form of a design model or conceptual religious ethic learning method. This became an instruction in the next development process. 3.2.3. Development Phase This phase was intended to realize the previous conceptual model design into a product that was ready to be implemented. The products of this stage were in the form of learning plan documents, learning material modules, and learning media used which have obtained expert judgment. Furthermore, the validity test was carried out to evaluate the product validity level based on the assessment of several validators. 3.2.4. Implementation Phase This phase can be divided into two main parts, namely a practicality test, and an effectiveness test. The practicality test was conducted by examining the teachers’ responses to the questionnaire relating to product development. The effectiveness test of the product of the religious ethical learning model was carried out to

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determine the increase in students' religious attitudes after participating in the learning process. 3.2.5. Evaluation Phase At this phase, the researchers examined information from users to understand the advantages and disadvantages of the product and obtained user suggestions as feedback from product users. 3.3. Participants and Research Site In selecting the participants, a purposive sampling technique was used by distributing questionnaires with short answers via Google Forms. The questionnaire was distributed through research partners who had access to PAI teachers in junior high schools in the city of Bandung. They distributed the questionnaires to several WhatsApp groups in the SMP PAI teacher forums. The questionnaire relates to the willingness of teachers to be involved in this research project. In the questionnaire the purpose of this study and the extent of the involvement of teachers in this study were explained. The teachers were asked to read and understand the implications of their consent before they indicated their willingness to participate in this research. A number of 45 Islamic Religious Education (PAI) teachers expressed their willingness to be involved in the research. Furthermore, questionnaires were distributed to students through 45 PAI teachers. In this way, 376 junior high school students expressed their willingness to be involved as well. In addition, this research also involved a group of experts consisting of three professors with different spheres of expertise, namely the experts in Islamic religious education, character education, and learning models. The implementation phase of the product was conducted in two junior high schools in Bandung City, West Java, Indonesia. 3.4. Data Collection and Data Analysis Data collection and analysis were carried out in several ways at each phase in this ADDIE model, except in the design phase or the second phase. In the design phase, the research instruments were not used because this phase contains research activities to design product development based on the results of the previous stage. The description of data collection and analysis can be described in a matrix as follows: Table 1. Matrix of data collection and analysis Phase Analysis

Data Collection Technique

Instrument

1. Observation 2. Interview 3. Open-Ended Survey 4. Focus Group Discussion

1. Observation Sheet 2. Interview Guide 3. Student Questionnaire 4. Teacher Questionnaire 5. Field Notes Design Development Validating Expert Judgment Expert Assessment Sheet

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Data Analysis Product

Approach

Application

1. Field Notes 2. Interview Data 3. Student Responses 4. Teacher Responses 5. Teachers’ Notes

Qualitative with Coding

Google Doc. NVIVO 12 Plus

Quantitative

SPSS IBM Version 26

Expert Assessment Results

138

Implementatio 1. Observation 1. Observation Product Impact n 2. Questionnaire Sheet (Teacher Assessment Results Activities, Learning Implementation, Children's Activities) 2. Pretest-Posttest Assessment Sheet Evaluation

Focus Group Discussion

Quantitative

1. Interview Guide Product User Rating Qualitative 2. Field Notes Results

SPSS IBM Version 26

NVIVO 12 Plus

4. Result 4.1. Analysis Phase: The Need for a Religious Ethical Value Learning Model 4.1.1. Empirical Conditions for PAI Learning The data obtained from the questionnaires filled out by 376 students and by 45 PAI teachers at junior high schools in Bandung City was analyzed. In addition, transcripts of interviews with 12 PAI teachers and observations of learning device documents with data processing through NVIVO12 Plus were also analyzed. The results obtained three findings as to the main themes that describe the empirical conditions of PAI learning in the Bandung City during the pandemic. These themes relate to teacher motivation, instructional strategies, and value problems. Visually, the result of data processing at this phase is presented in Figure 1:

Figure 1. Concept map of empirical conditions for PAI learning 4.1.1.1. Teacher Motivation The implementation of learning during the pandemic has had an impact on fluctuations in teacher motivation in teaching. During this pandemic, it was essential that teachers maintained high levels of motivation during virtual learning at home. There were two aspects affecting the motivation of PAI teachers in Bandung City in carrying out learning during the pandemic, namely the encouragement of the teacher in running online learning and the teacher enthusiasm. Teachers were less enthusiastic in dealing with virtual learning

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systems compared to face-to-face learning. The lack of teacher enthusiasm was due to the difficulty of interacting directly or physically with students as teachers could not measure students' understanding during online learning. This lack of physical interaction eventually led to a decrease in teaching enthusiasm (Strunc, 2020). This opinion was expressed by 13 teachers. One of the teacher's opinions that represent the teachers’ general opinions was as follows: “It is undeniable that the lack of direct face-to-face has an impact on the decline of teacher motivation in teaching. However, I still have to carry out the teaching obligation.” (Teacher 25) The decline in the teaching motivation of PAI teachers in Bandung City was closely related to the challenges faced by teachers in virtual teaching. The teachers’ technological experience in a virtual environment was one of the challenges that determined the efficient running of learning activities (Conrad & Donaldson, 2011; Ko & Rossen, 2017). PAI teachers in Bandung City did not have much experience related to virtual learning except during the COVID-19 pandemic. This lack also applied to mastering ICT that supported the implementation of online learning. In addition, technical barriers often faced by teachers were Internet signals, quotas, and learning support devices such as mobile phones as a means of realizing effective communication between teachers and students in the online learning process (Alawamleh et al., 2020; Wong et al., 2021). These factors are considered to affect teacher motivation in teaching. Realizing effective online learning required paying attention to aspects of communication so that the message conveyed by the teaching materials could be communicated effectively (McClain, 2002; Wong et al., 2021). One of the factors that support the establishment of effective communication between teachers and students was the communication media (Alim et al., 2019; Supriyadi et al., 2019). In addition to these experiences and technical barriers, the lack of student participation in the learning process was a challenge for PAI teachers in online learning. Signal factors and means of communication had a negative impact on students' enthusiasm when participating in PAI learning. 4.1.1.2. Instructional Strategy An instructional strategy is a series of instructional components implemented in instructional activities to achieve instructional goals (Baturay, 2008; Dijkstra et al., 2013). In carrying out the learning process, several instructional components found in this study are related to learning media, learning methods, and teaching time. The learning media are intended to help students to understand the lesson material (Abdo & Semela, 2010), which is expected to encourage students' interest and motivation to learn by providing different learning experiences (Aini, 2013). The media most often used by PAI teachers in online learning were learning videos made simply through cellphone recordings, self-made learning videos, or learning videos downloaded via YouTube. In addition to videos, teachers also used WhatsApp, Google Forms, Google Classroom, and Zoom as media to deliver the material. The teachers sent the links to the lesson material, either the Google Forms link, the YouTube link, or the Zoom link via WhatsApp on the parents’ cellphones. This medium is also dependent on the parents’ use of their cellphones because there are still many students at the junior high school level who do not

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have their own cellphones to use as learning medium. The result was low student participation in PAI learning. Furthermore, the method used by the teacher was a lecture or question and answer session via Zoom or Google Meet. However, owing to frequent signal interference and the conditions of online classrooms that are not conducive for learning, using fast and easy learning methods became an issue. Hence, the teacher used alternatives such as offline assignments and quizzes with a predetermined time limit to evaluate the students’ level of understanding of the material provided. In addition, in online learning, teachers were required to be able to use limited time. This undeniably affected the learning speed, learning objectives, and learning assessment. The learning duration that was usually used by teachers in one meeting before the pandemic was one and a half to two hours. However, during the period of studying from home (SFH), the learning duration was shorter owing to parental intervention in the use of media, and the limited use of application time due to limited use of Zoom's free license that was only up to 40 minutes. For these reasons the teacher only conveyed the important points of the lesson material to students. When students carried out tasks or conducted question-and-answer sessions with the teacher, it was difficult for the teacher to evaluate whether the answers were the result of students' understanding. Most parents helped their children by providing answers so that they could answer the questions more quickly. This happened because the parents needed their cellphones so they wanted their children to complete the tasks quickly. 4.1.1.3. The Problem of Ethic Religious Values The implications of the lack of teacher motivation and the implementation of the teachers’ instructional strategies affected the problem of achieving the minimum goal of organizing religious education, namely the development of the students’ ability to understand, appreciate, and practice religious values as stated in Government Regulation No. 55 of 2007 (Government Regulation, 2007). There were indications that the problems related to achieving the goals of religious education led to religious ethical-moral problems. There are four religious ethical problems in this research, namely i) Intelligence problems included self-closing behavior or refusing to accept suggestions, self-superiority, lack of solutions and minimal academic achievement as problems of intellectual intelligence as well as the tendency of interest in engaging in conflicts such as brawls as a problem of emotional intelligence; ii). Responsibility problems included lack of time discipline, neglect of teacher duties, and neglect in carrying out worship; iii). Honesty problems included academic cheating, tend to be tendentious, and often looking for justification; and iv). Concern problems include lack of respect for teachers during learning, lack of pro-activeness, lack of communicative and individual tendencies. There were 17 teachers who expressed these opinions. 4.1.2. Model Needs in PAI Learning According to Izutsu (2006), religious ethics include the relationship between humans and God, the principles and rules of normative life in Islamic society, and the figure of the Prophet as a manifestation of the perfection of religious ethical behavior (Ali, 2015; Katz, 2010). This is reflected in the four characteristics of the Prophet, namely intelligence (Fathonah), honesty (Siddiq), trustworthy (Amanah), and fluency in conveying God's message so that it is easily accepted (Tabligh)

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(Burge, 2020; K̲h̲ān̲, 2009). People are required to imitate these traits (Katz, 2010; Schoeler, 2010). Thus, religious ethical values that will be developed within the framework of PAI Learning encompass these traits. The four characteristics of the Prophet were developed in several character values, namely fathonah, including intelligence, knowledge, solution thinking, wisdom and realistic; siddiq, including being honest, transparent, loyal, open, and objective; amanah, including responsibility, ability to carry out tasks, keeping promises, upholding principles and honor; and tabligh, including being exemplary and communicative, displaying leadership, and being pro-active and cooperative (Basri et al., 2020; Budiyono et al., 2019; Sultoni et al., 2020; Yasin, 2020). It is essential that these values are internalized by students through the PAI courses. Internalization is an effort to present values, understand values, feel values and embody these values in one’s behavior (Hakam, 2010). The effort to internalize these values requires a learning model (Licona, 1991), which is known as the internalization model of religious ethical values. Therefore, the next phase is to design a learning design model for internalizing religious ethical values in PAI subjects. 4.2. Design Phase: Conceptual Design of Religious Ethical Values Learning Model In designing the learning model for religious ethical values, the learning development model proposed by Glasser was adopted. This model consists of four components, namely objective instruction, entering behavior, instructional procedures, and performance assessment (Glasser, 1999; Rusman, 2011). In the instructional goal, the objective system students are focused on practicing ethical religious values permanently as learning objectives presented in the lesson material of the Beliefs in the Prophets. In this case, the Prophets are personal role models (uswatun hasanah) with perfect characters. In entering behavior, also known as the input system, the focus is on instilling religious ethical values extracted from the characteristics of the Prophets, namely Siddiq, Amanah, Tabligh, and Fathonah. In instructional procedures (system operators), the learning steps are developed to promote religious ethical values. The learning steps consist of three actionable steps: First, preliminary activities include apperception, motivation, and explanation. Second, core activities comprise the process of knowing and the process of doing. Finally, the third, a closing activity as an evaluation or being process is the fourth component of Glasser's model, namely performance assessment (output monitor). Table 2. Syntax of religious ethical model Activity Phase - 1 Introduction

Phase - 2 Exploration (Knowing)

Teacher Behavior 1. Greeting to open learning activities and start learning by praying 2. Relating the current lesson to the previous lesson 3. Motivating students with exemplary stories 4. Posing questions to students to find out the prerequisite concepts that have been mastered by students 5. Explaining the learning objectives associated with religious ethical values. 1. Teachers presented video examples of moral problems during a pandemic through the Zoom application. 2. Teachers asked students to observe and take an inventory

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of the moral problems in the video and then analyze the effects of these problems. 3. Teachers asked students to explain the behavior that should be shown and its effect as an alternative to moral problems in the video. 4. Teachers provided reinforcement to the student's explanation by connecting to the material of faith in the Prophet. Phase - 3 1. Teachers distributed Student Worksheets (LKPD – Lembar Review understanding Kerja Peserta Didik) containing the basics of the need to and provide feedback imitate the characteristics of the Prophet by presenting (Doing) absolute values based on the sources of Islamic teachings, namely the Qur'an and Hadith, and reported them in accordance with the directions related to how to work and assignment submission deadline. 2. Teachers asked students to give the Prophet's example as a manifestation of religious ethical values. 3. Teachers asked students to formulate how to apply these religious ethical values in the context of everyday life. 4. Teachers asked other students to respond to the results of the formulation. 5. Teachers provided direction and encouragement for students to practice values and reports related to the results of their experience of practicing these values. Phase - 4 1. Teachers confirmed the Islamic values contained in the Reflection (Being) general lesson material by mentioning the arguments in the Al-Quran and Hadith. 2. Teachers and students reflected on Islamic values contained in learning as an internalization effort.

The product of the design model consisted of a blueprint in the form of a draft of learning modules, lesson plans, and evaluation instruments. These products were developed at a further stage by asking experts to review and test their validity and reliability. 4.3. Development Phase: Development of Learning Model of Religious Ethical Values There were two steps in developing the ethical religious learning model. First, three experts were asked to review the resulting product. Second, after experts had assessed the products, the validity and reliability tests of the product were conducted on non-sample students. The results of the experts’ assessment using the Likert scale are shown in the following table: Table 3. Validation results from experts Expert 1

Expert 2

Expert 3

Averag e

Learning module elements

4.75

5.00

4.75

4.83

Lesson plan

4.83

5.00

4.67

4.83

Learning evaluation guidelines

4.67

4.75

4.70

Learning model syntax

5.00

Assessment component

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Based on the recapitulation table of the learning model by the experts, the result showed that the overall average validation result for the assessment of all learning model products was above 4.5, indicating that the validation of the expert assessment included very good criteria. In other words, the design of the model was appropriate for use in the learning process. Furthermore, the validity and reliability tests of the instruments were conducted to strengthen the judgment. These tests included three steps: i) The researchers compiled 20 statement items that were tested for validity and reliability; ii) this test was conducted in nonsample classes; and iii) after collecting the data, the researchers calculated the results of the validation. The tests results are presented in Table 4. Table 4. Indicator validation of Siddiq Indicator

Siddiq

Sub-Indicator Honest Transparent Loyal Open Objective

Value 0.5011 0.4895 0.6152 0.4491 0.7248

Average

Criteria

0.5559

Moderate

In the indicator of siddiq, the validation value obtained by the honest sub-indicator was 0.5011, the transparent sub-indicator was 0.4895, the loyal sub-indicator was 0.6152, the open sub-indicator was 0.4491, and the objective sub-indicator was 0.7248. Based on the five sub-indicators, the average validation value was 0.5559 with moderate criteria. Table 5. Indicator validation of Amanah Indicator

Amanah

Sub-Indicator Responsibility Carrying Out Tasks Keeping Promises Keeping Principle Responsibility

Value 0.7934 0.7476 0.5207 0.7154 0.7934

Average

Criteria

0.6596

High

In the indicator of amanah, the validation value obtained by the responsibility subindicator was 0.7934, the carrying out tasks sub-indicator was 0.7476, the keeping promises sub-indicator was 0.5207, the keeping principle sub-indicator was 0.7154, and the responsibility sub-indicator was 0.7934. Based on the five subindicators, the average validation value was 0.6596 with high criteria. Table 6. Indicator validation of Fathonah Indicator

Fathonah

Sub-Indicator Intelligence Solution Knowledgeable Wisdom Realistic

Value 0.5075 0.7889 0.5216 0.8005 0.6353

Average

Criteria

0.6507

High

In the indicator of fathonah, the validation value obtained by the intelligence subindicator was 0.5075, the solution tasks sub-indicator was 0.7889, the knowledgeable sub-indicator was 0.5216, the wisdom sub-indicator was 0.8005, and the realistic sub-indicator was0.6353. Based on the five sub-indicators, the average

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Table 7. Indicator validation of Tabligh Indicator

Tabligh

Sub Indicator Example Communication Leadership Proactive Cooperation

Value 0.5974 0.5113 0.5808 0.7759 0.5009

Average

Criteria

0.6163

High

In the indicator of tabligh, the validation value obtained by the example subindicator was 0,5974, the communication tasks sub-indicator was 0.5113, the leadership sub-indicator was 0.5808, the proactive sub-indicator was 0.5808, and the cooperation sub-indicator was 0.5009. Based on the five sub-indicators, the average validation value was 0.6163 with high criteria. The shiddiq indicator obtained an average validation of 0.5559 with medium criteria, the amanah indicator obtained an average validation of 0.6596 with high criteria, the fathonah indicator obtained an average validation of 0.6507 with high criteria, and the tabligh indicator obtained an average validation is 0.6163 with high criteria. Therefore, the reliability of the four indicators is concluded to be high with a score of 0.81. 4.4. Implementation Phase: Religious Ethical Value Learning Model To determine the level of students' religious character, the researchers conducted a limited test in the form of a questionnaire containing 20 statement items. These consisted of five statement items for the siddiq character, five statement items for the amanah character, five items for the fathonah character, and five items for the tabligh character. This questionnaire was distributed to students before being given treatment (pretest) and distributed to students after being given treatment (posttest). The test was conducted on 66 eighth-grade students SMPN PGII 2 Bandung and 63 eighth-grade students of SMPN 40 Bandung. The following is a general description of the students’ overall religious questionnaire: Table 8. Model test results School Name SMP PGII 2 Bandung

SMPN 40 Bandung

Type of Classes Control Class Pretest Posttest Experimental Pretest Class Posttest Control Class Pretest Posttest Experimental Pretest Class Posttest

Average (%) 63.94 67.47 63.76 80.09 51.42 53.52 51.88 67.91

Interpretation Moderate Moderate Moderate High Low Moderate Moderate High

Table 8 shows that before conducting the model test, the level of religious character of students in SMP PGII 2 showed a moderate level. Meanwhile, before conducting the model test, the level of religious character of students in SMPN 40 Bandung showed a low level. After testing the model for internalizing religious ethical values to develop students' religious character, the following results were obtained: 1. The control class of SMP PGII 2 Bandung showed a moderate level, and the experimental class showed a high level.

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2. The control class of SMPN 40 Bandung showed a moderate level, and the experimental class showed a high level. Furthermore, to determine the significant average difference between the pretest and posttest scores, the average difference test was conducted using a t-test with the assistance of IBM SPSS Version 26. For the test criteria, if the value of Sig. (2tailed) > α, then H0 was accepted. Otherwise, if the value of Sig. (2-tailed) < α, then H0 was rejected. The t-test results in the control class and the experimental class at SMPN 40 Bandung and SMP PGII Bandung are presented in Table 9. In addition, the proposed H0 is: There is significant difference in the result of the pretest control class and pretest experimental class. Table 9. The t test results at SMPN 40 Bandung Paired samples test Pair 1 Pair 2

Sig. (2-tailed) .129 .000

Pretest Control Class - Posttest Control Class Pretest Experimental Class - Posttest Experimental Class

The test results show that the value of Sig. (2-tailed) > α was 0.129, then H0 was accepted. In other words, there was no significant difference in the average pretest and posttest scores in the control class. For the experimental class, since the value of Sig. (2-tailed) < α was 0.000, H0 was rejected. In other words, there was a significant difference in the average pretest and posttest scores in the experimental class. The results of the t-test at SMP PGII 2 Bandung are presented in Table 10: Table 10. The t test results at SMP PGII 2 Bandung Paired samples test Pair 1 Pretest Control Class - Posttest Control Class Pair 2 Pretest Experimental Class - Posttest Experimental Class

Sig. (2-tailed) .974 .002

The test results show that the value of Sig. (2-tailed) > α was 0.974, then H0 was accepted. In other words, there was no significant difference in the average pretest and posttest scores in the control class. For the experimental class, since the value of Sig. (2-tailed) < α, was 0.002, H0 was rejected. In other words, there was a significant difference in the average pretest and posttest scores in the experimental class. 4.5. Evaluation Phase: Evaluation of Religious Ethics Value Learning Model At this phase, PAI teachers were requested to provide feedback regarding the application of the religious ethical model. To obtain this feedback, semi-structured interviews were conducted with four teachers who were the sample in this research. Three questions were asked regarding learning objectives, syntax, and instructional impact in religious ethical learning models. The results of the interview show that from the perspective of the user teachers, the learning objectives were more oriented towards value practice, which facilitated the teacher in the learning process. This view was expressed by two teachers:

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“In my opinion, the learning objectives are not oriented to mastery of concepts in the material being taught but rather to the practice of the concept” (Teacher 3). “In my opinion, this model makes it easy for teachers to implement it” (Teacher 2). From the perspective of the teachers, the learning syntax of the religious ethical model was able to create an interactive and holistic learning atmosphere in the development of students' affective cognitive and psychomotor domains. This was stated by several teachers: “Syntax in this learning can create interactive learning” (Teacher 1). “Syntax in this learning can build learning that develops all student domains, including cognitive, affective, and psychomotor” (Teacher 4). The instructional influence in the ethical religious learning model was able to develop prophetic characters in students, including siddiq, amanah, fathonah, and tabligh. This statement was expressed by several teachers: “Based on my observations, after implementing this model, it shows a change in religious behavior when participating in further learning activities. Students tend to show an attitude of responsibility, think solution and increase student learning ethics and politeness in speaking” (Teacher 3). “I think this model can develop students' prophetic character. This can be seen from the emergence of indicators in the character of siddiq, amanah, fathonah, and tabligh in the personality of students” (Teacher 4). Thus, from the teachers’ perspective, the religious ethical model had been able to answer the problems encountered by teachers in developing student character through PAI learning in the pandemic era.

5. Discussion The aforementioned findings show that the religious ethical model has been able to develop the religious character of students through PAI subjects. The transformed values can build students' awareness of the nature of values, and form their attitudes in accordance with the objectives built in a learning model (Markes, 2020), in this case the religious ethical model. This model is a recommendation as well as an evaluation to measure the extent of teacher involvement in using learning strategies that reflect religious values as learning principles (Whittle & McKinney, 2020). It is necessary for teachers to improve their professional and pedagogic competencies continually (Orchard, 2020). Teacher competence improvement is required so that teachers can carry out their duties competently and achieve success in teaching. According to Joyce et al. (2009), successful teachers are not just charismatic and persuasive presenters. They are those who involve students in cognitive and socially-oriented tasks and teach them how to perform the tasks effectively. Dialogic, constructivist, inquiry-based and aesthetic approaches need to be developed in learning activities so that the expected learning target can be achieved (Stern, 2021), which in the context of this research, is the development of students' religious character.

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The findings provide an understanding that for the success of a learning process, teachers need to innovate by developing learning models that are able to develop three domains, namely cognitive, affective and psychomotor, especially in developing character, in which the core of education is basically the development of moral values (Halstead & Taylor, 1995). Innovation in learning is a necessity for teachers in developing styles of learning and teaching, particularly during online learning in the pandemic era (Mercer, 2021). They need to strive improve their ability to adapt to technological devices continually. One of the causes of the teachers’ failure in growing students’ character is owing to the fact that teachers pay less attention to the affective aspect that is linked to the lack of pedagogic competence of teachers in teaching values, namely how teachers plan, implement and evaluate value learning. The learning paradigm used is more inclined to emphasize the head start aspect rather than the heart start. In Ratna (2009, p. 37), cases such as antisocial personality disorder and learning disability developed from a head start educational paradigm. Where there is a paradigm, the learning process carried out by teachers emphasizes hard skills rather than soft skills. Therefore, a reconstruction of education is needed in building a new paradigm of education (Barr & Tagg, 1995; Savin-Baden & Major, 2004; Tagg, 2003) which is an educational paradigm that not only focuses on changes in cognitive and psychomotor aspects but also on affective aspects. The main key to this paradigm growth must be in line with the teachers’ motivation to be willing to innovate and change continually (McCulloch, 2013;

Supriyadi et al., 2020). Teachers' ability to enhance learning means that they must also possess literacy skills as evidenced by their ability to read studies that can expand their capabilities, such as how teacher learning is explored through the proposal or discussion of teacher professional learning models (Castle, 2006; James & McCormick, 2009; Olson & Craig, 2001). This is how teachers learn and change by developing or applying theory to the discussion of teacher development (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Korthagen, 2010). Therefore, according to the results of this study, a teacher needs to practice the ADDIE development model in an effort to correct and improve the learning effort quality.

6. Conclusion The promotion of religious ethical values are significant in the learning process in order to form students' morals or character because religion and morals cannot be separated; rather, they become an important part of the moral education process. With this consideration, teachers need to innovate by designing and developing learning methods in order to be able to cultivate religious ethical values in students. Through the method of knowing, doing, and being as the syntax in this learning, religious ethical values are inculcated so that students are able to exhibit good character and moral character performance. The standard of goodness is measured in four prophetic characters, namely, siddiq, amanah, fathonah and tabligh. The implementation of this model has been able to promote these four prophetic character attributes. Therefore, for further research that

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intends to develop an ethical religious character in the learning process, this model can be used as a reference or a compass in implementing learning based on prophetic character values. The results of this research contribute to the development of learning designs to improve students' prophetic character. The implications of this can ultimately contribute to the success of the PAI learning process and student achievement

7. Acknowledgement The researchers express their deep gratitude to Universitas Islam Bandung, which has supported funding in this research, and the professors at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia who have provided support and input in the implementation of this research. However, in this case, the researchers state that this research is free from conflicts of interest.

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Appendix Ethical Consideration This research has been approved by the institutional review board. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. In addition, this research obtained approval from the association of lecturers and character educators of Indonesia to conduct research. All participants were informed about the objectives, procedures, and possible benefits and risks of the research. Then, they were given time to consider their participation and voluntarily take part in the study.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 154-169, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.9 Received Sep 20, 2021; Revised Nov 09, 2021; Accepted Nov 16, 2021

Factors Associated with Student Enrollment, Completion, and Dropout of Massive Open Online Courses in the Sultanate of Oman Vinu Sherimon* Department of IT, University of Technology and Applied Sciences, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4923-2841 P. C. Sherimon Faculty of Computer Studies, Arab Open University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6912-1407 Leena Francis Department of Science, Indian School Al Seeb, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8691-1582 Disha Devassy Faculty of Computer Studies, Arab Open University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4954-6357 Teresa K. George Department of IT, the University of Technology and Applied Sciences, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6669-7478

Abstract. This research aims to investigate the elements that influence learners' enrollment in, completion of and dropout from Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). MOOCs attract a vast number of participants, with enrollments growing at an unprecedented rate; however, only a small number of students who enroll, complete their study. In this research, data were collected from 79 participants using an online survey. Professional growth, flexible time, free of charge, and the opportunity to obtain certification were recognized as the four main factors that directly influenced student enrollment in MOOCs. The motivational variables revealed in this study that led to the effective completion of MOOCs included good-quality course videos, *

Corresponding author: Vinu Sherimon; Email: vinusherimon@yahoo.com

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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straightforward and clear tutor instructions, good course delivery, and useful instructor feedback, among others. The most prevalent reasons for dropout included failure to fulfil the deadline, the instructor's vocabulary, challenging assignments, and difficulty in grasping the course content. The findings of this study can provide educators and decision-makers with the information they need to better understand the factors that influence MOOC student enrollment, completion, and dropout rates, as well as relevant actions to improve the success rates of MOOC. Keywords: learner commitment; self-learning; satisfaction; MOOC dropout; learner motivation

MOOC;

MOOC

1. Introduction As a result of the extensive usage of information and communication technologies (ICTs), the pedagogical model has shifted in the twenty-first century and the advancement of ICT has meant that open, online, and flexible learning has moved from the periphery of standard education to the foreground (Kumar & Kumar, 2020). Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), a modern endeavor that is attracting academic and industry attention, are a continuation of the open learning movement (Kumar & Kumar, 2020). Early MOOCs frequently underscored open-access highlights, for example, open permitting of content, construction and learning objectives, so as to advance the reuse and remixing of assets. Some more recent MOOCs (Extended MOOCs) utilize close licenses for their course materials while keeping up with free access for understudies. They are a fast-growing style of higher education that has the potential to expand access to a global teaching and educational materials beyond social and geographical restrictions (Hone & El Said, 2016). MOOC providers like Coursera, Udacity, and edX team up with world-class universities such as MIT, Stanford, and Harvard and offer online courses for free or at a low cost (Kumar & Kumar, 2020). These courses provide an excellent opportunity for students from developing countries who would otherwise be unable to afford tuition fees to attend courses at such world-class universities. In MOOCs, learners' dedication and learning processes are limited by the lack of a teacher. As a result, the efficiency of MOOCs is determined by to what extent participants control their own learning. Due to the lack of direct learnerinstructor contacts, course design elements have a significant impact on learners' self-directed study and dedication. Furthermore, despite the potential and excitement surrounding MOOCs, retention rates are generally very limited; the MOOC completion rate is less than 10% (Alraimi et al., 2015). Much research has been undertaken to determine the factors that contribute to MOOC completion; however, the results vary. This study investigates the experiences of learners from the Sultanate of Oman with MOOCs and focuses specifically on the reasons of enrollment, and factors that increase both their satisfaction with MOOCs and dropout. This study adds to the corpus of knowledge on the subject of MOOC learner engagement and motivation and its findings can enable MOOC providers to encourage more students to take

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MOOCs, boost their engagement, and improve their learning outcomes as well as serve as the base of any market study by future MOOC providers in Oman. Research questions RQ1: What factors motivate a learner to enroll in MOOC? RQ2: What motivates a learner to complete MOOC? RQ3: What are the reasons of dropping out of MOOC? RQ4: What are the strengths and limitations of MOOC? Objectives 1. To study the factors that drives a learner to enroll in MOOC. 2. To review the factors that contribute to the successful completion of MOOC. 3. To study the factors that drives a learner to drop out of MOOC. 4. To study the strengths and limitations of MOOC. In this article, the researcher aims to address the elements that drive learners to enroll in and successfully finish a MOOC, as well as the reasons that cause learners to quit the course and both the strengths and limitations of MOOC.

2. Literature review 2.1 Factors that drive a learner to enroll in MOOC According to Jais, Chen, Rahim, and Din (2019), postgraduate students opt to take MOOCs offered by universities with a strong reputation, while other motivational factors reported by this research include the desire to learn and a subject that is not offered at other institutions. The key motivations reported by participants in two MOOCs were investigated by Milligan and Littlejohn (2017) who found that respondents in both MOOCs shared a similar pattern of major motivations, with them citing potential benefits to their present or future jobs, thereby expanding their expertise to be more effective at work, as well as more generic comments indicating casual interest in the topic or a simple wish to study. Professionals considered MOOC study as beneficial in equipping them for new positions and career advancement. while students commented that MOOC studies supplemented their existing education. Petronzi and Hadi (2016) looked at open feedback from students that were related to their course engagement objectives in a dementia course. Eight important topics emerged from the thematic analysis, all of which were related to involvement and the broader benefits of course participation, as well as professional and educational growth. These were to enhance the skills and to apply in the workplace, for obtaining general knowledge about dementia, to prepare for a better career/education, for additional information, other personal reasons, professional development, for refreshing the knowledge, and to understand the attitude toward dementia by different countries.

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2.2 Factors that contribute to attaining the satisfaction that leads to the completion of a MOOC Based on the D&M IS Success Model, Albelbisi et al. (2021) examined the effect of quality antecedents on learners' happiness with MOOCs. By investigating the links between quality factors (i.e., system quality, information quality, service quality) and satisfaction, the study highlighted the critical importance of satisfaction in the MOOC setting. The authors found that system quality has a substantial impact on satisfaction, implying that the greater the system quality of MOOCs in terms of ease of use, ease of learning and operating MOOCs, and flexibility of MOOCs, the more likely learners are to be satisfied with MOOC use. However, the study's results revealed that characteristics such as information quality and service quality were not justified. Knöös and Rääf (2021) sought to investigate how MOOC students behaved, the goal being to determine which characteristics inspire students and whether these elements distinguish between students who complete a course and those who drop out. Eighteen factors were found to stay motivated during the studies: content, the mode of delivery, self-discipline, just for fun, certificates, personal development, knowledge, career, time, assessments, interaction, instructor, reality, structure, external material, cost, community, and degree of difficulty. In a MOOC environment, a lack of instructor presence may obstruct learners' dedication and learning processes (Kim et al., 2021). Using survey responses from 664 learners, Kim et al. (2021) evaluated the links between MOOC design features, learner commitment, self-directed learning, and future learning aspirations. The findings indicated that the transactional distance between learners and content was linked to students' self-directed learning. In their study, Kumar and Kumar (2020) aimed to figure out how satisfied learners were with massive open online courses (MOOCs) by investigating the elements that influence learners' satisfaction with MOOCs, including course delivery, course assessment, and course assistance. Course assessment, course content, and course delivery were all demonstrated to have a substantial impact on overall satisfaction with MOOCs; however, the influence of course support on overall satisfaction was not determined to be significant. Research by Bingol et al. (2020) explored the elements that influence course completion and success from the perspective of participants in a Massive Open Online Courses system in Turkey. According to the participants, course planning (course structure, design, syllabus, clarity, etc.), was the most important factor in their MOOC success. In addition, personal characteristics such as interest, willingness, desire to earn a certificate, etc., also had an impact on participants' achievement. Also, it was widely stated that the subject matter competence and teaching style of the instructors had an impact on the participants' accomplishments. (Zhang et al. (2019) examined the extent to which several factors impact the completion of a Massive Open Online Course. And study found the motivational factors for enrolling in MOOC as friends, professors, institution,

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personal interest, new job, current job, academic program, connect with others, and earning the certificate. Hone and El Said (2016) presented the results of a survey of 379 university students in Cairo who were motivated to attend a MOOC of their choosing as part of their personal growth. The research reported that the completion rates did not differ significantly by gender, study level, or MOOC platform. MOOC Course Material was found to be a major predictor of MOOC retention in a postMOOC survey of students' impressions, with the link moderated by the effect of content on the course's perceived effectiveness. The amount of time spent interacting with the MOOC lecturer was also determined to be significant. Another study by Shrader et al. (2016) listed engagement, cooperation, motivation, network opportunities, pedagogy, content, assessment, usability, technology, and learner support as characteristics that influence MOOC learner satisfaction. From August 2012 through December 2013, this research analysed activity patterns, participant demographics, and levels of satisfaction in numerous MOOC offers at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 2.3 Factors that drive a learner to drop out of a MOOC MOOCs have high dropout rates, with just a tiny fraction of students finishing the courses they enrolled in. The major goal of research by Panagiotakopoulos et al. (2021) was to use a variety of well-known, cutting-edge supervised machine learning techniques to predict both student success and early student dropout in a MOOC. Results indicate that random forest (RF) excelled in terms of accuracy, sensitivity, and Cohen's kappa coefficient. Based on data obtained during the first week of the course, the experimental results demonstrate that accuracy exceeded 96%, allowing for effective intervention tactics and support measures. According to Knöös and Rääf )2021), nine de-motivating variables that contribute to a learner not finishing a course are: too difficult, too much work, lack of time, not improve CV, not an interesting course, lack of self-discipline, not a requirement, not good delivery and low quality of video material. The participants commented that these factors contributed to the learners' failure to complete a course. The role of motivational attitudes in finishing an open online course was investigated by Moore and Wang (2021) and students’' performance was shown to be highly related to their educational background, gender, and motivation. Additionally, students with inherent motivating attitudes outperformed students with extrinsic motivational attitudes, and females outperformed males. According to Rawat et al. (2021), the course material, the time of the course delivery, and a student's attendance to course activities, as well as the length of the course, all had a role in the MOOC dropout trend. The fundamental elements and potential causal links responsible for the high dropout rate in MOOCs were identified using a multiple-criteria decisionmaking process by Aldowah et al. (2020) who revealed twelve indicators connected to students dropping out of online courses, divided across four

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components. Academic skills and talents, previous experience, course design, feedback, social presence, and social support were identified as six primary characteristics that directly influenced student dropout in MOOCs. Other characteristics like interaction, course difficulty and time, dedication, motivation, and family/work conditions were discovered to play a minor influence in student dropout in the study. 2.4 Strengths and limitations of MOOC Several MOOC advantages are reported by Srikanth ( 2020). Availability of free courses, access to courses taught by professors at prestigious universities, a wide range of courses, tracking facility to understand the performance of students, and interaction with professors and students from all over the world, which advances instructional practices and knowledge sharing. The report also includes the drawbacks. Non-availability of customized course content or oneon-one tutoring, the high challenge to keep track of all the students' assignments and activities, non-accessibility of MOOCs to students with special needs or who have a poor Internet connection, language-barriers, non-replacement of MOOC as a credit-earning course at colleges, etc. are some of them ( Srikanth 2020)). According to (Bates, 2015), MOOCs provide free access to high-quality content from some of the world's greatest universities to anybody with a computer and Internet access. In his book, "Teaching in a Digital Age", he states that MOOCs are useful for building basic conceptual learning and for forming massive online social networks of interest. By promoting their expertise and excellence in certain scholarly areas public, these universities have been able to expand their brand and prestige (Bates, 2015). Major weaknesses include mainly two factors MOOCs are expensive to create and ownership or time constraints may impede the re-use of MOOC materials as open educational tools (Bates, 2015).

3. Research Methodology A descriptive research design is followed in this research. Descriptive research is a type of quantitative study that aims to collect measurable data in order to do statistical analysis on a population sample. The population of the research is identified as learners of different educational institutions in Oman. Students, faculty, and staff from few selected institutions in the Sultanate of Oman participated in the survey. The survey had a total of 79 participants. This study used the convenience sampling approach, which is a nonprobabilistic sampling strategy. Convenience sampling helps the researcher to acquire fundamental facts and patterns about his research without the hassles of using a randomized sample. A self-developed questionnaire was utilized to acquire the necessary responses from participants. The questionnaire link was distributed to the participants through email. The questionnaire was divided into two pieces (Part I and Part II). Part I of the survey asked respondents about their personal information, while Part II asked about their reasons for enrolling in a MOOC, their experience with MOOCs, their preferences for MOOCs, their strengths, and their limitations. The completed questionnaires were examined using descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentages. Microsoft Excel was used to analyse the data.

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4. Results 4.1 Analysis of Demographic data

Figure 1. Age category Vs. Gender

Figure 2. Educational level Vs. Gender

Figure 3. Area of specialization

Figure 4. Marital status Vs. Gender

Figure 5. Work status

Figure 6. Occupation

Figures 1-6 give a quick overview of the participants' characteristics. Female participants (54%) outnumber male participants (46%) in this study. Figure 1 shows the analysis of the age category and gender of the participants. In the female's category, 30% of the participants belong to the age category 36-45, 28% belongs to the 46-55 age category, 25% of the participants belongs to the age category 26-35, 12% belongs to 16-25 age category and 5% belongs to the age category > 55 years. Figure 2 shows the analysis of the educational level/ qualification of the study participants. In the Undergraduate category, 100% of the participants were females. 65% of the females and 35% of the males are

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graduates, 32% of the females and 68% of the males hold Ph.D. And, in Other category, 100% of the participants were females. The area of specialization of the participants is given in Figure 3. The highest number of participants were from Engineering specialization (20%), followed by Information Technology (18%), Business Studies (15%), Education (14%), Science (14%), Mathematics (6%), Others (6%), Arts (4%) and Literature (3%). Figure 4 presents the analysis of the marital status of the participants. 78% of the participants were married and the remaining 22% were unmarried. Among the married participants, 50% were males and 50% were females. Among the unmarried, 71% were females and 29% were males. The majority of the participants were employed (91%) as shown in Figure 5. 8% were students and 1% were unemployed. 68% of the study participants belong to the category Teacher, followed by Manager (5%), Technician (4%), Engineer (3%), Academic Staff (3%), Counsellor (1%), Accountant (1%), HR (1%), Principal (1%), Lecturer (1%), Product Designer (1%), Entrepreneur (1%), Head of Department (1%), Lawyer (1%), Un-employed (1%), and others (5%) as given in Figure 6. 4.2 Analysis of literature Review 4.2.1 RQ1: What factors motivate a learner to enroll in MOOC? This question seeks to find out how MOOCs are being utilized today as well as why they are adopted. Respondents were asked to indicate the motivational factors that led them to enroll in MOOCs. They were given different options with multiple answers to select. Figure 7 shows the different motivational factors that led to MOOC enrollment. Professional development resulted as the top 1 motivational factor with 26% followed by Flexible timing (20%), Free (17%), To get certification (14%), Affordable (12%), No prerequisite is required (7%), Others (3%) and Promotion (1%). The gender-wise analysis of the motivational factors is given in Figure 8. 43% of the males and 57% of females suggested that they enrolled in MOOC because of the 'Free' option. 37% of the males and 63% of females chose the motivational factor 'Affordable". 17% of the males and 83% of females chose the motivational factor 'No prerequisite is required". The motivational factor 'Flexible Timing' was chosen by 44% of males and 56% of females. The motivational reason "To obtain certification" was chosen by 27% of males and 73% of females. Females were the only ones who chose the motivational factor "Promotion." 40% of the males and 60% of females chose the motivational factor' Professional Development". The motivational element 'Others' was indicated by 20% of males and 80% of females.

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Motivational factors for MOOC enrollment Professional development

26%

Flexible timing

20%

Free

17%

To get certification

14%

Affordable

12%

No prerequisite is required

Others

Promotion

1% 0%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Figure 7. Motivational factors for MOOC enrolment

Figure 8. Gender-wise motivational factors for MOOC enrolment

4.2.2 RQ2: What motivates a learner to complete MOOC? In a recent Stanford study, different engagement levels of learners from three different MOOCs were examined and four types of learners were identified: participants who completed the course audited the course, disengaged, and sampled the course (Yesil, 2014). Figure 9 presents the motivational factors that enable a learner to complete MOOC. Participants were asked to indicate how strongly they agreed with each item. As per Figure 9(a), 10% of the participants strongly agreed that the direction of the instructor was legible and easy to follow, 48% agree, 41% neutral and 1% strongly disagree. Figure 9 (b) presents the results of the responsiveness of the instructor. 8% of the participants strongly agreed that the instructor was responsive to the queries, 37% agree, 52% were neutral, and 4% strongly disagree. As per Figure 9 (c), 5% of the participants

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strongly agreed that the instructor provided helpful and timely feedback, 38% agree, 53% neutral and 4% strongly disagree. Figure 9 (d) presents the results of the opinion on the duration of videos. 10% of the participants strongly agreed that the duration of the videos was appropriate, 47% agree, 37% were neutral, 4% disagree and 3% strongly disagree. Figure 9 (e) presents the results of the opinion on the quality of the videos. 15% of the participants strongly agreed that the quality of the videos was excellent, 44% agree, 37% were neutral, 1% disagree and 3% strongly disagree. Figure 9 (f) presents the results related to effective communication of the course content. 14% of the participants strongly agreed that the course content was communicated effectively, 44% agree, 37% were neutral, 1% disagree and 4% strongly disagree.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 9. Motivational factors to complete MOOC

4.2.3 RQ3: What are the reasons of dropping MOOC? Figure 10 shows the different reasons for dropping MOOCs. 38% of the participants commented that they were not able to meet the deadline, 14% commented on other reasons such as boring, insufficient time, the course was too slow, got enrolled in many courses, lost interest, distraction, financial issues,

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busy schedule, etc. 14% responded that instructor language was difficult to follow, 14% responded that they were not able to understand the course content, 10% commented about problems/issues related to software installation, and 10% dropped the course because they were not able to solve the assignments.

Figure 10. Reasons of dropping MOOC

4.2.4 RQ4: What are the strengths and limitations of MOOCs? Figure 11 shows the strengths of MOOC, commented multiple times by the respondents. A wide range of courses resulted as the top 1 strength of MOOC with 27% followed by Convenient (23%), Improves skills and knowledge (19%), Flexible timings (15%), Easy Access (13%), and Free courses (3%).

Figure 11. Strengths of MOOC

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Figure 12 shows the different limitations of MOOC as suggested multiple times by the respondents. Distraction topped the list (20%), followed by complex assessments (14%), tight deadlines (14%), certification only for paid courses (12%), complex course content (12%), lack of motivation (9%), less hands-on sessions (8%), non-acceptance of MOOC as a traditional course (6%), internet issues (4%), and difficulty in searching authorized courses (1%).

Fig.12. Limitations of MOOC

5. Discussion The first research question in this study sought to determine the motivational factors of MOOC enrollment. Unfortunately, the literature on the motivating elements that drive MOOC enrolment is limited. Therefore, the findings of the RQ1 are not exactly matching with the results of previous studies (“Postgraduate Students‟ Motivation for MOOC Enrollment,” 2019), which have indicated that the majority of the students enrolled for MOOC because prestigious universities offer it. Other factors reported were the desire to learn, and the course was not offered at other institutions. Our findings, however, are consistent with those of (Milligan & Littlejohn, 2017; Petronzi & Hadi, 2016), who found that one of the reasons for MOOC enrollment is to broaden one's skills to be more effective at work and for professional growth. Professional growth was likewise identified as the most important motivator for MOOC enrolment in our research. A majority of our respondents were employed (91%), flexible timing of MOOC received the second-highest percentage as the motivational factor. This result may be explained by the fact that MOOCs allow learners to complete them at their own pace, irrespective of the fixed schedules. The results are also partially consistent with the study of (Douglas et al., 2020), which reported flexibility and the unlimited timeframe are motivating factors for enrolling in a MOOC. The majority of the MOOC providers offer courses for free, except a few which require the learners to pay to attend exams and to receive the certificate. So, this motivated 17% of the respondents. An online completion certificate is offered by

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MOOC courses for learners who complete the course modules successfully. As a result, 14% of respondents believe it is a motivating element. This result contradicts the findings of (Knöös & Rääf, 2021), which revealed that receiving the certificate was not a significant motivator. Even though the courses require payment, 12% of respondents believe they are affordable. World-class institutions provide a variety of fundamental courses that anyone with a desire to study can enroll in. As a result, 7% of respondents stated that they registered in a MOOC since there are no prerequisites. This finding is in line with (Bingol et al., 2020), who discovered that affordability, openness to all, and the lack of prerequisites all motivated participants to enroll in and complete the course. Our findings may be interpreted with caution as we are unclear about the type of MOOC such participants enrolled in. Participants in the study were those who registered in any MOOC course. Employers may not consider MOOC certificates for job promotions, even though they improve the learner's skills. So, only 1% of respondents said they took MOOC to get a promotion. As shown in Figure 5, the gender-based analysis of the motivational elements reveals that females suggested all the motivational factors more than males. The second research question investigates the motivational factors that enable a learner to complete MOOC. Figure 9 presents the results obtained regarding the motivational factors to continue MOOC. As can be seen from the figure, the largest number of respondents (59%) agreed to the fact that the "Quality of the course videos was excellent". It was followed by the factors "Course content was communicated effectively" and "Directions of the instructor were legible and easy to follow" with 58% agreement. "Duration of the videos were appropriate" scored the next highest majority of 57% followed by "Instructor was responsive to my queries" with 45% and "Instructor provided helpful and timely feedback" scored the least percentage of 43%. It is somewhat surprising that, of all the motivational factors provided in the questionnaire, many respondents opted "Neutral". It is difficult to explain this result, but it denotes a state of confusion of the respondent. One probable explanation for this is that many of the respondents enrolled in/completed multiple MOOCs, therefore their experiences will vary, leading to a mixed agreement mode. Our results related to the second research question reflect those of (Kumar & Kumar, 2020) who also found that course content and course delivery significantly affect the overall satisfaction level from the MOOCs. As per the research of (Bingol et al., 2020), the factors for successful course completion, were identified as the instructor, course design, personal factors, and affordability/clarity. As per the research of (Hone & El Said, 2016), MOOC retention was found to be significantly influenced by course content and interaction with the instructor whereas the study of (Zhang et al., 2019) reported that the completion rate of MOOCs rises when they are offered by universities with solid academic quality. The third question in this research was to investigate the reasons for dropping MOOCs. According to several surveys, the most prevalent cause for dropping out is a lack of time. As per our findings, the topmost reason for dropout commented by the respondents is not able to meet a deadline (38%) and the next

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reason is the difficulty in understanding the course content (14%). These results are consistent with the findings of (Knöös & Rääf, 2021) which found that some of the reasons for dropout as lack of time and the difficulty of the course. Further, 14% of our respondents said that it was difficult to grasp the instructor's English, and difficult to grasp the course content, and 10% of the respondents commented "failure to complete assignments" as the reason to drop MOOC. These findings are consistent with the study findings of Khanra et al. (2020) which reported difficulty to understand complex topics, lengthy and unnecessary assignments, and accent of the Instructors as a few factors behind dropping out from MOOCs. Concerning the fourth research question, two open questions were included in the questionnaire to collect the comments about the strengths and limitations of MOOC. Figure 11 and Figure 12 presents the results. In accordance with our results, the existing literature (Bates, 2015; Mehta, 2020; Pappas, 2015; Srikanth, 2020; ) has also stated free of cost, availability of top university courses, a wide range of courses, convenience, improve skills and professional knowledge, flexible timings as the advantages of MOOC. A mixed set of responses was received from the participants regarding the limitations of MOOCs; distraction; difficulty to find authorized MOOCs courses; non-acceptance of MOOCs certificate by the employer; not much value for the online courses in the market; course content not tailored for a MOOC setting; lack of good Internet connection; lack of essential IT knowledge; difficulty to find high-valued courses; too many deadlines; increase in screen time; commitment required; a certificate is obtained only for paid courses;, limited practical applications; online network issues; lack of motivation; few hands-on or practical activities; less personal engagements; not a replacement of format education; time limits; etc. Among the different answers, distraction, complex assessments, and tight deadlines were found to be the top three drawbacks mentioned by the participants.

6. Conclusion Prior literature is mainly focused on the importance of MOOC in the case of learners' motivations and dropping out of MOOC courses. We reported systematic analysis of the relevance of MOOC course, the interest of students, the content of classes, faculty involvement, and reasons for adopting MOOC courses and dropping out in the middle of the system using real-time data. This study aimed to investigate the characteristics that drive learners to enroll in and complete MOOCs, the elements that cause learners to drop out of the course, and the benefits and drawbacks of MOOCs. Four significant criteria, such as professional advancement, flexible time, no cost, and the possibility of gaining certification, directly influenced student enrollment in MOOCs. Good-quality course videos, straightforward tutor directions, good course delivery, and meaningful instructor comments were among the motivational elements identified in this study that resulted in successful MOOC completion. On the other hand, the inability to meet the deadline, the instructor's language, challenging assignments, and difficulties in understanding the course topic were found to be the most common causes for dropout.

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The study's conclusions have significant consequences for the effective delivery of MOOCs and the results extend to the process of planning and creating new MOOCs by expanding our knowledge of MOOC learners' interests. The outcomes of our study are expected to aid MOOC providers in creating more productive, efficient, and engaging learning environments. This study may also serve as a foundation for future research on the elements that most affect learners' decisions to enroll in and continue MOOCs and the causes why learners drop out of MOOCs. However, this study has limitations, such as small sample size. More research into learner motivations and MOOC enrollment, completion, and dropout across specific MOOCs or MOOCs offered by multiple providers and in different topic areas can be undertaken in the future.

7. Funding The research leading to these results has received funding from the Research Council (TRC) of the Sultanate of Oman under the Block Funding Program BFP/RGP/ICT/19/283.

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Kim, D., Jung, E., Yoon, M., Chang, Y., Park, S., Kim, D., & Demir, F. (2021). Exploring the structural relationships between course design factors, learner commitment, self-directed learning, and intentions for further learning in a self-paced MOOC. Computers & Education, 166, 104171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104171 Knöös, J., & Rääf, S. A. (2021). Sentiment Analysis of MOOC learner reviews: What motivates learners to complete a course? (Dissertation) http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-105919 Kumar, P., & Kumar, N. (2020). A study of learner’s satisfaction from MOOCs through a mediation model. Procedia Computer Science, 173, 354–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2020.06.041 Mehta, N. (2020). What Is MOOC-Based Learning? Retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/mooc-based-learning-advantages-anddisadvantages Milligan, C., & Littlejohn, A. (2017). Why Study on a MOOC? The Motives of Students and Professionals. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 18(2). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v18i2.3033 Moore, R. L., & Wang, C. (2021). Influence of learner motivational dispositions on MOOC completion. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 33(1), 121–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-020-09258-8 Panagiotakopoulos, T., Kotsiantis, S., Kostopoulos, G., Iatrellis, O., & Kameas, A. (2021). Early Dropout Prediction in MOOCs through Supervised Learning and Hyperparameter Optimization. Electronics, 10(14), 1701. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10141701 Pappas, C. (2015). 6 Benefits Of Using MOOCs For Corporate Training. Retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/6-benefits-of-using-moocs-for-corporatetraining Petronzi, D., & Hadi, M. (2016). Exploring the Factors Associated with MOOC Engagement, Retention and the Wider Benefits for Learners. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 19(2), 112–129. https://doi.org/10.1515/eurodl2016-0011 Rawat, S., Kumar, D., Khattri, C., & Kumar, P. (2021). Machine Learning Classification Algorithms for Systematic Analysis to Understand Learners Drop out of MOOCs courses [Preprint]. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-491528/v1 Shrader, S., Wu, M., Owens-Nicholson, D., & Santa Ana, K. (2016). Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs): Participant Activity, Demographics, and Satisfaction. Online Learning, 20(2). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v20i2.596 Srikanth, M. (2020). Advantages & Disadvantages of MOOCs for Learning. https://www.infoprolearning.com/blog/advantages-and-disadvantages-ofmoocs-massive-open-online-courses-for-learning/ Yesil, D. (2014). How To Motivate MOOC Learners. Retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/motivate-mooc-learners Zhang, Q., Bonafini, F. C., Lockee, B. B., Jablokow, K. W., & Hu, X. (2019). Exploring Demographics and Students’ Motivation as Predictors of Completion of a Massive Open Online Course. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 20(2). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v20i2.3730

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 170-194, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.10 Received Aug 12, 2021; Revised Nov 14, 2021; Accepted Nov 21, 2021

The Impact of Teacher Feedback Via Google Doc in L2 Learners’ Writing Mohammed Abdullah Alharbi Department of English, College of Education, Majmaah University, Majmaah, Saudi Arabia http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5548-2340 Abdulrahman Nasser Alqefari Department of English, College of Education, Majmaah University Zulfi, Saudi Arabia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4840-4373 Abstract. Academic writing of assignments is challenging for many undergraduate students of English, and therefore, instructors' written evaluative comments are needed to help students obtain information about their performance in such academic written tasks. As a qualitative case study, this study was carried out on one undergraduate course, specifically on the instructor's written comments on 10 learners' peer academic writing of article reports, how students revise their texts in responding to written comments and how they view such comments and academic writing via Google Docs. The data was collected from the written comments, students’ text revisions and a focus group interview. The findings show that the instructor commented on issues and errors at the global and local levels of academic texts directly and indirectly. Quantification of the data illustrated that the instructor provided the five pairs of learners with an overall number of 1440 which targeted 373 (25%) global issues and 1067 (75%) local issues in the writing of the five pairs. In terms of direction, 977 (68%) accounted for direct feedback, while 463 (32%) accounted for indirect feedback. Distribution of the feedback received by the learners varied across the five pairs of students. The findings indicate that most of the learners’ text revisions were made based on teacher feedback (1187/93%), while only 95 (7%) revisions were self-made revisions. The thematic analysis of the follow-up interview underlies students’ perceived value of teacher feedback in improving their writing, their preference for direct feedback on their writing, their perceived role of Google doc in editing their written assignments. Yet, a few students reported a few restrictions of Google Dos-peer writing and editing. The current study implied that teachers should act as mediators, be aware of the role of feedback in facilitating their students’ development of writing and misinterpretation and confusion their feedback can cause to our students in the process of writing revision, and decide what issues their feedback needs to target,

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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focus on what issues actually challenge their learners in writing. Finally, feedback practices should be made innovative through integration of technological tools. Keywords: academic writing; peer writing; Google Docs-commenting; responses; perception

1. Introduction Academic writing in English is a complex process for learners (Baker, 2019; Saeed et al., 2020). It is even more challenging for those undergraduates joining programs in English as foreign language (EFL) programs (Al Badi, 2015; Alharbi, 2019; Al-Mukdad, 2019; Ariyanti & Fitriana, 2017; Mahmood et al., 2020; Matsuda & Tardy, 2007). It becomes necessary if not imperative for instructors and teachers to guide students in writing through effective and constructive feedback. Teacher written feedback is an important task in writing instruction (Bijami, Pandian & Singh, 2016; Cheng & Zhang, 2021; Hyland & Hyland, 2001). Existed body of research on written feedback focused on error correction either directly or indirectly (Ferris, 2014; Ferris & Hedgocok, 2005; Lucero, Fernández & Montanero, 2018) indicating that most teachers’ written feedback is provided in the form of error corrections (e.g., removing, adding or substituting erroneous parts) and sometimes in hand written comments on the margins of students’ papers (Agbayahoun, 2016; Lee, 2014). Much of this existed literature have contradicting revelations and arguments about students and teachers’ preferences of feedback types and strategies (Bailey & Garner, 2010; Köksal et al., 2018). There are several researchers who argued that teachers should not provide feedback on students’ local issues in writing, including grammar and vocabulary, but they should focus their feedback on global issues such as content and organization (Jamalinesari et al., 2015; Truscott, 1996). On the other hand, other researchers argued for the need for focusing teacher feedback on local issues (Chandler, 2003; Irwin, 2017). Other studies have focused on how teachers should formulate and provide their feedback revealing contradicted conclusions and have different arguments about whether feedback should be direct, indirect or both (Chandler, 2003; Ferris, 2006; Liu & Brown, 2015; Tiyingdee & Jaroongkhongdach, 2016; William, 2004) The productivity or efficacy of teacher feedback has attracted many researchers to conduct studies centering on these questions: what should teachers focus on when providing students with feedback on writing? How should teachers provide such feedback to their students? And what could be done to enhance teacher feedback in ESL/EFL writing classes? Still, the contradicting findings and arguments created a big need for more investigations to enrich and enhance understanding of feedback process. As part of research on enhancing teacher feedback, technology has been defined as an innovation that should be incorporated in ESL/EFL writing classrooms by teachers when providing feedback on their students’ writing (Ali, 2016; Lee, 2004). More specifically, Google doc, which is one of the Web 2.0 technological tools, has

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been highly recommended by researchers as an effective tool for teachers in tracing their students’ writing (Chu et al., 2011; Gillow-Wiles & Niess, 2017; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020) and also providing them with constructive feedback through written comments (Ebadi & Rahimi, 2017; Hidayat, 2020; Semeraro & Moore, 2016). However, so far, empirical research that has investigated what and how teachers use Google doc for feedback on their students’ writing is still rare. Unlike surveys and experimental studies that basically focus on predetermined variables and traditional techniques of feedback provision, the current study is a qualitative case study that adopts a holistic approach of data analysis that presents an advantage to account for the particular issues identified in teachers’ written feedback. It also contributes to fill some gaps in the existed literature of digital written feedback in general and that of Saudi context in particular by identifying the characteristics of digital written feedback provided by the teachers through Google Docs. The study may also be valuable as it addresses different aspects related to both teachers and learners and use various sources of data to find answers to its questions. It may also contribute to reveal all the possible factors affecting teachers’ perceptions and learners’ reactions and perceptions about the importance of written feedback and the challenges they may face when revising and providing digital feedback using Google Docs as a technical mean of feedback provision. Therefore, this study, being motivated by the above issues, arguments and gaps in previous research on teacher feedback on ESL/EFL students’ writing, aimed to address the following research questions: 1. What are the issues in EFL students’ writing addressed by the instructor through feedback using Google doc? 2. How does the instructor address the various issues in EFL learners’ writing using Google doc? 3. To what extent does the feedback help the EFL students in revising their texts via Google doc? 4. How do the EFL learners perceive the instructor’s feedback on their writing via Google doc?

2. Literature Review 2.1. Theoretical Views The current investigation of teacher feedback and its role in fostering EFL students’ attention to issues in writing and enabling them to revise their texts is based on the socio-cultural approach to ESL/EFL teaching and learning. Specifically, the study is based on Vygotsky’s (1987) theory and the Activity Theory (AT) which is originated based on Vygotsky’s (1978) theory (Leont’ev, 1981). Both theoretical perspectives emphasize the role of mediation in the process of the individual’s learning and cognitive development. While Vygotsky’s (1978) theory focuses on the role of teachers as mediators in the ESL/EFL classroom contexts, the activity theory focuses on how the context influences teaching and learning practices and activities. In other words, while the first theory has its significant implications for teacher-learner interactions and feedback practices in the ESL/EFL classrooms, particularly writing classrooms, the latter theory has its implications for what shapes and mediates such practices. In discussing teacher

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feedback from the AT, Lee (2014) refers to artifacts as instruments that mediate teacher’s feedback practices in writing. Such instruments are also influenced by the knowledge, beliefs and previous experience of the teacher. The author argues for innovative ways to replace or even to be added to conventional teacher feedback practices in the EFL writing classroom. Such conventional practices that merely focus on mere corrections and do not allow students to interpret and diagnose teacher feedback should be innovated in a way that students are provided with sufficient teacher’s mediation through comments, highlighting and coding errors so that they can understand their issues in writing and revise it. 2.2. Teacher Feedback in Writing Research on teacher feedback on ESL/EFL writing has focused on the content of feedback in order to identify the major issues and challenges in writing. Regarding this, findings of previous studies seem contradictory. There are several researchers who analyzed the content of teacher feedback on students’ writing and found that teacher feedback focuses on local issues in writing, such as grammar, vocabulary and punctuations more than global issues, such as content and organization (Diab, 2015; Ferris, 2006; Junqueira & Payant, 2015; Mahfoodh, 2017; Mao & Crosthwaite, 2019; Saliu-Abdulahi et al., 2017). Moreover, teacher feedback on local issues enabled students to detect issues in writing and make substantial text revisions (Chandler, 2003; Kurzer, 2018). Other studies have reported opposite results showing that teacher feedback on local issues tend to be ineffective and deviate learners from focusing on revising their texts globally (Ene & Upton, 2018; Truscott, 1996). There are also other researchers who advocated arguments supporting the focus of teacher feedback on both local and global issues for both areas are important for enhancing learners’ writing (Alkhatib, 2015; Ferris, 2003). Another aspect of teacher feedback investigated in previous research is construction and delivery of teacher feedback. How teachers construct and deliver their feedback has also been a topic of an interest for several scholars and researchers who have different arguments about whether teacher should address issues in learners’ writing directly or indirectly. There is also a body of previous research which has focused on direct and indirect corrective feedback. More recent studies have shown that teachers include a meta-linguistic explanation as a form of direct feedback. For instance, Bitchener and Knoch (2009) reported that three types of teacher’s corrective feedback on students’ use of the English indefinite article in writing: direct corrections only, direct corrections with oral explanations and direct corrections with written explanations. The three types of feedback were effective for students’ revision of their writing. On the other hand, indirect corrective feedback refers to teacher’s feedback indicating to a given error in an indirect way (Ferris, 1995; Ferris, 1997; Chandler, 2000). This includes, for instance, coding the error, asking a question, underlying the error or circling the error and so forth. In other words, indirect feedback identifies the error or issue in the written text, but it does not give the student a particular solution/remedy in writing (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012; Bitchener & Knoch, 2009; Ferris & Roberts, 2001). In a study by Tiyingdee and Jaroongkhongdach (2016), the researchers reported that most of the teacher written feedback tended to be provided to the

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students directly. Such finding was justified by the easy nature of direct feedback to be understood by EFL students in revising their writing. To determine the efficacy or impact of teacher feedback on students’ writing, some studies analyzed the subsequent text revisions made by learners in response to teacher feedback. Findings revealed that teacher feedback led to both meaningbased text and form-based text revisions (Hyland, 2003). According to Silver and Lee (2007), advice as a form of teacher feedback was more effective than criticism since it encouraged students to make most of their text revisions. In Terglia’s (2009) study, most of the teacher feedback comments leading to students’ substantial and successful text revisions are single request comments and comments providing information. Some empirical studies questioned the efficacy of teacher feedback in terms of its level of directness on students’ text revisions (Chandler, 2003; Ferris, 2006; Treglia, 2009). The results of both studies supported the role of direct feedback on students’ accurate revisions in writing. William (2004) also found that as the teacher used direct suggestions, the case students were able to make successful text revisions, especially at the sentence level. However, the students needed more guidance when the teacher provided indirect feedback. On the other hand, results of some other studies indicate that teacher indirect feedback was more effective than direct corrections in enhancing learners’ texts online (Alvarez et al., 2013; Wolsey, 2008). Studies have also explored students’ perception of teacher feedback on their writing. Hyland (2003) reported that most of the case students valued teacher feedback for it helped them to refine their writing in terms of form, including grammar and sentence structure. Other findings revealed that affective engagement of lower-proficiency students with teachers' written corrective feedback was relatively positive, and there was scant awareness at the level of understanding the WCF, especially for the indirect WCF (Zhang & Hyland, 2018). According to Silver and Lee (2007), students’ views on teacher feedback were positive in general, and in particular, they valued advice for advice since it is a moderate form of feedback that reflects teacher’s role as a facilitator or mentor and makes students feel free to decide what to revise. On the other hand, their dislike of criticism is due to the explicit nature of this type of feedback that points at students’ problems. In a study by Harran (2011), students appreciated teacher feedback for its role in shaping their writing and improving it through drafting and revising. Studies have also found that students tended to prefer indirect feedback, such as coding of errors or labeling them over direct corrections (Ferris et al., 2000). However, according to Ferris and Roberts (2001), students preferred more direct and explicit feedback over indirect and implicit feedback because they felt frustrated with understanding the latter type of feedback. 2.3. Goggle Doc in Writing Google Docs is one of the Web 2.0 digital tools that afforded writing instructors sufficient feedback about their writings. Literature revealed its effectiveness in helping learners read, understand and respond to instructors' written feedback (Alharbi, 2020; Chong, 2019; Mohammed & AL-Jaberi, 2021; Neumann & Kopcha, 2019). Several studies on the applications of this technological tool in ESL/EFL

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writing have highlighted its features that make it user-friendly and suitable for learners to edit and revise their work (Ebadi & Rahimi, 2017; Hedin, 2012; Suwantarathip & Wichadee, 2014; Woodard & Babcock, 2014). These studies showed students’ positive perception of using Google doc in editing and revising their writing as students feel comfortable in editing their writing by using highlights and refer back to earlier drafts stored in their Google doc pages. They can also access it and do their work regardless of distance and time restrictions as long as their computer devices are connected to the Internet. Moreover, students can edit their writing as in small groups or pairs, thus serving as a useful collaborative environment for writing and editing. Despite the fact that several studies have explored the potential of Google doc in collaborative writing, these above-mentioned studies have restricted its investigation to the use of Google doc in peer feedback and peer editing. Some few studies have highlighted its potential use for teachers or instructors of writing in mentoring their students’ writing (Alsubaie & Ashuraidah, 2017; Chu et al., 2011; Gillow-Wiles & Niess, 2017; Saeed & Al Qunayeer, 2020) and also providing their students with feedback on their writing (Ebadi & Rahimi, 2017). According to these studies, teachers or instructors of writing at universities can provide their students with feedback through comments embedded into students’ Google doc pages, track their work and see their revisions. Yet, there is no comprehensive empirical exploration of teacher feedback via Google doc, particularly in relation to the content of feedback and how teachers formulate their feedback using Google doc. Therefore, the current study attempted to fill up this gap by investigating teacher feedback on students’ writing through Google doc.

3. Methods The current study employed a qualitative case study that seeks to explore teacher feedback on EFL students’ writing in a Saudi university. It was intended to collect enriching information and obtain an in depth understanding of the process of teacher feedback since this approach allows for an in-depth investigation of the case (Merriam, 1998). As this study also focuses on perception of learners, qualitative methods provide better understanding of how humans or respondents experience and reflect on what has been implemented in a particular area of interest (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). According to Dörnyei (2007), numbers can also partially be used in qualitative research and therefore it is not entirely number based statistics. Giving that this study used a qualitative analysis of the data, specifically content analysis, text analysis and thematic analysis, numbers and percentages were used to support arguments and claims and to show variations of the categorized feedback including global, local, direct and indirect. 3.1. The participants As the design of the study was the case study, it focused on 10 undergraduates' academic writing of assignment, article report as part of their formative assessment in an academic writing course in a Saudi university. The participants were 6 females and 4 males enrolled in the course ' Writing 2', in English Department, Majmaah University in Saudi Arabia. The participants have the same cultural and linguistic background as their mother tongue is Arabic and they all

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started studying EFL when they were in grade 4. They were selected in light of their readiness to write essays of different types at the time of data collection for the current study. Table (1) shows the participating students allocated in five pairs (from Pair 1 to Pair 5) along with their assigned pseudonyms which consist of the letters “s and p” standing for the word “student” and “pair” as well as the number of pair to which the students belong. Moreover, the instructor of the course is referred to as “instructor” in the samples of the feedback used in this study. This is to maintain confidentiality and anonymity of the participants. Table 1: Profile of the Participants Pairs’ Names Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair 5

Students’ Pseudonym S1-P1 & S2-P1 S1-P2 & S2-P2 S1-P3 & S2-P3 S1-P4 & S2-P4 S1-P5 & S2-P5

3.2. The Study Procedure The study was conducted in several stages as shown in Figure (1). The first stage, the preparation stage that lasted almost two weeks, and aimed to prepare the EFL students for the writing activities. During this stage, the instructor informed the participants about article reporting writing, feedback and peer editing activities. The stage also covered instruction on how to write article reports and training the students on how to search articles from Google Scholar, ResearchGate or Saudi Digital Library and how to use Google doc for editing their writing. At the end of the stage, the instructor requested the participating students to formulate five pairs, each of which consists of two learners who would work together in the next activities using Google doc. In the second stage, each pair of students was requested to select three articles on a topic of their own choice in language acquisition and learning and teaching. As each pair selected its articles, the students were asked to formulate the title of their report that reflects the topic of the three articles. Then, they had a discussion in which they planned their reports, especially the general structure. This stage took almost two weeks in which students were involved in reading the three articles and summarizing the main ideas of each article. The third stage was concerned with engaging the five pairs of students in writing their first draft and it lasted for almost three weeks. The students were given guidance to follow especially for the word limit of report writing (not over 3000 words). During this stage, the five pairs finalized their five first drafts. Following this was the stage of Google doc page creation and uploading the first drafts in the Google doc. The instructor created five Google doc pages and shared each page only with the two students belonging to that pair via emails. Then, each pair had to upload their first draft in their page shared by the instructor. The fourth stage focused on teacher feedback and students’ revision of writing and lasted for almost three weeks. The instructor read the five first drafts and

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provided feedback through written comments. Each pair had to read teacher feedback and responded to it and revise their first draft accordingly. Figure (2) illustrates one Google doc page of Pair 4 where they appeared revising their draft by highlighting their revisions in different fonts based on teacher feedback. This stage seemed a reiterative stage as it involved students in producing multiple drafts stored historically in the Google doc pages. Preparation: Informing the students of the peer writing and teaching feedback activities, instructing them on report writing, formulating the five pairs of students and training them on using Google doc.

Pre-writing: Involving each pair of students in selecting three articles on a topic of their choice and discussing their plans of first drafts of article reports.

Writing first drafts: Each pair of students wrote the first draft of article reports.

Uploading first drafts in Google Doc: Creating five Google Doc pages, sharing them with the pairs and requesting each pair to upload the first draft.

Feedback and Revision: Keeping revising their drafts based on teacher feedback through Google doc.

Finalizing and submitting last drafts: Each pair of students had to finalize revising their writing and submit it as the last draft. Figure 2: Procedures of the data analysis

The last stage focused on students’ finalization of their last draft that needed to be submitted to the instructor for their assessment in the course. During this stage, the instructor also kept reading and providing feedback and the students had to refine and edit their draft. However, this stage also involved students’ refinement of their writing in terms of formats required for the assessment. This stage lasted for almost two weeks.

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Figure 3: Sample Google-Doc page

3.3. Data Collection and Data Analysis The study used three types of data: teacher feedback in written comments, students’ text revisions through Google doc and students’ responses to the interview questions (See Appendix). For the first two types of data, they were stored in the Google doc pages and later, they were also organized in file words for each pair of students. For the interview, the participants were interviewed at the end of the semester by the researcher, who is the instructor of the course. The students were asked several questions eliciting their perception of teacher feedback, peer editing or text revisions based on feedback and use of Google doc. the focus-group interviews were conducted (an hour and half) and participants' responses were recorded by the researcher using an audio recorder. The study used a qualitative analysis of the data, specifically content analysis, text analysis and thematic analysis. However, before actual performance of data analysis, the researcher prepared and organized the data in separate files for each pair of students. Moreover, the recorded interviews were listened to by the researcher several times and then, transcribed. For the instructor’s feedback, the researcher used a qualitative content analysis of the foci of each feedback. In coding the feedback, the two coders, who are both researchers in this area, looked at the issue and its aspect of writing the feedback targeted. The following example in the form of a written comment provided by the instructor on the writing of one of the pairs shows how it was coded as “plural forms” since the issue is related to plural nouns:

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Instructor 10:01 AM February 22 Re-open Selected text: question. Collapse Please, pluralize it better. Figure 4: Example of teacher's comments This continued till we finished coding the teacher feedback provided in written comments (overall=1440). Following this was categorizing all issues into global and local issues. The global issues are categorized as content and organization, including coherence, while the local issues are those issues related to grammar, vocabulary and mechanics (Chandler, 2003; Tiyingdee & Jaroongkhongdach, 2016). The above example feedback was categorized as a local issue, specifically grammar. Then, the feedback was coded once again, but this time, it was coded in terms of its level of defectiveness: direct or indirect. While direct feedback carries either direct corrections and or explicitly stated solutions provided by teacher, indirect feedback provides a hint of an issue in writing, but does not provide a specific solution or remedy to it (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012; Bitchener & Knoch, 2009; Ferris & Roberts, 2001). The above sample feedback, for instance, was coded as direct because it does not only pint at the issue related to the use of accurate noun form, but it also provided the learners with a solution by requesting them to pluralize “question”. For coding the EFL learners’ text revisions, we used text analysis of learners’ drafts with a focus on the changes highlighted and traced through Google doc based on teacher feedback. First, each change highlighted in the students’ texts was coded as a revision and identified in terms of its foci according to the teacher feedback. For instance, the following sentence extracted from the writing of one pair of students carries a change, which is the word “question” as the students pluralized it based on the above feedback. So it was coded as “a word-level revision for accurate plural form”, which is later categorized as grammar: This study could further strengthen or raise questions on the findings of the above articles From the analysis of the learners’ text revisions, we categorized all revisions in accordance with the above categories of issues addressed through feedback: global and local text revisions. The global text revisions refer to changes made by learners to attend to issues and enhance the content and organization of paragraphs and ideas in writing, whereas local text revisions are those changes in texts as a way to correct issues related to grammar, vocabulary and mechanics. Moreover, as we coded the text revisions, we tried to identify if the text revision was made based on teacher direct or not and if it is based on teacher feedback, we specified if it was based on direct or indirect feedback. From this, we identified text revisions based on teacher direct feedback, revisions based on indirect feedback and self-made revisions.

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The students’ interviews were also analyzed using a thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is a kind of qualitative analyses which is used to analyze qualitative data to reveal prominent themes (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). Regarding this, the transcripts of the students’ interviews were thematically analyzed based on thematic coding that allows the coders to assign students’ chunks to codes which constitute up a main them. This was an iterative process by which the students’ responses were coded, re-coded and compared till these four main themes emerged which are discussed under the findings related to students’ perception of teacher feedback: (1) perceived value of teacher feedback in writing, (2) preference for direct feedback, (3) perceived role of Google doc in editing writing based on teacher feedback and (4) challenges in editing their writing based on teacher feedback through Google doc. The students’ responses to the interview questions were analyzed using a thematic analysis. Regarding this, the two coders read the transcripts of the students’ follow-up interviews several times. Then, they continued coding and recoding the data till they defined the themes emergent from the interviews that describe the learners’ views on their experiences in the online group discussions. This analysis of such data aimed to answer the third research question. The themes emergent from our analysis are reported in the finding section with examples taken from the students’ voices in the interviews.

4. Findings RQ1: What Are the Issues in EFL Students’ Writing Addressed by The Instructor Through Feedback Using Google Doc? The qualitative content analysis of teacher feedback revealed that the teacher addressed global and local issues. Global issues are those issues related to the content of writing, organization and coherence, whereas local issues are those issues relevant to the use of academic language, including grammar and vocabulary, mechanics and spelling. Each of these main global and local issues is represented by one example of teacher feedback extracted from the Google doc comments (Table 2). Overall, the teacher feedback addressed various sub-issues related to content of students’ writing, including the lack of important sections, lacking supporting details, unclearly expressed ideas and arguments as well as irrelevant ideas and details to the topics of writing. The feedback also addressed issues related to the organizations in written texts, specifically the logical follows of ideas as well as cohesion and coherence. Grammar was one of the local issues in writing, including wrong tenses, erroneous sentence structures, forms of words, such as verbs and adjectives as well as wrong use of prepositions. The students also seemed to struggle from accurate vocabulary, particularly words that convey academic registers in article reports. The last type of local issues in writing is represented by mechanics, including punctuations and spelling.

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Table 2. Sample Issues Addressed through Teacher Feedback Patterns Content

Samples

Grammar

Your report lacks an introductory paragraph about the topic of the three articles. Can you just re-order the sentences of this paragraph instead of jumping from one idea to another? Please, add because to connect both sentences? Got me? Shape sure? What is the subject of the sentence?

Vocabulary

Change “spoke about” into “highlighted”.

Mechanics

No missing punctuation before and after this linking phrase for contrast here?

Organization

Quantification of teacher feedback shows that the teacher could target an overall number of 1440 issues in the EFL learners’ writing via Google doc (Table 3). The EFL learners were challenged by local issues in their academic writing (1067/75%) and global issues (373/25%). Moreover, teacher feedback was quantified across the five pairs of students. Overall, Pair 3 and Pair 1 received the highest number of teacher feedback (303/21% & 298/21%, respectively). This is followed by Pair 5 (297/20%), Pair 2 (286/20%) and finally Pair 4 (256/18%). Table 3: Number and Percentage of Issues in Writing Addressed through Teacher Feedback Foci of Feedback Global Local Overall

Pair 1

Pair 2

Pair 3

Pair 4

Pair 5

Overall

85 (6%) 213 (15%) 298 (21%)

61 (4%) 225 (16%) 286 (20%)

91 (6%) 212 (15%) 303 (21%)

57 (4%) 199 (14%) 256 (18%)

79 (5%) 218 (15%) 297 (20%)

373 (25%) 1067 (75%) 1440 (100%)

The above results also show variations in the numbers and percentages of feedback received by the five pairs. For the global teacher feedback, Pair 3 received the highest number of this kind of feedback (91/6%), meaning that most of the global issues addressed by the teacher were found in the written text of Pair 3. Following this are Pair 1 (85/6%), Pair 5 (79/5%), Pair 2(61/4%) and Pair 4 (57/4%). However, for the local issues as addressed by teacher feedback in writing, the order of the five pairs differs as Pair 2 received most of the teacher local feedback (225/16%), followed by Pair 5 (218/15%), and then, Pair 1(213/15%), Pair 3 (212/15%) and Pair 4 (199/14%). It should be noticed that the percentages of global issues detected in the writing of some pairs as in the case of Pair 3 and Pair 1 and Pair 2 and Pair 4 and local issues as in the case of Pair 1 and Pair 3 and Pair 5 are due to the numbers of issues in the writing of these pairs which are almost near or close to each other. RQ2: How Does the Instructor Address the Various Issues in EFL Learners’ Writing Using Google Doc? For construction of teacher feedback, findings show that the instructor constructed direct and indirect feedback. In using indirect feedback, the instructor

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did not only select and highlight the part of a given written text via Google doc, but he also provided a comment carrying an explanation of the issue and the solution to it. This is illustrated by Example (1) in Table (4). On the other hand, example (2) demonstrates how the instructor constructed and delivered feedback in an indirect manner by which he neither pointed at a specific issue nor did he give the learners a specific solution to it rather he requested them to re-phrase the entire sentence. The students could respond to the teacher indirect feedback by successfully re-phrasing the sentence. Table 4: Sample Direct and Indirect Feedback through Google Sample direct feedback

Sample indirect feedback

Instructor 6:01 PM Apr 29 Re-open Selected text: The article aims to discover that how bilingualism effects. Collapse The sentence does not look academically written. Can you just change into “The article focuses on the impact of bilingualism”? Reply

Instructor 3:05 PM Apr 26 Re-open Selected text: The result can be understandable by seeing the statement that has been written under the result section. Collapse Can you rephrase this sentence in a better way? Reply

S1-P3 Selected text: The article focuses on the impact of bilingualism on the reading ability of learners. How is it now? 7:20 PM Apr 29

S2-P1 Selected text: The statements of the results of this article were quite clear. I did it Dr. 3:10 PM Apr 26

Instructor Great. 8:15 PM Apr 29

Instructor Good now. 4:14 AM Apr 28

The teacher direct and indirect feedback was calculated overall and its distributions across the five pairs of EFL learners (Table 5). First, most teacher feedback via Google doc tended to be direct (977/68%), while only the indirect feedback accounted for (463/32%). Secondly, the distributions of the direct and indirect teacher feedback varied across the five pairs of students as the highest number of direct feedback was provided to Pair 3 (252/17%), which was followed by Pair 5 (211/15%), Pair 3 (184/13%), Pair 2 (169/12%) and Pair 1 (161/11%). For the indirect feedback, Pair 1 received the highest number of such feedback from the instructor (137/9%). The second highest number of indirect feedback was provided to Pair 1 (117/8%), followed by Pair 5 (86/6%), Pair 4 (72/5%) and the lowest number of feedback (51/4%) was received by Pair 3. The varying numbers and percentages of direct and indirect feedback among the five pairs of students

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could underlie their ability to revise their writing with or without much direct scaffolding from the instructor. Table 5: Number and Percentage of Teacher Direct and Indirect Feedback across the Five Pairs Foci of Feedback Direct Indirect Overall

Pair 1

Pair 2

Pair 3

Pair 4

Pair 5

Overall

161 (11%) 137 (9%) 298 (20%)

169 (12%) 117 (8%) 286 (20%)

252 (17%) 51 (4%) 303 (21%)

184 (13%) 72 (5%) 256 (18%)

211 (15%) 86 (6%) 297 (21%)

977 (68%) 463 (32%) 1440 (100%)

RQ 3: To what extent does the feedback help the EFL students in revising their texts via Google doc? The qualitative analysis of learners’ text revisions via Google doc shows that the learners revised their texts globally and locally based on teacher feedback. They made global revisions related to content, organization, including coherence and local revision pertinent to grammar, vocabulary and mechanics, each of which is illustrated through an example in Table (6). The learners refined their writing in relation to the content by adding sentences or even full paragraphs, removing unnecessary details in some cases or irrelevant ideas and substituting sentences in order to clearly express their ideas. The sample extracted revised by Pair 5 shows how the students added sentences functioning as introductory paragraphs giving information of each article summarized. The EFL learners also made revisions related to organizations by moving paragraphs and groups of sentences in order to achieve a logical flow of ideas in their writing (See example 2 by Pair 3). The same example shows how coherence was paid attention by the learners as they added linking devices at phrase and word levels such as “however”. The EFL learners also revised the language of their writing, specifically grammar and vocabulary. Their highlighted revisions varied from addition, substitution, removal and even rearrangement of linguistic items in writing. This is seen by the fourth and fifth examples taken from the texts of Pair 1 and Pair 4, respectively. The last example by Pair 1 shows how the learners revised their writing related to the use of mechanics, including punctuations. Table 6: Sample Text Revisions in Responding to Teacher Feedback Patterns of text revisions

Samples

Content

This is a review of the research article “Managing Mutual Orientation in the Absence of Physical Copresence: Multiparty Voice-Based Chat Room Interaction”, written by Christopher Joseph Jenks and Adam Brandt, published in Discourse Processes in 2013.

Organization

If I want to compare the literature review in all three articles, I would be most confused in article 1 as the author came up with 3 hypotheses which they had to use a broad literature to support the problem being researched. For article 1, it was unclear as the literature

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was a mix of studies that support a particular position, and those against. In article 2, however, the author organized literature review in a systematic way where wide treatment approaches in treating speech-sound children have been described. Then the researcher supported this issue with previous studies to prove it as an important element in the therapeutic success. In article 1 and 2, the author revealed a gap in existing research. However, in article 3, the author formulated two research questions to address the research problem. It was unclear as the literature was a mix of studies that support a particular position, and those against. In order to achieve the objective, the researchers answered the following questions:

Grammar Vocabulary Mechanics

As argued by Iphofen (2012), students should not feel obligated to be part of the learning activities if they don’t wish to be.

Calculation of the learners’ text revisions overall and its global and local types as well as across the drafts of the five pairs of students revealed interesting results (Table 7). Overall, the learners made a number of 1282 text revisions, the majority of which were local revisions (975/76%) on grammar, vocabulary and mechanics. However, they made less global text revisions (307/24%) on content, organization and coherence. The number and percentages of text revisions made by the learners vary as the highest number of text revisions were made by Pair 1 (293/23%), and the second highest number of text revisions were made by Pair 3 and Pair 5 (258 & 252, respectively) with almost similar rates or percentages (20%). The last 2 pairs with the lowest numbers of text revisions are Pair 2 (243/19%) and Pair 4 (236/18%). The results also show that Pair 3 made the highest proportion of global text revisions (78/6%), followed by Pair 1 (73/6%), Pair 5 (61/5%), Pair 4 (55/4%) and Pair 2 (40/3%). For the local revisions, the largest proportion of revisions were made by Pair 1 (220/17%), followed by Pair 2 (203/16%), and then, Pair 5 (191/15%), Pair 4 (181) and Pair 3 (180) with the same percentage of 14%. Table 7: Number and Percentage of Learners’ Text Revisions Foci of Feedback Direct Indirect Overall

Pair 1

Pair 2

Pair 3

Pair 4

Pair 5

Overall

161 (11%) 137 (9%) 298 (20%)

169 (12%) 117 (8%) 286 (20%)

252 (17%) 51 (4%) 303 (21%)

184 (13%) 72 (5%) 256 (18%)

211 (15%) 86 (6%) 297 (21%)

977 (68%) 463 (32%) 1440 (100%)

The learners’ text revisions were also linked to the teacher direct and indirect feedback to determine the efficacy of these two types of feedback in learners’ text revisions (Table 8). The results indicate that most of the learners’ text revisions were made based on teacher direct feedback (895/70%). However, only a smaller proportion of texts revisions were made by the EFL learners based on teacher indirect feedback (292/23%). The remaining number of text revisions (95/7%) was not made by learners based on teacher feedback but self-made revisions intended to enhance their texts.

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Table 8: Number and Percentage of Text Revisions in Relation to Direct and Indirect Feedback Foci of Feedback Based on direct feedback Based on indirect feedback Self-made Overall

Pair 1

Pair 2

Pair 3

Pair 4

Pair 5

Overall

203 (16%)

174 (14%)

190 (15%)

160 (12%)

168 (13%)

895 (70%)

70 (5%)

51 (4%)

42 (3%)

58 (5%)

71 (6%)

292 (23%)

20 (2%) 293 (23%)

18 (1%) 243 (19%)

26 (2%) 258 (20%)

18 (1%) 236(18%)

13 (1%) 252 (20%)

95 (7%) 1282(100%)

The above results show that each pair made a higher number of text revisions based on teacher direct feedback. Moreover, most of text revisions that are triggered by teacher direct feedback were made by Pair 1 (203/16%), while the least amount of text revisions was made by Pair 4 (160/12%). Interestingly, Pair 5 made the highest number of text revisions based on teacher indirect feedback (71/6%), while Pair 3 made the lowest number of text revisions (42/3%). There are also variations in the number and percentage of text revisions made by learners as self-corrections across the five pairs as Pair 1 scored the highest number of such text revisions (20/2%), whereas the least proportion of text revisions were made by Pair 1 (13/1%). RQ 4: How do the EFL learners perceive the instructor’s feedback on their writing via Google doc? The findings obtained from the thematic analysis of the interviews are interpreted and discussed under four main themes: (1) perceived value of teacher feedback in writing, (2) preference for direct feedback, (3) perceived role of Google doc in editing writing based on teacher feedback and (4) challenges in editing their writing based on teacher feedback through Google doc. For the students’ perception of teacher feedback, most of them showed positive perception of such feedback in writing. For instance, according to S1-P3, “I like receiving feedback. It’s really helpful for me in my writing”. The voices of participants also indicate that teacher feedback enabled them to know what issues they were struggling from in writing their article reports. As stated by S2-P4 “feedback helped me to see my errors and mistakes, such as the use of articles in English, academic words, and son on in writing”. The students also appreciated teacher feedback for it provided them with useful directions on what and how to revise their writing. In this regard, it was stated that “the feedback provided by the instructor in Google doc helped me to edit and revise our writing, especially ideas, flow of ideas and even grammar and punctuations” (S1-P1). The students perceived teacher feedback as an important support for them in improving their writing of article reports. S2-P3 admitted this by pointing out “I liked teacher feedback especially when ah I mean I felt satisfied to see our last draft”. It was also interesting that some students pointed at teacher feedback as source of motivation for them in writing. S2-P2 is one of those students who stated

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“Feedback, of course, is important for me because I got confident and motivated to do more in my writing”. An interesting finding is related to students’ preference for teacher direct feedback. Most of the students talked about their like for teacher feedback when it is given directly because they understand their issues in writing and revise it accurately. For example, the voice of S1-P1 shows why they like direct feedback rather than indirect feedback. In other words, he stated that “I really like direct feedback because sometimes I cannot understand it when the teacher just points at the error in an indirect manner, but direct feedback, I can know what’s wrong with my writing and do revisions correctly. The findings of the study also highlight students’ positive perception of the role of Google doc in editing and revising their writing. Regarding this, they pointed at several features that made Google doc as a valuable tool for them, including collaborative text editing: “It’s a good way to read teacher feedback and do editing of writing with my friend at the same time” (S2-P5), anytime and anywhere editing: “Google doc was convenient for me when editing writing while sitting at home” (S2-P1) and visualization and traceability of edits: “Yeah. Google doc helped me to use or I mean to put color as highlights and also I can see the revisions my friend made” (S1-P3). The last theme inferred from the interviews covers some challenges the students encountered in revising their writing based on teacher feedback via Google doc. Some of them seemed challenged by how to respond to instructor's comments, especially at the start of the revision activities. One of those students is S2-P3, who stated “At first, I didn’t know so sometimes I deleted the comments after I made revisions also confused about the many drafts”. Others also pointed at the time constraints because they spent much time editing their writing: “Sometimes, you know because we have other courses, so I need to spend more time to edit my writing”.

5. Discussion The present study aimed to explore the role of teacher corrective feedback via Google doc on the academic writing of five pairs of EFL learners. Specifically, the study was intended to identify the issues in students’ writing addressed by teacher feedback. Interpretation of the findings of the present study from the socio-cultural approach (Leont’ev, 1981; Lee, 2014; Vygotsky, 1978) suggests that teacher feedback plays an important role in mediating learners’ understanding of the various global and local issues in writing. Effective feedback is “a key element of the scaffolding provided by the teacher to build learner confidence and the literacy resources to participate in target communities” (Hyland & Hyland, 2006, p. 83). The findings of the present study indicate that the instructor of the course writing targeted both types of issues in the EFL learners’ writing of article reports: global issues which refer to those issues related to content and organization, including coherence as well as local issues which refer to those issues pertinent to grammar,

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vocabulary and mechanics. This finding supports findings of several previous studies on the content or focus of teacher feedback on students’ writing (Chandler, 2003; Conrad & Goldstein, 1999; Ferris, 2003; Ferris, 2006). Some of these researchers (e.g., Ferris, 2006) argued that teacher feedback should target issues in writing at the local level, whereas others argued that teacher feedback should emphasize learners’ global issues in writing. However, the current study is in agreement with what other researchers argued about the focus of teacher feedback (1990; Ferris, 2003). In other words, teachers should focus on both global and local issues in writing because both are important for developing students’ writing. The finding is also similar to what was found by Tiyingdee and Jaroongkhongdach (2016) in relation to teacher feedback on content, organization and language. This study also found that teacher feedback on the students’ local issues outnumbered feedback on the global issues in writing. Such finding does not suggest that the instructor was more interested in commenting on the local issues of the students’ writing, but most of the issues and errors made by the EFL learners were local issues. Since the level of direction is important for teacher feedback, in this study, teacher feedback was analyzed once again in terms of whether it is direct or indirect. The findings showed that the instructor formulated and provided the EFL learners feedback on writing directly and indirectly. In line with several previous studies (Chandler, 2000; Ferris, 1995, 1997 ), this study indicates that the instructor of the course provided direct feedback by highlighting the part of the written text carrying the issue or error and offering them the accurate solution or remedy (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012; Chandler, 2000; Ferris, 1995; Ferris, 1997;2006; Ferris & Roberts, 2001). The current study also contributes to these studies on teacher direct feedback by finding that the instructor of the course no longer used the traditional way of providing direct feedback through removal or addition or even substitution of the erroneous parts of the texts. However, all direct feedback was provided through written comments which give the learners the freedom to incorporate or not to integrate such suggestions in their text revisions. This also corroborates Bitchener’s and Knoch’s (2009) study in the sense that direct feedback can be offered through explanations rather than direct mere corrections of students’ errors in writing. In this study, the instructor provided more direct feedback than indirect feedback on their writing, which supports previous studies (Chandler, 2003; Ferris, 2006; Tiyingdee & Jaroongkhongdach, 2016; William, 2004). This can be justified by the easiness of such feedback for students, the direct nature of such feedback that allows students to carry on successful text revisions and the explanations of their issues carried in such direct feedback. Moreover, in the instructor’s lower frequency of providing indirect feedback could be due to some students’ misinterpretation of such feedback, which consequently disabled them to make successful remedies to such issues and effective text revisions. Therefore, the instructor resorted to more direct feedback. In this study, the extent to which the students revised their writing based on teacher feedback in general and in particular, direct and indirect feedback was

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determined. Overall, most text revisions were based on the teacher feedback. Such finding implying that most of the teacher feedback was accepted and incorporated by the EFL learners in editing through Google doc corroborates findings of some studies (Hyland, 1998; Hyland, 2003) regardless of the different taxonomies used in analyzing learners’ text revisions. In this study, the learners attended to content, organization, grammar, vocabulary and mechanics. However, they made a higher number local of text revisions than global text revisions, which is consistent with the teacher’s higher number of local feedback than global feedback. Moreover, direct feedback was conducive to most text revisions made by the learners. This supports the argument advocated by some researches for the efficacy of teacher direct feedback (Chandler, 2003; Ferris, 2006; William, 2004), while it contradicts what was reported by few other researchers (Alvarez et al., 2013; Wolsey, 2008). Here, it should be noted what is effective in one study in a particular context may not be the same in another study in a different context. In this study, the students’ voices in the interviews contribute to our understanding of the value of teacher feedback as scaffolding and guidance in writing. The students valued teacher feedback for it allowed them to understand their issues in writing and revise their written texts successfully. Their voices also support the efficacy of teacher direct feedback as they preferred direct feedback since it is easy to understand and revise their texts. Several studies have documented learners’ positive views of teacher feedback in writing (Enginarlar, 1993; Harran, 2011; Hyland, 2003; Silver & Lee, 2007) and their preference for direct feedback (Ferris & Roberts, 2001) or indirect feedback in other studies (Ferris et al., 2000). Being central to research questions, the findings indicate that Google doc is a valuable tool for teacher feedback and students’ text revisions since it allowed them to read the instructor’s feedback, see his highlights of the parts of writing and also to track their revisions and learning. It was revealed that Google Docs facilitated students' revisions and enabled them to move paragraphs and sentences to reorganize their writings. These results coincided with previous findings that support the potential of Google doc in teacher feedback (Alharbi, 2020; Chong, 2019; Ebadi & Rahimi, 2017; Khalil, 2018; Mohammed & AL-Jaberi, 2021; Neumann & Kopcha, 2019). The facilitative effect of Google Docs is representative in enabling the teacher to communicate and elaborate enough feedback to the students in a click of a button, and empowering the students to access their work from a computer or mobile phone anywhere and anytime (Khalil, 2018). This s very helpful to the case of a large class with many tasks requiring written feedback (Tamimi, 2017; Woodrich & Fan, 2017). Despite the encouraging findings, the students’ active involvement in writing was challenged by their first-time experience in using Google doc for editing in addition to time restrictions as well as observed misinterpretation and frustration with indirect feedback.

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6. Conclusion and Implications There are several implications for theory, pedagogy and research on ESL/EFL writing underlined by the findings of the current study. For the theoretical implications, the findings of the study indicate that teacher feedback is a type of mediation or scaffolding that guides learners to understand their issues and errors in writing and assists them to revise their texts. Moreover, from the sociocultural approach to language learning, particularly writing, such mediation does not take place in a vacuum but rather it is constructed and embedded in a sociocultural context and shaped by teachers’ and learners’ beliefs and perception. For the pedagogical implications, the current study was motivated by the traditional teacher feedback practices in writing classrooms, especially in the EFL context where teachers act as direct editors of learners’ errors in writing. In this regard, teachers should act as mediators who guide their learners in writing thorough comments. They should also be aware of the role of feedback in facilitating their students’ development of writing. Although the essence of teacher feedback is to help students understand their issues, especially global issues, teachers should decide what issues their feedback needs to target and they should focus on what issues actually challenge their learners in writing even if most of these issues tend to be local issues such as grammar, vocabulary and mechanics. As writing instructors, we are increasingly aware of the importance of feedback in learners’ development of writing. However, as we comment on students’ writing, we should also be aware of misinterpretation and confusion our feedback can cause to our students in the process of writing revision. In other words, the way instructors formulate their feedback can affect students’ text revisions and improvement of their written texts. Therefore, instructors should decide how to formulate and provide their feedback to students-directly or indirectly or both. Feedback practices should be made innovative through integration of technological tools. This study indicates that Google doc is one of these technological tools that facilitate teacher feedback and peer editing of writing. The application of Google doc in such practices is promising and encouraging since it helps teachers to highlight students’ errors and comment on their writing and at the same time, assists learners to read and reflect on, understand the issues in their writing and successfully use such feedback in revising their texts.

7. Limitations and Future Research In conclusion, although the findings of the current study are encouraging, several limitations that may have affected the findings should be addressed for future research. First, the study focused on a small number of students that constitute only five pairs. Therefore, future research can replicate this study by focusing on a large number of students. This study was exclusive to exploring the issues in writing as addressed by teacher feedback and its different types overall and across the five pairs rather than in each individual’s writing. Future studies should also look at this by tracing each individual’s issues and text revisions in each pair of

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students. Technology such as Google doc can allow instructors and teachers to trace each individual learner’s actions as responses to feedback. While the findings of the study provide evidence on the teacher’s feedback on the students’ writing as illustrated by the text revisions they made to their drafts, the study did not incorporate a measure of first drafts and final drafts. Therefore, this can be potential for future researchers who are interested in measuring the impact of teacher feedback on students’ writing through scoring rubrics. Future research may explore how various technological tools used for teacher feedback on writing affect the extent to which such feedback is incorporated by learners in revising their writing.

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Appendix 1: Focus-group Interview Questions 1. What do you think of teacher feedback on your writing? 2. What other aspects about teacher feedback via Google doc that you found valuable for your writing improvement? Why do you think so? 3. Which do you prefer teacher direct feedback or indirect feedback? 4. What features of Google doc you liked more that helped you in revising your writing based on teacher feedback? 5. Any challenges you might have encountered editing your writing via Google doc based on teacher feedback? Explain them.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 195-214, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.11 Received Aug 24, 2021; Revised Oct 28, 2021; Accepted Nov 16, 2021

Factors Inducing Literature Anxiety for Students Studying Literature in English Agnes Wei Lin Liau* Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5836-5270 George Boon Sai Teoh Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2071-1849 Abstract. Students have been plagued with various types of anxieties in the educational context, hence we propose to introduce the concept of literature anxiety in this study. This study investigates the possible factors inducing literature anxiety from the perspectives of university students studying Literature in English at tertiary level, and records their emotional experiences during their learning encounters with Literature in English. The study also presents how these students make sense of their Literature in English learning and how their knowledge and perceptions of Literature in English have influenced or affected their experience of literature anxiety. SPSS analysis of the data procured through the Literature Anxiety Scale (LITAS) provided evidence concerning students’ literature anxiety and the factors they perceive inducing literature anxiety for them. The literature anxiety-inducing factors were identified as situational, dispositional, and environmental factors. The findings obtained showed that students’ literature anxiety does debilitate their studying of Literature in English. The implications are that educators should teach more attentively and be sensitized to learners’ possible experience of anxiety. Keywords: academic achievement; emotional experiences; literature anxiety; Literature in English; literature learning

1. Introduction Spielberger and Vagg (1995) described fear and anxiety as being “clearly recognized as significant aspects of human behavior in ancient Egypt, the Old Testament, in Greek and Roman Literature” (p. 3). Indisputably, anxiety is and has been a concern for millennia. Lately, there has been an upsurge in research on anxiety and its effects on academic achievement, augmenting research in *Corresponding

author: Agnes Wei Lin Liau; Email: agnes@usm.my

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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various aspects of anxiety. Anxiety impacts many contexts, not sparing educational contexts (Deieso & Fraser, 2018; Zaccoletti et al., 2020). Issues surrounding anxiety and anxiety disorders are global concerns (Luttenberger et al., 2018). Anxiety disorders have been recorded as the most common mental health disorders suffered across societies and linked with notable negative consequences for humans (Reardon et al., 2018). Some studies have documented that anxiety could increase paranoid ideation (Salza et al., 2020). Anxiety disorders have effects across age groups. A study by Martinussen et al. (2019) found that older adults suffering from depression and a comorbid anxiety disorder showed more deterioration in their memory during a four-year period in comparison to older adults without a comorbid anxiety disorder. These facts stress the necessity for research on anxiety. MacIntyre and Gardner (1991, as cited in Ellis, 1994) stated that anxiety can be hypothesized to influence three stages of the learning process – the input, processing, and output stages. However, most research has analyzed the output stage and there has not been much research on the input and processing stages. In the study of anxiety, the measurement of anxiety should also be stressed. This has led to the development of a myriad anxiety scales, which have all been scrutinized and critiqued. Many studies have examined the role of anxiety in second language learning. Many researchers (MacIntyre, 1999, as cited in Cheng, 2004) have recommended conceptualizing second or foreign language anxiety as a unique anxiety specific to the second language learning context. Research on second language learning has emphasized the impact of anxiety on language learning (Cheng, 2017; Huang, 2018). Foreign language anxiety has also been studied in association with socio-biographical factors (Jiang & Dewaele, 2020). Aydin (2016) posited that foreign language teaching anxiety needs to be addressed too since certain teachers face anxiety in their foreign language teaching activities. In the foreign language learning classroom, Horowitz et al. (1986) stipulated that the consequences of anxiety can resonate outside the classroom. Language anxiety has also been researched via the perspectives of language teachers, where experienced teachers provided their accounts of how they perceived language anxiety (Ohata, 2005). Classroom learners react to the learning situations in which they are placed in various affective ways which can impact their self-perceptions and induce negative emotions (Ellis, 1994; Lou & Noels, 2020). MacIntyre, (1995) stated that there has been a marked growth in research into the anxieties of everyday life over the past 20 years. Increasing focus is evident regarding research on anxiety concerning a range of other education-related areas, including statistics anxiety, computer anxiety, and library anxiety. In addition, other types of anxiety-inducing experiences exist in the field of education, including anxiety related to tests, mathematics, and foreign languages. These anxiety experiences hamper students’ ability to effectively undertake their tasks in their learning contexts. Anxiety related to sitting for a test is evidence of test anxiety (Putwain et al., 2010). However, we have not found any research to date on literature anxiety and hence this study addresses this research gap in the types of anxiety experienced in educational settings.

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2. Literature Anxiety Endler and Kocovski (2001) enumerated that anxiety has been defined as “a trait, a state, a stimulus, a response, a drive and as a motive” (p. 232). However, there are various interpretations of the word anxiety, and it is difficult to pinpoint a universally agreed upon definition of anxiety. Indefiniteness surrounds the term anxiety as it can be an ambiguous construct and has received numerous conceptualizations. However, a common thread running through the definitions would be the fact that anxiety can be an impediment to the individual if not checked. We define literature anxiety as referring to the anxiety that students encounter when studying literature, undertaking literary analyses, or undergoing a literature course. Literature anxiety subscribes generally to an anxiety reaction to situations where students of literature are confronted with various forms of literature learning as well as teaching. It is imperative that we study how anxiety can affect human lives and why individuals succumb to anxiety. Therefore, this study intends to extend scholarship on anxiety experienced among students in a learning context by offering insights into the literature anxiety experiences of students studying Literature in English at a local university. This study further enriches as well as sensitizes our understanding of literature anxiety as seen and felt through the eyes and the words of these students. This study features the factors inducing literature anxiety for these students studying Literature in English at tertiary level, who recorded experiencing literature anxiety at high, medium, and low levels, respectively. Studying Literature in English is essential for these students who are the participants for this study. In their study of English literature, they are required to read and comprehend the prescribed texts, think critically, and make informed decisions regarding their interpretation and analysis of the literary texts studied. For literature-anxious students/individuals, the interpretation and comprehension of literary texts could represent a psychological stress that is interpreted as threatening their self-esteem. If accumulated failure in interpreting or comprehending literary texts is experienced, this may lead the student or individual to view these situations as ego-threatening and a self-perpetuating cycle is formed. In attempting to code the factors inducing students’ experiences of literature anxiety, we refer to Baloğlu’s (2003) categorization of the three main factors that induce statistics anxiety. Baloğlu (2003) stated in his research on statistics anxiety among college students that the “causes” of statistics anxiety are normally categorized around three main factors – dispositional, situational, and environmental. We applied the three categorizations to designate the factors inducing the participants’ literature anxiety. Baloğlu (2003) explained that dispositional factors include psychological as well as emotional characteristics that would refer to attitudes towards statistics, perceptions, and self-concept. Situational factors would refer to “immediate factors that result from statistics courses and include, but are not limited to, statistics teachers, nature of statistics courses … and statistics terminology” (Baloğlu, 2003, p. 856). Environmental factors refer to factors that have previously influenced the student or individual before entering the statistics course (Baloğlu, 2003). As examples, this would

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relate to a person’s age, gender, ethnicity, previous background in mathematics, as well as educational level.

3. Methodology 3.1 Sample We selected 21 participants (13 females and 8 males) based on an initial survey which was run to obtain students’ literature anxiety scores. The participants were accordingly selected based on their scores of high, medium, and low anxiety. 3.2 Procedure The research procedures for this study are illustrated in Figure 1. We first conducted a survey, which was completed by 101 participants. From these participants, 21 were selected for this study based on their literature anxiety scores. The participants completed the Literature Anxiety Scale (LITAS). The scale comprised 48 items which assessed the literature anxiety of the participants. The internal consistency of the LITAS was calculated to be 0.94. This score should not be below 0.8, for this means that repeated administrations will cover less than 64 per cent of the same ground and that the error component will be more than one-third (Oppenheim, 1992). A good level of internal consistency was therefore achieved by the scale. Next, the 21 participants were interviewed, with each interview lasting about an hour.

Survey

Selection of 21 participants

Interview

Data analysis

Figure 1: Research procedures

3.3 Coding Participants were categorized in high-anxiety, medium-anxiety, and low-anxiety groups according to their literature anxiety scores which were obtained from the data generated by the survey. We employed Grounded Theory (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) and content analysis (Bryman, 2004) to analyze the qualitative data collected in this phase of the study. Under the Grounded Theory approach, we first started with the open coding stage and then proceeded to the axial

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coding stage. In the open coding stage, we located possible themes and provided initial codes to begin condensing the interview data into categories (Neuman, 2000). In the axial coding stage, as Neuman (2000) termed it, we made a “second pass” through the data. In comparison to the open coding stage, the axial coding stage required starting the process of coding with a planned and organized group of initial codes. We placed more emphasis on the codes to review and examine the codes effectively to achieve a coherent order. First, we transcribed the recorded interviews with the participants. We then applied an open coding process on the resulting data and coded the data with codes representing terms that would encompass as near as possible those words uttered by the participants in the interviews. For example, participants used the words “anxious” and “ambiguous” to allude to the “subjectivity of interpretation” they faced, as it was this aspect of studying Literature in English that especially made them experience literature anxiety. The subjectivity of interpretation and the need to provide the “correct” response often gave rise to literature anxiety among these participants. In addition, participants used the words “worried”, “tension”, and “boring” to allude to the “literariness of language” in Literature in English study. This element of Literature in English also caused the participants to experience literature anxiety. Finally, participants used the words “hate”, “weak”, and “hard” to allude to their English language level and competence. Some participants lamented their poor and inadequate English proficiency level as this made it difficult for them to understand some of the course content. They thus felt that they had to struggle through their Literature in English courses, and this induced literature anxiety for them. The situational factors that the participants reported causing them to experience literature anxiety were premised upon the factors that arose externally from the program. These include the characteristics of Literature in English as a subject being taught, the course structure itself, the lecturers teaching the Literature in English courses, the nature of the tutorial groups, the time issue in the program, and lastly, their comprehension of the Literature in English course content. The dispositional factors that the participants reported causing them to experience literature anxiety were based on internal factors, which include their perceptions of their attitudes towards Literature in English and their ability to undertake literary tasks. Lastly, the environmental factors that the participants reported causing them to experience literature anxiety were related to what they had “brought” with them upon entering the program, such as their educational background and their age. Furthermore, the later operational definition differed from the earlier operational definition. We refined the meaning of inadequacy of time to include not just the insufficiency of time per se, but also the sense of how time is divided for students per semester in terms of the number of subjects they have to pursue. The participants reported that they had to juggle their time between the Literature in English subjects, Linguistics subjects, as well as their minor subjects, as they had to major in Linguistics as well as Literature in English.

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Since most of them considered Literature in English challenging, they felt obliged to allocate more of their time to this course. However, the division of time did not often allow them to do just that, since they had to also concentrate on their other Linguistics subjects and their respective minor subjects which they had to take to fulfil the criteria for graduation. Figure 2 depicts the categorization of the coding of factors inducing literature anxiety for the participants. Perceived Factors

A. Situational

S1 CHARACTERISTICS OF LITERATURE

S2 COURSE STRUCTURE

S3 LECTURER

S4 TUTORIAL GROUPS

S5 TIME

S6 COMPREHENSION

B. Dispositional

D1 ATTITUDE

D2 ABILITY

C. Environmental

E1 EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

E2 AGE

Figure 2: Perceived factors reported inducing literature anxiety

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As shown in Figure 2, participants indicated three main categories of factors, namely situational, dispositional, and environmental. Within each of these main categories, codes were identified. For the situational factor, these were S1 (characteristics of literature), S2 (course structure), S3 (lecturer), S4 (tutorial groups), S5 (time), and S6 (comprehension). The codes for the dispositional factor were D1 (attitude) and D2 (ability). Finally, the codes for the environmental factor were E1 (educational background) and E2 (age).

4. Findings and Discussion Table 1 portrays the codes, the operational definitions, and the examples illustrating these codes that were refined until saturation in an iterative manner. The factors delineated in Table 1 are based on Baloğlu’s (2003) categorization of the factors causing statistics anxiety. These are the situational, dispositional, and environmental factors. The factors and their codes, as mentioned above, are represented. Table 1 presents operational definitions of the codes as well as some sample excerpts from the interviews with the participants. Table 1: Codes, operational definitions, and examples delineating situational, dispositional, and environmental factors Code S1 (characteristics of literature)

Operational definition Utterances depicting that participants experienced literature anxiety due to certain characteristics of literature, such as English language level of texts, subjectivity of interpretation, and literary language.

Examples Literature is very subjective. Sometimes even when we are in class, we are giving our ideas, we feel that we understand what we have read, what we analyzed, and what we think we derived from the text is okay, but when we put it forth to our lecturers, they say, “No, it’s actually this way.” So, you feel that you are wrong. Ah, that makes me anxious. We know we understand the text in such a way, and we can see it from that way, but why is it not accepted? Hard to understand, very ambiguous. If in one page I don’t understand, it is boring to continue.

S2 (course structure)

S3 (lecturer)

Utterances depicting that the nature of the Literature in English courses or the requirements of the courses that have to be met by the students are perceived as posing anxiety for the participants.

It is getting heavier, the depth we go into. Tough.

Utterances depicting that participants perceived matters pertaining to the lecturers, such as lecturer expectations, teaching style, and

Sometimes some lecturers cannot take it when we throw back a question at them. They feel we’re questioning their authority, you know, like me being a senior student in here, sometimes the lecturer’s age and mine would be around the same, you know. So, when we question them,

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Literature is more than just reading a book. It is about how you feel about the book, what you feel about it. When I first started taking literature, I didn’t know it was going to be this tough. When I started in the first semester it was about new things. The second and third semesters, getting difficult. The more you get to know about it, the more strange. The moment that we know we have to study all these things, I get anxious.

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Code

Operational definition assessment, as inducing them to experience literature anxiety.

Examples I’ve had some of the lecturers telling me, “Please don’t argue with me,” you know. It’s not that we tell them off straight away, when we voice out; no, actually, we don’t argue, this is what they have downloaded what they want, and they are fixed with that kind of idea, you see. And that makes me anxious. So, when I, the anxiety comes on, if I am going to answer my way, will I be penalized for my answer? Am I going to do well? So, certain lecturers give you that effect.

Utterances depicting the anxiety felt regarding the nature of how the tutorial groups are conducted. Students are encouraged and sometimes indirectly required to speak out during discussions. Also, tutorial groups consist of students of mixed abilities, where the weaker students feel intimidated by the stronger students and this induces anxiety.

So, but the anxiety and all that starts, you know, when you come to class, when the lecturer questions and all that, so that’s when the anxiety starts.

Utterances depicting that participants felt the inadequacy of time and how time was divided for them in their literature study induced them to be anxious about their literature study.

You’re expected to have read the whole book. Not enough time to read thoroughly.

S6 (comprehension)

Utterances depicting that participants experienced literature anxiety when they did not comprehend what was being taught or what was required of them to perform literary tasks during their literature classes.

I feel anxious when I don’t understand.

D1 (attitude)

Utterances depicting participants’ attitude towards their literature study which reflected

I have never been anxious about other matters. For the first time, I feel only literature makes me anxious, literature is difficult.

S4 (tutorial groups)

S5 (time)

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I am anxious when I attend tutorials because I fear being laughed at by others when I present my views.

I feel that I don’t have the time. You see, you give me a book, I feel like I just want to finish it as soon as possible, but then I have to think of all the other subjects.

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Code

Operational definition their experience of literature anxiety.

Examples I hate literature, this subject, because it is difficult to get the double meaning. I hate the lecturer too!

D2 (ability)

Utterances depicting participants’ feelings that they lacked the ability to undertake literary tasks, understand literature, and generally to study literature, which induced the experience of literature anxiety.

Literature is very hard, I always write nonsense, no connection, too long, difficult to pass. I understand the lecture, I don’t understand what I am writing, don’t know how to apply the theory.

Utterances depicting that participants felt their educational background has affected them to experience literature anxiety.

When I entered the class, it was very difficult for me. My basic is not good.

Utterances depicting that participants felt their age has affected them to experience literature anxiety.

When I was in school, I liked English; the younger I was the less anxious I was.

E1 (educational background)

E2 (age)

There are poems where the words are not clear; sometimes there are words that I have never seen before.

When I read, the whole page is full of translations, English into Malay. I understand in Malay. I think that I am really weak in English. Actually, I am much better in Mandarin. I went to a Chinese primary school.

The frequencies for the codes appearing in the interviews were counted (presented in Table 2 and discussed later). The participants were divided according to their literature anxiety groups, namely high, medium, and low. Based on the frequencies of the situational, dispositional, and environmental factors reported, the following findings were recorded. The high-anxiety group had the highest frequency count for these factors: 1. S4 (tutorial groups, 9 statements); 2. S6 (comprehension, 24 statements); and 3. E1 (educational background, 12 statements). The medium-anxiety group had the highest frequency count for these factors: 1. S1 (characteristics of literature, 30 statements); 2. S2 (course structure, 18 statements); 3. D2 (ability, 25 statements); and 4. E2 (age, 4 statements). Lastly, the low-anxiety group had the highest frequency count for this factor: 1. D1 (attitude, 16 statements). Regarding the situational factors, the most mentioned situational factor across the three anxiety groups was S3 (lecturer), with 77 statements, and the least

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mentioned situational factor was S5 (time), with only 6 statements. The most mentioned dispositional factor was D2 (ability), with 55 statements across the three anxiety groups, and the most mentioned environmental factor was E1 (educational background), with 15 statements across the three anxiety groups. Among the three overall categories of factors, situational factors were mentioned most frequently, with a total of 231 statements. Environmental factors were mentioned least frequently, with a total of 22 statements. As depicted in Table 1, the operational definition for each code reflects the utterances of the participants which captured the essence of what they described about their experience of literature anxiety. The high-anxiety group recorded the highest frequency count for S6 (comprehension), which referred to experiences of anxiety when they did not understand what was taught or what they were required to undertake in their literature classes. An example excerpt from one of the high-anxiety participants attributing their anxiety to non-comprehension is shown here: “I feel anxious when I don’t understand.” Hence, comprehension was a major factor in making these participants experience literature anxiety. As for the medium-anxiety group, the code recording the highest frequency count was S1 (characteristics of literature). Here, participants explained that their anxiety was caused by certain characteristics of literature, such as the English language level found in their prescribed texts, the subjectivity of interpretation, and the literary language contained in their respective texts which hindered their understanding. This is reflected in the following interview excerpts: “Literature is very subjective. Sometimes even when we are in class, we are giving our ideas, we feel that we understand what we have read, what we analyzed, and what we think we derived from the text is okay, but when we put it forth to our lecturers, they say, “No, it’s actually this way.” So, you feel that you are wrong. Ah, that makes me anxious. We know we understand the text in such a way, and we can see it from that way, but why is it not accepted?” “Hard to understand, very ambiguous. If in one page I don’t understand, it is boring to continue.” Hence, as reflected in these participants’ words, they were affected by aspects of literature that oversaw technical characteristics. These included the level of the English language contained in certain literary texts. It also included the subjective nature of interpreting literary texts that can cause students confusion as to which is the right answer to the questions asked. Lastly, it involved the literariness of the language in literary texts. The feelings encapsulated within these excerpts suggest the technical aspects of literature inhibited successful learning on the part of the participants and hence induced anxiety to develop within them. As for the low-anxiety group, these participants were most affected by the dispositional factor D1 (attitude). This code refers to students’ own attitude

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towards their literature learning impacting their experience of literature anxiety. The way in which these participants viewed studying literature led them to hold such attitudes and is exemplified in the below excerpts: “I have never been anxious about other matters. For the first time, I feel only literature makes me anxious; literature is difficult. I hate literature, this subject, because it is difficult to get the double meaning. I hate the lecturer too!” As presented, these participants mainly experienced literature anxiety induced by various factors under the situational and dispositional factors. Interestingly, when taken across the three groups of participants of high, medium, and low anxiety, the highest frequency count for the most mentioned situational factor inducing literature anxiety was for S3 (lecturer). The following two excerpts depict that certain aspects of lecturers’ behavior can become anxiety-provoking elements for students. Certain behavioral patterns perhaps exhibited by the lecturers are deemed as not conducive to promoting literature learning and hence subsequently mar the learning process of the students in addition to causing them literature anxiety. “Sometimes some lecturers cannot take it when we throw back a question at them. They feel we’re questioning their authority, you know, like me being a senior student in here, sometimes the lecturer’s age and mine would be around the same, you know. So, when we question them, I’ve had some of the lecturers telling me, “Please don’t argue with me,” you know. It’s not that we tell them off straight away, when we voice out; no, actually, we don’t argue, this is what they have downloaded what they want, and they are fixed with that kind of idea, you see. And that makes me anxious.” “So, when I, the anxiety comes on, if I am going to answer my way, will I be penalized for my answer? Am I going to do well? So, certain lecturers give you that effect.” Under the dispositional codes, D2 (ability) was the most frequently mentioned dispositional factor across the three groups of participants. The following two examples of participant accounts exemplify how they perceived themselves as unable to perform well in literature due to the lack of knowledge and ability on their part. This lack of knowledge on theory application hindered their comprehension of the subject. “Literature is very hard, I always write nonsense, no connection, too long, difficult to pass. I understand the lecture, I don’t understand what I am writing, don’t know how to apply the theory.” “There are poems where the words are not clear; sometimes there are words that I have never seen before.” E1 (educational background) was the most mentioned environmental factor across the three groups of participants. The following example excerpts record how these two participants attributed their poor performance due to their

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educational backgrounds prior to entering the course program. They viewed themselves as being weak in terms of background knowledge and language proficiency, which in turn made them anxious in the literature class. “When I entered the class, it was very difficult for me. My basic is not good.” “When I read, the whole page is full of translations – English into Malay. I understand in Malay. I think that I am really weak in English. Actually, I am much better in Mandarin. I went to a Chinese primary school.” This study has provided valuable insights into the possible factors inducing literature anxiety as experienced by the participants. Firstly, the possible factors participants perceived as inducing literature anxiety for them have been categorized under three main categories, namely situational, dispositional, and environmental factors. These were all divided into various codes, as explained earlier. Based on the findings of the frequency counts for the perceived situational, dispositional, and environmental factors, the high-anxiety group had the highest frequency counts for factors S4 (tutorial groups), S6 (comprehension), and E1 (educational background). Among these three factors, the factor S6 (comprehension) had the highest frequency count, with 24 statements. The medium-anxiety group had the highest frequency counts for factors S1 (characteristics of literature), S2 (course structure), D2 (ability), and E2 (age). Among these factors, the factor S1 (characteristics of literature) had the highest number of frequency counts. The medium-anxiety group mentioned this factor most as compared to the other factors. The low-anxiety group had the highest frequency counts for the dispositional factor D1 (attitude) among the situational, dispositional, and environmental factors. The high-anxiety group mentioned the S4 (tutorial groups) factor most compared to the other two anxiety groups. The high-anxiety group also mentioned the S6 (comprehension) factor most compared to the medium-anxiety group, who in turn mentioned this factor more than the low-anxiety group. Furthermore, the high-anxiety group mentioned the E1 (educational background) factor more in comparison to the other two anxiety groups. Thus, the results indicate that the high-anxiety group of participants tended more to attribute their literature anxiety to factors requiring some form of evaluation of their performance. For example, in tutorial groups, they are anxious about their answers to questions posed or about having to contribute verbally and then experience rejection. In interpreting literary texts, they are anxious because they find it difficult to understand the texts. As for educational background, some of them felt that their educational background had not prepared them suitably for this course. Among the factors, the situational factor most frequently reported to induce literature anxiety among the participants was the S3 (lecturer) factor. Most of the participants who experienced literature anxiety mentioned this factor as inducing their literature anxiety. Thus, literature anxiety could be said

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to be mainly due to the lecturer or certain lecturers’ style of teaching and assessment of the literature courses. Instead of facilitating Literature in English learning, this served to “facilitate” literature anxiety among these participants. Table 2 presents the comparison of the individual situational, dispositional, and environmental factors using Friedman’s test. The situational factor S3 (lecturer) had the highest mean rank (7.31). The second highest mean rank (7.05) was for the situational factor S6 (comprehension), and the third highest was for the situational factor S1 (characteristics of literature), with a mean rank of 7.02. Fourth was the dispositional factor D2 (ability), with a mean rank of 6.50, and fifth was the dispositional factor D1 (attitude), with a mean rank of 5.79. Sixth was the situational factor S2 (course structure, 5.62), seventh the situational factor S4 (tutorial groups, 4.10), and eighth the environmental factor E1 (educational background, 4.05). Ninth was the environmental factor E2 (age), with a mean rank of 3.93, which leaves the situational factor S5 (time) with the lowest mean rank of 3.64. Table 2: Comparison of situational, dispositional and environmental factors using Friedman’s test Code S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 D1 D2 E1 E2

Mean rank 7.02 5.62 7.31 4.10 3.64 7.05 5.79 6.50 4.05 3.93

***p < 0.000

Table 3 presents the results of the multiple comparisons of the situational, dispositional, and environmental factors for the participants using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. The multiple comparisons were conducted after a significant difference was seen in the results of the Friedman test comparing the individual situational, dispositional, and environmental factors.

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Table 3: Multiple comparisons of the situational, dispositional, and environmental factors for the participants using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test S1

0.032*

0.005**

0.003**

0.002**

0.005**

0.001***

0.048*

0.001***

0.03*

0.031*

0.005**

0.019*

0.003**

0.009**

0.002**

0.001***

0.004** -

0.002**

0.01**

0.000***

0.001***

0.007**

0.004** NS

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001

The results in Table 3 denote that there was a significant difference between S1 (characteristics of literature, mean rank 7.02) and the following factors: • S4 (tutorial groups, mean rank 4.10), with p = 0.005**; and • S5 (time, mean rank 3.64), with p = 0.002**. This suggests that the participants were more inclined to view the situational factor S1 (characteristics of literature) as more likely to induce literature anxiety than the situational factors S4 (tutorial groups) or S5 (time). This finding is exemplified in the case of a participant called Fiona (pseudonym). Fiona is an amiable woman who was already qualified as a teacher prior to entering the program. She expressed no qualms about following the course and demonstrated a keen and positive outlook towards learning Literature in English. However, Fiona did express qualms about offering individual interpretations as, according to her, the lecturers did not always readily accept the students’ interpretations and some lecturers did not always justify the students in why their answers were not accepted. “Literature is very subjective. Sometimes … even when we are in class, we are giving our ideas, we feel that what we analyzed and what we think we derived from the text is okay, but when we put forth to our lecturers, they say, “No, it’s actually this way.” So, you feel that you’re wrong. Why is it not accepted, you know?” There was also a significant difference between S2 (course structure, mean rank 5.62) and these factors: • S3 (lecturer, mean rank 7.31), with p = 0.032*; • S5 (time, mean rank 3.64), with p = 0.005**; • S6 (comprehension, mean rank 7.05), with p = 0.048*; and • E2 (age, mean rank 3.93), with p = 0.01**.

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This indicates that the participants were more likely to attribute the situational factor S3 (lecturer) as cause for provoking literature anxiety than the situational factor S2 (course structure). In the case of the situational factors S2 (course structure) and S5 (time), the participants were more likely to view S2 (course structure) as causing them literature anxiety than S5 (time). Between the situational factors S2 (course structure) and S6 (comprehension), participants were more likely to view S6 (comprehension) as provoking literature anxiety than S2 (course structure). Lastly, between the situational factors S2 (course structure) and E2 (age), the participants were more likely to view S2 (course structure) as inducing literature anxiety in them. There was also a significant difference between S3 (lecturer, mean rank 7.31) and the following factors: • S4 (tutorial groups, mean rank 4.10), with p = 0.003**; • S5 (time, mean rank 3.64), with p = 0.001***; • D1 (attitude, mean rank 5.79), with p = 0.03*; • E1 (educational background), mean rank 4.05, with p = 0.002**; and • E2 (age, mean rank 3.93), with p = 0.000***. This indicates that the participants were more likely to attribute the situational factor S3 (lecturer) as causing them literature anxiety than the situational factor S4 (tutorial groups). In the case of the situational factors S3 (lecturer) and S5 (time), the participants were more likely to view S3 (lecturer) as causing them literature anxiety than S5 (time). Between S3 (lecturer) and D1 (attitude), E1 (educational background), and E2 (age), respectively, the participants were more inclined to report S3 (lecturer) as inducing literature anxiety for them. The following examples of participant experiences depict what factors they were more likely to mention as inducing literature anxiety for them. Fiona (medium-anxiety group) was already a teacher when she entered the program. She questioned the teaching actions of some of the lecturers concerned whom she felt were invoking the experience of literature anxiety in them. She was also aware of the traits and teaching styles of these lecturers that made her anxious during her study of Literature in English. Generally, Marge (pseudonym) (low-anxiety group) was very confident and positive about her Literature in English learning experiences. She also professed to having little anxiety about Literature in English. Armed with a keen and astute sense of learning, she demonstrated a strong liking for Literature in English. However, Marge did mention what made her anxious: “We were very indignant about what Dr Y (pseudonym) did. Dr Y said that Dr Y had to deduct marks because we plagiarized. But we didn’t. We should have got an A, but Dr Y gave us a B+. There were only two B+’s and the rest were B-‘s and C+’s. That really pulled down most people’s grades. So, I went to explain to Dr Y that we did not plagiarize. Dr Y said most people plagiarized. But, of course, in the end, it’s Dr Y’s opinion and there is nothing you can do in that sense, because Dr Y is the marker. So, this is what makes me anxious.”

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Marge recalled the abovementioned incident when she approached the lecturer concerned to seek clarification over the issue. The power relation between lecturer and student here made it difficult for Marge to communicate effectively with the lecturer. Thus, she acknowledged that this induced anxiety for her as the lecturer can impact the student’s learning of Literature in English. It was situational factor S3 (lecturer) that induced literature anxiety for Marge. Fiona’s (medium-anxiety group) experiences, in a way, reflect those of Marge in the sense that the lecturer-student relation in class induced literature anxiety for Fiona. “Sometimes some lecturers cannot take it when we throw back a question at them, you know, like me being a senior student in here, sometimes the lecturer’s age and mine would be around the same, you know. This is what they want, and they are fixed with that kind of idea and that makes me anxious.” This behavior by the lecturer would affect Fiona’s Literature in English learning in class, suggesting that passivity and acceptance seem to be more acceptable behavior in class, at least where certain lecturers were concerned. There was also a significant difference between S4 (tutorial groups, mean rank 4.10) and: • S6 (comprehension, mean rank 7.05), with p = 0.001***; • D1 (ability, mean rank 5.79), with p = 0.031*; and • D2 (attitude, mean rank 6.50), with p = 0.019*. This suggests that the participants were more inclined to perceive the situational factor S6 (comprehension) as inducing literature anxiety for them than the situational factor S4 (tutorial groups). The participants were also more inclined to cite factors D1 (attitude) and D2 (ability) than S4 (tutorial groups) as provoking literature anxiety for them. There was also a significant difference between S5 (time, mean rank 3.64) and: • S6 (comprehension, mean rank 7.05), with p = 0.001***; • D1 (attitude, mean rank 5.79), with p = 0.005**; and • D2 (ability, mean rank 6.50), with p = 0.003**. This suggests that the participants were more inclined to perceive the situational factor S6 (comprehension) as inducing literature anxiety for them than the situational factor S5 (time). They were also more inclined to perceive the dispositional factors D1 (attitude) and D2 (ability) rather than the situational factor S5 (time) as inducing literature anxiety. There was also a significant difference between S6 (comprehension, mean rank 7.05) and: • E1 (educational background, mean rank 4.05), with p = 0.001***; and • E2 (age, mean rank 3.93), with p = 0.001***.

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This suggests that the participants were more inclined to perceive the situational factor S6 (comprehension) as inducing literature anxiety for them than the environmental factors E1 (educational background) and E2 (age). Aileen (pseudonym), a participant in the high-anxiety group, expressed her literature anxiety when she could not understand the literary material that she was studying: “I feel anxious when I don’t understand.” There was also a significant difference (p = 0.007**) between D1 (attitude, mean rank 5.79) and E2 (age, mean rank 3.93). This suggests that the participants were more inclined to perceive the dispositional factor D1 (attitude) as inducing literature anxiety for them than the environmental factor E2 (age). Hetty (pseudonym), a participant in the medium-anxiety group, expressed her feeling that literature is difficult. “I have never been anxious about other matters. For the first time, I feel only literature makes me anxious; literature is difficult.” Lastly, there was also a significant difference between D2 (ability, mean rank 6.50) and: ❖ E1 (educational background, mean rank 4.05); with p = 0.004**; and ❖ E2 (age, mean rank 3.93), with p = 0.004**. This suggests that the participants were more inclined to perceive the dispositional factor D2 (ability) as inducing literature anxiety for them than the environmental factors E1 (educational background) and E2 (age). Sally (pseudonym) (low-anxiety group) explained that even though she perceived herself to have invested time and effort in her literary tasks, she was unable to perform well. Sally seemed to question her ability to perform well in Literature in English and this induced literature anxiety in her. She was already a qualified teacher when she became a student. She enjoyed studying Literature in English very much and professed a desire to learn as much as she could about the course. Unfortunately, even though Sally’s LITAS score placed her within the low-anxiety group, what hampered her enjoyment of studying Literature in English and caused her to feel anxious were her grades for Literature in English, which in a way resulted from the lecturer/lecturers concerned who assessed her. Sally felt that she had invested a lot of time, energy, and effort in her literature study, but her efforts did not reflect her achievement for Literature in English. Don’t know, I get anxious, but I say what can I do? I’ve put in and sacrificed a lot. In summation, the participants were more likely to perceive the situational factor S1 (characteristics of literature) as inducing literature anxiety for them as compared to the situational factors S4 (tutorial groups) and S5 (time). Between the situational factors S2 (course structure) and S3 (lecturer), the participants were more inclined to view S3 (lecturer) as inducing literature anxiety. Between the situational factors S2 (course structure) and S5 (time), the participants were

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more likely to view the situational factor S2 (course structure) as invoking literature anxiety. In comparison to S2 (course structure), the participants were more inclined to view the situational factor S6 (comprehension) as inducing literature anxiety than S2 (course structure). When comparing the situational factor S3 (lecturer) with the situational factor S5 (time), dispositional factor D1 (attitude), and environmental factors E1 (educational background) and E2 (age), the participants were more inclined to perceive S3 (lecturer) as inducing literature anxiety. Thus, the S3 (lecturer) factor appeared to be more likely perceived by the participants to induce literature anxiety than the other factors of S5 (time), D1 (attitude), E1 (educational background) and E2 (age). Furthermore, the situational factor S4 (tutorial groups) was less likely to be perceived by the participants as anxiety-inducing factor in comparison to the dispositional factors D1 (attitude) and D2 (ability) and the situational factor S6 (comprehension). The situational factor S6 (comprehension) was more likely to be perceived as inducing literature anxiety than the situational factor S5 (time) and the dispositional factors D1 (attitude) and D2 (ability) as well as the environmental factors E1 (educational background) and E2 (age). Thus, S6 (comprehension) appeared more likely to be perceived to induce literature anxiety than S5 (time), D1 (attitude), D2 (ability), E1 (educational background), and E2 (age). The situational factors S3 (lecturer) and S6 (comprehension) thus appear to stand out among the other factors as being more likely to induce literature anxiety among students.

5. Conclusion The findings of this study revealed that the more competent the participants were in Literature in English, the less anxious they seemed to be. Through the participants’ shared experiences, they confirmed that literature anxiety can be debilitating and, if unchecked, it could result in detrimentally affecting their results for Literature in English. Recognition of literature anxiety is essential so that evaluation of the potential sources of the anxiety can be studied and ways to alleviate this anxiety can be sought. Anxiety-provoking factors and the effective strategies employed by the respective students need to be tapped into considerably to assist students to reduce their literature anxiety levels to achieve effective Literature in English learning. It is imperative that research continues to further explore situations that provoke literature anxiety. Although this study explored a particular group of students in a specific setting, replications of this study with Literature in English learners of varying levels of competency in the subject and from different learning contexts is needed to understand how effectively the study’s findings may be generalized to other Literature in English students elsewhere. The implications are that educators should teach more attentively and be sensitized to learners’ possible experiences of anxiety. Funding This publication was supported (1001/PHUMANITI/8016022).

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6. References Aydin, S. (2016). A qualitative research on foreign language teaching anxiety. The Qualitative Report, 21(4), 629-642. https://doi.org/10.57643/2160-3175/2016.2232 Baloğlu, M. (2003). Individual differences in statistics anxiety among college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(5), 855-865. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(02)00076-4 Bryman, A. (2004). Social research methods (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. Cheng, Y. S. (2004). A measure of second language writing anxiety: Scale development and preliminary validation. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13(4), 313–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2004.07.001 Cheng, Y. S. (2017). Development and preliminary validation of four brief measures of L2 language-skill-specific anxiety. System, 68, 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.06.009 Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing Grounded Theory (3rd ed.). Sage. Deieso, D., & Fraser, B. J. (2018). Learning environment, attitudes and anxiety across the transition from primary to secondary school mathematics. Learning Environment Research, 22, 133–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-018-9261-5 Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford University Press. Endler, N. S., & Kocovski, N. L. (2001). State and trait anxiety revisited. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 15(3), 231–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0887-6185(01)00060-3 Horowitz, E. K., Horowitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125–132. https://doi.org/10.2307/327317 Huang, H.-T. D. (2018). Modeling the relationships between anxieties and performance in second/foreign language speaking assessment. Learning and Individual Differences, 63, 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.03.002 Jiang, Y., & Dewaele, J.-M. (2020). The predictive power of sociobiographical and language variables on foreign language anxiety of Chinese university students. System, 89, 102207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102207 Lou, N. M., & Noels, K. A. (2020). Breaking the vicious cycle of language anxiety: Growth language mindsets improve lower-competence ESL students’ intercultural interactions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101847 Luttenberger, S., Wimmer, S., & Paechter, M. (2018). Spotlight on math anxiety. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 11, 311–322. https://doi.org/10.2147/prbm.s141421 Macintyre, P. D. (1995). How does anxiety affect second language learning? A reply to Sparks and Ganschow. The Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 90–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1995.tb05418.x Martinussen, L. J., Šaltytė Benth, J., Almdahl, I. S., Borza, T., Selbæk, G., Mcpherson, B., & Korsnes, M. S. (2019). The effect of anxiety on cognition in older adult inpatients with depression: Results from a multicenter observational study. Heliyon, 5(8), e02235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02235 Neuman, L. A. (2000). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (4th ed.). Allyn and Bacon. Ohata, K. (2005). Language anxiety from the teacher’s perspective: Interviews with seven experienced ESL/EFL teachers. Journal of Language and Learning, 3(1), 133–155. Oppenheim, A. N. (1992). Questionnaire design, interviewing and attitude measurement (New ed.). Continuum. Putwain, D. W., Connors, L., & Symes, W. (2010). Do cognitive distortions mediate the

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test anxiety-examination performance relationship? Educational Psychology, 30(1), 11–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410903328866 Reardon, T., Harvey, K., Young, B., O’Brien, D., & Creswell, C. (2018). Barriers and facilitators to parents seeking and accessing professional support for anxiety disorders in children: Qualitative interview study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(8), 1023–1031. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-018-1107-2 Salza, A., Giusti, L., Ussorio, D., Casacchia, M., & Roncone, R. (2020). Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) anxiety management and reasoning bias modification in young adults with anxiety disorders: A real-world study of a therapist-assisted computerized (TACCBT) program vs. “person-to-person” group CBT. Internet Interventions, 19, 100305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2020.100305 Spielberger, C. D., & Vagg, P. R. (Eds.). (1995). Test anxiety: Theory, assessment and treatment. Taylor & Francis. Zaccoletti, S., Altoè, G., & Mason, L. (2020) Enjoyment, anxiety and boredom, and their control-value antecedents as predictors of reading comprehension. Learning and Individual Differences, 79, 101869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101869

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 215-236, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.12 Received Sep 11, 2021; Revised Nov 09, 2021; Accepted Nov 18, 2021

Effectiveness of the Flipped Classroom Strategy in Teaching Qur’an Recitation Skills and Attitude Towards It among First Grade Students in Saudi Arabia Ali Tared Aldossari* and Munirah Saud Alhamam Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, College of Education, Curriculum & Instruction Department, Dammam, Saudi Arabia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6329-2387 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7379-5842 Abstract. This study aims to identify the effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy in developing the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an, and the attitude towards the strategy among first grade intermediate school female students. The research sample was a random sample of 48 intermediate female students divided into two 24-student groups: a control group and an experimental group. To collect data according to the quasi-experimental design method, a note card was designed to measure recitation skills of the Qur’an, and a scale developed to record attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy. The note card was applied to the research sample. The results revealed a statistically significant difference (α ≤ 0.05) in favor of the experimental group between the average scores of the two groups in the post-application of the note card. The results also showed a statistically significant difference between the average scores of the experimental group (α ≤ 0.05) in the post-application of the attitude scale towards the flipped classroom strategy. Lastly, the results showed a statistically significant correlation between the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an and the attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy among first grade intermediate female students. Based on these results, we present a number of recommendations and suggestions, including expanding the application of the flipped classroom strategy to other age groups and different courses.

Keywords: effectiveness, female students; flipped classroom strategy; intermediate school; reciting skills; Qur’an recitation; student performance

*Corresponding

Author: Ali Tared Aldossari; Email: ataldossari@iau.edu.sa

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Many recent studies have stressed the importance of the flipped classroom model in the 21st century due to the information communication technology that facilitates two-way online communication with students, besides fostering a new methodological proposal that requires a change in student performance in and out of the classroom (Prieto et al., 2021). Furthermore, student engagement in the educational process is associated with engagement in academic and nonacademic activities rather than mere participation and interest in these activities (Hava, 2020). Realizing such importance, the Saudi Ministry of Education has considered teaching the Holy Qur’an at all stages of education, from primary school to university, through applying the flipped classroom model. The document on teaching legal sciences in the intermediate stage contains a set of goals, including the recitation of the Holy Qur’an and the application of Quranic recitation rules (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia [KSA]. Ministry of Education, 2007). The flipped classroom strategy focuses on one-to-one learning and comprises many methods, forms, and types of student-centered learning, including differentiated teaching and research. When these methods are combined with the concept of flipped learning, strategies can be obtained that can be practically applied. The flipped classroom is centered on the student (Bergman & Sams, 2015), which plays a major role in developing the student’s attitudes towards it. The student’s role becomes positive in the classroom through the availability of activities and practical exercises, while the content sent home helps to deepen understanding and mastery of the material (Al-Rous et al., 2016). The relationship of the flipped classroom strategy to the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an is clear in that it allows students to be trained in advance, thus enabling them to interact with the teacher in a more constructive way. This strengthens their performance and allows more time for practice. From the above, it is evident that the flipped classroom strategy in teaching the Holy Qur’an has positive effects on students’ skills and performance. Therefore, we sought to investigate the development of skills in reciting the Holy Qur’an among intermediate school female students using the flipped classroom strategy, and their attitude towards it. Accordingly, the study seeks to discover the effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy in developing each of the Holy Qur’an recitation skills and the attitude of first grade intermediate female students towards the strategy. Aside from this, the study seeks to identify the correlation between the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an and the attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy among first grade intermediate female students. From our point of view, the study is important as it provides a theoretical framework for the flipped classroom strategy, the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an, and the attitude towards this strategy, in order to enrich scientific research. From a practical point of view, the study’s findings will benefit various stakeholders, including curriculum planners, educational supervisors, and schoolteachers. The study is intended to provide a procedural guide to the flipped classroom strategy with a view to keeping pace with modern technological

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attitudes in teaching methods, in line with the digital transformation in education stipulated in the KSA’s Vision 2030 (KSA, 2030).

2. Main Research Question We address the study problem with the following main question: What is the effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy in developing the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an among intermediate school female students, and what is their attitude towards it? 2.1 Subsidiary research questions The following subsidiary questions have been formulated in support of the main research question: 1. What is the effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy in developing the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an among first grade intermediate female students? 2. What is the effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy in developing students’ attitudes towards this strategy among first grade intermediate female students? 3. What is the correlation between the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an and the attitude towards this strategy? 2.2 Research hypotheses This study seeks to verify the following hypotheses: 1. There is no statistically significant difference (at the α ≤ 0.05 level) between the average scores of the experimental and control groups in the post-application of the note card recording skills in reciting the Holy Qur’an for first grade intermediate female students. 2. There is no statistically significant difference (at the α ≤ 0.05 level) between the average scores of the experimental group in the pre- and post-application of the scale of attitude towards the strategy for first grade intermediate female students. 3. There is no statistically significant correlation (at the α ≤ 0.05 level) between the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an and the attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy among first grade intermediate female students after teaching them using the flipped classroom strategy. 2.3 Research aims This study aims to: 1. Determine the effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy in teaching Qur’an recitation skills among first grade female students in Saudi Arabia. 2. Determine the attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy among first grade female students in Saudi Arabia 3. Determine the nature of the correlation between the flipped classroom strategy in teaching Qur’an recitation skills and the attitude towards it among first grade female students in Saudi Arabia.

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2.4 Research importance 2.4.1 Theoretical importance This is the first study to investigate the effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy in teaching Qur’an recitation skills, and the attitude towards it among first grade students in KSA. It evaluates the importance of involving students in the educational process and focuses on developing their participation. 2.4.2 Practical importance This study aims to direct teachers to apply the flipped classroom strategy in teaching Qur’an recitation skills. Applying the flipped classroom strategy encourages more positive participation among students.

3. Terminology Used in this Study The following terms are used in this study: • The flipped classroom strategy involves assigning certain tasks to students to be prepared in advance and before attending a class. • Qur’an recitation refers to the way of reading the Qur’an by observing certain rules. • Intonation skills are rules of sound pitch in reciting the Qur’an. • Tajweed is a set of linguistic and pronunciation rules used in reciting the Qur’an in the right way.

4. Theoretical Literature and Related Studies The flipped classroom strategy is one of the teaching methodologies that include three basic components of the classroom environment: before entering the classroom, while in the classroom, and after completing the classroom activities. In this strategy, before joining the classroom, students are exposed to the contents of the course through watching educational videos online or reading textbooks, making the subject matter accessible. The third component of learning is the postteaching stage, where student learning is assessed. The great advancements in communication technology have facilitated the application of the flipped classroom, which is also known as inverted teaching and flipped learning. These are all intended to divide learning tasks between home and school, where the teacher prepares the lesson to be studied at home and sends it to students using a modern means of communication. Class time is allocated to tackling the activities assigned to students. The Board of Directors of the Flipped Learning Network (FLN) defined flipped learning as “a pedagogical approach in which direct instruction moves from the group learning space to the individual learning space, and the resulting group space is transformed into a dynamic, interactive learning environment where the educator guides students as they apply concepts and engage creatively in the subject matter” (UC Riverside, 2021). 4.1 Importance of the flipped classroom strategy The flipped classroom strategy is one of the ways of confronting the problem of students’ absenteeism by increasing activities as well as overcoming the distance between their school and home (Bergmann & Sams, 2012). To support this, the FLN was established and has grown in recent years.

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Baker was the first to publish information on the flipped classroom strategy in 1982. He attempted to provide the scientific content of the materials he was presenting outside the classroom through electronic means, where he faced some challenges (Smith, 2015). Salman Khan is considered one of the pioneers of the flipped classroom strategy. He started experimenting with it in 2004 and posted videos on YouTube that include minilectures on several disciplines (Merrill, 2015). Of course, rapid technological developments have had a significant impact on teachers’ efforts to take advantage of modern communication, especially as students have been influenced by these developments and their interaction with them. In addition, the possibility of continuously updating the learning content has had the greatest impact in strengthening the relationship between teachers and students (Fulton, 2012). Perhaps the primary reason for using the flipped classroom strategy is to avoid the problems of the traditional method of teaching and the loss of motivation among students through feeling marginalized in the classroom. Many empirical studies have been conducted on flipped learning. Matar (2018) aimed to identify the impact of a computerized program on developing Holy Qur’an recitation skills at the University College Centre in Gaza. In addition, Al-Zahrani (2018) investigated the effect of employing mind maps in the elearning environment on developing certain skills in reciting the Holy Qur’an among female students at the Faculty of Sciences and Literature in Al-Baha University. Studies have indicated weaknesses in skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an (Al-Salim, 2017; Al-Zoubi, 2013). Shaheen et al. (2015) attributed the situation to the use of traditional methods, the failure to use teaching methods that focus on performance, and neglect of the use of modern technologies. We interviewed four female educational supervisors, who confirmed that female students in most schools that they supervised showed weaknesses in the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an. In light of this, Abanmi (2016) recommended the need to apply the flipped classroom strategy in schools in the KSA. Many studies worldwide have investigated the flipped classroom strategy and the development of attitudes towards it. Marlow (2012) aimed to identify the impact of using the flipped classroom strategy on academic achievement, and Herreid and Schiller (2013) revealed the importance of the flipped classroom approach in teaching. Furthermore, Aaron (2015) aimed to identify the effectiveness of the flipped learning model in the achievement and performance of e-learning skills among undergraduate students at the Faculty of Education in Al-Baha University, while Johnson (2012) investigated the effect of flipped classrooms on student and teacher attitudes, student achievement, and the nature of classroom questions. In 2016, Al-Rous et al. (2016) identified the effectiveness of the flipped classroom in the development of academic achievement among female students in the Faculty of Education at Qatar University, in addition to determining the attitudes of the experimental group towards the flipped classroom.

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4.2 Challenges facing the flipped classroom strategy The flipped classroom strategy faces many challenges related either to the teacher or the student. 4.2.1 Challenges related to the teacher Caudill (2014) believed that teaching in the flipped classroom demands more time to prepare recorded content, design electronic materials, and prepare videos or other resources. Teachers require training for this and benefit from sharing their experiences with one another. We believe that this challenge can be overcome by creating a new culture that keeps pace with current technological developments. Training may convince teachers of the possibility of applying this strategy. 4.2.2 Challenges related to the student Challenges related to the student are mainly related to the unavailability of modern technological tools, along with lack of sufficient experience in dealing with such tools. This can be overcome through the teacher’s support for the student, strengthened by assigning grades to the student’s activity in the classroom and accounting for individual differences so that the student enjoys learning through fulfilling their inclinations and interests. As for internet availability and the lack of necessary devices for all students, we see the possibility of overcoming this by using the learning resource room before entering the classroom (Huu Vuong et al., 2018). 4.3 Attitude towards the flipped classroom Attitude is one of the influential elements in student behavior and motivation. It is a system of responses that reflects students’ interests and beliefs about a particular topic, whether positively or negatively. Attitudes towards learning play a critical role in teaching and performance, reflecting positively on the level of the student and improving the quality of education that they receive (Al-Juhani, 2017). We believe that the flipped method leads to the formation of positive psychological attitudes among students. This is due to its effect on social interaction and cooperative work with their colleagues, thus affecting their ability to adapt and respond to the classroom environment. Attitudes are tendencies that qualify the student’s specific behavioral patterns towards certain people, ideas, or situations, and they constitute a complex system in which a large group of diverse variables interact. Perhaps the best way to determine the nature of attitudes is to look at them through the functions of their components and characteristics (Nashawati, 2003). The study of Al-Harthy (2012) has confirmed that attitude consists of three components. The emotional component refers to the nature of the relationship between the subject and other goals that the learner considers important. The cognitive component of attitude involves the information, facts, ideas, and beliefs related to the subject that are available to the learner. Finally, the behavioral component describes the learner’s tendency to behave positively or negatively towards a subject. According to Siddiq (2012), attitudes may be: strong, constant,

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and unchanging; weak and can be abandoned; positive in support of an idea or a subject; negative against an idea or a subject; or collective or individual. In reviewing references on measures of attitude, it was found that the best way to measure the attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy was the Likert scale. Al-Nafi’i (2007) confirmed that this collective assessment method is the most popular method for measuring attitude because it does not require as much time and effort as other methods and leads to results similar to those yielded by other scales.

5. Research Design This research used the experimental method with a quasi-experimental design. This was the most appropriate as it achieved the study aims by measuring the independent variable (the flipped classroom strategy) against the dependent variables (skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an, and attitude towards this strategy). The research relied on the design based on an experimental and a control group, and a pre- and post-measurement for the two groups. The design is clarified as shown in Table 1. Table 1: Quasi-experimental design of the research Research group Experimental group Control group

Pre-experiment Note card + Attitude scale towards the strategy

Type of teaching Flipped classroom strategy Traditional method

Post-experiment Note card + Attitude scale towards the strategy

5.1 Participants The study population consisted of all female Arabic-speaking students in the first intermediate grade in public and private schools in Dammam. According to the Dammam Education Office statistical guide 2020–2021, this population consisted of 3460 individuals at the time of study. The sample for this study consisted of 48 intermediate school female students, who were selected randomly from Al-Hussan Model School. The school was purposely chosen as it is one of the schools affiliated with the Classera platform, an online platform that has been adopted for use in a variety of learning environments in K-12 schools in Saudi Arabia. The experimental and control groups were chosen by random lottery, each consisting of 24 students. 5.2 Instruments and data collection techniques The research tools and experimental processing materials consisted of the following: 1. A note card to measure the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an for first grade intermediate female students, prepared by us. The card included the skills of intonation, fluency, and reciting.

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2. A scale of attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy, prepared by us. The scale measured keenness to use the flipped classroom strategy, the importance of learning using the flipped classroom strategy, and enjoyment of learning based on the flipped classroom strategy. 3. The teacher’s guide to teaching using the flipped classroom strategy. 5.3 Data analysis 5.3.1 Note card to measure the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an for first grade intermediate female students The note card was designed to measure the performance of reciting the Holy Qur’an among first grade female students. The design took into consideration previous studies and literature related to the skills of reciting the Qur’an, the objectives of teaching recitation of the Qur’an, and growth characteristics of intermediate school female students. The card recorded three main skills: observing rules of intonation (ten subskills), fluency (three subskills), and recitation (four subskills). Performance was measured according to a verbal rating scale, subject to a triple gradation (excellent – good – bad), corresponding to quantitative ratings (2 − 1 − 0), respectively. Surat Al-Naml was the subject of the evaluation because it has the most rules of intonation. Face validity of the note card (arbitrators) The note card was presented in its initial form to a group of experts and arbitrators, including faculty members, educational supervisors, and teachers, at the Ministry of Education. The arbitrators evaluated the note card in terms of various factors. They checked the extent to which the subskills are consistent with the main skills, and the suitability of these skills for female intermediate school students. In addition, they made suggestions for deletions or additions and made other relevant notes and suggestions. The arbitrators’ opinions were all taken into consideration. Note card exploratory experiment The note card was tested on a group of 34 second grade female students in the Fifth Intermediate School in Dammam during the first semester of 2021to calculate: 1) the internal consistency coefficients of the tool for the Holy Quran recitation skills and 2) stability of observation. The internal consistency for this study relates to the strength of correlation between the different skills and their subskills. The tool was tested on 34 female students. The Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated between the degrees of each of the subskills of the note card with the main skill to which it belongs. The results are shown in Table 2.

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Table 2: Correlation coefficients for each of the subskills of the note card with the main skill to which it belongs Fluency skill

Correlation coefficient

Significance

No.

Correlation coefficient

Significance

No.

Correlation coefficient

Significance

No.

Correlation coefficient

Significance

Reciting skill

No.

Intonation skill

1 2 3 4 5

0.724 0.714 0.679 0.813 0.835

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

6 7 8 9 10

0.851 0.848 0.897 0.884 0.844

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

11 12 13 ---

0.774 0.810 0.916 ---

0.01 0.01 0.01 ---

14 15 16 17 --

0.760 0.892 0.758 0.904 --

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 --

As seen in the table, all correlation coefficients were statistically significant at the significance level (0.01), which confirms that all the subskills of the note card had a high degree of internal validity. Regarding stability of observation, we tested the tool on a pilot sample of 34 female students using Cronbach’s alpha method. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (α) was used to calculate the stability of the main skills and the total score of the note card. This was carried out using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) program for the data we obtained from the pilot sample. The results are shown in Table 3. Table 3: Note card stability results as per Cronbach’s alpha method Key skill of note card Intonation skill Fluency skill Reciting skill Total mark of the card

No. of subskills 10 3 4 17

Stability coefficient 0.941 0.783 0.852 0.951

As seen in the table, all values confirm that the note card had a high degree of stability. Two female colleagues participated with us in observing the Qur’an reading skills of twelve female students in the pilot sample. They recorded their observations regarding the note card indicators, and the Cooper equation was used to calculate the percentage of agreement between the two observers (Cooper, 1973). The results are shown in Table 4. Table 4: Results of note card stability using observers-agreement method (N = 12) Key skill of note card Intonation skill Fluency skill Reciting skill Total mark of the card

No. of agreements 116 34 45 195

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No. of differences 4 2 3 9

Agreement coefficient 96.7% 94.4% 93.8% 95.6%

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Table 4 shows that the coefficients of agreement between the two observers (96.7%, 94.4%, and 93.8%) and the overall agreement coefficient (95.6%) were high. 5.3.2 Attitude scale towards flipped classroom strategy for first grade intermediate female students This scale consisted of 37 items, divided into three dimensions: 1) keenness to use the flipped classroom strategy; 2) the importance of learning using the flipped classroom strategy; and 3) enjoyment of learning based on the flipped classroom strategy. The scale was built with the help of many relevant research studies, considering the simplicity of the statements and the growth characteristics of intermediate school female students. The statements were in the form of positive and negative statements according to the triple Likert scale (agree, somewhat agree, disagree), corresponding to numerical scores (2 − 1 − 0). Validity of the scale contents (arbitrators) This scale was presented in its initial form to a group of experts and arbitrators, including faculty members, educational supervisors, and teachers, at the Ministry of Education for evaluation. Factors for evaluation included: correctness and clarity of language; consistency of sub-statements with the dimension they belong to; and suggestions for deletions or additions. The arbitrators’ opinions were all taken into consideration. We conducted a pilot experiment to measure attitude towards the strategy. The pilot test was conducted on 34 first grade intermediate female students in the Fifth Intermediate School in Dammam, affiliated to the Education Department in the Eastern province. The experiment showed the clarity of the scale’s instructions and the appropriateness of the time allotted to it. Three validity parameters were tested: 1) the internal consistency coefficients of attitudes towards the strategy; 2) discriminant validity; and 3) reliability of the attitude scale towards the strategy. First, the internal consistency coefficients of attitude towards the strategy were determined. This relates to the strength of correlation between the degrees of each statement on the Flipped Class Strategy Scale, each dimension of the scale, as well as the total score of the scale using the Pearson correlation coefficient. Table 5 shows the results.

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Table 5: Correlation coefficients between each statement of the Flipped Class Strategy Scale with its dimension

0.538 0.611 0.778 0.689 0.407 0.716 0.594 0.517 0.567 0.731 0.194 0.569 0.735 0.557

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 No sig. 0.01 0.01 0.01

Significance

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Correlation coefficient

No sig. 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Third dimension: Enjoyment of learning based on the flipped classroom strategy

Statement no.

Significance

0.270 0.604 0.637 0.747 0.655 0.640 0.731 0.592 0.667

Significance

Correlation coefficient

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Correlation coefficient

Statement no.

Keenness to use the flipped classroom strategy in the learning process

Second dimension: Importance of the flipped classroom strategy

Statement no.

First dimension:

24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

0.611 0.513 0.782 0.651 0.585 0.629 0.826 0.763 0.682 0.614 0.667

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Note: sig. – significance

The correlation coefficients of the three dimensions have statistical significance at 0.01, except for statement 1 in the first dimension and statement 20 in the second dimension, which were not statistically significant and were therefore removed. Second, the discriminant validity of the scale was confirmed by arranging the participants’ scores on the scale in descending order, according to the total score achieved by each of them in each of the scale dimensions. From this, the upper and lower groups of nine participants each were identified, each representing 27% of the sample. Finally, the discriminant validity was determined using the MannWhitney U test to identify the significance of differences between the scores of the two groups. The results are shown in Table 6.

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Table 6: Discriminant validity between low and high scores on the attitude scale towards the flipped classroom strategy Scale dimension

Group

No.

First dimension: Upper 9 Keenness to use Lower 9 the flipped classroom strategy in the learning process Second Upper 9 dimension: Lower 9 Importance of the flipped classroom strategy Third dimension: Upper 9 Enjoyment of Lower 9 learning based on the flipped classroom strategy Total mark of the Upper 9 attitude scale Lower 9 Note: sig. – significant/significance

Total rank

Average rank

U test

Sig. level

Stat. sig.

123.50 47.50

13.72 5.28

2.50

0.001

Sig. at 0.01

126.00 45.00

14.00 5.00

0.00

Sig. at 0.01

224.00 47.00

13.78 5.22

2.00

0.001

Sig. at 0.01

126.00 45.00

14.00 5.00

0.00

Sig. at 0.01

Table 6 shows that the ‘U’ values of the Mann-Whitney U test were statistically significant at 0.01 between the two groups on all dimensions of the scale, which confirms the validity of the scale to a high degree. Third, the reliability of the attitude scale towards the flipped classroom strategy was verified using Cronbach’s alpha method, with the results shown in Table 7. Table 7: Stability of the attitude scale towards the strategy Dimension of attitude scale First dimension: Keenness to use the flipped classroom strategy in the learning process Second dimension: Importance of the flipped classroom strategy Third dimension: Enjoyment of learning based on the flipped classroom strategy Total mark of the attitude scale

No. of statements 8

Stability coefficient 0.819

0.866

0.874

0.924

The stability coefficients of the scale dimensions as per Cronbach’s alpha method confirmed the stability of the attitude scale to a high degree, as seen in the table.

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5.3.3 Teacher’s guide to the flipped classroom strategy A teacher’s guide was prepared to measure the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an and the attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy. The guide focused on Surat Al-Naml, which is scheduled for first grade female students. The guide was prepared according to the ADDIE model due to its comprehensiveness, with five main stages: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. We tested the note card on the two groups before and after the experiment and the t-test was applied to independent samples of the note card before starting the experiment. The test measured overall skills (intonation, fluency, and reciting), as shown in Table 8. Table 8: Results of t-test for experimental and control groups in the pre-application of the note card Note card skill

Group

No.

Homogeneity of variance Levene’s test Value Sig. level

t-value

Sig. level

Stat. sig.

Intonation

Exp. Ctrl

24 24

6.46 6.92

3.19 3.01

0.48

0.827 (No sig.)

0.512

0.611

No sig.

Fluency

Exp. Ctrl

24 24

1.96 2.04

1.04 1.08

1.24

0.727 (No sig.)

0.272

0.787

No sig.

Reciting

Exp. Ctrl

24 24

2.25 2.08

1.36 1.47

0.512

0.478 (No sig.)

0.408

0.686

No sig.

Total mark of the card

Exp. Ctrl

24 24

10.6 11.0 4

4.20 4.56

0.267

0.608 (No sig.)

0.296

0.769

No sig.

Note: M – mean; SD – standard deviation; sig. – significance

As seen in the table, the t-test values were not statistically significant, which confirms that the two groups were equal before the experiment. In addition, the Levene test values for homogeneity of variance were not statistically significant, which confirms the existence of homogeneity of variation between the scores of the two groups on the Qur’an reading skills note card before the experiment.

6. Interpretation and Discussion of Findings The first subsidiary research question was: What is the effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy in developing the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an among first grade intermediate female students? The answer was determined by verifying the validity of the null hypothesis of no statistically significant difference at the 0.05 level between the average scores of the experimental group and the control group

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after applying the note card measurement of skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an for first grade female students. We used the t-test for independent samples to discover the significance of difference between the average scores of the participants in the experimental and control groups after applying the note card skills of reciting the Qur’an as a whole and its component skills of intonation, fluency, and reciting, as shown in Table 9. Table 9: t-values for the significance of difference between the average scores of the study groups in the post-application of the note card Note card skill

Group

No.

Mean

Degree of freedom 46

Intonation Exp. 24 18.38 1.31 skill Ctrl 24 10.63 3.65 Fluency Exp. 24 5.38 0.77 46 skill Ctrl 24 3.71 1.23 Reciting Exp. 24 7.50 0.83 46 skill Ctrl 24 4.13 1.39 Total mark Exp. 24 31.2 2.03 46 of the card Ctrl 24 18.46 5.30 Note: SD – standard deviation; sig. – significant/significance

t-value

Sig. level

Stat. sig.

9.77

0.00

5.61

0.00

10.18

0.00

11.04

0.00

Sig. at 0.05 Sig. at 0.05 Sig. at 0.05 Sig. at 0.05

The results indicate that the t-values were statistically significant at 0.05, which shows a significant difference after applying the note card skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an for first grade female students. The null hypothesis is thus confirmed, and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, which states that there is a statistically significant difference at the 0.05 level in favor of the experimental group between the average scores of the two groups after applying the note card skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an for first grade female students. In addition to the above test, we calculated eta squared (η²) to measure the effect of the flipped classroom strategy on developing the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an. The results are shown in Table 10. Table 10: Results of eta squared (η²), and the value of “d” to show the effect of the flipped classroom strategy on developing the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an Independent variable

Qur’an reading skills

t-value

Degree of freedom

η² value

Flipped classroom strategy

Intonation skill Fluency skill Reciting skill Total mark of the card

9.77

0.675

Effect size “d” value 2.88

5.61

0.406

1.65

10.18

0.692

2.99

11.04

0.726

3.26

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Level of effect

Significant effect Significant effect Significant effect Significant effect

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The total effect of the flipped classroom strategy in the note card for observing the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an as a whole was 3.26, which shows a high level of effect for the strategy in all skills. The second subsidiary research question was: What is the effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy in developing students’ attitudes towards the strategy among first grade intermediate female students? The analysis was conducted by verifying the validity of the null hypothesis of no statistically significant difference at the 0.05 level between the average scores of the experimental and control groups after applying the note card skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an for first grade female students. We used the t-test for the two samples to determine the significance of the difference between the average scores of the participants from the experimental and control groups after applying the note card scores for the importance and enjoyment of learning with the flipped classroom strategy. The results are indicated in Table 11. Table 11: t-values to indicate the difference between the average scores of the experimental group pre- and post-application of the attitude scale of the flipped classroom strategy Scale dimension

Application

No.

First dimension: Keenness to use the flipped classroom strategy in the learning process Second dimension: Importance of the flipped classroom strategy Third dimension: Enjoyment of learning based on the flipped classroom strategy Total mark of the attitude scale

Pre-exp.

11.88

2.01

Post-exp.

21.75

1.36

Pre-exp.

18.96

3.01

Post-exp.

37.04

1.85

Pre-exp.

16.67

2.93

Post-exp.

30.54

2.00

Pre-exp.

47.50

6.68

Post-exp.

89.33

4.05

Degree of freedom 23

t-value

Sig. level

Stat. sig.

19.99

0.00

Sig. at 0.05 Sig. At 0.05

0.00

26.88

0.00

22.56

0.00 0.00

29.06

Note: M – mean; SD – standard deviation; sig. – significant/significance

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0.00 0.00

Sig. at 0.05 Sig. at 0.05

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The results indicate that the t-values were statistically significant at 0.05, indicating that there is a statistically significant difference at that level between the average scores of the experimental group in the pre- and post-application of the scale of attitude towards the strategy of the flipped classroom as a whole and all its dimensions. The difference was in favor of the post-application. This suggests rejection of the null hypothesis of no statistically significant difference at the 0.05 level between the average scores of the experimental group and the control group after applying the note card skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an for first grade female students. To determine the effectiveness of the independent variable in developing the attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy, we used the modified Blake’s Gain Ratio equation. The results are shown in Table 12. Table 12: Blake’s adjusted gain ratio for measuring the attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy among first grade intermediate school female students Scale dimension

Preapplication average 11.88

Postapplication average 21.75

Top mark

First dimension: 24 Keenness to use the flipped classroom strategy in the learning process Second dimension: 18.96 37.04 39 Importance of the flipped classroom strategy Third dimension: 16.67 30.54 33 Enjoyment of learning based on the flipped classroom strategy Total mark of the 47.50 89.33 96 attitude scale * Gain mark = post-application average - pre-application average

Gain mark 9.87

Gain amended percentage 1.22

18.08

1.36

13.87

1.27

41.83

1.30

The adjusted gain percentage for the total score of the attitude scale was 1.30. This value confirms the effectiveness of developing a positive attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy among first grade intermediate female students. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated for the relationship between reciting skills and attitude towards the strategy among participants of the experimental group. The results are presented in Table 13.

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Table 13: Pearson correlation coefficients for the relationship between reciting skills and attitude towards the strategy among participants of the experimental group Variable

No.

Qur’an recitation skills Attitude towards flipped classroom strategy

24 24

Correlation coefficient 0.646

Significance level 0.001

Statistical significance Significant at 0.05

Table 13 shows a positive statistical correlation significance at 0.05 for the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an, along with the attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy among the experimental group after they were taught using the strategy. Therefore, this result rejects the third null hypothesis of no statistically significant difference at the 0.05 level between the average scores of the experimental group and the control group after applying the note card skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an to participants. In general, the findings of the research are consistent with previous studies. For example, Kim et al. (2021) revealed the importance of the student’s involvement and self-regulation in flipped learning, and that well-designed flipped learning opportunities provide the student with the ability to demonstrate autonomy and realize better achievement.

7. Results Results related to the first subsidiary question revealed the superiority of the experimental group, which studied using the flipped classroom strategy, over the control group in the note card measurements of Holy Qur’an recitation skills (intonation, fluency, and reciting) separately and as a whole. The results agree with earlier studies that have demonstrated the effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy in different study subjects (Al-Shehri, 2018; Al-Zayoud, 2017; Othman & Al-Zubaidi, 2018). Results for the second subsidiary question showed that the average scores of the experimental group pre- and post-application in the scale of attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy were in favor of the post-application scores. This was reflected in how participants chose their way of learning according to their ability and how they guided each other and evaluated themselves. This result is consistent with the results of studies that have proved the effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy (Al-Rous et al., 2016). The hypothesis related to the third subsidiary question was that there is no statistically significant correlation at the 0.05 level between the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an and attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy among first grade female students after teaching them using the flipped classroom strategy. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to verify the statistical correlation significance between the scores of the experimental group after applying the Holy Qur’an recitation skills note card and their scores of the attitude scale towards the flipped classroom strategy.

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8. Conclusion The study was conducted in the first semester of the academic year 2020–2021 on a purposeful sample of first grade intermediate female students at Al-Hassan School, affiliated to East Dammam Office in the KSA, one of the private schools where the Classera educational platform is available. The results revealed that teaching with the flipped classroom strategy helps to develop skills and the ability to apply them practically in proper performance. It provides the opportunity to learn outside the classroom to develop various skills away from the fear and dread that may hinder the learning process, while at the same time increasing motivation to learn. The flipped classroom strategy thus provides the opportunity for female students to correct each other’s mistakes, as well as to seek to use modern resources available through the internet.

9. Recommendations Based on our findings, we present recommendations to the following groups of people involved in the teaching and learning process. 9.1 Curriculum planners of Sharia sciences Modern technologies need to be used in designing various Islamic educational curricula according to modern teaching methods, such as the flipped classroom strategy, to develop the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an. In addition, educational guides need to be prepared for various Islamic educational curricula regarding the flipped classroom strategy. 9.2 Supervisors of Sharia sciences Supervisors of Islamic education should have access to various assessment tools, such as the note card, to measure the skills of reciting the Qur’an, along with scales to measure female students’ attitude towards their learning. Besides this, they should train teachers on how to formulate these tools. 9.3 Male and female teachers of the Holy Qur’an Islamic education teachers should be provided with a procedural guide according to the flipped classroom strategy to keep pace with modern technological attitudes in teaching methods, in line with the digital transformation in the KSA’s Vision 2030 in the field of education. Furthermore, Islamic education teachers should be provided with the note card as a tool to evaluate the skills of students and as a measure of attitude towards the strategy. Lastly, training should be given to Islamic education teachers in general and Qur’an teachers in particular on modern teaching strategies, including the flipped classroom strategy. 9.4 Female students A learning environment should be provided that allows dealing with technology through the flipped classroom strategy, thus developing students’ abilities and skills in the learning process and their attitude towards the strategy. In addition, educational courses should be provided to develop the awareness of intermediate school female students about the effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy in developing the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an, and the attitude towards the strategy.

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10. Suggestions for Further Research Arising from the results and recommendations, we suggest conducting further research into the following areas in the field of Qur’an learning and teaching. • The effectiveness of the flipped classroom strategy in developing the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an among secondary school female students. • Attitudes of secondary school female students towards the flipped classroom strategy. • The effectiveness of modern strategies other than the flipped classroom strategy in developing the skills of reciting the Holy Qur’an. • The reasons for weak Qur’an recitation skills among intermediate school female students. • A study of the correlation between the skills of reciting the Qur’an and attitude towards the flipped classroom strategy among secondary school female students.

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ped_classroom_on_deep_learning_strategies_and_engagement_at_the_undergra duate_level Herreid, C., & Schiller, N. (2013). Case studies and the flipped classroom. Journal of College Science Teaching, 42(5), 62–66. https://flippedlearning.org/definition-of-flippedlearning Huu Vuong, N. H. A., Tan, C. K., & Lee, K. W. (2018). Students’ perceived challenges of attending a flipped EFL classroom in Viet Nam. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 8(11), 1504–1510. http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0811.16 Johnson, L. (2012). Effect of the flipped classroom model on a secondary computer applications course: Student and teacher perceptions, questions and student achievement (Doctoral dissertation). University of Louisville. https://theflippedclassroom.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/johnson-renner2012.pdf Kim, H. N., So., H.-J., & Joo, Y. J. (2021). Flipped learning design fidelity, self-regulated learning, satisfaction, and continuance intention in a university flipped learning course. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 37(4), 1–19. https://ajet.org.au/index.php/AJET/article/view/6046 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). (2030). Vision 2030. https://www.vision2030.gov.sa/ Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The Ministry of Education. (2007). wathiqatan manhaj mawadi aleulum alshareiat lilmarhalatayn alaibtidayiyat walmutawasitat fi altaelim aleami [A curriculum document for Sharia science subjects for the primary and intermediate stages in general education]. alriyad, almamlakat alearabiat alsaeudiati: markaz altatwir altarbwi, al'iidarat aleamat lilmanahij. https://drive.uqu.edu.sa/_/hmkalthem/files/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9 %88%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AD%20%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9 %86%D8%B8%D9%85%D8%A9/E%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A 9%20%D8%AA%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B3%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8 %B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%B 9%D9%8A%D8%A9.pdf Marlow, C. (2012). The effect of the flipped classroom on student achievement and stress. https://scholarworks.montana.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1/1790/Marlowe C0812.pdf Matar, Y. K. (2018). ‘athar barnamaj muhawsib fi tanmiat maharat altilawat ladaa tulaab markaz alquran alkarim bialkuliyat aljamieiat lileulum altatbiqiati [The effects of a computerized program in developing the skills of recitation for the performance of students of the Holy Quran Center in colleges of associations for science and applications]. majalat jamieat al’iisra’ lileulum al’iinsaniati: jamieat al'iisra’, 5, 245– 267. http://search.mandumah.com/Record/908869 Merrill, J. E. (2015). The flipped classroom: An examination of veteran teachers’ practices when flipping their classrooms for the first time [Doctoral dissertation, Texas A & M University]. https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/handle/1969.1/155313 Nashawati, A. M. (2003). eilm alnafs altarbawii (ta4) [Educational psychology (4th ed.)]. eaman, al’urdunu: Dar alfurqan lilnashr waltawzie. Othman, M. A. O., & Al-Zubaidi, M. A. H. (2018). The impact of using learning management system (Blackboard) on developing the skills of recitation and Tajweed of the Holy Qur’an among students of Islamic studies at King Faisal University. Al-Quds Open University Journal for Research and Studies: Al-Quds Open University, 44, 219–233. http://search.mandumah.com/Record/921681 Prieto, A., Barbarroja, J., Álvarez, S., & Corell, A. (2021). Eficacia del modelo de aula invertida (flipped classroom) en la enseñanza universitaria: Una síntesis de las mejores evidencias [Effectiveness of the flipped classroom model in university

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 237-254, November 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.13 Received Aug 22, 2021; Revised Nov 12, 2021; Accepted Nov 23, 2021

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to identify the academic quality assurance practices that should be employed to attain teaching excellence at selected private higher education institutions in the city of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The study adopted a qualitative interpretive research design and utilized one-to-one, in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 12 participants. The sample was purposefully selected and comprised six faculty members, four program directors, one senior academic staff member, and one junior non-academic administrator, from three private higher education institutions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Findings revealed four categories of practices: a) Must-keep practices, b) Mustmodify practices, c) Must-add practices, and d) Must-avoid practices. Some of the practices relating to quality assurance that the study identified are maintaining important evaluation-related practices while providing feedback for improvement, closing the loop, educating all employees about and increasing their reengagement in quality assurance practice, and reducing paperwork and work duplication. This study concludes by recommending that higher education institutions employ the strategies discussed in the findings to promote teaching creativity and to improve the quality of teaching and learning, to achieve teaching excellence. Keywords: academic quality assurance; higher education; private higher education institutions; teaching excellence

1. Introduction The management bodies of higher education institutions are becoming more interested in quality assurance. This interest could impose a burden of extra work on teachers, which could lead to burnout, a loss of interest in the profession, and even teachers quitting their positions (A-Maawali & Al-Siyabi, 2020). Quality

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assurance processes and practices are becoming increasingly significant in higher education institutions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), in particular. This significance has two manifestations. The first is related to the establishment of the National Commission for Academic Accreditation and Assessment (NCAAA) in 2004, as a quality assurance body assigned to accredit private higher education institutions at institutional and program levels. This body was housed under the Education and Training Evaluation Commission (ETEC) in 2018, and is intended to process and accomplish all tasks related to quality assurance in the KSA. This expansion occurred in response to the massification and internationalization of tertiary education, whereby the number of higher education institutions in the Kingdom increased to 29 public universities and 14 private universities, according to 2018 statistics (Allahmorad & Zerik, 2020; Bollaert, 2014). The second manifestation is related to providing students with good quality teaching and learning opportunities, so that, when they graduate, they can pursue further studies at national and international higher education institutions, or perform well in the labor market (Anane & Addaney, 2016). At accredited universities, quality assurance plays a central role in meeting the requirements of the national accrediting body of the KSA – the context of this study – as well as the aspirations of all stakeholders. This research study’s challenge was investigating quality-assurance-related procedures, such as the evaluation and the measurement processes of the various teaching and learning objectives. These processes are criticized for being lengthy, highly demanding, exhausting, excessively bureaucratic, and time consuming (Seyfried & Pohlenz, 2018). Seyfried and Pohlenz (2018) explicitly add that academic staff consider quality-assurance-related procedures to be more of a burden than an opportunity, and they consider it draining. This attitude is mainly the result of the time required by the assessment processes of numerous tasks and performances, as well as the need to produce and collect pieces of evidence to submit to accrediting bodies as proof of the quality of their work. This type of work is found to compete for time that teachers are supposed to devote to thinking about and reflecting on their teaching, and related tasks that help to attain and maintain high quality teaching and achieving teaching excellence (Brookfield, 2017). The literature is rich in studies about quality assurance and improvement practices (A-Maawali & Al-Siyabi, 2020; Anane & Addaney, 2016; Bollaert, 2014; Cheng, 2015; Tandberg & Martin, 2019), but there is limited literature on improving these practices in higher education institutions in the KSA – this is a research gap. Therefore, this research study comprises an attempt to contribute to closing this research gap by investigating the quality-assurance-related practices that should be implemented in private higher education institutions in the KSA to effectively enhance the quality of teaching. 1.1 Research Purpose The purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of academic and nonacademic staff members of higher education institutions on academic quality, evaluation of existing practices, and the means that could be used to improve these procedures. This upgrade is necessary to improve the quality of teaching

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and, thus, attain teaching excellence. The significance of exploring the perceptions of academic and non-academic staff on general academic quality emerges from the idea that staff perceptions guide their practices. The results of this research study could aid policymakers in higher education to develop or review existing policies and procedures, and improve quality assurance practices. Furthermore, the findings of this research study could inform the upper and middle management at higher education institutions, to encourage them to implement the suggested improvement practices for teaching. This benefit is particularly significant, as it emphasizes a bottom-up model that appraises the engagement of employees in improving existing and developing new quality assurance practices. The research questions that this study answered are a) How do academic and nonacademic staff perceive academic quality, and b) How do academic and nonacademic staff believe quality assurance practices at higher education institutions can be improved?

2. Literature Review 2.1 Quality Assurance Defined The significance of quality assurance and related practices is expressed well in the following definition of quality assurance: “Quality assurance in higher education is increasingly used to denote the practices, whereby academic standards, i.e., the level of academic achievement attained by higher education graduates, are maintained and improved” (Dill, 2010, p. 377). This definition recaps the main academic quality assurance practices, which are mainly manifested in measuring or evaluating the achievement of students and graduates of higher education institutions, while relying on pre-set standards and criteria, and maintaining the level of the quality of these achievements throughout the whole process of tasks. For Brittingham (2009), quality assurance comprises everything a higher education institution must undertake to provide high-quality education, whereas quality improvement is the framework or roadmap for institutional advancement and self-evaluation of what a higher education institution must do. The Finnish Higher Education Evaluation Council views quality assurance as comprising all procedures used by a higher education institution to develop and improve teaching, learning, and all available services that are designed to fulfil an education institution’s principal aim (FINHEEC, 2008). Mishra (2007) categorizes quality assurance into three parts. The primary part involves all the systems being utilized to improve the quality of instruction and learning. Another part involves all the procedures and techniques used to monitor the quality that is accomplished. The third part incorporates all types of assistance received from upper administration to improve and maintain the legitimacy and functionality of the quality assurance framework. From another point of view, Biggs (2001) considers quality in two different ways: retrospectively or prospectively. A retrospective view of quality is observed when economic prerequisites are met. A prospective view of quality includes fulfilling the reason for the university’s existence as far as changing students’ impression of the world and their capacity to use the knowledge they procure to settle on

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choices and to safeguard their interests. Hénard (2010) appears to concur with Biggs’ (2001) retrospective impression of quality assurance, since he believes quality is a powerful idea that fluctuates with relevant necessities and natural changes. This implies that policymakers ought to avoid setting fixed models and inflexible norms for instructors to follow and achieve. All measures and norms, according to Biggs (2001), should be flexible and adaptable enough to adjust in accordance with changes in the environment. Filippakou (2011) takes this idea further by offering a reasonable methodology – as opposed to a definition – to investigate understandings of the quality of work at higher education institutions, and the quality of educating and learning, specifically, of various stakeholders, including instructors. Appropriately, Filippakou considers the idea of quality as an “ideological” development that lies at the core of the “discourses” teachers attempt. In the absence of consensus on the definition of quality, due to subjectivity regarding quality, definitions of quality differ from one context to another. In relation to the distinction between prospective and retrospective aspects of quality assurance frameworks, quality assurance and quality enhancement are compatible with a retrospective impression of quality. This is made clear by quality assurance frameworks that predominantly rely on ensuring teaching quality being measured by fulfilling predetermined guidelines. In any case, a prospective meaning of quality is sought, to assist students at higher education institutions to make smarter decisions at their education institutions, and ultimately in their societies. Filippakou's (2011) impression of quality as an ideological development means quality ought to be in educators’ hearts, should manage their practices from the inside, and should advance their scholarly freedom. Basic examination deconstructs current quality assurance and quality enhancement practices and uncovers the beliefs and qualities supporting them. For instance, Skelton (2012) accepts that the developing pattern of quality assurance and quality enhancement is associated with neo-liberalism and marketization, which was introduced to the education sector by the commercial sector. He contends that an emphasis on quality assurance and quality enhancement is harming the quality of work of educators at higher education institutions, who are expected to execute two extra duties in addition to instructing, namely research and managerial work. Quality assurance and quality enhancement processes compromise the academic freedom that instructors at higher education institutions have been accustomed to, and drives educators to oppose these practices (Archer, 2008; Sanders-McDonagh & Davis, 2018). Barnett (2003) says that quality assurance systems and practices that rely upon estimating student learning will, generally, hinder instructors, impede the improvement of their scholarly culture and prevent them from following up on their instincts. In taking this idea further, Morley (2003) states that governments utilize quality assurance as a way of enforcing greater control over higher education institutions and their presentation. This sort of control impacts the scholarly freedom of educators, thereby impacting their teaching and reducing opportunities for creativity. Hanson (2014) recommends encouraging creativity in students as well

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as teachers; doing so could support and enhance students’ learning experiences and make them more meaningful; thus, attaining teaching excellence. In contrast, “measuring” teaching excellence can be done by evaluating the ability of students to apply or implement the knowledge and skills that shape their learning experiences (Hanson, 2014; Wilcox, 2021). Zukas and Malcolm (2002) accept that this control will have an antagonistic influence on the identities of educators, and on their values regarding instruction. Zukas and Malcolm (2002) are, in essence, concerned about novice instructors, who start their teaching experience within an arrangement of assurance and enhancement, and whose teaching values and identities are created and adjusted, as required. Archer (2008) expresses similar concerns about the development of novice instructors' identities, as indicated by the performative frameworks of quality assurance and neo-liberalism. As quality assurance and quality enhancement are both dependent on setting rules and measuring standards, this idea may not fit the complexities of the education venture. Higher education institutions, as instructional organizations, depend on the association between the two integral parts of instructional establishments: the teacher and the student. As an outcome, proponents of educators who consider the student–teacher relationship are key to achieving teaching excellence. 2.2 Teaching Excellence in Higher Education Wilcox (2021) concludes that the qualitative direction of any society is assisted by the excellence of teaching provided by higher education institutions. Providing high quality teaching to students has become one of the main concerns of policymakers, academic administrators and teachers at higher education institutions, in order to exemplify the notion of excellence. Higher education institutions were among the first institutions in the world. Over the years, these institutions were subject to numerous fundamental changes and have faced enormous challenges due to the effect of the ever-changing environment in which they exist. These changes and challenges mean ideas, concepts, and roles relating to higher education vary among educators (Courtney, 2013). Accordingly, the meaning of higher education as a concept varies, from being a mere physical setting to abstract notions of acquiring information, where students are directly engaged with teachers in classrooms, which has always been considered to be the lively stage of teachers. However, this notion has been subjected to change, especially recently, due to drastic advances in technology, which mitigate distance, to the extent that it, ultimately, promotes online learning (Mve, 2021). As the environment changes, teaching excellence increasingly becomes a fundamental objective of the missions of most higher education institutions. Teaching excellence is increasingly becoming the catchphrase of higher education in this century. However, the concept of teaching excellence has been the subject of considerable debate and scrutiny by myriads of political, social and academic philosophies. Zhu et al. (2013) explain that teachers at higher education institutions have the responsibility to address the interests of 21st century students, by employing novel teaching techniques that differ from traditional

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ones. Gibson (2010) proclaims, “the time when academics in higher education could simply replicate the teaching methods that they experienced as students is quickly drawing to an end” (p. 3). Therefore, attaining teaching excellence entails tailoring and utilizing increasingly innovative and creative teaching techniques and learning activities to enhance the learning experiences of 21st century students (Gibson, 2010; Zhu et al., 2013). Academic administrators, professors, and students all possess different perspectives, depending on elements such as their beliefs about education, their customs, cultures, a country’s level of development, their ages, experience, and even personalities. Accordingly, the literature is rich in serious attempts to offer relevant definitions and to identify the key components of teaching excellence (Faltis, 2012; Gourlay & Stevenson, 2017; Oravec, 2017; Skelton, 2012; Wood & Su, 2017). Skelton (2005) categorizes understandings of teaching excellence into four categories: traditional, psychological, performative and critical. The traditional understanding of teaching excellence is based on teachers being knowledgeable about the subject matter they teach; their teaching strategy is mainly traditional lecturing. The psychological understanding of teaching excellence focuses on teacher–student relationships, while the performative understanding is based on teachers’ concerns about meeting labour market demands. Finally, a critical understanding emphasizes the teacher giving students the opportunity to discuss critical issues related to their society. This categorization contributes to providing a unified definition of the teaching excellence of educators. 2.3 Quality Assurance and Quality Enhancement Strategies: Monitoring Teaching Quality Most higher education institutions aim to offer the highest quality of education possible; accordingly, the purpose of their services is to strengthen and enhance students’ learning experiences. With increasing globalization, along with the never-ending input of technology in the educational arena, cooperative learning has been demonstrated to have an edge over traditional teaching. In response to the radical transformation of teaching and learning, and an increased emphasis on student-centeredness and related interactive and cooperative learning, more attention is being paid to monitoring the performance of teachers and ensuring the quality of the teaching they provide to their students (A-Maawali & Al-Siyabi, 2020; DeRijdta et al., 2006; Huang et al., 2013). Furthermore, the ranking of higher education institutions depends on multiple criteria, and the quality of teaching provided and criteria that relate to the learning that takes place are considered to be the most significant criteria that are relied on (Hauptman Komotar, 2020; Dembereldorj, 2018). These criteria encourage leaders of higher education institutions and policymakers to promote their monitoring processes related to the quality of teaching and learning, and to continuously improve the quality of education by addressing the main requirements of students, and elevating students’ learning standards.

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Today, it is vital to consider processes or strategies that are needed to bridge the gap between “where a higher education institution is” and “where (this higher education institution) wants to be.” Closing the gap involves structuring and executing quality improvements or upgrading techniques. Hence, facing or overcoming issues is an important element of quality assurance, and comprises quality upgrades or quality improvement techniques that are implemented to fulfil the identified guidelines. According to the primary supposition of the supporters of quality assurance, attaining foreordained goals demonstrates the achievement of teaching excellence. Consequently, an immediate association appears among the three parts of quality: quality assurance, quality improvement and teaching excellence (Hariri, 2016; Salmi, 2020). Thus, quality upgrades or improvements function within the quality assurance framework, which administers or oversees all quality improvement systems adopted by a certain higher education institution. 2.4 Models of Quality Assurance Performance Measurement The way higher education institutions decide to monitor their teaching quality is based on their level of understanding of quality management, and the philosophy they espouse. Consequently, specific higher education institutions have a habit of monitoring their educational standards in accordance with the quality assurance systems through which aim to achieve the identified standards (Nurjati, 2006). This approach warrants providing higher education institutions with control; thus, assuming a neoliberal ideology. In turn, other higher education institutions may choose a quality improvement or quality enhancement type of administration that ensures the enhancement of education by concentrating on the performance of teachers, which leads to teaching excellence (Skelton, 2012). Moreover, Mhlanga (2012, p. 1081) views quality improvement or quality enhancement in terms of “increased sharing of information, intellectual resources and research” within and among higher education institutions. A significant number of higher education institutions prefer the “top-down” model, according to which they prescribe the strategies teachers are to follow. Other higher education institutions implement a “bottom-up” model, in an attempt to consider teachers’ views on education. The Quality Assurance Academy, which was created in conjunction with the development of their project in June 2008, present two distinct views on quality improvement and enhancement. Some higher education institutions describe quality enhancement as constant enhancement of present practices, while others perceive quality enhancement as a strategy utilized to repair what is ineffective (Higher Education Academy, 2008). Because unanimity is lacking among teachers on the designation of quality, policymakers usually pursue assessment procedures based on explicit criteria. Moving on, teachers interpret these criteria into “SMART” objectives and key performance indicators, which are measured at different stages, and at institution, program, and course levels. Consequently, policymakers or administrators at higher education institutions set high standards for teachers’ performance, so teachers can accurately illustrate the quality of their work in reference to their compliance with these standards and because they achieve the relevant objectives.

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Certain norms establish the quantifiable strategies that depict the nature of a specific organization, which ultimately energizes the setting of guidelines as a feature of a quality confirmation framework that is expected to support a higher education institution in measuring the work provided more effectively, and more critically, to advise the establishment, regarding their context and direction. 2.5 Conceptual Model If higher education institutions wish to track whether teaching methods are in line with their teaching philosophy and theories, a “quality model” can be used. This concept, which stems from constructivism, is synonymous with student-centred learning, in which educators guide students to develop their own, unique knowledge (Gibbs, 2001; Cheng, 2018). Alternatively, higher education institutions can embrace a "quality enhancement model" if they need to evaluate the systems utilized by instructors to improve their education methodologies. This model includes professional development activities that assist instructors to improve their own education. Lastly, higher education institutions can use the "quality feasibility" model should they need to concentrate on recognizing and, at that point, eliminating all the snags that prevent the improvement of instruction. The selection of a model of quality depends on the design of a specific higher education institution. According to Guest and Duhs (2003), the need to establish national quality assurance organizations or institutional quality assurance frameworks arose as a result of an increase in the number of students who qualified to be admitted to higher education institutions, and a reduction in the capital assigned to higher education institutions, both of which apply to KSA – the context of this study (Allahmorad & Zreik, 2020(. Consequently, quality assurance frameworks or organizations are required to assist students’ education by monitoring the quality of education, as well as all university support by administration. This is accomplished by recognizing student learning outcomes and establishing criteria to assess them. Setting up a quality assurance system is, therefore, not an end in itself, but rather a means of achieving the end goal of providing quality education and learning. Quality assurance systems or organizations provide information to upper-level administration at institutional or national levels, which enables them to make informed decisions on the best way to achieve predetermined parameters (Mgaiwa, 2018).

3. Research Methodology 3.1 Data Collection and Analysis The research design adopted by this study is a qualitative case study supported by an interpretivist paradigm, which depended on obtaining multiple perceptions, in order to lead and improve the understanding of the topic or concept under investigation (Creswell, 2013; McMillan & Schumacher, 2014). The case study made triangulation possible, by facilitating a detailed exploration of perceptions from multiple sources, namely employees occupying different positions in the three universities under investigation in this study: faculty members, academic directors, and administrative staff members.

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Data analysis started with open coding to generate the codes, which were then organized into categories, followed by a reduction of categories to produce the themes. This research design was the best fit to answer the research questions, as it allowed the participants to speak up and express their perceptions freely (Creswell, 2013). Twelve 45-minute, one-on-one, in-depth semistructured interviews were conducted virtually with 12 participants who occupied academic and non-academic positions; the interviews were recorded via Zoom Cloud. The interviews included open-ended questions that were supported by relevant probing questions, when necessary. The open codes were generated after the recorded interviews had been transcribed verbatim. The interview questions that participants responded to are the following: 1. How do you perceive academic quality in higher education institutions? 2. What are the most important academic quality practices that exist in your institution? 3. What are the academic quality assurance practices that you think need improvement? 4. What is/are the practices that you think must be maintained? 5. What is/ are the practices that you think must be avoided? 6. How do you think these practices can be improved? 7. What are the academic services that are not assessed in your institution, but you think must be assessed or measured in higher education institutions? 3.2 Recruitment and Sampling A purposive non-probability sample was selected (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015) to provide the best representation of an academic and non-academic population of employees who were directly involved in quality assurance practices at three private higher education institutions. These selected universities have similar schools and academic programs. The sample comprised 12 participants: six faculty members, four program directors, one senior academic staff member, and one junior non-academic administrator. Participants were from three different universities, four different schools and from ten different programs at these universities. This sample ensured that different perspectives of various types of employees, occupying different positions, with different years of experience in various disciplines, would be elicited (Creswell, 2013). The researcher contacted the participants through their individual universities’ research institutes. The researcher, as a faculty member and the former director of the quality assurance department of one of the selected universities, contacted the directors of the research centres in the selected universities and asked for their support to facilitate contacting prospective participants who were engaged in quality assurance processes. The emails contained a request to participate in the study, as well as an information page, and a consent form to complete. The participants were free to participate in and withdraw from the research at any time.

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Table 1. Sampling characteristics No.

Pseudonym

Position

1 2 3 4 5 6

Liza Fensi Sally Nadera Leena Najia

Program director Faculty member Program director Faculty member Faculty member Faculty member

Nina

Program director

Marta

Program director

Berna

Faculty member

10 11

Seeta Tara

Faculty member Academic administrative Staff member 12 Katia Non-academic administrative staff member Source: Primary data. Own dataset.

School Art and Design Art and Design Business Business Business Health Sciences and Education Health Sciences and Education Computer and Engineering Computer and Engineering General Education

Years of experience 25 3 15 20 13 10 8 17 5 15 12

4. Results and Analysis Nobongoza (2019) reports that the perceptions about academic quality and relevant practices do not vary much between education institutions, though perceptions differ between faculty members and administrators at the same institution. This was evident from the responses obtained from the 12 participants during the interviews, which revealed differences in the perceptions of the different groups of interviewees (teachers, academic directors, non-academic directors) in the same group, between the three higher education institutions, and at the same institution. 4.1 Academic Quality: Diverse Perceptions According to the literature, the concept of academic quality assurance varies from one participant to another, from encompassing related practices and incorporating relevant processes, to completing documents and meeting national and/or international standards (Dill, 2010; Skelton, 2012). To support this claim, participant Nina defined academic quality assurance as, “making sure keeping in best practices so ensuring the education we are providing to the students, the content that we’re providing the books and everything else is of a good quality and also that it is in line with our national accrediting standards” while Marta emphasized the importance of “proper implementation of the quality assurance processes followed in the university”. Liza considered academic quality to be the “completion of certain documents provided from the quality assurance office”, while Sally defined it as, “meeting pre-identified standards”.

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This variation in the participants’ perceptions of what academic quality assurance is, can be explained in reference to the nature of the work of each participant and their contribution to this work. This was highlighted by the participant Nadera, who reported that “every person has his/her own added value to the teaching quality”. This indicates that the participants themselves were aware of the variation in perceptions among higher education institution employees. This awareness emphasizes the holistic concept of academic quality that encompasses a set of processes that are followed in compliance with a set of policies and procedures, in order to meet specific standards (Weedmark, 2019). In this light, Tara said that academic quality is “very broad as it encompasses the measurement of the teaching practices, teaching styles and assessment tools”. These divergent notions of academic quality assurance, was confirmed by Sally, who explained it as, “the available infrastructure for all quality assurance related practices and documents. The set of policies and procedures that are aligned with the identified standards, allow for the comparison of the actual outcomes with the preplanned ones.” The importance of standards, the compliance of the education institution to these standards, and their effective implementation, was a concern raised by Katia, who acknowledged that “we do have standards, but who is implementing them? This question reveals the real concerns of participants – whether faculty members or administrators – about providing high quality teaching for students. Feedback: Continuous Improvement From another angle, academic quality assurance is represented by the continuous improvement of processes in response to feedback obtained from stakeholders (Tandberg & Martin, 2019). In this regard, Katia confirmed that the evaluation system that exists at the university is comprehensive, and it assesses almost all services every year; nevertheless, this system has “to be taken more seriously”. Katia explained this seriousness and expressed concerns about “where the results go and what happens to them and who benefits from them?”– in essence, is the quality assurance loop closed? Closing the loop is an indispensable process in quality assurance, which emphasizes the significance of the feedback obtained through the various evaluation processes and the immediate actions that need to be taken by the responsible parties to achieve improvements (Tandberg & Martin, 2019). This matter was also emphasized by Sally, who agreed on the importance of obtaining feedback from the various stakeholders, “to benefit from their feedback in improving the practices and thus closing the loop”. Nadera indicated that “closing the loop is not there … communicating findings is not there … therefore we do not see improvement in practice … only more paperwork”. These comments highlight the awareness of the participants of the significance of the evaluation system, and indicate their awareness of the importance of the quality of the feedback this system provides, and that the feedback could pave their way to achieving teaching excellence. Feedback that gives more than a yes or no answer (such as whether a service exists or does not exist), but also provides stakeholders’ suggestions about ways to improve, are particularly useful.

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Enjoying Teaching vs. Excessive Paperwork The excessive paperwork that most higher education institutions require is considered to be as a waste of time (Seyfried & Pohlenz, 2018), and tends to prevent faculty members at the university from thinking about their teaching, which should be their priority. This was stressed by Liza, who declared that “the paperwork should be reduced in favor of providing quality teaching.” Nadera expressed concern about “making use of what is written in the papers and not just the completion of papers.” Berna stated that, “the practices and documents are there, but who is reading these documents and who is benefiting from them?” Seeta said that paperwork is useless since “no one looks at it after completion,” and therefore it does not lead to improvement. Berna added that the “endless paperwork that we need to do made me loose the enjoyment of teaching … I want to enjoy teaching.” In contrast, Fensi and Seeta expressed that they have no problem with the paperwork, which they regarded as necessary and reasonable, especially for curriculum review. Fensi asked, “how can we do curriculum review without these documents?” Due to the variance in viewpoints on paperwork, I recommend that all academic quality assurance systems must be revised. It is critical that these processes, together with any associated paperwork, assist instructors and facilitate their teaching rather than being a burden on teachers, thereby jeopardizing teaching quality. The participants confirmed the importance of filling in the documents to indicate the achievement of the pre-identified standards, as well as following the appropriate procedures and processes. An example of these documents are the course syllabi, which include learning outcomes that the students are expected to achieve, and teaching strategies, and the assessment tools. Participants indicated that this syllabus needs “to be personalized” to reflect the teaching philosophies of the teachers, as well as “their creativity,” as Najia and Liaza indicated respectively. This explains that participants were aware of the significance of quality assurance and various other relevant processes. Nevertheless, the work that they need to do to complete these processes has to be reduced, so that they do not conflict with the efforts that teachers have to exert to provide the high quality teaching needed to achieve teaching excellence. Evaluation Practices: Improving Practices Evaluation of academic practices, whether internally or externally, constitute a core practice of quality assurance (Kettunen, 2015). This was confirmed by most of the participants in this study, who appreciate the various types of evaluations, especially those that clarify the items that need improvement to increase teachers’ focus on the action plans that need to be developed in order to accomplish the improvements and upgrades. Liza (a program director) explained that “we invest in the low scored items to provide the suitable professional development for faculty to improve their practices.” This was confirmed by Leena, who said that “class observations, course evaluation and program director evaluation make a perfect evaluation triangle that tells us a lot about the teaching and learning in classrooms.” However, Najia expressed concern about the reliability of students’

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evaluation of instruction, as she believed that “students do not evaluate us thoughtfully … they even do not read the items thoroughly … they base their evaluation based on their grades and love to the teacher … so, subjective and not objective.” Whether student evaluation of practices is valid is a concern that is not specific to higher education institutions in Saudi Arabia, but extends to universities outside the context of this study. In this regard, Stark (2014) considers the methods and statistics used to evaluate instructions by students as unsuitable; accordingly, he suggests employing additional types of evaluation.

5. Discussion This study explored the academic quality assurance practices that higher education institutions should adopt in their journey towards teaching excellence. The study adopted a qualitative interpretive research design and utilized indepth, individual, semistructured interviews with 12 participants who were faculty members or academic administrators. The study concludes that these practices seem to be inexact, and do not necessarily provide the expected benefits or support that higher education institutions aspire to to provide the high quality teaching needed to achieve teaching excellence. This conclusion was reached despite the existence of quality assurance practices that are initiated by the quality assurance office or department, or even the deanships at the universities that participated in the study. Accordingly, these practices can be categorized into four groups, to provide the best answers to the research questions of this study. These groups are a) Must-keep practices, b) Must-add practices, c) Must-modify practices, and d) Must-avoid practices. a) Must-keep Practices According to the findings of this study, the most important practice that should be retained and even emphasized is the development and implementation of improvement plans. These plans are included in the documents of the national accrediting body to demonstrate when standards are being achieved. Among these documents is a course report that must be completed after a course has been taught. It explains the teaching practices applied in each course, the assessment tools and, most importantly, it includes an action plan for improvements for the course. The course reports along with the action plans set out the support needed by teachers, to be provided by various academic committees, in relation to completing the required documents and overseeing the development and implementation of improvement plans. This is supported by the evaluation of teaching practices that are undertaken by students and program directors, or any other external evaluation that is related to accrediting bodies. b) Must-add Practices Based on the findings of this research study, there is a need to assist and educate faculty and staff members to raise their awareness of all academic quality assurance practices, and so that they complete the relevant documents properly and in time. This education will make a significant contribution to enhancing the understanding of employees in general, and faculty members in particular, about

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quality assurance practices, to fostering their engagement, and increasing their interest in quality assurance work, “thus reducing their resistance,” as Marta said. This was also emphasized strongly by Liza, who explained that “faculty members and staff have to understand what they are doing; quality assurance is not just completing and compilation of documents.” In addition, Leena suggested that even “quality assurance officers must be educated to provide better help to faculty members and be able to answer all their questions.” Being aware of and engaged in the development and implementation of quality assurance practices helps faculty members make sense of work related to ensuring quality that they must do and invest in to improve their teaching. This involvement will help to change their perceptions about this type of work, from the idea that it hinders teaching, to that it facilitates teaching. c) Must-modify Practices In accordance with the participants’ responses, it is recommended that faculty members at higher education institutions are given the academic freedom to personalize their syllabi, in an attempt to reflect their specific efforts and creativity, and to pave the way for them to achieve teaching excellence. Academic freedom gives faculty members the opportunity to determine “what” and “how” to teach the course assigned to them (Nelson, 2010). The course syllabus, as claimed by Liza, “is not only a template to be completed; it mirrors the instructor and the course in one document.” Academic freedom has always been highly appreciated by faculty members, who consider it as a right that they do not want to be compromised. Furthermore, participants expressed concerns about the processes involved in appointing faculty members; they believed it affected the quality of teaching. Consequently, participants advised that the processes of appointing faculty members are revised and improved, to ensure that faculty members of a high caliber, who have previous teaching experience in higher education are appointed. Doing so can add value to teaching and learning at the university, through recruiting faculty members “who can introduce new experiences to our students”, as stated by Katia. In this respect, Tara said that “the center of quality assurance needs to modify its processes to focus more on overseeing the teaching quality through monitoring the improvements included in the reports generated every year.” d) Must-avoid Practices This study concludes by recommending the elimination of certain practices that participants consider of minimal or no value to academic quality. These practices include all work that is repeated, or documents that are duplicated. This was clarified by Nadera, who indicated that we need “to stop submitting documents of the same course for multiple sections.” Nina emphasized the need to have appropriate “coordination among different departments or programs to reduce doing the same work twice or even more.” This goal can be attained through “centralizing all quality assurance related work,” as Leena recommended, and encouraging “collaborative work across the whole university,” as Seeta advised.

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6. Conclusion and Recommendations The increasing emphasis on quality assurance practices by management of higher education institutions is causing burnout of teachers, due to the extensive paperwork it demands. With the increasing number of higher education institutions that are seeking accreditation, policymakers, accrediting bodies, and the management of higher education institutions should revisit their current quality assurance practices. Doing so would be significant, as it would encourage management of higher education institutions to think about practices as means to improve the quality of teaching, promote academic freedom for faculty members, and to enhance creativity in teaching, to achieve teaching excellence. Quality assurance procedures should emphasize providing feedback for improvement, closing the loop, reducing paperwork, minimizing job duplication, and, most importantly, training all employees about these procedures, in order to increase their involvement in these activities. Quality assurance techniques “are not mathematical formulas whose answers should be known beforehand,” as a participant, Sally, stated. Quality assurance practices should not be a “box to contain teaching,” as Marta cautioned. Let us reconcile teaching with the relevant quality assurance practices, to help teachers “enjoy teaching,” as Najia announced, to be creative, and to attain teaching excellence. Quality assurance procedures should be beneficial for teaching and supportive of instructors.

7. Limitations This study employed a qualitative technique to obtain detailed responses from people directly involved in quality-related tasks. However, due to the study’s qualitative nature, the findings cannot be generalized. As an extension of this work, a quantitative analysis in both private and public higher education institutions is recommended.

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