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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 19, No. 7 (July 2020) Print version: 1694 2493 Online version: 1694-2116 IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 19, No. 7 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machines or similar means, and storage in data banks. Society for Research and Knowledge Management

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Foreword We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research. The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer reviewed open access journal committed to publishing high quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website Whttp://www.ijlter.org.earegratefultothe

issue. Editors of the July 2020 Issue

Analysis and

Andriushchenko Kateryna, Rozhko Oleksandr, Tepliuk Mariia, Semenyshyna Iryna, Kartashov Evgen and Liezina Anastasiia

Theory Providing

Incorporating Academic Writing Phrases into EFL Students’ Research Proposals

Perceptions of Students towards the Postgraduate Biology Practical Demonstrators at Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria, South Africa Liziwe L. Mugivhisa, Caswell Mavimbela and Joshua O. Olowoyo Enhancing Students’ Mental Models of Chemical Equilibrium Through Argumentation within Model based Learning

Anupong Praisri and Chatree Faikhamta

143

Learning in Educational Gaming 159 Jason

with Technology:

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The Extent to which Knowledge based Economy Skills are Included in the Secondary Level Curriculum in Qatar80

101

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Husna Izzati Muhamad Shahbani, Salleh Abd Rashid, Muhamad Shahbani Abu Bakar, Jastini Mohd Jamil and Izwan Nizal Mohd Shaharanee Enhancing Higher Order Thinking Skills among Home Science Students: The Effect of Cooperative Learning Divisions (STAD) Module Misra Takko, Rahimah Jamaluddin, Suhaida Abdul Kadir, Normala Ismail, Arnida Abdullah and Arasinah Khamis

Mamduh Ashraah and Ahmad Yousef

VOLUME 19 NUMBER 7 July 2020 Table of Contents Perceptions of Foundation Phase Teachers on Principals as Literacy Leaders in Selected Primary Schools 1 Bernadictus Plaatjies The Challenges Faced by Pre Service Mathematics Teachers during their Teaching Practice in the UAE: Implications for Teacher Education Programs.................................................................................................................. 23

Student Teams Achievement

204

121

Anselmus Sudirman, Adria Vitalya Gemilang and Hendrikus Digital Literacy Development Trends in the Professional Environment

Adeeb M. Jarrah

Researching the Impact of the Economic Crisis on Student Life in Greece Maria Kouroutsidou, Nikolaos Raptis and Konstantinos Karampelas Framework Cognitive Learning a Theoretical Foundation for Efficacy in Stratton Davis Vocational A Study of Teaching Aids Applied in Malaysian Vocational Classroom Anesman B. W. Abdul Rahman, Mohd Azlan Mohammad Hussain and Rafeizah Mohd Zulkifli Effect of Small Private Online Course (SPOC) on Students’ Achievement in Pre University Chemistry

The Effects of Children’s Friendship Training on Social Skills and Quality of Play among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 225 Horng Shen Ellipse Goh, Samsilah Roslan, Ezza Mad Baguri, Sing Yee Ong and Siaw Yan Li Impact of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) Module Based on the Cognitive Apprenticeship Model (CAM) on Student’s Performance.................................................................................................................................................. 246 Noorashikim Noor Ibrahim, Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub and Aida Suraya Md. Yunus The Impact of the Lack of ICT Resources on Teaching and Learning in Selected South African Primary Schools263..... Paul Nwati Munje and Thuthukile Jita The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and the Malaysian University English Test (MUET) Performance among Technical Students 280 Nor Lailatul Azilah Hamdzah, Indra Devi Subramaniam, Nadiah Zainal Abidin and Ruslan Hassan Blended Learning Approach to Mathematics Education Modules: An Analysis of Pre Service Teachers’ Perceptions 298 Ifunanya Julie Adaobi Ubah, Erica D. Spangenberg and Viren Ramdhany Economics Teachers’ Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge Model for teaching Market Dynamics 320 Ijeoma C. Ogbonnaya, Andile Mji, Olivia N. Mafa Theledi and Beatrice Ngulube

Forthispaper,literacyleadershipislimitedtotwofacets: instruction and assessment. As such, the study explored teachers’ perceptions on principals as leaders in these two aspects. As custodians of the literacy curriculum, teachers possess a wealth of knowledge on instruction and assessment practices. It seems that this rich knowledge and classroom experiences are sometimes untapped into or ignored, which would seem strange and unfortunate. If utilised to the maximum, teachers’ knowledge and expertise could contribute immensely to improve literacy practices. This exploratory qualitative study employed a multiple case study design and was conducted with 35 teachers from four schools in the Mangaung district of Bloemfontein’s Free State Department of Education (FSDOE) The study sample was purposefully selected and data were collected through open ended questionnaires. Thematic analysis was employed to make sense of the data, and the findings disclose that teachers hold conflicting views regarding their principals as literacy leaders. Although some noble leadership practices were underscored, especially regarding internal moderation processes, the general impression was that principals’ literacy leadership skills are lacking. This study has highlighted the need for a greater focus on subject specificleadershipingeneral,butmoresoforliteracyspecifically.

Keywords: instructional leadership; leadership; literacy; reading; writing

* Corresponding author: Bernadictus Plaatjies, Email: plaatjiesbo@ufs.ac.za

1 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 1 22, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.20207 1 Perceptions of Foundation Phase Teachers on Principals as Literacy Leaders in Selected Primary Schools

Bernadictus Plaatjies

Department of Education Management and Leadership University of the Free State, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7900 7843

1. Introduction Studies report that the significance of literacy skills (reading and writing) is undisputed Robust evidence demonstrates that rigorous literacy skills are

Abstract. The bleakpicture of SouthAfrica’s poor learner performance in international tests is perceived to be linked to ineffective literacy leadership in primary schools. This paper therefore explores the perceptions of foundation phase teachers on principals’ capacities as literacyleaders

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. required right from the beginning of school education, through to employment and citizenship (Howie et al., 2017; Spaul, 2012; Gunning, 2014) Bryant and Bradley (1985, cited in Pretorius, 2001) summarised the importance of reading and writing abilities for learners. The authors opined that reading and writing are crucial communicative competencies in the early years of learners. Therefore, paying close attention to learners who experience literacy difficulties is thus vital, as consequences appear to be dreadful. According to Gunning (2014, p. 9), “[r]eading and writing problems, especially when they are severe, affect all aspects of a student’s life ” To this end, the Department of Education and Training (2018, p. 6) in Australia pointed out in a report that “todays’ students need a strong foundation in literacy to be innovative, adaptable and responsive” . Numerous definitions exist for literacy. For De Lange, Dippenaar and Anker (2018), literacy includes the components of reading and viewing, thinking, reasoning and writing. The focus in this paper will only be on reading and writing as literacy components. According to the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, 2019, p. 3), “reading is a dynamic, active and complex process that involves the understanding of written text, developing and interpreting meaning and using meaning as appropriate to the type of text, purpose and situation.” Writing, on the other hand, is regarded by Durga and Rao (2018, p. 1) as “an extremely complex cognitive activity in which the writer is required to demonstrate control of variables simultaneously”. At the sentence level, these include control of contents, format, sentence structure, vocabulary, spelling and letter formation. Beyond the sentence, the writer must be able to structure and integrate information into cohesive and coherent paragraph and text The problem in South Africa, though, is that learner performance in literacy is substandard, as confirmed by assessment data from local tests over the last decade. For example, results of the Annual National Assessments in literacy, which are administrated by the country’s Department of Basic Education (DBE), concretely demonstrate this poor performance (Spaul, 2012) South African learners’ performance in international tests paints an equally bleak picture. In fact, data from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study [PIRLS] of 2016 show that South African learners were placed last out of all 50 countries who participated in the PIRLS assessment (Howie et al., 2017) “Even more alarming is the fact that South Africa may be six years behind the top performing countries, and that around 78% of learners do not reach the international benchmarks and therefore do not have basic reading skills by the end of the gr.4 school year, in contrast to only 4% of learners internationally,” as Howie et al. (2017, p. 11) explained. Besides, the country’s scores in both reading and mathematics are lower than many much poorer countries in sub Saharan Africa (Spaul & Taylor, 2015, cited in Taylor & Hoadley, 2018). South African Minister of Education, Ms Angie Motshekga, confirmed the challenges associated with literacy by stating that: “Our greatest challenge in this administration has been to tackle the literacy outcomes highlighted in all international, regional and national assessments” (Republic of South Africa [RSA] DBE, 2013, p. 2). It appears that school principals have limited capacity to provide direction with teaching and learning. To this end, Hoadley (cited in Bush & Glover, 2009) and

Being at the forefront as drivers and custodians of the literacy curriculum, teachers possess a comprehensive understanding of related challenges. For this reason, tapping into this knowledge can provide rich notions on what leaders can do to strengthen instructional practices

Mestry (2017) claimed that many principals lack an extensive understanding of their instructional leadership roles Although considerable research has been done to address the problems with literacy especially with regard to classroom practices less is known on how to approach the challenges from a leadership perspective. It appears that research is particularly scanty regarding principals’ knowledge of the literacy curriculum, instruction and assessment and how they should provide support through instructional leadership to teachers. This is particularly evident in the South African context, characterised as it is by the stark realities of poverty and inequalities Houck and Novak (2017, p. 30) stated that “[v]ery little has been done to examine the specific knowledge that principals require in terms of literacy leadership”. Plaatjies (2019, p. 137) contended that “very little is known about how principals should influence literacy instruction through Instructional leadership” Similarly, Hoadley (2018) concurred that the South African research base in this area is very small. These gaps in research are considered against the appeal from scholars in the field of literacy leadership, such as Townsend, Bayetto, Dempster, Johnson and Stevens (2018), who pointed out that principals should play a far more prominent role as literacy instructional leaders. Hence, an in depth understanding of this role seems to be vital for improved literacy leadership practices. This study aims to close this gap in research by obtaining teacher perceptions on their observations of principals’ leadership practices considering literacy instruction and assessment

2. Research Questions

3. Conceptual Framework and Literature Review

This paper is guided by the guidelines provided by Ravitch and Riggan (2017) They proposed in the guidelines that a conceptual framework “should not only include the relevant theoretical literature, but also the empirical findings of prior research and the researcher’s own experiential knowledge, beliefs, commitments and values” (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 12) As a starting point, my conceptual framework was informed by relevant and legally binding educational policy documents like the Personnel Administrative Measures (PAM) (DBE, 2015) and the Standard for Principal ship (DBE, 2016) that outline the leadership roles of South African school principals. These documents are in no way specific as to what principals’ leadership roles regarding literacy are. As my study focuses predominantly on the instruction and assessment components of literacy leadership, my conceptual framework was informed by the work of instructional

The following research questions frame this paper: (1) What are foundation phase teachers’ perceptions on principals’ knowledge of the skills to be taught in the literacy curriculum? (2) What are the perceptions on principals’ understanding of literacy assessment requirements? and (3) What are the perceptions on how principals provide support to teachers in literacy instruction and assessment?

The main requirements in the curriculum for the reading component are as follows: Joint reading and writing, group/guided reading, paired/independent reading, and phonics awareness. Emphasis is also placed on the five components of reading instruction, which, according to most reading experts, include: “Phonemic awareness, word recognition (sight words and phonics), comprehension, vocabulary and fluency” (DBE, 2011, pp. 11 13). This list is merely a summary; the policy document contains an exhaustive outline of many other related content and skills Dole and Nelson (cited in Bean & Dagen, 2012) declared that knowledgeable literacy leaders know that literacy does not involve only these five parts, and that a firm literacy curriculum needs to be broad. Phonological awareness, letter sound knowledge, vocabulary, comprehension, fluency and oral composition are referred to as the Big 6 by Townsend et al. (2018), and these are seen as pivotal for reading acquisition. Principals need to safeguard that each element is given satisfactory time, care, and means to allow pupils to study well In addition, both time and emphasis should be delivered for teachers to permit each element to be debated, advanced, employed, and evaluated in means that

4. The School Principal as Leader of Instruction Leadership is next only to instruction amongst school related impacts on pupil attainment (Manna, 2015). Substantive evidence confirms that instructional leadership in particular is associated with positive student outcomes. Vogel (2018, p. 1) described instructional leadership as “a critical, if not primary task of school leaders”, whilst a meta analysis conducted by Marzano, Walters and McNulty (cited in Vogel, 2018, p. 1) revealed that “principals who were instructional leaders were also found to have a stronger positive impact on student achievement”

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. leadership expert Phillip Hallinger (2005). The main domains of instructional leadership are quite extensive in scope, and overlapping, in most cases. I therefore demarcated this paper to one aspect of Hallinger’s Instructional Leadership Model: the leadership of the (literacy) instructional programme. Focusing on literacy as such, the study is also informed by the Literacy Leadership Model of Taylor and Collins (2003), though focusing only on diligence, instruction and assessment.

. Regarding the value of subject specific instructional leadership, Anderson (cited in Bouchamma, 2012, p. 2) declared that “the best outcomes in mathematics and language were linked to instructional leadership” It is not, however, easy to fulfil this role. As recent research from a study on time allocation to instructional leadership indicates: “Principals spent considerable time on running the building and considerably less time on instruction related activities” (Sebastian, Camburn & Spillane, 2018, p. 90). Before locating the study in the broader scholarship that exists in literacy leadership, a brief overview of literacy skills, according to the South African Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) or CAPS curriculum, is presented below. To perform their roles as respected instructional leaders in literacy instruction and assessment, principals should have a sound understanding of the literacy skills to be taught, as stipulated in this curriculum.

4.1 Overview of literacy skills to be taught in the CAPS curriculum

Taylor and Collins (2003, p. 2) argued that “current literacy leadership commences with a commitment from the school leader”. He/she should take leadership, otherwise learners will not become skilled readers and writers. Another prerequisite for understanding effective literacy instruction and assessment requires a solid understanding of the tenets of the literacy curriculum. Without an understanding of the literacy content, skills and knowledge, principals will struggle to provide sufficient instructional support to teachers (Alig Mielcarek, 2003; Taylor & Collins, 2003). Louis, Leithwood, Anderson and Wahlstroom (2010) warned that lack of familiarity of the curriculum will hamper sound monitoring and support for teacher growth. It is, after all, the principal as the instructional front runner’s responsibility to ensure the application of the core syllabus in the school (Botha, 2013, p. 200). Furthermore, Bouchama (2012, p. 3) stated “that leaders in effective schools distinguish their commitment and expertise by their personal involvement in planning, coordinating and evaluation of the curriculum” . In line with this argument, Zimmerman (2017, p. 47) claimed that “[f]or effective school wide literacy development, school management teams, including principals, heads of department, subject area leaders and all teachers in every subject, need to be actively involved in goal setting, monitoring and implementation” Scholars agree on the importance and value of sound curriculum knowledge by principals. Plaatjies (2019), for example, linked curriculum knowledge to improvement in instruction, with Munroe (2011, p. 9) positing that “an understanding of each aspect of literacy will enable leadership on where and how to target problem areas”. At the same time, Botha (2013, p. 199) opined that “principals need to know about the changing conceptions of the curriculum, educational philosophies and beliefs, knowledge specialisation and fragmentation, curricular sources and conflict, and curriculum evaluation and improvement”

4.2 Principals’ commitment to literacy instruction and understanding of the literacy curriculum

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. support educators to see just how fine their learners are succeeding (Townsend et al , 2018). Assessment activities for reading are, in most cases, preceded by informal assessment activities related to phonics (spoken and/or applied/written activities). Other reading skills that require formal assessment activities are developing reading skills, shared reading and group and directed reading (DBE, R2011).equirements related to writing for Grade 1 learners include handwriting (including pre writing programme), shift to a joint script or cursive writing, and materials for scripts. For Grades 2 and 3, the curriculum includes shared writing, writing messages and sentences, writing in present and past tenses, spelling, paragraphs, diaries, punctuation and writing about personal experiences (DBE, 2011). As is the case with reading, CAPS demands that formal writing tasks should be preceded by informal assessments. This also includes a wide array of competencies related to assessing handwriting skills, the development of letter formation, and shared, group and independent writing (DBE, 2011).

One standpoint of instructional leadership proposes that leaders must understand the content of subjects (Stein & D’Amico, 2000, and Stein & Nelson, 2003, cited in Sebastian & Allensworth, 2012) A basic understanding of subject content appears to be necessary to provide well grounded support in literacy instruction. Pinello (2015) averred that literacy leaders should possess knowledge of literacy instruction, and be able to align curriculum, instruction and assessment (Taylor & Collins, 2003). Principals in particular should possess a pure and profound understanding of teaching, learning and assessment (Mestry, 2017). A basic understanding of subject knowledge, instruction and assessment and the curriculum will, in turn, empower principals to provide attentive backing connected to lesson planning, structure and content regarding reading and writing, and monitoring and moderation processes. Emanating from the thorough scrutiny of literacy instruction, principals will gain a solid understanding of teachers‘ expertise. This will, in turn,help principals to provide support in targeted areas where teachers are lacking. This means, in other words, that “the instructional leader needs to have up to date knowledge on three areas of (literacy) education namely; curriculum, instruction and assessment” (Du Four, 2002, cited in Kubicek, 2015, p. 704).

4.3 Knowledge and understanding of subject content, instruction and assessment

4.4 Assisting teachers through classroom supervision of instruction

According to Dole and Nelson (cited in Bean & Dagen, 2012, p. 152), “[l]iteracy leaders know that the instructional delivery of the curriculum is one of the most critically important elements of teaching.” Assistance to teachers is therefore vital, and principals may enhance teaching through collaboration in classrooms with teachers or by improving teacher capabilities (Sebastian & Allensworth, 2012). Many studies provide direction on how principals may provide assistance, overseeing the curriculum across the school. Clear expectations to staff and setting a firm literacy basis for each schoolroom are important (Taylor & Collins, 2003). Supervision of instruction as instructional leadership duty, for example, may include evaluating the teaching and learning process, teachers’ subject knowledge and their lesson planning. Principals should make sure that teachers plan sufficiently by checking their lesson plans (International Literacy Association [ILA], 2019; Klar & Brewer, 2013). Obliged by the PAM and Standard for Principal ship policies (DBE, 2015, 2016), principals should ensure that heads of department (HODs) monitor the work of teachers in their subjects (Mestry, 2017).

Herrera (2010, p. 32) claimed that principals should “know what is taking place in the classrooms … through frequent visits and making suggestions and meaningful feedback on the improvement of quality teaching and learning” (see also Alig Mielcarek, 2003; Mestry 2017) Classroom observations should be purposefully conducted, focusing on a set of pre identified and negotiated criteria. The ILA (2019, p. 5), for example, stated that “when principals enter classrooms, they should see and hear students in small groups, working purposefully and collaboratively to solve problems or negotiating the meaning of a text” As part of this purposeful engagement and close monitoring of the instructional programme,

An interpretivist paradigm was adopted for this study, which constructs meaning through the participants’ own understanding and reflections on their experiences (Adom, Ankrah & Yeboah, 2018). This qualitative multiple case study was conducted in four large primary schools (1000+ learners each), involving 35 foundation phase (Grades 1 3) teachers. At School 1, eight teachers completed the questionnaire, at School 2 six, at School 3 eleven and at School 4 ten

The qualitative approach was deemed appropriate, as I wanted to make sense of participants’ perceptions regarding literacy leadership (Marshall & Rossman, 2011) the researcher opted for the multiple case study design, which, according to Creswell and Poth (2018), aims to examine numerous cases to gain insight into an essential phenomenon in this study, literacy leadership. To manage the complex process of analysing and interpreting the qualitative data, the researcher used several activities. These included “immersion in the data, organizing these data into chunks (analysis), and bringing meaning to these chunks (interpretation)” (Rossman & Rallis, 2017, pp. 227 228). McMillan and

4.5 Professional development to improve literacy instruction Quint, Akey, Rappaport and Willner (2007) (cited in Matsumara, Satoris, Di Prima & Garnier, 2009) found that enhanced participation of principals in developmental sessions for teachers, with an emphasis on focusing directly on teaching practices, is connected with better execution in the classroom. This leads to improved performance in reading. Sheppard (1996) and Blasé and Blasé (1998) (cited in Kgatle, 2013) likewise opined that instructional leaders must inspire presence at work related meetings, assemblies and seminars, building a culture of cooperation, knowledge and individual growth Improved levels of teacher teamwork is related to better learner performance in reading (Spillane & Hopkins, 2013), whilst in service training has been meaningfully associated with productive changes in approaches to subjects (Parise & Spillane, cited in Spillane & Hopkins, 2013) Pinello (2015, p. 49) asserted that “literacy leaders should establish a team with a coach, build capacity for literacy and provide time for professional development and establish accountability standards”. Within these forums, principals should direct the attention to definite tasks of instruction rather than nonconcrete deliberations, exact instructional methods and how to teach specific kinds of content to teachers (Townsend et al , 2018).

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the process should be accompanied by asking questions about how and why, and supporting innovative attempts to support student learning (Klar & Brewer, 2013). This process should be accomplished through a persistent emphasis through official and casual consultations with instructors, mentorship, and expert education. Principals should claim the confidence and necessary skills to conduct respectful and productive professional conversations. These should rotate around the improvement of instructional quality (Hoy & Hoy, 2009, cited in Mestry, 2017). Apart from conducting class visits, principals need to be accessible and visible and provide instructional support by conducting informal walk throughs (Klar & Brewer, 2013).

5. Methodology

The trustworthiness of the paper was ensured by considering issues of credibility, dependability, conformability and transferability. Credibility was ensured through the process of member checking and prolonged engagement with the participants. To further guarantee that the responses remained a correct reflection of the data provided in the questionnaires, participants had to be given the opportunity to read the interpreted data. Findings were verified with the help of a colleague to ensure that they are consistent with the data collected. This ensured the dependability of the research. Conformability of the research was ensured by

“Contextual features and their influences on the participants’ experiences are important for qualitative researchers” (see Maxwell, 2013, p. 30). Data were first presented thematically case by case, followed by cross case analysis within Asthemes.theaim was to offer details as to “how” and “why” heads exhibit leadership in literacy, this researcher also utilised the exploratory and descriptive case study design, as proposed by Yin (2011). The data collection process was supported with the observational method (Appendix 1) Information was collected, described and analysed within the context of each school. This included information about:

• the management of the school with regard to good order; and

1. Describe your principal’s knowledge of the skills to be taught in the literacy curriculum (reading, writing and assessment).

• the socio economic position of the neighbourhood in which the school is located; • the quality of the school buildings and classes;

6. Ethical Considerations

Schumacher (2006) stated that to ensure reliability and honesty, the data should relate with participant responses

3. How does your principal provide support to teachers in literacy instruction and assessment?

The first step during the breakdown of the information was to analyse the unique context of the school, since taking context into consideration is important in multiple case studies (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

• a brief observation about the classroom environment.

Information about the quintile status of the school and years of experience of each principal was obtained from the principals of each school

The study sample foundation phase teachers was selected purposefully as they were, as Creswell (2009, p. 178) concluded, “best suited to address the research problem ” Data were collected during the third school quarter of 2019 by means of open ended questionnaires, a method which, according to Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2018), hooks the truthfulness, fullness, profundity and honesty of responses, trademarks of the qualitative approach Prior to the distribution phase of the questionnaires, participants were sensitised around the purposes of the research. The questionnaire (Appendix 2) consisted of three broad questions only, and aimed to elicit participants’ broad perceptions on principals’ knowledge on literacy instruction and assessment:

2. Describe your principal’s knowledge of literacy assessment requirements

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. adhering to what Gasson (2004, p. 93) proposed: “… findings should represent, as far as is (humanly) possible, the situation being researched rather than the beliefs, pet theories, or biases of the researcher.” Transferability was safeguarded through providing sufficient information about the researcher, the research context and processes to allow the reader to select in what way the outcomes can be transferred (Morrow, 2005). Ethical clearance was granted by the University of the Free State (ethics approval number UFS HSD 2019/0087/1808), whilst authorization to conduct the study was gained from the Free State Department of Education (FSDOE). Informed approval was attained from all the participants of the four participating schools prior to the start of the study. Ethical issues considered were drawn from the advice of Cohen et al. (2018). These included participants’ rights to pull out at any phase or not to complete specific items in the questionnaire; an agreement that the research will not harm them (the principle of non maleficence); and the guarantees of confidentiality, anonymity and non traceability in the research. To ensure namelessness, acronyms were used to classify the partakers. Under the discussion of each respective school, T is used for teacher, with the number of the relevant participant for that school (e.g. T1 T8 for School 1, T1 T6 for School 2; etc.).

8. Presentation of the Findings

With referral to the contextual aspect, South African government schools are subjected to a quintile system, where all schools are allocated into one of five categories. This categorisation is due to the country’ s wide economic disparity, the issue of socio economic status and the disparity between rich and poor schools. The schools in the most economically deprived (poorest) geographic parts are categorised as quintile 1, 2 and 3 schools, and those in the greatest economically privileged (wealthiest) environmental areas as quintile 4 and 5 schools. Schools in quintiles 1 to 3 are non fee paying schools and receive more funding per learner

This researcher, see himself as a social constructivist in the research environment He seek what Creswell (2013, p. 24) described as an approach of individuals (researchers) who seek “an understanding of the world in which they live and work” and to “develop subjective meanings of their experiences”. His research focus centres on the core business of the schooling enterprise, teaching and learning in the classroom, but mainly from a leadership approach regarding instruction. Classrooms are dynamic and complex spaces. Harvard professor Richard Elmore (cited in Schmoker, 2006, p. 14) described classrooms as an area protected by a buffer, “ a protective barrier that discourages and even punishes close, constructive scrutiny of instruction the buffer ensures that we know very little about what teachers teach, or how well they teach.” Principals, as instructional leaders, may thus sometimes find it difficult to gain deep knowledge and experiences of instructional practices in the classroom. With the approach of providing open ended questionnaires, the aim was to not pressurise participants by intruding on their buffers. Through the use of open ended questionnaires, “the researcher can listen carefully to what people say and do in the life setting” (Creswell, 2013, p. 25).

7. The Role of the Researcher

The findings on this theme indicate that the participants of this orderly school perceived their principal to have a good understanding of the CAPS literacy curriculum. According to them, this dedicated principal is well informed about the subject content to be taught in literacy. Furthermore, she is well aware of the skills to be taught related to reading and writing. This understanding of the literacy curriculum is interestingly enough contributed to her experience as a language teacher: “Fortunately my principal was a language teacher, she therefore understand the curriculum.” (T1)

8.1

Theme 1: Perceptions on the principal’s knowledge of the skills to be taught in the literacy curriculum

Good support is provided to teachers in the form of professional learning communities and development, workshops and subject meetings. The following excerpts are evidence of the types of support that the principal provides: T1 and T3: “We participate in professional learning committees (PLC).”

Theme 3: Perceptions on how the principal provides support in literacy instruction and assessment

This quintile 3 school is located in a neighbourhood characterised by mixed income housing. Although the reality of poverty and low economic status is evident in the neighbourhood, the infrastructure of the school is sound, and classes are neat with colourful decorations. The dedicated principal has more than 20 years’ experience in this position. The school appeared to be well managed. Eight literacy teachers completed the questionnaire.

“She also makes educators aware of opportunities of professional development ” (T4) “She encourages us to have subject meetings regularly, and attend workshops ” (T3) Participants also revealed that internal moderation processes and supervision form part of the support strategy to improve literacy instruction and assessment T4 proclaimed that these processes are performed mainly by the HODs and grade

School 1

from the government than schools in quintiles 4 and 5 (Ogbonnaya & Awuah, 2019). Below follows a discussion on each participating school, it’s context and the related findings.

Contextual description

On the question of how the participants would describe their principal’ s understanding of literacy assessment requirements, the feedback demonstrates that the principal possesses a good understanding of the requirements. She knows the prescribed amount of assessment tasks to be conducted and ensures their completion according to the CAPS guidelines. According to one of the participants, her knowledge of assessment can also be attributed to her being a language teacher: “She understand the assessments because she was a teacher herself.” (T3)

Theme 2: Perceptions on the principal’s knowledge of literacy assessment requirements

The data on this question show that participants viewed their principal’s knowledge of the literacy curriculum as unsatisfactory. Participants who held this opinion criticised him because of un involvement and lack of commitment in the foundation phase. They regarded the attention to literacy instruction as insufficient. Others opined that the principal is a former mathematics teacher, which they regard as the main reason for his lack of knowledge and commitment to provide leadership in literacy. The issue of an inadequate understanding of the literacy curriculum because of subject experience and involvement as a teacher is evident in this case. One of the participants (T2) asserted: “The principal is not much involved with language as a whole, since he was mathematics educator for 27 years, he normally says that his understanding about language is little.”

heads This is confirmed by T5, who explained that the HOD conducts pre and post moderation of all the work done, including assessment activities. The literacy instructional programme is further monitored by HODs via the Integrated Quality Management System (IQMS), class visits and the inspection of learners’ workbooks. According toone of the participants (T6), the principal follows up with HODs and intervenes where needed.

This school is located in a low income area with visible signs of severe poverty.

Because of this factor, the school has a quintile 2 status. The school building is brand new, and classes are spacious and well furnished. The learning environment in classes is bare, though, with very few classes that have evidence of print rich literacy environments. The principal has five years’ leadership experience. Six questionnaires were completed at this school.

Theme 1: Perceptions on the principal’s knowledge of the skills to be taught in the literacy curriculum

Theme 2: Perceptions on the principal’s knowledge of literacy assessment requirements

This theme elicited very little feedback from the participants. They merely indicated “good” or “not so good” or had poor responses on the question of how they would describe the principal’ s support to teachers Participants viewed the

In response to the question on the principal’ s knowledge of literacy assessment requirements, the findings display that this principal lacks a respectable understanding. The principal’s insufficient understanding of literacy assessment is revealed by comments such as: “he need guidelines regarding assessments related to literacy curriculum” (T1) and “does not have knowledge of the foundation phase” (T3). These comments by participants refer once again to the issue of how not being a language or literacy teacher impacts principals’ knowledge in this regard Concerning this, T4 openly stated: “His knowledge regarding the requirements in reading and writing can be limited because he specialise in another subject area.”

Theme 3: Perceptions on how the principal provides support in literacy instruction and assessment

8.2 School 2 Contextual description

Theme 1: Perceptions on the principal’s knowledge of the skills to be taught in the literacy curriculum

Theme 2: Perceptions on the principal’ s knowledge of literacy assessment requirements

In language departmental meetings, the emphasis is on informal activities. The good practices by the principal regarding the implementation of the literacy assessment policy are supported by the following remark by one of the participants: “She makes sure activities are well coordinated, and that the school have a Programme of Assessment as well as School assessment Plan. Formal tasks for all grades and subjects which is shared with the parents and guardians.” (T8)

School 3 Contextual description

The feedback by participants points out that the principal has a solid understanding of the promotional requirements regarding the literacy curriculum. Being a language teacher herself, she is attuned to a good understanding of assessment as well. This point is reflected in the following statement: “She has taught English, I believe that she has the knowledge regarding everything in English.” (T7)

principal as uninvolved in supporting teachers in the teaching and learning of literacy. 8.3

Theme 3: Perceptions on how the principal provides support in literacy instruction and assessment

On the question of how the principal assists teachers in literacy teaching, findings reveal that the principal employs various strategies for additional literacy

This principal scrutinises relevant literacy policy documents which empower her to have an enhanced understanding of assessmentrequirements. It is also apparent that the principal and the school management teams (SMTs) have sound planning systems in place. This includes an approach where the assessment programme is provided to learners and parents at the commencement of every school year. The aim is to guarantee awareness of when formal assessment tasks will be conducted.

Most of the participants from this school felt that the principal displays adequate knowledge of the literacy curriculum. They ascribed the principal’s knowledge to her years of experience. Their responses to this question indicate that the principal places much emphasis on the reading component of the literacy curriculum.

This neat and well organised school is located in the same neighbourhood as School 2 and falls under the same quintile (2). The principal at this school has more than 30 years of experience. Although the school building is old, it is well looked after and the classes appear also to be conducive for literacy learning. Eleven literacy teachers completed the questionnaires at this school.

T4 mentioned: “She would come during class visits and motivates learners to engage in reading activities. She asks them to explain with which reading activities they are busy with ”

8.4 School 4 Contextual description

Participant replies regarding their principal’s understanding of literacy assessment reveal that the principal lacks a respectable understanding of this aspect. This led to the “principal provide sometimes [sometimes providing] contradicting commands” (T4) The principal’s insufficient understanding of assessment was further revealed by comments such as “he need guidelines regarding assessments related to literacy curriculum” (T6).

Theme 3: Perceptions on how the principal provides support in literacy instruction and assessment

Feedback on this question indicates that the principal, other members of the SMT, and teachers do not attend training opportunities provided by the Department of Education This lack of dedication and commitment is evident in the following comments: “We attend training, but not all teachers were involved in the training. Subject coordinators and HODs does [sic] not always go to trainings.” (T10) “Also important is the fact that principals themselves do not attend these workshops and training, and some are not even involved in the foundation phase: He is more involved at gr. 4 7 ” (T9)

Theme 2: Perceptions on the principal’s knowledge of literacy assessment requirements

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. instruction opportunities. For example, T4 alluded to the fact that their principal implements marathon classes, whereas T6 opined that the principal supports each phase’s initiative plans. T8 and T7 said that their principal provides feedback to all phases and offers support wherever she is able, within the IQMS setup. Support to teachers also entails internal moderation processes by the HOD and grade heads, who conduct pre and post moderation. These SMT members also conduct moderation of assessment activities and supervise instruction on behalf of the principal, as mentioned by T9.

This school also has a quintile 2 status. The principal is newly appointed, with only one month’s experience in this role. The school buildings are solid, but very filthy. The school appeared to be noisy and overcrowded. The classes are also not very neat and, in some places, have graffiti on the walls. Ten teachers filled in the questionnaires at this school.

Theme 1: Perceptions on the principal’s knowledge of the skills to be taught in the literacy curriculum

The participants from this school also opined that their principal has a solid understanding of the skills within the literacy curriculum. This knowledge is linked to his experience as a language teacher. This argument is reflected by the following two participants’ responses: “The principal is a language teacher and have a broad knowledge of literacy.” (T2) “Our principal was a former language teacher. He is very much aware of the requirements because he is himself a language teacher.” (T8)

Quarterly subject meetings appeared to be a popular way to address literacy challenges “HOD’S and principals keep teachers informed about recent developments in literacy instruction,” T8 mentioned. Interestingly enough, though, is that participants pointed out the existence of reading, poetry, speech and spelling competitions at their school Discussion and Analysis of the Findings Across Cases Context

The views of the participating foundation phase teachers across the participating schools indicate contradicting findings on this theme Participants at Schools 1 and 3 opined that their principals have a firm grounding of literacy instruction and the literacy curriculum. These excellent principals’ sound knowledge is attributed to their subject teaching experience Both these leaders also have many years of experience as principals. These factors enable them to provide sound direction with respect to literacy instruction. Manna (2015) declared that excellent principals can have a powerful impact on teachers.

The participants from Schools 2 and 4, though, felt that their principals’ knowledge base with respect to literacy is wanting. This finding is in line with previous research, which indicates that curriculum and instructional knowledge is lacking amongst some South African principals (Kgatla, 2013; Taylor & Hoadley, 2018; Plaatjies, 2019). It is also clear from the data that the principals of School 2 (a former mathematics teacher) and School 4 (a newly appointed principal) lack commitment and experience. It is furthermore possible that work overload, inadequate time, contextual challenges and the new position of principalship might be overwhelming This finding is in line with what Mestry (2017) determined regarding principals who experience countless problems in matching varied organisational obligations with their curriculum headship tasks. This therefore

The data reveal that all participating schools are located in communities with high poverty rates, with School 1 exposed to a lesser degree to contextual challenges than the other three schools, due to the mixed income factor Research demonstrates that providing instructional leadership in such disadvantaged environments can be a daunting exercise. Consequently, it may be difficult to provide rich learning opportunities to vulnerable and at risk learners (Scott, 2017).

The findings are discussed below based on the research questions, themes presented and in conjunction with the literature review Research Question 1: Perceptions on principals’ knowledge of the skills to be taught in the literacy curriculum

Despite the locations of the schools, the infrastructure and general neatness of the schools were sound, except for School 4. This can probably be attributed to the lack of experience and low commitment levels of the principal. Only School 3 displayed evidence of a print rich literacy environment, which is a sign of what Manna (2015) regarded as vital for effectiveness for serving children with the fewest advantages in life. Schools appeared to be in good order, except for School 4.

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. questions whether principals have the capability to take on all the responsibilities by Thethemselveslackofsufficient curriculum and instructional knowledge amongst principals may have enormous repercussions. It can complicate matters to provide strong curriculum coordination and instructional support, and it hampers trust and respect towards principals (Taylor & Hoadley, 2018). Teachers expect their leaders to possess expertise as instructional and curriculum leaders (see Dempster et al., 2017) and smart principals are aware of this. Leithwood, Louis, Anderson and Wahlstroom (2004, p. 11) even went so far as to argue that “the curricular knowledge of successful elementary principals frequently rivals the curricular knowledge of their teachers”.

The data demonstrate that the principals from Schools 1 and 3 are knowledgeable regarding literacy assessment requirements This is in line with what Lear (2017) proposed, that principals should have a have a deep understanding of the various components of literacy learning, including assessment based instruction. Their knowledge is ascribed to possessing teaching experience in literacy and languages, whereas the lack of knowledge of the principals of Schools 2 and 4 is once again ascribed to not having this kind of teaching experience. Very little feedback was given on this aspect, especially by the participants of School 2. This gave the impression of a lack of leadership and management attention by principals. Zimmerman (2017) confirmed that many South African primary schools do not have management and planning structures and strategies

Not surprising, though, is that where principals display a lack of knowledge of the literacy curriculum, it is ascribed to them not teaching the subject (as is the case with School 2). This finding is consistent with what Key (cited in Pinello, 2015, p. 46) found: “… principals with reading instruction backgrounds were found to be more attentive to literacy instruction and also have a better overall knowledge of literacy” Strangely enough, this finding is partially in contrast to what is expected from principals as instructional leaders. As Townsend et al. (2018, p. 207) put it: “there is a need for principals to have good content knowledge about literacy ” According to this viewpoint, it is a prerequisite for principals to have sound knowledge, irrespective of being a subject teacher or not in literacy.

Research Question 2: Perceptions on principals’ knowledge of literacy assessment requirements

A pleasant finding is the emphasis that the two principals of Schools 1 and 3 put on internal moderation processes to evaluate assessment practices The question remains unanswered, however, whether these promising efforts are sufficient to meticulously adhere to the monitoring and moderation of assessment requirements. Dole and Nelson (cited in Bean & Dagen, 2012, p. 149) stated in this regard that “literacy leaders need to be effective leaders in assisting teachers to monitor carefully what is taught in literacy” The data did not conclude, though, whether a well coordinated internal moderation plan was present to rigorously attend to every aspect of literacy instruction and assessment. Zimmerman (2017) warned that in these non privileged settings, such managerial ineffectiveness

The data reveal that Schools 1 and 3 displayed some noteworthy practices regarding the assistance that principals provide to teachers in literacy instruction and assessment The orderly environments and many actions in support of teachers are evidence of these principals’ commitment. This finding confirms the association between principals’ actions and dedication and improvement in instruction and assessment. Manna (2015) raised this issue by claiming that principals can, through their engagements, be influential multipliers of active instruction and guidance practices in schools. Similarly, Zimmerman (2017, p. 39) pointed out that “high performing schools serving low income learners need a safe, orderly and positive environment, strong leaders, excellent teachers, competent, committed, caring, collaborative teachers with a sense of pride, competence and purpose of the school”

Research Question 3:

The lack of involvement by the principals of Schools 2 and 4 is also evident under this theme. According to Hoadley (2018), a neglected aspect with respect to literacy leadership is the attention to the management of reading activities. This may be because of principals’ lack of subject knowledge and experience. This view is supported by Pinello (2015), who claimed that several managers lack the essential information and abilities to successfully upkeep literacy development Superville (2019) warned, however, that it might be unrealistic and unfair to expect principals to possess deep content knowledge of all the subjects taught, including subjects that they may not have taken when they were students. Given the lack of attention to the issue, it is quite interesting to note that Schools 1 and 4 hold regular subject meetings as part of a support strategy. Participants did not elaborate in detail on what the assistance from principals entails, giving the impression that sufficient planning and monitoring are lacking. For Zimmerman (2017), planning and monitoring of literacy teaching and learning are key activities which lead to high levels of accountability in the school management structure. In almost all the responses, participants indicated only one or another form of support, and not varied forms of support. This ranged from the popular subject meeting to professional learning development For example, participants did not indicate how professional learning groups address improvement in specific components of literacy instruction and assessment. Neither did they provide details on how committees, workshops and training deal with challenging aspects related to literacy instruction. These findings seem to be consistent with Mbhalati (2017) and Bomer and Maloch’s (2019) work, in which they claimed that professional development strategies in literacy instruction are lacking. A possible explanation for this might be the difficulties associated to get

Perceptions on how principals provide support in literacy instruction and assessment

Townsend et al (2018, p. 207) were of the view that such an approach should be encouraged by solid evidence of learners’ abilities, so that what they need to do subsequent is well aground. This should be supported by subject meetings conducted at least twice per quarter.

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. everyone involved in professional development activities, as this can be a tricky exercise (Bomer & Maloch, 2019). These forms of teacher supervision are supported by Bouchamma (2012, p. 3) “ as part of a committed principal’s PD [professional development] strategy” and by Townsend et al (2018, p. 207), who preferred “a commitment to focused professional conversations, or disciplined dialogue”

finding in the study is that there is little evidence of classroom visits, observation of lessons and visibility of principals. None of the participants alluded to this aspect of instructional leadership. Hallinger (2011) stated that this direct oversight and maintaining of instructional oversight do pay off. Also absent from the participants’ feedback is how principals address instructional challenges through formal and informal discussions with teachers, classroom visits and observations, and other forms of targeted professional development activities. Superville (2019) pointed out that a firm grounding by the principal in the classroom environment is necessary to have educated conversations with teachers about strengths and weaknesses. It seems that principals possibly do not have the expertise, motivation or enough time to perform these crucial functions. Mestry (2017) concurred that most principals devote little periods in classrooms and even fewertime analysing syllabus delivery with educators.

. The participants’ vague explanations on what professional development activities entail provide the impression that neither the participants as teachers nor the principals really possess an in depth understanding of what professional development activities for literacy entail. This finding appears to indicate a possible lack of intellectual engagement on literacy instruction, and is confirmed by Mestry (2017), who claimed that principals hardly offer knowledgeable direction for progress on instructional matters

It is interesting to note that the role of HODs as instructional leaders were highlighted overwhelmingly, especially in Schools 1, 3 and 4 This in line with the desired approach of shared leadership as by Guth and Pettingull (cited in Pinello, 2015). Principals cannot make the essential inroads alone toward a fruitful literacy programme which includes supporting classroom instruction (Pinello, 2015).

HODs’ involvement as literacy leaders can be ascribed to principals’ heavy workloads, a distributed leadership approach by principals and/or adhering to the related policy requirements, which require involvement of the entire SMT. The Standard for Principal ship document, for instance, places a responsibility on principals to “empower staff to become instructional leaders who share the responsibility for achieving the mission, vision and goals that have been set” (DBE, 2016, p. 21). The PAM document (DBE, 2016, p. 27), on the other hand, requires that the “Departmental Head should co ordinate evaluation/assessment, written assignments, etc. of all the subjects in that department” Interestingly enough, only participants from School 4 referred to support including specific content related Astrategies.ratherdisappointing

11. References Adom, D., Ankrah, A., & Yeboah, A. (2018). Constructivism philosophical paradigm: Implication for research, teaching and learning. [online] Eajournals.org. Retrieved from http://www.eajournals.org/ wp content/uploads/Constructivism

The findings suggest that some principals have a sound knowledge of the literacy curriculum. Those who lack knowledge will be unable to provide strong instructional leadership, which can hamper teachers in developing deep, engaging literacy lessons for foundation phase learners. On the other hand, sound knowledge of the curriculum and instruction may ground principals to provide educated support to teachers. This is especially vital in the challenging high poverty contexts. To address the deficiency on literacy curriculum knowledge amongst principals, it is recommended that the four schools engage in a collaborative professional development strategy. With regard to the second research question, the findings indicate almost similar outcomes on the competency and commitment levels of the respective principals The implication of this finding is that principals will struggle to provide in depth support to teachers in assessment practices. They should therefore undergo training to obtain a basic understanding of the literacy assessment framework.

The data suggest that principals utilise a variety of strategies to support teachers with instruction. However, the data also show less support with respect to assessment. Consequently, teachers’understanding regarding assessmentmay not be up to standard. To this end, continuous professional development and training sessions should be comprehensive in addressing the needs of teachers with regard to Anysupport.research project has its limitations and this one is no exception. With regard to the methodology employed, a mixed methods approach may have provided more clarity on principals’ knowledge of subject content, assessment and instruction. The quantitative aspect of a mixed methods design might have classified the frequency of principals’ engagement in instructional leadership duties such as supervision and classroom observation.

Philosophical Paradigm Implication for Research Teaching and Learning.pdf Alig Mielcarek, J. M. (2003). A model of school success: Instructional leadership, academic press, and student achievement (Doctoral dissertation). Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Bean, R. M., & Dagen, S.W. (2012). Best practices of literacy as leaders. Keys to school improvement. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Bomer,R.,&Maloch,B.(2019).Lessonsforleadersonthepreparationofliteracyeducators. Journal of Literacy Research, 51(2), 259 264.

10. Conclusion

This paper set out to determine the perceptions of foundation phase teachers on principals as literacy leaders in selected primary schools. Focusing only on the components of instruction and assessment, this study extended knowledge of principals’ leadership abilities in this regard.

https://www.sapanational.com/files/POLICY

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The Challenges Faced by Pre Service Mathematics Teachers during their Teaching Practice in the UAE: Implications for Teacher Education Programs Adeeb M. Jarrah United Arab Emirates University, United Arab Emirates https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8216 8848

1. Introduction The teaching of mathematics, or any subject, for that matter, is a multifaceted task. To do this successfully, students need and deserve knowledgeable teachers, who are willing to learn about their students as learners of mathematics, and to acquire the skills, disposition, and instructional strategies needed to teach the subject (Kilpatrick & Swafford, 2001). To achieve this goal, teacher training has become a

Abstract. Teaching practice is a fundamental component of teacher education programs, not only because it provides student teachers with first hand experience, but also because it is an opportunity for them to put into action everything they have learned about education and their subject matter. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the challenges that encounter pre service mathematics teachers during their teaching practice in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). A qualitative phenomenological approach was used. Data for this research were collected through semi structured interviews with fourteen participants seriouscommonwasattheendoftheirteachereducationprogram.Athematiccontentanalysisperformedonthecontentofinterviewtranscriptstoidentifythemes.Theemergingthemesrevealedthatparticipantshadconcernsandtheyencounteredvariousdifficultiesduring teaching practice. Notable findings included participants’ difficulties transferring theoretical knowledge into practice, lack of availability of manipulatives, challenges with student discipline and classroom management, difficulty experimenting with innovative pedagogical practices, and concerns regarding the structure and the timing of the student teaching program. For student teachers to emerge at the end of their teaching practice as qualified and confident professional teachers, it is imperative that teacher preparation programs and school administrators reflect on the findings of this study. The study concluded with recommendations to direct future research.

Keywords: Teaching Challenges; Student Teacher; Classroom Management; Student Discipline; Teacher Training

A review of the literature was conducted concerning the challenges encountered by pre service teachers during their student teaching. It is worth noting that the terms teaching practice, practicum, or student teaching are often used interchangeably in the literature (Grootenboer, 2006).

2.1 Teaching practice

2. Literature Review

As is generally true, teaching practice in the United Arab Emirates University (UAEU) context is one of the most important elements of a teacher education program, and it is expected that a student teacher will gain valuable experience from it. Once student teachers complete their coursework, composed of 126 credit hours, they practice teaching in schools for one semester of 16 weeks During this teaching practice period, student teachers must demonstrate mastery of all standards for beginner teachers accepted by the teacher education program in the College of Education. Students are expected to spend a full semester of practice teaching in an elementary school During this time, they are expected to gather experience of certain duties and roles as part of their induction to teaching, and it

top priority in many countries, including the United Arab Emirates (UAE), where the preparation of well qualified teachers is one of the eight pillars of the UAE’s educational development vision (Vision 2021, 2017). Specifically, the vision for 2021 is to ensure that all of the UAE’s private and public schools have highly qualified teachers who are sensitive to the needs of a diverse student population, dedicated to high quality learning experiences for all students, and committed to life long professional learning and growth (Vision 2021, 2017). Thus, teacher education programs must examine the process of preparing pre service mathematics teachers, including their readiness, attitudes, competency, and teaching Teachingpractice.practiceis

a fundamental component of teacher education programs, not only because it provides student teachers with first hand experience, but also because it is an opportunity for them to put into action everything they have learned about education and their subject matter (Maphosa, Shumba & Shumba, 2007; Abdullah, Omar, Embong & Bakar, 2015; Trent, 2013). Teaching practice exposes student teachers to the real world of teaching and acquaints them with the complexity of classroom practice, thus contributing to their future orientation towards the teaching profession (Fajardo & Miranda, 2015). However, teaching practice is also a challenging experience (Ferrier Kerr, 2009; Trent, 2013), and for this reason it is important to ensure that student teachers are supported as well as possible. Therefore, the focus of this study is to uncover the challenges faced by pre service mathematics teachers during their teaching practice in the UAE. Thus, this research adds knowledge to the literature on the challenges student teachers encounter during their teaching practice in Emirati elementary schools, since no such study was found upon reviewing the related literature. The research may benefit those dealing with teacher preparation programs, and may also provide school administrators with a better understanding of student teachers’ needs during this essential phase of their teacher preparation.

A third issue which has emerged in the literature as a challenge for pre service teachers is classroom management, since student teachers only have a theoretical rather than practical knowledge of this area. This issue tends to be compounded by a lack of guidance and cooperation by schools on classroom management for pre service teachers (Moussaid & Zerhouni, 2017). In a study conducted by Han and Ye (2015), it was suggested that pre service teachers encounter many difficulties in China regarding classroom management, when teaching students learning English for university. These very problematic experiences in the classroom may be ascribed to the fact that the pre service teacher’s authority is lower than fully trained and experienced teachers (Foncha, Abongdia & Adu, 2015). Furthermore, student teachers can experience a great deal of anxiety about managing the classroom, and this may cause serious problems with their post training classroom management (Foncha, Abongdia & Adu, 2015).

A fourth concern seen in the previous research relates to pedagogic challenges. In a study by Moussaid and Zerhouni (2017), pre service teachers encountered various difficulties, one of which was teaching methodology. Under this umbrella, they included lesson planning and delivery, lack of teaching experience, managing lesson pace and transitions, contextualization and modelling, and lack of pedagogical content knowledge. In another study, Gökçek (2018) investigated sixty one pre service teachers who had enrolled in a compulsory six hour teaching practicum. The study concluded that the pre service teachers faced

2.2 Challenges of Pre service Teachers

The literature reports several challenges experienced by pre service teachers. One of these relates to theoretical knowledge to teaching practice in real classroom settings, and this problem has been reported as a major concern (Gan, 2013; Peercy, 2012). For example, Gan (2013) reported that pre service teachers voiced difficulties about applying the theory studied in their coursework to their classroom practice. According to Peercy (2012), pre service teachers do not use the theories they learn on training programs, and face difficulty bridging the gap between theory and practice. A second issue reported in the literature by pre service teachers concerns the availability and use of manipulatives. Educators believe physical objects help students enjoy learning, keep them engaged, and narrow the gap between abstract and concrete concepts (Furner & Worrell 2017; Cockett & Kilgour; 2015; Larbi & Mavis, 2016). As a learning resource, the use of manipulatives encourages students to engage with learning in concrete ways. However, in a study in the Philippines, Ulla (2016) indicated that a lack of teaching resources prompted pre service teachers to recycle strategies and methods. In another study on teachers’ beliefs and teaching mathematics with manipulatives, Golafshani (2013) recommended that schools provide teachers with resources to increase the use of manipulatives, to provide teachers with a greater range of teaching strategies in their classroom situations.

is also intended that they develop and understand the knowledge and skills required in more depth. However, little is known about what transpires during this essential period of a UAEU student teacher’s life because of a lack of research within the UAE context (Ibrahim, 2013).

These studies indicate that student teachers’ general experience of pre service teaching could be improved. In this regard, student teaching programs must be structured to provide trainees with experiences that help them to develop and grow into professional teachers (Johnson, 2015). Various researchers have described what an effective structure for student teaching should necessitate. First, long training duration is preferred in many different countries such as Jordan and China (Han & Ye, 2015; Hamidi, Al Shara, Arouri & Abu Awwad, 2014). In Jordan, this preference might be because pre service teachers first need to become acquainted with the school system, and then with the teaching systems and styles (Hamidi, Al Shara, Arouri & Abu Awwad, 2014). In China, pre service teachers lamented how short training programs are insufficient, since by the time they become familiar with a school, the program has ended (Han & Ye, 2015). In a comparative study of practicum experiences in ten universities, Manzar Abbas and Lu (2013) notably reported that the duration of the practicum is short and its timing inappropriate. They therefore recommended increasing the duration and sending student teachers into schools much earlier.

The above summary and discussion of the literature indicate that teaching practice is crucial for the personal and professional development and growth of pre service teachers (Azhar & Kayani, 2017). Therefore, the need to investigate and improve the impact of their experience is key. The main purpose of the present study is thus to investigate the challenges that encounter pre service mathematics teachers during their teaching practice in the UAE.

The purpose was to explore the lived experiences and challenges of a group of pre service mathematics teachers during teaching practice. To this end, the phenomenological approach was considered appropriate since it would allow participants to describe their lived experiences freely, and thus provide specific insights. The phenomenological approach would also contribute to a more profound understanding of these challenges. According to Creswell (2013: 76), “phenomenological study describes the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon”. Phenomenological research is typically conducted through in depth interviews, in which

2.3 Research Question

several challenges, including the use of activities, materials, methods, and techniques, and instilling an affection for mathematics. In a study on the impact of a school based practicum on pre service teachers’ affective development in mathematics, although forty per cent of the participants had positive views of their experience after practicum, fifty per cent were neutral Grootenboer (2006).

The study sought to answer the following question: What challenges do pre service mathematics teachers encounter during their teaching practice?

3. Methodology

3.1 Research design

3.5 Data Analysis

The fourteen female participants of this study were all senior students enrolled in their final semester of the elementary education program in the College of Education at the UAEU. The rationale for focusing on just fourteen pre service teachers was because they were the only available students in their final two years. Participants were therefore chosen based on purposive sampling.

3.3 Data collection

4. Results Table 1 illustrates the results for the first research question on the challenges faced by pre service mathematics teachers during their teaching practice. Participants’ perspectives formed five important themes.

Prior to analysis, the collected data were transcribed from the audio recording, and then analyzed using Thematic Content Analysis (TCA) to identify the emergent themes (Anderson, 2007). With TCA, similar patterns and views found in the data are gathered and put into categories, and these are then placed under specific themes. It is worth mentioning that the researcher completed the data analysis process independently before the same process was repeated by another colleague to improve the quality and credibility of the findings.

The researcher conducted individual interviews in Arabic as participants were native Arabic speakers, and the interview time was approximately 45 60 minutes each. Participants were briefed about the purpose of the interviews and the nature of the research, and given assurances about ethical considerations such as confidentiality; they were also told that they could terminate the interview at any time. All interviews were audio recorded for later use, after consent forms had been given. To protect the identities of the participants, the researcher abbreviated each participant by the code PMT plus a number, i.e. PMT1–PMT14.

27 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. participants have the freedom to express their views in their own terms (Creswell, 2007). For this reason, the study used semi structured interviews for the data collection.

3.4 The Research Instrument

To gather detailed information about the lived experience of the participants, it was essential to construct questions that covered different dimensions of teaching practice, and which would provide descriptive answers. Two general questions were developed based on a review of the relevant literature and the researcher’ s experience in teaching and learning mathematics. Thus, open ended questions were constructed to encourage participants to share concerns and views. Specifically, the following two questions were used as a general outline: What challenges did you encounter during your teaching practice? What strategies did you use to overcome the challenges you encountered? Additionally, participants’ answers were often explored further with follow up questions, to obtain more information, further clarification, or specific examples.

3.2 Participants

4.ChallengesPedagogical

PPPMT3MT4MT9

PPPPMT8MT10MT13MT14

“I had one student with special needs…I was not sure if I was doing the right thing dealing with him.”

“I was scared and I felt I was not part of the school at the beginning of the experience.” “One semester is not enough. We should be exposed to teaching much earlier in our program.”

Two participants thought that several university courses they completed during their undergraduate program were too theoretical, and failed to provide them with the means to cope with the realities of the classroom. As one participant stated, “I feel that there are a number of courses that talked about many theories and I did not benefit from these during my student teaching”(PMT1).Anotherparticipantstated that some university courses were about theory without any connection to actual

5. structureteachingStudent

2. Availability Manipulativesof

“My students thought I was there to visit or play, not to teach …that is why they did not listen and they were “Studentsmisbehaving.”didnot keep quiet and I spent a lot of time trying to make them quiet…because of that I did not finish my lessons.” “It was very difficult to manage my class because my students did not think of me as a real teacher.” “I tried to apply what I learned fromcourses to manage students...I felt I need more strategies to control them.”

PPPPMT7MT9MT11MT13

Table 1. Themes & Samples of Quotations by Mathematics Pre Service Teachers

3.DisciplineStudent ManagementClassroomand

PPPMT8MT9MT2

“Students struggle with some mathematical terms because of their lack of language.”

“I did not gain much experience regarding what happens in staff meetings because I was excluded from such meetings.”

“I felt like the students were not engaged because I was afraid to suggest innovative teaching methods to my cooperative teacher.”

Theme PMT Samples of Quotations by Participants

“I struggled with lesson planning because we were trained in English but we had to teach in Arabic.”

Theme 1. Relating Theory to Practice

“The school where I was placed to do my student teaching did not have enough manipulatives to demonstrate mathematical concepts to students.” “Lack of Support in Terms of Materials and “MyEquipment.”professor taught us how to teach mathematical concepts with concrete objects …but what I needed was not available.”

1. Relating Theory to Practice PPMT1MT5 “I feel that there are a number of courses that talked about many theories and I did not benefit from during my student teaching.” “I had very limited exposure to actual classrooms during my training to relate the theories studies to the reality of teaching.”

Theme 5. Student teaching structure

Regarding pedagogical challenges, participants felt that they were not comfortable suggesting or trying a different teaching methodology than the one used by the cooperative teacher. As one participant explained, “I felt like the students were not engaged because I was afraid to suggest innovative teaching methods to my cooperative teacher” (PMT8). Another participant thought the students’ limited English proficiency had negative effects on her pedagogical practices. One participant pointed out, “Students struggle with some mathematical terms because of their lack of language” (PMT10). Another participant lacked confidence when she was interacting with a special needs student, and commented, “I was not sure if I was doing the right thing dealing with him” (PMT13).

The interviewed teachers reflected on the structure of how student teachers were allowed to practice teaching, and pointed out several issues with its current

Theme 2. The Availability of Manipulatives

Theme 3. Student Discipline and Classroom Management

Student discipline and classroom management was the most frequently mentioned challenge by participants. They highlighted their lack of management skills and how difficult it was to teach disruptive students. Participants’ comments regarding this challenge were as follows: “My students thought I was there to visit or play, not to teach …that is why they did not listen and they were misbehaving. ” (PMT7) “Students did not keep quiet and I spent a lot of time trying to make them quiet…because of that I did not finish my lessons.” (PMT9)

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. classroom practice. PMT5 believed that she “…had very limited exposure to actual classrooms during training to relate the theories studies to the reality of teaching.”

“It was very difficult to manage my class because my students did not think of me as a real teacher.” (PMT11) “I tried to apply what I had learned from courses to manage students...I felt I need more strategies to control them.” (PMT13)

A fourth participant noted that she faced difficulty planning and delivering a quality lesson because she was trained in a different language to the one she was using for teaching. Participant PMT14 thus explained, “I struggled with lesson planning because we were trained in English, but we had to teach in Arabic.”

Similarly,theavailabilityofmanipulatives as achallengewas echoed by PMT 9, who said “My professor taught us how to teach mathematical concepts with concrete objects …but what I needed was not available.”

Theme 4. Pedagogical Challenges

Participants stated how they had learned that the use of manipulatives is very effective for enhancing student understanding. However, three participants believed that the lack of these manipulatives had hindered their performance as mathematics teachers. PMT3 stated that, “The school where I was placed to do my student teaching did not have enough manipulatives to demonstrate mathematical concepts to students.”

format. Participant PMT2 believed that one semester of teaching might not be enough to gain the skills needed, and she stated, “I did not gain much experience regarding what happens in staff meetings, because I was excluded from such meetings.”

5. Discussion and Conclusion

The aim of this study was to explore the challenges encountered by pre service mathematics teachers during their student teaching period, and in this regard, the in depth interviews uncovered several important challenges. While all the student teachers in this study indicated that they benefited from the experience of teaching practice, they also experienced challenges which may have affected their ability to grow, and to learn what teaching as a profession entails. It is, therefore, necessary to address and overcome these challenges to avoid any negative effect on student teachers’ perceptions of becoming a teacher.

Another participant reinforced this belief, saying that “One semester is not enough. We should be exposed to teaching much earlier in our program” (PMT9). These and other participants felt that exposure to a school setting much earlier would help them to avoid being scared, as PMT8 expressed when she said, “I was scared, and I felt I was not part of the school at the beginning of the experience.”

First, with regard to relating theory to practice, and as shown in the interview excerpt, the participants commented that university courses helped them gain an overview of certain pedagogical theories, but crucially they did not know how to translate this knowledge to the classroom. The challenge of relating theory to practice has also been documented by other studies (Gan, 2013; Peercy, 2012). Indeed, since the 1960s, the disparity between university coursework and the realities of teaching practice has been a consistent issue (Cochran Smith, 2005; Korthagen, 2010). However, teacher educators are yet to find an effective way to bridge the gap between theory and practice. The responses of this sample of interviewees may suggest that the teacher preparation program they experienced is either unfamiliar with what is needed in schools, or does not provide enough opportunities to practice what was learned. Thus, supporting the learning of student teachers requires that the teacher preparation program links student teaching experience in schools with on campus coursework (Darling Hammond, The2006).finding on the lack of availability of manipulatives may be why these student teachers did not feel innovative and had difficulty engaging students. This is in line with Ulla (2016), who also found that a lack of teaching resources for pre service teachers meant that they recycled strategies and methods. Moreover, the participants in this study echoed Golafshani’s recommendation that schools provide teachers with manipulatives to use as teaching strategies that fit their classroom situation (2013). Furthermore, the availability of manipulatives is an effective tool in mathematics instruction because students can visualize the mathematical concepts before they are introduced to them in the abstract form (Furner & Worrell, 2017). One serious obstacle faced by these student teachers was how to manage classrooms and control students. As shown in the interview excerpts, the

participants mentioned these obstacles more than any other topic, and they specifically commented on the difficulty of teaching lessons because students were disruptive and the classroom became difficult to manage. Nguyen, Tran, and Luu (2017) reported similar results, and indicated that student teachers view classroom management as a major challenge, particularly student misbehavior, in the practicum context. Other studies have reported similar results, and suggest that this challenge may have a negative impact on student teachers’ views of the teaching profession (Uibu, Salo, Ugaste & Rasku Puttonen, 2017; Gan, 2013). The large number of student teachers who report issues with classroom management may be linked to the fact that they have theoretical knowledge, but lack the chance to put it into practice during the earlier part of their preparation programs. These results point to an urgent need for embedding classroom management techniques into the curricula of teacher education programs, rather than maintaining the traditional focus on theories.

The challenge of pedagogical and content knowledge was also a concern expressed by the student teachers during their teaching practice. In this case, however, the challenge was being afraid to apply some of the more innovative teaching methods they had learned in their preparation program due to potential conflict with the cooperative teacher. This finding is similar to Gan’s study (2013), which noted the difficulty of experimenting with the innovative pedagogical practices learned on their methodology courses. In the current study, the findings also revealed that the student teachers lacked the confidence to choose appropriate teaching strategies with special needs students. Equipping student teachers with strategies for dealing with special need students is extremely important because the UAE has adopted a law which places such students in mainstream education. As shown in the interview excerpt, one participant said that the reason she faced difficulty was the language of instruction, as she had been trained in English but was using Arabic in her student teaching. Finally, while all participants stated that they had benefited greatly from the experience, they also had concerns regarding the structure of the training program, and reported that one semester was insufficient to become acquainted with the requirements and practice of teaching. Similar results about the duration of student teaching were reported by Mutlu (2014). Additionally, participants expressed a desire to be exposed to the experience of teaching earlier in their preparation program, rather than waiting until the very last semester. Again, this is similar to the findings of Mutlu (2014), who reported that student teachers thought their teaching practice should start in the second or third year of their preparation program.

To summarize, this study has explored the challenges faced by pre service mathematics teachers during their teaching practice in the UAE. To achieve the intended objective, fourteen participants from the College of Education at the UAEU were interviewed. The results indicated that pre-service teachers encountered several challenges: relating theory to practice; the availability of manipulatives; student discipline and classroom management; pedagogical challenges; and, the structure of the program for student teachers.

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6. Implications and Future Research

This study has value for teacher education programs throughout the UAE because it provides different institutions with an opportunity to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of their student teaching program. The voices emerging from this study require teacher education programs to re examine their practices both on and off campus. Specifically, the ﬁndings point to the need for teacher educators to be vigilant about the content of their coursework, and how it translates to meaningful practices in schools. Furthermore, it is necessary for teacher education programs to listen to their trainee teachers and the challenges they face during the student teaching period. For student teachers to emerge at the end of their teaching practice as qualified and confident professional teachers, and to improve how they are prepared, it is essential to explore and overcome the challenges they face during this key period. Future research should, therefore, complement this study by exploring the challenges from the point of view of cooperating teachers and university supervisors. This study has some limitations which must be acknowledged. Specifically, the results of the study may not be generalized due to the small sample size and the research method employed. Larger scale studies with different research methodology may yield more concrete results.

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35 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 35 54, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.32020 Incorporating Academic Writing Phrases into EFL Students’ Research Proposals Anselmus Sudirman Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa, Yogyakarta, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5520 9838 Adria Vitalya Gemilang Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa, Yogyakarta, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 7784 7811 Hendrikus Male Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4424 7852 Abstract. The phrasal expressions in research proposals represent an integral semantic unit coherently, including the basic academic phrases and syntactic elements. The objectives of this research are (1) to describe the types of academic writing phrases in EFL students' research proposals,(2)tofindoutthebenefitsofacademic writingphrases,and(3) the problems that EFL students faced while constructing academic writing phrases. This interpretive/qualitative research seeks to identify, classify, and analyse data pertaining to the academic writing phrases in considerationsacceptability.advancement,exploreEFLwritingwriting,phraseskeyobjectivesandare28researchproposals.Theresultsshowtheacademicwritingphrasesthatorganisedintointroducingthetopicusingspecificwritingphrasesguidelines,identifyingthesignificanceoftheissue,thescopesandoftheresearch,thereviewofliterature,andtheexplanationofterms.Thesecontributionsconfirmthebenefitsofacademicwritingforeducationalpurposes,namelytopursueknowledgeofEFLencourageselfconfidence,supportselfawarenessandmodifypractices.Asreflectedthroughtheinterviewresults,however,studentsareafraidofmakingmistakes,andtheyfindithardtoideasanduseacademicwritingphrasestoenhancelinguisticmetalinguisticknowledge,phrasalfamiliarity,clarity,andThepedagogicalimplicationsofthefindingsmeritfurther Keywords: writing; academic writing; academic writing phrases; EFL students; research proposals

researchers have identified several problems concerning the use of academic writing phrases in EFL contexts. In terms of phraseological area, EFL students tend to use unclear collocations and phrases in the pedagogical corpora widely incorporated into teaching materials (Oakey, 2020). In what follows, there is a growing gap between the stocks of phrases and the way they are either taught or used in the classroom. For example, lexical bundles in specific contexts (Hyland, 2008) do not contain lexical words, giving rise to the difficulties in understanding academic writing phrases (Oakey, 2020), and less focused classroom interactions (Parkinson & Musgrave, 2014) account for the dynamics of writing performances.

put more emphasis on interlingual transfer of idioms, and collocations (Afshunpour & Memari, 2014; Chen, 2019). The unit of phrasal expressions designates a coherent semantic unit including base phrase chunking and syntactic constraints (Kozawa, Sakai, Sugiki & Matsubara, 2010). Besides, academic words or phrases (Akbari, 2017) can be found in the research proposal formats, guidelines, and section class identifications Both common words and phrasal expressions are based on the locality classification that underline the frequency of academic writing phrases in each section. As academic writing has been a major concern for non native speakers of English, they encounter difficulties in communicating verbal ideas (Kozawa, Sakai, Sugiki & Matsubara, 2010), and using academic writing phrases. Consequently, they cannot improve their grammatical performances, organizations of ideas, writing quality (Abbas, Hammad,Hwang, Khan & Gilani, 2020), and linguistic expressions (Qin & Uccelli, Other2020)

EFL students keep a firm commitment to use academic writing phrases in a wide variety of writing practices. Without mastering academic writing phrases, they may lead to a degree of writing complexity and the communication of ideas fails to be expressed as clearly as possible. Most students write in the EFL environment that is more or less influenced by their mother tongues, in this case, Indonesian language or other local languages. The outcome of their writing seems uncommon to native speakers of English because of inter lingual errors (Elfiondri, 2019) and inter lingual interference involving a translation strategy in a mother tongue

1. Introduction

The primary focus of this research is to examine three areas in academic writing that challenge EFL students to explore academic writing across contexts (Qin & Uccelli, 2020). First, the phraseological praxis in academic writing articulates a mode of academic phrases. The term academic, in a broad sense, puts forward theoretical and practical grounds of writing phrases and their relevant contributions to the organization of ideas. Second, academic writing phrases in the introductory part of aresearch proposal comprise the background information of issues, research objectives, research questions, hypotheses, and the synopsis of methodological platforms. Distinctive categories of academic phrases (Davis & Morley, 2015) reflect typical orders fixed or more flexible, depending on the complexity of issues under discussion (Morley, 2015). Thus, most academic writers deal with academic phrases that help them make a difference in writing a research Academicproposal.writingphrases

Academic writing is an appropriate course for college or university students (Bailey, 2015; Habibie, 2019; Mur Dueñas, 2019; Casanave, 2019) because of its high level of complexity, targeted audience, purpose, and tone. Unlike literary, personal, or journalistic style of writing, academic writing pays more attention to the diction, formality of tone, grammatical rules, etc. that may influence the clarity, and objectivity of messages transferred formally and impersonally. Concerning a tone, Badley (2020) offers an insight into the use of formal language by avoiding informality including sentence fragments, exclamations, initials (and, but, or so), and modality contractions. Academic writing aims to persuade, explain, or convince audiences about the correct claims on relevant issues, and its processes entail prewriting, planning, searching references, handling references, data collection and analysis, and writing and revising drafts. In the prewriting stage, EFL students are required to choose a topic and narrow it down. Brainstorming ideas (Boddy, 2012) is a process of listing concepts in free writing activities, and clustering sessions of writing. Topical options in academic writing refer to how the practicality of course descriptions contributes to the time management involving motivation, future research concern, and thematic domains that narrow down the gamut of topics, location, subject, timeline, etc. These attributes determine the construction of lexical phrases (Li & Schmitt, 2009) to pursue a convincing argument so that the practice of writing in a more extensive scope is worth considering.

The construction of the phrases is closely connected to EFL students' writing competence in patterning sentences, and grammatical components (Staples, Egbert, Biber & Gray, 2016). The ability to combine clauses and nouns emerged before prepositional bundles (Ruan, 2017) is of paramount importance.

Furthermore, EFL students' literacy on academic writing depends wholly on the understanding of the lexical phrases that might shift from the low and medium level of awareness to the high level one (Çandarlı, 2018)

Academic Writing Phrases

The integrated practices of constructing academic writing phrases have long been touted as the advancement of background knowledge (Morley, 2015). Each academic writing phrase has componential parts of generally accepted expressions that likely identify a range of writing topics, tasks and genres

2. What benefits do EFL students obtain from constructing academic writing phrases in the research proposals?

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. domain (Kaweera, 2013), and the unfamiliar use of certain academic writing Inphrases.response to such fundamental issues, this research seeks to frame three questions, as follows:

3. What problems do EFL students face while constructing academic writing phrases in the research proposals?

2. Literature Review

Academic Writing

1. What are the types of academic writing phrases in EFL students' research proposals?

In contrast, Badley (2019) argues that academic writing has a strict system for generating jargon and over theoretical approaches. The overemphasis on theories leads to tangent criticism that writers and researchers find it hard to stay open and accessible to a more progressive style of writing. Post academic writing (Badley, 2020; Badley, 2019) is a term that emphasizes a humanity message for human readers in contexts. This notion is that EFL students learn to write as they want to become post academic writers in the future. The use of phrases in EFL students' academic writing across different levels reflects a consistency to achieve desired writing performances. EFL students prefer to employ more academic writing phrases (Thonney, 2012) because they want to advance toward a higher level of competence (Ruan, 2017) and academic writing skills (Imaniah, Mayuni & Lustyantie, 2019).

In the practice of writing research proposals, academic phrases play a pivotal role in constructing sentences sequentially (Vincent, 2013), and setting basic strategies to distinctively feature lexical bundles used in the novice writing (Ruan, 2017). These key factors strengthen the advancement of academic writing and the acceptability of research proposals compiled by EFL students. Several studies show that students' complicated noun phrases in research proposals aim to describe the English language proficiency for academic purposes (Parkinson & Musgrave, 2014), popular science writing skills (Rakedzon & Baram Tsabari, 2017), phraseological patterns, semantic and pragmatic divergences (Nuccorini, 2006), and lexical phrases (Li & Schmitt, 2009) The use of phraseological patterns is likely to indicate a non native manner of learning resulting from the text level of difficulties (Leroy, Kauchak & Hogue, 2016), students' lack of vocabulary, grammar, and background knowledge. In some cases, the quality of phraseological expressions in a text impacts the quality of other documents as a whole (Rojo, 2018). The quality of an academic

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. (Rakedzon & Baram Tsabari, 2017), collaboration, audience awareness, flexibility, and information sharing (Barrot, 2020) in the 21st century Academic writing phrases also deal with linguistic complexities, self awareness, and understanding of issues (Abednia, Hovassapian, Teimournezhad & Ghanbari, 2013). In short, academic writing phrases establish emerging issues and self exploratory stages to connect theories and practices of writing. Another critical point to consider is that academic writing phrases play a pivotal role in shaping EFL students' writing (cognitive) performances (Teng, 2019; Farahian & Avarzamani 2018; Birjandi & Tamjid, 2012) through the revision behaviour, time on task, pause behaviour, pausing strategy (Zarrabi & Bozorgian, 2020). In most cases of EFL contexts, consistent practices of academic writing can be modified to enhance writing competence (Bai, Wang & Nie, 2020; Beck & Jeffery, 2007), and factual achievement in developing critical ideas. Instead, little attention has been paid to the integrated practices of academic writing phrases in research proposals for EFL university students. In short, a metalinguistic understanding of lexical phrases is necessary to change EFL students' self awareness from the low and medium level to the high level one, depending on the variability (Çandarlı, 2018) within the intended research proposals.

Academic Writing Phrases in Research Proposals

Critical points in much of the literature indicate that EFL students tend to copy and use other writers' words or phraseological phrases (Davis & Morley, 2015). This plagiarism can be prevented through the phraseological detections of phrases at "the basic level of categorization" (Clifton & Frazier, 2012), and lexical phrases in the academic genre (Cai, 2016) As a consequence, EFL students are encouraged to produce new but original expressions in an academic discourse level (Benelhadj, 2019). The correct use of academic writing phrases in sentences and paragraphs determines the accuracy, fluency, syntactic complexity (Ansarifar, Shahriari & Pishghadam, 2018), grammatical complexity (Biber, Gray, Staples & Egbert, 2020), and linguistic complexity (Qin & Uccelli, 2020) of expressions in the research proposals. As a linguistic phenomenon, the phrasal verbs represented in a written form combine students' knowledge, practice, and writing skills. This is because [EFL] students (Rahman, 2013) have difficulties in demonstrating such fundamental skills to increase writing competence (Kelso, 2018; Ratminingsih, Marhaeni & Vigayanti, 2018; Miller, Grise Owens, Drury & Rickman, 2018; Berge, Evensen & Thygesen, 2016; Surmann, 1997) Therefore, it is necessary to pursue a metalinguistic domain of lexical phrases, namely low and medium level awareness of academic phrases (Çandarlı, 2018) to map out EFL students’ writing performances. The objective of Çandarlı’s research is to accentuate the L1 Turkish speaking, first year university students’ metalinguistic knowledge of the lexical phrases in academic writing. The research’s novelty promotes to what extent lexical phrases support academic writing activities (Powers, Fowles & Welsh, 2001; Golpour, Ahour, Ahangari & Lu, 2019) in higher education. In one way or another, this metalinguistic knowledge (Myhill, Jones & Wilson, 2016) can be acquired to gain new understandings of academic writing phrases in diverse Othercontextsstudies on academic writing phrases highlight that Chilean students write locally coherent persuasive texts to grasp the local coherence (LC) that seeks to identify students’ reasons, arguments and opinions in academic writing (Concha & Paratore, 2011) Hence, there is an urging demand for metalinguistic knowledge to moderate the constructions of concepts and operationalize students’ abilities to correct, describe, and explain errors (Roehr, 2008) in academic written English (Liu & Myers, 2020). Metalinguistic knowledge contributes to the practical use of lexical bundles (Wei & Lei, 2011), syntactic complexity of assignments (Mostafa & Crossley, 2020), modelling, deconstructions of texts (Nagao, 2019), and lexical phrases in academic writing (Li & Schmitt, 2009). It is imperative that EFL students are aware of those requirements to increase their proficiency of academic writing phrases and build a strong theoretical foundation of writing, language

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. version rests on the accuracy and fluency, grammatical complexity, and proficiency of writing (Lan, Lucas & Sun, 2019; Lan & Sun, 2019). The models of academic writing phrases are used in situational contexts (Kerz & Wiechmann, 2015) in response to how university students write texts that functionally outline lexical phrases (Li & Schmitt, 2009; DeCarrico & Nattinger, 1988). Without intense practices regularly, however, EFL students cannot produce native like academic writing phrases.

Audio recorded interviews with 11 out of 28 participants were conducted to gain essential information on the benefits of and problems in constructing the academic writing phrases in research proposals. The duration of interviews with participants ranged from 30 to 45 minutes, followed by the clarification of

Research Instrument

3. Research Method Type of the Study

Data Collection Technique

This research was undertaken at the English Education Department of Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa, Yogyakarta, Indonesia involving fourth semester students' research proposals (N=28) out of 30 total populations (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000). It was conducted within six months starting from February to June 2019, concentrating on the praxis of academic writing phrases in EFL students' research proposals.

To verify the validity and reliability of the interview data, the researchers described participants’ perspective, reformulated interpretative frames of verbatim transcripts and data coding, reconstructed a method for analysing the interview scripts (Moret et al., 2007), and incorporated social reliability into the research instrument to enrich understandings of the emerging phenomena (Sanders & Cuneo, 2010).

The research instruments included (1) documents, in this case, the research proposals in three different fields, such as EFL, linguistics, and literature, and (2) the interview documents of 11 EFL students used to elicit information on the critical reflection and reflexivity (Mann, 2016), and emerging views on theories and practices (Willis, 2015) of academic writing phrases. The sampling design of the interview is specifically enumerated since the total population can often be interviewed, and rarely exceeds 15 and 25 recognizable participants (Trotter, 2012; Crouch & McKenzie, 2006).

The processes of developing the validity and reliability of research instruments include investigating the quality of interpretative frames, distinguishing between perceived problem definitions, identifications, proposed solutions, empirical background theories, and normative preferences (Moret, Reuzel, van der Wilt & Grin, 2007). Researchers also evaluated the utility of research instruments by implementing verification strategies, and self correcting during the conduct of inquiry, engaging trustworthiness techniques to assess their quality and credibility (Morse, Barrett, Mayan, Olson & Spiers 2002; Rose & Johnson, 2020)

This interpretive/qualitative research (Sosenko, 2012) emphasizes the interpretation of documents (the introductory and literature review sections of EFL university students' research proposals). Open ended interviews seek to elicit more information on the benefits of and problems in constructing the academic writing phrases. Research Setting

41 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. responses before the final stage of interview data transcriptions, as viewed from the following table Table 1. The participants' profiles and views on the academic writing phrases and problems emerged No InitialsNamesby Gender Interests Views Problems 1 HN M EFL Pursue knowledge of EFL Improvewriting competencewriting startedGettingwith a few lines 2 ANM M EFL Encourage self confidence Challenge accuracieswriting Fear mistakesmakingof 3 AP F Literature Hone writing skills Accomplish assignmentswriting startedGettingwith a few lines 4 NTP M EFL Support self awareness Modify writing practices startedGettingwith a few lines 5 SMB M Literature Identify areas of writing opportunitiesSeizefeatureswriting as well ofExplorationideas 6 FSB M Linguistics Understand writing issues Ignite self exploratory capability Fear mistakesmakingof 7 AMM F Literature Solve writing problems Reflect writing benefits ofExplorationideas 8 DK M EFL Think Reconsiderlogicallyrevisions Fear mistakesmakingof 9 ASS F EFL Recognize towardsFindweaknesseswritingoutthesolutionsthem ofExplorationideas 10 SA F EFL Construct understandingan of writing Connectpracticesbetween theories and practices Fear mistakesmakingof 11 YA F Linguistics Develop writing skills Explore ideas based on different topics ofExplorationideas

The researchers paid attention to two domains of analyses, such as the analysis of primary data limited to the categories of academic writing phrases, and the analysis of interview data (secondary data) The interview questions were used to share "emerging views on theories and practices" (Willis, 2015) of academic writing phrases, benefits of and problems in constructing such phrases, as illustrated in the table 2.

Types of Data

Data Analysis Technique

All

Data reduction

Data reduction is a process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting and transforming the 'raw' data into a systematic analysis or a coding system. It aims to describe how the research questions can be answered, or how the research problems are responded to.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. rights reserved.

Second, the implementation phase covers four elements, namely (i) studying the documents, (ii) analysing the components of academic writing phrases, (iii) conducting unstructured tape recorded interviews with participants, collecting the data, transcribing, and (iv) analysing them.

Data Analysis Procedures

Data Collection Procedures

Data Classification

There were two kinds of data collection procedures. First, the preparation phase consists of two steps, namely (i) choosing research proposals to be researched, and (ii) contacting twenty eight research proposal writers at the English Education Department of Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

Two types of data include the primary data consisting of 28 original research proposals compiled by the fourth semester students at the English Education Department of Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

The researchers chose undergraduate research proposals for two reasons: (a) they were written in the English language and contained academic phrases as linguistic features, and (b) the documents have the level of difficulties in that the researchers were challenged to study them. The secondary data comprise the results of interviews with 11 out of 28 undergraduate research proposal writers They gave the researchers data or information about the praxis of academic writing phrases. The secondary data supported the primary data. Data Coding

From the primary data, the researchers made two code categories, namely putting the academic writing phrases into groups, and studying them to form meaning components of the documents. From the secondary data, the researchers made strategy codes (Ary, Jacobs & Sorensen, 2009). Each indicator of the recorded and transcribed interviews was coded (as a kind of convention). The category codes aim to make the information unit of tape recorded interviews concerning vital perspectives on the benefits of and problems in constructing academic writing phrases

a. One of the critical parts of understanding a language is to communicate well. Paper 01) b. Using Facebook as [a] learning media is an instrumental part of education. (Paper 02) These phrases are used in the background section of the study, indicating the topic introduction incommensurate with the clarity, fluency, and accuracy of expressions. The academic sentences can be framed in such a way that students can re construct them differently. The models of such sentences are contextually used for certain academic purposes. Other academic phrases deal with the goal of the study, and it corresponds to particular objectives that should be mentioned earlier and achieved later in the discussion section, as stated as follows.

43 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 2. The data blueprint No Research Questions How Who What 1 What are the types of academic writing phrases in EFL students’ research proposals? proposalsofdocuments28research 28 studentsuniversityEFL (PrimaryContent data)

a. The goal of language teaching is to transfer knowledge to EFL students (Paper 04) b. This research will examine the use of mobile phones for academic writing purposes among students, faculty members, and teachers. (Paper 21)

2 What benefits do EFL students obtain from constructing academic writing phrases in the research proposals? Interview 11 EFL students (SecondaryBenefits data)

This model of academic phrases has an educational purpose in that EFL students learn to be creative in creating other forms of academic phrases contextually, and each of them is not a formulaic expression. Instead, the more students are creative in constructing the academic sentences, the better their research proposals will be in terms of the complexity and acceptability of the sentences

4. Findings and Discussion Incorporating Academic Writing Phrases into Research Proposals

3 What problems do EFL students face while constructing academic writing phrases in the research proposals? Interview 11 EFL students (SecondaryProblems data)

This research explores how EFL university students use academic writing phrases in a wide variety of contexts in their research proposals. The following academic phrases are categorized as a medium level of awareness (Çandarlı, 2018) through which students highlight the significance of the topic under research

b. This research will give significant benefits to the teaching technique and learning media. (Paper 11) These academic phrases investigate the research contributions that might be important to consider. Students need to formulate different academic sentences contextually by following the model provided. The fundamental issue of the study determines how researchers put forward the scope of topics discussed. The following academic phrases are closely related to the literary work and linguistics that portray the actual concentration of the research. The construction of the academic phrases is a repetition of the same form that frequent words (Vincent, 2013) correspond to the basic categories (Ruan, 2017).

a. This research will give the contribution to the teachers, students and [other] researchers. (Paper 19)

A review of literature should be written systematically, meaning that it has a wide variety of academic phrases to put forward. More regularly, investigating ideas or theories is an area of concern, and how referencing systems are carried out in varied disciplines, as shown in the following example.

a. According to Reynolds (2016), lack of knowledge in the conversational usage of collocations results in incompetent writing. (Paper 01) b. Ur (1996) defined that vocabulary is the words a teacher uses in the teaching of English as a foreign language. (Paper 05) These academic phrases can be re constructed to grasp their basic categories (Ruan, 2017) and contextual uses, aiming at mapping out the consistency of writers in providing critical theories or ideas so that readers can understand the current reviews highlighted.

The significance of the study is another concern of the research that directs researchers to the creation of academic phrases and the formulations of priorities, as highlighted in the following evidence.

a. This study will [focus] on students’ responses towards the use of English movies (Paper 12) b. The study will [focus] on analysing [a] woman’s character in the movie. (Paper 16) The reference segment in these sentences seeks to shed light on writers' positions in which the research proposals show fewer paraphrasing techniques. As mostly evidenced, however, the research proposal writers describe a general but relevant review of the literature using simple academic phrases, as follows.

a. Through her work, Malone (2018) indicated that children stories are based on social experiences in local environments. (Paper 06) b. Venuti (1998:240) shows that a translator has to choose a foreign language text and sets a strategy to translate it. (Paper 02) The textual evidence in such academic phrases principally supports a line of argument that indicators show variables to exemplify. Research proposal writers use the reporting verbs such as show and indicate to verify theories or ideas. Their reconstructions and conceptual patterns should be applied in different situations.

No Categories of Academic Writing Phrases Number Frequencyof Percentage(%) 1 Introducing the topic 30 13.4 2 Significance of the topic 28 12.5 3 Scope of the topic 22 9.8 4 Objectives of the study 50 22.3 5 Review of prior research 24 10.7 6 Explaining the key terms 70 31.3 Total 224 100 The

Phrases To

Arguments in each section of

Incontextually.general,the most frequently used academic writing phrase in the research proposals is a mode of explaining key terms (31.3%), and this emergence is influenced by EFL students' frequency of listing, clarifying, and defining key words. The dynamic nature of EFL issues in higher education designates the objectives of the study (22.3%), the importance of the topic (12.5%), and the introduction to the subject (13.4). What follows is a review of previous studies (10.7%) that necessarily has led to the background information of citations, and criticism However, EFL students undergo a references deficiency within the gamut of both learning materials and research proposals. The highlighted scope of the topic (9.8%) is a core component of academic writing. Still, EFL students face practical difficulties in formulating the research scope, as shown in the following table. of academic writing phrases in the EFL students’ research proposals, as evidenced in 224 of data Benefits of Constructing Academic Writing construct academic writing phrases one EFL students. Its contribution to the betterment of writing competence is genuine and positive and imagination. the research logical

to develop writing skills, intellectual abilities, critical reflection,

ideas. Through inductive and deductive thinking processes or a combination of

The construction of a literature review determines the meaning of texts that bridges a gap between the textual evidence and its context. As the documents are written regularly, meanings should be expressed as clearly as possible. Using wide ranging academic phrases, each part of the documents puts forward clear cut messages in that readers can digest ideas or theories, as elaborated in the following example.

samples

Table 3. Categories

of the essential activities for

a. Majchrzak (2018) states that bilingualism is not only concerned with two language systems, but also the perfect individual speakers of the languages. (Paper 04) b. Lamb (2018) mentioned that children can be readers of different literary texts in early modern cultures. (Paper 03) The reporting verbs in such sentences are used to highlight the writers' ideas on both bilingualism and children as readers of literary texts. The messages behind these two statements are re constructed in other pertinent research proposals

proposals are presented to pursue the writing skills, background knowledge and the linkage of

46 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. both, EFL students attempt to improve writing performances that require technical skills, self confidence, and intelligence. Academic writing aims to enhance mechanical activities such as taking notes and defining words from a dictionary, remembering or documenting them. Likewise, writing essays or scientific works are depleted with detailed definitions of conditions needed to claim propositions. The essence of scientific writing is inseparable from the effort to classify terms in a dictionary that begins by listing the word categories. The actual book of concepts can help EFL students develop writing skills while accomplishing assignments. The consistent practice of academic writing phrases represents the sequence of events. EFL students seize the opportunities to emphasize procedural steps, clues, series of events, or relationships between ideas, between the causes of problems. This effort is based on the standard of accuracy and clarity of using words logically and critically. Academic writing activities become an integral part of their learning experience enriched with knowledge fundamental to build critical thinking, especially those involving comparative studies of literature, EFL, and linguistics. Through academic writing, EFL students not only present information from different viewpoints, but also restructure and re evaluate theories to make them more attractive, salient, and interconnected, as excerpted in the table below. Table 4. The participants' profiles and views on the academic writing phrases No InitialsNamesby Gender Interest Views on Constructing Academic Writing Phrases 1 HN M EFL Pursue knowledge of EFL writing Improve writing competence 2 ANM M EFL Encourage self confidence Challenge writing accuracies 3 AP F Literature Hone writing skills Accomplish writing assignments 4 NTP M EFL Support self awareness Modify writing practices 5 SMB M Literature Identify areas of writing features Seize writing opportunities as well 6 FSB M Linguistics Understand writing issues Ignite self exploratory capability 7 AMM F Literature Solve writing problems Reflect writing benefits 8 DK M EFL Think Reconsiderlogicallyrevisions 9 ASS F EFL Recognize writing weaknesses Find out the solutions towards them 10 SA F EFL Construct an understanding of writing Connectpracticesbetween theories and practices 11 YA F Linguistics Develop writing skills Explore ideas based on different topics

of writing academic phrases encourage EFL students to brainstorm ideas (a writing strategy carried out by grouping ideas, words, or concepts related to the topic of writing), drafts, editing, and revisions. As a learning process, academic writing is more than just creating the final products, but making a series of academic writing skills (Ebadi & Rahimi, 2018; Ebadi & Rahimi, 2019) more likely towards achieving maximum results. It serves as a practical means of knowledge inquiry (Lin, 2016) that features a typical tone to demonstrate EFL writing theories, glaring facts, and arguments.

The realm of academic writing phrases is directly related to the linguistic features including the lexical bundles (Thonney, 2012) and the activities of studying and interpreting the topic of discussion. Writing activities involve the domain of a problem analysis by comparing, grouping, sequencing the debate, and summarizing it into logical, transparent, and straightforward sections. However, the study of problems depends entirely on how the EFL students unpack the ideas on their minds and communicate them more clearly, and straightforwardly, and how they rest on a single hypothesis or even more to analyse the research Theproblems.practices

As struggling proposal writers, participants found it difficult to express ideas because of the background knowledge, and linguistic competence. As the participants were in the second year of undergraduate studies (at the time of writing their research proposals), they realized how their limited knowledge capacity determined further exploration of ideas using acceptable academic writing phrases (Participants 8 & 11). Other participants stated, "[I was in] the fourth semester at the time, I didn't understand the academic phrases" (Participant 5), and "… the most difficult part was how to explore ideas, particularly when I was in a position of having an inadequate understanding of academic phrases" (Participant 7).

The interview results show that EFL students face a number of problems in constructing academic writing phrases in their research proposals, as follows.

Problem 1 Getting Started with a Few Lines

EFL Students' Problems in Constructing Academic Writing Phrases

Problem 2 Exploration of Ideas

The most challenging part of writing a research proposal is to get started with a few lines of sentences that mainly contains academic phrases (Participants 3). As students' constructions of sentences should be aware of the accuracy principle, the first and most common pitfall is how to get ahead full of ideas and put conceptual frameworks into words. The following quote illustrates, "It's roughly hard to start with the academic phrases. It feels like a pitfall" (Participant 1). As an advanced framework, another participant stated that academic phrases are specific terms that seem difficult to apply because integrated components such as phrasal quality, linguistic advancement, acceptability, and clarity are worth prioritizing (Participant 4).

6. Limitations and Pedagogical Implications

Problem 3 Fear of Making Mistakes

The current research suggests a broader framework of EFL students’ academic writing, but it indicates two weaknesses related to the benefits of and problems in constructing academic writing phrases contextually. First, the results of this research stem from a small size of data samples in a geographical location. Second, EFL students’ perspectives and beliefs on academic writing and its benefits and problems do not represent other principles of academic writing phrases. For this reason, future researchers are recommended to use a large size of data samples in different settings and investigate other variables on the problem solving schemes, for example, how EFL students re construct academic writing phrases to get insights into a more complete way of understanding the critical issues.

The academic phrases are typically beneficial for EFL university students in the praxis of writing for educational purposes such as writing the introduction and literature review of research proposals. The writing components of academic phrases include accuracy, clarity, and complexity of expressions, and (re)constructions of patterns to help students create other academic phrases contextually. Lecturers introduce the academic writing phrases to EFL university students as one of the solutions toward the understanding of the language usage in the research proposals within a semester course. This is the essence of developing their writing skills and potentials, particularly when they learn to display components of academic writing phrases concisely but precisely. Embedded in every writing practice is the commitment to seize opportunities for applying given theories. Practical writing techniques are also necessary to capture EFL students' creativity, cooperation, engagement, and communication. However, as the interview results proved, EFL university students find a wide variety of writing problems such as a pitfall of getting started with a few lines of ideas, the exploration of topical ideas, and fear of making mistakes. To begin writing is the most challenging part because research proposal writers should build understandable concepts that represent meanings of academic phrases.

As writing is a productive skill, a participant stated that they could not outperform in writing their research proposals mostly resulting from the fact that they are afraid of making mistakes (Participant 2). Even though making mistakes is human, all difficulties and challenges are derived from low writing competence

5. Conclusion

Students need to practice writing as much as they can while learning from the mistakes they make. Therefore, academic writing is not solely a reflection of productive and creative ideas, but it is merely a trial and error practice of learning to be a writer (Participant 8). Typical answers by a participant included, "…I'm afraid of making mistakes [when] writing academic essays. I sometimes feel ashamed my writing is incorrect; consequently, when writing, I'm afraid of making mistakes" (Participant 6). Another participant emphasized that a minor mistake leads to inferior feelings, and feeling ashamed may indirectly result from the low mastery of the topic and the matter of poor writing competence (Participant 10).

Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 44 51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.387 Akbari, N. (2017). Lexical diversity and the use of academic and lower frequency words in the academic writing of EFL students. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 40(1), 3 18. https://doi.org/10.1075/aral.40.1.02akb Ansarifar, A., Shahriari, H., & Pishghadam, R. (2018). Phrasal complexity in academic writing: A comparison of abstracts written by graduate students and expert writers in applied linguistics. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 31, 58 71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2017.12.008 Ary,D.,Jacobs,L.C.,&Sorensen,C.(2009).

The main emphasis on using academic writing phrases in research proposals leads to pedagogical implications in a global context First, academic writing helps EFL students broaden their background knowledge, and writing skills through “critical writing practices” (Huang, 2012) The implementation of this academic writing is limited to the EFL academic phrases beyond the critical writing skills, namely describing, evaluating and analysing ideas with critical eyes. Second, writing lecturers may assume responsibility for providing EFL students with academic writing phrases to develop their critical thinking skills. That is why this research investigates an EFL context of academic writing to produce different phrases incorporated into research proposals.

Barrot, J. S. (2020). Effects of Facebook based e portfolio on ESL learners’ writing performance. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 1 17. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2020.1745822

7. Acknowledgement We would like to express our gratitude to anonymous reviewers and editors of International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research for their constructive criticism, comments, and suggestions on the initial drafts of this article.

Beck, S. W., & Jeffery, J. V. (2007). Genres of high stakes writing assessments and the

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55 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 55 79, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.20204 Digital Literacy Development Trends in the Professional Environment Andriushchenko Kateryna Kyiv National Economic University, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6274 5310 Rozhko Oleksandr Taras Shevchenko National University, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8415 2084 Tepliuk Mariia Kyiv National Economic University, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6823 336X Semenyshyna Iryna State Agrarian and Engineering University, Podilia, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9300 8914 Kartashov Evgen University of Educational Management, Kyiv, Ukraine, https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6522 5508 Liezina Anastasiia Kyiv National Economic University, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0516 6598 Abstract. This article describes the impact of digital literacy on the professional environment, which allows people to create and share digital content. It also describes how digital literacy can be used communicate and solve problems for effective and creative self realization in education, work and social. There are 3 models of digital skills that are largely mutually complementary: DigCompEdu 2018, EU DigComp and Target Competency Model 2025. These models describes changes in the working conditions and requirements for the employee in the context of digitalization. New technologies in teaching digital skills that are continuous, social, personalized and focused on the needs and interests of the students are proposed. The combination of various educational technologies, training formats and technical innovations into a single educational system has also been justified. The improvement in the quality of digital education is due to better data analysis and forecasting, the development and the launch of advanced

Keywords: digital education; competencies; skills; learning support tools; gamification; chatbot Introduction

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. educational products which uses artificial intelligence techniques. Improvements in forecasting tools enable a better understanding of digital transformation in various departments and ensure their interaction.

Digitalization of the economy has led to the penetration of technology into the working environment and personal space of each person. Nowadays the pace of digitalization exceeds the development of skills in the field of digital media applications for most people. Therefore, the issue of digital fluency of the population, especially in the professional environment, is rising. However, despite the scientific work on the definition of "digital economy", there is no holistic scientific concept explaining the essence and peculiarities of its functioning. At the same time, it can be said with confidence that more research endeavors are based on understanding the knowledge economy and its importance for the development of economic activities. In this regard, an urgent scientific task is to develop the development trends in the professional environment of digital literacy. In the current conditions of functioning and dynamic development, the business environment is characterized by the attraction of traditional and intellectual resources, which are the basis of business activity (Ibrahim et al., 2019). Digital fluency is determined by the set of knowledge and skills that are necessary for the safe and effective use of digital technologies and the Internet (Voogt et al., 2012). The basis of digital fluency is digital competencies which is the ability to solve various problems in the field of use of information and communication technologies (ICT). It also includes the possibility to use and create content using digital technologies, including searching and sharing information, answering questions, interacting with other people, and computer programming. The European Commission, in its definition of digital competency, prepared as part of the Digital Education Action Plan (DEAP), emphasizes the importance of the conscious and responsible use of digital

The Fourth Industrial Revolution has led to the widespread dissemination of digital technology, where the use of artificial intelligence, robotics, virtual reality and other innovations have had a powerful impact on the nature of training and work. In 2018, at the World Economic Forum in Davos, changes were made to the methodology for calculating the annual Global Competitiveness Index of countries. The timeliness, expediency and justification of making changes in the indicated methodology were caused by the rapid expansion of digital technologies, which significantly affects the dynamics of the world economy. The new methodology for rating the competitiveness of countries emphasizes the role of human capital, innovation, sustainability and speed, and the ability to respond to change, not only as a driving force, but also as determinants of the country's economic success (Levy & Murname, 2003; Aesaert et al., 2014).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. technologies in education, at work and in public life. Digital competency should include digital collaboration, security and problem solving (Microsoft, 2018). Digital fluency includes the personal, technical, and intellectual (digital) skills that are needed to live in a digital world. By digital skills, we mean established, automatic models of behavior based on knowledge and skills in the use of digital devices, communication applications and networks for accessing and managing information (Levy et al.,2003). Digital skills allow people to create and share digital content, communicate and solve problems for effective and creative self realization in education, work and social activities in general.

This paper uses a wide range of general and special research methods: historical in the process of studying modern views on the understanding of digitalization in economic theory; structural analysis to streamline the conceptual apparatus of the digital economy; scientific generalization in the systematization of various elemental combinations of the use of digital trends and the comparison and analysis of trends to study trends in digital transformation with the identification of possible areas of application of foreign experience in improving existing approaches. Digital skills in everyday life

The widespread use of digital technologies in everyday life changes the interaction with the environment. The ways of accessing various services, information, knowledge are changing, and this interaction is intensifying through various channels: social networks, online services, shopping on the Internet, watching video content, etc. Digital skills are becoming the key to living in the digital environment (Moller et al., 2012). They allow you to increase efficiency and reduce the time it takes to solve problems in the digital world, make a person’s life more comfortable and open opportunities for personal and professional development. Poor Internet skills is one of the common reasons for refusing to use the Internet in the field of the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) Digital skills at work

The importance of digital skills for work and social inclusion is growing. The rate of acquiring such knowledge will determine the success of a person’s life and the prospects of his or her employment. According to Microsoft, 65% of today's school and university students will do work that does not exist yet (Microsoft, 2018). For example, professions such as virtual living environment designers, robotics attorneys, biohackers, or IoT data analysts will appear. A significant number of employees with digital competencies at different levels in the company will provide a competitive advantage (Kefela, 2010).

In the corporate world, ‘digital champions’ companies stand out, in which the level of digital skills for employees is much higher than the average for the market (Eshet Alkalai, 2004). This applies not only to specialized employees whose work is related to ICT, but also to the entire staff of the company and its management. Such companies are more effective in their activities, particularly

Given how quickly the development of scientific and technological progress takes place, information and communication technologies (ICT) are the core of economic developments. Information and communication technologies are the basis for knowledge based innovations. Innovations are developed and implemented by people, which is why it is very important for company personnel to be capable of developing and generating new ideas, as well as their implementation (Andriushchenko et al., 2019a). Employees need not only to be good specialists and possess hard skills, but also have digital skills, as well as having sufficient soft skills to adapt to the changes in the external environment (Aesaert et al., 2014) 21st century skills should include communication skills, digital fluency, acceptance of responsibility, problem solving, critical thinking, creativity and productivity (Voogt et al., 2012). There is a need for the identification and development of modern competencies and methods of employee training, as well as for self development, and effective participation in the development of the company (Ananiadou et al., 2009). Lewin and McNicol argue that the growing influence of globalization and the digitalization of society led many to accept that digital fluency is required to succeed in the workplace (McNicol, The2015).main thing is the awareness to move away from the framework of simple technical use The ability to learn and function in a technological society is much more important than owning a particular program or software (Ahmad et al., 2004). The researchers approach digital literacy as: (1) the ability to use innovative technologies to solve cognitive tasks at work; (2) the possession of skills that are not necessarily technology oriented, as they may not apply to the use of any specific software; (3) possession of skills that form Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) and (4) possession of skills related to cognitive processes contributing to the lifelong learning of employees. In most cases, these concepts include both the main parts (e.g. computer, ICT, Internet, multimedia) and the complementary part of specific knowledge (e.g. competence, literacy, skills) (Hatlevik et al.,2015).

2. Literature review and problem statement

in connection with using more efficient business models that are appropriate to the changing needs of the digital world. They have a shorter time to market goods and services, using digital marketing and techniques of start up companies. They have an efficient cost structure through the use of technology platforms. They have high quality digital products that provide investment in digital talent and a high level of customer satisfaction with product quality through personalized offers and individual digital experiences It is also believed that the success of these ‘digital champions’ is due to three key elements (Carnevale et al.,2013): investments in digital technologies account for at least 5% of operating expenses; assigning more than 10% of employees to roles that require professional digital skills and the use of digital technology in the business functions of companies.

Currently, various government authorities, consulting companies and researchers have developed various models of digital competencies/skills, which are largely mutually complementary. However, we will focus on only three of them, which, in our opinion, reflect the structure and interconnection of individual types of digital competencies/skills.

3.1. DigCompEdu 2018: European Digital Competency Model for Education EU activities in the field of developing digital skills of the population are based on the EU Digital Competence Framework for Educators (Figure 1).

3. The Study

Figure 1: Layout of the European Digital Competencies Model for Education Formed: by authors about

Van Deursen proposed a number of ‘digital skills’ concepts, which included technical or media aspects (average skills), and material or substantive aspects (skills related to the content). Subsequently, that work was supplemented by other skills, namely operational, informational, communication, and strategic. A formal assessment was carried out, which identified a gap in the research. Thus, the purpose of this study is to determine the ways to solve the issue of digital fluency in a professional environment, taking into account globalization and the constant development of scientific and technological progress. In this study, the authors are interested to understand how the development of digital literacy, including the launch of advanced educational products, affects the improvement in the quality of work of employees and how to combine various educational technologies, training formats and technical innovations into a single educational system (Van Deursen et al., 2016).

Specialized professional digital skills which are required for solving complex professional tasks in the digital environment are skills that underlie high tech professions such as programmers, developers, web designers and big data analysts. It is necessary to get a special education for their development. This can also include teamwork, creativity, and critical thinking.

Derived digital skills are associated with the ability to consciously apply digital technology in a relevant context at home and in the workplace. Mastering such skills is aimed at the effective and meaningful use of digital technologies and obtaining practical results. These skills include creative skills for working in online applications and digital services (social networks, instant messengers, information portals), the ability to create digital content and, the ability to work with information (collect, structure, verify for reliability, store, protect data) (McKinsey Global Institute, 2018).

Under the European Union's Digital Education Development Plan (DEAP), efforts are being made to formulate a new vision of digital competencies, which are concentrated in three key areas: (1) improving the use of digital technologies in teaching and learning; (2) the development of the skills which are necessary for digital transformation; and (3) reliance on analysis and forecasting based on data in education. The digital skills that underlie digital competencies can be divided into user and professional (Andriushchenko et al., 2020). Custom skills can further be classified include basic and derivative skills. Basic digital skills are associated with functional literacy in the use of electronic devices and applications. They are necessary for access and use of digital devices and online services. Moreover, they are critical for everyone. They include the ability to work with various technical devices, files, the Internet, online services, and applications. Basic skills also include psychomotor skills. For example, the ability to type on the keyboard (the development of fine motor skills) or working with touch screens (the development of gestures).

3.2. EU DigComp

The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens proposes a detailed classification of digital competency, which includes 5 areas and 21 digital competencies that are required by all citizens (Table 1). This classification is applied in 21 countries of the European Union and provides recommendations for educating people and developing policies in the field of digital economy development. The five areas are: information processing, online communications, transactions and financial management, creation of digital content, and using digital problem-solving tools.

4. Security 4.1 Protection of the device Protect devices and digital content. Understand the risks and threats in the digital environment. Be aware of data security measures.

Organize, store and retrieve data, information and content in a digital environment. Organize and process them in a structured environment.

1. literaInformationcy

To formulate the need for information, to search for data in a digital environment, to have access to content. Create and change your own information retrieval strategies.

3. Creating digital content

1.1 View, search and filter data, information and digital content

2.6 Managing Your Digital Identity Create and manage one or more digital identities. Have the opportunity to protect your reputation.

2.2 Exchange through digital technology

Create and edit digital content in various formats.

2.5 Etiquette in the network Know the rules and norms of behavior in the process of using digital technologies and communication in digital environments. Adapt communication strategies to a specific audience. Understand and take into account cultural and generational diversity in the digital environment.

2. andCommunicationcooperation

2.3 Civic participation through digital technology Participate in society through the use of public and private digital services.

3.1 Creation and development of digital content

Table 1: Digital Competency List

Analyze, compare and critically evaluate the reliability of data sources, information and digital content.

Areas competenceofs Competences

3.2 Integration and processing of digital content

3.3 Copyrights and licenses Understand how copyrights and licenses for data, information and digital content are being used.

1.2 Evaluation of data, information and digital content

Share data, information and digital content with others through appropriate digital technologies. Act as an intermediary exchange.

The authors and

2.1 Interaction through digital technology

1.3 Data, information and digital content management

2.4 Collaboration using digital technology Use digital tools and technologies for collaboration, as well as for the joint production of resources and knowledge.

Interact through various digital technologies and identify appropriate digital communication tools in conte1xt.

Modify and improve the quality of information and content, integrate them into a single set of knowledge to create new content.

3.4 Programming Plan and develop clear and consistent teams for computing systems to perform specific tasks.

4.2 Protection of personal data and ensuring confidentiality Protect personal data and privacy in the digital environment. Understand how to use personal information to prevent damage.

5. solvingProblem

The model creates a shift in focus from the narrowly understood computer fluency to ongoing emphasis on the development of composite, integrated skills of cooperation and communication in the digital environment. It is also important to consider digital skills in close connection with soft skills and general knowledge. This approach is illustrated by the Target Competency Model 2025 as shown in Figure 2

Use digital tools and technology to create knowledge and innovation. Develop conceptual solutions to problematic situations in digital environments

Formed: by authors

4.3 Protection of health and well-being Avoid health risks and threats to physical and psychological health in the process of using digital technologies. Be able to protect yourself and others from potential dangers in the digital environment. Be aware of digital technologies for social well being and integration.

5.2 Determination of needs and technological solutions Identify needs and select the necessary digital tools to solve them. Customize digital environments for personal needs.

5.1 Solution of technical problems To be able to identify technical problems that arise during the work with digital devices and solve them (from troubleshooting to solving more complex problems)

• digital skills and knowledge. For example, basic digital fluency, data analytics, machine learning, artificial intelligence, programming, IT systems architecture, and cybersecurity; • skills and knowledge that help to cope with the volatility and uncertainty of the future. For example, adaptability, critical and systemic thinking, ability to cope with stress, change management, business planning, and self learning ability according to the concept of ‘lifelong learning’;

5.3 Creative use of digital technology

Understand which digital competencies need to be developed. To be able to support others in developing their own digital competence. Seek opportunities for self development in the digital environment

5.4 Identification of gaps in digital competency

3.3. Competency Target Model 2025

In addition to the purely technical skills of working with digital devices, this model also includes cognitive and socio behavioral competencies aimed at ensuring a comfortable existence, effective communication and self development of a person in a digital environment. Based on these competencies, the main areas for development can be identified:

4.4 Environmental protection Be aware of the environmental impacts of digital technology.

3.4. Change in working conditions and requirements for an employee

In OECD countries, the proportion of intermediate workers decreased from 49% to 40% for the period 1995 2015. For comparison: the share of highly and unskilled employees over the same period increased by 7.6% and 1.9%, respectively. Already, various kinds of specialists working with IT systems are extremely in demand. These include UX designers, mobile and front end developers, scrum masters and agile trainers, full stack developers, machine learning engineers and DevOps engineers.

• skills and knowledge that help to cope with a large flow of information, including basic skills in programming, search, processing and analysis of information, information hygiene, media fluency, as well as attention management; • skills and knowledge that determine high communication abilities for effective interpersonal interaction. For instance, teamworking, cooperation, self presentation skills, and business negotiation skills, and skills and knowledge that cannot be mastered by machines, for example, empathy and emotional intelligence, creativity and creative thinking, and control of robotic processes.

The development of automated systems capable of complex physical actions, high rates of change in technology and the social environment transform the essence of human labor in all sectors of the economy. The employment structure will change. New professions will appear, and the demand for digital competence of workers will increase. By 2022, as a result of the introduction of new technologies, 75 million jobs will disappear (WEF, 2018). Digitalization in the service sector will lead to the reduction in the staff involved in working with clients and processing data in back offices. Jobs will be reduced in the field of administrative work. However, technological innovations will create an additional 133 million jobs in intelligent and high tech areas related to new technologies, such as mobile technologies, artificial intelligence, big data and cloud technologies. Only 9% of employees can be replaced by automated solutions. With the penetration of new technologies, it is expected that labor productivity will be growing by an average of 30% for the period 2015 2022. Automation poses a threat to both low skilled and mid level professionals, such as office workers, builders, machine tool operators (WEF, 2018). Figure 3 shows the change in employment in US industries from 1980 to 2015. Due to technological development, employment is growing among low and highly skilled workers, while it is decreasing among middle skilled workers. Low skilled personnel are still expensive to automate, and highly qualified personnel are still difficult to automate because of the complexity of the tasks. This is confirmed by the report of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

64 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Figure 2: Target competency model 2025 Formed: by authors Communication  Presentation skills  Writing skills  Negotiation skills  Openness Interpersonal skills  Teamwork  Ethics  Empathy  Customer focus  Stress management  Adequate perception of criticism Intercultural interaction  Awareness  Social responsibility  Cross functional and cross disciplinary interaction  Foreign languages and cultures Social and behavioralInformationskills management  Data processing and analysis Creating systems  Programming  Applications Development  Design of production systems Digital skills Management skills  Prioritization  Tasks setting  Team building  The development of others  Motivating others  Delegation Adaptability  Work in the face of uncertainty Achieving results  Responsibility, risk taking  Persistence in achieving goals  Initiative Self-development  Self awareness  Learning ability  Perception of criticism and feedback  Curiosity Organization  Organization own activity  Resource management Decision non-standard tasks  Creativity, including the ability to see opportunities  Critical thinking Cognitive skills

65 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Same remark Figure 3: Autor’s Curve Formed: by authors In light of rapid technological changes, companies will increasingly interact with complex digital ecosystems spanning a range of enterprises and technologies, using artificial (AI) intelligence, the Internet of Things (IoT) or automated devices in their work. This will lead to the emergence of new areas of employment and new professions, some of which may not even exist today. As can be seen from Figure 4, the distribution of a new profession in the market takes only between 15 and 20 years. Figure 4: The process of retirement of the profession Formed: by authors 10 –15% 60% 25 –30% In the next 5 years In the next 10 15 years In the next 30 40 years orproduction(advanced)Firstregions orindustriesMostregions enterprises,Lagging hard to reach regions <> 0 02 04 06 08 1000.4%0.3%0.2%0.1%0.0%0.1%-0.2% Creative tasksComplextasksautomatabletasksSimpleoutcrowdingofprocessThework wormigrantincludingstaff,qualifiedLow-kers Highlystaffqualified 2005to1980fromgechanlevelentloymEmp Machinessoftwareand

The Atlas of New Professions predicts that, by 2030, 57 ‘traditional’ professions will disappear, and 186 new ones will appear. According to forecasts, 65% of today's schoolchildren and students will occupy positions that do not yet exist (IMD, 2018). By 2025, professions such as virtual living environment designers, technological ethics advocates, digital culture interpreters, freelance biohackers, and IoT data analysts are expected to be in high demand. At a later time, even more technologically advanced professions will appear including: space tour guides and personal content managers (Microsoft, 2018).

4. New technologies in teaching digital skills

Technological innovations in the information environment (development of mobile networks, artificial intelligence, automation, advanced data analytics, etc.) make it possible to expand learning opportunities by combining traditional teaching methods with modern technologies, as in using algorithms to personalize learning experiences. These processes are illustrated in a graph put forward by Capgemini Corporate University, illustrating the company's educational process.

Learning in the digital age will be continuous, social, personalized and focused on the needs and interests of the student. Educational decisions will be made on the basis of big data collected during previous training sessions (Kovtun et al., 2020). This means that there will be a significant change in the educational paradigm. This change does not necessarily mean that learning processes will be transferred into a digital environment. Instead, learning in the digital age will become a deeper transformation of the entire learning process. This will include the use of new digital tools to rethink how to teach and learn (Figure 5).

With the growth of automation, a call for the creation of new sectors will sharply increase, and at least four areas can be identified where significant changes can occur. The development of new generation technologies for industrial and consumer applications will revolutionise the technological sector. For example, the design and programming of smart energy networks and other smart systems for cities and households, or the production of urban robotics and unmanned autonomous vehicles, or the design and production of renewable bioengineering materials. There will be a growth in the demand for personalized services in the field of education, healthcare, experience design and entertainment. People will be spending more and more time in the virtual world through virtual reality systems, social networks and making use of virtual currencies. All these changes will lead to the creation of a new creative economy.

3.5. New areas of employment

Focus on content and its

Figure 5: Using new digital tools Formed: by authors 4.1. Continuing education

Most people still understand that formal education takes place at schools and universities. However, there are many other opportunities for acquiring knowledge and developing skills outside these traditional environments. A key factor in the competitiveness of the personality of a professional and company in the VUCA (Volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity) world is the principle of continuing education. The underlying process is lifelong learning, which is a constant, voluntary and self motivated search for knowledge for personal or professional reasons. Education can no longer be divided into place and time for acquiring knowledge. Instead, learning should be seen as a constant and everyday interaction with other people and with the world (EFMD, 2018). Lifelong learning can be broadly understood as flexible, diverse, available at different (times and in different places. Lifelong learning requires the individual to not only to customize and get deeply adaptive, but also to get personalized training in mastering new skills, and to develop his or her critical mind to satisfy a diverse and context sensitive learning needs with no age limit. According to the concept of “learning of the future” proposed by Levy E. an individual must master five skills in order to meet the demands of changes in the external environment (UNESCO, 2017). These are: learning to know which is not just awareness of the nature of information, mastery of learning tools, but also the acquisition of structured knowledge; learning to do which is the development of a set of skills for those types of work that are necessary now and will be necessary in the future, including innovation and adaptation of training to future working conditions; learning to live together and with others which includes constructive communication, peacefully resolving conflicts,

Organization structured by department

Focus on digital technology

Mass character

virtualizationElearning

Focus on digital

DigitalInterdisciplinarycommunitieslearning&AgileTeamsPersonalizationFocusontrainingandbusinessobjectivesandsociallearning Virtualization Digitalization

The National Agency for Education of Sweden has proposed the concept of continuing and comprehensive education as shown in Figure 6. The concept combines lifelong learning throughout a person’s life and life wide learning, which includes all types of training and personal development, both in the educational environment and in ordinary (non educational) situations. It is determined by interests, the subjective value of training, as well as individual learning needs, which are manifested only in everyday activities, and involves a combination of formal and non formal learning.

Figure 6: The concept of continuous and comprehensive training Is it training or education?

Formed: by authors

An experiential learning approach has become widespread in education, especially in the corporate environment. This is a set of educational technologies that involve students in any activity and the gaining of relevant experience, as well as the evaluation of this activity and acquired experience, identification and assimilation of new knowledge and skills (Figure 7). Educational technologies that underlie learning through experience are usually divided into three groups. Business simulations and games are training technologies in which processes, events, places, and situations are reproduced, which provides an interactive learning experience with a controlled level of risk. Business games are a type of simulation that includes game elements, such as history, goals, feedback, and the game itself. Training at the workplace in the normal course of work of the participant can be either structured (coaching, mentoring, etc.), or unstructured (sharing knowledge during work or observing others). Life-wide Formal Informal

discovering other people and their cultures, strengthening community potential, individual competence and abilities, economic sustainability and social integration; learning to be which is education that contributes to the comprehensive and full development of a person: mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity, aesthetic assessment, spirituality, etc, and learning to learn and continuing to learn throughout life.

4.2. Learning through experience

LifelonDeathBirthg

69 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Figure 7: Learning technologies through experience Formed: by authors Learning by action is when individual participants or teams complete tasks and learn in the process of developing solutions to real business problems and situations. Most learning models which are based on experience consist of learning cycle of two to five steps. The classical model of learning theory ExperienceLearningThrough Action training A Model Based On the ProgrammedKnowledge QuestionModelBased DevelopmentPersonalPrograms UnstructuredOverseeing The Work of StructuredTrainingSocialcommunicationShadowingOthersWorkingsLearningMentoringOthers(Leaders)TutorshipCoachingResearchLearningOrientedProjectModel SimulationsSimulationsDynamicSystemSimulatorBranchingStoriesBusinessGames WorkplaceTrainingAction training Simulation and Business Games

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. through experience, developed by David Kolb offers four stages of learning as shown in Figure 8. The learning process can begin with any of the stages, but most often starts with immediate or specific experiences, which is the basis for observation and reflection.

Who: researchers relying on several sources of information to formulate a specific theory

Formed: by D. Kolba

Activist How: through the implementation of those types of work that intuitively seem right

Figure 8: ELT Learning Cycle

ExperienceConcrete Doing experiencegainingsomething

ExperimentationActive Planning the next steps checking what has been learned experiencefrom nConceptualizatioAbstract

Idea's generator How: intuitively through reflection Strengths: imagination and fantasy, assessment from different points of view

Strengths: flexibility of thinking, the ability to quickly adapt to a specific situation

Dissemination of training through experience in corporate practice In 2016, the Association for Talent Development (ATD) conducted a large scale study of the educational sphere, in which 270 companies took part. Three quarter of them were commercial enterprises and the rest were state and non profit organizations. Sixty percent of these companies has more than 1000 employees. It turned out that learning through experience is used by 76% of these organisations (ATD, 2016). Among them, 69% use this approach to train Analyst How: first thinking, then doing Strengths: search for specific and clear answers for the real application of the information received Who: scientists and engineers

ObservationReflective Assessment of what aboutthinkinghappening,isortalkingexperience

Formulation of experiencelearningconclusionsfrom

Theorist How: through analysis and reflection Strengths: combining disparate facts into meaningful theory Who: university professors and theorymakers

Who: school teachers offering new teaching and learning methods

71 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. their managers.To evaluate learning outcomes through experience, more than half of the respondents monitor students' satisfaction with the learning process, and also focus on the usefulness of the acquired skills for students and evaluate the change in business indicators related to the direction of training (Figure 9). Figure 9: Indicators for assessing the effectiveness of training through experience (% of respondents) Formed: by authors 4.3 Social learning Social learning is the exchange of information and experience, collaboration and joint creation of content between and within networks (both employees and external individuals) using interactive discussions and social media based on digital technologies. Social learning is acquired by corporate social networks that implement the functionality of microblogging, knowledge sharing, group chats and interactive notifications. Social training at the company significantly speeds up the creation and delivery of educational content to students (time to market) and, accordingly, makes training more flexible. Furthermore, the use of social 8%%448 5%%335 %0 %10 20 % %40 %50 54% %60 Satisfaction of the students CareerpromotionCareerskillsTheprocessSatisfaclearningtionofthestudentslearningprocessTheuseofstudentsacquiredknowledge/useofstudentsacquiredknowledge/skillsCareergrowth/studentgrowth/studentpromotionbusinessindicators,tiedtoaspecificlearningCareerbusinessindicators,tiedtoaspecificlearningExecutionoftasksorstepsassociatedwithlearningprocessExecutionoftasksorstepsassociatedwithlearningprocess

Table 2: Social Learning with Microsoft Learning as an Example No longer our job Our job ✓ manage trainers ✓ conduct hundreds of trainings for 30 people in a class ✓ support passive learning ✓ use technology to scale ✓ provide easy access to advanced knowledge ✓ teach “learn by doing” and share experiences ✓ be experts ... ✓ . and coach everyone ... ✓ ... for each topic ✓ meet the goals of the business and its transformation ✓ set limits and become obsessed with quality ✓ organize coaching and trainee communities ✓ create all content yourselves ✓ let anyone publish anything in any format ✓ measure the number of views and downloads ✓ organize a community of authors ✓ highlight data driven ✓ do less, but better Formed: by authors Forrester (ATD, 2016). has developed a way to evaluate the overall economic effect of various social learning systems. Under their model, productivity growth through time saving is calculated. Firstly, the more involved an employee becomes, the less time he spends on fulfilling his routine duties, such as searching for information and conducting meetings, etc. Secondly, the better the communication in the company, there is duplication of projects and these are implemented at lower cost. And, thirdly, social adaptation reduces the cost of training new employees. According to a conservative estimate by Forrester, a highly involved employee saves 30 hours, while an average employee saves 15 hours a year. Thus, by measuring the activity of users in the network, we can make an assessment of the increase in productivity (ATD, 2016). ATD offers the following key metrics for assessing the effectiveness of social learning (ATD, 2011): frequency of access to individual training materials; activity in online learning communities; the popularity of custom content; connection with business goals and KPI; variety of types of user content; frequency of adding content; frequency of use of individual social media tools; behavioral characteristics of users who share content; polls of employee satisfaction with social learning; and connection with individual goals.

A relatively new approach is flipped learning, which is a learning technology for the direct transfer of knowledge from a group educational space to an individual one. The group learning space is transformed into a dynamic and interactive environment in which the teacher takes on the role of facilitator, mentor, tutor,

72 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. learning approaches allows training to be carried out when it is necessary, and not when the program is scheduled to start, which is called just in time learning. It provides informal training opportunities and stimulates a wide collaboration of employees, effectively involving all employees in training. Finally, the introduction of social learning optimizes the work of the learning departments and allows you to focus on the result, as shown in Table 2.

4.5 Flipped learning

consultant and helps students put theory into practice, develop skills and deeply reflect on the subject for further independent training and development (Figure The11). key components of the technology of the flipped class are: 1) an online platform for communication in connection with educational content; 2) interactive instructions and simulators for working in typical educational contexts; 3) providing monitoring systems for teachers and management for the purpose of feedback to employees; 4) feedback forms for students with the purpose of operational correction of training programs (Batista Foguet et al., The2009).core of any flipped learning is the flipped classroom. The flipped classmodel’ appeared in the practice of American school education to prepare a didactic material for home study in the format of video lessons and presentations. Thus, more time could be devoted during the face to face lesson for the development of problem solving skills, group interaction, cooperation, the application of knowledge and skills in a new situation, as well as the creation presentations and application of a new educational product by the students.

The flipped class is one of the models of blended learning aimed to expand the possibilities of individualizing education, which takes into account the educational needs, interests and abilities of students, in which the teacher acts as an assistant and mentor. The introduction of e learning formats does not reduce the importance of face to face sessions. Full time classes are great for group discussions, for working with small and medium sized businesses and other close interactions. In the flipped model, the theoretical material can be completely moved to online, while all practical tasks, possibly in a playful way, get extra time in the classroom. In most organizations where LMS systems exist, it is possible to determine the most successful employees in terms of training speed. These students can be quickly involved in the classroom in the process of sharing their already acquired knowledge and train their comrades. McAfee Corporation adopted the ‘flipped class’ approach to reform the initial training camp program for hiring new employees (Wasfy,et. al, 2013 ) 4.6 Gamification Gamification is the practice of applying approaches specific to games in non game processes in order to attract students and increase their involvement in solving learning problems. It is based on the use of scenarios that require user attention and real time response (Figure 11). The learning process includes scenario elements specific to the game, such as scoring, difficulty and skill levels, awards, statuses, ratings, progress indicators, competitions between participants, virtual currencies, etc.

74 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Figure 11: Gamification in Ukrainian companies Formed: by authors In general, gamification is aimed at creating a common gaming experience contributing to the student’s emotional involvement. According to polls, almost 90% of business representatives recognize gamification as effective in motivating staff, whereas 39% believe that the success of its use does not depend on the department and direction of activities (Levy et al., 2003) The implementation of game approaches in the educational process extends from the partial introduction of game type elements into the educational trajectory to the complete immersion of all educational activities in the game context. For example, Minecraft has been successfully modified in Russia, the USA, rather48%yes 39%yes errathno13% 4% 4% 14% 39% 39% baby6% (1943boomers1963) (1983g53%enerationY2003) (2003generationZ38%20120 (1963generationX3%1983) What system should be implemented as part of the gamification of the company? Can effectivelygamificationmotivate staff? game motivationother gameachievementsrecognitionmotivationof 43% consider that it is most effective to immerse all employees in the game 39% success is department independent plot motivation 3% IT 4% PR 6% 12%marketing12%other18%sale9%workdevelopmentwithclientssIn which departments is it gamification?introductionadvisable

The main idea is to borrow the spirit of the game, which can unite people to form a community that can provide support and assistance to all participants.

The use of machine learning algorithms allows organisations to optimize the training processes for employees. Retail companies working with a large array of repetitive requests can make use of smart chatbots. The advantages of bots are the ease of interaction with them, the speed of their reaction and the ability to configure them for the user. Using the bot greatly simplifies the interaction with services by providing a universal interface Separately, IVR bots can be distinguished. These are the same chatbots, but with a changed interface: when synthesis and recognition systems are being connected, standard chat is transferred into voice format. Connecting emotion analytics systems and communication strategies to the IVR bot allows each employee to work out custom KPIs specified with respect to their effectiveness zones.

Amway (Bakhshi et al.2020,) has developed a special online simulator for front office employees. The design of the simulator involved an online championship on cleaning various types of facilities using company cleaning products. The results collected after the championship showed that, for employees of regional departments, the overall sales growth was 80% higher than the achievements of those who had traditional face to face training (Andriushchenko et al. 2019b).

In cases where users cannot concentrate on educational material for a long time, the use of gamification allows the transfer of educational content into current business operations or production processes. At the same time, gamification is also an effective way of outsourcing certain production and technological tasks to an external audience. A case in point is the use of the Foldit game (Hatlevik et al., 2015). During this game, users were asked to solve a sequential series of puzzles, which, together, allowed them to successfully solve the problem of protein folding. Interpose has introduced the use of special game currency (Claro et al., 2012). Initially, a special price list was formed, according to which each employee could earn a certain amount of game currency for over fulfilling a sales plan or a proposal to optimize business processes. Earned units of game currency cannot be exchanged for national currency, but can be used to purchase various gifts and conduct leisure activities for family members.

4.7. Chatbots

Australia, Sweden and other countries in order to achieve specific educational goals (Mirrlees et al.2020,). Minecraft has developed a special training module that adapts to the needs of basic and corporate training. Some existing video games can be adapted for training, thus, Masaryk University in the Czech Republic uses the computer game Kingdom Come: Deliverance in Class. In the context of corporate training, gamification functions are determined by the need to give employees the opportunity to develop leadership skills, provide non invasive forms of teamwork assessment, and maintain a general level of motivation for effective participation in business processes.

5. Conclusion To solve current problems in the field of education, the training system for high digital competency cadres should undergo decisive changes In the context of globalization processes, the priority for innovative business development is the vector of digitalization. The effective functioning of the subjects of market relations is possible, due to the identification of alternative competitive development strategies, taking into account digital trends. In this context, the key point is the rapid adaptation of digital technologies into the economic activities of economic entities. The digital revolution has become a powerful driver of innovative business development. Digitalization encourages market participants to explore ‘unknown territories’, and the corresponding transformation serves as a driver of prosperity for the development of innovative entrepreneurship. The relevant trends require the study of innovative business models and the search for new sources of attraction and generation of intellectual resources. It is unlikely that corporate leadership, in its present form will survive the digital revolution. Therefore, it is necessary to radically change management priorities and use dynamic opportunities, which will allow organisations to gain competitive advantages over their competitors. Therefore, the digital revolution can become both a utopian for the development of innovative business, or a prerequisite for survival in the market. Digital transformations will lead the subjects of market relations to achieve a high level

Active users of the four largest social networks and instant messengers Big messengersapplicationsFour Big Four social applicationsmedia

The array of information accumulated by chatbots allows you to visualize the idea of the best work practices across the organization as a whole and apply this knowledge in training. By laying the elements of gamification on this process, it is possible to launch competitive formats of personnel certification based on the results of training sessions. The specific errors in the operation of chatbots and IVR bots depend on the rate of equipment of the call center, the accuracy of the tasks for fuzzy search, the rate of the recognition system and the audience of callers (Andriushchenko et al. 2019c).

Figure 12: Messenger applications overtake social networks Formed: by authors

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. of innovation, competencies, efficiency, leadership and responsibility with fundamentally positive results for companies and societies The rate of knowledge of such skills will determine the success of a person’s life and the prospects of his or her employment. This study revealed a tendency to demand skills adaptive and digital skills from professionals. The development of digital fluency affects the quality of work of employees. The ability to combine various educational technologies, training formats and technical innovations into a single educational system is the hallmark of a talented employee. It is also important to balance the traditional models of full time study with mobile technologies, augmented reality tools and other digital educational tools. An appropriate distribution of responsibilities between teachers and digital learning support tools is crucial. The quality of digital education can be improved through better data analysis and forecasting, development and launch of advanced educational products using artificial intelligence, improving forecasting tools to understand the relationship of digital transformation in various departments and ensure their interaction.

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Andriushchenko,4061.2019.157765K., Tepliuk, M., Boniar, S., Ushenko, N., & Liezina, A. (2019c). Influence of cost drivers on value oriented management of investment activity of companies. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 16(3), 353 364. http://doi.org/10.21511/imfi.16(3).2019.31

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The study also recommends other group studies be conducted to complement these conclusions and assessments.

Abstract. The present study aimed to analyze the knowledge based economy skills presented in Islamic Education books studied by high school students in Qatar. The sample for the study included Islamic Education books, analyzed cover to cover, for the eleventh and twelfth grades excluding the introduction, the list of references, and lesson questions. The researcher prepared a content analysis form as the study instrument in accordance with previous studies containing 53 signs apportioned to 11 basic rules. The overall result for this study showed a disparity and a low frequency in the ratio of skills based on the knowledge economy included in the content of Islamic education books for high school students. The most inclusive criteria are in descending order "learning how to learn", "management of information" and “problem solving". The study’s primary aim was to help develop the content of the Islamic curriculum through current global skill trends for high school students. It is necessary to include rules for the skills needed foraknowledge basedeconomyinmiddleandhighschoolIslamicbooks.

80 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 80 100, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.52020 The Extent to which Knowledge based Economy Skills are Included in the Secondary Level Curriculum in Qatar Mamduh Ashraah Qatar University, Qatar https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8717 9469 Ahmad Yousef School of Basic Education, PAAET, Kuwait https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2864 4636

Keywords: knowledge based economy; Islamic education; high school 1. Introduction School textbooks are the most important educational resource as they contain the educational material and experiences through which desired educational objectives are achieved. A book contains a huge amount of information and data that teachers deliver to students using a variety of teaching methods and strategies. Therefore, the ministries of education develop books and curricula in line with huge technological and socio economic developments.

Education for Knowledge Economy (ERFKE) projects have been launched whereby the knowledge economy is based on investing in humans, their minds, capabilities, creativity and effectively exploiting the huge amount of information provided by the revolution in technology and communications. This is the essence of the transmission of economic activity from the production of goods to the production and manufacture of knowledge services (Naser Al Din, 2016; Malhotra, 2003)

The importance of the knowledge economy lies in achieving benefits for both the teacher and learner, as it allows students to communicate with their teachers through participation in developing learning resources and it also encourages cooperative learning that plays an essential role in information and communication technology. For example, the computer provides an opportunity for learners to obtain information, organize and store it quickly, and with less effort time and cost than traditional learning methods; hence, the teacher is the supervisor and facilitator of a student's learning (Wheeler, 2000).

2. The study problem and its questions

Among the basic requirements for societies to convert to a knowledge based economy is the presence of a supportive social force, infrastructure, and human forces capable of making and employing knowledge. In addition to updating educational programs and plans, developing laws and systems which support scientific and education research is essential, alongside allocating sufficient funds for information technology and enhancing its role in public life (Al Safi et al., 2010).

The knowledge explosion and the revolution of knowledge are the most prominent characteristics of our current age; it has led to the transformation of our society’s economy from an economy based on machinery and traditional natural resources, to an economy based on knowledge, data and information in which our capital is the human mind Hence this era has been called the era of knowledge economics. We can achieve it by establishing specialized centers for training and qualifications and updating curricula and methods of learning based on smart technologies, such as advanced robots and digital technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT) Each new human development, such as new technology, must demonstrate its impact on society and individuals in general and on the educational process and learners in schools. Therefore, it has become essential for supervisors in educational institutions to keep pace with this development and achieve the desired goals at the lowest possible cost, effort and time, through workshops and courses to introduce supervisors and teachers to new technological developments. In order to achieve this, educational systems have had to consider the field carefully, preparing individuals and building their skills to cope with the changes, since teachers represent the main pillar through which the attitudes and outlook of educated individuals are formed for life. Furthermore, at this point, there has been a race to develop educational systems comprehensively to cope with the rapid changes that the era of the knowledge economy is witnessing )Al Zahrani & Ibrahim, 2012)

5. Study definitions and procedural definitions

2 To what extent are the knowledge economy skills included in the Islamic education book for the Twelfth grade scheduled in the State of Qatar?

The problem which this study aims to answer focuses on the extent to which the textbooks for Islamic education at secondary level in the State of Qatar cover the skills required for knowledge economics, by answering the following study questions:

4. Objectives of the study

The importance of the current study lies in the fact that it is one of the first studies to focus on analyzing Islamic educational books to assess knowledge economic skills, as Islamic education involves material and a course of study no less important than other prescribed subjects. The importance of knowledge economics in an era of knowledge revolution increases the need to undertake such an analysis. The present study constitutes a qualitative addition to pedagogy within the educational field in general, and particularly in the field of Islamic education.

Moatamen (2004) defined the knowledge economy as an economy that focuses on how to obtain, use, employ, create and reproduce knowledge to improve quality of life, to become more responsive and in line with the challenges of globalization, information and communication technology, the universality of knowledge and sustainable development as a comprehensive and integrated concept. In another definition, a knowledge economy is reported as being an economy based on investing in intellectual capital through developing the education system, employing information and communication technology, supporting, producing and disseminating knowledge (Al Kudairi, 2001).

To what extent are the knowledge economy skills included in the Islamic education book for the eleventh grade scheduled in the State of Qatar?

3. Significance of the study

The present study aims to reveal the extent to which Islamic education books for secondary level in the State of Qatar cover the skills required for knowledge economics, to provide benefit to the curriculum. Textbook developers have focused attention on the inclusion of knowledge economics skills in textbooks in general and Islamic education textbooks in particular because Islam has kept and keeps pace with all future developments. This is testament that the true Islamic religion is suitable for every time and place.

The term knowledge economy refers to an economy based mainly on the element of knowledge using the human mind, through the use of research and development instruments, available economic resources, and the use of qualified staff (Al Shammari & Al Laithi, 2008).

In educational terms, researchers have defined knowledge skills as a set of knowledge and processes that must be included in the curriculum to keep pace with the era of knowledge economics to produce knowledge used in life situations that require the skills related to learning, information management, creative thinking, decision making, problem solving, teamwork, information technology, communication, personal influence, leadership, and critical thinking.

Islamic education books are the books prescribed by the Ministry of Education in the State of Qatar for teaching in educational institutions for the academic year 2019/2020 at secondary level.

Knowledge economy skills refer to a set of knowledge processes and attitudes necessary to apply knowledge to life situations that require the use of problem solving skills using critical and creative thinking (Al Banna & Jalal, 2010)

The World Bank defines it as an economy that uses events to achieve economic and social development, and this includes bringing in foreign knowledge, as well as adapting and building knowledge to meet its own needs (Alakhdr, 2019, p1).

Meanwhile, researchers define it according to the requirements of research as an economy that relies on information and knowledge and considers how to produce and employ it, through the full use of modern technology and how to benefit from it in the field of education

6. Theoretical framework and previous studies

A knowledge economy is characterized by its capability for creativity and innovation; since it is based on the human mind, it helps to spread knowledge, employ it and produce it in all fields and helps educational institutions to develop, innovate and achieve their desired goals )Al Hashimi & Fayzah, 2007). Since it is characterized by abundance, unlike the traditional economy, which is a scarce economy, it has the potential to encompass creativity and innovation and is considered more appropriate for supporting conditions for a safe environment (Ghadeer, 2010). One previous study, by Al Belooshi and Al Ma'amari (2020) focused on building a list of the future knowledge economy skills that should be available in educational settings in Oman in accordance with the requirements of the knowledge economy. Using the Delphi method, the data were collected by sending a list of possible skills to a sample of experts representing elite decision makers. The results indicated that basic knowledge skills represented the top five skills, followed by life and professional skills, digital skills, interpersonal skills and communication skills. Al Watry (2019) study showed the degree of inclusion of knowledge economy skills within vocational education books for the intermediate stage in the State of Kuwait as reported by teachers and their practice thereof. To achieve the goals of the study, a descriptive survey method was used; a questionnaire was also used to collect data from the sample participants. This sample consisted of a mixture of 335 male and female teachers of professional education. The study found that the

Al Otaibi (2017) studied the extent to which content relevant to a knowledge economy was included in science books for the top three grades at primary level in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA); the sample for the study consisted of science books for the top three grades at primary level in the KSA (student books, activity books) in the first and second parts. It indicated that indicators of knowledge economics consisted of 39 signs and in the content of science books for the top three grades at primary level, 6 fields were included arranged in a row These were the thinking skills, knowledge, communication skills, economic field, the cultural and technical fields. Shatat (2017) conducted to evaluate the developed science textbook for third graders in the light of the knowledge economy in Jordan, according to teacher estimates. The researcher used the descriptive approach, and the study sample consisted of (74) female teachers who were teaching science to third graders in the fourth Amman Directorate in the Tabarbour area. The study concluded that the degree of availability of knowledge economy standards in the science book, according to teachers ’estimates, was average. The researcher recommended the need to focus on including knowledge economics skills in the science textbook for the third grade and motivating female teachers to focus more on these skills. Meanwhile, Al Kuthiri and Safi (2017) conducted a study to identify the parts of the knowledge economy included in the jurisprudence course for middle class first graders in the KSA. To achieve the goals of the study, the two researchers prepared a content analysis form and then analyzed the content in light of the identified parts of the knowledge economy. Among the most relevant findings was the conclusion that 22 knowledge economy elements were available in the content of the jurisprudence book for the first intermediate grade. These were distributed across three fields, namely the technical and communication field, the field of knowledge and mental development, and the social and national field. These researchers also recommended that elements of the knowledge economy should be included in the content of the jurisprudence book for the first intermediate grade in the KSA

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. knowledge economy skills presented in the books for professional education for the intermediate stage in Kuwait were well appreciated and that the degree of practice of professional education teachers was also high.

The study by Ahmad (2017) ascertained several results, the most important of which was the availability of knowledge economy elements in the Arabic

Al Damak (2019) study aimed to investigate the degree of inclusion of the standards of knowledge based economics in home economics books at secondary level in the State of Kuwait. The sample included both family and consumer science books for the secondary level home economics specialization. An analysis tool was developed including (17) criteria, and the following results were found: the total number of iterations of knowledge based economics standards in these books was (1177) iterations, and the researcher recommended that the authors of home economics books should pay attention to the standards of knowledge based economics and include them in the content of the assessed books

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. language textbook for the sixth primary grade, and also the performance of Arabic language teachers with a very low degree of knowledge of the field of information technology, the economic field, the national field, the field of leadership and the ethical field; skills were available to a small degree in the field of mental development, and to a moderate degree, in the field of social growth and cooperative work, while they were extensively available in the field of communication. The researcher also recommended that the content of Arabic language books should include the skills required for the knowledge economy.

The study by Al Khawaldeh and Hammadneh (2015) aimed to identify the degree to which social education books observe the principles of knowledge economics for secondary education. Content analysis was undertaken and the researchers developed a list of principles of knowledge economics that should be available in the books on social education. The results showed an absence of statistically significant differences at a significance level (α=0.05) Hamzah (2014) study aimed to identify the extent to which the content of the mathematics curriculum for the fourth grade included basic consideration of modern educational trends in which are part of the ERFKE from the perspective of teachers in government schools in Jordan. The study sample consisted of (62) male and female teachers. Schools in Amman were chosen in a simple random way. The researcher used a questionnaire that he had developed and which contained (55) paragraphs distributed into (4) fields. The most important results were that the educational material takes into account the criteria for a knowledge economy to a large degree, and that the evaluation of learning and the tools accompanying the content of the mathematics curriculum for the fourth basic grade correspond to the standards for a knowledge economy at an average level.

Al Edwan and Hamaidi (2011) conducted a study aimed at investigating the extent to which the books for social and national education for the lower basic stage, first, second and third grades in Jordan included the standards for knowledge economics from the teacher's point of view. A questionnaire was designed that included 40 rules, divided into five key fields, and this was distributed to primary school teachers in Madaba Governorate. The results of the study indicated, according to the teachers’ points of view, that there is a general weakness in the clarity of the rules and philosophy behind the knowledge economy concept in the books for the targeted stage, especially in the field of thinking skills. The third grade book had the highest rate of inclusion of the standards for knowledge economics, followed by the second grade book, then the first grade book.

The study by Al Khaldi (2013) aimed to reveal the degree to which the concepts of knowledge economics are possessed by Islamic education teachers in Jordan in the light of certain demographic variables. The researcher designed a questionnaire consisting of (35) items, distributed to the sample that consisted of 93 male and 133 female teachers. The results indicated that the degree to which individuals possessed the concepts of a knowledge economy was high in the field of planning for teaching and lesson implementation; intermediate for classroom management; and low in the field of evaluation and the field of educational aids.

. During the content analysis, the results of the study showed that there is less adherence in the book History of the Arabs and the Contemporary World to international standards compared to the book Contemporary History of Jordan for the second secondary grade.

We note from the previous studies that most of the studies focused on analyzing the content of the curricula and evaluating them in the light of the knowledge economy from the viewpoint of the teachers themselves, such as Al Howaymel (2009), Hamza (2014), and Shatat (2017), while some studies focus on the principles of knowledge economics in Islamic education books and social education, such as Al Zoubi (2010).

The aim of the study conducted by Al Zoubi (2010) was to demonstrate the impact of an Islamic education curriculum developed based on the principles of a knowledge economy, on the achievement and the development of creative thinking at the primary level in Jordan. Two units of the Islamic education curriculum for the ninth grade were developed and a sample consisting of (59) students in the ninth grade was selected from the Directorate of Education of Al Koura district. The students were divided into two groups: control and experimental. Content analysis of the targeted book, achievement test, and creative thinking test (TORRANCE) was undertaken. The results showed an uneven distribution of the principles of the knowledge economy within the Islamic education curriculum; the technological field was most commonly included, and the cognitive development field was least commonly included As for Al Howaymel (2009), his study aimed to evaluate the Arabic textbook for the second grade in the light of knowledge economics from the viewpoint of teachers. The study sample consisted of (76) male and female teachers teaching the second grade in the Al Karak governorate. The researcher developed a questionnaire which included (59) statements, distributed across seven fields. The results showed that there were no statistically significant differences due to educational qualifications or teaching experiences Bani Ata (2004) conducted an analytical study to understand the degree to which high school history books in Jordan adhered to the international standards for textbooks and to build a proposed model for their development in light of these standards. The sample for the study consisted of (88) male and female teachers and 250 students. In terms of books, the sample consisted of the book Contemporary History of Jordan for the second grade at the secondary level and the book History of the Arabs and the Contemporary World

Al Qaisi (2011) study aimed to investigate the features of a knowledge economy and the features that should be included in the content of Sharia science courses when developing secondary education in the KSA. The researcher prepared a tool for the study to classify the features of knowledge economics, and which included (78) features distributed across seven main areas. As a result, the knowledge field was best represented, with (949) instances, while the national field was lowest ranked with a frequency of only (62)

On the other hand, the National Council for Learning in Japan identified the following skills: the spirit of competition among students, developing an individual's ability to be creative and innovative and preparing individuals in a way that enables them to have a place in society (Al Qarara,2013). But Jordan Ministry of Education (2005) defined the skills as creativity, learning how to learn, information management, organizational awareness, leadership, information technology, communication, and personal influence.

The paucity of previous studies in Islamic education, especially those which analyze the extent to which knowledge economics skills are included, is the strength of this study. What distinguishes it from others is that the curriculum that was analyzed is new and has been developed in the State of Qatar. Research and studies in this area have not been conducted previously. The knowledge economy has different dimensions, the most important of which is the economic dimension, while the social dimension is concerned with increasing awareness of both information and information culture in society. The technological aspect is concerned mainly with the spread of technology and its applications to different areas of life. Finally, the cultural aspect is concerned with regarding knowledge as highly important and paying attention to creative capabilities and spreading awareness, culture, and science in daily life to some extent (Nour Al-Din, 2010). It is worth noting that the knowledge economy involves skills that must be supported by competencies and curricula to keep pace with individual, industrial and cognitive requirements. A memorandum issued by the New Zealand Planning Council in (1991) states that for the country to move into the era of the knowledge economy, the following competencies must be considered, namely: labor and management skills, information technology, language skills, thinking skills and creativity in problem solving (Yim Teo, 2004).

Some studies were concerned with the standards of the knowledge economy in the textbooks, such as Al Damak (2019). On the other hand, the rest of the studies were concerned with the availability of concepts, parts or areas related to a knowledge economy in the educational curricula such as the subject of Islamic education in the studies by Al Khaldi (2013) and Al Qaisi, (2011); Arabic in the study by Ahmed (2017); jurisprudence for first intermediate female students in the study by Al Kuthiri and Safi (2017) and science for the top three grades in the study by Al Otaibi (2017). One study concerned the skills related to knowledge economics in books for vocational education (Al Watry, 2019).

The Islamic education book analysis tool was built into this study in the light of knowledge economy skills that were identified by the countries mentioned above and includes signs for each of the knowledge economy skills.

The sample for analysis consisted of all the academic subjects included in the content of Islamic education books for the second stage (eleventh grade, twelfth grade) in the State of Qatar, as planned for the academic year 2020/2019. Each book consists of 16 lessons, and thus the total of lessons analyzed in this study was (32) lessons. The five units of analysis which follow have been previously identified: word, subject or idea, character, paragraph, space, and time scale. In this study, an entire paragraph was adopted as an analysis unit and this was used for registering and indexing the Islamic education books. Among the controls that governed the process of analyzing the books for Islamic education in this study, firstly, only 32 lessons were analyzed, excluding the index, introduction, and lesson questions; secondly, only the first semester book was analyzed for each grade.

The researchers identified 11 primary fields for knowledge economy skills included in the books for Islamic education for secondary level. Sub signs were categorized under each field and the preliminary study tool was presented to three faculty members in the curriculum department and specialists in Islamic education curricula for assessment, to verify the validity of the content analysis tool, and ascertain the degree of importance, clarity, and belonging. Some paragraphs related to the wording were then modified with guidance from the principles or regulations stipulated or suggested by of the assessors as suitable for Islamic education. The tool was aligned for use in analyzing the content of Islamic education books for the second stage according to the concepts of knowledge economics; the list consisted of 11 rules and 53 signs distributed as follow: the idea of learning how to learn (7 signs), the information management field (3 signs), the creative thinking field (4 signs), the decision making field (5 signs), the problem solving field (8 signs), the teamwork field (4 signs), the communication field (5 signs), the information technology field (3 signs), the personal impact field (6 signs), the leadership field (3 signs) and the critical thinking field (5 signs).

8. Sampling strategies

9. Research instrument

To answer the study questions, the researchers developed a tool for analyzing the content of Islamic education books, for the second stage, in the light of knowledge economics skills in the State of Qatar. The tool took into account research in this field presented in previous studies such as Shaqfa (2013), Al Qaisi (2011), and others, as well as the opinions of educational specialists and experts, and exploring education reform for knowledge economy projects in Jordan.

This study adopted a descriptive analytical approach, because such an approach helps to study phenomena, and describes the relationships between them and other related factors with the possibility of analyzing and interpreting data. In this study, the author used a content analysis method.

To measure the reliability of the content analysis tool, reliability over time was used. Stage 1: the researchers analyzed the textbooks twice over two separate

7. Method and procedures

89 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. periods (2 weeks). Stage 2: the researchers calculated the coefficient of agreement between the two analyses using the number of times there was agreement between the two analyses divided by the total number of points of agreement and difference, using the Holistic equation. Table (1) shows the coefficient of agreement between the two analyses for the content of Islamic education books for the eleventh grade. Table 1: The coefficient of agreement between the two analyses of the content of Islamic education books for the eleventh grade Rules Analysis process Agreementpoints DifferencepointsFirst Second Learning how to learn 35 32 32 3 Information management 44 40 40 4 Creative thinking 20 18 18 2 Decision making 15 15 15 0 Problem solving 36 38 36 2 Group work 18 18 18 2 Communication 22 26 22 4 Information technology 5 5 5 0 Personal impact 15 13 13 2 Leadership 5 7 5 2 Critical thinking 27 25 25 2 Total 242 237 229 23 Reliability coefficient = �� +�� X100% Reliability coefficient = 229 229+23 x 100% = 90.87% It is clear from Table 1 that the agreement rate was high between the first and second analyses according to the content rules for Islamic book for the eleventh grade as it reached 90.87%, which is a good percentage that indicates the reliability of the analysis process. 10. Results and discussion In this paper, the researchers put forward a detailed presentation of the study's findings and discuss it as follows: 1. To what extent are the knowledge economy skills included in the Islamic education book for the eleventh grade scheduled in the State of Qatar? To answer this question, the researchers calculated the rates and percentages for each of the fields The following table presents the results

9 25

90 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 2: The rates, percentages, and rankings of the knowledge economy skills included in the Islamic education book for the eleventh grade # Field Frequency Percentage Rank 1 Learning how to learn 35 14.17 3 2 Information management 43 17.40 1 3 Creative thinking 18 7.28 6 4 Decision making 15 6.07 8 5 Problem solving 38 15.38 2 6 Group work 18 7.28 7 7 Communication 25 10.12 5 8 Information technology 5 2.02 11 9 Personal impact 14 5.66 9 10 Leadership 7 2.83 10 11 Critical thinking 29 11.74 4 Total 247 100%

Table 3: The rates and percentages of each indicator for each field in the content of the Islamic education book for the eleventh grade Field Indicator Frequency Percentage Learning how to learn The book activates the curiosity of learners 2 5.56 It develops the ability to continue self learning 6 16.66 It stimulates the use of the appropriate environment for learning 3 8.33 It motivates students to apply what they learn in their lives

It is apparent from Table (2) that the overall percentage of the availability of rules for knowledge economy skills in the content of the Islamic education book for the eleventh grade is low. The eleven rules are included in the content of the Islamic education book for the eleventh grade in different proportions. The information management field ranked first with 43 instances, with a percentage of 17.40%, and second was the problem solving field with 38 instances and a percentage of 15.38% followed by the field of learning on how to learn with 35 instances and a percentage of 14.17%. The information technology field was ranked lowest with only five instances and a rate of 0.22%. It is also apparent from the results that the field of creative thinking and the field of teamwork had the same frequency with 18 instances each and 7.28%. Information management may have been ranked first because Islamic education books contain, in every single paragraph, either Quranic verses or supplications of the Prophet. Therefore, accuracy and quality are required when adding these skills to Islamic education curricula to achieve the Islamic goals for society and the individual. The justification of for the exclusion of the information technology field beyond its current presence according to the researcher’s knowledge stems from educators and developers of the Islamic education curriculum not being aware of the necessity of linking the subject to technology even though technology is an important source of knowledge in this age.

91 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. It activates as many senses as possible during the learning process 3 8.33 A Review that has been learned to improve his information 9 25 It urges research and discusses knowledge critically to confirm it 4 11.11 Total 36 100% managementInformation It develops ability in information technology 1 2.33 It includes quality and accurate data and information 33 76.744 It contains information searches and classification activities 9 20.93 Total 43 100% Creative thinking It encourages the writing of research and reports 6 35.294 It develops the ability to distinguish and perceive the issues raised 2 11.765 It develops the ability to generate diverse ideas 4 23.529 It urges new details to be added to an idea accurately 5 29.412 Total 17 100% Decision making It urges individuals to consult people of experience and set a role model 4 26.667 It encourages the implementation of sound decisions 2 13.333 It urges individuals to slow down in terms of the issuance of judgments 2 13.333 It provides correct and complete information on the subject 7 46.667 It determines the available options based on the available information 0 0 Total 15 100% It provides serial and integrated information on the subject 16 42.105 It encourages boldness, perseverance, and initiative 3 7.8947 It develops the ability to discover sources of knowledge 0 0

92 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Problem solving It promotes self confidence and self reliance 4 10.526 It helps students to reach and apply the results 3 7.8947 It urges planning and information gathering for results 2 5.263 It urges the use of modern technical means of research and investigation 10 26.315 Total 38 100% Group work It encourages active participation 4 25 It raises students' motivation for teamwork 5 31.25 It encourages the exchange of information and experiences between students 2 12.5 It calls for mistakes to be taken as learning opportunities, not blame and criticism 5 31.25 Total 16 100 Communication It strengthens the relationship between school and society 5 20.83 theItdevelopstheabilitytomanagecommunicationprocess 1 4.166 It encourages constructive criticism and backs it up with evidence 5 20.83 It develops listening and expression skills and accepts others' opinions 5 20.83 It is prepared for the topic to be raised in advance 8 33.33 Total 24 100% Informationtechnology It motivates students to use technology to organize research 1 20 It motivates students to use technology in research analysis 2 40 It encourages the use of appropriate electronic sources for the required information 2 40 Total 5 100 It calls for an understanding of the surrounding world 3 20 It emphasizes verbal fluency and eloquence 6 40

Total

2. To what extent are the knowledge economy skills included in the Islamic education book for the Twelfth grade scheduled in the State of Qatar?

Total

Critical thinking It enhances the ability to find similarities and differences 27.586 It identifies information related to the topic 2 6.896 It promotes critical thinking and justification 7 24.137 It demonstrates variety in questions to contribute to a deeper understanding 9 31.034 It enhances the ability to accurately identify problems 3 10.343 Total 29 100%

To answer this question, the researchers used the tool to analyze the content of the Islamic education book for the twelfth grade in light of the fields for knowledge economy skills that were prepared for this purpose. The rates and percentages for each of the fields were then calculated

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Personal impact It promotes leadership and initiative 2 13.333 It calls for flexible solutions 0 0 It employs the Arabic language properly and influences others 26.666 It calls for a proper response to external influences 0 15 100%

Leadership It enhances the importance of taking into account the feelings of others 0 It contributes to a positive exchange of experiences 42.85 It promotes collaborative work and tackles others' problems 57.14 7 100%

As shown in Table 3, regarding the information management field, we find that the indicator, "It includes quality and accurate data and information" achieved the highest availability rate at 76.74%. The researcher attributes this result to the nature of Islamic education books and their association with the Quran Kareem and the Sunnah of the Prophet, therefore quality and accuracy. As for the field of learning how to learn, we find that the indicator, "A Review that has been learned to improve his information" and the indicator, "It motivates students to apply what they learn in their lives" achieved the highest availability at 25%. For the problem solving field, the indicator, "It provides serial and integrated information on the subject" had the highest availability rate at 42.1% This is due to the advantages of Islamic law in dealing with all issues and submitting all suggestions that a person faces in his life. This result is consistent with the study (Al Edwan & Hamaidi 2011) and (Al Otaibi, 2017).

Learning

Table 5: The rates and percentages of each indicator for each field in the content of the Islamic education book for the twelfth grade Field Indicator Frequency Percentage how to learn The book activates the curiosity of learners 4 12.930 It develops the ability to continue self learning 6 19.354 It stimulates the use of the appropriate environment for learning 3.225 It motivates students to apply what they learn in their lives 16.129

It is apparent from Table 4 that the general percentage of the availability of rules for knowledge economy skills in the content of the Islamic education book for twelfth grade is low. The eleven fields appeared in the Islamic education book for the twelfth grade in different proportions. The problem-solving field was ranked first with 42 instances, with a percentage of 20.289%. In second position was the learning how to learn field with 31 instances and a percentage of 14.975%; the information management field followed closely in frequency with 35 instances and a percentage of 14.492%. The information technology field was ranked lowest with 0 instances as the textbook did not have any indicators relating to information technology skills. It is also clear to us from the results that the field of teamwork and the field of communication were close to each other in terms of instances (25 and 26 respectively) with similar percentages (12.07% and 12.65%, respectively). The reason for this is due to the presence of Quranic verses and Prophetic hadiths that are verified before they are placed in the curriculum. The other reason is that the book includes many curricular and extracurricular activities that motivate students to seek knowledge in different ways. The researchers attribute the exclude the information technology in Islamic book to the nature of the subject and how to teach it

94 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 4: The rates, percentages, and rankings of the knowledge economy skills included in the Islamic education book for twelfth grade # Field Frequency Percentage Rank 1 Learning how to learn 31 14.975 2 2 Information management 30 14.492 3 3 Creative thinking 11 5.314 8 4 Decision making 16 7.729 6 5 Problem solving 42 20.289 1 6 Group work 25 12.077 5 7 Communication 26 12.560 4 8 Information technology 0 0 11 9 Personal impact 10 4.830 9 10 Leadership 4 1.932 10 11 Critical thinking 12 5.797 7 Total 207 100%

95 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. It activates as many senses as possible during the learning process 5 16.129 A Review that has been learned to improve his information 6 19.354 It urges research and discusses knowledge critically to confirm it 4 12.930 Total 31 100% managementInformation It develops ability in information technology 0 0 It includes quality and accurate data and information 25 83.33 It contains information search and classification activities 5 16.66 Total 30 100% Creative thinking It encourages the writing of research and reports 6 35.294 It develops the ability to raiseddistinguishandperceivetheissues 2 11.765 It develops the ability to generate diverse ideas 4 23.529 It urges new details to be added to an idea accurately 5 29.412 Total 17 100% Decision making It urges individuals to consult people of experience and set a role model 4 25 It encourages the implementation of sound decisions 0 0 It urges individuals to slow down in terms of the issuance of judgments 7 43.75 It provides correct and complete information on the subject 2 12.5 It determines available options based on available information 3 18.75 Total 16 100% Problem solving It provides serial and integrated information on the subject 18 42.857 It encourages boldness, perseverance, and initiative 2 4.7619 It develops the ability to discover sources of knowledge 3 7.1428 It promotes self confidence and self reliance 4 9.523 It helps students to reach and apply the results 0 0

96 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. It urges planning and information gathering for results 5 11.904 It urges the use of modern technical means of research and investigation 10 23.809 Total 42 100% Group work It encourages active participation 8 32 It raises students' motivation for teamwork 7 28 It encourages the exchange of information and experiences between students 6 24 It calls for mistakes to be taken as learning opportunities, not for blame and criticism 4 16 Total 25 100 Communication It strengthens the relationship between school and society 5 21.73 It develops the ability to manage the communication process 0 0 It encourages constructive criticism and backs it up with evidence 4 17.39 It develops listening and expression skills and accepts others' opinions 3 13.04 It is prepared for the topic to be raised in advance 11 47.82 Total 23 100% Informationtechnology It motivates students to use technology to organize research 0 0 It motivates students to use technology in research analysis 0 0 It encourages the use of appropriate electronic sources for the required information 0 0 Total 0 100 Personal impact It calls for an understanding of the surrounding world 1 10 It emphasizes verbal fluency and eloquence 3 30 It promotes leadership and initiative 3 30 It calls for flexible solutions 2 20 It employs the Arabic language properly and influences others 0 0 It calls for a proper response to external influences 1 10 Total 10 100%

11. Conclusion and Recommendations

According to the findings in this paper, we find that Islamic education textbooks at secondary level in Qatar do not include all the fields for knowledge economy skills and the content, in these terms, is weak and varied. The Islamic education book for the twelfth grade did not include any information technology field skills. Furthermore, the Islamic education book for the eleventh grade referred more to the skills for a knowledge economy with a frequency of 247 relevant instances compared to the book of Islamic education for the twelfth grade which referred to the skills for a knowledge economy 207 times. This indicates the weakness of

97 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Leadership It enhances the importance of taking into account the feelings of others 1 25 It contributes to a positive exchange of experiences 1 25 It promotes collaborative work and tackles others' problems 2 50 Total 4 100% Critical thinking It enhances the ability to find similarities and differences 2 16.66 It identifies information related to the topic 2 16.66 It promotes critical thinking and justification 1 8.33 It promotes variety in questions to contribute to a deeper understanding 4 33.33 It enhances the ability to accurately identify problems 3 25 Total 12 100 As shown in Table 5, for the problem solving field, the indicator, "It provides serial and integrated information on the subject" had the highest availability rate at 42.85% This is due to the advantages of Islamic law in dealing with all issues and submitting all suggestions that a person faces in his life.. follow it the learning how to learn field, we find that the indicators, “A Review that has been learned to improve his information” and, “It develops the ability and continuity of self learning” had the highest availability rate at 19.35% The researcher attributes this to the fact that the Islamic Education Book focuses on recalling previous information and building new information. To expand the knowledge structure of students, and achieve horizontal and vertical integration in the educational process. while for the information management field, the indicator, "It includes quality and accurate data and information" had the highest availability rate at 83.3% about the field of teamwork, the indicator, "It encourages active participation" had the highest availability rate at 32%. These results differ with a study of (Al Zoubi, 2010).

Al Banna, J., & Jalal, K. (2010). The extent to which high school mathematics books in Jordan have taken into account the skills of knowledge economics [Working paper]. The First Curriculum conference, Jordan. Al Belooshi, J., & Al Ma'amari, S. (2020). The Skills of the Knowledge Economy Expected in the Future in the School Education in Oman: A Scientific Study by Using the Delphi Method Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies, 14(2), 229 249. http://dx.doi.org/10.24200/jeps.vol14iss2pp229

Al Hashimi, A., & Fayzah, M. (2007). Curriculum & Knowledge Economy. Oman: Dar Al Massira for Publishing. Al Howaymel, O. (2009). Evaluation of our Arabic language book for second basic class students in the light of the knowledge economy in Jordan from its teachers. Educational Sciences Studies, 36(1), 117 132.

Al Khaldi, J. (2013). To reveal the degree of Islamic education teachers and teachers in Jordan possessing concepts of knowledge economics in light of some demographic variables. IUG Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies, 21(1), 159 187

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Islamic education books for the high school stage in the State of Qatar and indicates that textbooks do not meet the requirements for the age of knowledge This area, therefore, requires development and reconsideration to achieve content appropriate to the era of the knowledge economy that we live in, at a time when knowledge is increasing and technology is developing. According to the results, researchers recommend the following: reconsidering the design of Islamic education books to teach the skills needed for a knowledge economy; utilization of educational technology in teaching the Islamic education curriculum, and paying more attention to higher skills and critical thinking. Finally, it is important to reconsider the training and qualifications of teachers in order to maximize the spread of these skills

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249 Al Damak, M. B. (2019). The degree to which high school books in the State of Kuwait include knowledge based economy standards [Master’s thesis]. Al Bayt University 000 020 003

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Al Edwan, Z., & Hamaidi, D. (2011). Evaluating social and national education textbooks based on the rules of the knowledge based economy from the perspectives of elementary teachers in Jordan. Education, 131(3), 684 696.

Al Khawaldeh, N., & Hammadneh, M. (2015).The degree of observance of books of social studies to the principles of knowledge economics for the stage of secondary education in Jordan through analyzing their content. Basic Education College Magazine for Educational and Humanities Sciences, 2, 3 7. Al Kudairi,M.(2001). Knowledgeeconomy. Egypt:TheNileArabGroupfor Publishingand Distribution. Al kuthiri, H., & Safi, A. (2018). The extent of conclusion the book of jurisprudence for the students of the first grade intermediate in Saudi Arabia for the knowledge

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99 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. economic. International Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies, 3(2), 198 391. Al Otaibi, W. B. H. (2017). The extent to which the fields of the knowledge economy are included inthecontent ofsciencebooksfor thetopthreegradesoftheelementary stage in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Educational Journal, 31(123), 169 301. https://doi.org/10.34120/0085

031 123 016 Al Qaisi, M. B. A. (2011).Knowledgeeconomy features included inthecontent ofsharia sciences coursesintheSecondaryEducationDevelopmentProjectintheKingdomofSaudi Arabia [Doctoral dissertation]. Mu’tah University Al Qarara, A. O. (2013). The Cognitive Economy Skills Included the Chemistry Book of 2nd Secondary and Teachers Possessing Degree of them. JournalofHumanitiesand Social Sciences, 13, 1 22. Al Safi,A.,Salim,Q.,&Dabour,A.(2010). Educatingchildrenintheageofknowledgeeconomy. Jordan: Dar Al Thaqafa for Publishing and Distribution. Al Shammari, H., & Al Laithi, N. (2008). Knowledge Economy. Dar Al Safa Library for Publishing and Distribution. Al Watry, E. B. (2019). Cognitive economics skills in intermediate education vocational books in the State of Kuwait from the teachers’ point of view and their practice [Master’s thesis]. Al Bayt University. Al Zahrani, A., & Ibrahim, Y. (2012). Teacher of the twenty first century. Knowledge Magazine, 211. Al Zoubi, I. (2010). The effect of a developed curriculum on Islamic education, in the light of the principles of cognitive economics in achievement and development of creative thinking among basic stage students in Jordan [Doctoral dissertation]. Amman Arab University. https://doi.org/10.36621/0397

002 002 001 Bani Ata, M. Q. (2004). Evaluation of history books for high school in Jordan in the light of international standards for textbooks and building a proposed model for developing them in the light of these standards [Doctoral dissertation]. Amman Arab University 000 005 004 Ghadeer, B. (2010). Knowledge economy. Shuaa Publishing and Science. Hamzah, M. A. (2014). The extent to which the content of the mathematics curriculum takes into account the fourth basic grade of modern educational trends included in the project to develop education towards knowledge economics (ERFKE) from the viewpoint of government school teachers in Jordan. The Journal of the Islamic University for Educational and Psychological Studies, 22(1), 55. https://doi.org/10.12816/0013552 Malhotra, Y. (2003). Measuring knowledge assets of a nation: knowledge systems for development. United Nations Advisory Meeting of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs Division for Public Administration and Development Management, Ad Hoc Group of Experts Meeting Knowledge Systems for Development. Ministry of Education, (2005). Training manual, education training: qualification and supervision department. Jordan educational training directorate Moatamen,M.(2004).TheroleoftheJordaniansysteminadvancingtowardsaknowledgeeconomy:Messageofateacher. Ministry of Education, 43(1), 17 21. Naser Al Din, S. (2016). Knowledge Economy. Retrieved from www.4arab.net.com Nour Al Din, I. (2010). Knowledge management and modern technology. Osama House for Publishing and Distribution. Shaqfa, S. (2013). Knowledge economy skills in the content of science books for the upper basic stage in Gaza and the extent of acquisition of tenth grade students. The Islamic University, Palestine.

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Yim Teo, T. (2004). Reforming Curriculum for a knowledge Economy: The Case of Technical Education in Singapore. Paper presented to the NCIIA 8th Annual meeting Titled: Education that Works (pp. 137 144).

101 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 101 120, July 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.6 Perceptions of Students towards the Postgraduate Biology Practical Demonstrators at Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria, South Africa Liziwe L. Mugivhisa https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6112 5478 Caswell Mavimbela https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5754 439X Joshua O. Olowoyo https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8601 091X

Abstract. The present study assessed the experiences of junior students on the ability, performance, and competence of demonstrators or instructors for practical classes in the Biology department. A total of 148 self administered questionnaires were completed by the junior Biology students in years 1, 2, and 3. The result showed that 52.1% and 62.3% of the participants indicated that the demonstrators had adequate content knowledge of the practical sessions and were helpful during practical sessions respectively. Furthermore, 51.4% agreed that the marking of the practical assessments by the demonstrators was not usually accurate. Most of the respondents stated that the demonstrators were good listeners (77.4%), approachable (71.9%) and 83.0% of the participants did not have any problems with taking instructions from the demonstrators. The majority (69.0%) of the participants wanted the services of the demonstrators to be continued and 36.0% felt that there was a need to increase the number of demonstrators for the practical sessions. Some of the shortcomings of the demonstrators as mentioned by the respondents were the use of cell phones during the practical sessions and that the demonstrators were fond of talking amongst themselves rather than concentrating on the students they were supposed to assist. In general, though the demonstrators were considered to be helpful and that their services should be continued it is however recommended that they should be required to write pre practical tests before the practical classes to improve their competency in marking and giving accurate answers during the practical classes.

Keywords: Demonstrators; Practical Classes; Laboratory; Postgraduate Students

1. Introduction

The large numbers of undergraduate students enrolled at universities together with the decrease in the public funding has resulted in postgraduates or senior students being employed on a part time basis to assist with the running of undergraduate classes at institutions of higher learning (Flaherty et al., 2017). This has assisted with addressing the challenges of high numbers of students even though there is a low teacher to student ratio (Durán et al., 2012). The first year class consists of a group of students with diverse backgrounds and academic abilities, hence, it becomes more difficult to coordinate activities that encourage the application of concepts outside the lecture such as laboratories (Sana et al., 2011). Due to the large classes, one lecturer cannot conduct the laboratories and lectures resulting in an introduction of having postgraduate or senior students to lead the laboratory sessions which make up a major component of the classes in the sciences (Chapin et al., 2014). According to Felege, (2018), the use of teaching assistants who are graduates for several teaching duties has been practiced at most tertiary institutions. For the majority of the institutions of higher education, there has been more reliance on the employment of the graduate teaching assistants who can also be referred to as demonstrators. Big universities in the United States depend on graduate students and teaching assistants for teaching the laboratory sessions in the sciences especially at the introductory levels of subjects such as Biology (Basey et al., 2014; Schussler et al., 2015). These graduate teaching assistants have been found to play an important role in the standard of the education of the undergraduates and to have an impact on the understanding of the undergraduates when it comes to the comprehension of inquiry based chemical concepts in the laboratories (Wheeler et al., 2015).The graduate teaching assistants who are in the practice of integrating their overlapping roles of being teachers and students have an impact on the learning of the students (Spike, 2016). The postgraduates have also been used as teaching assistants in other fields such as Medicine in the majority of the medical schools in the United States (Lachman et al., Even2013).though these graduate students usually have minimum formal teacher training or preparation, they should be considered as partners who have an impact on the influence and support of the learning and education of the students (Spike, 2014). According to Chiu and Corrigan (2019), from the 1990s, most managers at the universities have started to realise the significance of having graduate teaching assistants who are properly trained so that they are able to provide high quality support and assistance to the undergraduates and as a result, there have been efforts made to invest in the training of these graduate Theassistants.graduate students are used as teaching assistants with responsibilities ranging from managing laboratory sessions to assessing students in Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields (Weidert et al., 2012). However, few studies have been done to assess the impact of the demonstrators on the teaching of the undergraduates (Kendall and Schussler, 2013). In addition

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved to their roles as facilitators, graduate teaching assistants in the laboratories are responsible for marking, giving feedback, setting up materials/types of equipment, motivating and encouraging students, presenting experimental techniques and pre laboratory lectures, and assisting students in scientific practices (Wheeler et al., 2015).

According to DeBeck and Demaree (2012), in most cases, teaching assistants play roles as the primary contact for the students and as a mediator between the students and the professors. As a result, demonstrators end up interacting directly more with the students. When demonstrators are given contracts by university management, it is usually for the whole year meaning that the undergraduates may be in contact with the same demonstrators for the whole year. As a result, the contact that the demonstrator has with the students becomes 2 to 3 times more

According to Lama and Joullie (2015), at most Australian universities, enrolments of students increased when there was a greater emphasis on doing research resulting in less involvement of academic staff who were employed on a full time basis in teaching. As a result, there was a need for demonstrators to offer support for the learning of the students in the science laboratories. The support of the learning process for the undergraduate students during the practical sessions is largely dependent on the demonstrators who have a substantial impact on the experiences of the undergraduate students in the laboratories (Kirkup et al., 2016). Only through the work that is carried out in the laboratories, can the practical work in science education be guaranteed (Gudyanga & Jita, 2019). Leaners acquire actual experiences of the natural world in the laboratories. When improvements are done globally with respect to the science curriculum, changes also have to be considered when it comes to the large scale components of the practicals including how experimental work is conducted by the students (Gudyanga & Jita, 2019). According to Russell and Weaver (2008), there is a belief that within science education there is a coalition of practice and theory in the laboratories. Taking part in proper research in a laboratory for an undergraduate who wants to pursue a career in the scientific research seems like a noble opportunity (Linn et al., 2015; Bowling et al., 2015; Bangera & Brownell, 2014). According to a survey by Linn et al., (2015) at 200 institutions, undergraduates appreciated the research experiences which they gained in the laboratories Laboratory sessions play a role of being the core element of the courses in the sciences and they are for the development of experimental skills and sometimes even being for emphasizing the theoretical concepts and principles (Braun & Kirkup, 2016; Gardner & Jones, 2011). The hands on activities which take place in the laboratories are considered to be essential for science degrees (Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004). According to Wilson et al., (2011),experiences that undergraduates can gain in conducting research in the laboratories have been associated with improvement of the educational experiences of the undergraduates and increased retention rates of the graduates. Also, there is an enhancement of the skills in research and increased perseverance to the undergraduate degree and selection of a career in STEM when students engage in research in the laboratories.

large lectures, students do not usually get a chance to interact with the content of the lecture actively or get a chance to ask questions because they may feel frightened to participate in such big groups and to also interact with the lecturers which they might not be familiar with (Drane et al., 2014). Besides, lecture classes are much bigger than the laboratory sessions pointing towards the importance of the role of demonstrators in the learning of science (French & Russell, Interactions2002).between

The positions of teaching assistants are usually associated with esteem, respect, power, and authority in the undergraduate laboratories and classrooms (Chapin et al., 2014). Usually, these positions are given to academically sound postgraduate students. The experiences of the undergraduates are important in determining whether the students are retained in the sciences and have a good understanding of the subject content which they will use later in their professions (Kendall & Schussler, 2013). According to Flaherty et al., (2017), it has been stated in a national Australian report that the laboratory demonstrators are the most significant resources associated with the undergraduates’ experiences as they know what is to be done in the laboratories and also how it should be done Also, they set the tone of the learning environment for the undergraduates. In the study of Kirkup et al., (2016), demonstrators were seen as having powers to make a laboratory experience of the undergraduates either miserable or great. Irrespective of how important the demonstrators are, there has been little effort carried out in assessing the influence they have on the experiences of the students in the undergraduate laboratories where the main focus is on the experiments (Wyse et al., 2014). Few studies have also been done to assess the impact of the demonstrators on the teaching of the undergraduates (Kendall & Schussler, 2013). Due to the changes in the global economy, there has been an escalation in the demand for STEM professionals (Wilson et al., 2011). There is also a need for ways to reconceptualise STEM education at the tertiary level at the nation's universities and colleges because of an escalating need for professional engineers and scientists together with fears about the absence of commitment in science careers (Drane et al., 2014). However, below 50% of the students who have enrolled in the STEM undergraduate curricula, will eventually graduate with a degree in STEM in theUnited States (Wilson et al., 2011). As a result, this can contribute to a decline of about one million science graduates from colleges in STEM over the coming decade (Graham et al., 213). Policy makers and educators have stressed that there

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved than the time the student would spend with any other academic member of staff (Braun & Kirkup, 2016; Gardner & Jones, 2011). In the laboratories, the undergraduate students are more exposed to one on one experiences with the demonstrators compared to when they are in with lecturers (French & Russell, In2002).the

demonstrators and students which are effective can contribute to the success of the laboratory sessions through students' engagement with the products and processes of science in the laboratories (Kirkup et al., 2016).

2. Materials and Methods

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved is a need for a shift in the STEM education from the model of traditional lectures to methods that encourage teaching based on research to enhance the learning of the students (Carlson et al., 2016). Teaching assistants have been shown to play a crucial and fundamental role in the teaching of undergraduates in computer science (Patitsas, 2012). The performance of teaching assistants at twenty three laboratories at the University of British Colombia in North America was found to be affected by aspects such as demonstrators getting support from the lecturers. In a large urban university at the United States research intensive university, carefully chosen undergraduate teaching assistants were employed and supported to assist with supporting students in the general chemistry course for preliminary STEM majors so that the performance of the students could be enhanced (Phillipp et al., 2016b). In addition to other several studies in Phillipp et al., (2016b), the presence of the teaching assistants was found to correlate with the determination of the students to proceed to the next semester of the course irrespective of how the students had Accordingperformed.to Felege (2018), research has shown that there is more engagement of the students with the demonstrators. Students tend to seek assistance from the teaching assistants because of the latter being less intimidating. This has also been shown to have several benefits related to the learning of the students. The teaching assistants are also considered to be more flexible, sociable, and casual by the students and this encourages the students to reach out and approach them instead of teaching staff. Students tend to approach the teaching assistants more for help and this contributes to a decrease in the demand and workload on the teaching staff (Kendall & Schussler, 2012). However, according to Weidert et al., (2012), there is more workload put on teaching staff when teaching assistants are involved because they need to be trained, supervised and mentored and also time can also be spent on correction of mistakes made or addressing of confusion brought about by the teaching assistants.

The study was quantitative and involved completion of a total of 148 Self administered questionnaires (Appendix 1) consisting of open and close ended

In some universities such as where the present study was conducted, postgraduate students or undergraduate students who have good grades and are about to finish are usually employed as demonstrators to assist with practical classes. This assistance often comes with stipends that are paid to the demonstrators at the end of each month. To the best of our knowledge, no studies have been carried out to investigate the experience of the Biology students on the performance and competence of the practical demonstrators at most of the universities in South Africa although they are usually employed as part time student assistants. Hence, the study aimed to assess the experiences of the Biology students on the performance and competence of the practical demonstrators in the Department of Biology in the School of Science and Technology at Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria, South Africa.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved questions by the Biology undergraduates to assess the effectiveness of the postgraduate students (Honours, Masters, and Ph.D.) who are laboratory demonstrators in the Biology department in the School of Science and Technology at Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University (SMU) in the north of Pretoria.

The study was purposive, based on voluntary participation and the willingness of the students to partake. Consent was first sought from the students before they could participate. The students were informed that their participation was purely voluntary, that they could withdraw from the study at any time, and that their unwillingness to participate in the study would not affect them in any negative way or disadvantage them. The questionnaires were distributed to the students during the afternoons which were scheduled for their practicals before the commencement of the practicals. This was done so that participants would not be inconvenienced in any way.

The practical classes are offered once a week for each level (years 1, 2, and 3) for a duration of three hours in the afternoons. The laboratory practical classes are done in conjunction with the content of what the undergraduates are taught in lectures.

The postgraduates who were assessed by the participants were responsible for running the undergraduate Biology practical classes (years 1, 2, and 3) usually under the supervision of a staff member who provides instructions before the commencement of the practical classes and oversees the running of the entire practical sessions. The students who participated in the study were from Year 1 (9.0%) Year 2 (89.0%) and year 3 (2.0%) with the age distribution of 16 20 (50.0%), 21 24 (47.0%) and 25 29 (2.0%). The majority (77.0%) of the participants were females with males only making up 21.0% of the participants while 2.0% of the respondents did not indicate their gender.

The practical marks form part of the formative assessment and count towards the final year marks of the students. In addition, there is also a practical exam written by undergraduates at the end of each semester. The information sought from the participants included the demographics (year of study, age, and gender). The main information which was sought was on the experiences of the undergraduates on demonstrators such as whether they felt the demonstrators were helpful during practical sessions, if the demonstrators had enough knowledge on the content of the practical sessions, if the demonstrators were well prepared for practical sessions and if they were fair in the assessment of their submitted work. Data was represented using frequency tables and graphs. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was also used to assess if there was any significant difference between some of the responses of the students

The current practice at the university (Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University) is that postgraduates who assist in the laboratories are employed as students' assistants and are remunerated based on the number of hours they have worked. As a result, the postgraduate demonstrators value the work they do as it assists them financially during their postgraduate courses. All the postgraduates who assist in practical classes have a strong academic background in Biology as they have to score above a minimum of 60% for them to be admitted into the postgraduate level and be able to assist with practical sessions

Figure 1. Responses of the participants on who qualifies to be a demonstrator.

The result as shown in Figure 1 indicate that more (49.0%) participants indicated that the people who qualified to be demonstrators were the postgraduates while 39.0% of the participantsfelt that any senior student could work as a demonstrator at any level which is below his or her level. A high number (12.0%) of the participants did not respond to a question on who qualifies to be a demonstrator This challenge of the students choosing not to respond to some of the questions is the first shortfall of self administered questionnaires in the study.

studentsenior39%Noresponse12%

Figure 2 shows that more of the participants felt that the demonstrators had adequate knowledge on the content material of the practical compared to the participants who felt that the demonstrators did not have adequate knowledge of the content material of the practical classes. These results are in agreement with those in Kirkup et al., (2016) and Tulane and Beckert (2011), where the demonstrators were found to be knowledgeable about the experiments in the laboratories. In Fernald et al., (1975), the mastery of content knowledge was one of the criteria which was used for the selection of undergraduate teaching assistants. However, about the knowledge on the content material, in Filz and Gurung (2013), knowledge on the content of the course was not seen as an important feature required for undergraduate teaching assistants.

Slightly more than half (52.0%) of the respondents responded that demonstrators were prepared for the practical sessions was whereas 41.8% of the respondents responded that the demonstrators did not come to the practical classes prepared (Figure 2). The participants did not respond to the question on the preparedness of the demonstrators during practical classes was 6.2%. These findings compare with the findings in Kirkup et al., (2016), where the demonstrators took time to prepare for experiments before going to the laboratory sessions. In Buerkel Rothfuss et al., (1993), the participants felt that the teaching assistants were Postgraduates49%Any

3. Results and Discussions

706050403020100 knowledgeAdequate Preparedenssforpracticals

demonstratorsof participantsofNumber Responses

108 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved qualified, prepared, organized, responsible, and as interested in teaching as the Thelecturers.majority of the participants (62.3%) as shown in Figure 2, indicated that the demonstrators were helpful compared to fewer participants (32.2%) who indicated that the demonstrators were not helpful during the practical sessions while 5.5% of the participants did not indicate whether the demonstrators were helpful or not helpful. These results of the majority of the students finding the demonstrators helpful agree with those of Kirkup et al., (2016); He et al., (2018) and Braun et al., (2018) where the students stated that the demonstrators were helpful when it came to the explanations and demonstrations of the experiments in the laboratories. According to Filz and Gurung (2013), being helpful is one of the characteristics that demonstrators have to possess before they can be hired.

Figure 2. Responses on preparedness, helpfulness, and knowledge of demonstrators. Participants who doubted the responses that the demonstrators gave on some of the aspects of the practical sessions made up 50.7% while 45.2% of the participants stated that they did not doubt the responses of the demonstrators on some aspects of the practical sessions and 4.1% of the participants did not respond to the question as shown in Table 1. These findings are not in agreement with those in He et al., (2018) where only 11.0% of the participants had stated that the teaching assistants had occasionally given them wrong information. In Brauna et al., (2018), 2.0% of the participants in the Chemistry class doubted the expertise of the demonstrators compared to 24.0% of the participant in the Physics class who doubted the knowledge of the demonstrators. In Philipp et al., (2016a), the majority (90.0%) of the undergraduate teaching assistants had confidence in their knowledge of the content material and could provide answers to the questions raised by the students. The teaching assistants also felt that they contributed to the understanding of the students. Helpfulness of the participants

NoNoYesresponse

A smaller (28.1%) number of participants described the demonstrators as being impossible and hard to deal with compared to a much larger (64.4%) number of participants who described demonstrators as not being impossible or hard to deal with during practical sessions with 7.5% not responding (Table 2). The majority (61.0%) of the participants indicated that they would report the demonstrators to the seniors if they mistreated them compared to 32.9% of the participants who indicated that they would not report them while 6.2% of them did not indicate whether they would report or not report the demonstrators if they mistreated Withthem.regards

As a result, 13.0% of the participants had a problem with taking instructions from demonstrators during practical sessions with more (83.6%) of the participants not having problems with taking instructions from the demonstrators. These findings in the present study are comparable to those in Braun et al., (2018) where 93.0% and 76.0% of the participants in the Chemistry and Physics respectively acknowledged the important role that the demonstrators played in their learning process. According to Chapin et al., (2014), teaching assistants or demonstrators end up gaining skills in giving instructions and being confident.

to the responses on whether the demonstrators can listen to the complaints or queries by the participants, (115/148) participants felt that the demonstrators were able to listen to their complaints or queries while only (26/148) participants indicated that the demonstrators did not have the patience to listen to the complaints or queries with (7/148) participants not responding. In McKeegan (1998), being patient and responsible were some of the traits which undergraduate teaching assistants had to possess. In Philipp et al., (2016), the undergraduate teaching assistants stated that it was important that teaching assistants had patience and willingness to understand that not all the students had the same background. Most (64.4%) of the participants felt that the demonstrators were fair and did not show any favouritism towards the students while 29.5% of the participants felt the demonstrators were not fair and showed favouritism towards some of the students while 6.2% did not respond to the question. In Buerkel Rothfuss et al, (1993), the authors mentioned that the teaching assistants were softer when it came to grading compared to the staff members and that it was important to remind teaching assistants regularly to be objective and fair when grading the students' work.

According to Table 1, 52.1% and 43.8% of the participants understood the role of the demonstrators and did not understand what the role of the demonstrators was during the practical sessions respectively while 4.1% of the participants did not indicate if they understood or did not understand the role of the demonstrators.

110 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved Table 1. Responses of the participants on the demonstrators. Responses Yes No responseNo Do you doubt the knowledge/responses of the demonstrators? 50.7 45.2 4.1 Do you understand the role of a demonstrator in a practical? 52.1 43.8 4.1

Are the demonstrators difficult/impossible to work with? 28.1 64.4 7.5

As shown in Figure 3, students believed that demonstrators could mark the practical reports even though most of the participants felt that the marking of the demonstrators was inaccurate. More participants had prior complaints on the marking of the demonstrators compared to those who had not complained about the marking of the demonstrators. The accuracy of the marking of the scripts by the demonstrators is crucial as the practical marks (weekly marks and practical exam) contribute towards the final mark of the students which qualify them for a pass or a fail in the Biology course. Inaccurate marking can give a false representation of the performance and the learning of the students.

Figure 3. Responses of participants on the marking abilities of the demonstrators. Figure 4 shows that the majority (69.0%) of the participants felt that technical officers had a final say in what happens during practical sessions compared to only 23.0% of the participants who indicated that it was the lecturers who had a final say in what happens during the practical session whereas 8.0% of the participants did not respond on who should have a final say during practical sessions. demonstratorof to mark demontratorsofaccurate complaintsPreviousaboutdemonstratorsmarking on the marking of demonstrators

3020100 40 50 60 Ability

Marking

participantsofNumber Responses

NoNoYesresponse

Doyou have any problems with taking instructions from demonstrators? 13.0 83.6 3.4

Are demonstrators able to listen to complaints/queries by participants? 77.4 17.8 4.8

Lecturer23%Technicalofficer69%Noresponse8%

Figure 4. Responses on who has the final say in the case of disputes between demonstrators and students. Table 2 shows that the majority (71.9%) of the participants responded that the demonstrators were approachable when there were queries while the least (11.6%) of the participants felt that the demonstrators were not approachable when there were queries. A high number (16.4%) of participants did not respond to whether the demonstrators were approachable or not (Table 2). These findings agree with those in Braun et al., (2018) where the majority (94.0%) and (82.0%) of the participants in Chemistry and Physics classes respectively reported that the demonstrators were more approachable compared to lecturers. According to Gardner and Jones, (2011), the undergraduate students may find the postgraduate demonstrators more accessible and approachable compared to the lecturers because of the smaller differences between their social status and ages resulting in them consulting the demonstrators more than they would approach the Inlecturers.Buerkel Rothfuss et al., (1993), the teaching assistants were considered to do well in teacher student relationships such as being friendly and more willing to listen to alternative viewpoints of the students. However, in He et al., (2018) 2.0% of the participants had stated that the teaching assistants were usually unavailable when they were needed. According to Chapin et al., (2014) and Gardner and Jones, (2011), the laboratory demonstrators have been rated by the undergraduates as being more engaging and approachable compared to the lecturers who are considered to be more boring and formal even though they are experts when it comes to content. According to Kendall and Schussler (2012), the teaching assistants are considered to be less intimidating compared to the lecturers even though they might not be as knowledgeable, experienced, and competent about the course content. As a result, students tend to think demonstrators are more approachable, understanding, and flexible.

Table 2. Participants’ responses on the ability of the demonstrators to be competent and behave during practical sessions.Responses Yes No responseNo Do you feel free to approach demonstrators in the laboratory? 71.9 11.6 16.4 Do demonstrators talk amongst themselves and do not pay attention to participants? 38.4 50.7 11.0 Do demonstrators use cell phones during practical sessions instead of assisting participants? 38.7 50.7 10.7 Do demonstrators show favouritism? 64.4 29.5 6.2 Have you ever reported a demonstrator if you were unhappy? 61.0 32.9 6.2 Figure 5 shows that the order of the responses of the participants on the overall attitude of the demonstrators during practical sessions was "good" (64.0%) > "excellent" (16.0%) > no response (11.0%) > "bad" (9.0%).

A significantly higher number of the participants indicated that the demonstrators did not use their cell phones during practical sessions or spoke amongst themselves when they were supposed to be assisting the students during the practical sessions ((p<0.05). The use of cell phones can be considered to be a distraction on the attention of the demonstrators on their effectiveness to run practical sessions and should hence be prohibited. The use of cell phones by the demonstrators could also be seen as a deterrent for the students to engage and interact with them. Quite a large number of participants (11.0% and 10.7%) did not respond to whether the demonstrators spoke on their cell phones or amongst each other during the practical sessions.

A relatively higher number (61%) of participants had reported the demonstrators to the seniors (lecturer or technical officer) if they were unhappy with their conduct or the way they treated them compared to only 32.9% who had never laid any complaints about the demonstrators. This could have been due to the participants being afraid of intimidation from the demonstrators if they reported them or maybe it could also be because they have not encountered unpleasant situations from the demonstrators.

Attitude of the demonstrators

Figure 5. Responses to the overall attitudes of the demonstrators.

The majority of the participants (69.0%) did not want the services of the demonstrators with regards to them assisting in practical sessions to be terminated while only 16.0% of the participants felt that the services of the demonstrators could be terminated with 15.0% of the participants not responding to whether the services of the demonstrators during practical sessions could be terminated or not. The results in the present study, agree with those in He et al., (2018) where the majority (97.0%) of the participants stated that they strongly agreed that the continued use of the teaching assistants could be beneficial.

Figure 6 shows that only 36.0% of the participants, responded that the number of demonstrators allocated to the practical sessions should be increased compared to 53.0% of the participants who felt that the number of the demonstrators was adequate and did not need to be increased while 11.0% of the participants did not indicate whether there was a need or no need of the number of demonstrators to be Moreincreased.(69.0%) participants mentioned that they wished they could also become demonstrators when they became seniors compared to only 24.0% of them indicating that they do not wish to become demonstrators when they are senior students whereas 13.0% of them did not indicate their preferences shown in Figure 6. The findings of the majority of the participants wanting to become demonstrators when they get to the upper levels of study are in line with the findings of He et al., (2018), where about 64.0% of the participants said that the positive contribution that the teaching assistants had made to their learning had encouraged them to want to take a similar role in their future. Good Bad No response

1009080706050403020100 Excellent

responsesofNumber

Figure 6. Responses of the participants on services of demonstrators and desire to become a demonstrator. Conclusion

0 8070605040302010 Services demonstratorsofdiscontinuedbe Number demonstratorsofshouldbeincreased Consideration to become demonstratora participantsofNumber Responses of participants NoNoYesresponse

The present study assessed the experience of currently registered undergraduate Biology students on the competence and ability of either postgraduate students or senior undergraduate students that are employed as demonstrators for practical classes. From the study, it can be concluded that in most of the critical areas, there are mixed feelings on the competencies and the abilities of the demonstrators to provide the needed information for the undergraduate students. Areas such as getting prepared for classes, marking of scripts, behaviours of the demonstrators during the practical classes as regards the use of cell phones, and talking amongst themselves during the practical classes are areas where improvements are needed on the part of the demonstrators. Some of the participants sometimes doubted some of the answers that the demonstrators gave them and also felt that their marking was not accurate. However, the majority of the participants indicated that the demonstrators were approachable, helpful, and had adequate content knowledge of practical sessions and that their services should be continued. It is hence suggested that the laboratory demonstrators should be equipped with skills and guidance on how to fairly assess the students' laboratory reports, receive training on how to relate and respect the undergraduate students, and how to give feedback to them positively and constructively. The guidance and training would provide the demonstrators with more confidence, knowledge, better communication skills, and even confidence for them to teach and have a passion to pursue a teaching career. It is also suggested that the demonstrators have weekly classes on what will be discussed in the practical sessions and write pre practical tests before they assist the undergraduate students with the practical sessions to improve their competency in marking and giving accurate answers during the practical sessions.

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118 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved Appendix 1 Perceptions of Students towards the Postgraduate Biology Practical Demonstrators at Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria, South Africa 1. Age 2. Gender Male Female 3. Year of Study BSc 1 BSc 2 BSc 3 The experience about Science Tutors and Demonstrators 4. Do you think that the demonstrators/tutors are helpful to you during the practical classes? Yes No 5. Do you understand the role of the demonstrators/tutors Yes No SEFAKO MAKGATHO HEALTH SCIENCES UNIVERSITY School of Pathology & Pre Clinical Sciences Biology Department PO BOX 139, MEDUNSA, 0204 Email: Caswell.mavimbela@smu.ac.za

119 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved 6. Do you have a problem like taking instructions from them? Yes No 7. Do you think demonstrators/tutors/ tutors have enough knowledge of the content of the practicals/tutorials? Yes No 8. Do you feel like they are well prepared for practicals/tutorials? Yes No 9. Do you ever doubt their responses or knowledge on some aspects of practicals/tutorials? Yes No 10. Do you think that they are qualified to mark your scripts? Yes No 11. Do you think they mark your scripts accurately? Yes No 12. Have you ever complained about their marking being inaccurate? Yes No 13. If you have a query are they willing to listen to your complaint? Yes No 14. Do you feel that the demonstrators/tutors are fair and do not have favourites when they mark/assist in practicals/tutorials? Yes No 15. Do you believe that demonstrators/tutorsthehave the final say in cases of you not being happy with the way they have marked your scripts? Yes No 16. If No who do you feel has the final say? Lecturer Technicalofficer 17. Is it easy for you to demonstrators/tutorsapproachifyouhave queries? Yes No 18. Do you think they are impossible to deal with? 19. If a demonstrator mistreated you would you report them to the members of staff? Yes No

120 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved 20. How would you rate their attitudes towards you Excellent Good Bad 21. Do you think they talk too much among themselves and not pay attention to you? Yes No 22. Have you ever noticed them using their cell phones when they were supposed to be helping you? Yes No 23. Would you recommend that we increase the numbers of demonstrators/tutors in your class? Yes No 24. Would you recommend that we do away with the use of demonstrators/tutors? Yes No 25. Can you provide an area where you think they should improve? Yes No 26. Would you also apply to become a demonstrator/tutor when you reach a senior level? Yes No 27. Which level of students do you feel should be allowed to demonstrate? Post graduate Anylevelsenior

Enhancing Students’ Mental Models of Chemical Equilibrium Through Argumentation within Model based Learning Anupong Praisri and Chatree Faikhamta Department of Education, Faculty of Education, Kasetsart University, Thailand https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4396 1015 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7364 9140

Keywords: Mental Models; Model based Learning; Argumentation; Chemical Equilibrium 1. Introduction Chemical equilibrium is one of the key concepts in chemistry, and for several decades efforts have been made to help students understand this concept. However, it has been found that most students still have naïve conceptualizations of it (Van Driel & Gräber, 2002; Hackling & Garnett, 2007; Özmen, 2008; Karpudewan et al., 2015). Because it is related to the study of invisible matter representation, chemical equilibrium is classified as abstract content that is

Abstract. The purpose of this study is to investigate how students develop their mental models of chemical equilibrium through Argumentation within Model based learning (AMBL). This qualitative research methodology draws upon a pre post chemical equilibrium mental models survey, teacher’s logs, classroom observations, and students’ reflective diaries. The participants, purposively selected, were 29 grade 11 students. Data were analysed via qualitative methods, namely categorizing, comparing, and concluding. The research findings reveal that AMBL could develop students’ tentative mental models into scientific models, particularly on the topics of dynamic equilibrium and reversible reactions. Key ideas for enhancing students’ mental models include: providing students with opportunities to use evidence and justification in order to develop their mental models into scientific models; the suggested use of several media to represent particles at the microscopic level; and using driving questions to help students modify their models and link their understanding of both the macroscopic and microscopic levels through the modelling process. The study recommends the need for more emphasis on the role of argumentation in the modelling process.

121 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 121 142, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.20207

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. difficult for students to understand (Kousathana & Tsaparlis, 2002; Akin & Uzuntiryaki Kondakci, 2018). For instance, students sometimes perceive that chemical equilibrium would have a complete forward reaction before a reverse reaction and that system equilibrium would be unchanged (Yakmaci Guzel, 2013). Additionally, students have believed alternative concepts, such as the idea that if temperature is stable, adding a product substance would increase the equilibrium constant, or that a higher temperature would increase the products, disregarding whether the reaction was endothermic or exothermic (Voska & Heikkinen, 2000; Kousathana & Tsaparlis, 2002). As a result, the students could not explain the matter’s behaviour at the particulate or sub microscopic level. This indicates that encouraging students to comprehend only the concepts in forming their ideas may not be enough. Research has shown that learning with a variety of representations is vital to enhance students’ conceptions in chemistry, especially in linking the three levels of representation (macroscopic, sub microscopic, and symbolic) (Taber, 2013; Sanchez, 2018; Schwedler & Kaldewey, 2020; Gkitzia, Salta & Tzougraki, 2020). Nevertheless, chemistry educators expect that students will be able to explain three levels of representation (Johnstone, 1993; Taber, 2013) to explain how such matter behaviour happened, progressing from the macroscopic level to the microscopic level. To communicate for better understanding, the two levels of change should be linked with a symbolic level, such as a chemical equation. The explanation for these three levels is regarded as the model or conceptual representation created by chemists to clarify chemical phenomena (Justi & Gilbert, 2002). Thus, constituting models usually commences with chemists observing chemical phenomena and attempting to explain phenomena by creating the simplest models MMs, or representations which are specific models for individual creators as a part of the knowledge lying within them (Gilbert, 2005; Nersessian, 2010; Bongers et al., 2019). The teachers could perceive misaligned understanding from the students’ expression of their MMs (Harrison & Treagust, 1996; Coll & Taylor, 2002; Taber, 2017).

For more than three decades, a variety of research has been conducted on developing students’ MM (Maia & Justi, 2009). Taylor, Barker, and Jones (2003) suggested that building mental models is a development process in which learners should be provided opportunities to articulate their mental models, clarifying what scientists mean by ‘models’; making their mental models intelligible; repeatedly critiquing the scientists’ mental models to enhance their plausibility; using the scientists’ mental model to solve related problems, thus enhancing its efficacy; and defending the scientists’ mental model, thus further enhancing its fruitfulness. Based on these ideas, researchers have suggested model based learning (MBL) (Coll & Lajium, 2011; Khan, 2011; Maia & Justi, 2009; Markauskaite et al., 2020) as a strategy to engage students’ modelling process.

Some research studies have developed learning about chemical equilibrium through model-based instruction (Maia & Justi, 2009) using the model of modelling diagram (MMD). Their findings revealed that this technique could develop students’ visualization and representation skills. Such learning strategies

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual frameworks of this study are mental modelling and three levels of representation, and argumentation within model based learning. These two frameworks underpin the social constructivist view of learning (Leach & Scott, 2003), which is used to explain how students learn to participate in modelling and scientific argumentation in the classroom. Science learning involves the processes

2. In what ways did AMBL enhance the MMs of chemical equilibrium of students?

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. affected the students changing their concepts or developing other learning skills as they enjoyed studying and truly understood chemical equilibrium. However, Giere (2001) stated that, while the models in this world cannot completely explain phenomena, it could be said that we have evidence and reasons to create models that explain the phenomena better. So, in modelling, a rebuttal process is required based on the explanation with empirical evidence. Generally, the rebuttal process occurs when evaluating the congruence of the models and experiments. The rebuttal process should not only emphasize the model evaluation (Mendonca & Justi, 2013) but should also focus on every step of the modelling as the driver for the model to be more complete. Scientific argumentation is the process of promoting student creation of scientific explanations by generating claims based on evidence based explanations (Jime nez Aleixandre & Erduran, 2007; Sampson & Clark, 2009). This evidence could be empirical evidence or scientific knowledge, and such a process occurs in the science instruction process (Faikhamta, 2016) and the modelling process. For instance, an argument could start from creation of the MM, such as a teacher asking students why they drew an atomic model as a solid sphere. The students would provide different reasons in attempt to validate their claim depending on different reasons, depending on their existing knowledge. To test the model, an argument would emerge when the students tested the congruence of the created models with empirical evidence (Passmore & Svoboda, 2012). The students would reason with empirical evidence to try to confirm their claims, and they would try to convince others to believe their models or believe how the new models were better than the old ones. Therefore, if the rebuttal process were added in every process of model based learning management, the students’ MMs would be more similar to the scientific models (i.e. more Ascomplete).notedabove, during the modelling process the students relied on the rebuttal process to promote their MMs in accordance with the scientific models. From the literature, guidelines for model based learning together with the rebuttal process were few, indicating a gap in the research. To fill this research gap, we examined whether and how Argumentation within Model based Learning (AMBL) would help students develop their MMs of chemical equilibrium. The objective of this research was to study, through the use of two research questions, the characteristics of AMBL to develop the MMs of students concerning chemical equilibrium:

1. What is the student’s MM of chemical equilibrium like during AMBL?

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. of students’ social interactions and their personal internalization of the ideas and language used to explain the natural phenomenon. Mental modelling and three levels of representation Due to its study of matter and representation, the content of chemistry is mostly abstract. Chemists explain three levels of representation: macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic (Johnstone, 1993; Taber, 2013; Cheng & Lin, 2019). An explanation of the three levels of representation is regarded as a model, or MM, created by chemists to explain chemical phenomena (Justi & Gilbert, 2002). The models are presented in different forms, such as figures, abstract objects, and chemical equations. The MM is the model or pictures in the brain along with the uniquecharacteristicsof the person who created it as a part of their underlying knowledge. This is regarded as a personal model for explaining chemical phenomena (Gilbert, 2005; Nersessian, 2010; Bongers et al., 2019). Each person has a different MM. If that MM is surveyed and inspected until it is accepted by the scientific community, it will be developed into a scientific model that represents the phenomenon correctly, precisely, and completely (Gilbert et al., 2000; Van Der Valka et al., 2007; Cheng & Lin, 2019). For the MM of chemical equilibrium, chemists often explain representation on three levels and give examples of concepts about reversible reactions. They begin by observing visible phenomena, such as when a solution’s colour alternates between pink and dark rich blue when a solution of cobalt (II) sulphate and hydrochloric acid is cooled and heated. After that, they create a model at the microscopic level to explain the behaviour of the representation. That is, the particles of substrates reacted, the products were generated, and the particles of the products reacted and reversed to become the substrates. Nevertheless, in the reaction, the particles of the substrates and the products would remain for forward reaction and reverse reaction. To communicate for better understanding, a representation at two levels would be identified with chemical symbols: a chemical equation with an arrow pointing forward and backward to show reversible reactions, as displayed in Figure 1.

However, explanations of three levels of representation are connected, as they explain the same matter on different levels. Therefore, to help students understand that the concepts are different, teachers should let students comprehend the three levels of phenomena simultaneously, without separating Figure 1: The mental model connected with the three levels of the representation of the reversible reaction.

Argumentation is a dialogic process that involves providing, supporting, challenging, and refining claims using criteria valued in science (Kulatunga, Moog, & Lewis, 2013; Sampson & Clark, 2009). Scientific argumentation encourages students to create arguments to explain natural phenomena based on reasoning (Juntunen & Aksela, 2014). For example, students try to seek empirical evidence to confirm or disprove their claims; thus, argumentation plays an essential role in helpingto generate reasonable explanations,models, and theories (Siegel, 1995; Erduran & Jimenez Aleixandre, 2012). Similarly, scientists use evidence for claims in creating arguments based on scientific reasons to show relationships between the claims and evidence (Toulmin, 1958). Nevertheless, Sampson and Clark (2009) examined the relationship between co working and scientific argumentation and found that, to attain better scientific knowledge and understanding, students should jointly construct an argument within the learning exchange. Most of the argumentation that occurs in small groups is co constructed, suggesting that students work cooperatively in this group setting (Kulatunga, Moog, & Lewis, 2013) The researchers assume that engaging students with argumentation in model based learning encourages them to enter into ways of thinking, acting, and speaking like scientists. Mendonca and Justi (2013) established relationships between argumentation and modelling in the use of two modelling based teaching sequences (on ionic bonding and intermolecular interactions). They found that argumentative situations occurred in all stages of model based learning. Argumentative situations were relevant to students’ sense making, articulation and persuasiveness in modelling process. Students should have opportunities to choose and justify their models; propose intermediate models; communicate them to their peers; plan and investigate in order to collect data to

Argumentation within model based learning (AMBL) MBL (Harrison & Treagust, 2000; Khan, 2011; Coll & Lajium, 2011; Markauskaite et al., 2020) is an instructional method that can develop students’ MMs so they are consistent with scientific models (Khan, 2011; Barak & Hussein Farraj, 2013; Markauskaite et al., 2020). This begins with the students creating MMs to examine existingknowledgebefore experimentingto evaluate congruencewith the models constituted under empirical evidence. If the created model cannot explain phenomena, the students need to improve or modify the model before implementation to explain new phenomena and to broaden the model (Buckley et al., 2004). This view of MBL is strongly rooted in a social constructivist framework (Scott, Asoko, & Leach, 2007). Model based learning is not only a step by step teachingapproach; it is also about the sense making process of natural phenomena through modelling. In the modelling process, argumentation should occur (Berland & Reiser, 2009; Passmore & Svoboda, 2012; Evagorou, Nicolaou & Lymbouridou, 2020)

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the explanation (Akaygun & Jones, 2014; Sanchez, 2018). Thus, if the students can visualize the explanation of chemical phenomena by connecting three levels, like the exemplifiedchemists, it is clear that they will haveMMs of reversible reactions similar to the scientific models.

The participants included 29 grade 11 students (nine male students and 20 female students) at a public school in Thailand All participants have studied at high school level since grade 10. The particular school was chosen for its convenience and proximity; the first author had worked there as a teacher and these students were taught by the first author. These factors allowed us to understand profoundly the degree to which each student developed MMs. In order to teach chemical equilibrium, AMBL was developed based on the literature reviews of MBL and argumentation and consisted of three key features: Creating knowledge through the modelling process. The students used their existing knowledge/experience to create MMs about the phenomena under study. Since the MMs of students mostly differ from the scientific models, teachers shouldgive students the opportunity to fully express their MMs through drawing, explaining, discussing, and role playing. Jointly creating knowledge in promoting students to improve/modify their models.

In this study, a qualitative research approach based on an interpretive paradigm (Patton, 2002) was used to build an understanding of how students developed mental models on chemical equilibrium. The context of the study, data collection and analysis are described as follows;

2.1 Context of the study

Transactions between teachers and students, or students and students, lead to the creation of models that are closer to the scientific models. For example, if the created model cannot explain the phenomena, teachers may facilitate in asking questions to motivate discussion and debate between the teachers and students, or among the students themselves, for more complete model improvement.

According to Mendonca and Justi (2013), the argumentation process should not only emphasize model evaluation but include every step of modelling to make the models to be more complete. Therefore, our study adds an argumentation process to every step of MBL to make the MMs of students more similar to the scientific models. This instructional strategy is referred to as Argumentation within Model based learning (AMBL). Students should be encouraged to develop more MMs models that show greater consensus through modelling and argumentation in their community. They should have a chance to express their own MMs, and to evaluate, justify, and revise their models based on evidence.

2. Research methodology

Discussion based on empirical evidence for evaluating consistency within the created models. The students should gather empirical data as evidence for examining the consistency of the created models. They should also attempt to explain with empirical data to confirm that the claims or created models are correct, or provide an empirical, evidence based explanation to explain how the newly created models are better than the old ones.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. evaluate their proposals; criticise their models and those of their peers; and modify models according to some criteria or from the commitment to some evidence (Bottcher & Meisert, 2010; Passmore & Svoboda, 2011)

2.2 Data collection and analysis

To address the two research questions, we gathered and analysed the data using the following tools. The first research question involved what the chemical equilibrium MM of an 11th grade student was like during AMBL. Data were gathered with an MM survey containing mainly open ended questions for the students to draw pictures and describe their models with detailed reasons (Vosniadou et al., 2004). It was divided into 23 sub items covering chemical equilibrium content within five main topics, including reversible reaction, equilibrium in chemical reactions, the equilibrium constant, factors affecting equilibrium, and Le Chatelier’s principle. The MM survey was developed according to various research (e.g. Srichiangha, 2014; Vosniadou et al., 2004) and then validated by panels of experts. The researchers analysed questions per item by reading all students’ answers thoroughly, including the aspects of alternatives, drawn pictures, and the reasons used for explanation and interpretation. After that, following Chi and Roscoe (2002), the answers were used to group the MMs of the students into six groups: correct mental model (CMM); incomplete correct mental model (ICMM); complete faulty mental model (CFMM); faulty mental model (FMM); idiosyncratic mental model (IMM); and no response (NR)

3. Findings

Students’ mental models and ways of enhancing their mental models were presented as follows:

The second question concerned how AMBL developed the MMs of chemical equilibrium of the 11th grade students. Data were collected through students’ reflective journals, in which they wrote what they learned and expressed their feelings and opinions about the lesson and learning activities in each period. We determined the scope as three main issues: what the students did that day, what they learned, and whether they liked the lesson. Furthermore, a post teaching log was recorded by the first author. The researchers applied the qualitative data collected for data analysis using the inductive process (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2000). The researchers used the data to interpret and identify shared features of concrete data and to make an abstract conclusion to be synthesized as a theme. Additionally, all data from the interpretation and analysis were examined for validity by two experts and critics for triangulation, who provided suggestions from the data analysis.

3.1 The students’ MMs According to the data collection, when comparing results before and after the AMBL on chemical equilibrium, we identified the development of the 11th grade students’ MMs as follows: After learning, most students had correct mental models (CMM) of the equilibrium state in chemical reactions (52%), followed by reversible chemical reactions (31%). In comparison, with only the instruction provided prior to learning, the students had flawed mental models (FMM) in every aspect, as shown in Table 1.

After the lesson, the students had increased their CMM by 31%, showing that they experienced development in their MMs. When analysing the students’ answers, the researchers found two patterns. In the first pattern, students selected the first model because of a molecule of N2 reacting with three molecules of H2 to become two molecules of NH3 The substance particles would not react entirely because the students misinterpreted meanings from the chemical equation with reversible marks. Most students interpreted meanings from the symbols representing the Issues

The students needed to select the best possible model when opening a valve for N2 and H2 to be mixed to become NH3 (in a third tank), as shown in Figure 2

Note: B Before, A After, CMM: correct mental model; ICMM: incomplete correct mental model; CFMM: complete faulty mental model; FMM: faulty mental model; IMM: idiosyncratic mental model; NR: no response

For this topic, the teacher asked the students to select different scientific models in a preparation process of ammonia gas as a raw material for producing fertilizer

constantEquilibrium

of the

Tank No 1 Tank No 2 Tank No 3 Where =

Factors

Reversible chemical reaction

Equilibrium in

Table 1: Number and percentage of the students with chemical equilibrium MMs before and after the Argumentation within AMBL)

and factors affecting

? Figure 2: Illustration

Number of students [person (percent)] CMM* ICMM* CFMM* FMM* IMM* NR* B A B A B A B A B A B A reactionReversible (0)0 (31)9 (3)9 (34)10 (19)5 (10)3 (48)13 (17)5 (0)0 (7)2 (0)0 (0)0 the chemical reaction (0)0 (52)15 (0)0 (0)0 (11)3 (38)11 (78)21 (0)0 (0)0 (7)2 (11)3 (3)1 equilibriumaffecting (0)0 (17)5 (0)0 (41)12 (11)3 (10)3 (63)17 (31)9 (0)0 (0)0 (26)7 (0)0 (0)0 (17)5 (4)1 (45)13 (11)3 (21)6 (56)15 (3)1 (0)0 (7)2 (30)8 (7)2 Chatelier’s principle (0)0 (0)0 (0)0 (14)4 (4)1 (3)1 (78)21 (79)23 (0)0 (0)0 (19)5 (3)1 of the question in issue reversible chemical reaction, equilibrium the chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium. 2 (g) 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) 93 kJ N2 H2 NH3

Before learning, it was found that the students mostly had FMM (48%). When analysed, the only answer was that the substrates reacted entirely to become products. That is, N2 reacted with H2 entirely to become NH3. This indicated that the students exercised the concept of complete reaction, and most students in this group answered ‘because a molecule of N2 is combined with 3 molecules of H2 to be a molecule of NH3. Therefore, 3 molecules of N2 and 9 molecules of H2 can be combined to be 3 molecules of NH3,’ as shown in Figure 3a.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. reversible reaction. That is, the reversible reaction (⇌) was connected with the particulate model. The students explained ‘because a molecule of N2 is combined with 3 molecules of H2 to become 2 molecules of NH3, as it was a reversible reaction without complete change or reaction’, as shown in Figure 3b. In the second pattern, students selected Y model because a molecule of N2 reacted with three molecules of H2 to become two molecules of NH3; the substance particle did not react completely because the students could visualize it at the microscopic level.

Equilibrium in the chemical reaction

In this topic, the teacher used a situation linked with the first point and added a question about which, when entering the equilibrium state, substance particles in the third tank would be drawn and described. Before learning, most students had FMM (78%). When analysing the students’ answer patterns, we found two patterns. In pattern one, the system entered an equilibrium state when the substrates reacted entirely to become products. In this pattern, the students understood that when substrates do not entirely react, the system does not enter the equilibrium state. However, if the substrates completely react to become products, the system will reach equilibrium. A student in this group explained that ‘when 3 molecules of N2 are combined with 9 molecules of H2, the product will be 3 molecules of NH3’, as shown in Figure 4a. In the second pattern, the system will be in equilibrium when the quantity of each kind of substance particle is equal. This pattern of answers indicated that the students comprehended that the system was in equilibrium, as in the expression ‘same or equal.’ Accordingly, the students visualized particles with the same quantity; the system would thus be in equilibrium when the quantity of particles of every substance was equal. A student explained that ‘there are equal numbers of particles in the equilibrium’, as shown in Figure 4b. After learning, the students developed more CMM (52%). When analysingthe answers, the teacher foundonly one pattern, as most students understood that when the system is in equilibrium,nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to become ammonia gas, and it disintegrates to become nitrogen and hydrogen because the rate of forward reaction is equal to the reverse reaction. One student answered, ‘There were 3 N2 and 9 H2 9 with a ratio of 1:3, and they would be combined to become 2 NH3, but there were 1 N2 and 3 H2 left because the equilibrium is reversible’, as shown in Figure 4c. Additionally, the students had complete faulty mental models (CFMM), as they perceived that when the system entered dynamic equilibrium,the substrates reacted to become the products at the same ratio of the chemical equation, and the reaction was not complete. Some students in the group explainedthat the ‘forward reaction from substrates became (a) (b)

Figure 3: The model selected by the students (the third tank) when opening a valve for N2 and H2 to be combined.

Factors affecting equilibrium

For this point, the teacher used connected situations from the issue of equilibrium in the chemical reaction but added the condition that the substance particles in the third tank must be drawn when interrupted by increasing pressure. Before learning, most students had FMM (63%), while some students provided no response (NR). When analysed, there were three answer patterns. In the first, increasing pressure made the gas particles closer because of the decrease in space or volume of the gas particles. In the second answer pattern, increasing pressure caused more ammonia because of increased substrate reaction. Finally, in the third pattern, decreasing pressure increased the volume of the gas particles, leading to more products. Some examples of the students’ responses: ‘when increasing pressure in a gas cylinder, nitrogen and hydrogen will be more disintegrated,leading to the increaseof reaction of both gases, and more ammonia is produced’ (Figure 5a), and ‘when increasing pressure, the ammonia particles will be closely arranged, showing more exothermic process and increasing ammonia’ (Figure 5b). After learning, almost half of the students had incomplete correct mental models (ICMM; 41%) When analysing the answer patterns of the students, we found only one pattern: increasing pressure led to more ammonia or more forward reaction because of the substrate reaction, but the reaction was not complete An example of a student’s answer is: ‘when reducing pressure and volume, the substances would collide more, resulting in more reactions and increasing ammonia, but it is still reversible’ (Figure 5c). Meanwhile, some students had increased CMM (17%), and there were two answer patterns. In the first pattern of answers, increasing pressure led to the production of more ammonia due to particles of the substrates being more than products; the system balanced it by making the substrate’s particles react to generate more ammonia. This indicated that the students could explain changes at the microscopic level. Some students who followed this pattern explained that ‘when increasing pressure, the volume is decreased, and the substrates turn to be more products because of more substrates. As a result, when reducing the volume of the substances, the quantity must be decreased’ (Figure 5d). In the second pattern, increasing pressure resulted in more ammonia because the volume reduction affected the coefficient of high Mol moving to low Mol. This indicated that the students’ explanations relied on the relationship of the reaction proportion according to the relative quantity. An example of a student’s answer included that, when increasing pressure, the volume and space would be decreased. As a (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 4: The drawings of students showing gas particles in the third tank when the system is in equilibrium.

The students needed to understand that the equilibrium constant could only happen when the system was in equilibrium. Before learning, it was found that most students had FMM (56%). After learning, almost half of the students had ICMM. Some students had CMM and IFMM. When analysing the students’ answer patterns, the teacher found two patterns. In the first answer pattern, air consisted of N2, O2, and NO equally because the substrates reacted to become the products. For example, some students explained that ‘when N2 and O2 in the air are combined, it become NO’ (Figure 6a). In the second pattern, only NO was found in the air because N2 reacted with O2 completely due to the complete reaction. The students explained that ‘in the equilibrium state, N2 and O2 are combined entirely to become NO’ (Figure 6b). After learning, almost half of the students had ICMM (45%). When analysing the answer patterns of the students, the teacher found only the pattern that N2 reacted with O2 to become NO at a ratio of 1:1:2, in accordance with the same proportion of the equation, because the students considered the reversible chemical equation and interpreted it at the microscopic level. One student explained: ‘N2 + O2 ⇌ 2NO at a ratio of 1: 1: 2, thus, there are 3 N2, 3 O2, and 6 NO’ (Figure 6c). In the meantime, the number of students with CMM increased by 17%. However, when considering the answer pattern of the students, the teacher found the same pattern as the ICMM group. However, this group additionally explained that ‘the substrates are left to generate a reversible reaction.’ Therefore, they were categorized in the CMM group. One student in this group answered that ‘N2 + O2 ⇌ 2NO: N2 reacts with O2 to become the new product, which is NO, and it is reversible’ (Figure 6d). (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 5: Student drawing demonstrating gas particles in the third tank under increasing pressure.

Equilibrium constant Regarding this topic, the teacher asked the students to draw substance particles from the equilibrium constant of nitrogen monoxide generation (N2 + O2 ⇌ 2NO).

Finally, in pattern three, the students supposed that when time passed, the forward reaction would occur and finally become complete (Figure 7a). After learning, the answer pattern was the same as the third pattern, which accounted for 50% of the students in the FFM group. The answering pattern differed from before learning in that the students thought that dynamic equilibrium had occurred and that the particles had not increased, leading to hypoxia. The students understood that the dynamic equilibrium resulted in limited constant particles, and they thought that the O2 particles were few, bringing about few HbO2 molecules. The students answered that ‘HbO2 may be the same because O2 in the atmosphere is low, and when HbO2 is low the oxygen cannot nourish the body, leading to hypoxia’ (Figure 7b). However, after learning, some students had ICMM (14%), compared with zero students who had CMM before learning. When analysing the answer patterns, we found that there was only one pattern, which was that hypoxia decreased the concentration of oxygen as the substrate. Therefore, the system would adapt, leading to fewer particles of the products, thus increasing the substrate’s particles. This indicated that the students used the main concept of Le Chatelier’s principle regarding the factors of concentration to explain substance adaptation for the system to be in equilibrium.A student in this group answered that ‘in the 60th minute, the particles of HbO2 are low, while the particles of Hb are high and the particles of O2 are low, leading to low HbO2” (Figure 7c). (a) (b) (c) (d) where = N2 = H2 = NO Figure 6: Pictures of the students showing gas particles in the air.

Le Chatelier’s principle

The teacher presented a hypothetical situation about hiking Mt. Everest, where a person in such a high place would have a headache and nausea because oxygen would not sufficiently nourish the body tissues; these symptoms constitute hypoxia. The equation was as follows: Hb + O2 ⇌ HbO2. The teacher asked the students to draw the substance particles in a case where the Mt. Everest hiker had a blood test to identify hypoxia, with a 1 hour X ray. Before learning, the students had FMM, which was not different from post learning, where the students still had FMM (80%). When analysing the answer patterns of the students, we found three patterns. In the first pattern, the students did not show the particles of HbO2 because the amount of O2 was insufficient; thus, HbO2 was not found to nourish the body. In the second answer pattern, the students did not show particles of O2 due to an inadequateamount of O2; thus, the particles were not found in the body.

Student C: The substrates will remain. (a) (b) (c) 1 min 30 mins. 60 mins. 1 min 30 mins. 60 mins. 1 min 30 mins. 60 mins. where = Hb = O2 = HbO2

3.2 In what ways did students develop MMs in chemical equilibrium?

Figure 7: Drawing of the students showing substance particles when a hiker has hypoxia.

Student A: It’s blue, so I moulded it with blue colour.

Teacher: If it is cooled, what is it like?

Student A: The solution will turn from blue to pink, so our group moulded it with pink plasticine. (This student is representative of the faulty model.)

Teacher: Is there any group different from this one?

An advantage of the model development was that the students selected a developed model to explain the phenomena. On the other hand, the model before development would not be chosen by the students to explain the phenomena because it had not been covered in the lesson.

Student B: My group. We think that it will not be only blue or pink, as there must be remainders for the reversible reaction. (This is the conviction process to link their groups’ models.) (This student is representative of the correct model.)

Creating different mental models led to conviction in jointly developing MMs in accordance with the scientific models. To realize their MMs, the students needed to evaluate the created models by presenting to other groups. Different existing experiences compelled the students to create distinct models, leading to the conviction process. A technique used was that the group creating an FMM would give their presentation first, and the group creating the model consistent with the scientific models would present later. As a result, the group with the FMM would be convinced to adjust their models. Such a techniqueis highly effective because the students in the classroom would realize their errors and correct the models. However, the co point of both models was the alternative model used to explain the same phenomena, with a different agreement with the scientific models. The students would perceive the development of the models from the conviction process for model modification.

The students constructed the models at the particulate level to explain the phenomena of reversible reactions between cobalt (II) sulphate and hydrochloric acid when cooled and heated. The teacher asked the students to present their created models and found that the students created different models. The presentation started with the group with faulty models (which the teacher identified by surveying the students while they created their models). After that, the group had models in agreement with the scientific models. An example of a conversation between the teacher and students follows:

Teacher: Do you agree with this group? All Students in Class: Yes. Teacher: If I let you revise the model, what will it look like?

Teacher: When heating the solution, what colour do you notice?

Analogical method promoting modelling at the microscopic level

Analogy is a necessary technique for the creation of MMs, especially microscopic models. The analogy helped the students to visualize the invisible content, such as the dynamic equilibrium phenomena, in which the forward reaction is equal to the reversible reaction at any time. However, since the students could not see it, to represent the concept the teacher used the analogy of alternatingwater fetching under the condition that the containers should have the same volume. The teacher asked the students to construct their MMs on the microscopic level through role playing. When fetching water for a moment, the students noticed the constant equivalent volume. The analogy promoted the students’ vision of dynamic equilibrium as the rate of forward change equal to reversible change. An example of a conversation between the teacher and students about the analogy of water fetching follows: (a) (b) Figure 8: The mental models of the group with (a) a faulty model and (b) a model similar to the scientific models in explaining the colour changes of the solution from the experiment.

As the above conversation illustrates, the teacher provided the group with the faulty models with the opportunity to present first, by asking the question, ‘Is there any group different from this group?’ This was to give an opportunity to the group with the correct model an opportunity to present and convince their peers that their group created the correct model. Some students understood that the reversible reaction should have a complete reaction before a reverse reaction. Thus, the students created the models with no remaining substrate particles (Figure 8a). Meanwhile, as another group argued that the reversible reaction did not react entirely, the students created models with substrate particles remaining (Figure 8b). The reasoning of the group with the correct models was more reliable than the first group, and they could convince their friends. Additionally, the teacher asked the questions necessary to make the modification more effective, such as ‘Do you agree with this group?’ and ‘If I let you revise the model, what will it look like?’ When analysing the students’ diaries, the teacher found agreement. That is, the conviction process contributed to the students’ model development. Examples of a student’s diary included: ‘I learned about substances that are reversible because they do not completely change and there are particles left to be reversible’, and ‘I know that the complete substance is not reversible because it is complete. That is, no other substances disturb. If there are other substances, it will be reversible because of the presence of other matter’.

Asking the students to explain the phenomenon of chemical equilibrium by linking the three levels of representation through the modelling process to make MMs consistent with the scientific models. The teacher emphasized his instruction to the students to explain the phenomenon at three levels through the creation of the MMs. For instance, the students were asked to experiment and observe the colour change before creating a model to explain the substance’s behaviour at the particulate level and to determine the chemical symbols to link with the explanation at both levels. This pattern of teaching would be obvious in the first and fourth learning plans, as exemplified in the fourth learning plan. At the macroscopic level, the teacher required the students to perform an experiment or activity to explain the factors of concentration affecting the equilibrium, observing whether the substance was more or less concentrated.

Teacher: What happens when time passes?

Teacher: Which substance has more initial volume? (The teacher fetched water with his hands. At first, since there was no volume of the product, he fetched the Studentair.)

Student F: Rate of forward reaction and reverse reaction.

Student A: It rises/becomes higher (symbolic). Teacher: What is the concentration of Fe3+ when time passes?

Teacher: If time passes for one day, ten days, or 100 years, what do you think the substance quantity will be?

Student F: When the water in both beakers is equal.

Student F: It will be the same.

Teacher: When do the substrates equate to the products?

Teacher: When adding Fe3+, do you think the graph is still parallel?

Teacher: What is increased when adding Fe3+? Student A: The concentration of Fe3+ increases. Teacher: What should the graph look like?

D: The substrates are more than products.

Student A: I don’t think so, as we are interrupting the equilibrium (symbolic).

Student E: The substrates are equal to the products.

Questions asked after the experiment required the students to give reasons for the colour change, such as the colour changing when adding Fe(NO3)3 to the solution, the cause, the observation, and the exemplification of the students’ answers in some groups. For example, when adding Fe(NO3)3, the solution’s colour was darker because the substrates reacted increasingly to generate more products. Some noticed that the substance in the test tube had a darker red colour. To obtain more concrete data and to demonstrate the symbolic models, the teacher then asked the students to use a graph drawing to explain the representation, at the symbolic level, between the concentration change over a period of time, as depicted in Figure 9a. The conversation between the teacher and the students was as Teacher:follows:When mixing substrates and the system is in equilibrium, what does the graph look like? Student A: It’s parallel (symbolic).

Teacher: What do you think the beakers look like in the chemical reaction?

Student A: It decreases only (symbolic).

Student A: Parallel (symbolic).

Student A: When adding Fe3+, there are 6 yellow particles, 3 colourless particles, and 3 red particles. When the system has just reached equilibrium, the yellow particles react with the colourless particles to become red particles. There are 4 yellow particles, 1 colourless particle, and 5 red particles left.

Teacher: What is the substance particle’s ratio?

Teacher: What do the particles look like when adding Fe3+?

Student A: It decreases, because it will react more with the darker colour of the solution (macro). Teacher: What should the graph look like?

Student A: When adding Fe3+, the concentration of Fe3+ increases, and the graph rises (symbolic) to the new equilibrium. Then, the graph descends (symbolic) because of forward reaction as the solution’s colour gets darker (macro). Meanwhile,the concentrationof SCN decreases (symbolic),andthe concentration of [FeSCN]2+ is higher (symbolic).

Student A: Yes, it is. As the conversation above, having the students understand abstract matters can be concretized in two ways. By drawing a graph, the students could interpret the data of the representation on the macroscopic level in a concrete manner, but the particulate level modelling could help them explain the behaviours of the substances,suchas whichsubstancereacted with whichsubstance,the remainder, and the state of the particles upon equilibrium.

The teacher attempted to use questions to stimulate the students to link to the representation. For example, what does the graph look like when substrates are mixed and the system achieves equilibrium? Or what is increased when adding Fe3+? This indicated that the teacher’s questions contributed to the students’ understanding in creating the symbolic models to make the data more concrete. After that, the intent was to link the microscopic representation to the symbolic level. The teacher asked the students to explain the substance’s behaviour on the microscopic level using coloured papers cut into circles to represent the substance’s particles. The students were asked to use the papers for the particles’ representation by demonstrating the particles in four periods, according to the students’ work: the beginning, when achieving equilibrium, when adding Fe3+ , and when returning to equilibrium, as shown in Figure 9b. When the students created the models at the particulate level, the teacher needed to link the three levels of representation by questioning the students, as seen below:

Teacher: Is it consistent with the representation at the particulate level?

Student A: The particles are at a ratio of 1:1:1 (micro).

Teacher: What does the graph look like when mixing both substances?

Teacher: How is it consistent with the graph?

Student A: It descends. Teacher: What is the concentration of SCN ?

The research findings provide knowledge about MBL, especially as it concerns increasing and emphasizing argumentation to enhance students’ mental models (MMs). AMBL could develop the MMs of the students to align to scientific models (Khan, 2011; Barak & Hussein Farraj, 2013; Potisen & Faikhamta, 2017; Markauskaite et al., 2020). Through the modelling process, the students could create their MMs to understand the representation of chemical equilibrium on three levels. Additionally, the students could generate arguments for developing their MMs to become similar to the scientific models.

4. Conclusion, Discussion, and Implications

When comparing the results before and after AMBL, most students had CMM for the aspect of equilibrium in the chemical reaction and reversible reaction. Compared to before learning, the students had FMM for every point. Reviewing the reversible reaction before learning, since the students understood that the particles of the substrates reacted entirely and became the products, almost half of them had FMM. A cause of this misaligned understanding was that the students could not differentiate between the complete reaction and the reversible reaction. Consistent with the findings of Van Driel and Gräber (2002), introducing a lesson with chemical reactions helped the students understand that the reaction happened in the same direction. That is, the substrates reacted and produced the products completely, and the products could be reversed to become the substrates. After learning, the students had CMM (31%), explaining that the reversible reaction occurred when the particles of the substratesreacted to become the particles of the product. Their reasons explaining that substrate particles did not completely react, are (1) the interpretation of the symbols representing the reversible reaction, which was the reversible chemical equation (⇌), connected with the models at the particulate level (Srichiangha, 2014), and (2) the comparison between the complete reaction model and the reversible reaction model. The students reflected that they employed the created models as scientific knowledge to explain the chemical phenomena. The argumentative situation can be applied to a discussion of models during model based learning (Mendonca & Justi, 2013). While argumentation occurred in all stages of model based learning, the teacher played a vital role in fostering discussion. The researchers support Clement and Rea Ramirez (2008), who stressed the importance of teachers asking questions during model based Figure 9: Symbolic modelling (graph) and concentration changes over a period of time, and linking the representation at the macroscopic and microscopic levels. (a) (b)

learning. The teacher should ask supporting and discrepant questions to encourage students to evaluate, revise, generalise, and use their knowledge. As shown in the teacher student dialogues, the teacher facilitated the construction of the students’ models, asking questions about the models, investigating the empirical evidence,and providingclear justification forevaluatingand modifying their models.

One of the key features of AMBL in supporting the students’ explanations was that the students explained the phenomenon of chemical equilibrium through the modelling process by linking the representation on three levels. As a result, the students had MMs in accordance with the scientific models. For example, the students experimented to observe colour changes (macroscopic level), created models to explain the behaviours of the particles (microscopic level), and defined the chemical symbols to link the explanation on both levels. It was clear that the students observed the reversible symbol (⇌) as linked with the reversible representation on the microscopic level. According to the reasoning of the students regarding the second point, the students created the microscopic models to differentiate between the alternative models (the complete reaction models) and the scientific models (the reversible reaction models). When revising their models, the students usually created different models, resulting in a conviction process. However, the effective conviction gave each group a chance to present their models, and the students had learned the alternative and scientific models. Vosniadou (1994) supported the idea that the alternative model was an MM that differed from the scientific models; it was another alternative in explaining the phenomenon. The students may have used the alternative model to compare with the scientific models when describing the phenomena. This aligns with the research study of Faikhamta and Supatchaiyawong (2014), in which the MBL was a learning process where the students could practice thinking scientifically so that they would understand the scientific models as scientific know how created by scientists to explain natural phenomena. Based on the research results, the researchers have the following recommendations.

First, for instruction with AMBL, teachers should give students a chance to understand the three levels of representation through the modelling process. This can start with an experiment that allows students to observe visible phenomena before explaining the behaviours of the substances at the particulate level. The students can link the macroscopic and microscopic changes to transition abstractness and concreteness, and an analogical technique can help students explain the invisible phenomenon or the particulate model.

Second, based on a lesson teaching Le Chatelier’s principles, we would like to recommend that instructors may allow students to create models at the microscopic level for the aspects of increasing and decreasing concentrations, which are not separable. However, students may spend a great deal of time creating a microscopic model when just increasing the concentration, and the teacher may have to ask them to link alterations for the two remaining levels, which may also be time consuming.Therefore, it is recommended that animations be used to help explain the phenomenon of de concentration for the students creating the microscopic model of the concentration increase. This will save time

5. References Akaygun, S., & Jones, L. L. (2014). Words or Pictures: A comparison of written and pictorial explanations of physical and chemical equilibria. International Journal of Science Education, 36(5), 783 807. Akın, F. N., & Uzuntiryaki Kondakci, E. (2018). The nature of the interplay among components of pedagogical content knowledge in reaction rate and chemical equilibrium topics of novice and experienced chemistry teachers. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 19(1), 80 105. Aydeniz, M., & Dogan, A. (2016). Exploring the impact of argumentation on pre service science teachers' conceptual understanding of chemical equilibrium. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 17(1), 111 119. Barak, M., & Hussein Farraj, R. (2013). Integrating model based learning and animations for enhancing students’ understanding of proteins structure and function. Research in Science Education, 43(2), 619 636. Berland, L. K., & Reiser, B. J. (2009). Making sense of argumentation and explanation. Science education, 93(1), 26 55.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. and allow the students to achieve MMs consistent with the scientific model. Last, students can use AMBL to address reasons for creating their models, to modify and revise the models, or to reason in support of their claims—allof which require that teachers provide the students with the opportunity to fully give their opinions. Teachers may ask questionssuch as, ‘Does anyone agree/not agree with your friend?’ in a case where the students have different opinions, or ‘Are your models different from this group’s?’ in a case where the students create different models. Moreover, ‘How do you know?’ is a question that stimulates students to find evidence to confirm their reasoning, while ‘Do you agree with your friend?’ and ‘How can you adjust it?’ encourage students to practise listening to others’ opinions of their reasoning. Therefore, these questions contribute substantially to stimulating students when constructing models or providing explanations for scientific reasoning.

While this study focused on argumentation as a key component embedded in MBL, we did not investigate students’ argumentation skills. It would be interesting for further research to investigate and develop students’ argumentation skills when using AMBL (Aydeniz & Dogan, 2016; Juntunen & Aksela, 2014). Such research might focus on how students develop their argumentation skills and argumentative discourse. To enhance students’ argumentation skills, AMBL may also be integrated with animated media and technology to contribute to model presentation (Buckley, 2000; Fretz et al., 2002; Barak & Hussein Farraj, 2013; Markauskaite et al., 2020). Additionally, it is important to investigate how teachers teach MBL in a chemistry context. A chemistry teacher must have pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) to teach specific chemistry concepts, such as chemical equilibrium (Akin & Uzuntiryaki Kondakeci, 2017). Teachers are required not only to understand chemistry concepts but must know how to teach argumentation skills in specific chemistry topics to a particular group of students (Bucat, 2014). This kind of study will provide an in depth understanding of teaching chemistry.

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1. Nature and scope of the Problem: An introduction

Keywords: Economic Crisis; Student Life; University; Greece

143 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No.7,pp.143 158, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.82020 Researching the Impact of the Economic Crisis on Student Life in Greece Maria Kouroutsidou, Nikolaos Raptis and Konstantinos Karampelas University of the Aegean, Rhodes, Greece http://orcid.org/0000 0002 0345 541X http://orcid.org/0000 0001 7781 5556 http://orcid.org/0000 0001 6631 1408 Abstract. The present work explores the views of students in Greek Universities who have been impacted by the economic crisis in Greece since 2009 In the theoretical part, the economic crisis is considered a violent change that tends to be incorporated permanently into socio economiclife, affectingpublicexpenditureintertiaryeducationaswellas family income and expenditure. These developments harm university studies, student life, and expectations of graduates for their future. The environmentextenttheoreticalpartendswiththeformulationofthreeresearchaxesaboutthetowhichtheeconomiccrisisaffects(a)thesocioeconomicandfamilyspending, (b) students’ life at the university, and (c) students’ perception of their future. In the empirical part, a series of questions along these axes are investigated quantitatively, through descriptive statistics using a questionnaire specially constructed for this research, which addressed to students. The sample comprised 300 expectations.ofuniversitystudents.Theirviewsseemtoprimarilysupportthehypothesisthenegativeimpactsoftheeconomiccrisisonfamilies,studies,andThestudyendswithsuggestionsforfurtherresearch.

The present research examines the crisis that Greece has been experiencing since 2009 and its impact on universities, as perceived by the students, in terms of the impact on their background, studying conditions, and prospects. This crisis influenced various aspects of life and public services in Greece, including education (Azaria et al., 2020). Universities worldwide have suffered enormously from the crisis of the first decade of the 21st century (Coleman & Bekhradnia, 2014; Daim & Ozdemir, 2015). Altundemir (2012), when investigating the impact of that crisis on American public universities, concluded that several states had taken drastic measures to reduce spending in the universities to face the challenging economic climate. In

However, despite the economic crisis, enrollment at American universities has not declined, probably because of the widely held belief that university education is essential. Especially in these challenging times, it seems that higher education qualification is worth purchasing at all costs, even though it poses many challenges for students. This finding broadly aligns with the theory of human capital and the importance attributed to education generally and higher education, particularly by individuals and societies (Becker, 1993).

various states and for various institutions, the reduction was affected in different ways. In some states, funding to higher education institutions was reduced in general, and in other cases, funding for expenditure on redundant personnel was reduced. Due to these reduction measures, some universities have increased tuition fees. Other states have reduced funding or scholarship opportunities for students and have even terminated programs. To ensure the effective functioning of their universities in the future, the boards of directors of many universities have begun to form research policies that will ensure the institution’ s long term goals

The literature reveals that these measures create a dilemma about whether to opt for university education.

The European Universities Association (EUA, 2011) investigated the impact of this crisis on public universities in various European countries and reached similar conclusions. Initially, as the State funds a large proportion of European universities, many national governments that decided to take strict austerity measures reduced the average funding of higher education to decrease public expenditure. Many universities were compelled to make drastic reforms, as teaching budgets were reduced, and faculties or departments merged while research activity was generally reduced. However, several countries either increased or did not reduce the funding for research, probably because it is widely believed that universities through research can help to deal with the crisis and provide a stimulus for economic growth and social welfare. Such a stimulus would come by way of promoting new fields of study and the creation of new job opportunities (Christopherson et al., 2014). Several universities have considered private funding and raising tuition fees as options Nevertheless, even in Europe, the number of students who want to pursue university studies has increased, which is now mentioned as a rising challenge. In any case, it increases the validity of the finding that people consider a university degree as an essential qualification and a crisis does not impede them from obtaining it (EUA, 2011). In short, higher education has been affected by the crisis in various parts of the world. However, the idea that university studies are necessary and worthwhile did not seem to become less popular (EUA, 2011; Christopherson et al., 2014; Coleman & Bekhradnia, 2014). This trend is justified to exist in the Greek context (Katsikas, 2013). However, limited research emphasizes students’ opinions, which is the main point of this particular study.

This relationship between education, improvement of individual career prospects, and socio economic development has been a fertile field for research (Wolf, 2002). Though this view has been criticized, many countries have opted to invest in the expansion of higher education by founding new universities, schools, and departments in universities. According to Berry (2002), the governments’ approach has been supported by people of every background who believe university education is the key to future success. Aside from this, it is widely believed that higher education is an essential condition for adapting to reforms and changes in a flexible labor market and improving and updating the knowledge and skills of workers. For these reasons, Coleman and Bekhradnia (2014) state that a lack of university education opens fewer opportunities for professional development and career. As Altbach et al. (2009) mention, the significant trends in higher education nowadays are affected by a crucial challenge. This is because governments link the financing of universities with social and political topics they view as relevant.

Since the 1950s, sociological and economic research is being conducted on the role of education and its correlation with development.

Through economic and social perspectives, the influence of higher education on productivity is considered to lead to increased GDP and thus to a high economic and social development, reducing poverty, improving quality of life, and prefectural development (Oxford University, 2015).

2. Review of the Relevant Literature

As the article emphasizes the impact of the crisis on higher education, as perceived by students, in a particular context, which is Greece, it is crucial to go through literature review findings around the fields of study that this study addresses, in order to form the appropriate hypothesis or assertion. They concern research on higher education trends, the role of students in higher education, the socio economic crisis as it occurred in Greece, generally and specifically in what concerns higher education (EUA, 2011; Cohen et al, 2013; Katsikas, 2013)

At an individual level, through an economic and social perspective, the theory of human capital (Becker, 1993) supports the notion that education is an investment that qualifies people to be productive and therefore provides better access to the labor market and higher income in professional life. At the same theoretical level, higher education has been considered a useful tool not only for the development of personal skills and attainment of knowledge and abilities by the people but also for the promotion of innovative ways of thinking, preparation for mobility across the world, and establishment of scientific and professional identity. All these can lead to a better quality of life (Oxford University, 2015). Simultaneously, many theorists have supported that education, when established as an institution with the vision to reduce social inequalities, can increase social mobility for underprivileged people of low social classes through the appropriate use of knowledge, skills, and capacities (Becker, 1993).

Trends in Higher Education

The fifth trend is globalization, a multi dimensional and highly complex phenomenon. Therefore, its influence on universities is multi dimensional and complex. For example, due to globalization, people can now move with greater ease from one country to another than in the past. Therefore, more people than earlier migrate to other countries for education, increasing enrollment at universities. Moreover, globalization permits industries to move from one country to another for advantages such as a lower cost of education, which causes changes in government revenue and expenditure, including expenses on higher Theeducationsixth trend is the orientation of universities toward tapping new financial resources. This trend may be motivated or guided by governmental policies. As government expenditure and funds in higher education decline, universities seek new sources of funds. One of the sources is to raise tuition fees. This inevitably causes social debates and some dissatisfaction (Altbach et al., 2009; Christopherson et al., 2014; Hasanen, 2020).

Eight basic dimensions or trends influence any policy concerning higher Theeducation.firsthas to do with the orientation toward knowledge-based economies.

The second trend is relevant to the first and relates to the familial expectations that individuals should have higher educational qualifications. Even though the rising number of university graduates caused by this expectation sometimes cannot be absorbed by the labor market, this trend has not stopped. Contrarily, it has triggered a demand for further higher education at certificate, undergraduate, and post graduate levels, which is seen as an edge in a highly competitive labor market (Altbach et al., 2009; Berry, 2002).

The third trend that arises from the previous trend is the rising cost of studies per student. The growing number of students attending universities indicates a growth in the demand for higher education. Consequently, to make up for the lack of government funding, higher education institutions raise the cost of Theeducation.fourth trend arises from the inability of governments to meet the rising demand for higher education. In other words, thegovernments are neither flexible nor competent enough to meet the demand for funds made by the universities to cope with the increasing expenses caused by the rising number of students This trend, combined with the demands for and rising costs of other services, causes the governments to raise tax rates and look for cost effective services (Altbach et al., 2009; Altundemir, 2012).

The seventh trend comprises the growing emphasis on the finance and funding factor. As universities have to develop policies and solutions to support their

Higher education has a crucial role in that orientation because, in such economies, college or university education is seen to be useful both at personal and social levels by individuals. They see a university qualification as vital because they see educated individuals engaged in research and progress as more likely to achieve.

The role of students and their attitudes toward university studies can be approached in three categories along three axes. The first axis concerns their families and social background and how they affect their plans and decisions for studies. University policies worldwide indirectly expect students to find the means to finance their studies. Students and their families are expected to decide how to meet this financial challenge. The decisions might focus on setting priorities, prioritizing the family’s basic needs and expenses, and ranking the priority of higher education among all the needs. In other words, students and their families should review their needs and finances and decide what they can sacrifice to spare the money to finance the higher education of their younger members While deciding, they will probably need to develop a plan and focus on what the family may gain from their children’s higher education. The younger members need to assess what they will do with their university degree and where and what sort of work they seek At this stage, they will have to assess the general climate and conditions of society, especially the labor market and the opportunities it offers. Usually, during a crisis, students and families plan differently than during prosperity. In the former, they are more concerned about

Overall, due to these trends, there is concern about the impact of this external competitive climate on the universities (Altbach et al., 2009; Coleman & Bekhradnia, 2014; Sointu et al., 2019) Several solutions have been suggested and adopted as part of the policy of cost cutting, of which some are promoted by central authorities or universities and other institutions and implemented with varied effects Many universities have restructured themselves and their functions by introducing new courses or new and less expensive modes of teaching, such as online classes. Several universities have revised pay structures for their employees. Furthermore, there is a significant reduction in student support by the State and other organizations that provide student loans (Altbach et al., 2009).

The Role of Students

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. function, they now pay considerable attention to finding sources for funds than earlier. Moreover, they search for greater cost effective solutions to carry on their Tfunctions.heeighth and final trend is the tendency of the universities to become more autonomous and competitive. Many national governments, to help higher education survive the fierce competition, decide to liberate the universities’ management to raise funds. In other words, universities are expected to cope with new realities of rules of the free market In many cases, governments promote private funding or private colleges or universities.

Overall, students have been the center of attention for central policymaking currents that arise due to more full social forces and phenomena such as globalization, immigration, cultural exchanges, and increasing diversity of societies. The policy focuses on how to help students support themselves financially rather than funding. Though the students’ dominant role in society’s future progress is recognized, they face significant challenges (Altbach et al., 2009; Martin & Sauvageot, 2011; UNESCO, 2009).

The third dimension specifically concerns students’ expectations and how they are affected by the crisis. Students’ expectations are certainly a complicated topic, highly influenced by social factors and economic motivations. They might concern future career opportunities in general and the relationship between qualifications and job and career. Moreover, they may focus on how social factors correctly interact and interrelate with their decisions, either at a personal level or at the level of the larger student population. For example, students during a challenging period might decide not to opt for studying the subject that interests them most because the one they choose provides more opportunities for work and good quality of life the two desires motivate young people to relocate (Altbach et al., 2009; Martin & Sauvageot, 2011).

Students’ attitudes, which positively influence their decisions, are affected by the general trends in education and universities. Overall, students will experience the outcomes of governmental decisions on higher education and, similarly, might have to be resigned to the side-effects of the challenges arising out of these policies These outcomes and challenges might generally be linked to financial factors or decisions. For example, students will probably notice when the government reduces investment in higher education. It would have several consequences, such as fewer resources for the universities; fewer university employees of every category, such as academic, teaching, research and administration; fewer funding opportunities for students; reduced campus activities of every kind; an overall pessimist attitude. However, the impact of the crisis might not be felt in the universities alone. The family and background of the student might be affected as well. This would probably also influence students’ decisions and attitudes. For example, while searching for cost effective studies, young people might opt not to relocate but may prefer studying in their hometown to save accommodation expenses. Furthermore, they may economize on expenses such as clothing and even writing material. If moving to the university town is unavoidable, students may work or move into shared accommodation to save expenses. In any case, any student desiring higher education must balance the impact of the crisis through several decisions related to their studies (Altbach et al., 2009; Martin & Sauvageot, 2011; UNESCO, 2009; Benham et al., 2020).

The three dimensions of the crisis that impact students’ background, life, and expectations are closely interwoven. Various aspects of each dimension sometimes merge into the others However, they provide a clear outline of how the crisis and the more extensive community influence students’ experience and attitudes toward universities, higher education, studies, degrees, and career paths. Literature and research approached them in a piecemeal and scattered way without focusing on students (Christopherson et al., 2014; Martin & Sauvageot, 2011; UNESCO, 2009). The central topic of investigation in this research is this neglected area. It is at that point the rationale for this study is located.

The second dimension is that of the impact of the economic crisis on students’ life.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. how to minimize the cost of gaining the desired degree to provide a sustainable career (Christopherson et al., 2014; Martin & Sauvageot, 2011; UNESCO, 2009).

This entails much investment of time and money in private afternoon courses to prepare the children for highly competitive entrance exams to universities to enter prestigious schools or departments that are expected to lead to a high quality of life and high social, professional, and financial status in future. Moreover, the Greek State emphasizes higher education and its development (Pesmatzoglou, 1989; Katsikas, 2013). As it was concluded by the research carried out by the Greek Foundation of Economic and Industrial Research IOVE, (2017) especially after the 1997 reforms, higher education departments and universities were expanded and new universities were established at the prefectural level to give young people broader access to higher education by steeply increasing the number of places in Greek universities. However, this reform has caused debate over the quality and outcomes of higher education. Nevertheless, this did not change the status of Greek universities from being selective to selected. Competition for a place in Greek universities remained severe, particularly in prestigious schools and courses likely to guarantee excellent career opportunities (Gouvias, 2012; Azaria et al., 2020). In short, international trends around higher education have also been observed in Greek society. The number of students willing to attend universities has been rising. The reason is the broader belief that a university degree can lead to better career opportunities and quality of life. Families encourage this belief in young people and students (Altbach et al., 2009). Universities and the national government had to cope with this rising demand and challenges accompanying the increasing costs (Christopherson et al., 2014).

Despiteincreased.theobserved

3. Hypothesis In Greece, since the economic crisis of 2009 broke out, all aspects of economic and social life have been significantly affected (Chrysochoou et al., 2013; Sklavos, 2014). Austerity measures, high taxation, falling income, rising unemployment, and drastic reforms have been a reality. This reality is expected to stimulate further reforms in education (Fullan, 2001), which is expected to impact educational institutions, including the institutions of higher education, systems, and structures (Sklavos, 2014). In this aspect, it is expected that the crisis will negatively impact higher education. The austerity policy is expected to lead to less investment in higher education by the State. Moreover, families are expected to invest less in higher education of their younger members at every stage, from preparation for entrance, study, and graduation.

concerns over the potential of higher education to assist social mobility, Greek families have always supported their children to pursue higher education leading to a degree (Fragoudaki, 1985; Sianou Kyrgiou, 2010)

Education and Socio Economic Environment in Greek Society

In Greece, according to Petmezidou Tsoulouvi (1987), Kazamias et al. (2002), and Sianou Kyrgiou (2010), significant research concerned the development and social status of higher education. Due to higher education, a rising number of persons were finding access to more and better work opportunities and social mobility had

The impact of the universities’ crisis can be examined by thoroughly investigating all its dimensions, including challenges for the academic community, impediments to academic careers, difficulties students encounter, and the State’s general role (IOVE, 2017). However, limited research has considered students’ views on this topic, especially in the Greek context, which is the rationale for this research Students “constitute the most central stakeholder group in higher education around the world” (Altbach et al., 2009, p. 97). Therefore, their opinions must be considered (Martin & Sauvageot, 2011; UNESCO, 2009).

Bearing in mind the described research findings, it is expected that students would have experienced the side effects of the crisis in all the three dimensions, which means in the everyday life and expectations of their family, in the study conditions, as well as the future prospects and expectations (Altbach et al., 2009; Martin & Sauvageot, 2011; UNESCO, 2009; Christopherson et al., 2014; Tsikalaki & Kladi Kokkinou, 2016; Azaria et al., 2020; Benham et al., 2020)

This research seeks to gain insights into students views’ on the outcomes of the crisis in Greek higher education, focusing on three dimensions of its impact. The first concerns its impact on students’ families. The second concerns its impact on student life in universities and the third on students’ ambitions and visions about

4. Methodological Approach

On one hand, student enrollment increased, resulting in a higher student to teacher ratio, which posed a challenge to teachers and reduced the number of enrolled students who did not complete studies (IOVE, 2017). Moreover, this increased social inequalities (Kazamias et al., 2002; Chrysochoou et al., 2013; Megaloeconomou, 2015; Tsikalaki & Kladi Kokkinou, 2016).

However, a different perspective by Papastamou (2016) urges that the crisis is a challenge and an opportunity for improvement. Specifically, the crisis might serve as a stimulusfor universities to develop into centers for dealing with various types of crises in general Theoretically, this vision might serve as a reason for the State and families to invest in higher education. Skrbinjek et al. (2018) surveyed 29 European countries and concluded that the crisis had shrunk investment in higher Reducation.esearch,by and large, confirms that the crisis in Greece has had a drastically negative impact on higher education (IOVE, 2017) and university life (Megaloeconomou, 2015; Tsikalaki & Kladi Kokkinou, 2016) due to the policy of reduced funding for higher education. More specifically, after a significant increase during 2001 2008, from 2009 until 2014, a 24% reduction followed, which mostly affected expenses on students’ meals, academics, and support personnel. Even though it is not higher than the reduction of funding for the rest of the public sector in Greece, it is higher than that in higher education in other European countries (IOVE, 2017).

Outcomes from research on student life and progress have given specific insights.

As concluded by the findings, students express through their views that the crisis had a negative impact. This applies to all three dimensions, family environment, study conditions and prospects, Findings on the First Dimension: Crisis Impact on Social and Family Environment of Students

From the data presented in Table 1, it becomes evident that students feel the crisis has affected their social and family environment in several ways. Regarding the adaptation to the crisis conditions, 76% of participants expressed they agree employees are reconciled to income decrease. This statement had an average score of 3 18 out of 5 on the Likert scale. Similarly, 77% of participants agreed totally or generally that people have resigned to the crisis (av. 3 93), and 93% said that the crisis has permeated into everyday life (av. 4.17).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. their career and life (Altbach et al., 2009; Chrysochoou et al., 2013; Christopherson et al., 2014; IOVE, 2017; Martin & Sauvageot, 2011; UNESCO, 2009). It was decided that a quantitative method focusing on descriptive statistics was the appropriate methodology for this research. The reason was that the research focuses on examining student’s views that have not been thoroughly examined so far (Altbach et al., 2009; Azaria et al., 2020; Chryssochoou et al., 2013; Katsikas, 2013) It did not require studying inferential statistics and comparing values and parameters at that stage (Cohen et al., 2013). The data was collected through questionnaires. The questions were grouped under three categories; each category corresponded to one of the above dimensions. Every group included statements that addressed primary issues concerning the dimension revealed in the research and literature under study (IOVE, 2017). Participants were asked to rank each statement on a Likert scale, from 1 to 5 (1: Totally disagree, 2: Overall disagree, 3: Neither agree nor disagree, 4: Overall agree, and 5: Totally agree). The first and second dimensions were covered in 14 statements. Seven statements related to the third dimension The responses to the questionnaire were transferred to SPSS to be evaluated. The process included the absolute and relevant frequencies, calculated as a percentage of the total sample population. Along with it, the standard deviation was calculated Due to the frequencies, it was possible to identify students’ trends in thinking and overall opinion about the crisis' dimensions and side effects (IOVE, All2017).the 300 students 183 women (61%) and 117 men (39%) included in the sample completed the questionnaires. The average age of the sample was 21 1. Of the sample, 237 (80.6%) studied in the university while the remaining 57 (19.4%) studied at higher technical institutes known in the Greek education system as TEI (Τεχνολογικό Επαγγελματικό Ίδρυμα Technological Educational Foundation) The sample was, therefore, representative, and hence, the findings may be accepted as accurate. Regarding ethics, the participants answered the questionnaire anonymously; the phrases included were stated in a way that did not cause any risk or adverse reaction to them (Cohen et al., 2013).

5. Findings & Principal Results

On the question of whether the economic condition in Greece was reversible, 27% expressed general or total agreement while 47% expressed general or total disagreement (av 2 76). Moreover, 38% agreed totally and 51% disagreed totally (av. 3 03) with the statement that the crisis is temporary. With the statement that the economic conditions would worsen, 47% agreed while 21% disagreed (av. 3.38). Finally, the statement that crisis leads to immigration had an 82% express agreement (av 4 35). 1: Findings on the First Dimension: Crisis Impact on Social and Family Environment of Students

Neithernoragreedisagree Generallydisagree Totallydisagree Indicators Ν % Ν % Ν % Ν % Ν % Av S.D. 1.

incomes. 66 22 162 54 45 15 24 8 3 1 3,88 0,876 2. Citizens are resigned to the fact that there is a crisis in Greece. 60 20 171 57 57 19 12 4 0 0 3,93 0,740 3. Crisis is a part of everyday life. 75 25,3 201 67,7 18 6,1 3 1 0 0 4,17 0,570 4. Crisis is reversible. 24 8 57 19 78 26 105 35 36 12 2,76 1,134 5. Crisis is temporary. 15 5 99 33 81 27 72 24 33 11 3,03 1,101 6. The economic condition of the country will worsen. 42 14 99 33 96 32 57 19 6 2 3,38 1,009 7. Crisis leads to immigration for work. 81 27,6 162 54,1 18 9,2 24 8,2 3 1 4,35 0,888 8. Family income has declined. 96 32 165 55 3 1 9 3 0 0 4,18 0,718 9. Family retail purchases have reduced. 45 15 144 48 75 25 33 11 3 1 4,01 0,900 10. Family expense on food has reduced. 39 13,1 159 53,5 48 16,2 48 16,2 3 1 3,89 0,941 11. Family expense on clothing has reduced. 66 22 171 57 42 14 18 6 3 1 3,95 0,829 12. Family expense on household appliances has reduced. 84 28 165 55 36 12 9 3 6 2 4,04 0,837 13. Family entertainment expense has reduced. 72 24 159 53 57 19 12 4 0 0 3,97 0,769

Generally

Regarding the impact of the family’s crisis, 87% of the participants agreed that family income had declined (av. 4.18). Moreover, 63% agreed that the consumption of goods had been restricted (a. 4.01). More specifically, the participants agreed that family expenses on goods of everyday use had shrunk: food (67%, av. 3.89), clothing (79%, av. 3.95), household appliances (93%, av. 4.04), and leisure or entertainment (77%, av. 3.97). Lastly, a substantial percentage (85%, av. 4.22) agreed family members felt uncertain about the future. agree agree Workers are designed to have lower

Table

Totally

The above findings show that students believe the crisis had a substantial impact on their background, families, and environment and negatively affected their views of the future. However, being students, this did not deter them from getting a university education. The findings agree with those from such previous research that demonstrated a crisis causes families to find cost effective solutions to enable their young members to go to university (Altbach et al., 2009; Christopherson et al., 2014; IOVE, 2017; Martin & Sauvageot, 2011; UNESCO, 2009).

Findings on the Second Dimension: Impact of Crisis on University Studies and Student Life Table 2 shows that students felt the crisis had affected their studies and life. Indicatively, on the effects of the crisis on universities, 78% agreed universities are affected (av. 3 98). Moreover, they agreed the crisis had caused a reduction in the university’s resources, (82%, av. 3.99), university personnel (86%, av. 4.23), and cultural courses, activities, and classes (75%, av. 3 83). On the link between crisis and student life, 71% of the sample agreed there are effects (av. 3,9). More specifically, 91% agreed that parents had drastically reduced expenses on studies (av. 4.31). This relates to the agreement of 71% (av. 3.71) with the statement that the family has reduced expenditure on essential goods. Students tended to agree that the crisis has led to hesitation in buying essentials such as books (55%, av. 3 38), traveling while studying (51%, av. 3.42), and participating in university activities (40%, av. 3.08), including exchange programs such as Erasmus (59%, av. Concer3.55).ning dealing with the crisis, 82% (av. 4 10) agreed that students were considering the crisis while deciding what to study, relating to the agreement (86%, av. 4.21) that students prefer not to change location to avoid the extra expenses. Along with that, 76% (av. 3.92) agreed that house sharing is an option to reduce expenses, 94% (av. 4 29) stated they worked while studying, even though 71% stated (av. 3 93) that working and studying at the same time is challenging. Lastly, 75% (av. 3.98) stated that they interrupted studies for financial reasons and 43% (av. 2.91) stated their family required that every course was completed without delay. Findings drawn by students’ views justify previous research outcomes that the crisis negatively impacts universities. The general trends adopted, either as policies or decisions, have been focused on cost effective services in terms of personnel, infrastructure, and university functions. However, as students claim, at an individual or family level, there have been side effects as well. Students tend to opt for more economical options concerning their studies. They try to reduce expenses whenever necessary. These attitudes and beliefs are commonly shared by the sample, as the values of average and standard deviation show. The primary conclusion drawn is that young people prefer making financial sacrifices and getting a university degree (Kazamias et al., 2002; Altbach et al., 2009; Christopherson et al., 2014; IOVE, 2017; Martin & Sauvageot, 2011; UNESCO, 2009).

154 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 2: Impact of Crisis on Studies and Student Life Totallyagree Generallyagree Neithernoragreedisagree Generallydisagree Totallydisagree Indicators Ν % Ν % Ν % Ν % Ν % Av. S.D. 1. The financial crisis has affected universities 87 29,3 144 48,5 42 14,1 21 7,1 3 1 3,98 0,900 2. University’s resources have reduced 81 27,3 162 54,5 33 11,1 12 4,3 9 3 3,99 0,906 3. University personnel has reduced 123 41 135 45 30 10 12 4 0 0 4,23 0,787 4. University activities have reduced 60 20,2 162 54,5 51 17,2 15 5,1 9 3 3,84 0,908 5. The crisis has affected student life 87 29 126 42 60 20 24 8 3 1 3,90 0,945 6. Parents have reduced expenses on education. 123 41 150 50 24 8 3 1 0 0 4,31 0,660 7. Expenses on essential goods have reduced. 14 14 57 57 17 17 12 12 0 0 3,71 0,848 8. Expenses on study material, books, pens, etc. have reduced. 39 13 126 42 51 17 78 26 6 2 3,38 1,067 9. Traveling while studying has reduced 51 17 102 34 72 24 72 24 3 1 3,42 1,062 10. Participation in university activities has reduced. 30 10 90 30 75 25 84 28 21 7 3,08 1,122 11. Participation in student Erasmus)opportunitiesexchange(e.g.,hasreduced 51 17 126 42 72 24 39 13 12 4 3,55 1,045 12. Course selection has been affected 90 30 156 52 48 16 6 2 0 0 4,10 0,729 13. Students avoid relocating for studies. 123 41 135 45 27 9 12 4 3 1 4,21 0,842 14. Home sharing is opted to reduce expenses. 75 25 153 51 51 17 15 5 6 2 3,92 0,892 15. Students tend to work while studying. 114 38 168 56 12 4 3 1 3 1 4,29 0,684 16. Working while studying is challenging. 102 34 111 37 57 19 21 7 9 3 3,92 1,038 17. Students have interrupted studies due to financial restrictions. 87 29 138 46 57 19 18 6 0 0 3,98 0,850 18. Families press for on time studies’ accomplishment. 27 9 87 29 54 18 96 32 36 12 2,91 1,203

Findings on the Third Dimension: Crisis Impact on Students’ Expectations

Finally, they identify that the trend of mobility exists since they are willing to relocate for a career (Altbach et al., 2009; Christopherson et al., 2014; IOVE, 2017; Martin & Sauvageot, 2011; UNESCO, 2009).

Table 3: Impact of Crisis on Students’ Expectations Totallyagree Generallyagree Neithernoragreedisagree Generallydisagree Totallydisagree Indicators Ν % Ν % Ν % Ν % Ν % Av. S.D 1. Qualifications increase job opportunities. 30 10,1 135 45,5 90 30,3 33 11,1 9 3 3,48 0,927 2. Students are pessimistic toward professional career opportunities 75 25,3 144 48,5 51 17,2 21 7,1 6 2 3,88 0,937 3. The crisis influences students’ decisions on work. 78 26,3 138 46,5 69 23,2 6 2 6 2 3,93 0,869 4. The degree is not sufficient for the labor market 51 17,2 126 42,4 87 29,2 51 17,2 9 3 3,54 1,059 5. University studies in Greece do not suffice for excellent job opportunities 45 15,2 84 28,3 108 36,4 39 13,1 21 7,1 3,31 1,100 6. Students postgraduateselectstudies as a means against the crisis 36 12,1 117 39,4 102 34,3 27 9,1 15 5,1 3,44 0,989 7. Students consider moving abroad because of the crisis. 84 28,0 135 45,4 16 16,5 24 8,2 3 1 3,93 0,935

As seen in Table 3, there is general agreement that the crisis has affected students’ expectations. Indicatively, 56% (av. 3.48) believes that a higher number of qualifications increases the possibilities for excellent job opportunities. Simultaneously, 74% (av. 3 88) of the population agreed there is pessimism toward their professional future while 73% (av. 3 99) agreed the crisis affects their work decisions. Moreover, there is agreement at 60% (av. 3.54) that a university degree is not sufficient for the labor market that applies more, particularly when it comes to university degrees from Greece (43 5%, av. 3 3). Along with that, 51 5% (av. 3 44) agreed post graduate studies could help during a crisis, whereas 73% (av. 3.93) considered moving to another country.

Overall, students’ expectations are influenced by the crisis, as the literature has stated. This is seen through their statements that they are not so optimistic about overcoming crises and their working opportunities. They also agree that an undergraduate degree does not guarantee a successful career by itself. However, they still consider it necessary. Moreover, they hold the opinion that, generally, higher education institutions and universities can provide qualifications that assist in the future career, whether post graduate studies or any other option.

Therefore, the findings confirm that students claim to have been affected deeply by the crisis (Altbach et al., 2009; Azaria et al., 2020; Katsikas, 2013). Before generalizing these conclusions, it is essential to stress the limitations of the particular study. A first limitation has to do with the specific sample that was gathered in a certain period. Perhaps, in the future, benchmarking with broader samples and more full dimensions of the crisis will strengthen the accuracy of these conclusions (Cohen et al., 2013).

This research aimed to identify the impact of the economic crisis on students’ life in Greece through the prism of socio economic background, studying conditions, and aspirations for the future. The crisis can have a three dimensional impact on students’ lives, as it can influence their family and social background, the conditions of studies and student life, and their expectations and personal perspectives. Research conducted around this topic so far does not seem to emphasize the views of students. This is the main contribution of this research Bearing in mind the literature around crisis and universities, it would be expected that students would experience and express the opinion that the crisis had a significant negative impact on all three dimensions (Altbach et al., 2009; Azaria et al., 2020; Chryssochoou et al., 2013; Katsikas, 2013)

6. Conclusions

The findings reveal that participants believe the crisis is a long lasting phenomenon with significant effects, not easily reversible. It is generally accepted that immigration for financial reasons is inevitable. Especially in what concerns family, participants agree that most families have reduced income, consumption, or spending. This has caused cuts in expenses on household appliances, clothes, entertainment, and other basics. These findings are compatible with research outcomes (Altbach et al., 2009; Christopherson et al., 2014; Sointu et al., 2019)

Regarding university studies, participants said the crisis has affected the quality of studies, mainly because of the reduction in funding and families’ efforts to reduce expenses. This motivates students to reduce expenses on travel, stationery, and other basic needs. The crisis has affected subjects’ choice to study, and preference is now given to subjects that lead to better, more secure, and easier to find career opportunities, especially near their homes. This indicates a lack of confidence in future career opportunities and the value of the university degree, leading them to seek further education to qualify for work in a competitive labor market (Altbach et al., 2009; Christopherson et al., 2014; IOVE, 2017; Martin & Sauvageot, 2011; UNESCO, 2009).

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Abstract. Several meta analyses and studies have been undertaken in game based research, which compare the efficacy of conventional teaching against the introduction of educational games into the classroom. The findings point to educational gaming providing teaching approach that allows for improved efficacy in learning and deeper conceptual understanding. But there is a paucity of research in terms of explaining ‘how’ and ‘why’ students learn from games. The mapping out the students’ experiences of learning, as a result of an economics gaming knowledge. The question that arose was ‘How could this be possible?’

Keywords: Educational Gaming; Cognitive Load Theory; Game Framework Analysis

Part of the answer is provided by Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) which was developed by Sweller (1988). CLT examines the management of working memory in learning contexts and the resultant effects on learning. Games were found to have in their DNA, the ability to create complex learning environments that can manage the cognitive load in a way that facilitates an optimal usage of working memory, resulting in effective learning.

Jason

Game Framework Analysis and Cognitive Learning Theory Providing a Theoretical Foundation for Efficacy in Learning in Educational Gaming Stratton Davis Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa 0002 3680 2975

159 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 159 175, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.92020

1. Introduction To date the debate as to whether educational games are an effective medium of instruction that improves student learning continues. But there is increasing evidence from meta analyzse and systematic reviews on educational gaming that games are beneficial for student learning. But there have been very few studies that have looked at building up a theoretical understanding of why educational games are able to achieve these learning gains which is the focus of this paper.

https://orcid.org/0000

deepermodelfurtherQualitativeintervention,wasachievedusingresearchmethodologycalledInteractiveAnalysis(IQA).ThefindingsoftheIQAprocesswerethenrefinedanddevelopedintoGameFrameworkAnalysis(GAF)whichpointstogamesprovidingalearningsystemthatallowsforconceptualizationofconceptsandmoremeaningfulapplicationof

2. Literature Review International literature has over the years shown a growing interest in using games as an instructional medium to improve learning. In this regard, several meta analyses have been undertaken in game based research, comparing the efficacy of conventional teaching against that of educational gaming. These meta analyses that span a broad spectrum of areas of study, ranging from the class to business training. Whether comparing the meta analyses undertaken on classroom instruction (Randel et al., 1992; Hays, 2005; Vogel et al., 2006; Wouters et al., 2013) or within a business training situation (Sitzmann, 2011) in general, have reached the same conclusion, namely that games are a useful educational Atool.greater retention of knowledge and higher cognitive gains are the significant benefits arising from the interactive engagement of students when comparing the use of games with conventional teaching (Randel et al.,1992; Hays, 2005; Vogel et al., 2006; Wouters et al., 2013). For utilizing games for business training, Sitzmann (2011) noted that trainees showed higher levels of self efficacy, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and retention. By introducing educational

This paper starts by looking at literature review of the evidence provided by meta analyzse, systematic review and research done in the subject of economics. Together, they showed that educational games are an effective pedagogical tool that improves student learning. However, this evidence does not explain why student learning has improved and provides no theoretical underpinning as to reasons for these gains. It is for the above reasons that we firstly consider a qualitative study that theorizes about students’ learning from an Economic gaming intervention. And then secondly, at Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), which gives the theoretical grounding as to why students learn from educational games.

Following this, we then looked briefly at the methodology of the qualitative study which used Interactive Qualitative Analysis (IQA) as its method for collecting data. The IQA process ensures that the participants are actively engaged in the research process and culminates in a visual model of the study. This is then further refined into the development of the Game Framework Analysis (GAF), a model of how and why learning takes place during the play of an educational game. GAF postulated that a deeper conceptual understanding of the topics taught through the gaming intervention was experienced by the participants in thestudy. We then began to theorize as to how this was possible which brings us back to CLT. According to CLT, by optimally operating the working memory learning can be improved. This optimization can be enhanced by reducing and managing the intrinsic and extraneous load in the working memory, leaving more space for the germane load (where new knowledge is created). The paper then discusses at how games can actively reduce the extraneous and intrinsic load in both in their instructional design and deployment. The conclusion reached is that games as an instructional medium have firm theoretical foundations as to why they enhance learning as shown by CLT.

A comprehensive systematic review on the effects of games and simulations in higher education by Vlachopoulos and Makri (2017), confirmed the beneficial contribution of game based learning. In terms of cognitive outcomes, games promoted: ‘’knowledge acquisition (Smetana & Bell, 2012; Backlund & Hendrix, 2013; Clark et al., 2015; Warren et al., 2016), as well as content understanding and concept learning (Connoly et al., 2012; Li & Tsai, 2013; Fu et al., 2016).’’ (Vlachopoulos & Makri, 2017, p.8) According to Vlachopoulos and Makri (2017), there were also significant gains in the affective and behavioral domains. On the affective side, games improved motivation, engagement and satisfaction in learning. While on the behavioral side games provided many opportunities for collaborative learning, increased interactivity and feedback between students, and for the acquisition of social and soft skills (Vlachopoulos & Makri, 2017).

Furthermore, according to Hays (2005), an educational game cannot be a stand alone instructional method. Instead, it must be linked directly with the outcomes of the instructional program so that students understand what happens in the game and how it relates to the outcomes through feedback and debriefing. The effectiveness of games is enhanced when used in conjunction with other teaching methods. By embedding games into the curriculum with content that is precisely defined, students not only exhibit a higher level of interest, but their attitude towards the subject improves (Randel et al.,1992; Hays, 2005; Vogel et al., 2006; Wouters et al., 2013). An exciting aspect that emerged from Sitzmann’s (2011) meta analyses was that the entertainment value of the game was of no importance because the learners gleaned the same amount of information irrespective of whether the game had high or low entertainment value. However, the greater the number of times they repeated the game, the more significant the efficacy. Also, Wouters et al. (2013) noted that learners still gleaned more knowledge with the introduction of educational games as compared to traditional teaching methods. Irrespective of whether they played individually or in groups, by playing the game as a member of a group, they gained more from the learning experience.

Moving on from the findings of the meta analyses and systematic review of educational gaming we now consider specific studies related to the subject within which the study is located, namely Economics. In this field most of most of the research undertaken to date has been quantitative. It concentrates on comparing the academic performance of students between those who participated in a gaming intervention and those who participated in traditional ‘chalk and talk’ method. These studies established that the use of games to teach Economics

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. games into the curriculum, Hays (2005) states that one can provide an effective medium of learning for a variety of learners. Furthermore, Wouters et al. (2013), who focused on the cognitive and motivational effects of games, suggest that games could also be used to teach several different subjects. However, the use of games is not a panacea in all situations because they are only effective if they are related to the topic and have clearly defined learning outcomes.

3. Background

• ‘How’ do first year Economics students experience learning in a gaming intervention? and

• Neral (1993) ’Widget Production in the Classroom’, used to provide students with a tangible experience of the law of diminishing returns.

The study undertaken looked at first year economics students’ learning experience of a gaming intervention and forms the basis for this paper. The objectives of this study were to:

The study used Interactive Qualitative Analysis (IQA) to map the students’ experiences of learning during Economics gaming intervention. Three games were chosen in the field of Micro Economics, each of which would concentrate on the conceptual understanding of a specific micro Economics topic, namely:

• Holt (1996) ‘Trading in a Pit Market’, with the learning outcome to show how markets reach equilibrium through the interaction of buyers (demand) and sellers (supply);

• Explore how games influence students’ learning, with a view to developing insights for pedagogy; and

• To theorize students’ learning from Economics games with the view to deepening existing theory on learning using educational gaming interventions.

A first year economics class of 120 participants was then exposed to the Economics gaming intervention. Out of these participants, 24 were randomly invited to participate in the study. However, only 15 of the participants accepted the invitation to participate but this was within recommended the sample size for IQA of 12 to 20 participants (Northcutt & McCoy, 2004) During this research process of mapping out the students’ experiences into ‘how’ and ‘why’ they learnt from Economics gaming intervention, it came to the fore

the meta analyses and systematic review findings are similar to Economics, that educational gaming provides a teaching approach that allows for improved efficacy in learning and a deeper conceptual understanding. However, there is a lack in the research examining ‘how’ and ‘why’ students learn through the playing of educational games. Only then will one be in a better position to gauge the benefits and be able to deploy games so that efficacy of learning is enhanced.

• ‘Why’ do students learn from Economics games the way they do?

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. improved the student s’ achievement (Emerson & Taylor, 2004; Ball et al., 2006); resulted in better students’ retention of course material (Nkonyane & van Wyk, 2015); stimulated higher student motivation (Gremmen & van den Brekel, 2013); as well as created a favorable impression of Economics (Tsigaris, 2008; Davis, Overall,2011).

• Kruse et al. (2005) ‘Market Forces and Price Ceilings: A Classroom Experiment’, with the aim to show the effect of a price ceiling on the market; and

The critical questions posed by this research were:

that part of reason for the efficacy of learning was underpinned by Sweller’s (1998) Cognitive Load Theory (CLT). Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)

The only way to achieve this is by managing both the extraneous and intrinsic loads so that the germane load takes up the remaining space left by the sum of the intrinsic and extraneous loads.

The initial focus of the research was solely on minimizing the extraneous load as the intrinsic load is assumed to be fixed, thereby making more working memory available for the expansion of the germane load. However, later research points to the fact that the intrinsic load may not be fixed and can be manipulated in a manner that creates further room in the working memory for the germane load to operate in. Therefore, one should look at managing both the intrinsic and extraneous loads in a manner that allows for more working memory to be devoted to the germane load. Managing the extraneous load

CLT provides a framework that focuses on the management of working memory as learners interact with the instructional material to achieve effective learning (de Araujo et al., 2016). The working memory is finite, as it can only hold the maximum of seven informational elements at a time (Young et al., 2014).

The design of instructional material should, according to CLT, aim to reduce the extraneous load by managing the intrinsic load and optimizing the germane load (de Araujo et al., 2016). Table 1 below illustrates possible ways in which to reduce the extraneous load.

The third cognitive load, the germane load, is the working memory resources taken up by processing new information (Ouellette et al., 2019). This involves the learner’s mental efforts to construct new schemata (knowledge). As a result, there is a need to have more of the working memory dedicated to the germane load to facilitate deeper conceptual understanding.

Consequently, if the load on the learner’s working memory is exceeded, the result is a decreased efficacy of learning, thereby jeopardizing the student’s performance and attainment of knowledge.

CLT, according to Sweller (1988), identifies three cognitive loads which affect the working memory: intrinsic, extraneous and germane. The intrinsic load is both affected by the learner’s level of expertise and by the level of difficulty of the task (Sweller et al., 2019). It cannot be affected by instructional interventions. The extraneous load, on the other hand, involves the search for information related to the performance of the task the cognitive cost of processing information. The extraneous load is affected by how instructions are structured and presented (Hawlitschek & Joeckel, 2017). Instructional techniques can, therefore, increase the extraneous load: “by providing insufficient guidance, thereby forcing learners to employ weak problem solving methods such as trial and error, or to search for the information necessary to complete the task.” (Young et al., 2014, p. 5).

Effect Description Extraneous load

Worked example Effect Replace conventional problems with worked examples that must be carefully studied Reduces extraneous cognitive load caused by weak method problem solving; focuses learner’s attention on problem states and useful solution steps

Split Effectattention Replace multiple sources of information (frequently pictures and accompanying text) with a single, integrated source of information Reduces extraneous cognitive load because there is no need to mentally integrate the information sources

Modality effect Replace a written explanatory text and another source of visual information informationtextwithsuchasadiagram(unimodal)aspokenexplanatoryandavisualsourceof(multimodal)

Reduces extraneous cognitive load because the multimodal presentation uses both the visual and auditory processor of working memory

Replace conventional problems with completion problems, providing a partial solution that must be completed by the learners Reduces extraneous stepsstatesfocusthepartcognitiveloadbecausegivingofthesolutionreducessizeoftheproblemspace;attentiononproblemandusefulsolution

Table I. Some Effects Studied by Cognitive Load Theory and Why They Reduce Extraneous Loads (van Merrienboer & Sweller ,2005, p. 151.)

Goal-free effect Replace conventional problems with goal free problems that provide learners with an a specific goal Reduces extraneous cognitive load caused by relating a current problem state to a goal state and attempting to reduce differences between them; focuses learner’s attention on problem states and available operators

EffectRedundancy Replace multiple sources of information that is self contained (i.e., they can be understood on their own) with one source of information Reduces extraneous cognitive load caused by unnecessarily processing redundant information

Managing the intrinsic load

problemCompletioneffect

The intrinsic load in the working memory can be reduced through the following interventions, namely by increasing the student’s expertise and reducing the difficulty of the task. Both of these interventions have to be considered in the development and design of the instructional material. Hence the positioning of instructional material after the requisite skills and knowledge have been acquired to complete the task would reduce the intrinsic load.

4. Methodology

The study used Interactive Qualitative Analysis (IQA) as the means of collecting, analyzing and interpreting the data. IQA falls within the social constructivist paradigm where participants analyze and interpret the data research. The first phase of the IQA process utilizes focus groups in which the participants (constituents): “themselves perform the first steps of analysis by organizing their discourse into categories of meaning called affinities” (Northcutt & McCoy, 2004, p. 44).

5. Presentation of outcome of study GAF

The outcome of the research was the development of the Game Framework Analysis (GAF). GAF provides a framework with which one can analyze ‘how’ and ‘why’ students learn from a gaming intervention.

Furthermore, by reducing the difficulty of the task through minimizing the interactivity amongst the elements the more interactivity between the elements, the more complex the task, and the higher the level of expertise required to complete the task the higher the intrinsic load. However, if the task is then deconstructed into discrete elements that can be processed serially, it would thereby minimize the intrinsic load. Then, at a later stage, the materials are presented in the full complexity (Klepsch & Seufert, 2020).

The second phase of IQA involves individual semi structured interviews where, the affinities are further explored on a one on one basis. This not only allows for personal perspectives, but also encourages a greater level of detail, richness and depth of description of the data. Throughout the IQA research process, participants themselves are responsible for generating the affinities and analyzing their causal relationships. This differs significantly from traditional qualitative research, where the researcher generates the data. Concerning IQA, the researcher’s role changes as they “move(s) from designer to facilitator, teaching the group members the process and guiding them to generate and analyze their own data with minimal external influence” (Northcutt & McCoy, 2004, p. 44). In this way, the opportunities for researcher bias is minimized.

The causal relationships between the affinities are then mapped out by the participants, from which a conceptual map is derived. This is referred to as an Inter Relationship Diagram (IDR) which is then developed into a Systems Influence Diagram (SID) the final product of IQA. The SID is a visual representation of the drivers and the outcomes: the influences between the affinities, causes and effects.

166 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Tour Trough GAF Figure 1: Game Analysis Framework (GAF) LEARNING OUTCOMES REFLECTIONGAMEPOST GAME SPACE – EDUCATIONAL GAMING ENVIRONMENT PRIMARY DRIVER: USE MORE GAMES PLUS PRIMARY OUTCOME: DID NOT FEEL LIKE A LESSON SECONDARY DRIVERS 2.1.INVOLVEMENT/EXPERIENCEFUN/ENJOYMENT/EXCITEMENT RESULTING IN 3. DEEPER CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING COGNITIVE ENGAGEMENT: ENACTMENT OF KNOWLEDGE (FEEDS BACK INTO THE SYSTEM) 5. EXPERIMENTATION, STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT, REASONING, CRITICALTHINKING BEHAVIOURAL AND EMOTIONAL BUY IN THROUGH ENGAGEMENT AND IMMERSION IN GAMES 4.RESULTINGINAUTONOMY; COMPETENCE; RELATEDNESS;FEEDBACK THIS CULMINATESPROCESSLEARNINGIN THE ASSIMILATION OF THROUGHKNOWLEDGE A. AWARENESS B. REALIZATION C. INTEGRATION/ APPLICATION

Two main cogs drive the cogs and belt system: the first of which ‘Involvement/ Experience’ initiates the momentum of the belt driven system by interlinking directly with the second cog ‘Fun/ Enjoyment/ Experience’. There is a reciprocal relationship between the two main cogs whereby their combined interaction adds greater traction to the learning process. This traction, in turn, sets in motion the belt that drives the third cog, namely ‘deeper conceptual understanding’. Once the belt is in motion, this becomes a continuous process driven by the cogs.

The belt itself comprises two components behavioral and emotional engagement (4) and the enactment of knowledge (5). The former, behavioral and emotional buy in, immerses students in the gaming process by encouraging autonomy and facilitating competence and relatedness that is complemented by immediate feedback. This then leads to the second stage the enactment of knowledge that allows for cognitive engagement, which includes experimentation, strategy development, goal formation, reasoning and critical thinking that then loop into the Throughsystem.students, this educational gaming intervention, are now empowered to take ownership of this deeper conceptual understanding and personalize it, as their knowledge is no longer merely academic. The game has provided the means for them to link theory to everyday occurrences in the real world. The illustration now depicts this access to awareness, realization and integration/application unlocked by deeper conceptual understanding, which is within the hands of the students and who are then enabled to create personalized meaning of the theoretical concepts.

As depicted in Figure 1, the learning process from the gaming activity in the GAF model occurs between two pillars, namely Learning Outcomes and Post Game Reflection, both of which remain essential components as they provide the structure within which the deliberative activity and transformational play take place. The Learning Outcomes provide the starting point where the challenges of the game are set and embedded with educational outcomes. On the other side, Post Game Reflection represents the end of the gaming process where participants now discuss their learning experiences from the game. This allows for the development of a clearer linkage between challenges of the game and the educational outcomes paving the way for deeper conceptual understanding

Between the two pillars is the learning environment, which is represented by the Game Space within which the gaming activity takes place. The primary driver revealed by the IQA process ‘Use More Games’ and the primary outcome ‘Did not Feel Like a Lesson’ are catalysts of the Game Space, and it is their interaction that facilitates the disruption of the traditional educational learning space by introducing active learning into the classroom. It is within this Game Space, that ‘how’ and ‘why’ students learn from an educational gaming activity is modelled. This takes the form of two processes: the first of which is a cogs and belt system that unlocks the ‘safe’ of deeper conceptual understanding (‘how’) and the second illustrates ‘why’ students learn from the educational gaming intervention after reaching that ‘aha’ moment.

An effective means of reducing the extraneous load is through the use of worked examples, which are structured in such a way that students have to follow a step by step process to find the solution to complex problems (Renkl, 1997). By introducing games into the Economics classroom, students actively participate in authentic, complex tasks that are scaffolded in difficulty as they progress from the one challenge to the next, culminating in a deep conceptual understanding of the Theproblem.three Microeconomics games included in the Economics gaming intervention, namely: the Pit Market Trading game (Holt, 1996), Price Ceiling game (Kruse et

6.1 Reducing Extraneous Load

6. Discussion In this section, we examine how games used in the gaming intervention reduce the extraneous load and the intrinsic load so that there is room for the expansion of the germane load, allowing for a deeper conceptual understanding of the Economics topics covered.

The educational games focused the players on specific tasks at hand. For example, in the ‘Pit Market Trading game’, all the participant had to focus on was either being a buyer or seller in a market, trading to get the best price. They did not have to worry about focusing on demand and supply, definitions, diagrams or equilibrium prices. They were simply a buyer or seller aimed at making the best trade possible. By the end of successive trading rounds, participants began to notice that the successful trade prices were tending to equilibrium.

The model points to games providing a learning system that allows for a deeper understanding of concepts and a more meaningful application of knowledge. The question that arose was: ‘How could this be possible? Part of the answer, is provided by the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) developed by Sweller (1988). CLT provides a framework that focuses on the management of working memory as learners interact with the instructional material to achieve effective learning (de Araujo et al., 2016). If the finite working memory is exceeded, then there will a decrease in the efficacy of learning, resulting in poor retention of knowledge. Therefore, the design of instructional material should, according to CLT, manage the load of working memory to enhance the efficacy of learning. This means designing instructional material in a manner that manages the extraneous and intrinsic load that creates space within the working memory for the optimization the germane load. (de Araujo et al., 2016).

In this case study, three games were used to teach Microeconomics topics: Holt (1996) ‘Trading in a Pit Market’, Kruse et al. (2005) ‘Market Forces and Price Ceilings: A Classroom Experiment’ and Neral (1993) ‘Widget Production in the Classroom’.

What follows is a step by step look at how games reduce/manage the extraneous load laid out as per Table 1: Some Effects Studied by Cognitive Load Theory and Why They Reduce the Extraneous Load.

Goal free effect

Worked example effect

Actual quote from the study

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. al., 2005) and Widget game (Neral, 1993). These games created simulated environments in which students were economic agents working through a series of embedded tasks to reach the learning outcomes of the games. This structured learning environment allowed for students to focus their attention on the specific tasks at hand, compartmentalizing actions and thereby allowing them to know precisely what they had to do at each step of the game. In this manner, they reduced their extraneous load. For instance, in the Price Ceiling game (Kruse et al., 2005), students were allocated roles as landlords or renters. Initially, a free market reigned in the market for accommodation, based solely on the interaction between the landlords and the renters. The learning outcome at this stage was to show that markets converged to equilibrium. Then the complexity was added, namely the implementation of a price ceiling. Now, the landlords were governed by a maximum price (price ceiling) that they could charge as a rental. As a result, market conditions changed.

According to Sweller (1988; 2004), worked out examples reduce the extraneous load by freeing up the working memory and enabling students to concentrate their attention on solving the tasks at hand. By scaffolding the tasks, less working memory is needed to be allocated to processing each task because the student only needs to solve one challenge at a time, rather than the task as a whole. As a result, these worked out examples as provided by the gaming intervention increase the germane cognitive load because: “they enhance understanding of the solution procedure” (Paas & van Gog, 2006, p. 5). In fact, not only do the students know: “the procedural steps for problem solving tasks, but also understand when to deploy them and why they work” (Gott et al., 1993, p. 260).

The games in the intervention take conventional problems and break them down into a series of challenges that need to be completed step by step. As each challenge is completed, the participant moves closer to a fuller understanding of the topic being portrayed. 1

The quotation below captures this idea that as the students followed rules of the game, the knowledge of economics was being built up and being actively learned their minds were set free to think actively. “Since the things that we know, you have to study it and when you have to study it, you have to grasp it. The game in order for the game to play, you have to know the rules. In order for the Economics, to know it, you have to discuss the information given to you… So then while they would be that doing in the lecture room, the knowledge it would be coming left and right asking questions because it is free, my mind is free my mind is fresh, the reason being it is a game but it is a lesson”1

Completion problem effect

For the participants to get used to their roles (either as renters or landlords), the first four trading periods were unrestricted (i.e. the market was free of any intervention). This enabled the students to experience how the market converged towards equilibrium. When the fifth trading period began, the government intervened in the market. It imposed a price ceiling on the rentals as part of a policy to assist students with the affordability of accommodation. The landlords then had to consider the imposed price as well as their costs for the accommodation (during that period) and make a decision as to whether or not it was viable to rent their apartments. As a result, only a few apartments were available to rent at that price ceiling. On the other hand, most of the renters were competing to rent the apartments at that price because it fell within their budgets.

This meant that the quantity demanded for apartments, as shown by the number of renters, exceeded the quantity of apartments supplied, causing a shortage (excess demand) for apartments in the market.

• Part 2: where the government introduces a price ceiling, and a shortage in the market is experienced.

At the start of the trading period, each of the landlords wrote down their rental price on a piece of paper based on their costs, which was then affixed to the wall.

The class was divided into groups, taking on the roles of landlords and renters in a market for student accommodation. Record sheets were distributed to the landlords as well as the renters, where the landlords’ record sheet contained the costs involved with maintaining the buildings (for each period) and the renters’ sheet contained a budget for rental accommodation (for each period).

• Part 1: where the free trading between landlords and renters in various scenarios tends to equilibrium; and

The renters then, in sequential order, decided whether they wanted to rent the accommodation or not, based on their budgets. Once the renter agreed to the landlord’s price for a specific apartment, the accommodation was considered to be rented out, and then a line was drawn through the rental price on offer. The trading period ended once each renter had an opportunity to either rent, or decide not to rent, any of the available accommodation.

Therefore, the overarching learning outcome of understanding the effect of a price ceiling was broken down into two parts:

For example, the second game was based on Kruse et al. ‘Market Forces and Price Ceilings: A Classroom Experiment’ (2005), to show students the effect of a price ceiling on the market. The learning outcome of the game was to demonstrate how a price ceiling affects the equilibrium process.

Split-attention effect In the gaming environment, student attention is focused on what is needed to complete the task within the parameters of the game. In the Neral’s (1993) Widget production game, the focus was on producing the widgets in each round of production. The attention of the student was not split amongst multiple sources of information such as diagrams, tables and definitions that would be used to

Modality effect

6.2 Reducing the intrinsic load

In this section, we examine how games used in the gaming intervention reduce the intrinsic load and make room for the expansion of the germane load that allows for a deeper conceptual understanding of the Economics topics covered. Level of Expertise

The game space becomes the single source of information that the students required to complete the tasks at hand, whether trading with each other in the Pit Market trading game as a buyer or seller; being a landlord or renter Price Ceiling game; or that of a firm trying to produce widgets. The rules of the game govern the participants’ behavior as they haggle, trade and produce goods, thereby reducing the extraneous load. Moreover, participants do not need to search for information beyond the structure and rules of the game.

The games played in this intervention were not done in isolation but embedded with the curriculum so that when it came to playing the game, learners had some 2 Actual quote from study.

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. describe the theory being portrayed in a traditional lecture, but instead focused on the task. This focus on the widget production only enabled them to follow the data they generated and to draw conclusions on their lived experience of the game, without being side tracked by mathematical formulas and definitions that usually accompany the traditional lecture on the Law of Diminishing Returns. This resulted in reducing the extraneous load and making space for the germane load where students can to reflect and develop new schemata based on their learning experience in the gaming environment.

As games harness the learners’ audio and visual senses simultaneously, their capacity to process information is enhanced. “’Physically integrating multiple sources of information facilitates learning by reducing working memory load”’ (Mousavi et al., 1995, p.320). Therefore, by reducing the learners’ dependence on one sensory channel (which could easily get saturated because it is finite) and spreading the load across two or more channels, their working memory capacity is expanded. This is referred to as ‘off loading’. Thus, when a learner receives verbal and visual instructions simultaneously, it will generally cause them to learn more efficiently than if the same instructions were received in only one format (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). Games tend to create environments that encourage the use of multiple sensory channels, ranging from visual to auditory to tactile, resulting in a vivid learning experience. “We tend to capture them easier than words. I think it is because of the colours, the pictures, the fun for everyone. You see the faces, who did what, who was part of this group which makes you remember when you are studying that … Ja, so I think when you capture something it is easier for your brain to store and keeping the information in than when you are reading from a textbook”2 Redundancy effect

For example, in Holt (1996) ‘Trading in a Pit Market’, the students trade as a buyer or seller. They see, through successive rounds of trading between buyers and sellers, that a market equilibrium price is reached. This conclusion is then also reinforced by post game reflections which add to the deeper conceptual understanding.

7. Conclusion

CLT theory provides insight into ‘how’ and ‘why’ games can create a deeper conceptual understanding, giving it legitimacy as a medium of instruction. In more general terms CLT, prompts instructional designers focus more sharply on: “(1) Investigating intrinsic cognitive load helps in understanding the subjective complexity placed on the learners, (2) investigating extraneous cognitive load helps in understanding the impact of differences in design, and (3) investigating germane cognitive load helps to understand the effort learners invested in learning.” (Klepsch & Seufert, 2020, p. 47)

Furthermore, the group had access to the lecturer if they needed help as the lecturer was available and was no longer caught up in teaching but was instead a game host, having time to answer queries. This may have also helped to reduce the intrinsic load of the game.

Also, the games were not played as single participants but rather in groups, with each person getting a chance to participate. This means that the student had access to extra levels of expertise offered by other students within the group.

The students already had prerequisite knowledge about equilibrium in a market, which means that all they had to do was add another layer of understanding on concepts they already knew, thereby lowering the intrinsic load.

Reducing the difficulty

The games, through rounds of playing, slowly built up towards the complex final outcome. This sounds very similar to the Work Example and Completion problem effect under approaches to reduce the extraneous load. They are very similar in that they break down a complex problem into a series of events that, when followed, result in the ‘Aha’ moment where all the steps are linked together to gain a deeper conceptual understanding of the topic.

understanding of the concepts being taught. For example, the second game was based on Kruse et al. ‘Market Forces and Price Ceilings: A Classroom Experiment’ (2005), to show students the effect of a price ceiling on the market. The learning outcome of the game was to demonstrate how a price ceiling affects the equilibrium process.

Games can create complex learning environments that are able to manage the cognitive load in a way that facilitates an optimal usage of working memory, resulting in effective learning. Managing the extraneous and intrinsic load is paramount if the germane load is to be optimized and expanded. The germane load is where schemata are created and retained in long term memory, thereby ensuring that learning lasts beyond the classroom.

173 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Such a process of reflecting on the educational design, whether for games, experiential learning or conventional lectures, will lead to learning environments that improve the quality of learning. Perhaps it should become the norm when designing learning environment.

doi:10.19030/iber.v10i10.5975

8. References Ball, S., Eckel, C., & Rojas, C. (2006). Technology improves learning in large principles of Economics classes: Using our WITS. American Economic Review, 96(2), 442 446. Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/abstract=1843411 Davis,J.S.(2011).GamesandStudents:PerceptionsandEvidencefromaDUTCaseStudy. International Journal of Business and Economic Research (IBER), 10(10).

de Araujo, G G T., de Jorge, B., Franci, D., Martins, S T., Vellutini, S M. S., Schweller, M., &deCarvalho Filho,M.A. (2016). Cognitive loadand self determinationtheories applied to e learning: Impact on students' participation and academic performance. PLoS ONE, 11(3), Article e0152462.

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In terms of future research in relation to games and CLT, it is further proposed that we look at how games not only are able to reduce intrinsic and extraneous loads, but also how they ensure that the additional space created in the working memory is allocated to the development of new knowledge increasing the germane load.

In addition, research comparing the cognitive loads between games and other mediums of instruction may yield interesting results that would add to the body of existing knowledge. In terms CLT, further research needs to be undertaken in looking at how the intrinsic load can also be managed to create space for a more optimal use of the germane load in the working memory.

Emerson, T. L., & Taylor, B. A. (2004). Comparing student achievement across experimental and lecture oriented sections of a principles of micro economics course. Southern Economic Journal, 70(3), 672 93. Gott, S. P., Parker Hall, E., Pokorny, R. A., Dibble, E., & Glaser, R. (1993). A naturalistic study of transfer: Adaptive expertise in technical domains. In D. K. Detterman and R. J. Sternberg (Eds.) Transfer on trial: Intelligence, cognition, and instruction, 258 288. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Gremmen, H., & van den Brekel, G. (2013). Do Classroom Experiments Increase Student Motivation? A Pilot Study. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 9(19). doi:10.19044/esj.2013.v9n19p%p Hays, R. (2005). The Effectiveness of Instructional Games: A Literature Review and Discussion. Orlando. FL.: Technical Report, Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division. Hawlitschek, A., & Joeckel, S. (2017) Increasing the effectiveness of digital educational games: The effects of a learning instruction on students’ learning, motivation and cognitive load. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 79 86. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.040 Holt, C. A. (1996) Classroom Games: Trading in the Pit Journal of Economic Perspectives, 10(1), 193 203. doi:10.1257/jep.10.1.193 Klepsch, M., & Seufert, T. (2020). Understanding instructional design effects by differentiated measurement of intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load. Instructional Science, 48, 45 77. doi:10.1007/s11251 020 09502 9

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Sweller,J.(2004).InstructionalDesignConsequencesofanAnalogybetweenEvolutionbyNaturalSelectionandHumanCognitiveArchitecture. Instructional Science, 32, 9 31. doi:10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021808.72598.4d Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019) Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Late. Educational Psychology Review, 31, 261 292. doi:10.1007/s10648 019 09465 5 Tsigaris, P. (2008). Is There A Double Dividend From Classroom Experimental Games? American Journal of Business Education (AJBE), 1(1), 23 36. doi:10.19030/ajbe.v1i1.4634 Young J. Q., Van Merrienboer, J., Durning, S., & Ten Cate, O. (2014). Cognitive Load Theory: implications for medical education: AMEE Guide No. 86. MedicalTeacher, 36(5), 371 384. doi:10.3109/0142159X.2014.889290 van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005) Cognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 147 177. doi:10.1007/s10648 005 3951 0 Vlachopoulos, D., & Makri, A. (2017) The effect of games and simulations on higher education: a systematic literature review. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 14, 22. doi:10.1186/s41239 017 0062 1

Northcutt, N., & McCoy, D. (2004). Interactive Qualitative Analysis: A Systems Method for Qualitative Research. Sage Publications. Ouellette, M., Breeding, L., & Clark, C. (2019) Using applied cognitive load theory and difficulty analysis for educational game design for understanding and transferenceofliteracyskillsinadults.

Randel, J. M., Morris, B. A., Wetzel, C. D., & Whitehill, B. V. (1992). The Effectiveness of Games for Educational Purposes: A Review of Recent Research. Simulation Gaming, 23(3), 261 276. doi:10.1177/1046878192233001 Renkl, A. (1997). Learning from Worked Out Examples: A Study on Individual Differences. Cognitive Science, 21(1), 1 29. doi:10.1016/S0364 0213(99)80017 2 Sitzmann, T. (2011). A Meta Analytic Examination of the Instructional Effectiveness of Computer based Simulation Games. Personnel Psychology, 64, 489 528. doi:10.1111/j.1744 6570.2011.01190.x Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257 285. doi:10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4

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174 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Kruse, J. B., Ozdemir, O., & Thompson, M. A. (2005). Market Forces and Price Ceilings: A Classroom Experiment. International Review of Economics Education, 4(2), 73 86. doi:10.1016/S1477 3880(15)30130 4 Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43 52. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3801

Mousavi,S.Y.,Low,R.,&Sweller,J.(1995).ReducingCognitiveLoadbyMixingAuditoryandVisualPresentationModes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(2), 319 334. doi:10.1037/0022 0663.87.2.319 Neral, J. (1993). Widget Production in the Classroom. Classroom Expernomics, 2(1). Nkonyane, V. A., & Van Wyk, M. M. (2015). Post Graduate Certificate of Education Student Teachers' Views of Economics Games as an Interactive Classroom Technique. International Journal of Education Science, 8(2), 427 434.

FDG'19:Proceedingsofthe14thInternational Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games (pp. 1 11) San Luis Obispo, California. doi:10.1145/3337722.3337725 Paas, F., & van Gog, T. (2006). Optimising worked example instruction: Different ways to increase germane cognitive load. Learning and Instruction, 16, 87 91.

175 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Vogel, J. J., Vogel, D. S., Cannon Bowers, J., Bowers, C. A., Muse, K., & Wright, M. (2006). Computer Gaming and Interactive Simulations for Learning: A Meta Analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34(3), 229 243. doi:10.2190/FLHV K4WA WPVQ H0YM Wouters, P., van Oostendorp, H., van Nimwegen, C., & van der Spek, E. (2013). Meta analysis of the Cognitive and Motivational Effects of Serious Games Journal of Educational Psychology, 60(1), 412 425. doi:10.1037/a0031311 Young, J. Q., Van Merrienboer, J., Durning, S., & Ten Cate, O. (2014). Cognitive Load Theory: implications for medical education: AMEE Guide No. 86. MedicalTeacher, 36(5), 371 384. doi:10.3109/0142159X.2014.889290

176 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 176 188, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.202010 Teaching Vocational with Technology: A Study of Teaching Aids Applied in Malaysian Vocational Classroom Anesman B. W. Abdul Rahman, Mohd Azlan Mohammad Hussain* and Rafeizah Mohd Zulkifli Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris https://orcid.org/0000Malaysia0001 8491 6283 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9760 1010 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3621 2668 Abstract. The Electronic Hardware Repair and Maintenance Course (EHRM) is one of vocational courses at Malaysian Vocational Colleges studenresourcesteachingcollegesstudy,EHRMlevel.ofcomputersVocationalmostTechnothedescriptivelythetechnologicalappliedcourse.expectThus,whichhavetheoreticalconceptsthatstudentsfinddifficulttounderstand.implementationoftechnologicalteachingaids(TA)hasbeenedtohelpteachersbetterexplainthetheoreticalconceptinthisThepurposeofthisstudywastoidentifythevariousteachingaidsinEHRMlearningsessionsaswellastostudytheusagelevelofteachingaids.Thisquantitativestudywasconductedusingquestionnaireastheresearchinstrument,thedatawereanalysedthenwerereportedinpercentageandmean.Thesamplesofstudyinvolved360studentsand106teachersinthefieldofElectroniclogyatMalaysianvocationalcolleges.ThefindingsshowthatthewidelytechnologicalteachingaidsusedbytheMalaysiancollegeteachersinEHRMclassesareradios,televisions,andLCDprojectors.However,thisstudyfoundthattheuseonlinematerial,suchaswebsites,intheEHRMCourseisstillatlowThisstudyalsoindicatesthattheoverallusageofteachingaidsinclassesisstillatmoderatelevel.BasedontheoutcomeoftheteachingandlearningofEHRMcourseinMalaysianvocationalhavebeensuggestedtoincreasetheleveloftechnologicalaidsusage,especiallybyutilisingonlinebasedlearningtomakeclasssessionsmoreinterestingaswellasenhancingthetlearningoutcomes. Keywords: teaching aids; vocational college; electronic technology; teaching vocational courses

of vocational colleges in Malaysia has led to the comprehensive curriculum changes based on current industry and market needs (Bidin & Kamin, 2013). As a result, the curriculum has adopted a new curriculum standard known as the Vocational College Standard Curriculum (VCSC). This change has created many new courses in the Malaysian vocational college system. The new courses introduced are in line with the current rapid advances in technology, especially in the Electronic Technology programme. However, the question that arises is whether the transformation will lead to a better change in teaching and learning process conducted by teachers. Based on the survey conducted by Abdul Rahman et al. (2015), there are three constraints faced by vocational college teachers and students during the PdPc process, which are: time constraints, inadequate and not up to date equipment and students being bored easily. Besides that, according to Ishar (2012), lack of appropriate teaching aids is one of the concerning issues in vocational college, which causes students in having difficulties in understanding a learning concept. Majumdar (2009) also mentioned that pedagogy of vocational education is still ineffective, does not fulfil industry requirements and needs a strategy so that knowledge and skills can be applied during the teaching and learning process. Among the many vocational courses available, one of them is the Electronic Hardware Repair and Maintenance Course (EHRM). The EHRM course includes the topics of Colour TV Receiver and Radio Receiver which have a theoretical concept that is difficult to be explained to students during the lesson (Jamaludin, 2014). Thus, implementation of technological based teaching aids has been expected to help teachers better explain the theoretical concept in these courses comparedtothe traditional “chalk and talk” teaching approach. The use ofteaching aids is important to enhance students’ understanding while maintaining their learning interest (Azman, Azlee, Musttapha, Balakrishnan & Mohd Isa, 2014). For example, the use of gamification in a teaching and learning session has shown positive achievement in the attitude, motivation and perception of the vocational college students (Ismail, Sa’adan, Samsudin, Hamzah, Razali & Mahazir, 2018). A suitable teaching aid in teaching and learning session also will able to increase students’ focus on teaching and learning session (Jasmi, Ilias, Tamuri & Mohd Hamzah, 2011) The use of teaching aids can also have a positive impact on

1. Introduction Industries’ activity and demand in skills are changing rapidly so vocational education programmes need sufficient transformation to keep on top of these developments (Zulkifli, Mohammad Hussain, Hanapi, Suhairom & Wahid, 2018).

In Malaysia, Vocational Education Transformation is an initiative undertaken aimed at strengtheningthe vocational education system tomake Malaysia become a high income nation. One of the steps taken by the Ministry of Education Malaysia in transforming vocational education was by upgrading vocational secondary schools to vocational colleges starting in 2012 by offering programmes of studies at the vocational certificate and diploma levels as early as 16 years old. Vocational college study programmes consist of two years at the certificate level (Malaysian Vocational Certificate) and two years and six months at the diploma level (Malaysian Vocational Diploma), including five months of industrial Thetraining.introduction

The sampling method used for the teacher was simple random sampling. Vocational college selection was categorised by zones. Then, two vocational colleges were selected for each zone through simple random sampling to obtain the teaching staff sample. The simple random sampling was selected on the sample of the teaching staff because this method was fairer to the population. Therefore, the sample of the teaching staff involved in this study was 106 Electronic Technology teaching staff at vocational colleges.

This study has been conducted using the quantitative method. The questionnaires were used as an instrument for data collection and the data were analysed using descriptive analysis. The results of the study were reported in percentage and mean.

students’ academic excellence and teachers’ teaching methods (Hamdan & Mohd Yasin, 2010; Ilias, Husain, Noh, Rashed & Abdullah, 2016 ). In short, literatures and studies indicate that students’ learning session can be improved by applying appropriate teaching aids during the lesson.

2. Research methodology

There were two groups of sampling involved in this study, students group and teachers group. Student samples were selected using the stratified random sampling method. The vocational college selection was categorised by zones consisting of Southern Zone, Eastern Zone, Central Zone, Northern Zone, Sabah Zone and Sarawak Zone. The stratified random sampling was chosen for the student samples because this type of sample is most suitable for the zone, state, division, and district based studies or sample selection based on several categories (Yusri, Rahimi, Shah, Abdul Majid & Wah, 2012). According to the enrolment, the total number of Electronic Technology students in the third semester of second year at Malaysia vocational colleges in 2019 is 1,118 students (Malaysia Ministry of Education, 2019) Hence, a suitable sample size according to Krejcie and Morgan (1970) is no less than 291 students. Thus, the total student sample of this study was fixed at 360 students, which was more than the sample size proposed by Krejcie and Morgan (1970).

2.1 Research sampling

Therefore, this research have been conducted to study the frequency and quality teaching aids used by Malaysian vocational college teachers in the Electronic Technology programme, specifically on the EHRM Course. Other than that, this study is also conducted to identify which technological and online based teaching aids were used by Malaysian vocational college teachers. This is because, according tostudies conductedbyprevious researchers, the use of technological tools andICT in teaching enables to improve the students’ understanding on the concepts that have been taught (Mohd Hashim & Abubakar, 2017), diversifies learning activities (Hasnuddin, Norfaizuryana & Nor Azzarahton, 2015), positively impacts students’ attitude, motivation and achievement (Iberahim, Mahamod & Man Mohammad, 2017), as well as improves students’ performance, knowledge and skills (Higgs, Barnett, Billett, Hutchings & Trede, 2013). Therefore, this study is necessary to ensure the teaching staff at VC are not left behind in applying technology related TA to enhance the effectiveness of teaching and learning.

2.2 Research instrument

2.3 Validity and reliability

The validity and reliability of the instrument are intended to maintain the precision of the instrument (Dimopoulos, Paraskevopoulos & Pantis, 2009). Therefore, the validity of the instrument was performed by five experts who were appointed for the purpose of face and content validity. The selection of five experts was in accordance with the suggestions given by Makki, Khalick, and Boujoude (2003) and Dimopoulos, Paraskevopoulos, and Pantis (2009) in which they asserted that at least three experts in the field of expertise are needed for verification of item content. Thus, the number of specialists selected was more than three. The specialists selected were educational technology specialist, technical and vocational education specialist, electrical and electronic engineering specialist and language specialist. The expertise of the specialists was also taken into account based on their experience of more than 10 years in their own field. A pilot study had to be conducted to identify reliability of the questionnaire used in this study. The pilot questionnaire will be evaluated on its reliability as to whetherthequestionnaire is suitable forthe actualstudy, orvice versa. According to Hair and his colleagues (2016), the expected reliability value and Cronbach's Alpha is > 0.7, while 0.6 is still considered. A pilot study of the student questionnaire was conducted at a vocational college in the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur involving 50 Electronic Technology students who had previously taken the EHRM course. Meanwhile, a pilot study for the teaching staff questionnaire was conducted at four separate vocational colleges from a separate zone. Therefore, the total number of teaching personnel from the four vocational colleges is 51. The selection of the four vocational colleges for the pilot study of the teaching staff questionnaire was due to the fact that each VC has less than 10 teaching staff teaching Electronic Technology. The total samples of the pilot study for both forms of the survey are based on the suggestion given by Johanson and Brooks (2010) who stated the total sample number of a pilot study must not be less than 30. A result from pilot study show that The Cronbach’s alpha value for the student questionnaire was 0.802 and for the teaching staff questionnaire was 0.804. Since Cronbach’s alpha value was larger than 7.0, the questionnaire has been proved reliable to be used for the actual study study.

The instrument used in this study consisted of two sets of questionnaires for students and teachers of the Electronic Technology programme. The contents of the items in both surveys are the same. The instrument was adapted with consent from the previous researcher, Burhan (2016). Questionnaireitems forstudents and the teaching staff were constructed using the five point Likert scale as shown in Table 1. Table 1. Five-point Likert scale Likert Classification 1 Never 2 Rarely (Once in 6 weeks) 3 Sometimes (Once in 4 weeks) 4 Often (Once in 2 weeks) 5 Very Often (Every week)

A total of 454 student questionnaires and 113 teaching staff questionnaires was distributed in the actual study. However, only 360 student questionnaire forms were required, while for the teaching staff questionnaire forms, only 106 were completed and returned. Accordingly, a total of 466 student and teaching staff questionnaires was processed and analysed using the ‘Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 25.0’

The data were analysed using descriptive analysis. According to Sekaran and Bougie (2016), descriptive statistics can be used to describe an ongoing phenomenon. Hence, the researchers used the Statistical Packages for Social Sciences Version 25.0 (SPSS) software to identify the frequency and the usage level of teaching aids during EHRM Course teaching and learning session. The results of the studies are reported in the form of percentage and mean. For this purpose, the mean interpretation used is shown in Table 2 Table 2. Interpretation of mean range value Mean Score Level 1.00 to 2.33 Low 2.34 to 3.67 Moderate 3.68 to 5.00 High Source: Wiersma (2000) 2.5 Result Table 3 shows the percentage and level of teaching aids used in EHRM classes based on the students’ perceptions. The table shows that printed materials had the highest usage with a mean score of 4.56. In addition, the use of technological based teaching aids, including LCD projectors and computers, also showed high levels of usage among the Electronic Technology teachers, each with a mean score of 3.91 and 3.77, respectively. The level of usage on teaching aids, including roller boards, models, televisions, radios and actual equipment, was at the moderate level with each having mean scores of 3.53, 3.44, 3.27, 3.23 and 3.21, respectively. Judging by the usage percentage, these teaching aids have a percentage value of less than 47.3% in the categories of frequent and most frequently used. The study also found that magnetic boards was less popular to be used in the teaching and learning of the EHRM course with a mean score of 1.22 and 77.8% of those who responded rated the magnetic board as ‘never used’. This was followed by game materials, flash cards, charts, compact discs, transparencies, websites, pictures and overhead projectors (OHP) which also had low usage levels, each with mean scores of 1.40, 1.54, 1.74, 2.03, 2.04, 2.28, 2.32 and 2.33, respectively. Meanwhile, the usage frequency percentage of these teaching aids did not exceed 10.

. The Cronbach’s alpha value of the student questionnaire in the actual study was 0.71 and for the teaching staff questionnaire was 0.78 2.4 Data analysis

181 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 3. Mean and percentage of teaching aids usage based on student perception No Item Score (%) Mean Level 1 2 3 4 5 1 materialsPrinted 1.1 1.9 6.7 20.6 69.7 4.56 High 2 Writing boards 1.1 1.7 6.1 25.8 65.3 4.53 High 3 LCD projectors 2.8 4.2 20.3 45.0 27.8 3.91 High 4 Computers 1.9 6.4 25.0 45.8 20.8 3.77 High 5 Roller boards 0 0.3 52.5 41.7 5.6 3.53 Moderate 6 Models 3.9 13.9 28.3 42.5 11.4 3.44 Moderate 7 Televisions 0 5.8 61.4 32.8 0 3.27 Moderate 8 Radios 0 9.7 59.4 29.4 1.4 3.23 Moderate 9 equipmentActual 0 10.0 60.8 27.5 1.7 3.21 Moderate 10 (OHP)projectorsOverhead 21.7 34.7 34.4 7.5 1.7 2.33 Low 11 Pictures 17.8 46.1 23.9 10.8 1.4 2.32 Low 12 Websites 1.7 69.2 28.9 0.3 0 2.28 Low 13 Transparencies 33.9 42.8 11.1 9.7 2.5 2.04 Low 14 Compact Discs 29.7 45.0 18.3 6.4 0.6 2.03 Low 15 Charts 43.6 41.1 13.3 1.1 0.8 1.74 Low 16 Flash cards 55.3 37.8 5.0 1.7 0.3 1.54 Low 17 Game materials 70.0 22.5 5.8 0.8 0.8 1.40 Low 18 boardsMagnetic 77.8 22.2 0 0 0 1.22 Low Overall Mean 2.79 Moderate Note: 1: Never 2: Rarely 3: Sometimes 4: Often 5: Very Often N=360 As a comparison, Table 4 shows the frequency and level of teaching aids usage based on the teachers’ perception. The table indicates that the teaching aid with the highest usage level was the writing board with a mean score of 4.38 and a high usage frequency percentage of 90.6% in the categories of ‘often’ and ‘very often’. In addition, the use of technological based teaching aids, including computers, LCD Projectors, radios, and televisions also indicated a high level of use among the teaching staff of Electronic Technology andwith a usage frequency percentage of over 70%. In addition, the usage level of learning materials, such as actual equipment, models, pictures, roller boards, and charts, was moderate with each having mean scores of 3.33, 3.15, 3.11, 2.93 and 2.63, respectively. The magnetic boards’ usage was less popular to be applied in EHRM course, with the level of usage was only at a mean score of 1.17 and this TA also had a high percentage of 86.8% of never been used. This finding is similar to the finding from the students’ analysis that the use of magnetic boards was the lowest used by teachers in EHRM course. Meanwhile, transparencies, overhead projectors (OHP), compact discs, flash cards, websites and game materials were among the lowest used TA with each having mean scores of 1.48, 1.75, 1.93, 2.02, 2.03 and 2.15, respectively. In

182 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. conclusion, the level of teachingaidsusedin EHRM course classes is at a moderate level based on the students’ and teachers’ perception. Table 4. Mean and percentage of teaching aids usage based on teachers’ perception No Item Score (%) Mean Level 1 2 3 4 5 1 Writing boards 0 0 9.4 43.4 47.2 4.38 High 2 Computers 0.9 1.9 9.4 35.8 51.9 4.36 High 3 LCDprojectors 0 0.9 15.1 38.7 45.3 4.28 High 4 materialsPrinted 0 0 21.7 69.8 8.5 3.87 High 5 Radios 0 0 27.4 59.4 13.2 3.86 High 6 Televisions 0 0 30.2 56.6 13.2 3.83 High 7 equipmentActual 0 4.7 59.4 34.0 1.9 3.33 Moderate 8 Models 7.5 16.0 38.7 29.2 8.5 3.15 Moderate 9 Pictures 15.1 15.1 27.4 28.3 14.2 3.11 Moderate 10 Roller boards 0 29.2 50.0 18.9 1.9 2.93 Moderate 11 Charts 17.9 27.4 33.0 17.0 4.7 2.63 Moderate 12 materialsGame 37.7 25.5 23.6 10.4 2.8 2.15 Low 13 Websites 16.0 65.1 18.9 0 0 2.03 Low 14 Flash cards 46.2 20.8 20.8 9.4 2.8 2.02 Low 15 Compact Discs 47.2 23.6 18.9 9.4 0.9 1.93 Low 16 (OHP)projectorsOverhead 61.3 16.0 10.4 11.3 9 1.75 Low 17 Transparencies 71.7 15.1 8.5 2.8 1.9 1.48 Low 18 boardsMagnetic 86.8 9.4 3.8 0 0 1.17 Low Overall Mean 2.89 Moderate Note: 1: Never 2: Rarely 3: Sometimes 4: Often 5: Very Often N=360 In order to clearly compare teaching aids used in the EHRM course based on the students’ and teachers’ perception, Figure 1 shows both groups of respondents’ mean score using the bar chart. Based on the graph, there is no significant difference between the results of the analysis obtained from the students and the teaching staff in regard of types of teaching aids used in their EHRM course teaching and learning.

This study has discovered that printed materials were the most frequently used teaching aids by the teachers based on students’ perceptions. The findings of this study are in line with the findings of Hamdan and Mohd Yasin (2010), who found that the use of printed materials had a high level of usage among teachers of technical schools in the district of Johor, Malaysia. However, there is a difference in the perceptions of the teachers in which writing boards were most frequently used in teaching and learning of the EHRM course. This finding is consistent with Ashaver and Igayuve (2013), who found that writing boards are the only significant teaching material used by lecturers at Katsina Ala College of Education in Nigeria. Nevertheless, both teaching materials are still the highest used teaching aids in terms of the frequency of use in the EHRM course.

According to Hamdan and Mohd Yasin (2010) regarding the use of printed materials, the highest frequency of this teaching aid is because they are easier, simpler and time saving to prepare as, normally, the printing job is done by office assistants in schools. In addition, the attitude of some of the teaching staff who refuse to make changes in their teaching and learning process also contributes to the increased use of printed materials, as they prefer to use existing learning materials without having to innovate their teaching and learning session.

Figure 1. Comparison of teaching aids used in the EHRM course based on the students’ and teachers’ perception

Likewise, with the use of writing boards, whereby the teaching staff prefer to use them as they are always available in the lecture rooms or classrooms.

3. Discussion

Mean Score of Teaching Aids Used in EHRM Classes Based on Student and Teacher Perception

According to Zulkifli, Mohammad Hussain, Abd Wahid, and Che Rus (2019), teaching and learning in vocational courses were expected to be conducted using the 21st century teaching and learning activities which focused on student based learning supported by sufficient technologies. The 21st century teaching and learning also requires teachers to be competent in computer usage because 21st century learning involves the use of the internet in the teaching and learning. Hence, this study shows that the use of technological based teaching aids, including computers and LCD projectors, among the Electronic Technology teaching staff has a high level of usage based on the students’ and teaching staff’s perceptions. This shows that the teaching staff at vocational colleges are ready for 21st century learning. However, this does not imply that the Electronic Technology teachers practising 21st century learning in their class as the findings on the use of websites in the EHRM Course are at a low level. Thus, the frequent use of computers and LCD projectors in the teaching and learning of the EHRM course is likely due to the teaching staff preferring to use PowerPoint slides in their teaching and learning activities. In the meantime, the use of overhead projectors, transparencies, magnetic boards, compact discs, flash cards and game materials recorded low levels of use by the Electronic Technology teachers at vocational colleges. Among those teaching aids, magnetic boards had the lowest usage level in the teaching and learning activities. It is possible that the teaching staff are not interested in this teaching aid, or there are vocational colleges that still do not provide this teaching aid as there is not any need in their teaching Theactivities.result

Meanwhile, the use of roller boards, models, pictures, charts and actual equipment recorded a moderate usage level by students and the teaching staff of Electronic Technology. This is in proportion to the studies of Shya (2004) and Hamdan and Mohd Yasin (2010) which shows that the level of teaching aids used was at a moderate level achieved by the respondents in their studies of technical teachers at a technical secondary school. Moreover, the use of television and radio is also at a moderate level based on students’ perceptions. On the contrary, the use of television and radio is at a high level from the teachers’ perceptions. This is because the EHRM course has topics related to television and radio receivers that require the teaching staff to use them as a student practical activity.

of the study also indicates that the level of teaching aids usage among the Electronic Technology teachers at vocational colleges is still moderate. The findings of this study are in line those obtained from Hamdan and Mohd Yasin (2010), who carried out a study on the use of learning materials by technical teachers at a technical secondary school in Johor Bahru. This situation indicates that the level of use of teaching aids among vocational teachers is still at a moderate level, despite the transformation of vocational secondary schools since 2012. Therefore, it is advisable for the relevant authorities to take action so that the use of technological teaching aids among vocational teachers can be further enhanced; this is in line with the current educational developments in order to have a better impact on student learning. As a suggestion, an immediate step that can be taken to encourage the use of technological-based teaching aids, such as computers and the internet, as the

5. Acknowledgement

This research study was supported by the 2018 Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Inovation Research Grant. The title of the study is “The Development of Self centered Arduino Microprocessor Learning Module for Minor Students in Design and Technology Program, FTV” (2018 0177 107 01).

4. Conclusions In conclusion, although the conventional teaching aids, including writing board and printed materials, are still popular in the Electronic Hardware Repair and Maintenance class setting, there were several technological teaching aids being widely used in this course, which are radios, televisions, computers and LCD projectors. However, the most important finding of the study is the fact that the use of online material, such as websites, in the EHRM course is still at a low level. This finding indicates that vocational teachers are still not in line with the latest trend of technological teaching aids in a 21st century classroom which utilise the online media as a source of information, teaching activities as well as a new way of students teacher interaction. Hence, the use of technological based teaching aids should be heightened, especially the use of the internet, in teaching and learning to make learning more interesting and effective in enhancing student learning outcomes in the EHRM course. Other than that, vocational college teachers need to be exposed to adequate training to ensure they are skilled in the new methods of teaching and learning use of the latest technology tools, and diversifying their teaching methods. These are to ensure that students learning session in EHRM course can be effectively implemented

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185 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. current learning trend is based on web 2.0 technology which requires teachers and students to apply ICT in their teaching and learning. In the context of this study, the findings show that computer usage is at a high level, while internet use, such as web usage, is still at a low level. This situation gives the impression that the Electronic Technology teachers at vocational colleges have yet to fully implement learning based on the web 2.0 technology. Therefore, a study needs to be conducted to look at the level of internet access facilities at the Malaysian Ministry of Education’s vocational colleges, as well as the level of acceptance of students and the teaching staff in applying the web 2.0 technology in the teaching and learning of the EHRM course.

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Appendix 1

Appendix 2

©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. 189 International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 189 203, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.20207.11 Effect of Small Private Online Course (SPOC) on Students’ Achievement in Pre-University Chemistry Husna Izzati Muhamad Shahbani and Salleh Abd Rashid Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5148 5173 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 9402 7858 Muhamad Shahbani Abu Bakar, Jastini Mohd Jamil and Izwan Nizal Mohd Shaharanee Universiti Utara Malaysia, Kedah, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0389 2908 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6262 6223 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3566 7257 Abstract The purpose of this study is to identify the effect of Small Private Online Course (SPOC) on the students’ achievement in chemistry subject at the pre university level. For this purpose, three types of learning series were designed, which are Learning Series One, Learning achievementjustifyingsubjectrandomlywereTwodifferentSeriesSeriesTwo,andLearningSeriesThree.LearningSeriesOneandLearningTwocomprisedoffacetoface(F2F)learningandSPOCinaorderwhileLearningSeriesThreeconsistsofF2Flearningonly.experimentalgroupsandacontrolgroupinvolved66studentswhostudyingchemistrysubjectatapreuniversitycollegewereselected.Theylearnedthechemicalbondingtopicofthefortwelveweeksusingtheassignedlearningseries.Afterthereliabilityandvalidity,thepretestandposttestsforhavebeenusedasresearchinstrumentsfor students’ assessment of achievement in the different groups. The study outcomes show that there is a significant difference among different learning series in the achievement test scores in favour of Learning Series One, which initially implemented SPOC followed by F2F learning. Based on the results obtained, the researcher recommended that SPOC has to be introduced and widely implemented in teaching Chemistry subject at the effectivenesstheofmatriculationcollegeasitproducedapositiveimpactontheachievementthestudents.MorestudieshavetobecarriedoutforothersubjectsinfutureusingSPOCfortheteachingandlearningprocessastheoftheonlinelearninghasbeenprovedbytheliterature Keywords: Online Learning; Learning Series; Achievement; Chemistry

Teaching science subjects is a demanding task because it involves the requirement of manipulation of science concepts and the visualisation of the elements. The abstract, scientific, or spatial nature of science concepts limit students’ understanding (Botella, Peñalver & Borrás, 2018). Students struggle to understand abstract concepts and visualise the invisible science concepts (Cardellini, 2012; Awan & Khan, 2013; Knudtson, 2015). Consequently, the teaching and learning process in science should be improved to allow the students to have a better understanding of the science concepts. This problem can be solved using a few teaching methods such as blended learning and online tools, as suggested by educators (Siew Eng & Muuk, 2015). Previous studies show only a small number of learning implementations in the digital ecosystem at matriculation colleges in Malaysia (Razak & See, 2010; Misran, Abd.Aziz, Arsad, Hussain, Zaki & Sahuri, 2012; Khan & Masood, 2014; Ping & Maniam, 2015). To date, the students still attend tutorials, and they remain as passive listeners while the teacher is delivering the content. The scholars in the field of education affirmed that F2F learning is not the most effective method in the current educational field anymore (Sung, Chang & Liu, 2016). In order to make the most of academic opportunities for this generation, novice and veteran university instructors provide a collective response to the use of technology in learning (Mohr & Mohr, 2017). The increasing number of implementations of blended learning in academic institutions resulted in improved student performance (Olelewe & Agomuo, 2016; Asarta & Schmidt, 2017; Chen, Breslow & DeBoer, 2018; McCutcheon, O’Halloran & Lohan, 2018). This approach is believed to provide the students with additional support throughout knowledge development (Boelens, Voet & De Wever, 2018). One of the responses is a twenty first century learning model such as blended learning and Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) (Mullen et al., 2017; Baragash & Al Samarraie, 2018).

Twenty first century learning models are essential for the students because the variation of online tools and activities can help satisfy their differences in learning styles (Carter, Hanna & Warry, 2016). Due to the fact that twenty first century learning models use ICT as a learning platform thus, open access platforms such as MOOC and SPOC appear to be the ideal learning approach (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2016; Fox, 2013). SPOC has the features to fit the pre university students more in this study as a smaller scale of students were assigned into groups of classes with a private instructor scheduled according to student availability compared to MOOC (Fox, 2013; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2016) which provides open access via the web for a massive amount of participants. Both MOOC and blended learning promote active learning for science subjects such as chemistry because both methods included a virtual laboratory and short lecture videos interspersed with short quizzes (O’Malley, Agger & Anderson, 2015). Active learning is effective in enhancing student engagement and learning, which is able to improve student achievement and attitude (Hakimzadeh, Hakimzadeh & Batzinger, 2011). A recent report showed that collaborative learning made the students performed better than individual learning in a F2F

190 1. Introduction

1. There is no significant difference between students’ achievement using SPOC, followed by F2F learning (Learning Series One) compared to students’ achievement using F2F learning, followed by SPOC (Learning Series Two).

Connectivism theory was proposed by Siemens (2005), who interprets learning occurs through connections within networks. This learning theory, along with behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism was applied in this research. The combination of these learning theories provides information on the facilitation and instructional design involving technology such as computer mediated tools in implementing blended learning and fully online learning (Bell, 2011; Picciano, SPOC2017) phenomenon, which originates from this theory, was used in this research as a platform for student learning. SPOC is chosen over other online platforms because the instructors can monitor the learning structures and activities according to the learning outcomes (Swigart & Liang, 2016) at the same time allows the students to learn at their own pace and time (Patru & Balaji, 2016).

2. There is no significant difference between students’ achievement using SPOC, followed by F2F learning (Learning Series One) compared to students’ achievement using F2F learning only (Learning Series Three).

2. Literature Review

3. Is there any significant difference between students’ achievement using F2F learning, followed by SPOC (Learning Series Two) compared to students’ achievement using F2F learning only (Learning Series Three)?

3. There is no significant difference between students’ achievement using F2F learning, followed by SPOC (Learning Series Two) compared to students’ achievement using F2F learning only (Learning Series Three).

Consequently, in order to facilitate online learning effectively, the instructor must act by the recommended Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework (Koehler & Mishra, 2009). The framework addresses the teachers’ capabilities in manipulating pedagogy and using technology to teach specific subject content. Thus, while applying other traditional learning theories along with connectivism, integrating pedagogy, technology, and content knowledge appears to support the current teaching and learning process (Padmavathi, 2017).

191 environment (Lin, Yen & Wang 2018). This study aims to identify the effect of different learning series using SPOC and F2F learning on the students’ achievement. Based on the literature review, the current work aims to address the following questions:

2. Is there any significant difference between students’ achievement using SPOC followed by F2F learning (Learning Series One) compared to students’ achievement using F2F learning only (Learning Series Three)?

Consequently, the following two hypotheses can be introduced:

1. Is there any significant difference between students’ achievement using SPOC followed by F2F learning (Learning Series One) compared to students’ achievement using F2F learning followed by SPOC (Learning Series Two)?

192 Chemistry students in Malaysia face problems in learning the subject (Khan & Masood, 2014). Studies show that most students did not enjoy their learning environment during the lab session, tutorials, or lectures. Thus, the students who had the same problem may seek help from their course mates and discuss it with them (Khan & Masood, 2014). Lack of understanding while learning new knowledge can result in misunderstandings and misconceptions (Üce & Ceyhan, 2019). Another research on matriculation program in Malaysia conducted by Misran et al. (2012) illustrated the approaches used by the lecturers of the matriculation college have a significant influence on the performance and academic achievement of the students. Therefore, teaching and learning methods, especially for science subjects, should be improved. Asarta and Schmidt (2017) compared the achievement of students between blended learning and traditional approach. The students who experiencedflipped and flexible instructional strategies achieved higher than the students in the conventional approach. A study made by Olelewe and Agomuo (2016) also shows the same effect of blended learning on the students’ achievement. In the same vein, the data obtained in a study by Chen, Breslow, and DeBoer (2018) indicated that the students who utilise computer based feedback and self regulation methods have higher performance in science courses. This type of feedback leads to effective study strategies and significantly predicts higher achievement. Both papers published by McCutcheon, O’Halloran & Lohan (2018) and Baragash & Al Samarraie (2018) share the same variables. They compared the effects of blended learning and online teaching approach on the students’ achievement. McCutcheon, O’Halloran & Lohan (2018) found that the students who received training via blended learning have higher achievement in knowledge. Baragash and Al Samarraie (2018) found out that combining multiple delivery modes in their study, which were F2F learning, learning management system based learning, and web based learning (WBL) gave positive effect on students’ achievement. Thus, the online approach is proven to be effective for science education compared with the traditional approach.

Some studies show the effect of MOOC on the students’ performance. Velázquez (2017) examined student performance when using MOOC compared to a F2F course. The study indicated an improvement in the students’ performance when using MOOC for the learning process. The interaction between the students and the instructor promoted the students’ critical thinking and social skills. Thus, they had a better appreciation for knowledge. Majority of MOOC participants, around 72% of those surveyed agreed that they joined MOOC because it appeared to be fascinating and a great way to gain new knowledge (Abeer & Miri, 2014). Guo, Kim, and Rubin (2014) determined the influence of video towards engagement with MOOC using video analytics and interviews. The results showed that the students were more engaged in MOOC when it consisted of short videos. Vaibhav & Gupta (2014) investigated the students’ interest in learning when using games. The study involved two course groups, one with games using edX platform and another with no game resulting in the number of succeeding students increased, and the failing number decreased. Besides, Israel (2015) carried out a study on the effectiveness of integrating MOOC in the F2F learning environment for

An experimental research method in which three independent variables were examined to determine the effects on a dependent variable with pre test and post tests, three group design were adopted. The independent variables in this research are three learning series, which consist of F2F learning and SPOC, while the dependent variable is students’ achievement. An appropriate sampling technique for this study was used in which the samples were selected by cluster sampling. When the population is large, cluster sampling is most useful because it is difficult to acquire a list of all members of the population (Gay & Airasian, 2003). Therefore, by using cluster sampling, three groups studying chemistry subjects were selected from a pre university college in Malaysia for the present study. The study samples in those three groups consisted of 66 students in total. A control group, experimental group one, and experimental group two were assigned to be treated differently. The study samples comprised of 21 students in experimental group one, 26 students in experimental group two, and 19 students in a control group based on actual classes in selected samples. The distribution of students in groups is shown in Table 1

Experimental Group One One (SPOC followed by F2F) 21 Experimental Group Two Two (F2F followed by SPOC) 26 Control Group (F2FThreeonly) 19

3. Methodology

Table 1: Distribution of Students on Groups Group Learning Series Number of Students

The researcher allocated three groups of students for a control group and two experimental groups according to the combination of delivery methods experienced by the students, also known as learning series. Learning Series One experienced by experimental group one students was a combination of SPOC followed by F2F learning while Learning Series Two, which experienced by experimental group two students was a mixture of F2F learning followed by SPOC. The delivery method, which consisted of F2F learning only was named Learning Series Three, experienced by students in the control group. The flow of the learning series is visualised in Figure 1.

193 undergraduate students, which revealed that most studies reported modest beneficial impacts in integrating MOOC in F2F classrooms. An improved version of MOOC called SPOC (Fox, 2013) facilitates a small scale of the online course, allowing students to have a more detailed and in depth learning experience (Zhang, Yu, Yang, Feng, Lyu & Xu, 2019). The main objective of SPOC is to administer students with a customised learning experience to improve their learning performances, reduce dropout rates, and give a profoundly adaptable learning condition (De Carvalho Junior, Robles, De la Serna & Rivas, 2019; Petersen & Gundersen, 2019). By implementing SPOC, researchers would like to determine the effect of SPOC on the students’ achievement at the pre university level, particularly in Chemistry subject in Malaysia

The instructor informed the students about the meeting schedules throughout the research. A briefing on how to use online tools was given to the students in the experimental groups. The learning equipment used for SPOC in this study was Google Classroom, as shown in Appendix 1. The instructor uploaded the learning outcomes for each subtopic on the Google Classroom before the teaching and learning session started, as presented in Appendix 2. Along with the online learning session, learning materials such as notes and educational videos were also provided. Meanwhile, the control group was provided with a hard copy of notes, the course learning outcomes, learning objectives, and the course outline.

The chemical bonding topic was selected in this study. It was taught by a full time chemistry lecturer from the college for all learning series. The online class covered the same materials as the F2F class but was conducted using SPOC via Google Classroom. Online students were expected to spend as much time learning as their peers on the F2F. The cognitive domain of the students was focused on this research for measuring the students’ achievements. Using Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy, the topic for achievement test involved level two (understand) in lower level cognitive skills and level three (apply) in higher order cognitive skills (Stanny, 2016). There were several subjective questions for the achievement test, as shown in Appendix 3. The questions developed were based on and matched the learning outcomes of the topic. All questions were adapted from the past year questions and verified by the subject matter expert of the chemistry subject. The achievement pre test was held during the first week of the experiment, and all students took the post tests after each different method done by the instructor to check on their level of knowledge of the content. The marks were analysed to determine the students’ achievement. There were four sets of achievement tests; pre test, post test one, post test two and post test three. The time required for the students to answer the test was one hour. Prior to the implementation, the achievement test was given to a pilot sample comprising 25 students who were not included in the experimental or control group. The pilot study aimed to validate the time required for the students to answer all questions and clarify the questions and instructions. In order to verify the validity of the achievement test, the questions and marks allocated for each question were submitted with the course learning outcomes, teaching plans and the contents of the topic to the subject matter experts of the chemistry subjects from the college for their advice and comments regarding the suitability and clarity of test questions. Table 2 illustrates the delivery and assessment process for the implementation of this study to identify the effects of different learning series on the students’ achievements

LearningSeriesOne (ExperimentalGroupone) LearningSeriesTwo (ExperimentalGroupTwo) LearningSeriesThree (ExperimentalGroupThree) (4SPOCweeks) F2F (4weeks) IndependentLearning(12weeks) (4SPOCweeks)F2F (4weeks) IndependentLearning(12weeks) F2F (4weeks) F2F (4weeks) IndependentLearning(12weeks)

Pretest (1hour) SPOC (3hours) SPOC (3hours) SPOC (3hours) Post test1 (1hour) F2F (3hours) F2F (3hours) F2F (3hours) Post test2 (1hour) Post test3 (1hour) IndependentLearning(18hours)

Learning Series Three GuidedLearningandAssessments(22hours)

Learning SeriesOne GuidedLearningandAssessments(22hours)

Pretest (1hour) Post test1 (1hour) F2F (3hours) F2F (3hours) F2F (3hours) Post test2 (1hour) SPOC (3hours) SPOC (3hours) SPOC (3hours) Post test3 (1hour) IndependentLearning(18hours)

Learning SeriesTwo GuidedLearningandAssessments(22hours)

Pretest (1hour) F2F (3hours) F2F (3hours) F2F (3hours) Post test1 (1hour) F2F (3hours) F2F (3hours) F2F (3hours) Post test2 (1hour) Post test3 (1hour) IndependentLearning(18hours)

4. Results

For experimental group one, the students experienced Learning Series One, which consists of SPOC followed by F2F. The students in experimental group two experienced Learning Series Two, which delivery methods were initially F2F learning followed by SPOC. Meanwhile, the control group students only encountered the F2F teaching method, which is known as Learning Series Three.

The pre test and three post tests were conducted for all 66 students (both control and experimental groups). The quantitative research method was used to collect the data about the effects of different learning series on the students’ achievements. The achievement test is a method used for the collection of data. The use of Google Classroom as the SPOC platform for the online learning environment was important for this study to determine the students’ achievement. The data information for achievement tests was collected by referring to the students’ marks for their test. A specific amount of time was given for the students to complete the test. The marks for the achievement test of every student were recorded and analysed. All research subjects’ names and personal information such as email addresses, were kept confidential with identities only known to the researcher. The pre test and post tests data wereentered in the SPSS (Statistical Package of Social Sciences) for analysis were presented in the results section. In this study, each experimental group was treated with different learning series, and the achievement of the students was measured with a pre test and post tests. The independent t test was used to identify any significant difference at the 0.05 level of confidence between the experimental groups with the students’ achievements.

Learning Series/Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

The graph in Figure 2 shows the mean marks in the percentage of pre and post achievement tests for the three learning series. What stands out in this graph is the continual increase in the marks of the students’ achievement for all learning series. It reveals that the marks scored by the students were improved after each

Figure 2: Mean Marks Percentage of Different Learning Series

Table 3: Pre Achievement Test Mean Percentage Learning Series N Mean DeviationStd. Std.MeanError Min Max One (SPOCbyfollowedF2F) 21 6.0317 6.6348 1.4478 0.00 13.33 Two (F2F followed by SPOC) 26 0.2564 1.3074 0.2564 0.00 6.67 (F2FThreeonly) 19 0.3509 1.5294 0.0526 0.00 6.67

The data in Table 3 shows the statistic results of the pre achievement test of the students. The mean percentage of pre achievement tests of all students in the three learning series is less than 10%. This data proves that the students did not have much knowledge about this topic as they had never learned it before enrolling in this course. Table 3 and Table 4 indicate that each strategy has had a positive impact on academic achievement, as all post test means have higher values than pre test means.

Meanwhile, Table 4 illustrates the statistic results of the post achievement tests of the students within the same groups. The means of post test one, post test two, and post test three for each learning series are shown in Table 5. It can be noticed that the values of the mean of Learning Series One are higher than Learning Series Two, followed by Learning Series Three.

196 achievement test. The percentage marks of each student for the pre test and all post tests are shown in Appendix 4.

©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. 197 Table 4: Post Achievement Tests Mean Percentage TestPost LearningSeries N Mean DeviationStd. Std.MeanError Min Max One One 21 37.2024 11.6049 2.5324 18.75 56.25 Two 26 29.8077 12.2866 2.4096 18.75 62.25 Three 19 29.9342 12.4267 2.8509 6.25 68.75 Two One 21 48.2993 19.2863 4.2086 14.29 78.57 Two 26 42.8571 12.9363 2.5370 7.14 57.14 Three 19 40.6015 19.2036 4.4056 7.14 78.57 Three One 21 77.6786 20.0167 4.3680 25.00 100.00 Two 26 77.4038 20.1616 3.9540 37.50 100.00 Three 19 68.4211 18.5725 4.2608 31.25 93.75 Table 5: All Post Achievement Tests Mean Percentage Learning Series N Mean DeviationStd. Std.MeanError Min Max One (SPOC followed by F2F) 21 54.3934 12.43816 2.71423 19.35 78.27 Two (F2F followed by SPOC) 26 50.0229 10.89657 2.13699 21.13 73.13 (F2FThreeonly) 19 46.3189 11.67360 2.67811 14.88 80.36 Table 6 shows that there is no significant difference of the students’ achievement of the means of Learning Series One and two as well as Learning Series Two and three at (0.05) meanwhile a comparison of both Learning Series One and Learning Series Three shows a significant difference of due to the different learning methods. Table 6: Comparison of Achievement Marks Between Different Learning Series LearningSeries DifferenceMean Std. DifferenceError t df Sig. OneTwoand 4.37053 18.63951 .234 4 .206 TwoThreeand 1.43725 .94225 1.525 4 .280 OneThreeand 8.07450 16.65593 .485 4 .041 5. Discussion The findings of this study were discussed in detail, considering the research questions and hypotheses. The first research question is, “Is there any significant difference between students’ achievement using SPOC followed by F2F learning (Learning Series One) compared to students’ achievement using F2F learning followed by SPOC (Learning Series Two)?”. No significant difference in the students’ achievement of the means of Learning Series One and two at (0.05), as shown in Table 6, indicates the same delivery methods but in different order did

Based on the results of this research, a higher mean of achievement in Learning Series One and Learning Series Two compared to Learning Series Three shows that learning using online tools can be more effective than F2F. A literature review conducted showed that the implementation of MOOC in traditional classrooms has beneficial results on students (Israel, 2015). Students became more engaged with MOOC as it consisted of shorter videos, casual talk head videos, and Khan style videos (Guo, Kim & Rubin, 2014).

198 not result in any difference in the students’ achievement. This result suggests that the first hypothesis can be accepted. This result also agrees well with existing studies by De Carvalho Junior et al. (2019), which indicated that there was no statistically significant difference in terms of usability between students enrolled in SPOC compared to MOOC as both platforms are online learning platforms.

Although the data shows no significant difference between Learning Series Two and Learning Series Three, the students’ achievement in Learning Series Two was higher than Learning Series Three. The content model of SPOC proposed by

data in Table 6 revealed a non significant trend of the students’ achievement among Learning Series Two and Learning Series Three. It means that although both learning series used different learning approaches, there is no significant difference in the students’ achievement among both learning series. In terms of the studies to date, the data obtained in several papers reported that there was no significant difference of the students’ achievement acquired even though different delivery methods were used during the teaching and learning process (Kemp & Grieve, 2014; Harwood, McDonald, Butler, Drago & Schlumpf, 2018; Paul & Jefferson, 2019; Thompson & McDowell, 2019). The findings of the present study contradict the significant number of studies that obtained differences in students’ achievement across these settings (Baragash & Al Samarraie, 2018; Chen, Breslow & DeBoer, 2018; McCutcheon, O’Halloran & Lohan, 2018).

Referring to the second research question which state “Is there any significant difference between students’ achievement using a SPOC followed by F2F learning (Learning Series One) compared to students’ achievement using F2F learning only (Learning Series Three)?” , the result in Table 6 illustrates that there is a significant difference between Learning Series One and Learning Series Three, which supports the data in Table 5 that shows a higher mean percentage for Learning Series One compared to Learning Series Three. It may be explained by the different methods used in both learning series. Learning Series One, which comprised a mixture of SPOC and F2F environment, produced better results in the students’ achievement than Learning Series Three, which only used F2F learning as the delivery method. Such finding is also seen in a recent report by Velázquez (2017), who examined the student performance when using MOOC compared to F2F learning. The study indicated that there was an improvement in the students’ performance when using MOOC for the learning process due to the mixture of pedagogies, which consists of online tools is more effective than using only one. Besides, higher mean scores in blended learning compared to F2F in Science, Technology, Mathematics, and Engineering subjects were demonstrated in the study by Seage and Türegün (2020). Therefore, this result rejects the second Finally,hypothesis.the

1. The teaching and learning process at pre university colleges in Malaysia should not rely on the traditional pattern of lecturing concerning teaching chemistry subject. Instead, the delivery method involving the online environment such as SPOC has to be introduced and widely implemented, where the use of modern technology supports the presence of an instructor.

As far as the current study is concerned, in the light of the finding, the following recommendations can be produced:

As with the majority of studies, the design of the current study was subject to limitations. This research was limited to the students who were studying chemistry subjects at a pre university college in Malaysia. The second limitation to the generalisation of the results was the study mainly focuses on the effect of the learning series using SPOC as an online learning environment and F2F learning on the students’ achievement in chemistry subject. Therefore, the results obtained cannot be generalised for other subjects. The third limitation concerns access to the sample size. The researcher has limited access and authority to the sample size due to the number of students assigned for every class have been set by the college management. The fact is that such a small number of sixty six randomly selected sample participants can be doubted to represent the participating sample’s nature. More accurate results can be acquired using a larger sample size. On the other hand, the students’ learning capabilities and learning access to other sources are the extraneous variables in this study.

199 Petersen and Gundersen (2019), which relates learning outcomes and the assessment to different learning tools, has created a better achievement for students who have encountered F2F learning. The achievement of students was also higher when the computer based immediate simple corrective feedback tool by edX platform was implemented compared to traditional learning (Chen, Breslow & DeBoer, 2018). Furthermore, students have earned higher grades in the course as they have been able to re access learning materials more than once, which suggest that learning using online tools is more convenient than traditional learning because they can pick the learning sequence as well as the amount of material they need (Soffer, Kahan & Nachmias, 2019). Consequently, the result of this study suggests the final hypothesis to be accepted. However, the mean marks percentage shown in Table 5 proves that students who experienced Learning Series Two achieved higher than the students who experienced Learning Series Three. However, achieving better was not statistically done. In general, the mean marks percentage of Learning Series One and Learning Series Two, which comprised of both online learning and F2F learning, are higher than Learning Series Three, which consists of F2F learning only. Hence, a more engaging atmosphere in online learning appears to be better for the students

2. More studies have to be carried out for the subjects other than the chemistry subject in the future using different types of the online environment for the teaching and learning process as the effectiveness of e learning has been proved by the literature.

3. In order to allow the students to get used and fully utilised the modern technology for education, the teaching period using e learning approaches should be elongated so its benefits can be maximised.

8. References Abeer, W., & Miri, B. (2014). Students’ Preferences and Views about Learning in a MOOC. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 318 323. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.203 Asarta, C., & Schmidt, J. (2017). Comparing student performance in blended and traditional courses: Does prior academic achievement matter?. The Internet and HigherEducation, 32, 29 38. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2016.08.002 Awan, A.,& Khan, T.(2013). Investigating Pakistani Students’ alternative Ideas regarding the Concept of Chemical Bonding. BulletinofEducationandResearch, 35(1), 17 29. Baragash, R., & Al Samarraie, H. (2018). Blended learning: Investigating the influence of engagement in multiple learning delivery modes on students’ performance. TelematicsandInformatics, 35(7), 2082 2098.

The study has improved our understanding of the online learning environment using SPOC in higher education in Malaysia during the emergence of technology in education. It allows the Department of Chemistry at the matriculation college to develop an effective learning series and promote cooperation with other science departments that can benefit the curriculum. Moreover, the learning series can encourage lecturers to assess students’ academic achievement in relation to the learning sequence so that students can learn effectively. These results offer some recommendations to chemistry and Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) subject educators and instructional designers in using learning series which consists of different delivery methods, including online learning as it improved the students’ learning.

7. Acknowledgement

200 4. More student samples are required, and the research area should be broadening in further studies to get more accurate results.

6. Conclusion

The findings demonstrated that there is a significant difference in the achievement test scores in the interest of learning series, which consists of SPOC followed by F2F learning. On the other hand, according to the data obtained, it revealed that the learning series comprised of SPOC produced better achievement by the students over F2F learning. One of the significant findings to emerge from this study is that two learning series, which both consist of two similar delivery methods but in different order, show no significant difference in the students’ achievement but display higher performance. In conclusion, it has been shown from this review that the best learning series from this research for the lecturers at matriculation college for chemical bonding topic is the learning series which composes of SPOC followed by F2F learning. It all boils down to the fact that the students who experienced this type of delivery method produced the highest score in their achievement.

This research was funded by a grant from Universiti Utara Malaysia (SO. CODE: 14587).

5. It is recommended that further studies need to be carried out to cover different education levels to optimise the modern technology in the teaching process.

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Appendix 1

a) Explain Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR).

b) State the octet rule. Describe how atoms obtain the octet configuration.

b) Introduce intermolecular forces ii. Hydrogen bonding 4 Post test

f) Explain the exception to the octet rule: incomplete octet, expanded octet and odd number electrons.

c) Describe the formation of: i. Ionic or electrovalent bond ii. Covalent bond using Lewis structure (Include the explanation in terms of difference in electronegativity. Use only elements of period 2 except Be and H). d) Draw the Lewis structure of covalent compound with single, double and triple bond.

2 MolecularShape

a) Write the Lewis dot symbol of an atom. Relate valence electron with Lewis dot symbol.

Appendix 2

ElectronValenceandLewisStructure

a) Explain polarity and dipole moment in linear molecules.

e) Determine the formal charge and the most plausible Lewis structure.

Topic Learning Outcomes WEEK SUBTOPICS LEARNING OUTCOMES

b) Introduce intermolecular forces i. Van der Waals forces Dipole dipole or permanent dipole interaction London forces or dispersion forces

c) Predict and explain the shapes of molecule and bond angles in a given species.

3 Intermolecularforces

b) Draw the basic molecular shapes: linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal and octahedral.

d) Draw the molecular shape of this molecule by applying VSEPR theory. (2 marks)

3. Given a compound boron trifluoride, answer the following questions

b) Determine the formal charge of the central atom. (1 mark)

c) State whether the molecule obey octet rule and describe its exception to the octet rule. (2 marks)

f) Describe about the polarity of this molecule. (1 mark)

a) Draw the Lewis structure for this molecule. (2 marks)

Appendix 3

1. Calculate the total valence electrons in BeCl 2 and CH 3 Cl. (2 marks)

e) Name the molecular shape and predict its bond angle. (2 marks)

Pre test Questions CHEMICAL BONDING

2. Determine the number of electron group and electron group in PCl 5 and predict its molecular geometry. (3 marks)

Post test One Questions CHEMICAL BONDING 1. Predict the polarity of BCl3 and PCl3. Explain your answers. (6 marks) 2. Draw and name the molecular shape for BCl3 and SO3. (4 marks) 3. For the following organic compounds, arrange them in order of decreasing boiling point. Explain yourCOanswer. 2 , CH3CH2OH, CH3OH (6 marks)

Post test Two Questions CHEMICAL BONDING 1. Draw and name the molecular shape for PF6 and NO3 by applying VSEPR theory. State the formal charge for all atoms in the most plausible structure of both molecules. (8 marks) 2. For the following organic compounds, state the type of intermolecular forces for each molecule and arrange them in order of increasing boiling point. Explain your answer.CH4, HCN, H2O (6 marks)

Post test Three Questions CHEMICAL BONDING 1. Draw the Lewis structure for BeF2, ICl2 and NO2. State the type of octet rule exception. (6 marks) 2. Show two possible Lewis structures of CS2 and determine the most plausible structure of the molecule (6 marks) 3. Consider CF4 and CCl3F. Which molecule is polar? Explain. (4 marks)

Appendix 4 List of Students’ Achievement Learning Series One List Studentsof Percentage Marks (%) Pre test Post test One Post test Two Post test Three Student 1 0.0 43.8 57.1 93.8 Student 2 0.0 25.0 14.3 25.0 Student 3 13.3 31.3 71.4 93.8 Student 4 13.3 37.5 42.9 68.8 Student 5 13.3 31.3 50.0 81.3 Student 6 0.0 37.5 78.6 81.3 Student 7 13.3 50.0 28.6 75.0 Student 8 0.0 18.8 42.9 37.5 Student 9 0.0 37.5 71.4 100.0 Student 10 13.3 50.0 50.0 62.5 Student 11 13.3 18.8 78.6 100.0 Student 12 6.7 43.8 42.9 93.8 Student 13 0.0 50.0 50.0 75.0 Student 14 0.0 56.3 50.0 81.3 Student 15 0.0 25.0 35.7 56.3 Student 16 13.3 18.8 64.3 100.0 Student 17 0.0 56.3 42.9 100.0 Student 18 13.3 37.5 28.6 75.0 Student 19 0.0 37.5 21.4 75.0 Student 20 0.0 37.5 21.4 81.3 Student 21 13.3 37.5 71.4 75.0

Learning Series Two List Studentsof Percentage Marks (%) Pre test Post test One Post test Two Post test Three Student 1 0.0 25.0 42.9 87.5 Student 2 0.0 25.0 57.1 62.5 Student 3 0.0 25.0 42.9 93.8 Student 4 6.7 62.5 42.9 93.8 Student 5 0.0 25.0 57.1 87.5 Student 6 0.0 37.5 50.0 93.8 Student 7 0.0 25.0 57.1 75.0 Student 8 0.0 18.8 57.1 100.0 Student 9 0.0 18.8 50.0 68.8 Student 10 0.0 31.3 42.9 43.8 Student 11 0.0 18.8 50.0 75.0 Student 12 0.0 18.8 35.7 75.0 Student 13 0.0 18.8 50.0 81.3 Student 14 0.0 43.8 57.1 93.8 Student 15 0.0 43.8 42.9 100.0 Student 16 0.0 18.8 35.7 93.8 Student 17 0.0 37.5 42.9 62.5 Student 18 0.0 18.8 35.7 87.5 Student 19 0.0 56.3 57.1 100.0 Student 20 0.0 37.5 28.6 93.8 Student 21 0.0 43.8 14.3 93.8 Student 22 0.0 31.3 42.9 37.5 Student 23 0.0 18.8 7.1 43.8 Student 24 0.0 18.8 28.6 56.3 Student 25 0.0 25.0 35.7 37.5 Student 26 0.0 31.3 50.0 75.0

Learning Series Three List Studentsof Percentage Marks (%) Pre test Post test One Post test Two Post test Three Student 1 0.0 6.3 7.1 50.0 Student 2 0.0 31.3 50.0 62.5 Student 3 0.0 18.8 42.9 31.3 Student 4 0.0 43.8 78.6 62.5 Student 5 6.7 25.0 42.9 93.8 Student 6 0.0 37.5 7.1 68.8 Student 7 0.0 37.5 50.0 62.5 Student 8 0.0 25.0 35.7 31.3 Student 9 0.0 25.0 14.3 81.3 Student 10 0.0 31.3 78.6 68.8 Student 11 0.0 31.3 35.7 56.3 Student 12 0.0 31.3 42.9 81.3 Student 13 0.0 68.8 42.9 81.3 Student 14 0.0 31.3 50.0 81.3 Student 15 0.0 18.8 50.0 93.8 Student 16 0.0 25.0 42.9 87.5 Student 17 0.0 25.0 21.4 50.0 Student 18 0.0 25.0 42.9 75.0 Student 19 0.0 31.3 35.7 81.3

204 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 204 224, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.120202 Enhancing Higher-Order Thinking Skills among Home Science Students: The Effect of Cooperative Learning Student TeamsAchievement Divisions (STAD) Module Misra Takko Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Alam Megah 2, Shah Alam Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4459 4002 Rahimah Jamaluddin Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0815 8860 Suhaida Abdul Kadir Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2761 6265 Normala Ismail Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8776 0840 Arnida Abdullah Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6593 7310 Arasinah Khamis Sultan Idris Education University, Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3233 4027 Abstract. This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of the cooperativelearningmoduleusingStudentTeams AchievementDivisions (STAD) techniques in enhancing students' HOTS achievement in the topic of the digestive system and food absorption. A quasi experimental design was used inthis study to gauge the effectiveness of the module. Purposive sampling technique was used to choose the respondents. The study involved 182 students who represented the experimental group and the conventional group. Students were given an intervention by using Home Science STAD Module for five weeks. Descriptive statistics and paired samplet test wereusedtodeterminetheeffectivenessoftheHomeScience STAD module on students’ HOTS achievement. The findings show

students' understanding increased for the digestive system and food absorption topics. There was a significant difference in students' HOTS achievement between the experimental learning and conventional learning group. The finding shows the students were actively engaged in teachingandlearning.Post testresult showsthatthe studentswereableto answer the HOTS question correctly and they can deliver clear explanations and justifications compared to the answers in the pre test.

However, some teachers failed to apply effective HOTS teaching strategy as stated in the policy (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2013). Chun and Abdullah (2019) in their research described the policy on HOTS cannot be fully translated into practice due to time constraints, high syllabus content, student ability, and factors of teacher’s attitudes towards HOTS teaching which in turn affected teachers’ perceptions and how teachers conduct their daily lessons. It remains the focus of researchers to look at the gap between education policy and classroom practice on HOTS teaching in the classroom.

In generating the HOTS among school students, active participation involving student cantered learning is seen to be significant. Constructivist learning as one of the most preferred pedagogical practices by Malaysian teachers in promoting HOTS. Teachers are keen on using inquiry teaching, problem based learning, brainstorming and thinking map in the class (Chun & Abdullah, 2019). On the other hand, Jacobson, Davis, and Licklider (1998) stated that cooperative learning can be applied in various fields of learning, especially in technical studies. Cooperative learning is a learning method that involves four to five members in each group and emphasizes the mastery of skills, concepts, and information (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). This learning method also promotes collaboration and social cognitive skills enhancement (Virgana, 2019: Gull & Shehzah, 2015). Further, cooperative learning methods encourage students to communicate with each other, which can indirectly overcome their shyness and lack of confidence in

Keywords: Higher Order Thinking Skills; STAD; Cooperative Learning; Home Science Education; Quasi experimental 1. Introduction

Findings from this study revealed that the Home Science STAD Module was appropriate to serve as a guideline for teachers who apply and integrate HOTS in the teaching process. Further studies can apply cooperative techniques in other educational contexts in promoting HOTS among students.

Higher order thinking skills (HOTS) is one of the agendas emphasized in the Malaysian education system. This is clearly stated in the Malaysian Education Development Plan 2013–2025 (KPM, 2013) which emphasizes higher order thinking skills (HOTS) through six student aspirations. In essence, the Ministry of Education Malaysia intends to make students critical thinkers to enable them to compete globally. HOTS should be an important aspect of the teaching and learning process especially with regards to TVET in order to prepare them for future employees and problem solvers (Chinedu & Kamin, 2015). The best strategies to prepare future employees and problem solvers, is to teach students how to think instead of what to think (Chinedu, Libunao, Kamen & Saud, 2014).

discussing with peers while engaging in problem solving or group discussions. The cooperative learning methodology also contributes to other skills, such as social skills, leadership, listening, thinking, and others (Nor Hasliza, 2012).

According to the statistics of the Ministry of Education, students choose the stream of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) in schools which contribute to 44 percent in 2018 compared to 48 percent in 2012, a decrease infour percent. This four percent drop is equavalent to 6,000 students drop (Yeo, 2019). This figure also includes students who took Home Science Education as an elective subject since Home Science Education was one of the subjects under STEM stream. Based on the Malaysian Certificate of Education results, it was reported that students did not achieve satisfactory results in HOTS, with the average grade of less than 3.00 for the Home Science subject. Due to this scenario, a cooperative learning module by using STAD techniques has been developed to overcome this problem, especially to help Home Science students master difficult topics such as the digestive system and food absorption.

Although numerous studies have investigated cooperative learning approaches in enhancing student achievement (Okwelle & Owo, 2018; Gull & Shehzah, 2015; Ling Ghazali & Raman, 2016; Isiaka & Yusuf, 2015; Anwar, Tatlah & Butt, 2018), a

Secondary School Standard Curriculum, Home Science education is one of the elective subjects under the stream of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) for form 4 and forms 5 students. The main purpose of this subject is to provide students with knowledge as well as preparing them with various skills such as critical thinking, creative and innovative thinking skills, and a positive attitude among the students. To accomplish the main goals of the National Philosophy of Education, six Secondary School Standard Curriculum frameworks have been integrated, which blend knowledge, skills, and values with 21st century learning skills.

In Malaysia classrooms, teacher centered learning or lower order thinking skills (LOTS) is taking place and being practiced in teaching and learning process that inhibit the development of HOTS (Arlina & Melor; 2014; Bavani et al 2016; DeWitt et al 2016; Aziz & Andin, 2018). In most situations, teachers only serve as informants and students act as recipients of information (Vebrianto & Osman, 2012). Conventional learning does not encourage two way interaction that helps student thinking process. This method only helps students to only memorize the concept of learning and yet the aspect of thinking is left out (Vebrianto & Osman, 2012). This scenario has caused difficulties to students in applying thinking skills because they are not exposed to problems solving activities, which may generate their creative, critical, and innovative thinking. This ultimately results in students' thinking skills will remain at a low level (Wan & Shamilati, 2018; Khairon, Hanita, Fauziah & Azian, 2017; Aziz & Andin, 2018). New examination format of assessment structure required students to master the learning content to enable them to answer HOTS questions. In the previous examination format, the focus was on objective questions that required students to memorize the content to achieve excellent results.

Development Three cognitive theories namely constructivism, cooperative learning, and Bloom's Taxonomy are used in this study to illustrate the relationship between these theories in developing the Home Science STAD module. These theories provide a better understanding in testing students' ability to answer HOTS questions as shown in Figure 1.

few studies that examine students' achievement in HOTS essay questions in Malaysia especially in the context of the technical subject such as Home Science Education. Therefore, there is a need for more knowledge about the effectiveness of cooperative learning in enhancing not only student academic achievement but also enhancing students HOTS as well as other soft skills such as communication, problem solving, collaboration, and motivation.

iii. Is there any improvement of students HOTS answer between pre test and post test? Research hypotheses: Ho1: There is no difference in students’ HOTS achievement HOTS in the pre test between the cooperative learning group and conventional group

Ho2: There is no difference in students' HOTS achievement in the post test between the cooperative learning group and conventional learning group

2. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Used in the Module

Ho4: There is no difference in students' HOTS achievement in the pre test and post test for cooperative learning group.

Is there an impact on students’ HOTS achievement in learning digestive system and food absorption topic using Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD) techniques?

1.1 Objective, Research Question and Hypotheses

ii. What are the minimum and maximum marks of pre test and post test for the cooperative learning group and conventional learning group?

The main objective of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of the cooperative learning module using Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD) techniques in enhancing students' HOTS achievement in the topic of the digestive system and food absorption. The study further explored the differences in HOTS achievement among Home Science students before (pre test) and after (post test) they learned using the module. The research question and hypotheses are as Researchfollows:Question:i.

Ho3: There is no difference in students' HOTS achievement in the pre test and post test for conventional learning group.

2.2 Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning refers to instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). It is a principles and techniques for helping students work together more effectively (Jacobs, Power & Loh, 2002), teaches them how to interact and socialize, exchange ideas, share information, and emphasizes the mastery of skills, concepts, and information in which students are classified into specific groups (Nurulhuda, 2014; Slavin, 1995). They are various techniques under cooperative learning. Some cooperative learning techniques utilize student pairing such as Think Pair Share, Think Pair Write, Three step Interview, Say and Switch. While others utilize small groups of four or five students such as Round Robin, Reciprocal Teaching, Jigsaw II, Cirle the Sage, The Williams and HOTS Cooperative learning Constructivist Theory Taxonomy Bloom’s

Figure 1: Theoretical Framework

Constructivism implies that teaching and learning will be student centered. The teacher serves as a facilitator that helps students build knowledge and solve problems. The teacher will also identify students' existing knowledge and tailor his/her teaching method to the basic nature of the knowledge. Also, teachers serve as instructional designers that provide opportunities for students to build new knowledge. Learning based on the theory of constructivism is a process by which students develop new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge. Students will choose and interpret information, formulate hypotheses, and make informed decisions as they provide meaning and experience formation (Olusegun, 2015; Yadav, 2016). Instead of providing students with answer, teachers must challenge them by encouraging effective critical thinking (Chinedu, Libunao, Kamen & Saud, 2014). This is coherent with the study which is emphasises HOTS in Home Science Education.

2.1 Constructivist Theory According to the theory of constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978), knowledge is actively built by thinking individuals, while passive individuals do not accept any knowledge conveyed by their teacher. Students will adapt any new information to their existing knowledge to create new knowledge in their minds. When they come across objects that are meaningless to them, they will interpret what they see and customize their information so that they can better interpret this information (Yadav, 2016; Bhutto & Chhapra, 2013).

209 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. including STAD or Student Teams Achievement Division (Kagan, 1994, Slavin 1995). According to Johnson and Johnson (1994), students who learn to cooperate in a group can enhance their performance. After all, they can learn better and become responsible students because they have group goals that need to be achieved Cooperativetogether.learning

is an effective learning strategy because, through this method, studentswith different levels of ability, skills, and thinking learn together in a group. To ensure a successful cooperative learning process, each student is responsible for sharing existing knowledge and skills to help other team members (Okwelle & Owo, 2018). Furthermore, each member of the group should be highly committed to the task assigned. Cooperative learning will encourage students to interact actively and positively in a group (Mark Mensah & Sam, 2018; Anwar, Tatlah & Butt, 2018). Engaging in small group activities can develop high level thinking skills and enhance individuals' ability to apply knowledge (Virgana, 2019; Brame & Biel, 2015; Rahayu, Syafril, Wati & Yuberti, 2017) as well as increasing student motivation during group discussions and achievement (Gull & Shehzah, 2015; Isiaka & Yusuf, 2015; Ling, Ghazali & Raman, 2016).

2.3 Taxonomy Bloom’s and Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) The rapid development in the 21st century, education is a major concern as it contributes to fostering students' readiness to face global challenges and prepare them to enter the workforce (Larson & Miller, 2012). This requires students to master the 21st century skills, especially HOTS which need to apply by the educators into teaching learning activities (Hashim, Ali & Sahmsudin, 2018). 21st century skills were defined as skills that progressively ask for creativity, perseverance, and problem solving combined with performance. According to Collins (2014) the awareness of educational stakeholders on the importance of teaching HOTS is very prominent to ensure learning success.

In general, cooperative learning is collaborative learning or cooperation involving small groups with various levels of capability and achievement as well as a different gender, race, and religion (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). To achieve common goals within a group, the most important attribute is a student's success in helping others achieve their goals and objectives in their learning. In this study, the researchers have chosen the Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD) technique because it is more effective than others. One of the advantages of STAD is each group consists of heterogeneous students. After students having their group activities, each member will participate in a quiz or individually calculated test. Then, the scores earned by each group member will be added to the group score. Finally, the best group will receive a prize as a token of recognition to the group. Using this technique, students can easily master the topic through discussion and collaboration of small groups of 4 to 5 members. Indirectly this technique can improve Home Science students in mastering their subject content. So, in this module, cooperative learning with the STAD technique is used to achieve the teaching and learning objectives.

Using HOTS in the classroom also requires more than giving students HOTS questions, rather students must be taught how to make thinking visible and this can be done with teacher guidance (Siti, 2016). According to the Malaysian Examinations Board (2013), higher order thinking skills (HOTS) is the ability to apply knowledge, skills, and value in forming reasoning and reflection of problems, decision making, innovation, and creation of something. According to Gillies (2014), HOTS is defined as a widespread challenge and use of the mind set when one must interpret, analyse, or manipulate information to answer a question. The foundation of the cognitive process is to generate and organize information, analyse, synthesize, be creative, and perform evaluations.

Thinking skills are one of the six key characteristics that students need to have to ensure that they reach their full potential and can compete globally (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2013). According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), thinking skills are the most basic skills that can be developed in the classroom and are key to high achievements for all students. As such, the HOTS has been implemented through five elements, namely pedagogical curriculum, curriculum assessment, private community support, bodybuilding, and resources.

Realizing the urgency of the 21st century skills, HOTS approach is fundamental to the framework of the formation of a global education system, and it is no exception to Malaysia that has adopted the Bloom and Anderson taxonomy through Malaysian Education Development Plan 2013 2025 (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2013). The Ministry of Education has emphasized on HOTS in the school system by introducing the I THINK program in 2011, starting with 10 pilot schools, followed by all the schools in Malaysia in 2014 as a preparatory step to implement HOTS in Malaysia's education curriculum (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2013). Developing HOTS in classroom requires teachers not only need to have subject matter knowledge, but they also have to know what HOTS contains of and how it can be included into the curriculum (Daud, 2017). Teachers need to provide the students with HOTS which Mishra & Kotecha (2016) claim the Bloom's revised taxonomy as reference point to HOTS.

Based on constructivism theory, cooperative learning and Taxonomy Bloom’s, the researcher has constructed the conceptual framework of the study as in figure 2. The framework of this study includes two independent variables namely cooperative learning and conventional learning. While the dependent variable was the higher order thinking skills (HOTS).

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework Teaching methods

• Cooperative (STAD) • Conventional Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) Independent variables Dependent variables

This Home Science STAD module was developed into two editions, namely teacher edition and student edition. The teacher edition of the Home Science STAD module was developed as a guide to enable teachers to implement cooperative learning more effectively according to the prescribed procedures. The teacher edition module includes the introduction to cooperative learning, daily lesson plans, examples of induction sets that teachers can use, descriptions of the implementation of cooperative learning activities, handout notes for students including six different types of exercises by topic, quizzes and short essay questions, and an answer scheme. Meanwhile, the student edition module was designed as a learning material consisting of introductory notes to cooperative learning, six different types of exercises by topic and by group, quizzes and short essay questions, and additional notes for students as a reference in addition to textbooks.

The module includes four key components involving activities for teachers and students in teaching and learning, teaching content, explanation on how to divide students into groups, and how to conduct group learning, quizzes, and group recognition. The teaching content contains a description of the teaching material to be delivered by the teacher based on the topic. Then, to facilitate student understanding, group activities are conducted to enable students to share ideas, opinions, and information with their peers. After completing a certain topic, quizzes will be conducted to measure students' understanding of that particular topic. As a motivation and encouragement for students to stay motivated and engaged in group learning activities, group recognition is given based on the group scores obtained.

The Home Science STAD module was developed as a result of data collection through document analysis involving content, the Home Science Curriculum and Assessment Standard Document (Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum, 2015) and the previous year's Malaysia Certificate of Education questions. The construction of this module also considered the feedback obtained in a semi structured interview with Home Science expert teachers. Based on the interview, researcher was informed that digestive system and food absorption topic is one of the most challenging topics for Home Science courses. Students do not understand the topic because it involves scientific processes as well as enzymes that need to be memorized. Analysis of past exam questions also showed the existence of HOTS questions related to this topic. According to that findings, researchers chose to build the module by focusing on the topic digestive system and food absorption.

To investigate the effectiveness of the Home Science STAD module among Home Science students, a quasi experimental of pretest posttest nonequivalent groups design was used. According to McMillan (2011), this design of research is among the most widely used. The design of this research involves the treatment and control groups by using pre and post trials. The rational of using pretest posttest nonequivalent groups, this design can be used to test the comparison of effects in

3.1 Research Design

2.4 Home Science STAD Module

3. Methodology

The research design as shown in figure 3.

Two schools in Selangor and two schools in Negeri Sembilan were involved in this study. To answer research objectives and fulfil the number of samples for experimental groups, a purposive sampling technique was used. Given by the state education department in Malaysia, the number of students in one class are about 20 to 30 students depends on the school location. Limited number of secondary schools in Malaysia offer Home Science Education courses. In order to gather at least 40 students for each experimental group, researchers decided to choose two Home Science Education classes with special category such as form four students. Number of respondents chosen in this study was 197. These two classes have made the total number of respondents for the study 197, non responses were 15 students who absented comprising 91 samples for treatment group (cooperative learning) and 91 samples for control group (conventional learning). To overcome the bias, researchers only used 182 respondents in this study. The response rate was 92.4%.

Figure 3: Research Design 3.2 Samples

This study involves the treatment of cooperative learning (X1) while the control groups (conventional learning) did not use any instructional module but only followed the traditional teaching (X2). To assess the level of students' existing knowledge of the digestive system and food absorption, a pre test was conducted and represented by OA₁ followed with post tests which represented by OB₂ to measure students' HOTS after finished 5 weeks teaching and learning process.

various situations where fully experimental techniques are not feasible (Neuman, 1991) especially in real world situations such as in schools setting. Through this design, researchers can identify the possible effects of learning methods used on dependent variables (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen & Razavieh, 2013) as well as this design of research is among the most widely used (Cook dan Campbell, 1979).

3.2 Research Instruments and data analysis In this study, a test questions were developed purposely to measure student's achievement in answering HOTS. A focus group interview with expert teachers in Home Science Education was done before researchers develop the module and test questions. Based on discussion with the focus group, it was reported that students have difficulty answering essay questions, especially HOTS. As a result, researchers have analysed the previous year questions of Malaysian Certificate of Education examination for Home Science subjects, and it was found that there are two or more HOTS questions related to the topic of the digestive system and food absorption. Based on that information, test questions were developed based on the Curriculum and Assessment Standard Document as well as previous year examination questions. A structure question consisted of 11 short essays were

OA₁ X1 OB₂ OA₁ X2 OB₂

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. given to the student in pre and post test. Students need to answer all the questions within 1 hour and thirty minutes in an examination setting. Pre tests were given to students before cooperative learning using the Home Science STAD module begins. This is to attain students' knowledge on the topic of digestion and food absorption. If the level of students’ knowledge for both groups was about the same, then the two groups is suitable for carrying out the study (Cook & Cambell, 1979). Treatment groups were exposed to five different topics, different group activities and quizzes for every week. After students have completed five weeks' learning sessions, they answered post test questions which examined students HOTS achievement using the Home Science STAD module. Student answers script will be evaluated and given marks based on the scoring scheme provided. Then, student’s marks will be summed up and given the appropriate grade based on the upper secondary scoring grade system 2016 used by all schools in the School Examination Analysis System under the Ministry of Education Malaysia. Researchers appointed and trained selected Home Science teachers from both schools to distribute the test questions and handling the modules to respondents. To monitor the data collection process, the researchers observe these selected teachers. The examples of the question as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Examples of HOTS question 3.3 Validity

To ensure that the effects of threats can be well controlled in experimental studies, researchers have considered several internal validities namely history, maturation, selection of samples, and instrumentation. To mitigate the impact of this threat, researchers have established a study period of 5 weeks. This study was conducted in a short period of time to reduce the maturation threat. To increase the internal validity, researchers decided to choose two classes at the same school for cooperative learning and conventional learning groups. Where the students in the two classes have similar age, the teachers are the same sex, and have similar teaching styles. The selection of samples was also made based on students’ achievements scores in previous year examination. This is to avoid the effect on dependent variable if the selected samples were smarter or more in favour of a Ingroup.order to validate the test questions and the modules, the researchers submitted the documents to three experts’ educators in Home Science Education field for language, face and content validity. Feedback received was used to enhance, improve and strengthen the test questions. The test questions later were administered to 30 students at one of secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur for face and content validity. The validity was ascertained to ensure that the test questions, and modules developed were suitable to use in formal data collection. The findings obtained from the study were analysed by using the SPSS version 23.0 software to determine the effectiveness of the Home Science STAD module by using descriptive statistics and paired sample t test.

215 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 3.4 Data Collection Procedures Figure 6 visualised the data collection procedure for treatment group of cooperative learning. Figure 6: Procedure for treatment group (cooperative learning) 1.Presentation of teaching content by teacher • The teacher delivers the teaching material • According to RPH provided • Using the teaching material provided 2. Group distribution • 4 people per group with various skills (heterogenous) • Categorize the student into four: 25% Students with high skills, 25% Students with low skills and 25% Students with Moderate skill 3. Group Learning • Student sit is group facing each other • Discussion among the group member to solve the task • Teacher monitoring student learning and activity • Teacher give support to develop positive competition environment • Presentation by each group as the result of the discussion 4. Individual Quizz • Student particpate in the individual quiz • Discussion were not permitted 5.Improvement of individual score • Quiz result were recored by percentage • Quiz score will be compare with students basic score • Basic score were gathered from the everage of previous test score 6. Group recognition • Sum up the total score for each group. Devide the score with the number of student in that group to get the average. • Score obtained known by group score • Recognition by each group to be announce in the class

The findings show that the mean score of student HOTS achievement in the post

These findings indicated that before the learning session was conducted, students' knowledge of the digestive system and food absorption among the two groups of the respondent was the same. Therefore, both groups of respondents suited the research requirement and the purpose of this study. The results also indicated that the threats in terms of sample selection could be reduced before performing the experiments.

The findings showed that there was a significant difference in the mean scores between the two groups (t (157) = 10.57, p =. 000 <. 05), and the cooperative learning group outperformed the conventional group.

Table 2: Post test HOTS achievement for the cooperative learning group and conventional learning group Group No. studentsof Mean deviationStandard t value Degree freedomof Significant Cooperative 91 54.41 12.04 10.57 157 .000Conventional 91 38.36 8.04

Table 1: Pre-test HOTS achievement for the cooperative learning group and conventional learning group Group No. studentsof Mean deviationStandard t value- Degree freedomof Significant Cooperative 91 31.35 11.55 1.223 180 .223Conventional 91 29.15 12.67

4.1 Students' HOTS achievement in pre-test between the cooperative learning group and conventional group Table 1 shows the students' pre test HOTS achievement for cooperative learning and conventional learning groups. Based on the analysis, the cooperative learning group had a mean score of 31.35 (S.D. = 11.55), while the conventional learning group had a mean score of 29.15 (S.D. = 12.67). These findings showed that there was no significant difference in the mean scores for pre test HOTS achievement between the two groups (t (180) = 1.223, p =. 223 >. 05).

4. Findings

4.3 Students' HOTS achievement in the pre-test and post-test for conventional learning group and cooperative learning group

Furthermore, paired sample t test were conducted to test differences in students’ HOTS achievement between pre and post test for the conventional learning group. According to Table 3, findings show that the mean score for the pre test was 29.15 (SP = 12.67) and the mean value for the post test was 38.36 (SP = 8.04).

4.2 Students' HOTS achievement in the post test between the cooperative learning group and conventional learning group Table 2 shows students' achievement based on the post test that was conducted for the cooperative learning group and conventional learning group. Based on the analysis, the cooperative learning group obtained a mean score of 54.41 (S.D = 12.04), while the conventional learning group obtained a mean score of 38.36 (S.D = 8.04). These findings indicate an increase in HOTS achievement for both groups.

Table 3: Pre and Post test HOTS achievement for the conventional learning and cooperative learning group Group studentsNumberof Mean deviationStandard t value Degree freedomof Significant Pre test 91 29.15 12.67 6.627 90 .000 Post test 91 38.36 8.04 Pre test 91 31.35 11.55 .12.99 90 .000 Post test 91 54.41 12.04 Same goes to cooperative learning group (Table 3), analysis indicated a higher mean score in post test with 54.41 (SP = 12.04) compared to pre test 31.35 (SP = 11.55). The results of the study showed that there was a significant difference in mean score between pre test 31.35 (SP = 11.55) and post test 54.41 (SP = 12.04); t (90) = −12.99, p = .000 <.05).

217 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. test is higher than the mean score for the pre test of conventional learning group students. Data analysis revealed that there was a significant difference in mean scores between the pre test of 29.15 (SP = 12.67) and the post test of 38.36 (SP = 8.04); t (90) = −6.627, p = .000 <.05).

Data in Table 4 shows the minimum and maximum scores distribution of pre and post test scores for the cooperative learning and conventional learning group. Based on the data, the number of students who failed the pre test for both groups (cooperative and conventional) was high, 71 (78%) for the cooperative learning, and 69 (76%) for the conventional learning group. Student HOTS achievement after the post test indicated the number of students who pass increased for both groups. However, the highest increase was observed in the cooperative learning group with the number of students passed up to 59 students. Compared to the conventional group, only 19 students got a mark of more than 40. It can be described that the number of cooperative learning group students who failed was decreased from 71 (78%) to 12 (22%). For the conventional learning group, the number of students who got marks below 40 is still considered higher with 50 (55%).

4.4 Distribution of minimum and maximum marks of pre test and post test for the cooperative learning group and conventional learning group To gain a deeper understanding, the researchers has performed a cross sectional analysis of the pre and post test test scores for both groups. Findings showed that the pre test score for the cooperative learning group range from 9 marks to 57 marks. Meanwhile, the pre test score for conventional learning groups ranges from 7 marks to 52 marks. Besides, the post test score showed that the mark for cooperative learning group range from 24 to 80 and score for conventional learning groups range from 20 to 53 mark.

This research has shown that the effectiveness of using Home Science STAD Module enhancing students' ability to answered HOTS questions for topic the digestive system and food absorption. It was found that even though the respondents were among weak students, their achievements improved after they were exposed to cooperative learning. This finding indicates that through an appropriate learning process and teaching techniques, students were able to remember and understand the content. This is evident when the cooperative learning group of STAD recorded a better achievement compared to the conventional learning group (Hasmyati & Suwardi, 2018; Adeneye, Alfred & Samuel, 2012; Isiaka & Yusuf ,2015; Ling, Ghazali & Raman, 2016; Rahayu, Syafril, Wati & Yuberti, 2017; Yunita, Juneau & Relmasira, 2018).

The findings of this study parallel with research done by Slavin (1996) who stated that cooperative learning method can give an impact on students’ achievement.

A qualitative analysis was done to better understand students' ability to answer structure essay questions. The findings showed that the way students answer the HOTS question was improving. From the pre test findings, the answers given by the students were limited, short, and unclear. Students were not capable to provide a good explanation with many examples or justifications. Many questions were not answered correctly and some of the questions were left unanswered. This finding can be observed for both groups. As an example, for question 2a (refer Figure 5 page 11) explains the effect of consuming the above foods in excess quantity. The answered given by the respondent are; can cause obesity because the fat content in the food is high (respondent 1), cause obesity (respondent 2) and obesity, excess fat (respondent 3). Interestingly, findings in post test analysis showed that students were able to answer the questions correctly. They can provide a good explanation, clear justification, and reasonable answers and the answers were written in a long sentence. Such as; the effects of taking the food on a regular basis in excess amounts will cause obesity as eating too much. In turn, it can lead to overweight and inability to perform any heavy and difficult activities (respondent 1), has a variety of diseases including obesity. We need to eat a balanced diet and follow the food pyramid to prevent obesity. It can be difficult to do activities and can cause us to become inactive (respondent 2) and the effects of food intake on a regular basis can lead to obesity, especially fat and more other disease (respondent 3).

4.5 Analysis from student's answer script

5. Discussion

218 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 4: Distribution of minimum and maximum marks in pre-test and post-test for cooperative and conventional learning groups Marks Cooperative learning group Conventional learning group Pre test Post test Pre test Post test Fail (0 40) 71 (78%) 12 (13%) 69 (76%) 50 (55%) Pass (41 100) 20 (22%) 79 (87%) 22 (24%) 41 (45%)

These findings indicate that cooperative learning using the Home Science STAD module is very effective in improving student achievement in answering short essay questions. The findings are in line with previous studies conducted by Nurulhuda (2014), Tsay and Brady (2010), Zahara and Suzela (2011), Okwelle and Owo (2018), Gull and Shehzah (2015), Virgana (2019) who also found there were significant difference in students’ achievement towards cooperative learning methods. Therefore, cooperative learning needs to be expanded and used by all Home Science Education teachers in teaching and learning to enhance students' understanding, especially in the topic of the digestive system and food absorption, as well as producing a conducive learning environment.

6. Conclusion

This study was conducted to examine the effectiveness of the cooperative learning Home Science Module using Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD) techniques in enhancing students' HOTS achievement in the topic of the digestive system and food absorption. In this study, three hypothetical statements were accepted. Analysis of the post test scores in comparison for both groups showed a significant difference between mean scores for HOTS achievement. Analysis of the students’ pre test and the post test for both groups showed there was a significant difference in mean scores of HOTS. The number of students who pass the HOTS questions increased for both groups. However, the highest increase was observed in the cooperative learning group. Moreover, findings showed that student we able to answer the HOTS questions in a long sentence with a good explanation and justification. The success of the teaching and learning process depends on the activities carried out by the teachers in class. The methods or strategies used by teachers in delivering knowledge to the students significantly influence student achievement

This is because having supportive and group activities such as quizzes and exercises help students to better understand and achieve their learning goals and objectives. Students who helped their peers in sharing information through group discussion can encourage themselves to get better result. For weaker students, they need to be given ongoing training and guidance to enhance their understanding and enable them to answer the HOTS questions. This finding also support the cooperative learning theory (Johnson & Johnson, 1994) who stated that students' failure to answer test questions, especially in the form of HOTS, is not because they are weak students. Sometimes students with low achievement tend to have difficulties to understand the terms used in the higher order thinking skills questions, no matter the language use whether in Malay or English (Ahmad, Abu & Abdullah, 2017). Because language have positive relation to the high order thinking skills among the students (Ali, Mokhtar & Jamaluddin, 2017). Therefore, the students’ needs guidance from their teachers to learn how to respond for HOTS questions (Chinedu, Libunao, Kamen & Saud, 2014) and teachers as educators need to be creative in seeking alternative teaching strategies and techniques to ensure the delivery method used by the teachers following the various levels of student intelligence (Yee, Ping, Yunos, Othman, Tee, Mohaffyza & Bc ,2019; Chinedu & Kamin, 2015, Azian, Fauziah, Noor & Norhanim, 2017).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. and cognitive skill enhancement (Chinedu & Kamin, 2015; Virgana, 2019: Gull & Shehzah, 2015). Therefore, teachers need to be wise in designing and selecting teaching methods and strategies that are considered appropriate with students' abilities and intelligence (Chinedu, Libunao, Kamen & Saud, 2014). The cooperative learning method using the Home Science STAD module is one of the approaches that can be used to complement the conventional learning method practiced by Home Science Education teachers. This is because cooperative learning methods provide students with the opportunity to acquire knowledge and develop other 21st century skills such as teamwork and communication skills (Nor Hasliza, 2012). Also, this finding assures educators, especially Home Science Education teachers that student centered learning is best applied to students with low academic achievement. This finding supports the theory of constructivism which stated that learning becomes more meaningful when students are directly involved.

7. Implication and Suggestion

The findings could have important implications for ensuring the successful and effective development of HOTS among Home Science teachers and students. Specifically, findings of the current study are significant to Teacher Training Institutes, universities that offer teacher training programs, pre service and in service teachers, researchers, and other related stakeholders in the field of education. The evidence of this study could enhance our understanding on the effectiveness of cooperative learning in promoting student’s knowledge and ability to answers HOTS questions. Hence, school authorities must consider to use cooperative learning in the areas of Technical and Vocational Education (TVET). Given that the nature of TVET students is similar to Home Science Education students, this will help to improve student’s achievement. Findings of this cooperative learning study should be disseminated to all schools in Malaysia to encourage other teacher to consider the instructional methods (Ling, Ghazali & Raman, 2016). All educational stakeholders, especially the government as the policy makers should take the responsibilities to enhance and integrate HOTS in the process of teaching and learning. The Ministry of Education needs to provide continuous training and supervision to the teachers as well as teaching materials (Mei, Joko, Sri & Hening, 2019) in order to deal with the challenges of HOTS development. It also serves as a basis for the design of more effective and holistic approaches of teaching and learning strategies for HOTS, so that the goal of developing students’ critical thinkers as stated in the education policy can be Thisachieved.study clearly shows that it is necessary to conduct a more extensive research on cooperative learning in helping weak students specially to master their subject content as well as equipped them with 21st century skills. This is important for educators to prepare the students as future employees and problem solvers (Chinedu & Kamin, 2015) with regards to achieve Malaysian aspirations as mention in Malaysia Education Development Plan 2013 2025.

Used ByLocal ESL Teachers in Malaysia aZakiYunus/2f6f7f8bc87c919459d2c1ea8c25c713bab69740 Ary D., Jacobs, L. C., & Razaviech A. (2002). Introduction to research in education, 6th ed Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2002. Aziz, A., & Andin, C. (2018). Penggunaan strategi pembelajaran koperatif untuk meningkatkan tahap kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi pelajar [The use of cooperative learning strategies to improve students’ higher order thinking skills]. Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia, 43. doi:10.17576/JPEN 2018 43.01 01.

10. Acknowledgments

11. References Adeneye, O. A. A., Alfred, O. F., & Samuel A. O. O. (2012). Achievement in cooperative versus individualistic goal structured Junior Secondary School Mathematics classrooms in Nigeria”. International Journal of Mathematics Trends and Technology Ahmad, N., Abu, M., & Abdullah, A. (2017). Hindering factors in mastering higher order thinkings skills: Application of Rasch measurement model. Man in India, 97, 275 Anderson,280L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A Taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives. Spring, 83(4), 212 220. Anwar, M., Tatlah, I. A., & Butt, I. H. (2018). Effect of cooperative learning on students' achievement in English tenses. Pakistan Journal of Education, 35(2), 37 52. Arlina, A. Z., & Melor, M. Y. (2014). Strategies used by local ESL teachers in Malaysia to create a constructivist classroom. Paper presented at Symposium of International Language & Knowledge (SiLK 2014), Penang, Malaysia. Retrieved from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Strategies

The main strength of Home Science STAD module (teacher edition) is, it helps facilitate and streamline the teaching and learning process. Because the module has been equipped with teaching materials such as group division, activities, quizzes, evaluation forms and recognition. The presence of the module is very helpful for teachers. As for the student, it can be observed that student edition module can attract them to learn with the presence of pictures and colourful pages. Learning by using Home Science STAD module able to stimulate students' interest to participate in group activities actively. Since the group was heterogeneous, nobody was left behind. Members of the group helping each other to gain high individual marks because it contributes to the group marks for them to get recognition. One of the disadvantage of module is that teachers need to prepare in advance the teaching materials before they can conduct a cooperative learning class. Otherwise, the teaching and learning process will be disrupted.

8. The strengths and weaknesses of Home Science STAD Module

This project is sponsored by Universiti Putra Malaysia grants for the GP IPS/2017/9564800 project.

9. Limitations Due to time constraints for this project, only two classes in two schools were used in the study. The findings from the study can be generate to similar school that offer Home Science Education courses. More schools need to be included in the study. Further, experimental study procedure can be improved if the students be punctual during the data collection process.

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Keywords: Children’s Friendship Training (CFT); Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD); social skills; quality of play; problem behavior

225 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 225 245, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.132020 The Effects of Children’s Friendship Training on Social Skills and Quality of Play among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Horng Shen Ellipse Goh, Samsilah Roslan*, Ezza Mad Baguri & Sing Yee Ong University Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8559 9339 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 1795 1606 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5878 9003 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5741 6213 Siaw Yan Li University of Malaya, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2815 4867 Abstract. Among the challenges faced by children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) involves developing social skills and building quality friendship through social activities, interactions and playing games. The purpose of this study was to find out the effect of Children’s Friendship Training (CFT) on social skills among children with ASD. Utilising the quasi experimental design of one group pretest posttest study, this research was conducted on 40 children aged 7 to 12 years in the Klang Valley, Malaysia. The intervention lasted for 12 weeks and involved both indicatedandRatingtestthechildrenwithASDandtheirparents.Datawascollectedtwiceforpreandposttestscoresusingtwosetsofquestionnaires,SocialSkillsScale(SSRS)andQualityofPlayQuestionnaire(QPQ).Descriptiveinferentialstatisticaltoolswereusedtoanalysethedata.Thefindingsthatthereweresignificantincreaseinthesocialskillsof children with ASD after the intervention, based on both the teachers’ (t(30) = 6.298, p = .000) and parents’, (t(30) = 8.266, p = .000) evaluations. All the three subscales of Quality of Play also showed significant differences after the intervention, with significant decrease in conflict, (t(30) = 3.949, p = .000) and disengagement (M = 5.52, SD = 1.93), (t(30) = 3.474, p = .002), and significant increase in engagement, (t(30) = 4.892, p = .000). In conclusion, CFT effects were significant in enhancing social skills and quality of play among children with ASD. As social skills are very much related to social acceptance and ultimately self concept and self esteem, the potentials of CFT inovercoming social skill issues among children with or without learning disabilities should be explored further.

1. Introduction Autism is getting more attention and concern (White et al., 2010) in Malaysia since the 20 century (Amar, 2008). Researches, prevention, and intervention programs had been carried out and developed (Alallawi et al., 2020; Morelli et al., 2015; Weiss & Harris, 2001). This is due to the prominent concerns towards the social and communication skills in ASD children (Petrina et al., 2014; Scheeren et al., 2020). Children with ASD viewed the concept of friendship differently from the way other children perceive it. The understanding of the friendship of children with ASD tended to focus more on companionship rather than intimacy or affection. The ratings of perceived friendship quality also showed a huge difference in how children with ASD rated their friendship in comparison to other children. Children with ASD seemed to rate low on their best friendships based on dimensions such as companionship, helpfulness, security, and closeness (Calder et al., 2013). Besides, children with ASD benefit greatly from having one or two best friends. It helps them to handle life events better (Yamada et al., 2020). A study showed friendship correlated positively with self esteem and negatively with anxiety or depressive symptoms. However, 50% of adolescents with ASD did not have a friend hence they did not experience the benefits (Schohl et al., 2014). Children without ASD may develop a friendship that is already present in the first two years of life. That is why infants and toddlers exhibit behaviours that show preferences towards some playmates and not others (Chang et al., 2016). On the other hand, children with ASD face difficulties in building friendships (Skafle et al., 2020). In the early years, they tend to isolate themselves and do not try to interact or play with others. This becomes a problem in later years because they do not develop the ability to read social cues and find it challenging to recognize social faux pas (Baron Cohen, S., O’Riordan, M., Stone, V., Jones, R. & Plaisted, 1999). Children with ASD have a lower rate of prosocial behaviour compared with typically developing children (Dunfield et al., 2019). They also facing problem in social interaction (Mazza et al., 2017) which decreases their communication skill and social engagement in building friendship. Many intervention and social skills training programs were designed to enhance the general acquisition of discrete social skills. Unfortunately, there is a lack of intervention programs that focus on promoting the social competency of autistic children (Bellini & Akullian, 2007). Previous studies limited their focus on skills deficit model rather than social intervention on building child’s social strengths (Varley et et.al., 2019). Even though there was evidence in improving social competence but there was limitation on significant finding among children aged below 15 years old. Besides that, other interventions did not specifically address important key variables such as the internal validity, inter rater agreement, and treatment reliability of the study (Fombonne, 2009). With regards to children with ASD, some of the main domains affected by ASD include social, behavioural, and language developments. The severity of ASD symptoms differs from one person to another. However, impairment in social skills is the key feature of ASD, and children with ASD often display what is normally interpreted as limited functionalities in terms of language and intelligence (Tse et al., 2007). One of the

biggest impairments in ASD is poor social interaction skills and it does not fade away during childhood or adolescence. Those high functioning ASD children may portray extreme characteristics of the disability during adolescence (White et al., Autism2010).

Although using the language for social communication is a struggle for individuals with high functioning ASD, they often perform well in terms of the structural and content aspect of language. However, they tend to ignore the needs of their partner in conversation and seem to not be sensitive to the listeners' interest. When in conversation they often fail to provide their partners with new or relevant information. Apart from that, they also tend to use unusual prosodic features and language that are too formal and are out of context. These tendencies cause misinterpretation of social cues which result in an exchange of inaccurate messages through communication (Kent Walsh et al., 2015).

It is also observed that children with ASD lack social skills that restrict them from communicating effectively (Demopoulos et al., 2016). This hampers their ability to construct bonds with those around them causing them to struggle in developing or maintaining meaningful relationships. Social pragmatics, regulation, expression, and understanding of emotions are all challenging tasks for children with ASD. Their shortfalls in these areas often result in rejection from peers causing them to experience isolation (Locke et al., 2014). In the course of their development, individuals are usually required to acquire a certain degree of peer etiquette to create and maintain a friendship (Frankel et al., 2010). Flavell and Miller (1998) mentioned communication and social skills as the most important assignments in our life and they do not necessarily improve with mental age. Unfortunately, most of the ASD children are struggling to generate and sustain a positive interaction among peers (Frankel et al., 2010) even for high functioning ASD children (Bauminger et al., 2003; Bauminger et al., 2004). The impairment caused by poor social skills may become more prominent over time along with the demands of the school-aged period (White et al., 2007).

is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is present with several behavioural problems. According to Crone and Mehta (2016) , some of the most common behaviour problems exhibited by children with ASD are tantrums (76%), aggression (56%), stereotyped behaviours (14%), and self injury (11%). Another big challenge for children with ASD is to be involved in quality social play, which is an important milestone in social development (Ray Kaeser, et al., 2017; Salter et al., 2016). Children normally develop their creativity through play and this helps them improve their imagination, physical, cognitive, emotional, and social skills (Clark, 2016; Pop, Pintea, Vanderborght, & David, 2014). It is, however, a challenge for children with ASD to engage in a symbolic or pretend play because they are not equipped with the skills it requires. Compared to others, children with ASD only take part in a play that is not as elaborate or as diverse as it would be for those without ASD (Pop, Pintea, Vanderborght & David, 2014).

Past researches indicated that placing high functioning ASD children in a mainstream class will enhance the complexity of their play and reduce the possibility of having activities alone (Adams et al., 2017; Frankel et al., 2010; Sigman & Ruskin, 1999). However, without additional treatment, it shows no improvement in their social interaction frequency even though the ASD child studied together with mainstream students (Frankel et al., 2010; McConnell, 2002; Skafle et al., 2020; White et al., 2007). There are many social skills intervention programs available and often applied in clinical practice nowadays, but not all of them are evidence based interventions (Mandelberg et al., 2014). The empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of these social skill intervention programs for children with ASD is still insufficient (Dekker et al., 2014; Kazemi & Abolghasemi, 2019). In addition to that, there is also a very limited number of social skills interventions involving parents and teachers (Dekker et al., 2014).

2) Is Children’s Friendship Training effective in reducing the problem behaviour of children with ASD between 7 to 12 years old?

A review of the literature has also shown that there is insufficient research to determine the most effective method for social skills building (Adams et al., 2017; White et al., 2007). There is also a limited number of researches that used group based social skills training approaches for children with ASD. A review of past social skill interventions indicated that several methodological issues were not scientifically addressed. These include internal validity, inter rater agreement, and treatment reliability (Fombonne, 2009). In general, research has found that better social skills tend to contribute to positive peer interaction. This positive peer interaction will then provide children with an opportunity to learn positive behaviour through peer modelling. This will in turn help children to gain positive support and acceptance from their peers and friends. Unfortunately, studies also showed that the majority of children lack the social and academic skills needed when they enter kindergarten (Montroy et al., 2014).

Several studies reported on social skills interventions for children with ASD such as social skill training (SST). Schools and clinical practices are known to have placed great emphasis on specific group based SST as a part of their treatment. One study, utilizing the randomized controlled trial method was conducted on 120 participants with ASD aged between 10 12 years and with an intelligent quotient level of above 80. The participants were randomly assigned to three conditions; SST, SST with parent and teacher involvement, and care as usual. This training spanning across 15 weekly sessions helped children with ASD to develop skills such as making eye contact, starting a conversation, and cooperation. In

Therefore, this study aims to study the effects of the Children’s Friendship Training (CFT) in enhancing the social skills and quality of play in children with ASD between 7 to 12 years old. The research questions included:

1) Is Children’s Friendship Training effective in enhancing the social skills of children with ASD between 7 to 12 years old?

3) Is Children’s Friendship Training effective in enhancing the quality of play of children with ASD between 7 to 12 years old?

2. Literature Review

In addition to this, Mandelberg and his colleagues had run research to examine the long term outcomes of the Children's Friendship Training (CFT) effectiveness on children with ASD who had gone through CFT one to five years earlier. The results proved that the ASD children who participated in the previous CFT program showed some noticeable changes. They indicated significantly more playdates, less play conflict among peers and friends, a significant improvement in parent reported social skills and problem behaviours, and revealed a slightly significant decrease in loneliness when compared to when they first joined the CFT program ( Frankel, et al., 2014).

Another study to evaluate the effects of the 14 weeks PEERS program on social skills and social anxiety for 58 adolescents with high functioning ASD also provided interesting results. The results indicated that the experimental treatment group showed evidence of PEERS efficacy in which the participants showed gained knowledge of PEERS concepts and friendship skills. The experimental treatment group also showed an increase in hosted and invited get togethers. It is interesting to note that a significant increase in hosted get togethers was found in the original PEERS study, but they did not find a significant increase in invited get togethers (Schohl et al., 2014). Reichow et al. (2012) conducted a study involving a meta analysis on the randomized control trials of social skills among people with ASD. The study found that there was some evidence showing the social skills groups improved in overall social competence and friendship quality. However, the findings indicated that there was no difference between the treatment and control groups about emotional recognition. Nevertheless, Reichow et al. (2012) suggested that more research on ASD children social skills is necessary, especially data of their improvement in their quality of life after intervention programs. CFT has also applied the concept of Behaviour Analytic Theory of Autism in order to reduce problem behaviours. One of the common misunderstandings on the

Frankel and his colleagues continued their research on the effects of Children’s Friendship Training. They also designed the Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills (PEERS) treatment which adapted the core features of CFT. PEES focused on adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder (Laugeson et al., 2012). Besides, there was another study conducted using PEERS on young adults with ASD. The results indicated that there was an overall improvement in social skills reported by the caregivers in the treatment group. Specifically, it was found that the participants showed an increase in cooperative social behaviour with peers and caregivers, social assertiveness, and self control after receiving the treatment. It also significantly decrease in social anxiety (Hill et al., 2017). Furthermore, there was a significant improvement reported in their overall social responsiveness. This study suggested they may go through positive development (Gantman et al., 2012) in the ability to make sense and predict other people’s behaviour (Hale & Tager Flusberg, 2005).

conclusion, the research highlighted the need to carry out more studies on the effectiveness of this kind of training or intervention (Dekker et al., 2014).

Another major theory that underlies CFT is Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, specifically in promoting children’s quality of play. As mentioned previously, children need to go through different cognitive development stages to grow, and human has the inborn drives to develop their cognition by exploration and mastery of the environment and the development of self confidence (Cook & Cook, 2009; Woolfolk, 2015). Assimilation and accommodation, two central concepts of Piaget’s Theory, were significant in promoting quality of play. In the preoperational period, the children will start to use pretend play, such as taking the roles of parents, in their learning process. Through the pretend play, they learn new information (assimilation) and adjust the knowledge scheme through interaction (accommodation). By offering the platform of CFT as a safe place for exploration and mastery of the skills, the children would able to enhance their quality of play which is significant for their cognitive development.

In short, Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development, Behaviour Analytic Theory of Autism and Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, were the main theories underpinning this study which is focusing on social skill, problem behaviour and quality of play (Figure 1).

children with Autism was their problem behaviours were unchangeable as they were born with it. However, Behaviour Analytic Theorist believe that it is possible to reduce children’s problem behaviours if they were positioned in appropriate environments (Lovaas et al., 1989). Moreover, Behaviour Analytic Theorist argued that problem behaviour of the children with Autism might be due to behaviour deficits, but not central deficits. If the therapists are able to enlist parents as part of the treatment and resolve these behaviour deficits, it will eventually lead to a broad improvement (Lovaas et al., 1973). Thus, CFT aimed to create the suitable environments for the children with Autism to resolve their behaviour deficits, which ultimately reduce their problem behaviours.

This research utilizes the quasi experimental method of one group pretest posttest design. One group pretest posttest design is adopted as it has widespread usage in applied field settings and can help enhance the internal validity of the study. The participants went through a 12 weeks continuous CFT (intervention programs). Each session took one hour and thirty minutes. CFT focuses on a few targeted skills such as social connection formation with the aid of parents, trading information with peers, peer entry into a group of children already at play, play dates, and conflict evasion and deliberation. These skills are taught using behavioural rehearsal intervention as one of the methods (Laugeson et al., 2007).

Figure 1: Theoretical Framework of this Study Method 3.1 Design

The CFT program involved three stages. In the first stage, a therapist who was experienced in teaching children with special needs conducted the CFT activities with the ASD children according to the CFT module. At the same time, the parent(s) of the ASD children were engaged in a separate parent group where they went through several activities to help them follow through with the program at home. In the second stage, parents provided additional scaffolding for their child. Parents were informed and briefed by other therapists on the appropriate ways to guide their child to practice the given homework at home. This was to ensure the children practice the learned specific social skills and had appropriate guidance and encouragement from the parents. This stage is the most crucial, as the children with ASD mighthave difficulties in makingfriends on their own. Hence, proper guidance from the parents was very important as they planned, set up, and arranged the playdates, or took their children to the

3.2 Procedure

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. playground to practice the learned skills. They were continuously reminded of the importance of unconditional positive regard and encouragement. In the final stage, the children would practice the learned social skills on their own in real life settings such as at home, schools, and others.

Specifically, the children's sessions consisted of briefings on session rules, and activities structured along themes. Themes included appropriate places and times to make friends, two way conversations, "slipping in", levels of disclosure and appropriate ways to react when turned down. Also, themes such as rules of good sport, rules of the good sport for ending games and rules of a good host. Besides that, the sessions also included themes to help them with social situations such as making fun of the tease, "unjust" adult accusations, rules of good winners and ways to stay out of the fight. The final session was the graduation party.

There were four sectionsin the children's session; homework review, didactic, real play, and homework assignment. At the beginning of the session, children were required to talk on the progress of their given homework. Then, the lesson of the day would be taught to the children using the Socratic Method. The concept of the Socratic Method involved allowing the children to provide the rules for a situation so that it appeared as if they were the ones making the rules. The researcher used the Socratic Method to make the children's learning more active and livelier and to encourage them to learn from each other. This would allow the children to feel more competent as they suggested the rules themselves. The children were then required to practice the learned knowledge and skills in roleplays with other participants. Reinforcements such as stars and tokens as well as punishment methods (timeouts) were applied throughout the session as forms of behavioural modification (Nevin & Grace, 2000). In addition, homework assignments were given at the end of the sessions. Parents' were given handouts to outline the activities of every session. In the first parents' CFT session, goals were set and introduced to the parents to ensure everyone had a clear vision of the expected direction to achieve. Limitations of the intervention were also briefed to ensure that parents do not have unrealistic expectations of the outcomes of the program. In the second CFT session, parents were required to practice their active listening skills. There were discussions on how to listen to their child's sharing of the activities done during the day and the children's phone conversations with their peers if there were any. The objective was to assist parents on how to encourage their children to have two way conversations. In the third session, parents were required to help gather resources for their children to make friends. The aim was to assist their children in accomplishing their assignments related to improving their social skills in making friends. The fourth and fifth sessions were "slipping in" where parents learned how children make new acquaintances. They were then required to practice the "slipping in" skills with their children. “Inside games” was the topic of the sixth session where parents were asked to identify appropriate and inappropriate toys or indoor games for their children to play in a group. Parents were also expected to assist their children to search for potential best friends. In the seventh session, the playdates topic was introduced

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. to parents. They were required to discuss and come to an agreement on a suitable time for their children to make phone calls to the parent of the child who was going to be invited over for the playdates. In the eighth session, parents practiced with their children on effective ways to resist being teased by peers. This included turning the tease into something fun and humorous. The ninth session was a continuity of the eighth session where parents practiced with the children the appropriate ways to respond to adult injustice accusations. In the tenth session, parents learned about the gender differences in play and friendship patterns to adjust to the children's expectations of what might happen. This was followed by learning about ways to help their children to avoid and reduce physical fights with others in the eleventh session. The last session was a graduation party where parents learned about the follow up assignments after the intervention ended. They were reminded to ensure their children to keep practicing all the learned skills and tasks in CFT. In the final stage, the children in this group will practice the social skills learned while encountering social challenges in the real life setting like a house, school, and others. It is postulated that at this stage, the social skills, problem behaviour, and quality of play of the children with ASD will be influenced by the CFT program (Figure 3) Figure 3: CFT Program Procedures

3.3 Sampling Criterion sampling was used to recruit the participants for this research. It was chosen to optimize the evaluation of the treatment’s effectiveness on this particular

In addition, the current study also refers to the sample size of other similar studies, such as the research conducted by Probst & Glen (2011) in Germany where they have recruited 23 participants who had been diagnosed with ASD. The research was aimed at examining the effectiveness of TEACCH based interventions studies for children with ASD as well as their parents (Probst & Glen, 2011). Another similar research conducted was by Gantman et al. (2012). The researchers recruited around 17 children diagnosed with ASD to test the effectiveness of a caregiver assisted social skills intervention known as PEERS for high functioning adults with ASD (Gantman et al., 2012). In this study, the participants were divided into two separate classes. Later they were further divided into four groups. The first treatment was carried out at a secondary school in Selangor and the other 3 treatment groups were carried out at Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). Throughout the sessions, 9 participants withdrew as they were unable to commit to several of the 12 sessions program.

The Quality of Play Questionnaire Parent (QPQ) was developed by Frankel and Mintz (2008). This questionnaire consists of 19 itemsto measure the frequency and children’s quality of play during their last play dates. It had three factor based scales to measure the children's quality of play. These were conflict, engage, and disengage scales. The

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. population (Palys, 2008; Patton, 1990). The 40 participants from the Klang Valley area fulfilled all four inclusion criteria to participate in this research, namely; the age of 7 to 12 years old, high functioning ASD children, able to communicate verbally in English, and acquired the concepts of losing and winning in social games. The number of sample size for this study was recruited based on the sample size justified by Murza et al. (2014) in which they recruited 25 participants specifically diagnosed with high functioning ASD adults. In this study, the researchers run a treatment to investigate the efficacy of the ACT & Check Strategy intervention to improve inference generation when reading, metacognitive ability, social inference ability, and general reading comprehension in adults with high functioning ASD (Murza et al., 2014).

This study used the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) and the Quality of Play Questionnaire (QPQ) to measure social skills and quality of play. Both questionnaires were translated into Bahasa Malaysia and back translated into English. The translated questionnaires were then validated by three professional lecturers at Universiti Putra TheMalaysia.SSRS questionnaire was developed by Gresham & Elliot (1990) and consisted of 52 items in parent's form and 51 items in the teacher's form. Items in SSRS questionnaire were rated as “Never”, “Sometimes”, and “Very often”. There are several subscales in this instrument and they are Cooperation, Assertion, Responsibility, Empathy, Self control (subscales for Social Skills), and (Externalizing and Internalizing) subscales for Problem Behaviour (Frankel et al., 2010). It was reported that the authors developed SSRS using the content from literature searches and items selection by clinicians, parents, and other education professionals. The results showed a correlation of .75 between the Walker McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment and the try out version of the SSRS Teacher Form (DiPerna et al., 2005; Gresham & Elliot, 1990). Based on the result of the pilot test, the Social Skills scale reliability coefficients were .844 for the parent’s form, and .837 for the teacher’s form while the reliability coefficients for Problem Behaviour were .747 for the parent’s form and .702 for the teacher’s form.

3.4 Instruments

The results from the paired sample t test of social skills from the parents’ evaluation (Table 2) revealed there was a significant increase in the mean scores of social skills from 32.45 in pre test (SD = 10.45) to 52.45 (SD = 12.04) in post test after CFT based on the parents’ evaluation, (t(30) = 8.266, p = .000). Calculation of effect size using Cohen’s d indicated a very large effect size (d = 1.485). These results indicated, based on parents’ evaluation, CFT did significantly improve the social skills of the 7 to 12 year old children with ASD. Table 2: Paired Sample Test of Social Skills (Pretest and Posttest) from the Teachers’ Evaluation Variable Mean SD t df Sig. (2 tailed) Social Skill (Pre test) 32.45 10.45 30 .000 Social Skill (Post test) 52.45 12.04 8.266 Apart from the parents’ evaluation on the children’s social skills, teachers were also required to respond to both the pre test and post test. The results of the

Table 1: Frequency and Percentage of Respondents by Age Age Frequency Percent 7 8 25.8 8 9 29.0 9 5 16.1 10 3 9.7 11 3 9.7 12 3 9.7 Total 31 100.0

Both descriptive and inferential statistics were utilized to conclude the findings on the effectiveness of CFT in enhancing social skills, quality of play, and reducing misbehaviours among children with ASD based on parents’ and teachers’ evaluations. In order to determine if there were significant increase in the variables studied after the intervention, paired sample t tests were used the as data involved pairs of observations (pre test and post test) (Pham & Jimenez, 2012).

3.5 Data analysis

236 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. items were on a 4 point Likert scale, ranging from "Not at all" (0), "Just a little" (1), "Pretty much" (2), and "Very much" (3). There were two open ended items; item 18 and item 19. Item 18 required the parents to recall and report the frequency of their children being invited to play at another child's house as the only guest in the last month. Item 19 required the parents to recall and report the frequency of their children inviting another child to their house as the only guest to play in the last month (Frankel et al., 2010). The result of the test indicated a reliability coefficient of .842 for the Conflict factor based scale, .658 for the Engage factor based scale, and .736 for the Disengage factor based scale.

4. Result The 31 participants were between 7 to 12 years in age (Table 1) with 27 males (87.1%) and 4 females (12.9%).

paired sample t test of social skills from the teacher’s evaluation (Table 3) also portrayed a similar pattern with a significant increase (t(30) = 6.298, p = .000) in the scores of social skills of pre test (M = 29.71, SD = 8.98) compared to post test (M = 41.55, SD = 11.47). The effect size, Cohen’s d, again indicated a very large effect size (d = 1.131).

Besides social skills, this study also measured the changes in problem behaviours among the respondents (Table 4). The parents reported a significant decrease in problem behaviours of their children after going through CFT with a mean score of 5.55 (SD = 4.97) in the post test, compared to 11.97 (SD = 3.49) in the pre test, (t(30) = 8.689, p = .000). Cohen’s d indicated a large effect size (d = 1.561).

ProblemBehaviour(Post test) 5.55 4.97 8.689

Variable Mean SD t df Sig. (2 tailed) Problem Behaviour (Pre test) 11.97 3.49 30 .000

As shown in Table 5, the mean score of problem behaviours from the teachers’ evaluation had similar trends. The initial pre test mean of problem behaviour from the teachers’ evaluation was 8.53 (SD = 4.38). However, after the 12 sessions of CFT, there is a significant decrease of problem behaviour with the post test mean score from teachers’ evaluation of 5.00 (SD = 4.63), (t(30) = 4.023, p = .000). The effect size calculatedusing Cohen’s d indicated a medium effect size (d = .723).

This study also compared the respondents’ quality of play before and after the intervention using only the parents’ evaluations (Table 6). Quality of play had three subscales; conflict, engaged and disengaged. The parents’ evaluation results showed a significant decrease in the mean tests of conflict after the intervention (M = 2.74, SD = 2.87) compared to before (M = 5.61, SD = 2.74), (t(30) = 3.949, p = .000). There was also a significant reduction in the subscale of disengaged after the intervention, (M = 4.19, SD = 2.10) compared to before (M = 5.52, SD = 1.93), (t(30) = 3.474, p = .002). In addition, there was a significant increase in the subscale

Problem Behaviour (Pre test) 8.53 4.38 30 .000

Table 3: Paired Sample Test of Social Skills (Pre test and Post test) from the Teachers’ Evaluation Variable Mean SD t df Sig. (2 tailed) Social Skill (Pre test) 29.71 8.98 30 .000 Social Skill (Post test) 41.55 11.47 6.298

Variable Mean SD t df Sig. (2-tailed)

ProblemBehaviour(Post test) 5.00 4.63 4.023

Table 5: Paired Sample Test of Problem Behaviour (Pre-test and Post-test) from the Teachers’ Evaluation

Table 4: Paired Sample Test of Problem Behaviour (Pre test and Post test) from the Parents’ Evaluation

Table 6: Paired Sample Test of Social Skills (Pre-test and Post-test) from the Teachers’ Evaluation Variable Mean SD t df Sig. (2 – tailed) Conflict (Pre test) 5.61 3.57 3.949 30 .000

Conflict (Post test) 2.74 2.87 Engaged (Pre test) 4.29 2.16 4.892 30 .000 Engaged (Post test) 6.03 2.21 Disengaged (Pre test) 5.52 1.93 3.474 30 .000 Disengaged (Post test) 4.19 2.10

5. Discussion CFT was already explored by researchers outside of Malaysia as an intervention in friendship formation, but it has not been tried specifically for children with ASD in Malaysia. This study aimed to depict the suitability of using CFT for children with ASD in Malaysia by comparing the pre test and post test scores in social skills, quality of play, and problem behavior. The outcome measures were done by the teachers and parents of the children who participated in this study. The findings presented by the parents indicated some evidence that the social skills of children with ASD were significantly enhanced after they completed CFT. The findings from the teachers' report were consistent with the findings from the parents' report which concurred that there was a significant improvement in the social skills of children with ASD. The CFT examined in the present study was associated with moderate increase in the frequency of hosted play obtained from the parents’ evaluation results and reduced frequency in the time spent on electronic technology products such as I pad, phone, computer, and television. This is consistent with the findings by Frankel et al. (2010) and Mandelberg, Laugeson, et al. (2014). One of the reasons for the improvement in ASD children's social skills in this study was because they learned about the appropriate places and times to make friends during the CFT program. According to Dekker et al. (2014), Matson and Wilkins (2009) and White et al. (2007), part of the reasons why most of the ASD children failed to make friends was due to the deficiency of certain knowledge and concepts of making friends. After the children had acquired enough knowledge on making friends, it was also found that they learned and kept practicing on how to have a two way conversation with others in the second CFT session onwards. This is very interesting to note as most children with ASD show social communication impairment since toddlers. Hence, two way communication was very significant for children with ASD to develop friendship, since social communication was one of the core struggle areas of ASD children (Dekker et al., 2014; Hansen et al., 2017).

One of the many reasons that make CFT program stood out from other social skill intervention program is the "slipping in" activity. The ASD children learned and practiced the appropriate steps in asking permission from their peers to participate during peer group play. This is an effective activity in helping ASD children to improve their social skills in making new friends through better play quality. Their old habit of "living in their own world" will potentially decrease which then leads to a better adjustment in life (Frankel & Myatt, 2003).

Based on the parents' evaluation in this current study, the children participants showed higher self control and improved assertiveness. This is again consistent with results from past research which also indicated that children who received CFT treatment acquired lower scores in children’s conflict and disengaged scale compared to children in the delayed treatment group (Frankel et al., 2010). One of the contributions to this finding was the content in the CFT sessions. Children in this study learned to set rules during the first session of the treatment to minimize the frequency of their problem behavior. Aligned with that, time out and delayed playtime were used as punishment during the treatment process to reduce the problem behavior of children with ASD. On the other hand, reinforcements such as star and token system were applied in the treatment process to increase their motivation and appropriate behavior (Athens & Vollmer, 2010; Payne & Dozier, 2013; Querim et al., 2013). This helped indirectly to reduce the problem behaviors (Van Camp et al., 2000). During the eighth session of the CFT, the children learned how to react towards peer teasing without causing tension and conflict. Children with ASD are already struggling with social skills that normally leads to an increase in the difficulties to make friends. They tend to have low self esteem and will easily lose interest to socialize after being teased as they would compare themselves to their more capable peers (Neff, 2011). According to Williams et al. (2019) ASD students were self aware of their difference and experienced challenges in being with the peer. However, parents in this study learned strategies to support and help their children when they were being teased. Parents' support and involvement were able to help the children to gain self esteem needed to handle social teasing.

In addition, children in this study learned and practiced ways to stay out or avoid physical fights. This turned out to be one of the best solutions. They were also taught to identify the appropriate time and method to help their peers and friends who required help by reporting to other children or adults nearby to prevent them from getting into more trouble. Among other important things learned by the children in this study were the rules of good sports during and when ending a game, rules of good hosts, and rules of good winners that helped to improve their quality of play with peers. They learned and practiced on having sportsmanship and allowing others to have fun too during games and activities. They also learned to cooperate and work

Another challenge faced by children with ASD is how to manage unfair adult accusations. This is a common situation in school as children with ASD continuously face difficulties in social skills and expressing themselves. This situation normally led to bigger issues for these children as they struggle with language and expressing their feelings, which then leads to the increase in their problem behaviors (Losh et al., 2012).

Problem behaviors including aggressive and social withdrawal are believed to discourage interaction between children with ASD and other children (Major et al., 2017; Sullivan et al., 2019). In this study, the results indicated that there was a significant decrease in problem behavior among children with ASD which could perhaps be attributed to the skills acquired to properly manage their relationships with others, especially in tricky situations such as facing unfair adult accusations. This result is consistent with previous studies that showed similar decrease in the conflict with play dates, internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and increase in self control and self esteem (Frankel et al., 2007; Frankel et al., 2010).

There are three suggestions in implementing CFT. Firstly, a video recording of the first few homework carried out by the participants at home is recommended to be played at the end of the sessions. This will provide the parents with a clearer picture on how to carry out the tasks given as homework. Secondly, the researcher can provide clear guidance to the parents using a real case study to maximize the results gained from the homework given. Lastly, the parents should be informed beforehand to prepare the friend list so that they were more prepared with the homework. For further study, it is proposed that this intervention is extended to children with other learning disabilities. Researchers should also consider having a larger sample during the recruitment as the long duration involved, and the additional homework given to parents and children might cause several participants to drop out mid way. Thirdly, as CFT is a parent inclusive intervention program, it is suggested that parental experience in CFT be explored in more depth. CFT can also be introduced to government and private special needs schools in Malaysia. To deliver CFT effectively for children with ASD; teachers need to be trained to conduct CFT, the schools need to ensure children with ASD meet the requirement as stated in CFT through screening sessions, and parents’ cooperation and commitment should be ascertained beforehand to ensure the success of the program.

The children in the study learned about the importance and ways to become good hosts to serve, respect, and tolerate their guests.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. as a team and to suggest change of game when they were bored in an appropriate and more acceptable manner. Lastly, they also learned to acknowledge and praise other peers' behaviors during the rules of good sports session. This session was important as it built the children’s confidence in making friends through games and activities.

There are few limitations in this study. There will be no consistent types and number of group activities provided to the control group of this study as the participants came from different centres or schools. Besides that, this research was carried out in English with further explanation in Mandarin and Malay if needed.

In previous studies, this has enabled them to create more satisfactory and continuing relationships with their playmates (Frankel & Myatt, 2003). The findings on the children’s achievement in the session on rules of good hosts and rules of good winners was supported by the findings from Lopes et al. (2013) and R. E. Adams et al. (2011).

The findings indicated that CFT was significantly impactful in enhancing social skills of 7 to 12 year old children with ASD. Both parents and teachers reported significant increase in the level of social skills among children with ASD who participated in CFT. It can be concluded that CFT has a high potential to be adopted as an intervention programme for high functioning ASD children in Malaysia. It is empirically proven that CFT is a program that can be a benchmark in Malaysia as one of the mediums in helping children with ASD towards a better future. CFT also serves as one of the tools to empower parents in assisting children with ASD in enhancing their social competence. The features of children with ASD who lack social ability should not be a barrier for them in making new

6. Limitation

7. Suggestion

8. Conclusion

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1. Introduction

Impact of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) Module Based on the Cognitive Apprenticeship Model (CAM) on Student’s Performance Noorashikim Noor Ibrahim Institute of Teacher Education, Kota Bharu Campus, Kelantan, Malaysia

246 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 246 262, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.142020

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2703 9840 Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub and Aida Suraya Md. Yunus Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4313 2922 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8742 4855

Keywords: Higher order thinking skills; academic performance; measurement and geometry; experimental study; rural and urban area

A few years ago, international studies of students, the International Student Assessment Program, and the Developments in International Mathematics and Science Research (TIMSS) seemed to compare the quality of education systems directly across different countries (Mullis, Martin, Kennedy & Sainsbury, 2009). These programs assess a wide range of cognitive skills in mathematics and science. In primary schools, analytical performance refers to the outcome of the

Abstract This study intended to examine the difference in students' performances in terms of measurement and geometry between urban and rural schools. This research used a quasi experimental design This study involved a total of 63 students fromurban school and 51 students fromthe rural school This study conducted a pre test, post test, and post delayed test to measure the students’ performance. The treatment group utilized theHigher OrderThinking Skills(HOTS) basedModuleframedCognitive Apprenticeship Model (CAM). The analysis of covariance showed that there is a significant difference between the post test and post delayed tests for the urban school. This finding revealed that the HOTS approach in teaching mathematics was more effective than the conventional teaching approach for students in an urban school. However, the result of rural schools showed that there is no significant difference in both tests. This result revealed that teachers and students from rural schools need more time to familiarize and practice the use of the HOTS approach. Hence, continuously using this approach in teaching and learning in the future should be recommended.

The Malaysian education system has undergone a rapid change along with changes in lifestyle towards the 21st century. Education in Malaysia has changed three times in terms of the curriculum, which are before 1982, namely the KLSR [Old Primary School Curriculum], then the KBSR [New Primary School Curriculum], and KSSR [Standard Based Curriculum for Primary Schools]. KSSR was designed and launched in 2011 to fulfill the needs of the students in facing the 21st century. The focus in KSSR for the teaching and learning process is to help students understand the mathematics knowledge deeply so that they can apply the concepts, values, and means of mathematics in the actual world (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2011). KSSR emphasis more on HOTS. Thus, teachers were accountable for creating opportunities that deal with HOTS. Since the HOTS approach is entirely new in the curriculum and education system, hence it is a great challenge to the teachers.

2.1 Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) HOTS is one of the essential skills in the 21st century. In which the world acknowledged as accelerative skills in this changing era. Individuals not only need to have an education but also be able to think creatively and make the right decisions. (Huang, 2011). According to Richland and Simms (2015), it means that education in the 21st century should highlight students’ skills for HOTS, transfer, and flexible reasoning over memorizing facts. According to Bloom (1956), there

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. mathematics test. In 2015, Malaysian students had better results in TIMSS, with the highest increase of 25 points among 18 nations that have exhibited improvements in mathematics (Aziz, 2016). Despite Malaysia being now in mid table in the list of participating countries, it still aimed to get a score of 500 points in TIMSS 2019 (Bernama, 2016). Researchers conducted studies on analytical performance across the globe. The factors that influence the analytical performance among grade 8 Malaysian students were the lack of higher order thinking skills (HOTS) (Nor’ ain & Mohan, 2015; Uwaezuoke & Ekwueme, 2015) and unfamiliarity with open ended questions (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2014). Hence, educators must expend their effort to promote HOTS among students and achieve the government’s desire for a world class education. In Malaysia, explaining and practicing in mathematics dominated about 58% of the teaching and learning process; the rest goes for reviewing homework, re teaching, taking tests, and participating in activities that are not related to the lesson content (Zabit, 2010). Mullis, Martin, and Foy (2008) claimed that Malaysian mathematics teachers gave more attention to the product of thinking and less emphasis on the outcomes of the learning. Moreover, the traditional method of teaching mathematics still exists and will continue to occur in Malaysian classrooms (Zanzali, Abdullah, Ismail, Nordin & Surif, 2011). Research showed that teacher centered teaching using textbooks and an emphasis on procedural understanding in mathematics was related to student’s achievement in mathematics (Zanzali et al., 2011). Thus, the raised concern calls for more effective techniques and alternative teaching and learning approaches in infusing HOTS in mathematics content.

2. Literature Review

According to a report released by TIMSS, school location has a significant impact on student achievement. Facilities such as libraries, media centers, and other facilities influence student learning (Mullis, Martin, Foy, and Arora, 2012). From the result of TIMSS 2015, students in urban schools achieved 470 points, whereas students in rural schools obtained 442 points in mathematics. Even though there is an increment of positions in both locations from TIMSS 2011, the scores are still considered moderate in achievement. The Department of Statistics Malaysia (2010) defines urban areas as gazetted areas, saturated districts bordering it, and a combination of the two. It has features such as; there is a population of at least 10,000 and less than 60 percent of the population aged 15 years and above are engaged in non agricultural activities. The Department of Statistics Malaysia (2010) defines the rural areas as gazetted and non gazetted regions with a population of fewer than 10,000 people. Rural schools experienced quality in school facilities such as internet and ICT infrastructures, lack of adequate instructional supplies (e.g., well equipped libraries, laboratories and media center) and appropriate facilities for students (e.g., free textbooks) (Othman & Muijs, 2013). However, urban schools have advantages in the facilities provided, educational resources, and appropriate infrastructures.

According to the Ministry of Education (2014), in the UPSR [Primary School Assessment Test], the gap between urban and rural students was almost 4 % higher for urban schools. Researchers have conducted studies on the effect location towards mathematics learning around the world. Jayagandhi (2018) conducted a study to observe the continuous and comprehensive evaluation of HOTS in science among 150 students in Madurai district. The result revealed that students from urban schools performed better HOTS than rural students. Urban schools provided better knowledge and facilities that can increase the motivation of students towards learning. Wae, Mercuriani, and Paidi (2017) carried out a survey to describe the ability of HOTS students for biology in Ende district. The result showed that students from urban schools gained higher in the average score of knowledge compared to students from a rural school. It showed that with excellent infrastructure, availability of learning resources, transportation, good teaching quality, and a conducive learning environment could improve the knowledge of students in the urban school. Abdullah, Mokhtar, Halim, Ali, Tahir, and Kohar (2017) have conducted a study to determine the level of knowledge and practice of HOTS among mathematics teachers in the Terengganu district.

The findings indicated that mathematics teachers who taught in rural schools gained higher expertise and used several strategies in applying HOTS. It happens because the environment in rural schools is more comfortable with smaller class

are six skill groups in the cognitive domain. The first three levels in Bloom's taxonomy are knowledge, understanding, and application. This first level is considered a lower level of thinking skills (LOTS). Bloom thought the next three levels; analysis, synthesis and, evaluation as a higher level of thinking skills (HOTS) (Chang & Mao, 1999; Pappas et al., 2012; Yahya et al., 2012). Later, these three levels were changed to analyze, evaluate, and create in Bloom's revised taxonomy.

HOTS in Urban and Rural Schools

2.2

Apprenticeship is a process through which a more experienced person assists a less experienced one by way of demonstration, support, and examples (Dennen & Burner, 2008). It was a natural way to learn. Collins, Brown, and Newman (1989) proposed an alternative model of instruction called CAM that goes back to an apprenticeship but incorporates elements of schooling. CAM is a model of learning based on situated learning theory (Brown, Collin & Dugnid, 1989;Renick, Levine & Zeitz, 1991). CAM is a model of instruction that makes thinking visible to help students (Collins, Brown & Holum, 1991; Collins, 2006; Dennen, 2008).

sizes. Firdaus (2017) carried out a study to determine whether there is a difference in mathematical literacy among students who received problem based learning and direct instruction in different areas of schools. The sample involved was fifth grade students in Bandung. The results showed that there is no significant difference between learning approaches and the location of the schools. However, there is an increase in the mathematical literacy of students who received problem based learning and those students who received direct instruction in both urban and rural schools. Hence, the researcher recommended that the teacher should emphasize the teaching model with HOTS that had an impact on a student’s mathematical literacy and HOTS. Hua and Ping (2017) conducted a study to evaluate the effectiveness of application information system based in enhancing student’s HOTS. They applied a mixed methods approach in this research. The sample involved was only the standard five students and the teachers in Selangor. The result showed that there was a significant improvement in the use of information system based in enhancing student’s HOTS. Several factors that influenced the students were student’s attitude, teacher’s attraction, school facilities, and computer approach. Hence the use of information system based in enhancing student's understanding of HOTS was suggested According to the TIMSS 2015 report, the average score for Malaysian students in the Measurement and Geometry is low compared to other content domains such as Number and Algebra. It showed that Malaysian students only have basic knowledge of Measurement and Geometry. Furthermore, analysis of the students’ quality of answers in UPSR 2012, 2013 and 2014, (Ministry of Education, 2014) found that students were not proficient in the conversion of the unit, naming a three dimensional shape, calculating area, and perimeter They also failed to understand the problem solving issues, transforming the information given in the questions to mathematics sentences (Malaysia Examination Syndicate, 2014). Hence, teachers must find ways to engage students in learning measurement and geometry and acquire HOTS. We can conclude that teachers need to diversify teaching methods to enhance HOTS among students in school 2.3 Cognitive Apprenticeship Model (CAM)

Several studies suggested that by combining the learning strategies such as constructivism with CAM could increase students’ understanding of the concept of the subject matter (García Cabrero, Hoover, Lajoie, Andrade Santoyo, Quevedo Rodríguez & Wong, 2018; Putica & Trivic, 2016; Saadati, Tarmizi & Ayub, 2015; Kuo et al., 2012; ) Thus, this would support the students’ HOTS.

This study aims to investigate the difference in students' performances by using HOTS modules for the topics of measurement and geometry between urban and rural schools. Specifically, the study based on the next research objectives:

The conceptual framework is constructed based on the ADDIE model, and this model is used to develop a module, which has the characteristics of higher order thinking skills. The researcher developed a module framed on the CAM that consists of three phases. The learning theories are embedded in the process of teaching and learning within these phases. The main ideas involved in the conceptual framework are Constructivism, Social Learning and ZPD, and Situated Learning.

3. To determine the difference in the students’ performance test scores (post delayed test) between the treatment and control groups while controlling the pre test scores at the urban area in the topic of measurement and geometry.

HOTS based module CAM Approach Performance in the topic andMeasurementofGeometry

2. To determine the difference in the students’ performance test scores (post test) between the treatment and control groups while controlling the pre test scores in the rural area in the topic of measurement and geometry.

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the study

TheoriesLearning • Constructivism • ZPD&LearningSocial • LearningSituated Prior Knowledge Phase 1 o Modelling o Coaching o Scaffolding Phase 2 o Scaffolding o Articulation o Reflection Phase 3 o Exploration Effect on Knowledge Performance in the topic andMeasurementofGeometry

Retention Performance in the topic andMeasurementofGeometry

2.4 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework In this study, the theoretical framework used was an adaptation from Dunkin and Biddle (1974), of classroom teaching study. The model distinguishes four variables as presage (teachers’ experiences, characteristics, and beliefs about mathematics, teaching, and learning), context (students’ experiences, school and community contexts, and classroom contexts), process (actual teaching and learning behaviors that take place inside the classroom) and product (immediate and lasting student effect). These variables are then connected to form the conceptual framework.

3. Objectives

1. To determine the difference in the students’ performance test scores (post test) between the treatment and control groups while controlling the pre test scores at the urban area in the topic of measurement and geometry.

2. Is there a difference in the students’ performance test scores (post test) between the treatment and control groups while controlling the pre test scores in the rural area in the topic of measurement and geometry?

H04 There is no significant difference in the means of the students’ performance test scores (post delayed test) between treatment and control groups while controlling pre test scores in rural areas in the topic of Measurement and Geometry.

3. Is there a difference in the students’ performance test scores (post delayed test) between the treatment and control groups while controlling the pre test scores at the urban area in the topic of measurement and geometry?

4. Is there a difference in the students’ performance test scores (post delayed test) between the treatment and control groups while controlling the pre test scores in the rural area in the topic of measurement and geometry?

1. Is there a difference in the students’ performance test scores (post test) between the treatment and control groups while controlling the pre test scores at the urban area in the topic of measurement and geometry?

Various experimental conditions happen in education, which requires the researcher to use intact groups. As it is the accessibility of the member, or as the environment prevents artificial group formation (Klassen, Creswell, Clark, Smith & Meissner, 2012). This study utilized a quasi experimental research design: the treatment group and the control group designated year five students Assigning students randomly to both groups will disrupt classroom learning (Miller, Smith & Pugatch, 2020). This study implemented a pretest posttest control group design to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment to the respondents (Ni, Jong, Dison, Thomas, Yunus&Suliman,2020).

Two national schools were selected, and this type of school was the most common in the district of Kota Bharu. This research used manual lottery. Each school was assigned a number the researcher drawn two numbers. Two schools, each in urban and rural areas, were selected in this study. The

4. To determine the difference in the students’ performance test scores (post delayed test) between the treatment and control groups while controlling the pre test scores in the rural area in the topic of measurement and geometry.

4. Methodology

The research hypotheses are as follows.

H02 There is no significant difference in the means of the students’ performance test scores (post test) between treatment and control groups while controlling pre test scores in rural areas in the topic of Measurement and Geometry.

The following research questions:

H01 There is no significant difference in the means of the students’ performance test scores (post test) between treatment and control groups while controlling pre test scores in urban areas in the topic of Measurement and Geometry.

H03 There is no significant difference in the means of the students’ performance test scores (post delayed test) between treatment and control groups while controlling pre test scores in urban areas in the topic of Measurement and Geometry.

researcher then numbered classes involved in each school chosen and drawn two numbers that represent classes from each school. Subsequently, the researcher numbered the selected classes to determine groups for treatment and control. Finally, the researcher drew two numbers to represent the experimental groups.

A total of 69 students participated in an urban school, while a total of 63 students participated in a rural school.

In this study, the researcher administered three tests (pre test, post test, and post delayed test) to measure the students' performances during the treatment. The reliability of the tests was 0.78 for the pre test, 0.79 for the post test, and 0.71 for the post delayed test. The test paper on the topics of measurement and geometry consisted of 12 subjective questions the test questions based on higher order thinking skills and short answer items. A group of expert panels determined the reliability and validity of the existing. As for the module validity, the evaluation activity had gone through four types of assessment that involved expert review, development try out, pilot test, and field trial (Gagne, Wager, Golas, Keller & Russell, 2005). In this study, three expert reviews validated the modules, two from the Institute of Teachers Education and one officer (School Improvement Specialist Coaches plus, SISC+) from the District Education Office. The panels gave a very constructive comment. The modules were updated based on the feedback given before conducting the pilot test. Based on the input, the instruction was improved The actual study implemented the final version of the module 4.2 Research Procedures A pre test was conducted on all groups to obtain the fundamental difference between the treatment and control groups. The purpose of the pre test was to determine whether or not the means of both groups were significantly different and to provide baseline values regarding the variables measured. Therefore, the covariate in the analysis used the pre test. The treatment grouputilized theHOTS based Module, whereas the control group utilized the conventional teaching approach. The post test measured the students’ performance after they used the HOTS based Module in 12 weeks. The researcher then conducted a post delayed test after the 14th week of the intervention. The researcher used the term delayed effect to refer to the impact of treatment observed after some time. In the context of the study, the delayed effect meant remembering and utilizing what students have learned about HOTS during the treatment sessions. The teacher provided no additional treatment or feedback after the post test and before the post delayed test In the instructional processes, different teachers handled the treatment and control groups. The school administrators have assigned teachers to a particular class since the beginning of school. Figure 2 presents the experimental procedure of this study. The teacher gave a short briefing to the students regarding the instructional intervention at the beginning of the course After the researcher conducted the pre tests on both groups, the teacher started adopting the HOTS approach for the treatment group and the conventional teaching approach for the control group.

4.1 Instrumentation

Table 2: Descriptive statistics of Post-test and Post-delayed test scores in rural schools Tests Group of students Mean Std. Deviation N post test Treatment 12.43 2.755 28 Control 13.26 4.731 23 post delayed test Treatment 10.14 3.649 28 Control 10.87 5.354 23 Levene’s test was employed to examine the equality of variances in an urban school. The result revealed that Levene’s test for post test [F (1,61) = .454, p = .503 > .05] was not significant; hence, the assumption of homogeneity of variance was delayedPosttestPost testPre test

This section will discuss the findings referring to the research objectives of the study and the evaluation of the HOTS based Module in the field trial.

Table 2 presents the mean and standard deviation of the performance test for both groups in a rural school. The performance score of the control group was higher in the post test (M =13 26, SD = 4 731) compared with that of the treatment group (M = 12.43, SD = 2 775). Again, the control group was higher in the post delayed test (M =10.87, SD = 5.354) compared with that of the treatment group (M = 10 14, SD = 3.649).

Developing and designing a HOTS module for posttest,Developinggroupexperimentalthepreposttest,anddelayedtest

Figure 2: Representation of the research experiment 5. Results and Analysis

Table 1 presents the mean and standard deviation of the performance test for both groups in an urban school. The performance score of the control group was higher in the post test (M =20.97, SD = 4.882) compared with that of the treatment group (M = 12.87, SD = 4.884). Whereas, the treatment group was higher in the post delayed test (M =15.32, SD = 4.077) compared with that of the control group (M = 14.19, SD = 4.700).

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of post test and post delayed test scores in urban schools Tests Group of students Mean Std. Deviation N post test Treatment 12.87 4.884 31 Control 20.97 4.882 32 post delayed test Treatment 15.32 4.077 31 Control 14.19 4.700 32

ConventionalapproachHOTSapproach

Table 5: Tests of Between-Subject Effects of Post-test and post-delayed test Scores in Urban Schools Tests Source Type III Sum Squaresof df SquaresMean F Sig. Partial SquaredEta post test GROUP 533.414 1 533.414 26.733 .000 .308 post delayed test GROUP 83.390 1 83.390 4.877 .031 .075

Levene’s test was employed to examine the equality of variances in the rural school. The result revealed that Levene’s test for post test [F (1,49) =2 .813, p = .100 > .05] was not significant; hence, the assumption of homogeneity of variance was not violated. Whereas, the result of Levene’s test for post delayed test [F (1,49) = .375, p = .543 > .05] was not significant; hence, the assumption of homogeneity of variance was also not violated.

Table 6 shows that after adjusting the mean scores of the pre tests for a rural school, there was no significant difference in the mean post test scores between the treatment and control groups [F (1,48) = 3.248, p = .078 > .05]. Thus, H02 was accepted. The result implied that students in both groups did not differ in the post test. Again, there was no significant difference between the two intervention groups in the post delayed test scores in the performance test [F (1,48) = 2.360, p = .129 > .05]. This result revealed that students exposed to both approaches did not differ in their post delayed test.

Table 4: Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances of Post test and post delayed test Scores in rural schools Tests F df1 df2 Sig. post test 2.813 1 49 .100 post delayed test .375 1 49 .543

Table 3: Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances of Post test and post delayed test Scores in urban schools Tests F df1 df2 Sig. post test .454 1 61 .503 post delayed test 1.767 1 61 .189

Table 5 shows that after adjusting the mean scores of the pre tests, there was a significant difference in the mean post test scores between the treatment and control groups [F (1,60) = 26.733, p = .000 < .05]. This study shows that students in the control group scored significantly better compared with those in the treatment group. Again, there was a significant difference between the two intervention groups in the post delayed test scores in the performance test [F (1,60) = 4.877, p = .031 < .05]. This result revealed that students in the treatment group indicated significantly better performance scores compared with those in the control group.

254 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. not violated. Whereas, the result of Levene’s test for post delayed test [F (1,61) = 1.767, p = .189 > .05] was not significant; hence, the assumption of homogeneity of variance was also not violated.

To evaluate the HOTS based Module, the researcher produced objective by items graphs base on the pre test and post test items. Figures 4 and 5 illustrated the result of the students who used HOTS based Module during the intervention.

Figure 3: Pre test and Post test Showing Student's performance in Urban School for Field Trial

6. Discussion Kuhs and Ball (1986) stated that teachers need to emphasize student achievement when teaching mathematics. Hence, one of the objectives of utilizing the HOTS approach was to improve learning performance. This study compared the use of the HOTS approach and the use of the conventional teaching approach

Figures 3 and 4, the graph suggested that there is an increment in performance score between pre test and post test among urban students, as well as students in the rural school. Figure 3 indicated that the performance of students in urban school achieved seven goals out of twelve goals in the pre test. After the intervention, the students manage to achieve ten goals out of twelve goals in the post test. Students have not yet reached two goals after the treatment period.

Figure 4 indicated that the performance of students in rural schools made four goals out of twelve goals in the pre test. After the intervention, the students can make six goals out of twelve goals in the post test. There were six goals not yet achieved after the treatment period.

255 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 6: Tests of Between Subject Effects of Post test and Post delayed test Scores in Rural Schools Tests Source Type III Sum Squaresof df SquaresMean F Sig. SquaredEtaPartial post test GROUP 31.634 1 31.634 3.248 .078 .063 post delayed test GROUP 42.285 1 42.285 2.360 .129 .031

Figure 4: Pre test and Post test Showing Student's performance in Rural School for Field Trial

between 403020100 50 60 70 1009080 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 percentagemean performance Objectives pre posttesttest 1009080706050403020100 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 percentageMean (Performance) Objectives pre posttesttest

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. urban and rural schools. The result of the post test revealed that students in the control group in urban school had significantly better performance scores compared with those in the treatment group. Whereas, the result showed that students in the treatment group in urban school had substantially better performance scores compared with those in the control group in the post delayed test. The findings indicated that students’ learning could facilitate within embedded activities in social contexts by exploring and applying CAM through HOTS based Module (Averill, Drake & Harvey, 2013; Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). Assisting students by coaching and modeling in the way that expert planned, revised, and evaluated measurement and geometry problems and solutions were useful for students in the treatment group Phase I included some activities based on coaching modeling scaffolding; however, this study did not report the exact changes. This result was also in line with Hendriks (2001) and Stockhausen and Zimitat (2002) that claimed CAM accommodated elementary schools’ students’ cognitive skills and reasoning capability. These skills are essential in promoting HOTS. In contrast, the result of the post test and the post delayed test of the students from rural schools showed that there was no significant difference in the mean scores of the measurement and geometry performance. The result of the finding was in agreement with the study, both national and international (Ibrahim, Ayub, Yunus, Mahmud & Bakar, 2019; Uwaezuoke & Ekwueme, 2015; Nepal, 2017). However, this result was not consistent with the results of previous studies (Owi, Azhar, Mazlini & Ang, 2017; Yee, Md Yunos, Othman, Hassan, Tee & Mohamad, 2015; Saido et al., 2015) that indicated differences in performance score after using HOTS module. Two interpretations could explain this inconsistent result; the first interpretation is that the teaching approach using HOTS based Module is still new in Malaysia, especially for those students in a rural area. The conventional teaching approach is familiar and comfortable to conduct or follow for both teachers and students (Ayub, Mokhtar, Luan & Tarmizi, 2010). According to Hagerty, Smith & Goodwin, (2010), there are difficulties in converting from traditional teaching to the new teaching approach. The second interpretation is that more time needs to be given to teachers and students in rural area schools to be familiar and practice using HOTS. Teaching and learning using HOTS based Module that stressed on student centered method tend to feel uncomfortable when being tried first.

Students in rural schools are not only unfamiliar with new contexts, but they have difficulty adapting new understandings to prior knowledge. Students also faced mathematical problems in the form of sentences (Vurayai, 2020). Time can overcome the problem, and this approach needs lots of commitments from the teacher (Hodge & Kemp, 2006). Thus, a non significance difference in mathematics performance for both groups of students might be explained by the limited time in adapting the HOTS approach. This finding might also cause by several factors, such as family, excellent facilities and resources, and qualified teachers. The majority of the parents in urban areas are more educated than those in rural areas. The family upbringing was an essential factor in determining the students' academic performance (Aziz, 2016).

The expectations of an educated family from their children's education are very high. Some experts believed that family expectations were the most influential factors of the students' decisions to pursue their learning (Davis Kean, 2005; Benner, Boyle & Sadler, 2016). A well educated family with high income could manage to send their children to tuition classes to exhibit better achievement. Urban students could also afford to buy other books for their references. Hence, students in urban areas have access to more resources to improve their performance at school. Also, teachers play an essential role in enabling students to exhibit excellent performance. School administers assigned the most experienced and qualified teachers to urban schools, whereas new and less experienced teachers to rural schools. According to Owolabi (1990), highly educated teachers prefer to serve in urban schools rather than in rural schools. The teacher in the treatment group in urban school felt that the HOTS approach could improve her knowledge and experience in developing her students' performance. She, therefore, continues to implement it even after the intervention. Previous studies stated that urban teachers had done a lot of coaching in preparing their students for examinations, thus encouraging the spirit of competition and rivalry. However, this may be lacking in rural students (Obe, 1984; Kemjika, 1989). The experienced and qualified teachers were capable of handling tasks provided in HOTS based Module, which were increased by complexity and diversity, hence require students to use their conceptual knowledge to solve HOTS problems. Experienced and competent teachers will indirectly increase students' confidence in their learning (Nguyen & Pham, 2018) The use of HOTS based Module framed CAM, which highly stressed on constructivism, could increase students’ HOTS (Matanluk, Mohammad, Kiflee & Imbug, 2013). They claimed that; through the choosy experience, students construct their knowledge to create a conceptual understanding which forms the basis of their learning. According to DeWolf, Bassok, and Holyoak (2015), it is significant to foster a sense of mathematics beyond teaching algorithmic procedures. Students with a high level of conceptual understanding were capable of solving problems in various forms and different settings (Che Ghazali & Zakaria, 2011). This study showed that students in urban schools do better than those in a rural school in terms of location. Besides, a report by Ibrahim (2019) showed that students in the urban school had made fewer errors compared to those in the rural school. Students in urban schools have a very significant advantage whereby the environment helps them to enriches their academic knowledge, especially HOTS. The best opportunities, such as access to many resources equipped with urban students, which are not accessible to rural students. In other words, learning in an urban environment is advantageous to urban students, and it enriches their academic knowledge and HOTS.

The researcher considered every attempt to remove errors in the aspects of design and analysis, hence considered a few limitations in this study. This study focuses on the effect of HOTS based module learning instruction to promote HOTS by

7. Limitation and Recommendation

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. using the problem of measurement and geometry as an exemplar. In the topic of measurement, the researcher only covered four subtopics (length, mass and volume, shape and space, and angle. Investigating HOTS using other issues will have a different result. The study is limited to Year five students in a primary school in Kelantan. In this case, perhaps different results will be expected with students from other years and locations, varied in subject streams and backgrounds. Finally, the duration of this study is limited to a period of 12 weeks. A longer term of instruction may provide a different result. The results showed that the HOTS based module framed CAM has effectively help primary school students in both locations to enhance higher order thinking skills in Measurement and Geometry. However, due to the time constraint and complexity, the HOTS based Module frame CAM had covered only four subtopics of Measurement and Geometry. Thus, the researcher recommended the use of the same framework bounded in this study, the scope and treatment of the HOTS based Module framed CAM could be drawn out to include: a. different subtopic and topics in both primary and secondary Mathematics b. performances, problem solving skills, conceptual and procedural knowledge by gender, and other capabilities. c. learners with different mathematical abilities and learning style d. different in research methodology

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8. Conclusion In conclusion, this studyshows that despite the changes in mathematics education in schools today, there are still many students who cannot understand different parts of mathematics skillfully. Thus, it is rational for mathematics teachers to make a significant improvement in their teaching approaches. Therefore, the implementation of the HOTS approach should start at the primary school level. Teachers need to prudently approach the transformation at an early age so that students would have both the ability and support required to be competent in mathematics. Teachers and students also need to have positive beliefs in learning this new approach to improve their performance. Students with strong positive feelings will have an increased ability to learn mathematics and enhance their analytical performance (Bakar, 2019). The researcher recommended rural teachers are to diversify their teaching strategies and methods. Teachers would create a more efficient plan in teaching and learning using the HOTS approach. The HOTS approach is active learning proposed in the 21st century learning; thus, the students who used the HOTS approach was able to grasp more strategies in problem solving skills, concepts, and information in improving their decision making skills.

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263 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 263 279, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.120205 The Impact of the Lack of ICT Resources on Teaching and Learning in Selected South African Primary Schools

Paul Nwati Munje and Thuthukile Jita University of the Free State, South Africa 0002 7948 9704 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1173 5251

https://orcid.org/0000

Abstract. The impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) on teaching and learning globally necessitates its integration in the classroom. Integration in individual school contexts, however, remains a challenge, despite ICT integration being a policy prerogative in many countries. This qualitative paper aims to understand how the lack of ICT resources affects the way learners learn and perform. Semi structured interviews were utilized to gather data from six educators in three South African primary schools. The interviews were transcribed manually and coded. A thematic mode of analysis was used during the data analysis process. Findings show that, for multiple reasons, schools do not use ICT tools in teaching and learning, as expected, and, in some cases, underutilize existing resources, with implications for teaching and learning. We suggest that the South African Department of Basic Education (DBE) considers individual school contexts when allocating ICT resources, to ameliorate existing challenges. Reinforcing existing monitoring and evaluation mechanisms will facilitate the identification of contextual challenges and the provision of assistance where necessary. Most importantly, schools should be encouraged to form partnerships with communities to ensure the safety of ICT resources. These measures have the potential to ensure that all learners enjoy opportunities introduced in the classroom through the DBE’s ICT integration program, thus guaranteeing quality education for all.

1. Introduction The dynamics associated with the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in classrooms around the world have resulted in divergent views on how to approach this phenomenon from a school perspective. There needs to be a clear understanding of how well schools succeed in integrating ICT in teaching and learning. One of these approaches to

Keywords: disadvantaged communities; ICT integration; information and communication technology; teaching and learning

In exploring ICT integration in teaching and learning in Hong Kong, Yuen, Law, and Wong (2003) identified possible contextual challenges. These include value systems; innovation processes in place; the nature of teacher commitment and support; and teacher professional development. Also, Karunaratne, Peiris, and Hansson (2018) noted that a lack of resources is a potential negative contextual factor hindering ICT usage in some classrooms. Khan (2020) contended that using ICT in teaching and learning has the potential to improve learner achievement, especially in areas with low socioeconomic status, with learner achievement more likely below expectations. This creates a need for empirical studies to provide a national picture of the impact the lack of ICT resources has on teaching and learning, especially in areas with low socioeconomic status. This paper thus focuses on exploring how the lack of ICT resources impacts on teaching and learning in selected South African primary schools 1.1 Research context To obtain a better diagnosis of the state of ICT integration in classrooms across the country, it is important to understand the “events, activities, contents, and interpersonal processes taking place in the context that ICT is used” (Lim, 2002, p. 411). The Department of Education (DBE) categorizes the schools selected for this study as quintile 1 (no fee) schools. These schools receive similar government support and host learners from the same community. This classification is a result of the National Norms and Standards for School Funding (NNSSF) policy, aimed at ensuring equity and redressing imbalances of the apartheid era in all spheres, including education (DBE, 2011). It is important to note that the Department of Education in South Africa existed until 2009 when it was split into the Department of Higher Education and the Department of Basic Education. Owing to the challenges that work against endeavors to achieve equity, schools in disadvantaged communities continue to lag in terms of school resources, including ICT Mirzajani, Mahmud, Ayub, and Wong (2016) argued that in such circumstances, teachers are likely to be discouraged to integrate ICT in the classroom. As a case in point, some of the selected schools for this study either did not have ICT resources for varied reasons or were underutilizing existing resources. This paper pursues the following questions:

ICT integration advocates consideration of the school context. This is because some of the challenges that schools encounter in their effort to integrate technology in teaching and learning are context specific, thus needing context friendly solutions. Rabah (2015, p. 24) emphasized that “it would be inappropriate to view ICT based education without taking into consideration the school’s context, setting, and environment,” as these factors have serious and varied implications.

• What impact does the lack of ICT resources have on teaching and learning in primary schools?

• What is the relevance of ICT resources on teaching and learning in primary schools?

The Gauteng Provincial education department, for example, endorsed and embraced the ICT integration initiative with passion, aiming to make learning simpler and more enjoyable for all learners through the provision of ICT tools (Odendaal, 2017). This commitment was exhibited against the backdrop that introducing technology in the classroom has the potential to change the negativity associated with the South African education system, including the discouraging performance by learners in the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) (Rabana & Martin, 2017). This is because technology in a Mathematics classroom, e.g., bears advantages. These include its ability to grab attention, motivate (Zakaria & Khalid, 2016), and provide authentic learning environments, such as where learners can engage in web based inquiry (Le Thi, 2020; Yang & Baldwin, 2020). In the same vein, Denoon Stevens and Ramaila (2018) argued that the availability of ICT facilities, especially in disadvantaged communities, has the potential to develop social capital and empower individuals and the community at large, a thought shared by Ismail, Jogezai, and Baloch (2020). However, attaining that potential seems elusive, considering that schools such as those included in this study are continuously deprived of ICT resources, considered by the Minister of Basic Education as further compromising the education of learners (Maromo, 2020; Mbuza, 2020).

The 2013 2025 e Education strategy of the DBE is another milestone that serves as a roadmap for achieving the country’s ICT integration plan (DBE, 2014). The implementation strategy of this plan had specific roles and responsibilities for relevant stakeholders, including provincial education departments (DBE, 2014). In reporting on the progress of this plan, the DBE in February 2018 pointed out that it had successfully connected 16,102 schools nationally with basic ICT resources, of which 1,951 were in the Western Cape province (Parliament of the Republic of South Africa, 2018). Figures provided by the DBE indicate that the integration plans are progressing well; and the Western Cape is ranked the fourth province in terms of South Africa’s ICT penetration. Irrespective of the encouraging figures, the question that should be asked is whether the majority of primary school learners in socioeconomically disadvantaged communities in the Western Cape of South Africa are benefitting fully from this government initiative. Available ICT

1.2 ICT integration in South Africa: a retrospect For close to two decades, South Africa has consistently galvanized efforts and resources towards achieving a paperless classroom, to provide learners with better and limitless learning opportunities, including engaged learning environments. This is because ICT has the potential to contribute to improving learner abilities to learn across disciplines and fields. As such, South Africa’s ICT mission is included in the country’s National Development Plan 2030 (Mjwara, 2017). In 2003, the Department of Education (DoE), cognizant of ICT’s advantages for learners, for the first time committed itself to ensure that every learner in South Africa has access to ICT resources and is technologically literate by 2013 (DoE, 2003, p. 17). This commitment provided the basis for multiple engagements to achieve ICT integration across South Africa.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. resources in the classroom are either non utilized or underutilized, with negative implications for teaching and learning. The DBE admitted that its ICT integration efforts nationally are poor due to a shortage of funds (Parliament of the Republic of South Africa, 2018). Garg, Shukla, and Kendall (2015) agreed that cost can potentially affect the implementation of any ICT integration plan. This explains why nearly 11,858 primary schools lacked computer laboratories, and up to 9,313 had no Internet connectivity across South Africa by July 2018 (Parliament of the Republic of South Africa, 2018). These figures indicate that despite efforts made by the DBE to integrate technology in classrooms, many children are yet to benefit fully for various reasons. This justifies our decision to focus on understanding the impact that the lack of ICT resources has on teaching and Despitelearning.thedesire to see that ICT emerges as a “game changer” in the South African education system, the pace of integration in some school contexts is slower than expected. In an attempt to fast track and monitor its ICT implementation plan in schools across the country, the DBE introduced what it calls Operation Phakisa [phakisa means hurry up in Sesotho] (Kwet, 2017). Operation Phakisa is a philosophy that ensures speedy identification of existing challenges for the provision of relevant solutions to ameliorate the situation (Kwet, 2017). Regardless, ICT is yet to have a tangible effect in some under resourced schools in various parts of the country (Chisango & Lesame, 2017). For example, Pholotho and Mtsweni (2016) pointed out that poor service delivery was one of the reasons why some schools in the Limpopo province of South Africa were still to benefit adequately from the government’s ICT integration initiative. Using studies such as Pholotho and Mtsweni (2016) as a catalyst, this paper seeks to understand the impact that the lack of ICT resources has on teaching and learning in primary school classrooms.

Challenges experienced by some schools in the process of ICT integration have included intermittent Internet connectivity and the lack of appropriate administrative support (Wilson Strydom, Thomson, & Hodgkinson Williams, 2005), with varying implications for the classroom. Besides, inadequate technical support to maintain ICT equipment remains a huge challenge in South African primary schools (Papaioannou & Charalambous, 2011; Pholotho & Mtsweni, 2016; Wilson Strydom et al., 2005). These challenges are considered by Ismail et al. (2020) as common in developing countries. In this regard, Mirzajani et al. (2016) argued that challenges related to insufficient technical support in terms of ICT integration in the classroom are not unique to South African schools. In their view, these challenges are common but resolvable when schools and the administration work together closely to identify and resolve existing challenges and provide relevant pieces of advice. This approach has the potential to ensure stable Internet connectivity and to avoid underutilization of computer facilities (Pholotho & Mtsweni, 2016), thus ensuring continuous usage of technological resources in classrooms. Unstable Internet connectivity is an ongoing challenge that extends beyond the boundaries of South Africa (Arrieta, 2020; Habibi, Razak, Yusop, Mukminin, & Yaqin, 2020).

1.3 Challenges associated with ICT integration in South Africa

2. Methods

An audio recorder was used to record the interviews, with the permission of participants. Interviews lasted between 30 to 45 minutes. Although participants responded to semi structured interviews, follow up questions were asked for clarity purposes. The data were double checked to ensure validity and reliability (Merriam, 2009). Manual coding was used because, throughout the research process, the researchers developed an understanding of the nature of the data,

This qualitative paper reports on how the lack of ICT resources impacts on learners’ ability to learn and perform. This case study (Yin, 2018) focused on three primary schools within South Africa, located in communities with low socioeconomic status. Data gathering involved six educators who responded to semi-structured interviews on ICT-related matters. Two Grade 7 educators were chosen from each school, using the purposeful sampling technique (Patton, 2005). Principals assisted in identifying the relevant educators to participate in the study since they knew which educators would be able to provide the required information. However, considering that principals are in a position of authority and prospective educator participants may have felt obligated to participate, an intention to participate form was supplied to the selected educators to indicate their willingness to participate voluntarily. This was done to ensure transparency (Aluwihare Samaranayake, 2012) and to avoid abuse of power by the principals. Some of the selected educators had been teaching at the schools for up to ten years and therefore possessed a wealth of knowledge concerning the challenges faced by the schools, especially concerning ICT related matters. They were also knowledgeable about the circumstances prevailing at school and how these affect learners’ learning abilities. The participants were asked questions that required them to elaborate on the usefulness of ICT in teaching and learning, and the implications of the lack thereof. Participants, through interaction, demonstrated their awareness of how existing challenges affected learners’ abilities to learn and perform as expected.

Contextual challenges have the potential to dampen the zeal of educators to use ICT in teaching and learning (see Bingimlas, 2009), and to ultimately stifle the realization of the DBE’s ICT integration objectives countrywide. If these contextual realities are not addressed timeously, South Africa’s ICT integration agenda will remain a dream. Padayachee (2017) argued that, due to existing contextual challenges, ICT integration in some South African schools remains low and contributes to some educators questioning the usefulness of the Department’s e Education policy (DoE, 2004). Therefore, there is a need for the DBE to place more emphasis on regularly auditing the technological wellbeing of individual schools to ascertain their experiences regarding ICT integration. In doing so, the DBE can understand what kind of assistance to render to facilitate the implementation process Without such measures, the good intentions of the DBE towards ICT integration in all schools would not materialize on time due to contextual realities that restrict the ability of educators to integrate ICT in classroom spaces. This paper focused on understanding the impact of the lack of ICT resources in teaching and learning in selected South African primary schools.

3. Delimitation of the study

Undoubtedly, ICT is relevant in teaching and learning environments, the lack thereof thus impacting negatively on how learners learn and perform academically. However, the lack of or underutilization of ICT resources cannot be used as a measuring rod for learner academic performance. Nevertheless, its impact on learner motivation and increased aspirations to learn cannot be ignored (Denoon Stevens & Ramaila, 2018; Hilton, 2018; Jimenez, 2020; Santos, Ramos, Escola, & Reis, 2019). Genlott and Grönlund (2016, p. 69) noted that “[w]hile technology in itself does not lead to improvement of student results, it may well be used to reinforce pedagogic factors that have been shown to have [a] positive impact”. This is because, irrespective of the importance of ICT, its

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. making transcription easier (Williams & Moser, 2019). Also, emerging patterns and meanings could be easier identified (Joffe, 2012). After manual transcription and coding, data were merged and coded into major themes (Flick, 2018) using the thematic mode of analysis. The thematic mode of analysis was chosen because of its flexibility (Terry, Hayfield, Clarke, & Braun, 2017). Additionally, its analysis process allows for the testing and reporting of coding reliability (Terry et al., 2017, p. 19). The themes emerging from the thematic analysis process include (1) the relevance of ICT in teaching and learning and (2) the impact that the lack of ICT resources has on teaching and learning.

The Western Cape Education Department permitted the study to be conducted in the province (reference number 20120222 0089). The authors ensured that participation was voluntary, with assistance from the principals. Participants signed written informed consent forms to make participation official, voluntary, and to protect them from harm (Merriam & Grenier, 2019). For confidentiality purposes, the participating schools are codenamed A, B, and C. The educator participants are designated as A1 and A2 for School A, B1 and B2 for School B, and C1 and C2 for School C.

The study focused on the impact that the lack of ICT resources has on teaching and learning in three primary schools within a community of low socioeconomic status in South Africa. The study targeted Grade 7 classrooms in each of the schools. Grade 7 was chosen because it is an exit level in primary schools in the South African education system, where learners are expected to possess certain competencies before proceeding to high school. Since the study was limited to Grade 7, two Grade 7 educators from each of the three schools participated in the study. Participants were identified with the assistance of the principals of each school to possess a wealth of knowledge regarding the challenges faced by their respective schools, especially in the domain of technology usage in the classroom. Based on the limited sample of participating educators because the focus was on Grade 7 classrooms, conclusions made can apply only to the context under study and not to the whole of South Africa. Therefore, more studies of this nature using a large sample size are encouraged to produce more findings that can complement those emerging from this study. This will provide a holistic picture of ICT usage in South African primary school classrooms.

4. Findings and discussion

The participants agreed that ICT resources have the potential to change the way teaching and learning were taking place, how learners perceived education, learned, and performed. It emerged that, even in those schools without ICT resources, the relevant participants hypothetically appreciated its relevance in teaching and learning spaces. They particularly highlighted its potential to motivate learners and positively influence their performance (see Denoon Stevens & Ramaila, 2018; Hilton, 2018; Khan, 2020; Santos et al., 2019). This aligns with Participant A1’s view that the absence of ICT resources deprives learners at School A of opportunities to learn. The participant emphasized that computers enhance the training of young minds in varied ways. This includes assisting them to do homework and other school projects; hence, its availability is a necessity and not a luxury. According to this participant, the absence of ICT resources has negative repercussions on learners’ abilities to learn and perform.

impact in individual schools is likely to vary for different reasons, including uniqueness in the kind of resources required to ensure learner academic performance. Still, this variable need does not in any way dispute the fact that learners’ inability to access ICT resources in the selected schools has had negative implications for their educational aspirations and performance. Two main themes emerged from the findings: (1) the relevance of ICT in teaching and learning, and (2) the impact that the lack of ICT resources has on teaching and learning.

4.1. The relevance of ICT in teaching and learning

The views of Participant A1 are re echoed by Le Thi (2020), who contended that ICT resources enable learners to engage in individual research, hence enhancing self study. Participant A2 corroborated the importance of ICT in teaching and learning, judging from its absence in School A. The participant noted that the lack of computers at the school has negative implications for learner development, considering that their ability to use the Internet for research was limited. In the participant’s view, its availability has the potential to enhance learner motivation towards learning. Furthermore, Padayachee (2017) argued that a lack of ICT resources can potentially hamper the kind of education learners receive, with implications for their performance. Based on research conducted in KwaZulu Natal, Hodgson, and Khumalo (2016) argued that the availability of computers positively influences the way learners learn. Additionally, Hilton (2018) analyzed the importance of computers in the classroom and concluded in corroboration with Pohjolainen, Nykänen, Venho, and Kangas (2018) that ICT in the classroom has positive effects on learners’ learning. Computers assist learners’ research assignments and school projects and can potentially change the way they see and learn critical subjects like Mathematics (see Hegedus & Moreno Armella, 2020). This is pertinent because Mathematics learning is one of the problem areas in many South African primary schools (Bezuidenhout, Henning, Fitzpatrick, & Ragpot, 2019; Rabana & Martin, 2017), a phenomenon considered by Juta and Van Wyk (2020) as multifaceted.

Besides, Participant A2 compared resourced and under resourced schools in the province in terms of teaching using ICT tools. The participant’s point of departure was that access to the Internet gives learners at resourced schools an edge over those in under resourced schools. In the view of this participant, the lack of ICT resources in the under resourced schools exacerbates existing challenges contributing to learners’ poor performance when compared to those in resourced schools. According to this participant, the availability of computers can potentially increase learners’ passion for learning. In corroboration, Participant B1 opined that the lack of computer laboratories is an acute problem in township schools, which are known for their disadvantageousness Participant BI emphasized that these circumstances make it difficult for learners in these localities to conveniently use Internet facilities to research material for examinations, projects, and homework, with negative implications on their Theperformance.discourses of Participants A2 and B1 indicate that ICT has the potential to motivate learners to learn and change their perceptions of education as a whole an advantage seldom embraced by many learners in under resourced schools. When ICT resources are available and integrated effectively in teaching in the classroom, learning becomes enjoyable, as learners become motivated, interested and more attached to what they do (see Hilton, 2018; Hines & Lynch, 2019) and, in some cases, more responsible in the way they learn (see Hardman, 2019)

Participant A1, however, clarified that the DBE had provided the school with computers, but due to theft, these were no longer available. This resulted in learners thus being deprived of opportunities to use the computers in their learning endeavors (see Mbuza, 2019, 2020; Mdlongwa, 2012; Pijoos, 2020; Ramorola, 2018; Sedibe, 2011). In reality, the learners were deprived of the opportunity to explore and enjoy the benefits computers introduce into a learning environment. These narratives reiterate how contextual challenges prevent learners from accessing ICT resources and, ultimately, frustrating educators’ zeal to assist learners to achieve the kind of education they desire (see Aziz, 2020; Bingimlas, 2009).

The positive attitudes of both educators and learners towards the impact of ICT resources in teaching and learning make it apt to argue that having a computer laboratory that continuously functions has the potential to increase learner educational aspirations, motivation and the desire to learn (see Denoon Stevens & Ramaila, 2018; Hilton, 2018; Santos et al., 2019). Unfortunately, the lack of ICT resources and other related factors cripples the zeal of using technology in the classroom in the selected schools. Similarly, Comi, Argentin, Gui, Origo, and Pagani (2017) noted that the level of learner motivation and a potentially positive change in perceptions towards learning depends on teachers’ ability to integrate ICT in classroom spaces. Such effectiveness, in the view of Steiner and Mendelovitch (2017, p. 1259), occurs when educators use ICT resources to promote higher order thinking through the usage of the necessary applications appropriate for teaching specific subjects, such as Science. For Hegedus and Moreno Armella (2020), the introduction of new software and hardware

Participants were outspoken that the existing challenges at their schools impeded the usage of technology in the classroom, with negative repercussions for learners. The participants argued that such challenges hamper learners’ aspirations to learn and their desire to become what they value in life. Hodgson and Khumalo (2016), in corroboration with Le Thi (2020), contended that, apart from doing assignments, learners with access to ICT resources are opportune to do research that will familiarize them with their future careers. Participants identified theft, insufficient funds to purchase data or repair broken computers, and inadequate technical and administrative support as those factors inhibiting ICT usage, thus negatively affecting the carrying out of teaching and learning.

4.2 The impact the lack of ICT resources has on teaching and learning.

’s argument indicates that the DBE’s approach, requiring schools to pay for their security, was practically unfair and unrealistic considering that they operate with limited funds and are located in high risk areas with frequent break ins. In the participant’s view, the consequences were felt more by the learners, who were deprived of the advantages that ICT resources introduce into the classroom. Several other reports exist across the country concerning computer theft, highlighting that, in certain South African contexts, schools with ICT resources face ongoing security challenges, with negative implications for ICT integration (see African News Agency, 2019; Mbuza, 2019, 2020; Mdlongwa, 2012; Ngqakamba, 2020; Sedibe, 2011). This challenge is, however, not limited to South Africa. Researchers such as Hussein, Abayo, and Mugambi (2019) and Mutisya and Mwania (2017), from a Kenyan perspective, established a link between insecurity and ICT integration, impacting negatively on teaching and learning. Consequently, Ramorola (2017) emphasized the importance of providing physical protection to schools with computer facilities, a suggestive move that can assist the government in achieving its goal of quality education for all

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. technologies presents an added advantage in teaching and learning in specific subjects, including Mathematics. This reiterates the important role ICT plays in a teaching and learning environment.

Participant A1 unequivocally pointed out that theft was the major reason why their school had no computer laboratory, despite the DBE having provided them with such as required by policy. As such, learners were deprived of these resources in the classroom, not due to the Department’s inability to provide them, but due to theft. However, participants were also quick to shift the blame onto the Department. This is because, unfortunately, the DBE expected each school to pay for its security, an expectation rather burdensome for schools in socioeconomically disadvantaged communities. Participant A1 noted that for multiple reasons, schools in disadvantaged communities, such as School A, are unlikely to meet the expectations of the DBE because challenges such as porous security expose their resources to thieves. This participant explained that 65 computers were stolen from their school. Since the school survived on a tight budget from the government, its ability to repair broken computers or to replace stolen ones was restricted, thus depriving learners of crucial educational Participantopportunities.A1

When referring to the physical circumstances of schools and security issues, participants were outspoken that the DBE should play a major role in assisting schools to repair broken computers or provide special budgetary allocations for the schools to do repairs themselves. In their view, this could assist in ensuring that the available ICT resources are put to good use in the classroom for the benefit of the learners. Participants also thought that it could be viable if the DBE assisted schools in the process of securing reliable insurance companies for school property, especially for ICT facilities. The participants contended that the greater the risk faced because of ICT resources, the higher the probability of depriving affected learners of the opportunity to benefit from the ICT rollout plan of the DBE. Similarly, Hodgson and Khumalo (2016) argued that when learners lack access to ICT resources, they are deprived of enjoying the benefits that technology introduces in the classroom. This view is worth noting because the impact of the lack of ICT resources explored in this study is not unique to the schools concerned, but seemingly an ongoing South African problem. The non utilization of ICT resources in the classroom has negative implications for learners’ educational aspirations. There have been several reports over the years indicating the vulnerability of ICT resources in South African schools (see African News Agency, 2019; Ground Up, 2017; Maromo, 2020; Mbuza, 2019; Mdlongwa, 2012; News24, 2019; Sedibe, 2011). This reiterates the argument that

It is interesting to note, though, that because many socioeconomically disadvantaged areas in South Africa are notorious for criminal behavior (see Bhorat, Lilenstein, Monnakgotla, & Thornton, 2017), insurance companies are unwilling to insure the property of schools located in such areas. In this regard, Participant A1 stated that insurance companies were unwilling to partner with their school because they are located in a high risk area, making it impossible for them to receive any compensation when robbed of ICT resources. This account indicates the extent to which criminal activities deprive learners of the quality education for all anticipated by the DBE’s policies, including the ICT integration project. Based on existing reports that relate to computer theft, participants were of the view that the DBE should consider the physical circumstances of individual schools and, in some contexts, provide security for schools with computers. Recent vandalization and theft of computer equipment across the country depict how many South African learners are deprived of opportunities to use ICT in the classroom (Maromo, 2020; Mbuza, 2020; Richardson, 2020). This observation is relevant because, in some situations, the Department has replaced stolen computers, but security challenges have prevented such schools from putting these new computers to good use, for fear of a repeat of theft and vandalism. A case in point is a school that experienced 12 burglaries in four years (Ground Up, 2017). Although the DBE had replaced the school’s stolen computers in 2015, by 2017 they were not in use yet due to security concerns (Ground Up, 2017). This case reiterates the impact a lack of security has on ICT resources and the implications it has on teaching and learning (see Karunaratne et al., 2018). The prevailing circumstances at the school restrict their use of ICT resources for teaching and learning, despite these resources being available.

However, theft and a lack of ICT resources are not the only challenges hindering the use of ICT resources in the classroom. For example, a computer laboratory was available at School C at the time of this research, but the computers were not in working order. As such, educators were unable to use them to assist learners in their learning endeavors. Participant C1 related that these computers broke down frequently and could not be repaired quickly, thereby restricting learners from engaging in online research (see Le Thi, 2020; Papaioannou & Charalambous, 2011; Wilson Strydom et al., 2005). In a practical sense, even though ICT resources were available in the school’s computer laboratory, they were not meeting the educational needs of the learners, because the school lacked funds to purchase data and repair the broken computers. This aligns with Hodgson’s (2012) view that, out of approximately 20 computers available at a poor school in the outskirts of Durban, none was in working condition, a situation that caused frustration for the computer teacher.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the impact that the lack of ICT resources has on teaching and learning may continue to linger for much longer unless the impending challenges, including that of security, are tackled holistically. This claim is based on the nationwide vandalization and theft of ICT resources in schools across South Africa exacerbated by the national lockdown imposed due to COVID 19 (Maromo, 2020; Mbuza, 2020; Ngqakamba, 2020). This is not to say, however, that the Department is unaware of the problem or not finding ways to resolve it (see Parliamentary Monitoring Group, 2019).

The lack of technical, financial and administrative support for schools with ICT resources seems to be an ongoing challenge, with negative implications for teaching and learning (see Bingimlas, 2009; Johnson, Jacovina, Russell, & Soto, 2016; Mirzajani et al., 2016; Papaioannou & Charalambous, 2011; Wilson Strydom et al., 2005). This explains Ashiono’s (2018, p. 248) report that when technical support is lacking, computers will not be maintained and the chances of ICT tools to fail during teaching and learning will thus be increased Such occurrences obstruct learners from enjoying the benefits ICT tools introduce in the classroom.

A further complication in some contexts is that, if schools are mandated to purchase data and/or do repairs themselves, it is unlikely for the ICT resources to be used regularly in teaching and learning spaces (see Karunaratne et al., 2018; Opoku, Badu, & Alupo, 2016). Due to budgetary limitations, School C resorted to the option of using unskilled technicians to do repairs thereby aggravating the frequency of computer breakdowns and further restricting learners from having regular access to the technology. According to Participant C2, complaints that emanated from School C in terms of ICT resources were mainly related to learners’ inability to utilize the computer laboratory for months on end due to technical challenges. Efforts by school authorities to salvage the situation did not yield the expected results because the computer technicians recruited to repair the broken computers failed to deliver, thus depriving learners of opportunities to learn using technology.

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5. Conclusion The paper explored the impact of the lack of ICT resources in classrooms in selected South African primary schools. The intention was to understand the impact the lack of ICT resources has on teaching and learning. The findings indicate the relevance of ICT resources in the classroom and the negative implications of the lack thereof. The lack of ICT resources frustrates the hopes and aspirations of learners and prevents them from enjoying the benefits associated with the introduction of ICT tools into the classroom. The prevailing circumstances in the selected schools indicate that the DBE needs to review its ICT integration plans and policies concerning how it identifies and attends to challenges faced by individual schools across the country. We, therefore, recommend that the DBE should revamp its monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to identify and resolve challenges related to ICT availability and usage in individual school contexts timeously. Our perception is that such an approach will contribute to ensuring that existing resources do not remain unused or underutilized, or become stolen due to security concerns. Such occurrences would mean a major setback in the DBE’s endeavors to ensure that all children receive a quality education, in an era where technology is increasingly becoming a teaching and learning mode of choice. Since the DBE may not have enough capability to assist all schools across the country in all dimensions, we also recommend that schools collaborate, through partnerships with communities, to ensure safer schools. The nationwide vandalism and theft of ICT equipment in schools during the lockdown caused by COVID 19 are due to porous security in schools with technological resources, thus validating the need for measures such as those suggested. More research on ICT related challenges around the country is needed to provide a holistic picture of the problem to provide more data for government action going forward.

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Implementation

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Abstract. Past research has proven that emotional intelligence, the ability to justify one’s emotion is integral in higher education, especially in teaching and learning of English Language. The main objectives of this study are to examine i) the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and MUET performance among undergraduate students in the technical university, ii) the correlation between emotional intelligence and MUET performance among 250 respondents from engineering and levelinformationandcommunicationtechnology(ICT)coursesandiii)cantheofemotionalintelligence(EI)amongundergraduatestudentsina technical university predict the students’ performance in MUET? The cross sectional survey design was used to collect the data from 250 respondents. The respondents were given the EQI questionnaire which had been constructed to collect the respondents’ EI, which covers these aspects; self awareness, self regulation, empathy, self motivation and correlationsocialskillssubskills.TheresultshavehighlightedthatEIhasasignificantwiththestude nts’ MUET performance and can predict the students’ MUET performance. Also, besides that, the findings show that there is a significant difference between the students’ course and their EI level, thus implicating its dominant on education. Thus, from this study, as emotional intelligence plays important roles in determining the students’ English language performance, emotional intelligence skills readingintelligenceitshouldbeembeddedindesigningtheEnglishcourse.Forfutureresearch,isalsorecommendedtodiscovertherelationshipofemotionaltraitsandotherlanguageskillssuchaslistening,speaking,andwriting.

280 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 280 297, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.120206 The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and the Malaysian University English Test (MUET) Performance among Technical Students Nor Lailatul Azilah Hamdzah, Indra Devi Subramaniam and Nadiah Zainal Abidin Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5723 1569 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 9631 7031 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2771 2636 Ruslan Hassan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2775 1050

Keywords: emotional intelligence; Malaysian University English Test (MUET); Tapia’s Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQI)

Problem Statement Since 1999, The Malaysian Ministry of Education has introduced a Malaysian University English Test to prepare students to master an appropriate level of proficiency in the English Language. MUET, which is conducted by The Malaysia Examination Council consists of a listening test, a speaking test, a reading test and a writing test (Lee, 2004). This test is compulsory for the candidates who intend to pursue their study in tertiary institutions. The scores are divided into six bands, from the highly proficient user (Band 6) to the very limited user (Band 1). Previously, MUET examination had been conducted twice a year, but, due to its demand, it has been conducted for three times a year which is in March, in July and in FormerNovember.Ministerof Higher Education of Malaysia, Dato’ Seri Hishammuddin Hussein reported that deteriorating in English proficiency must be given a focus, as a majority of the students who enrolled in universities have low proficiency level (The Star, 27 January 2007) Based on the data provided by the Department of Academic Management (2016) in the technical university, there were more than 500 students who had sat MUET more than two times. The Malaysian Higher Education Blueprint 2015 2025 known as MEB (HE) has stressed on the importance of English proficiency among undergraduates to raise their competitiveness. In 2015, to deal with English Language issues among the

1. Introduction Mayer and Salovey (1993), as claimed by Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2004) have defined the emotional intelligence as “the capacity to reason about emotions and of emotions to enhance thinking” Goleman (1995) stated that in determining one’s triumph, the intellectual quotient (IQ) contributes only 20% while emotional intelligence governs the rest. Gibbs (2 October 1995) in Time article found that there is a significant correlation on how EI and IQ affect one another and lead to one’s achievement. It has been discovered that the factor of failure among top executives in the U.S and Europe is the “classic emotional failings”.

A dearth of past literature reveals on the significant role of emotional intelligence in determining academic success (Hassan, Sulaiman, and Ishak, 2009; Adeyemo, 2007; Marquez, Martin and Brackett, 2006). The inclusion of emotional intelligence gained prominence after its introduction in second language learning since the 1970s. Moreover, engineering education also claimed that the undergraduate engineers required a mastery of various skills which would enable them to fulfil their workplace requirements. Emotional intelligence skills include a set of skills which covers the skills of self regulation, self awareness, motivation, social skills and empathy. Emotional intelligence has contributed to learning abilities among the learners, communication skills and intercultural perspective. To address these issues, the study is aimed to analyse the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and MUET performance among undergraduate students in the technical university, to determine the correlation between emotional intelligence and MUET performance and to measure whether the level of emotional intelligence (EI) among undergraduate students in a technical university can predict the students’ performance in MUET.

Hence, the data from this study is intended to supply sufficient information via the explorations on the roles of EI in boosting and enhancing MUET performance among undergraduate students. Bar On (2007) has highlighted that EI can be instilled, taught and learned. Subsequently, EI skills can be included in the educational policy and they can be integrated into the syllabus. As a result, the students’ English performance will be enhanced and improved. Moreover, this study would help the university, the top management and the curriculum developer to structure and embed EI in pedagogical aspects.

The findings will provide a comprehensive understanding of emotional intelligence roles in improving the students’ MUET performance among undergraduate students in the technical university. This can be expressed in the following research questions; Is there any significant correlation between the level

undergraduates’ students in higher education, Dato’ Seri Najib Tun Abdul Razak has announced the new rules to enter the tertiary level. As the prerequisite entrance to public universities, the students for art and social science studies need to get Band 2 and they also must score Band 3 as a graduation requirement.

Purpose of the Study and Research Questions

In additions, many types of researches have been completed to study the correlation between emotional intelligence and academic achievement. For example, in a study conducted by Petrides et al. (2004), it has been discovered that EI skills are compelling in assisting the students who score low IQ in facing the obstacles and stress in the academic endeavour. Petrides et al. (2004) also reported that students with low IQ and with high traits of EI could manage their stress and have better social interaction hence indicating an improvement in their studies Sakinah and Nooreen (2013) have investigated the correlation between emotional intelligence and MUET achievement among matriculation students, but there is no research that has been done to technical students. As compared to other studies, this research is focused on the relationship between emotional intelligence and the MUET performance among the technical students in a technical university.

This has caused issues to the public higher institution in selecting the students in some fields (Bernama, 17 October 2014). Emotional intelligence (EI) has been reported to have positive impacts on English Language proficiency among ESL learners. Emotional intelligence is a capability to reason one’s emotion (Mayer and Salovey, 1993). Furthermore, Huseyin Oz et al. (2015) have suggested that emotional intelligence skills and ESL have a reciprocal connection. Many studies have proven that those who have emotional intelligence skills have a higher tendency to improve English Languageas EI skills assist them in understanding the language better. Previous research has confirmed the interconnection between emotional intelligence and ESL learning.

Previously, art and social science studies need to have only Band 1 as the entrance requirement. The students from Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) must score Band 3 for entrance requirement and Band 4 for graduation requirement. Also, besides that, Law and Medical students must score Band 4 as the prerequisite entrance and Band 5 for the graduation requirement.

Emotional Intelligence (EI) Emotions have played crucial roles in individuals. The contributions of emotional intelligence in individuals have been highlighted by many parties such as psychologists, educators and researchers. Several studies have been carried out to study the concepts of emotional intelligence skills in individuals. Numerous studies and publications have addressed the concepts and definitions of emotional intelligence. Hen (2020) has pointed out that high emotional intelligence affects well being, emotional self efficacy and academic performance, as mentioned by Hen and Sharabi (2014). Initially, Hassan et al. (2009) have mentioned that the word “emotion” was created from the Latin word “emovere” that has been defined as moving, happiness and hesitation (Mohd Azhar Abdul Hamid, 2006). Mayer et al. (2004) have mentioned that emotions “…occurs when there are certain biological, certainly experiential, and certain cognitive states which all occur simultaneously”. There are emotions, which are more biologically oriented, and then there are complex emotions that are saturated with thoughts and cognition” (Geetu Orme, 2001). As mentioned by Geetu Orme, (2001), David Caruso, the co designer of the Multifactor Emotional Intelligent Scale (MEIS) has described emotional intelligence as the capability to use the emotions intelligently to solve the problems and to live the life successfully. Geetu Orme (2001) has also derived emotional intelligence as the capability to alter the emotions, understand the emotions and act accordingly based on common sense. To conclude, feelings and emotions are used brilliantly in thinking, deciding and taking the proper action in one’s life. Moreover, individuals have to be aware of their feelings and emotions to avoid other hitch and conflicts. In this study, Goleman Emotional Intelligence Model (1995) and Noriah (2004) are adapted which are self awareness, self regulation, social skills, motivation and empathy. These skills are categorized into five competencies which have been constructed into thirty items questionnaire.

Malaysian University English Test (MUET) As referred by Lee (2004), the prospective students sit for the MUET exam as the mandatory requirement to enrol in public universities in Malaysia. Previously, in 2000, the English Language grade in the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) was referred to classify the students’ language proficiency accordingly for university admission. Then, Souba and Kee (2011) posit on the use of MUET results to gauge students’ proficiency levels. Besides, it has also been stressed as an admission requirement and as a placement test for many academic programmes. In contrast, this occurs more administrative issues in categorizing the students’ proficiency (Chan and Wong, 2004).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. of emotional intelligence (EI) among the undergraduate students in the technical university and the MUET performance? Can the level of Emotional Intelligence (EI) among undergraduate students in Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka predict the students’ overall performance in MUET?

2. Literature Review

Many researchers and practitioners have suggested implementing a standardised assessment which could be used to evaluate the students’ proficiency level. According to Lee (2004), MUET has been introduced in 1999 to cater to the issue of English classes that have not been prepared for pre university students. Then, MUET has been fully implemented in 2000. MUET has been administered by The Malaysian Examination Council to decrease the gap in the use of English Language among students at secondary and tertiary level (Chan and Wong, 2004) Concomitantly, according to the National Education Policy, the MUET syllabus is shaped to enhance the students’ language proficiency at the pre university level and to assist the students to master the language excellently at a higher level.

English Language Proficiency among Undergraduate Students

In the engineering field, Venkatraman and Prema (2007) stated that the use of the English Language in the academic and professional lives of engineering students is very crucial. As such, Pendergrass et al. (2001) have claimed that, as themedium of instruction in science and math course, the English Language plays a vital part in enhancing the engineering students’ performance, neither oral nor written communication. Since English is the principal international language of science, the academic performance of engineering and science students is influenced by their English Language proficiency (Pritchard and Nasr, 2004). It is because the professional reference texts for engineering and science students are mostly written in the English Language. This is supported by Joesba and Ardeo (2005) that claimed that as the English Language is considered as the international language, engineering students have to master the language effectively since all the reference sources such as books, research papers, handbooks, journal are written in the English Language

Many researches have been done to examine the influence of emotional intelligence skills towards the learning of English Language. In a study done by Sedigheh and Ghasem (2011), it has been proven that there has been a dependable and significant relationship between EI and English language proficiency. The study was conducted to examine the correlation between EI skills and English language proficiency among Iranian high school students. Next, Huseyin Oz et al. (2015) have summarised that higher emotional intelligence could help ESL learners in language performance. They have also interpreted that individuals

Rea Dicksin and Scott (2007) summarized that the English Language is critically important in engineering education to ease the interaction between the cultures. Besides, it has also been emphasised that the English Language is currently the communication requirement in the field of science and technology. The failure of the Upholding Bahasa Malaysia and Strengthening English Language (MBMMBI) have led to the abolition of the Teaching and Learning of Science and Mathematics in English (PPSMI) in Malaysia in 2012 (Moses and Malani, 2019). Moses and Malani (2019) have agreed that to uphold the government’s aspiration to drive Malaysia as a developed nation, Malaysians have to master the English language. Furthermore, Ashairi, Mohamed and Melor (2017) also stated that the students could improve their English proficiency when learning science and mathematics in the English Language. Emotional Intelligence (EI) and English Language Performance

3. Research Methodology

On the contrary, few studies have reported the insignificant correlation between emotional intelligence and language learning. For example, there was no correlation recorded between the EI traits and vocabulary learning among Iranian EFL learners at the intermediate level (Nesari, Karimi & Filinezhad, 2011). Other than that, in a study done by Petrides and Furnham (2004), there was a negative correlation between emotional intelligence skills and foreign language anxiety.

The cross sectional survey design was implemented in this study as the data was collected at one of time, and this design would give benefit to the researcher as it measures the current attitudes or practices. In this study, the cross sectional survey design was used to examine the relationship between emotional intelligence skills among the undergraduate students in the technical university and the students’ MUET performance. Thus, the current status of the students’ emotional intelligence level could be identified.

Zuhen (2016) has explained that language learning involves intrapersonal and interpersonal communication and interaction, that emphasise the emotional intelligence traits. Then, Goleman (1998), a well known psychologist in the emotional intelligence field, has also indicated that emotional intelligence contributes to individual achievement. A study about the effects of emotional intelligence on academic performance has been done among 200 American students in Texas. In this study, Stottlemayer (2002) has revealed that academic achievement could be predicted by the respondents’ EI level. Moreover, Rossiters (2003) has reported that individual differences, for instance, intelligence, aptitude, personality, motivation, attitude and anxiety influence second and foreign language performance. Downey, Mountstephen, Lloyd, Hansen and Sough (2008) discovered that emotional intelligence skills influence the students’ motivation, decision making strategy and planning. Consequently, this would affect students’ academic achievement. Besides that, different studies have evaluated the relationship between EI and second language success, for example, Parisa (2013), Reza (2009) and Sedigheh and Ghasem (2011).

Participants and procedure

The methodology applied in this study comprises quantitative research that involves 250 respondents from two different fields and from six faculties in a technical university which include Faculty of Information Technology (FTMK), and five Faculties of Engineering The respondents from an ICT course had represented The Faculty of Information Technology. Next, the data were also collected from the respondents from five different engineering faculties in the technical university to get the representatives from the engineering students.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. with emotional intelligence skills could understand the language better than others. They have declared that when individuals learn the English Language, their emotional intelligence skills would be improved. Saud (2019) has also found that in learning English Language, emotional intelligence is a crucial factor in determining the students’ performance.

This study adopted a set of a questionnaire from Tapia’s Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQI) to acquire the quantitative data. The original set of the questionnaire consists of 41 items, though, this study has chosen only 30 items that are suitable with the context of the technical students. The instrument was designed by taking into account the consideration of six main elements which are demographic data, self awareness, self regulation, empathy, social skills, and motivation. This instrument has also been constructed based on Goleman’s framework on emotional intelligence (1990). This instrument has two sections according to the self report based. The demographic data collected for this study are gender, age, race, faculty, year of study and the students’ MUET performance. In this section, the questionnaires used open ended and close ended questions. Thirty items have been constructed for the second part of the questionnaire. All items were constructed based on the subskills of emotional intelligence, self awareness (items no. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6), self regulation (items no. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12), empathy (items no. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18), social skills (items no. 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24) and motivation (items no. 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30). The respondents were instructed to rate the positive items on a five point Likert scale ranging from ‘never like me’, ‘occasionally like me’, ‘sometimes like me’, ‘frequently like me’ to ‘always like me’.

The target respondents were only those undergraduate students who have taken MUET examination because MUET performance is the dependent variable measured in this study. The population of this research consisted of 100 female students and 150 male students that represented the six faculties in a technical university. As a result, this study involved 250 respondents as the accessible population. The purpose of choosing the respondents from the Faculty of Information Technology (ICT) and Faculty of Engineering in the technical university is because these faculties focus on the niche area of the technical university as the Malaysian Technical University Network (MTUN).

Other than that, the quantitative data was meant to investigate the relationships between the level of emotional intelligence and other variables; MUET performance, and programme. This study was designed by following the Goleman Noriah EI Theory (2004), so the emotional intelligence domains used in this research are based on the EI domains that were constructed by Noriah (2004). The domains ascertained in emotional intelligence skills that have been used in this research are empathy, social skills, self regulation, self awareness, and motivation.

The Cronbach’s Alpha in Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software has been used to evaluate the reliability of the instruments. The output recorded a

As the technicaluniversity has five Faculties of Engineering,thus, the respondents from the engineering students were chosen equally from each Faculty of Engineering. Generally, 60% of the technical university undergraduates are male while the female students comprise 40% of the general population.

Instrumentation

4. Results and Discussion

An independent sample t test was conducted to compare the level of emotional intelligence scores for the respondents from the engineering course and ICT courses. The analysis was done to answer research question 1 which is: RQ (1): Is there any significant difference in the level of emotional intelligence (EI) according to the students’ programmes in the technical university?

Only one primary tool is used to collect information for the purpose of this study which is the questionnaire Only survey method is used because the emotional intelligence instrument is adequate to investigate the impact of types of programmes on the levels of emotional intelligence among the undergraduate students in the technical university, to analyse the correlation between the level of emotional intelligence (EI) among the undergraduate students and their MUET performance and to examine whether the level of emotional intelligence (EI) among undergraduate students in a technical university can predict the students’ performance in MUET.

The analysis of the quantitative data presents the following aspects: i. the significant difference in the level of emotional intelligence (EI) according to the students’ programmes in the technical university. ii. the correlation between the level of emotional intelligence (EI) among undergraduate students in the technical university and their MUET performance. iii. Can the level of emotional intelligence (EI) among the undergraduate students predict their MUET performance?

The impact of types of programmes on the levels of emotional intelligence among the undergraduate students in the technical university

The findings obtained from the analyses of the data are given in the tables: Table 1: The level of emotional intelligence among respondents Group Statistics Course N Mean DeviationStd. MeanErrorStd. Valuet Sig.

Data Collection and Analysis

IntelligenceEmotional Engineering 125 2.4720 .43748 .03913 20.285 0.00 ICT 125 3.6200 .45712 .04089

The questionnaire, which is a form containing a set of questions and addressed to a statistically significant number of subjects as a way of gathering information for a survey is considered the best way of obtaining data especially for a large scale survey such as this one. The questionnaires were distributed to 250 respondents.

H0: There is no significant difference in the level of emotional intelligence (EQ) according to the students’ programmes at the technical university H1.There is a significant difference in the level of emotional intelligence (EQ) according to the students’ programmes at the technical university.

The findings show that there is a significant difference in the level of emotional intelligence for engineering course and ICT courses, t (250) = 20.285, p value = 0.00. The level of emotional intelligence among ICT students (mean = 3.62, s.d. = 0.46) is significantly different from the level of emotional intelligence among engineering students (mean = 2.47, s.d. = 0.44). in other words, students from the ICT courses have a higher level of emotional intelligence as compared to students from the engineering course. Thus, the null hypothesis is rejected.

Similarly, Sanchez Ruiz et al. (2013) have elucidated that, as compared to other majors, the psychology students were recorded a higher score of EI skills. Concurrently, Sanchez Ruiz et al. (2013) have also discovered that students from the electrical engineering and computer science course scored a lower level of emotional intelligence in comparison to students from the field of business and management. Further, other researchers have also advocated that respondents from the vocational and technical areas reveal lower scores on EI traits in comparison to those in the field of social science (Caste Jon et al., 2008; Sanchez Ruiz et al., 2013). Zuhen (2016) has suggested that the undergraduates who use ICT and media tools in ESL would be able to be attentive to their emotions than others. The findings of this study have highlighted that ICT and media tools assist the students in learning English (Zuhen, 2016). As affirmed by Petrides et al. (2016), Sanchez Ruiz, Perez Gonzalez and Petrides (2010), technical students indicate a lower score in terms of the emotionality score in comparison to students of arts. It can be concluded that emotional intelligence level among the students from a different type of courses and programmes are different. Thus, emotional intelligence skills must be integrated into designing the syllabus for the course, depending on the types of the course and programme. The correlation between the level of emotional intelligence (EI) among the undergraduate students and their MUET performance Next, to determine the correlation between the level of emotional intelligence (EI) among the undergraduate students in the technical university and their MUET performance, a Pearson Correlation was used. The result of the finding is portrayed in Table 2. The Pearson Correlation is conducted to justify the research question 2 which is: RQ (2): Is there any significant correlation between the level of emotional intelligence (EI) among the undergraduate students in the technical university and their MUET performance?

H0: There is no significant correlation between the level of emotional intelligence (EQ) among the undergraduate students in the technical university and their MUET performance. H1.There is a significant correlation between the level of emotional intelligence (EQ) among the undergraduate students in the technical university and their MUET performance.

289 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 2: The relationship between EI Level and the students’ MUET performance Group Statistics LevelEI PerformanceMUET IntelligenceEmotional CorrelationPearson 1 .706** Sig. tailed)(2 .000 N 250 250 CorrelationPearson .706** 1 Sig. tailed)(2 .000 N 250 250 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed). The data in Table 2 shows that there is a very strong positive correlation (r = 0.706, p < 0.05) between the EI level and MUET performance. Thus, the null hypothesis is rejected. This data has described the hypothesis, H1: There is a significant correlation between the level of emotional intelligence (EI) among the undergraduate students in the technical university and their MUET performance. By squaring the correlation and then multiplying by 100, it indicates that the EI level shares 49.8% of its variability with the students’ MUET performance. It can be summed that the EI performance helps to increase the students MUET performance in a large percentage (49.8%). Table 3: The relationship between EI subskills and the students’ MUET performance MUET Performance Self_Awareness Pearson Correlation .656** Sig. (2 tailed) .000 N 250 Self_Regulation Pearson Correlation .659** Sig. (2 tailed) .000 N 250 Empathy Pearson Correlation .654** Sig. (2 tailed) .000 N 250 Social_Skills Pearson Correlation .607** Sig. (2 tailed) .000 N 250 Motivation Pearson Correlation .606** Sig. (2 tailed) .000 N 250 MUET Performance Pearson Correlation 1 Sig. (2Ntailed) 250 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed).

According to Table 3, the data reveals that there is a strong positive relationship (r = 0.656, p < 0.05) between the self awareness and the students’ MUET performance. After squaring the correlation and then multiplying by 100, it shows that self awareness shares 43% of its variability with the students’ MUET performance. In other words, it shows that self awareness skill can help to increase the students MUET performance in a large percentage (43%). For another subskill, for instance, self regulation, there is a strong positive relationship (r = 0.659, p < 0.05) between self regulation and the students’ MUET performance. Self regulation shares about 43.4% of its variability with the students MUET performance. To sum, it helps the students MUET performance by 43.4%. Then, there are also strong positive relationship between self motivation (r = 0.606, p < 0.05), Empathy (r = 0.654, p < 0.05) and students’ MUET performance. These findings show that self motivation helps the students MUET performance of 36.7%, and empathy shares 42.7% of its variability with the students’ MUET performance. Same goes with social skills that share 36.8% of its variability with the students MUET performance (r = 0.607, p < 0.05). For motivation, it also recorded a weak positive relationship as well (r = 0.083, p < 0.05) with the students’ MUET performance. Maturity shares 0.68% of its variability with the students’ MUET performance. It can be said that maturity level only contributes 0.68% for the students’ MUET performance. Finally, spirituality also showed the same finding with other subskills as it recorded a strong positive relationship (r = 0.606, p < 0.05) with the students’ MUET performance. By squaring the correlation and then multiplying by 100, it indicates that it shares only 36.7% of its variability with MUET performance. It helps the students to improve their MUET performance in about 36.7%. It can be concluded that all subskills have shown a very positive relationship with MUET performance. This finding in this research is consistent with research conducted by Khalil (2012), who has investigated the relationship between Iranian EFL Learners’ emotional intelligence and their performance in TOEFL. TOEFL is an English placement test, which is similar to MUET in terms of purpose. In this research, Khalil (2012) indicates a significant and positive relationship between EI and TOEFL scores. The findings illuminate the fact that emotional intelligence has its impact on students’ performance in English tests that measure their language proficiency in listening, speaking, reading and writing. In research done by Sakinah and Nooreen (2013), it has been proven that there was a significant relationship between the students’ MUET achievements and emotional intelligence. The study had been conducted to examine the correlation between MUET achievement and emotional intelligence skills among matriculation students in Universiti Sains Malaysia. Seyed et al. (2014) have investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence and language achievement among university students in Iran. The finding appears to support the previous literature as there was a significantrelationship between EIandlanguageachievement score of the participants. Hasanzadeh and Shahmohamadi (2011) emphasised that students were more expressive and independent, have a high tendency to master the language successfully. Alavinia and Mollahossein (2012) stated that emotional intelligence skills are relevant in learning the language as compared to other subjects.

Based on Table 5, the p value is 0.000, which is lower than alpha level, p < 0.05. It shows that the level of emotional intelligence among undergraduate students can be used significantly to predict the students’ MUET performance. Furthermore, the description of the simple regression analysis is shown in Table 6 to provide justification for the result.

This value in Table 4 indicates that 49.8% of the variances in the students’ MUET performance can be predicted from the variable of the students’ level of emotional intelligence. Thus, it can be said that the level of emotional intelligence among the undergraduate students in the technical university reliably predicts the students’ MUET performance. It has been proven that emotional intelligence contributes to the students’ MUET performance.

Predictors: (Constant), Emotional Intelligence

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Can the level of emotional intelligence (EI) among the undergraduate students predict their MUET performance? Next, to study the relationship between those variables which are the level of emotional intelligence and the students’ performance in MUET, the simple regression analysis was conducted. This simple regression analysis is run to explain the research question 3 which is: RQ (3): Can the level of emotional intelligence (EI) amongundergraduate students in the technical university predict the students’ overall performance in MUET?

Table 6: Description of simple regression Coefficientsa Model UnstandardizedCoefficients StandardizedCoefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) .315 .160 1.974 .049 PerformanceMUET .801 .051 .706 15.679 .000 a. Dependent Variable: MUET Performance

Table 4: Model Summary Model Summary Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 .706a .498 .496 .51170

b. Predictors: (Constant), Emotional Intelligence

Table 5: Description of Regression ANOVAa Model Sum Squaresof df SquareMean F Sig. 1 Regression 82.946 1 82.946 245.833 .000b Residual 83.678 248 .337 Total 166.624 249 a. Dependent Variable: MUET Performance

This value in Table 7 proves that 52.2% of the variances in the students’ MUET performance can be predicted from the variable of each subskill of emotional intelligence. It can be summarized that the subskills of emotional intelligence which are motivation, empathy, self regulation, self awareness, and social skills can predict the students’ MUET performance.

Furthermore, a multiple regression analysis has been conducted to investigate whether the level of each subskill of Emotional Intelligence (EQ) among undergraduate students can predict the students’ performance in MUET? This analysis is hoped to give a further explanation about the contribution of each subskill of EQ towards the students’ MUET performance.

a. Predictors: (Constant), Empathy, Social Skills, Self Regulation, Self awareness, Motivation

b. Dependent Variable: Emotional Intelligence

b. Predictors: (Constant), motivation, self-awareness, self-regulation, social skills, empathy According to Table 8, the p value is 0.000, which is lower than alpha level, p < 0.05. It justifies that the subskills of emotional intelligence which are motivation, self awareness, self regulation, social skills, empathy can be used significantly to predict the students’ MUET performance. The details of the interpretation are stated in table 9

From Table 6, there is an explanation and interpretation that can be reflected to relate the dependent variable and the independent variable. The finding shows that this coefficient level of emotional intelligence among the undergraduate students is 0.801. Thus, for every unit in the level of the emotional intelligence among the undergraduate students’ score, it is expected to get a 0.801 point increases in the students’ MUET performance. This is statistically significant at t = 15.68 (Sig. = .049 < 0.05).

Table 8: Description of Multiple Regression ANOVAa Model Sum Squaresof df SquareMean F Sig. 1 86.974 5 17.395 53.287 .000b 86.974 79.650 244 .326 79.650 166.624 249 166.624

a. Dependent Variable: MUET Performance

Table 7: Model Summary Model Summary Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 .722a .522 .512 .57134

Furthermore, the coefficient unit for self awareness is 0.2 and it is still expected to give an increase of 0.2 points in the students’ MUET performance for every unit in the self awareness score. This is statically significant at t = 24.75 (Sig. 0.000 < 0.05). While for motivation, the coefficient for it is 0.17. Due to this finding, for every unit of motivation subskill score, it is expected to get an increase of 0.17 point in the students’ MUET performance. This is statically significant at t = 17.67 (Sig. 0.000 < 0.05). The results confirm the findings of Sakinah and Nooreen (2013) that stated that there was a positive relationship between emotional intelligence skills and the students’ MUET performance. In their study, it validated that the positive relationship between MUET achievements and EQ subskills indicated that an increase in emotional intelligence could increase MUET accomplishments. Thus, it has been proven that emotional intelligence skills contribute to the achievement of the MUET performance. Hassan et al. (2012) hypothesised that there was a relationship between emotional intelligence and vocabulary knowledge. He reported that female students with high emotional intelligence level showed high vocabulary knowledge. He stated that EQ is a good predictor in vocabulary knowledge among ESL students. Thus, emotional intelligence skills have their roles in predicting the students’ achievement in MUET as vocabulary knowledge is also tested in reading and speaking paper.

a. Dependent Variable: MUET Performance

According to Table 9, there are several justifications and interpretation can be made based on the analysis of the multiple regression. The analysis can be deducted relating dependent variables and independent variables and as stated

293 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 9: Description of Multiple Regression Coefficientsa Model UnstandardizedCoefficients StandardizedCoefficients t Sig. B ErrorStd. Beta 1 (Constant) .062 .021 2.937 .004 Self_Awareness .200 .008 .259 24.753 .000 Self_Regulation .193 .007 .236 27.050 .000 Empathy .214 .011 .240 18.791 .000 Social_Skills .196 .007 .241 27.397 .000 Motivation .174 .010 .132 17.669 .000

Thisbelow:coefficient unit for the level of empathy is 0.21. Hence, for every unit in the level of empathy score, it is expected to a 0.21 point increase the students’ MUET performance. This is statically significant at t = 18.79 (Sig. 0.000 < 0.05). While for the social skills subskill, the coefficient for social skills is 0.19. Hence, for every unit in the social skills subskill score, it is expected to get a 0.19 increase to the students’ MUET performance. This is statically significant at t = 27.4 (Sig. 0.000 < 0.05). Next, for self regulation, it shows that the coefficient for it is 0.19. So, the students’ MUET performance will increase by 0.19 point for every unit of self regulation subskill score. This is statically significant at t = 27.05 (Sig. 0.000 < 0.05).

5. Conclusions

This study has illustrated several significant findings regarding both the independent and dependent variables. This study also provided results for all the research questions. Generally, there is no significant difference in the level of emotional intelligence (EI) according to the students’ programmes in the technical university It has been found that there is a significant correlation between the level of emotional intelligence (EI) among the undergraduates in the technical university. The main implication derived from this study relates to the roles of emotional intelligence skills in English Language learning and the students’ English performance. The shreds of evidence from this research suggest that emotional intelligence plays an important role in determining the students’ language performance. Besides, the study has pointed out that students’ MUET performance can be improved if the students have a higher level of emotional intelligence Since emotional intelligence affects English Language performance, the integration of emotional intelligence skills should be implemented in every English course offered in the technical university. The findings also suggest on the need for the involvement of the stakeholders be it the management, faculties, lecturers and students in enhancing MUET performance, including the integration and implementation of the elements of emotional intelligence in the teaching and learning of English language. Nor Lailatul Azilah, Syed Najmuddin and Ruslan (2016) also proposed that EI can be instilled, taught and learned. As pontificated by Hen (2020), many kinds of research have proven the significance of emotional intelligence to career development, academic achievement and life satisfaction. Hence, this study suggests that English lecturers could benefit from

Next, Parisa (2012) discovered that adapting emotional intelligence in classroom instruction had a positive effect on the students’ level of writing performance. She stated that Aki (2006) has highlighted that the nature of language learning requires the learners and instructor to use interpersonal communication and also psychology. Thus, it is very crucial to have the EQ skills in language learning, such as the ability to recognise, comprehend and manage emotions. In reading, Parisa (2012) added that the readers’ emotional sensitivity is developed to embrace the characters in the reading process. As a result, language learning can be more successful if emotional intelligence skills are instilled in the learning process. Then, the role of emotional intelligence on English learning as a second language was investigated by Maryam (2012). She pointed out that emotional intelligence and its dimensions predict the students’ achievement in language learning. Thus, it can be summarised that emotional intelligence skills can predict the students’ performance in second language learning. Thus, all those obtained values have explained the direction of the relationship between the dependent variables and independent variables, either it decreases or increases. From the data inferred from the analysis, it can be summarized that the students’ MUET performance will increase and become better when the level of emotional intelligence is higher. Every subskill of emotional intelligence has played its roles in determining the students’ MUET performance. Again, based on the finding, the students’ MUET performance will be improved and become better when each subskill level is improved and better as well.

295 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. emotional intelligence training programmes that offer the opportunity to develop knowledge and skills of emotional intelligence in English Language class. For future research, it is suggested to conduct a study on the relationship between emotional intelligence traits and language skills such as listening, speaking, reading and writing among the technical students. 6. Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Centre of Languages and Human Development, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Research Group C Act PET for supporting this research. This research was supported by a Special Grant for Language Teachers from Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (KHASDG/2019/PBPI/Q00041).

https://doi.org/10.17576/gema

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296 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Huseyin, O., Mehmet, D., & Jafar, P. (2015). Emotional Intelligence and Attitudes Towards Foreign Language Learning: Pursuit of Relevance and Implications. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 416 423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.118 Joesba, M., & Ardeo, G. (2005), Student engineers, ESP courses, and testing with Cloze Tests. ESP World, 2 (10). Retrieved 15 April 2010, from http://www.esp world.info/contents.htm Khalil, M. (2012). The relationship between EFL Iranian Learners' emotional intelligence and their performance on TOEFL/PBT. International Journal of Linguistics, 46 54. Marquez,https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v4i1.1382P.G.O.,Martin,R.P.,&Brackett, M. A. (2006). Relating Emotional Intelligence to Social Competence and Academic Achievement in High School Students. Psicothema Online Journal, 18, 118 123. Mayer, J. D. (2001). UNH. Retrieved 8 March 2010, from UNH Mayer,m%20Emotional%20Intelligence%20in%20Everyday%20Life.pdfhttp://www.unh.edu/emotional_intelligence/EIAssets/EI2001Chapter%201%20froWebsite:J.D.,Salovey,P.,&Caruso,D.R.(2004).EmotionalIntelligence:Theory,FindingsandImplications. Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 197 215. Moses, E., & Malani, I. (2019). Dual language programme: The perceptions and challenges of teachers and students in Klang, Selangor. Jurnal Pendidikan Sains Dan Matematik Malaysia, 9(1), 36 48. Retrieved from http://ojs.upsi.edu.my/index.php/JPSMM/article/view/3039 Nesari, A , Karimi, L., & Filinezhad, N. (2011). On the Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Vocabulary Learning of Iranian EFL Learners at the Intermediate Level. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 28, 900 903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.165 Noriah (2004). Manual Iventori Kecerdasan Emosi Malaysia, IKEM (D) [Malaysian Emotional Intelligence Inventory Manual], Versi 2. Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Noriah, M. I., Shaharuddin, A., Kadderi, M. D., & Roslina, T. A. (2007). Kepintaran emosi sebagai faktor peramal pencapaian akademik peajar IPTA: implikasi terhadap kebolehpasaran [Emotional intelligence as a predictor factor of IPTA students' academic achievement: implications for marketability] Jurnal Personalia Pelajar, 11, 1 28. Nor Lailatul Azilah, H., Syed Najmuddin, S. H., & Ruslan, H. (2016). Examining the level of emotional intelligence among semester one students in Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang. Journal of Human Capital Development, 9(1), 1 11. Nur Sakinah, T., & Nooreen, N. (2013). Relationship between MUET Test Achievement and Trait Emotional Intelligence among Matriculation Students. Graduate Research in Education, 354 358. Orme, G. (2001). What Is Emotional Intelligence? In G. Orme, Emotionally Intelligent Living (pp. 3 24). Wales: Crown House Publishing. Pendergrass, N., Kowalczyk, R., Dowd, J., & Laoulache, R. (2001). Improving first year engineering education. Journal of Engineering Education. Retrieved 12 May 2008 from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3886/is_200101/ai_n8942238

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Petrides, K. V., Frederickson, N., & Furnham, A. (2004). The role of trait emotional intelligence in academic performance and deviant behaviour at school. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 277 293. Pritchard, M., & Nasr, A. (2004) Improving reading performance among Egyptian engineering students: Principles and practices. English for Specific Purpose, 23, 425 445. Rea‐Dickins, P., & Scott, C. (2007) Washback from language tests on teaching, learning and policy: evidence from diverse settings. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 14(1), pages 1 7. Reza, P. (2009). Emotional and verbal intelligence in language learning. Iranian Journal of Language Studies, 3(1), 43 64. Rossiter, M. J. (2003). The effects of affective strategy training in the ESL classroom. TESL EJ, 7(2), 1 20. Sanchez Ruiz, M. J., Perez Gonzales, J. C., & Petrides, K. V. (2010). Trait emotional intelligence profiles of students from different university faculties. Australian Journal of Psychology, 62. 51 57 Sanchez Ruiz, M. J., Hernandez Torrano, D., Perez Gonzalez, J. C., Batey, M., & Petrides, K. V (2011). The relationship between trait emotional intelligence and creativity across different subject domains. Motivation and Emotion, 35, 461 473 Sanchez Ruiz, M. J, Mavroveli, S., & Poullis, J. (2013). Trait emotional intelligence and its link to university performance: An examination. Saud, W. I. (2019). Emotional intelligence and its relationship to academic performance among SAUDI EFL undergraduates. International Journal of Higher Education, 8(6), 222 230. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v8n6p222 Sedigheh, S., & Ghasem, B. (2011). The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Language Proficiency of Iranian High School Students. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1603 1607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.311

Blended Learning Approach to Mathematics Education Modules: An Analysis of Pre-Service Teachers’

https://orcid.org/0000

Abstract. Changes in the higher education institutions curriculum for South African schools have ushered in a blended learning approach to support the education process and to meet the needs of students. This change revolves around a blend of the use of online learning and traditional approaches to improve on pre service mathematics teachers’ knowledge and academic performance. This paper explored pre service mathematics teachers’ perceptions of the need for using a blended learning approach to mathematics education modules in other to ascertainiftheywillwanttouseb learningintheirfutureteachingcareer.

Keywords: Blended learning; mathematics education modules; online learning; pre service teachers’ perception; traditional face to face method

9239 https://orcid.org/0000

This research involved a mixed method using convenient purposive sampling to sample 42 pre service mathematics teachers enrolled for a mathematics methodology module in a selected South African higher education institution. Responses to the questionnaire were used to conduct a descriptive analysis of each question. Qualitative data analysis from a semi structured interview was analyzed thematically. The main finding revealed that pre service mathematics teachers were optimistic that blended learning improved their performance, and have therefore expressed their readiness to adopt it in their future teaching career. However, pre service teachers still need training and support to engage meaningfully in this approach to learning.

1. Introduction South African students’ poor performance in mathematics being of great concern and is considered as a national crisis both in the educational and private sectors (Abramovitz, Berezina, Bereman & Shvartsman, 2012; Ndlovu & Mostert, 2018; SACMEQ, 2012; Ubah & Bansilal, 2018). Specifically, Ubah and Bansilal (2018) observed that prospective mathematics teachers’ mathematical knowledge of teaching mathematics was quite poor among South African students. A solution

Perceptions

0828

Ifunanya Julie Adaobi Ubah, Erica D. Spangenberg andVirenRamdhany University of Johannesburg, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4898 7532 0003 3073 0003 1196

298 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 298 319, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.172020

to this critical challenge revolves around the use of digital technology in the teaching and learning process (Stols, Ferreira, Perser, Olivier, Merwe, De Villiers & Venter, 2015). According to Subramanian, Thangarasu and Subramanian (2018), teaching and learning of mathematics using digital technology can make the teaching process more effective. The South African, Department of Basic Education (DBE), offers a new perspective and a good environment for the reorganization of the educational system (Fluck, 2018). This was to make progress at the same speed as inclusive educational principles as well as to aid in training proficient teachers. To accomplish this objective, the NHE through higher education institutions (HEIs) were required to apply digital technology in the training of pre service teachers (Bennison & Goos, 2010) for productive teaching outcomes in South African schools (Green, Adendorff, & Bongekile, 2014).

According to Borba, Askar, Engelbrecht, Gadanidis, Linares and Aguilar (2016), the use of digital technology in mathematics instruction is less significant in many developing countries including South Africa. The inclusion of Technical Mathematics as a subject in the Grade 12 South African curriculum is a good development for technology based instruction (DBE, 2018). Certainly, the inclusion of technical mathematics into the curriculum does not guarantee the efficient use of digital technology for teaching and learning.

The research report of Stols, Ferreira, Pelser, Olivier, Van der Merwe, De Villiers and Venter (2015) has shown that many South African teachers failed to use the internet resources in their instructional processes even with the availability of internet facilities. Ngambi, Brown, Bozalek, Gachago and Wood (2016), as well as Kaptelinin and Nardi (2018), noted that teaching and learning of mathematics could be more enjoyable, interesting, and accessible to a diverse number of learners with the integration of digital technology. In addition, South Africa’s HEIs have recorded digital progress in the area of pedagogical practices with respect to the use of digital technology for the past twenty years (Mahesh, 2017) From this discussion, it is obvious that research in South African HEIs struggled to make stride of reform in the world of digital technology. Hence, the need to encourage pre service teacher education to take advantage of this technological revolution to make strides in the advancement of mathematics education in South Africa, to train teachers who are digitally literate enough, and to refresh the process of teaching and learning of mathematics in this digital age. Given these scenarios, well structured research is required to explore pre service mathematics teachers’ perceptions of the need for using blended learning (digital technology) to mathematics education modules for improved academic performance in other to ascertain if they will want to use b learning in their future teaching career.

Research Question

(2) To what extent did PSMTs’ perceptions determine their willingness to use b learning in their future teaching career?

(1) What were pre service mathematics teachers’ (PSMTs’) perceptions of the need for using a b learning approach in mathematics education modules?

This research addressed the following questions.

The availability of digital technology in and around the classroom and the development of pedagogy through technology integration led to the introduction of b learning approaches in the educational proocess (Hong & Samimy, 2010; Schechter, Kazakoff, Bundschuh, Prescott & Macaruso, 2017). According to Sharma (2010), b learning has been in practice for more than 20 years in developed countries, and contrarily to what people may think in the South African context. Several researchers (Christenson, Horn & Staker, 2013; Kintu, Zhu & Kagambe, 2017; Tayebinik & Puteh, 2012) defined b learning as a mixture of pedagogical approaches that are rooted in online learning. B learning offers complementary learning experiences in a digital environment, for effective and efficient use of traditional face to face learning methods in classroom instruction (Johnson & Haria, 2015; McGee & Reis, 2012; Means, Toyama, Murphy & Bakia, 2013; O’Byrne & Pytash, 2015). With respect to varied definitions of b learning raised by various researchers, this research defined b learning as a combination of the online and face to face traditional methods of teaching and learning that accommodates different pre service teachers’ capabilities to learn at the ideal speed for oneself. Kekana and Corke (2015) observed that the 2015/2016 academic session in South African higher education institutions recorded a growth of b learning in teaching, learning, and research. This development was as a result of the emergency of confusion and anxiety in HEIs during an undergraduate led protest movement in South Africa (Allison, 2015). In the United Kingdom, Tolley and MacKenzie (2015) observed that HEIs should offer suitable methods of teaching and learning support for teacher education. In South Africa, Bojuwoye, Moletsane, Stofile, Moola and Sylvester (2014) observed that supplementary support to face to face teaching methods addressed barriers to learning while Quinn and Aarao (2020) observed that a mixture of face to face learning activities with online learning improved academic performance. Siyepu (2018) observed that using Khan Academy to supplement traditional classroom interactions, prompted students to seek diverse solutions to problems during the classroom instructional process. Contrarily, Krishnan’s (2016) study revealed that pre service teachers' preference for the face to face traditional learning approach was because of the convenient and interactive way of learning mathematics with their peers. In addition, Ashby, Sadera and McNary (2011) revealed that college students that registered a b learning mode algebra course did not perform better than the students that learned the same algebra course in a face to face mode. However, the mere introduction of b-learning to the educational process is inadequate for proper technology integration rather it is the willingness to use it in future careers (Sinay & Nahornick 2016). In view of this, Cloete (2014) recommended that pre service teachers’ should learn their modules using a b learning approach to equip them for an effective teaching career The literature revealed various benefits of b learning, the most prevalent advantage is flexibility (Medina, 2018) while students' ability to learn at their own pace, collaboration among peers, and improved academic performance were reported as advantages

According to Varthis and Anderson (2018), students reported positive perceptions of using b learning. Moreover, Umoh and Akpan's (2014) research findings revealed that there is a significant positive effect on students’ perception of blended learning tools. Singh, (2015) observed that b learning creates an opportunity for teachers to improve on their professional development as well as creating opportunities for them to see the need and value of b learning in mathematics instruction.

3. Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework is explicitly the researchers’ entry point into research. Students understanding of how to obtain, develop, and perceive information in a b-learning environment was by examining theories of learning related to the blearning approach. However, there was no particular theory that addressed students’ perception of the b learning approach (Picciano, 2017). However, the constructivist theory, which Jerome Bruner is one of the founding fathers formed the basis of this research (Nnachi, 2009). The constructivist theory is basically based on a scientific study about how students learn (Nnachi, 2009). Various teaching approaches were derived from constructivist theory, based on the fundamental assumption that a learner actively seeks novel facts, and is actively

Fewer research studies focused on pre service mathematics teachers’ perception of the need for using a b learning approach in their mathematics education modules. Thiyagu's (2011) survey research findings revealed that there was no significant difference in B.Ed. trainee’s perception of the need for using a b learning approach. In addition, Krishnan (2016) research revealed that students preferred the face to face learning approach than the b learning approach.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. of b learning (Shand & Glassett Farrelly, 2017). However, literature also revealed some weaknesses of b learning, the most prevalent weakness is the poor technical and organizational structure (Kaur, 2013; Mozelius & Rydell, 2017).

Yilmaz and Malone's (2020) quantitative research on preservice teachers’ perceptions in the b learning science education methods course in Turkey, revealed a positive perception. Rifai and Sugiman (2018) research revealed that the participants had a positive influence on mobile b learning using smartphones.

Thomas, Doyle and Skamp (2019) research revealed that students had a high level of engagement with online learning through flipped classroom than over traditional face to face lectures. Graham and Spring (2017) revealed that 42.1% of all b learning research concentrated on behavior and reasoning while 25.4% of research concentrated on student perceptions An indication of limited empirical research on students’ perceptions of the use of b learning in higher education institutions modules. In view of this, pre service teachers need to use and also explore the benefits and weaknesses of the b learning approach in their professional development to enable them to use b learning in their future teaching career (O’Byrne & Pytash, 2015). Hence preservice teachers should employ a b learning approach in their professional development to appreciate the merits and deficiencies of such an instructional design for proper use in their future teaching career.

Two instruments were used for data collection; first was a structured self designed questionnaire and the second, a semi structured interview. The questionnaire comprised of two sections; Section A consist of five yes/no responses to the questions, while Section B consisted 25 questions on a 5 point Likert scale with five possible responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) used to measure pre service mathematics teachers’ perceptions of the need for using blended learning in mathematics education modules for improved academic performance in other to ascertain if they will want to use b learning in their future teaching career. The authors did not follow a formalized list of questions to develop questions for the semi structured interviews. The questions were asked in relation to pre service teachers’ views on the use of a b learning approach in mathematics education modules. Two post doc fellows in the mathematics education discipline and academic mentors ascertained the content validity of the instruments. They checked on the content relevance to the research and appropriateness of each question. Moreover, the psychometric property was tested using the Cronbach alpha technique which resulted in a coefficient of 0.88. Selecting Participants

Data collection

A mixed method design was used to identify pre service mathematics teachers’ perceptions of the need for using a b learning approach in their mathematics education modules. The mixed methods design was chosen as most suitable for this research because of its great potentials to strengthen the rigor as well as enrich the analysis and research findings (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011).

4. Research Methodology

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. engaged in the process of assimilation and utilization of knowledge (Stoblein, 2009). Varthis and Anderson (2018) encouraged social constructivism as a useful theoretical framework for a blended learning approach. Social constructivism strongly influenced by Vygotsky’s (1978) based on information and communication for the creation of knowledge is significant in this research. Vygotsky asserts that in social constructivism interactions, teachers help the learner to get to his or her own understanding of the content in an active manner. According to Zaretskii, (2009) the teacher is the facilitator of learning and is in charge of establishing a conducive learning environment to make sure that all students are actively participating in the learning process. However, extended engagement through computers offers students with more prospects for the enhancement of their critical thinking skills. This development will enable the students to improve on their higher order cognitive skills and acquire more meaningful learning experiences than what is possible in a traditional face to face teaching and learning approach.

Research Design

This exploratory research involved 42 pre service mathematics teachers, purposively sampled from graduating pre service mathematics teachers who enrolled for a mathematics education methodology module forming part of their

Ethical considerations

5. Research Results

In reporting the results, Table 1 showed responses of participants to ‘Section A’ part of the questionnaire, while Table 2 showed the responses of participants’ perceptions of the need for using a b learning approach to mathematics education modules for improved academic performance in other to ascertain if they will want to use b learning in their future teaching career.

Permission to carry out research and an ethical clearance certificate was issued to the researchers by the HEI research office. The participants signed a consent form.

Bachelor in Education (B.Ed.) degree at a South African Higher Education Institution This research used a convenient purposive sampling approach to sample participants with the purpose of selecting information rich cases whose study would answer the question under research (Ratcliff, 2016). The internet and computers were available to the participants in the selected HEI lecture halls. The instructional approach for the module was a b learning design. Based on participants' responses to the questionnaire administered, three pre service teachers: Tom, Willy and Sammy were conveniently sampled for semi structured interviews to highlight their views on the use of a b learning approach in mathematics education modules. The interviews were audio recorded and then transcribed in a verbatim manner by the first author. In order to ensure reliability, the transcripts were checked by the second and third authors against the original recordings. To ensure, credibility, member checking was adopted where participants were given the transcripts to check and correct errors that might have occurred during transcriptions (Korstjens & Moser, 2017). Likewise, dependability was ensured through a good recording of the interviews.

Data analysis

Analysis of data entailed the separation of the information gathered into smaller units to enable the researcher to answer the research questions (Sauro, 2015). Quantitative data were analyzed with descriptive statistics of frequency count using the software package, SPSS version 26 as illustrated in Tables 1 & 2, and Figures 1 & 2. The semi structured interview data were organized and analyzed using thematic analysis, in order to get an overview of what it revealed. The data, however, did not contain sufficient general demographic information over time such as age, race, academic performance, and home language to conduct meaningful bivariate and multivariate analyses.

The objective of the study was explained at the beginning of the research and the participants were aware that participation was voluntary. However, all the students that registered for the module were participants of the research. They were assured anonymity in the use of their questionnaire responses and the semi structured interview data.

Overall summary to responses of the questionnaire items

The 42 participants that took part in this research had access to computers and the internet in the classroom. Thirty two out of 42 participants indicated that they had computers at home, while 22 out of 42 participants had the internet at home (see Table 1). The table revealed a greater challenge to the use of digital technology in learning. However, all the students were computer literate while 34 participants acquired some technological skills. 38 participants responded that they preferred using a b learning for their mathematics education modules, an indication of great excitement about the introduction of new technology in the learning mathematics. See Figure 1 for the graphical representation.

Figure 1: Graphical responses to ‘Section A’ part of the questionnaire Figure 1, is the graphical representation of the result in Table 1. The graph showed that more than half of the participants preferred the b learning approach. Table 2 showed the participants' responses to ‘section B’ part of the questionnaire. It is important to understand that ‘��’ used in Table 2 stands for the number of questions in that section.

304 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 1: Responses to ‘Section A ‘part of the questionnaire Item Frequency of Yes Responses Frequency of No Responses Do you have a computer at home? 32 10 Do you have the internet at home? 22 20 Are you computer literate? 42 0 Did you acquire any skills in the use of technology in learning? 34 8 Do you prefer using blended learning in your mathematics modules? 38 4

305 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 1: Relevance of objectives of teaching subjects at the university N Questions Stronglydisagree Disagree Undecided Agree Stronglyagree 1 I asked more questions in a b learning approach 0 3 4 7 28 2 B learning provides opportunity for collaboration among peers 0 2 2 9 29 3 My ability to access information online was developed by the use of a b learning approach 0 2 2 7 31 4 I have the opportunity to ponder on what I’ve learned through a b learning approach 0 1 3 15 23 5 B learning improved my academic performance 1 3 1 6 31 6 Generally, b learning leads to a perfect grasp of the modules 0 1 3 7 31 7 Using b learning in my studies could help me get a good degree at the end of my program 1 1 3 7 30 8 I will want to use b learning in my future teaching career 0 1 2 3 36 9 Personal technology gadgets (e.g. android phone) aid me in b learning 1 1 2 7 31 10 Facebook, Twitter aid me in b learning environment 2 2 3 11 24 11 A social bookmarking site like digg.com aids in b learning 3 3 4 6 26 12 Through b learning, I enjoy the convenience of not coming to campus often for lectures. 0 0 6 1 35 13 B learning approach results in improved timeskillsmanagement 0 1 3 11 27 14 Am motivated to succeed in my academics through a b learning approach 2 1 3 9 27 15 Resources for b learning were being provided by my university 0 0 8 1 33 16 The technology component of b learning approach has positive effects on the quality of interaction with other pre service teachers when compared with face to face methodtraditional 1 1 4 7 29 17 The module content was too difficult to learn using b learning 28 9 2 2 1

306 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. N Questions Stronglydisagree Disagree Undecided Agree Stronglyagree 18 I am satisfied with using b learning because it helps to improve on my zeal to study 0 0 4 3 35 19 Am flexible in accessing the course content online at all times 1 0 1 8 32 20 I desire b learning that has the same mixture of face to face and online content 21 2 2 8 9 21 I adopt a b learning approach mostly held in a face to face form with a small amount of online format 23 9 2 4 4 22 I prefer a blend that has wide use of the internet, but with limited face to face class discussion 4 3 1 2 32 23 I prefer entirely online with no face to face blend 31 1 0 10 0 24 I do not like the use of the web, I rather prefer entirely face to face lecturing room instruction 30 9 0 1 2 25 I do not have an interest in blended learning. 34 4 1 1 2 Table 2, showed that 34 and 4 of the participants strongly disagree and agree respectively with the question “I do not have interest in b learning (question 25) Moreover, participants’ response to question 22 (I prefer a blend that has wide use of the internet but with limited face to face class discussion) showed 34 participants’ acceptance of a b learning approach. This finding concurs with the response to question 5 in Section ‘A’; where most participants agreed that they prefer b learning in their mathematics education modules. Figure 2: Graphical representation of participants’ responses to ‘Section B’ part of the questionnaire

Box 1: Dialogue between the first participant (Tom) and the author (A)

Figure 2 is the graphical representation of Table 2. The graph shows that all the positive questions revealed a tall bar chart for responses Agree and strongly agree. This is an indication that the b learning approach improves on students’ learning outcomes, opportunities to collaborate, flexibility in learning, and a better understanding of mathematics education modules; hence more than 36 participants’ responded positively to question 8; that they will want to use b learning in their future teaching career. Results of participants’ responses to semi structured interview questions

A: Why did you prefer b learning?

Qualitative data analysis of the semi structured interview questions was analyzed thematically. The objective of this research leads the researchers to permit the data to justify itself (Aspers & Corte, 2019). The extract from the semi structured interview of three pre service mathematics teachers; Tom, Willy and Sammy were shown below. Box 1 to Box 3 were dialogues between the first author (A) and Tom. Box 4 to Box 5 were dialogues between the first author (A) and Willy while Box 6 to Box 7 were dialogues between the first author (A) and Sammy.

A: Good. Do you get adequate support from the lecturers and peers?

A: Hello Tom, do you think that the blended learning approach is good for learning your modules? Tom: Yes, because in a b learning approach the students were engaged. We can learn through videos, do your assignment, and can even record the lesson and study at home with lecture notes made in the classroom. It gives us the opportunity to use different methods to learn a particular topic and is very Frointeresting.mBox1,Tom was probed about the suitability of a b learning approach in learning mathematics education modules. Tom’s preference for the b learning approach in learning his modules is based on the fact that such an approach considered different learning styles and is interesting. Tom fully obliged that b learning be implemented in teaching and learning of mathematics. His reasons were revealed in the following extract: Box 2: Dialogue between Tom and the author

Tom: Before I struggled to understand my mathematics modules but now I can comfortably study using my lecture notes and online tutorials and my marks have increased.

Tom: Not much as I expected from my lecturers but I collaborate with my peers often Box 2, showed that Tom preferred a b learning approach because he could now get good grades in his modules. Tom's preference for a b learning approach could be attributed to his collaboration among his peers.

A: Ok, what advice do you have for mathematics teachers teaching in schools?

A: What frustrations do you think you will encounter using a b learning approach in your future teaching career?

Tom: Yes, and I will employ a b learning approach so that mathematics will be fun and not fear.

A: As a prospective mathematics teacher, do you feel you will want to use a b learning approach in your future teaching career?

Tom: My advice is that they should embrace the b learning approach in mathematics instruction because it’s an efficient teaching approach. The extract in Box 3, showed that Tom’s present satisfactory academic performance should be attributed to a b learning approach. Tom recommends the use of b learning for all mathematics teachers to create fun not fear in the cause of learning mathematics in schools. He identified finance and technical challenge as a weakness to his effective use of b learning. Tom could not identify any challenge in his future teaching career but strongly believe he will use a b learning approach as long as the learners have their android cell phones. Tom advised teachers to employ a b learning approach because it is an efficient teaching and learning Anotherapproach.pre service mathematics teacher ‘Willy’ indicated in the questionnaire that he enjoyed using b learning in his mathematics education modules. This assertion was revealed in the interview extract below.

Box 3: Dialogue between Tom and the author

A: Good. Do you get adequate support from the lecturers and peers in studying your modules through b learning?

Tom: Finance, poor vision, and technical challenge.

A: Do you think that the b learning approach is good for learning mathematics Willy:modules?Yes, the b learning approach is very good for learning mathematics education modules because each student learns at his/her own time and pace. It makes learning very interesting and easy. I can now do my assignments perfectly well and I get good grades.

A: What challenge(s) do you encounter when using a b learning approach in your mathematics modules?

Box 4: Dialogue between second interviewee (Willy) and the first author (A)

Willy: Yes, Lecturer X use to assist me when am having difficulty in uploading the assignments. I sometimes learn together with my friends at school.

Tom: None for now until I start my career but I will use all available resources to at least introduce b learning since most learners use android phones.

The extract in Box 4, clearly showed that Willy is comfortable with learning mathematics modules using a b learning approach. Willy is of the opinion that b learning should be used in all mathematics instruction because it makes learning easy and interesting. He seemed to be comfortable with the support he gets from his lecturer and his peers with respect to any difficulty he might experience in the process of learning through a blended approach. Willy emphatically stated that

A: What difficulties do you envisage by using a b learning approach in your future teaching career?

From the extract in Box 5 above, Willy stated that his lessons as a practicing teacher will be interesting and easy for his learners to learn because he will use a b learning approach. He advocated for training on b learning design. Willy stated that his challenges will be on the lesson organization. Finally, he advised mathematics teachers to use a b learning approach because it will improve learners’ performance and interest in mathematics.

Sammy: Yes, I have watched a tutorial on YouTube once but I did not understand the lesson better. I prefer the traditional method of instruction.

Box 5: Dialogue between Willy and the researcher

Willy: I need proper training on how to design my lessons through b learning. However, I will use a b learning approach to teaching mathematics to the A:learners.Ok.What advice do you have for mathematics teachers? Willy: I will advise them to use a b learning approach in teaching and learning of mathematics because it will improve on learners’ performance and interest.

the b learning approach is the reason why his grades improved. The author probed further on his intention to use b learning in his teaching career.

A: Willy, as a prospective mathematics teacher that you are, do you feel you will want to use a b learning approach in your future teaching career? Willy: Sure. I will use b learning after graduation when I start my teaching A:career.What challenges did you encounter when using a b learning approach in your Willy:modules?Theonly challenge I encounter is how to organize my studies.

A: Hello Sammy, from your experience, do you think that the b learning approach is good for learning mathematics education modules?

The third interviewee is ‘Sammy’. His responses to the questionnaire showed a preference for the face to face traditional methods than the b learning approach. The interview extract is as follows: Box 6: Dialogue between Sammy and the author

A: Have you ever tried online tutorials?

Sammy: (He laughed). The tutors are too fast and the English they are using is hard to understand. If it is in our local language, it could make sense to me.

Sammy: I do not think so, because I like seeing the teacher teach me one and one then online teaching

A: Okay, but do you think b learning should replace face to face traditional Sammy:method?Not at all, because the traditional method is better than b learning. I learn mathematics better using the traditional face to face method. Unlike online, face to face, we ask questions when the lesson is going on. We have direct access to the lecturer, who sometimes uses our local language to explain some facts, so the traditional method is good.

A: What is your challenge with online tutorial lessons?

Sammy: Ok, if it is compulsory, then I will use it but use more of the traditional method in my teaching than online.

Box 7: Dialogue between Sammy and the researcher

A: Well done Sammy. Finally, what advice do you have for mathematics

A: As a prospective mathematics teacher, if you find yourself in a school that learners use a b learning approach in learning and all resources were readily available, what do you do?

Sammy’s interview extract in Box 7, showed that he can employ b learning in his future career if it is mandatory but insist he will use more of traditional face to face than an online component in his teaching. Sammy advised practicing mathematics teachers, to use b learning because it is no longer an option but a necessity for learners to improve their performance in mathematics.

6. Discussion The results obtained from the research findings align with the purpose of the research. The major findings showed that pre service mathematics teachers perceived that using the b learning approach has positive impacts on their learning outcomes and hence, should be an effective tool for teaching mathematics in their future teaching career. The B learning approach improves on students’ learning outcomes, opportunities to collaborate, flexibility in learning, and a better understanding of mathematics education modules. The quantitative data also revealed that 38 out of 42 participants preferred using b learning in mathematics modules. This assertion concurs with Bojuwoye, Moletsane, Stofile, Moola and Sylvester (2014), who found that the learning support services through b learning improved academic performance. B learning is a supplementary instructional approach that is interesting, improved performance, and most effective in teaching and learning Malm, Bryngfors and Morner (2011). Contrarily, Krishnan (2016) revealedthat pre service teachers preferred learning mathematics through traditional face to face learning methods, because of its interactive Innature.addition, 34 out of the 42 participants acquired the technical skills required for the b learning approach. An indication that many pre service mathematics teachers possess the skills needed for a b learning approach hence could be a reason for the preference of a b learning approach. This finding is in line with

Sammy:teachers?mmm, my advice to them is that they should encourage their learners to study well. I advise the teachers to learn the best way to design their b learning lessons so that the lesson will be interesting and improves on their learners’ achievement.

From the interview extract in Box 6, Sammy stated that b learning is not good for learning because there is no physical contact with the lecturer at all times, unlike the strict face to face traditional method. Sammy said that an online tutorial, the tutors are fast and the language of instruction is hard and did not make sense to him. Moreover, Sammy stated that with the traditional approach, the lecturer could use local language for clarity. The author probed him further.

However, any variance in the participants’ response to the use of the b learning approach could be due to the online language of instruction as observed by Sammy during the interview. This observation calls for the need to introduce and use artificial intelligence in learning mathematics. Artificial intelligence will help to produce artificial tutors that could answer such questions required by Sammy during the online tutorials. This finding concurs with Yang and Zhang (2019) who observed that physically personified robots may bestow virtual interactions, promote psychomotor, affective, and cognitive learning outcomes as well as attainment of greater learning outcomes similar to those of human teaching.

Moreover, Sammy indicated that collaboration among his peers attributed to his improved academic performance through b learning. This assertion concurs with Shand and Glassett Farrelly (2017) which stated that students’ improved academic performance could be attributed to their collaboration among peers.

In this research, pre service teachers demonstrated a deeper understanding of content and displayed higher order thinking skills required for their future teaching career. In conclusion, one can say that using b learning fits more

The qualitative data revealed that the participants perceived the b learning approach is good for effective mathematics instruction and should be used in their future teaching careers. This finding is consistent with Siyepu (2018), who used Khan Academy to supplement traditional classroom interactions, and showed that virtual learning stimulated pre service teachers to make inquiries which lead to clarifications, efficiency in classroom discussions, and improved performance.

Rizki and Priatna’s (2019) assertion that modern technology in teaching and learning requires the acquisition of technical skills. However, the challenges perceived by the participants is on access to computers and internets at home. This assertion concurs with studies of Hong and Samimy (2010) and Schechter, Kazakoff, Bundschuh, Prescott and Macaruso (2017), who revealed that the use of b learning in the educational context emerged when we started accessing technology in and around the classroom.

This research explored the perceptions of 42 pre service mathematics teachers of the need for using a b learning approach to mathematics education modules for improved performance in other to ascertain if they will want to use b learning in their future teaching career. The main finding of this research has shown that pre service teachers are optimistic that b learning is useful to them, and have therefore expressed their readiness to adopt it in their future teaching career. Above all, this research produced mathematics teachers that are ready to embrace digital technology and to make a difference in their future teaching careers and professional learning communities. As the research sample was limited to one HEI, caution should be applied to generalizations drawn from this research. Pre service mathematics teachers should be adequately trained to take their place in the world by being inherent driven by digital technology. However, this research recommended that pre service teachers need training and support to engage meaningfully in this b learning approach to learning which research has shown.

7. Conclusion

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316 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Appendix A A RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE ON PRESERVICE MATHEMATICS TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE NEED FOR USING BLENDED LEARNING IN MATHEMATICS EDUCATION MODULES Dear Participant, This is an educational research questionnaire purposefully designed to identify preservice mathematics teachers’ perceptions of the need for using a blended learning approach in mathematics education modules to make optimal use of technology through blended learning approaches for a future teaching career. Blended learning involved the practice of using both online and face to face traditional learning approaches. In a blended learning course, traditional face to face teaching and learning will be supplemented by online learning experiences, and students would learn about the same topics online as they do in a traditional class setting Please respond honestly to the questionnaire items. Accept our highest assurance that the information you provide will be treated confidentially. SECTION A:GENERAL INFORMATION Pick the correct response and mark “X” in the chosen box. 1. Do you have a computer at home? Yes No 2. Do you have the internet at home? Yes No 3. Are you computer literate? Yes No 4. Did you acquire any skills in the use use of technology in learning? Yes No 5. Do you prefer using blended learning in your mathematics modules? Yes No

317 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. SECTION B:PRE SERVICE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE NEED FOR USING BLENDED LEARNING APPROACH IN LEARNING MATHEMATICS EDUCATION MODULES Please mark ‘X’ in the appropriate place of your choice below. The keys are as SAfollows:[5] Strongly Agree Ag [4] Agree U [3] Undecided D [2] Disagree SD [1] Strongly Disagree S/N Questions agreeStrongly Agree dedUndeci eDisagre disagreeStrongly 1 I asked more questions in a b learning approach 2 B learning provides an opportunity for collaboration among peers 3 My ability to access information online was developed by the use of a b learning approach 4 I have the opportunity to ponder on what I’ve learned through the b learning approach 5 B learning improved my performanceacademic 6 Generally, b learning leads to a perfect grasp of the modules 7 Using b learning in my studies could help me get a good degree at the end of my program 8 I will want to use b learning in my future teaching career 9 Personal technology gadgets (e.g. android phone, mp3 player) aid me in b learning

318 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 10 Facebook, Twitter aid me in b learning environment 11 A social bookmarking site like digg.com aids in b learning 12 Through b learning, I enjoy the convenience of not coming to campus often for lectures. 13 B learning approach results in improved time management skills 14 Am motivated to succeed in my academics through a b learning approach 15 Resources for b learning were being provided by my university 16 The traditionalfacewhenpreinteractionthehaslearningcomponenttechnologyofbapproachpositiveeffectsonqualityofwithotherserviceteacherscomparedwithtofacemethod 17 The module content was too difficult to learn using b learning 18 I am satisfied with using b learning because it helps to improve on my zeal to study 19 Am flexible in accessing the course content online at all times 20 I desire b learning that has the same mixture of face to

319 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. face and online content 21 I adopt a b learning approach mostly held in a face to face form with a small amount of online format 22 I prefer a blend that has wide use of the internet, but with limited face to face class discussion 23 I prefer entirely online with no face to face blend 24 I do not like the use of the web, I rather prefer entirely face to face lecturing room instruction 25 I do not have an interest in blended learning.

Abstract. The teaching and learning of Market Dynamics (MD) seems to be a challenging topic for teachers and learners. This research aimed to develop an Economics Teachers’ Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge (ET TSPCK) Model to improve the teaching of MD Mavhungas’ Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TSPCK) model was adapted as the base model to identify Economics Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge (ETSPCK) components for teaching MD Using a descriptive case study design, a purposeful sample of two economics teachers of the 10th and 11th grades were used for the research While lesson observations were used as data collection method, data were analyzed using a qualitative data analysis technique, namely thematic analysis. Economics teachers’ topic specific knowledge usable for teaching MD were identified and the model “Economics Teachers’ Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge (ET TSPCK) model” was developed. In addition, it was found that there exists an inter relationship among the ETSPCK components. However, the relationship between the teaching strategies and the components of Curriculum knowledge were not connected and fully developed in the participating teachers. The model provides insights into the implementation of the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) with reference to the teaching of MD hence, suggesting ways in which the teaching of the topic could be improved

320 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 320 341, July https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.120208 Economics Teachers’ Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge Model for teaching Market Dynamics Ijeoma C. Ogbonnaya, Andile Mji, Olivia N. Mafa Theledi and Beatrice Ngulube Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0002 9308 1625 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3077 9209 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8971 4525 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5631 9094

Keywords: economics topic specific pedagogical content knowledge; economics teachers; market dynamics; model 1. Introduction In many developing countries such as South Africa, the teaching and learning of Market Dynamics (MD) seems to be a challenging topic. From South African

Consequently, the Diagnostic report for Matric exam question analysis showed that learners have not performed well on questions related to MD in Microeconomics Paper 2 over the years (DBE, 2020). (Matric exam is the final and exit examination for the 12th Grades). For example, the analysis of matric exam questions for 2019 reported: “Candidates performed poorly on questions related to microeconomics… the supply curve is not covered explicitly in the content but rather the demand curve” (DBE, 2020. P. 95). Microeconomics questions in South African matric exams are based on MD While the poor learners’ understanding of MD could be attributed, at least in part, to teachers’ poor Topic Specific Knowledge of MD teaching, the gap that appears to exist in the South African context was the absence of a seemingly valid model for teaching MD to South African learners.

Research evidence from other countries also showed that learners lack conceptual understanding of Market Dynamics concepts (Ayers, 2015; Aguiló, Sard & Tugores, 2016) and often considered the topic dry and overly mathematical (Ayer, 2015).

Indeed, research on economics teachers’ use of TSPCK models for teaching specific economics topics is still an emerging field. A number of PCK studies in economics education have focused mainly on pre service teachers’ PCK development (Ayers, 2016; Kuhn, Alonzo & Zlatkin Troitschanskaia, 2016; Kruger, 2018 and Ng & Chan, 2014), instead of looking into how to improve the teaching and learning of specific topics using TSPCK models. In the science education domain, a considerable amount of research have been conducted (Aydin, Friedrichsen, Boz & Hanuscin, 2014; Mavhunga & Rollnick, 2016) on teachers’ use of TSPCK models to improve the teaching of specific topics The findings from these researches showed that the use of TSPCK models for teaching specific science topics facilitated both teachers and learners’ understanding of those challenging topics and contributed to teachers’ professional development (Akinyemi, 2016; De Jager, 2015; Rollinick & Mavhunga, 2016). However, despite the rich research findings in the science education domain on the effectiveness of TSPCK models for teaching specific topics, no such research has been conducted to understand the effectiveness of TSPCK models for teaching MD.

perspective, learners face challenges in understanding MD. Evidence from the last 2015 test of economics literacy held in South Africa on learners’ understanding of basic economics concepts showed that learners struggle with most basic economics concepts contained in the Test of Understanding Economics in South Africa (TUESA) (Fourie & Krugell, 2015). Learners were tested on MD concepts such as demand, supply and elasticity in MD and the TUESA results showed that learners performed least with 46.38 per cent score in microeconomics (Fourie & Krugell, 2015).

Veal and Makinster (1999) developed two PCK taxonomy models where knowledge is arranged in different levels. The first PCK taxonomy shows circles of different PCK level that overlap one another and ordered thus: General PCK, Domain specific PCK and Topic specific PCK. Veal and Makinster refer to Topic Specific PCK as a specific knowledge necessary to teach a topic in a domain. Veal and Makinstar (1999) later modified the first taxonomy by presenting it in a pyramid form thus forming a “hierarchical structure of PCK and its attributes”. Both models speak specifically to teachers’ knowledge of the content of a specific topic in the domain and provide insight into the importance of topic specific PCK. The models also noted that “the most specific and novel level of the general taxonomy (of PCK) is topic specific PCK” (p. 9). However, in

1.1.Market Dynamics Market Dynamics (MD) is the interaction between the forces of demand and supply and the prices they generate. Malyshkin (2016) describes MD as “The dis balance of Supply and Demand that is typically considered as the driving force of the markets”. From school perspective, MD is one of the fundamental economics topics consisting of the basic economics concepts that play an important role in understanding other economics concepts. The topic cuts across a range of topics in the social science subject domains and falls in the second term of the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) economics for the Further Education and Training (FET) bands, Grades 10 to 12 levels. A cursory check shows that MD occupies topical positions in school economics curriculum in most volumes and most of its concepts fill much of the economics topics in the FET bands MD concepts such as demand, supply, price etc., are expressed in different forms. They can be visualised in the form of graphs or represented in symbols. For example, the concept of demand could be presented as a demand function, Qd = f (P, Y, Ps, A, etc.) and that of supply as a supply function; Qs = f (P, P1, P2, G, etc). MD also consists of the Demand and Supply (DD SS) model that gives a clearer understanding of the market structures. Without the fundamental understanding of the model, it is almost impossible to understand the complex world of economic theory. The DD SS model is one of the economic reasoning tools that enable economics learners to “think like economist” (Mankiw, 2015; Zuidhof, 2014). Indeed, teachers’ understanding of MD is important for learners’ performance hence, a need of an economics model to improve MD teaching.

TSPCK models are discussed in order to establish reasons for ET TSPCK model for MD teaching and to enable a detailed analysis of economics teachers’ topic specific knowledge to be carried out. Shortly after Shulman (1986) ground breaking PCK model of teachers’ knowledge base for teaching, the PCK model was re conceptualized in its’ topic specific forms by different researchers (e.g. Grossman, 1990; Cochran, DeRuiter & King, 1993; Magnusson, Krajcik & Borko, 1999; Veal & Makinster, 1999; Carlsen, 1999; Gess Newsome’s, 1999), thus making TSPCK models a unique construct from PCK model.

1.2.TSPCK Models

Park and Oliver (2008)’s PCK model known as Hexagon Model extended Magnusson et al. (1999) models’ components by adding self efficacy as another PCK component. The model consists of eleven components with so many sub components. Among the components is knowledge of instructional strategies for teaching science, which has topic specific strategies and subject specific strategies as sub component. The problem with the model is that it failed to clarify the boundary of PCK from other categories of teachers’ knowledge. For example, self efficacy may not necessary be considered as a knowledge component per se rather as one’s personal character and how it in relate with topic specific strategies is not well specified. From the foregoing, it is clear that the existing models are not deemed fit to be used as base models after considering their limitations. We were therefore led to choose a model that has the basic components closer to what is needed to develop our new model.

Veal and Makinstar (1999) newly modified model, there seems to be no interaction between the components of the model. Each component stands on its own base on the pyramid. Consequently, the modified model failed to show the transformative aspect of the content knowledge.

Magnusson, Krajcik and Borko (1999) model was known for its transformative knowledge and was developed from an integrative view. The model is made up of five components: Knowledge of assessment, Knowledge and beliefs about science curriculum, orientation to teaching science, knowledge of students’ understanding of science and knowledge of instructional strategies. Knowledge of instructional strategies includes knowledge of topic specific strategies and knowledge of subject specific strategies. However, a closer look at the model shows that all other components interact with ‘orientation to science teaching’ only but there seems to be no interaction among each of the components. In particular, the integrative view did not penetrate the knowledge of topic specific strategies. One of the gaps this present study intends to close in Magnusson et al. (1999) model is to bring to the fore content knowledge, which seems to be hidden in Magnusson et al. (1999) model.

1.3.Theoretical Framework Among the TSPCK models developed by different researchers, of special importance is Mavhunga (2012) TSPCK model (See Figure 1) noted for its most contributions to Topic Specific studies. Mavhunga (2012) TSPCK model recognized that specific knowledge is needed for transforming the content knowledge in a particular topic into teachable form using pedagogical reasoning. The model was also noted for its’ transferability principles, that is, that although the principle of TSPCK can be transferred across topics, Topic Specific Knowledge in a particular topic is not transferable from one topic to another (Mavhunga, 2012; Rollnick & Mavhunga 2013). This implies that the principles of topic specific could be applied for any topic in any field of study.

Mavhunga (2012) model is made up of the five basic components that could serve as the bases for our new model development These are: Learners’ Prior Knowledge (LPK), Curricular Saliency (CS), Content Knowledge (CK), Knowledge of Representations (KoR) and Teaching Strategies (TS). Mavhunga (2012) defined these components as follow; LPK are common and widely researched teachers’ knowledge of learners’ conceptions, preconceptions and misconceptions and learners’ pre existing knowledge CK involves teachers’ understanding of what makes a topic easy or difficult to teach or learn. Teaching strategies involves using effective instructional strategies for particular misconceptions, and for known areas of difficulty to learn Curricular saliency is the ability to analyse and organize a topic for purposes of planning for teaching, while representations are various ways of representing subject matter with examples, illustrations, analogies, simulations, diagrams, tables, and models.

Figure 1: Mavhunga (2012) model

Despite Mavhungas’ (2012) model contributions to Topic Specific studies, the model is not without limitations. Firstly, Mavhungas’ model is developed from the science domain perspective. Although the principles of Topic Specific model of Mavhunga can be applied to the teaching of specific topics in economics, the findings from Mavhunga’s model cannot be applied to economics topics Consequently, the model failed to illustrate the sub components to each component as in other empirical TSPCK studies where Topic Specific PCK could be assessed through observation of its sub components. Our model included sub components for ease of use to enable a detail analysis of economics teachers’ Topic Specific Knowledge to be undertaken. While Mavhungas’ interest lies in constructing a tool that measures the quality of Topic Specific PCK of chemistry pre service teachers at a topic level, our model focuses on how to improve the teaching and learning of specific economics topics like MD through a practice based Topic Specific PCK model. It is important to note that the object of analysis of our model is to capture how teachers demonstrate and use the specific knowledge they bring into play when teaching specific topics in the classroom settings and not to measure the quality of Topic Specific as Mavhunga (2012) model focuses on. Another concern with Mavhunga (2012) model is that

Two economics teachers were purposively selected from two different schools in Tshwane North District, South Africa. They were selected based on two criteria: The teachers possess at least 5 years of teaching experience in economics at secondary school level and that the teachers have obtained a tertiary education qualification for teaching economics. The teachers teach the 10th and 11th Grades. The Grade 10 teacher had 9 years teaching experience while the Grade 11 teacher had 13 years teaching experience. This criterion is important because our focus is to model experienced teachers’ teachings with the assumption that the teachers have already developed TSPCK in teaching MD over the years of teaching. Both teachers hold Bachelor of Science degree in economics and a Postgraduate in Education Certificate (PGCE) in economics. The two teachers were females, not intentionally chosen but chosen according to the set criteria.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. although the model recognizes the specific knowledge needed for transforming the content knowledge in a particular topic, the model is not well supported with pedagogical reasoning and actions to display the transformed knowledge. This means that Mavhungas’ model did not provide room for showcasing teachers’ teaching practices. Thus, we sought to develop a practice based Economics Topic Specific PCK model that will afford teachers the opportunity to engage in pedagogical reasoning and action.

2.3.Instruments

2.2.Participants

2.1.Research Design

This study adopted a descriptive, qualitative case study to examine economics teachers’ use of TS PCK in teaching MD with the purpose of proposing an Economics Teachers’ Topic Specific PCK model The case study approach was chosen to gain an in depth understanding of how the two participant teachers demonstrated their use of TSPCK in teaching MD thus, presenting a description of each case within the context (Rahman, 2017).

1.4.Research Question

Lesson observations were used for data collection. Lesson observations were used in order to gain in depth insight into the situation being observed (Creswell et. al, 2016) and to examine the key Topic Specific pedagogical skills and knowledge demonstrated by the teachers on MD. The lessons were observed with an observation protocols. The observation protocols have two parts. The first part was adapted from Sibuyi (2012) and is made up of the five TSPCK components: Content Knowledge, Curriculum Knowledge, Learners’ Prior Knowledge, Teaching Strategies and Knowledge of Representations. These components were used to identify specific elements manifested by the teachers during MD teaching. (See Appendix 1) for more information about the components. The second part of the observation protocol was adapted from Romylos (2018) and contains elements; aims and objectives of MD, learners’

2. Methodology

The research question that guided this study was: Can Economics Teachers’ Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge (ET TSPCK) Model be developed for Market Dynamics?

The analysis of the video recording followed the following process as described by Creswell et al, (2015): (1) ‘Open coding’ is the initial coding process that helped the researchers to retrieve quickly all data and text that show commonalities in order to group them in thematic ideas so that each theme can be examined together and different cases compared where necessary.

(4) Making sense of the data, which involved interpreting and presentation of the data and abstracting the findings from the categories.

All lessons observed were video recorded.Video recording was deemed fit in order to examine the structure of the teaching and learning of MD from the two participant teachers. After the recordings, the videotapes were replayed and the actions of the teachers were watched using the observation protocols. The observation protocols help to examine the key Topic Specific PCK elements manifested by the teachers during the teaching process.

(3) ‘Selective’ coding which involved the process of selecting and identifying the core category and making contrast and comparisons relating to other categories.

involvements during the lesson periods, specific teaching strategies used by the teacher while teaching MD, content presented by the teachers, time limit of the lesson, specific classroom activities, and introduction. Although these elements were captured with the video camera, it was easier to immediately tick what was observed.

(2) ‘Axial coding’ is the second stage of the coding process which entailed putting data in new ways, making explicit connections between categories and searching for relationships and patterns.

2.4.Data Collection and Procedure

The lesson observation for this study began with researchers’ initial visits to the teachers’ classrooms to be familiarized with the teacher, learners and the classroom setting. In other words, the researchers’ first two visits to the classrooms come prior to the start of teaching MD. This was done as noted by Noguera (2018) that the presence of an observer in the classroom tend to influence the nature of lesson presentation thus making it untypical of the teachers’ usual style of teaching. In the first two visits to the classrooms in all the grades, the researchers did not record the lessons observed. This implies that the topics treated during these first visits fall outside the topic “Market Dynamics”. During actual observation, the two economics teachers were observed in their different classroom during normal teaching periods. Four different lessons were observed for both Grade 10 and Grade 11. In all the lessons observed, the researchers sat at the back of the classroom to avoid disrupting the lesson. The researchers also ensured that they got into the classroom before the learners in each lesson period

During the analysis, the researchers paid particular attention to areas where Topic Specific PCK elements of those teachers were manifested. In order words, the analyses of the video recordings were critically done using the five Topic Specific PCK components. This helped the researchers to identify frequency of

2.5.Data Analysis

Topic Specific Knowledge of Teaching Strategies (TSK-TS) for Market Dynamics teaching With respect to Topic Specific Knowledge of Teaching Strategies (TSK TS), two sub components emerged Practical Knowledge of MD and Theoretical Knowledge of MD from the theme: Knowledge of instructional strategies Under teachers’ practical knowledge of MD teaching however, our analysis indicated that the lecture methods were predominantly used, as learners seem not to understand the topic when other methods are used.

Topic Specific curriculum Knowledge for Market Dynamics teaching Economics teachers’ Topic Specific Curriculum knowledge for MD teaching was grouped under the theme: Knowledge of learning objectives and knowledge integration. Our analysis revealed two knowledge components; Vertical and Horizontal curriculum knowledge The analysis showed that both teachers knew how sub topics were distributed in the curriculum (Vertical) and the integration of one sub topic to the other in the entire curriculum (Horizontal).

Topic Specific Knowledge of ‘Learner Prior Knowledge’ for Market Dynamics teaching Economics teachers’ Topic Specific Knowledge of ‘Learner Prior Knowledge’ was examined under the theme: Knowledge of relating new knowledge to existing knowledge. The analysis indicated two knowledge components: learners’ misconceptions/pre conceptions and learners’ difficult concepts in previous grades. Our analysis shows that the teachers were not able to easily detect challenges and difficulties learners face in understanding some aspects of the topics learnt in previous grades.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. themes as data were coded under emerging themes. Common themes were grouped into categories, and sub components were identified from the main TSPCK components. These sub components together with the components made up the components of our new proposed ET TSPCK model integrated into the existing Mavhungas’ Topic Specific PCK components We describe the sub components that emerged from different themes.

Topic Specific Content Knowledge (TS CK) of economics teachers was grouped under the theme: Knowledge of economics topic ‘Market Dynamics’, and the following sub components emerged Horizon Content Knowledge, Specialized Content Knowledge and Common Content Knowledge. These sub components indicate that economics teachers not only have the subject matter knowledge for MD but could as well use the knowledge to solve learners’ problems while learning MD.

Topic Specific Content Knowledge (TS CK) for Market Dynamics teaching

Topic Specific Knowledge of Representations for Market Dynamics teaching Economics teachers’ Topic Specific Knowledge of Representation was grouped under the theme: Pedagogical Knowledge. Two knowledge sub components emerged Knowledge of analogies, and Knowledge of activities. Our analysis shows that all the teachers were able to use analogies to illustrate MD concepts but failed to represent MD concepts with activities.

Topic Specific Beliefs for Market Dynamics teaching Teachers’ beliefs were not among the TSPCK components identified according to the framework adopted for this research. However, during lesson observations, we observed that the belief factor was significant and had influence on teachers’ teaching of MD. Although teachers’ beliefs might not be an observable factor, it was evident that the participant teachers placed much value not only on the affective side of their teaching by being humorous, accepting learners as they are, creating a relaxing environment, providing positive feedback and spreading joy, but also by the comments the make during the course of their teaching.

With respect to learners related beliefs, our analysis indicated that the teachers see their learners as motivating factors that contributed to their successes in teaching MD despite the challenges learners face in understanding MD. This was shown on the teachers’ comments.

The Grade 10 teacher commented; “…you guys make me proud. Despite how challenging this topic seems to be, I see the zeal in you…” while the Grade 11 teacher also made a similar statement; “…yeah, the topic is not an easy one, but I like your determination…” These teachers’ comments were analysed based on their beliefs and our findings indicated that they have implications to the teaching of MD.

From our analysis, we categorize teachers’ beliefs under the theme Teachers’ Philosophy about Market Dynamics Teaching, which resulted to the following sub components: career related beliefs, self related beliefs, curriculum related beliefs, and learner related beliefs. Our analysis revealed that teachers’ beliefs in relation to career related beliefs showed that the teaching of MD motivates economics teachers’ interest of their choice of teaching as career. This was evident by the Grade 10 teachers’ comment: “…I never regretted chosen being an economics teacher…I like the fact that I impact knowledge…” Likewise, the Grade 11 teacher also commented: “…I always have joy when I see you learners becoming great economists and economics teachers in future just as I am …” The teachers believe that their careers as teachers are unique in impacting new knowledge to the young learners. Our analysis also showed in terms of self related beliefs, that teachers’ self efficacy lead to determination and persistency in the teaching of MD. The Grade 10 teacher commented; “…I will leave no stone unturned until you understand this topic…”, while the Grade 11 teacher also commented; “…I know myself, I am a go getter, I will put in my best to ensure that none of you learners fell this subject even in your Matric exams…” These teachers’ comments indeed show their self efficacy beliefs towards the teaching of MD. In terms of curriculum beliefs, our analysis indicated that the teachers believe that the school curriculum have not achieved much in relation to curriculum specifications and depth of coverage of basic MD concepts for each grade level. This was evident by the teachers’ comments about the school curriculum. According to the Grade 10 teacher, “…your curriculum is too broad to cover in a single term as specified…but I will do my best” In addition, the Grade 11 teacher commented; “…MD sub topics are too broad from the 10th Grade to the 12th Grade, some of the sub topics could be learnt in your first year in higher institution…”

The findings of this study lies on the development of the new model. The model is developed from ETSPCK components and sub components that emerged from the different themes. The ET-TSPCK model

The development of the model begins by stating the model assumptions. The first assumption is that the participated economics teachers are experienced with at least 5 years of teaching economics in secondary school. For this reason, we assume the economics teachers have already developed specific knowledge for teaching Market Dynamics but this knowledge were not identified. The second assumption is that economics teachers’ Knowledge informs and is informed by Topic Specific PCK. By this, we mean that since Topic Specific PCK is specific to a particular topic, through pedagogical reasoning, the transferability principles of topic specific PCK (TSPCK) that holds across topics applies for this model and on the topic of Market Dynamics provided that the teachers have the prerequisite content knowledge (Rollnick & Mavhunga, 2016). The third assumption is that for economics teachers to teach MD, they need specific knowledge. This implies that the teacher must possess a specific knowledge located in each sub component of the model needed for teaching MD. ET TSPCK model is developed from an integrative view similar to other PCK models (Grossman, 1990; Magnusson et. al, 1999). Integrated models according to Kauchak and Eggen (2012) are teaching models that provide structures that guide learners to learn from “organized [bodies] of knowledge…a combination of facts, concepts, generalizations, principles and rules, integrated with one another”. Mavhunga (2012) TSPCK components are integrated into ETSPCK components for MD teaching. The integrative perspective was chosen to gain insight into the elements that make up teachers’ specific knowledge and to gain understanding of the interaction between the components. The integrative approach was also chosen to enable teachers incorporate different knowledge with different approaches of teaching specific topics into a broader frame that is practically useful. Using Mavhunga (2012) TSPCK components as the bases in the model development, top down approach was employed to all the data. Top down approach is a method use in developing a model by using the big picture and all its components as a basis for decision making whereby the base components become the driving force for the end goal (Ogunlayi & Britton, 2017; Weißleder & Lackner, 2013). The model was applied to data from the themes that emerged; Knowledge of economics topic MD, Knowledge of instructional strategies, Pedagogical knowledge, Knowledge of learning objectives and knowledge of integration, Knowledge of relating new knowledge to existing knowledge and Teachers’ philosophy about MD teaching. These themes were derived from different categories to form the basic framework for the model (Top down). From these emerged themes, we established different sub components from the main components.

3. Findings

(ii) Knowledge of Topic Specific (TS) includes, knowledge of teaching ‘Market Dynamics’ because it is a specific topic.

(iii) Knowledge of Pedagogy (P) consists of knowledge of different ways of representing specific concepts in a topic. This encompasses teaching strategies and techniques for teaching specific economics topics using activities, analogies, examples etc., and ways of dealing with the limitations that might arise while using them.

(iv) Content Knowledge (CK) is knowledge of the subject and its organizing structure (Shulman 1986). Shulman argued that teachers’ knowledge of the subject for teaching should go beyond just knowing the facts and concepts but understanding the organizing principles and structures. In that regard, economics teachers’ content knowledge is specific knowledge of Market Dynamics’ content and its organizing structure as practiced in a classroom. These knowledge domain and sub domain constituted the ETSPCK knowledge that a teacher must have. ET TSPCK model is built on ETSPCK components with their sub components and their inter relationships are well defined. Content Knowledge consists of Horizon content knowledge, Specialized Content knowledge and Common Content Knowledge. Teaching strategies consists of Practical Knowledge of MD and Theoretical Knowledge of MD. Representation comprises of Analogies and Activities. Curriculum Knowledge has the following sub components: Horizontal and Vertical Curriculum while Learner Prior Knowledge consists of Learners’ misconceptions/pre conceptions and Learners’ difficult concepts in previous grades. Teacher beliefs comprise of Career related beliefs, Self related beliefs, Learner related Beliefs and Curriculum related beliefs.

Our model is then broken down into different domains and sub domains. The breaking down of domains into more finely defined sub categories is for the sake of the lessons observed and in order for teachers to reflect on the sort of knowledge required for teaching (Ball, Thames & Phelps, 2008). The two specific knowledge domains are: Economics Topic Specific (ETS) knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK). While ETS knowledge gave rise to five knowledge components: Curriculum Knowledge (CmK), Content knowledge (CK), Knowledge of Representations (KoR), Learners’ Prior knowledge (LPK), Knowledge of teaching strategies (KTS) and teachers’ beliefs (TB) as the sixth component (Top down), Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) consists of knowledge components that are related to economics content in terms of teaching and learning. These components are: Knowledge of the Context, Knowledge of learners, Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Knowledge. The two knowledge domain ETS and PCK further gave rise to different sub domains. These sub domains are:

(i) Knowledge of Economics (E), which includes connections between economics as a subject with other, related topics/subject in the domain (Horizontal and Vertical content knowledge) and the knowledge of didactic principles for teaching economics topics. We describe knowledge of Market Dynamics as what and in what way the economics teachers know the topic they teach (e.g. basic Market Dynamics concepts, principles, laws, assumptions) and their meanings.

The discussion of our ET TSPCK model is based on the inter relationships and interplay among the components The inter relationships are discussed to understand how the components interact among themselves within the model.

When these knowledge components and its sub components are put together into different domain and sub domain, the resultant model is an Economics Teachers’ Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge (ET TSPCK) model (Figure 2) for Market Dynamics teaching.

Figure 2: Economics Teachers’ Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge (ETTSPCK) Model 4. Discussion

We begin our discussion on the ETS domain located at the right side of the model. All components are well integrated and working together to form the Omodel.nthe right side of the model are the ETSPCK components placed in a frame of context with a dotted line implying that they are context specific thus, they were observed under the natural classroom settings representing teachers’ practices Our analysis showed that economics teachers had limited knowledge of Learners’ Prior Knowledge (LPK) which consists of learners’ misconceptions/pre conceptions and learners’ difficult concepts in previous grades. It seems as though learners have previously developed naïve preconceptions of some basic MD concepts that makes it difficult for them to understand the topic. Unfortunately, this has implications for the teachers.

According to Peng (2013) and Veal & MaKinster (1999), establishing the inter relationship among PCK components is an indication that the development of one component will lead to the development of the other components. ET TSPCK is a holistic model comprising two major domains; the Economic Topic Specific (ETS) domain and the Pedagogical Content knowledge (PCK) domain.

Teachers find it challenging to identify MD concepts that are challenging to learners from previous grades. Teachers therefore need to help learners come to terms with their pre conceptions before new knowledge can be built as pre conceptions lead to misconceptions when in conflict with economics reasoning. Our analysis shows that the interplay between the sub components of LPK and Content Knowledge are not mutually connected. This finding echoed Goffe (2013) findings who identified initial misconceptions of micro concepts among students in macro principles classes caused by learners’ weak prior knowledge of basic macro economic concepts.

In terms of Content Knowledge, our analysis indicated that economics teachers use Horizon Content Knowledge (HCK), Specialized Content Knowledge (SCK) and Common Content Knowledge (CCK) to teach Market Dynamics. With respect to HCK, this finding implies that economics teachers understand how topic specific are related to other topics in previous grades. In other words, economics teachers had the knowledge needed for teaching MD in a continuous way. Our model shows that the inter relationship that exists among HCK, LPK and CmK appears to be reciprocal. This inter relationship was evident as teachers were able to connect to topics in other grades curriculum. Teachers were also able to understand learners’ misconceptions and difficulties from other grades levels. This finding corresponds to Ayers (2016) who found that economics teachers used HCK to make connections to content in other grades.

Regarding SCK, our analysis shows that economics teachers possess a specialised kind of knowledge that pertains exclusively to the ambit of MD teaching, which is not found in other economics topics. The model shows that the interplay among SCK, Knowledge of Representations and teaching strategies are related. This finding explains the ability of economics teachers to put into practice, the explanation of MD concepts in a much easier way in which they conceptualized them With a specialized knowledge, economics teachers were able to identify the right teaching strategy and the correct form of representation suitable to explain a particular concept of MD. This finding is in line with the findings from Aguilar González, Muñoz Catalán and Carrillo (2019) who found a connection between a primary school teachers’ conception of mathematics and specialized content knowledge. Our analysis indicated that economics teachers possess Common Content Knowledge (CCK) for teaching MD. CCK for economics teachers means knowledge of MD and skills that are not really unique to teaching MD. Our findings show that economics teachers have the general knowledge of basic MD concepts that look ‘common’ per se to learners. These common concepts most times however, erroneously explain economic phenomena. As such, when learners fail to understand the economic meanings of those concepts, it negatively influences their understanding of MD. The model shows that the interplay among CCK, LPK and Curriculum Knowledge is well connected. Our finding is in line with Hurrell (2013) who argued that teachers ought to have basic Common Content knowledge of concepts in a subject in order to teach better.

Another finding from our analysis revealed that teachers use Vertical and Horizontal knowledge of curriculum to teach MD. Horizon curriculum knowledge for MD teaching is the ability of economics teachers to connect what learners have learnt in lower grades to what they are about to learn. Vertical curriculum knowledge on the other hand means that the Economics teachers had knowledge of what has been taught previously in MD topics and what will be taught in the future within the same topic. Our model shows that the inter relationship between teachers’ curriculum knowledge components and teachers Content knowledge components is related. Vertical and Horizontal curriculum knowledge integration is supported by Alghazo (2015) who argues that integration of curriculum not only makes learning more relevant and provides learners with a learning environment but that it also promotes learning of basic concepts available for use in context. Economics teachers showed good knowledge of representations in the form of analogies. Analogies gave economics learners insight into concepts that are being represented with something similar. Our finding is similar to that of Cruz Hastenreiter (2015), who argues that the students gained insight with analogies and it helped to highlight learners’ misconceptions. Our findings also concur with that of Ogbonnaya et al, (2020) who found that economics teachers demonstrated good use of Topic Specific PCK with the use of analogies in teaching MD. There is strong link between analogies and curriculum knowledge in the model The link is not a surprised as CAPS economics specified some analogies that could be used to illustrate the meaning of some MD concepts. However, on the use of activities, there was no link between the use of activities and curriculum knowledge. The finding was evident as teachers struggle to find adequate activities to represent MD concepts. Economics teachers have criticized the CAPS curriculum for providing inadequate activities that could easily be used to explain difficult concepts in MD. Our model however shows a direct link instead of a revised link between teachers’ Knowledge of representations and Curriculum, perhaps because the use of activities were not sufficiently put in use. This finding is contrary to Khandves’ (2016) who found the use of activities as interactive teaching that promote active learning, heighten attention and Ourmotivation.analysis indicated that economics teachers demonstrated good use of teaching strategies in the form of Practical and Theoretical knowledge to teach MD. This implies that the teachers have good understanding of the theories behind MD and put them in practical use. However, the finding that teachers predominantly make use of lecture methods implies that even though economics teachers’ have developed teaching strategies and put them into use, the teaching strategies may either not have been fully developed or may not have been put to use in a rational way. The teachers should explore alternative methods of teaching MD This finding is not a surprise as teachers most often do not check the type of teaching strategy stipulated in the curriculum rather teachers claim that learners do not understand the topic when using other methods of teaching other than the lecture method. Our model shows that the interplay among the components of teaching strategies, the components of Curriculum knowledge

On the left side of our model is the PCK domain. A close look at the model shows that Content Knowledge appears on both side of the model. This implies that adequate content knowledge of MD is a necessary condition for MD teaching. Our analysis showed that largely, economics teachers use their Topic Specific knowledge in relation to their Content Knowledge to solve learners’ problems in MD This was shown by the use of a single line instead of a double arrow as in Mavhungas’ (2012) model (Figure 1). The single line in our model shows a direct relationship between Content Knowledge of economics teachers and their topic Specific Knowledge of MD. The direct relationship exists because the teachers demonstrated sufficient use of Topic Specific PCK in content when teaching Market Dynamics. Similarly, with respect to teachers’ beliefs, our model shows that economics teachers’ beliefs are the over arching components that seem to control the decisions made by the teachers while teaching Market Dynamics. For example, teachers’ self determination (self related beliefs) pushes them to put more effort in teaching in order for learners to understand. This is shown with reverse double arrows in opposite directions showing a reciprocal relationship linking teachers’ beliefs to content knowledge while Lines instead of arrows as used in Mavhungas’ model link teachers’ beliefs to other knowledge components; Knowledge of context, knowledge of learners and pedagogical knowledge. Teachers’ belief in our model reveals teachers’ personal purposes for teaching, their values and understanding about the topic. The interplay among teachers’ beliefs with its sub components and the main components (content knowledge, curriculum, learner prior knowledge, representations and teaching strategies) with their sub components are well connected. Knowledge of students in our adopted model is replaced with knowledge of learners because the teachers focus is on the learners.

The faint double arrow as supposed a thick single arrow in Mavhungas’ model that runs from Pedagogical Knowledge to TSPCK showed that although a relationship exists between them, the relationship is weak and reciprocal. It could also be that economics teachers’ pedagogical knowledge depends largely on the teachers’ beliefs or on the nature of the topic. Perhaps, that explains the reason the teachers prefer the use of teacher centred lecture method in teaching Market Dynamics. This argument is in agreement with Friedrichsen, Kathryn and Teuscher, (2010) who states, “if the teachers believe that students learn best through listening, then the teacher will likely choose lectures as the most appropriate strategy”. However, the choice of the best teaching strategy between teacher centred and learner centred instructional practices remains a controversial argument. According to Watts and Walstad (2010), no instructional practice has been proven more effective than others have when teaching economics topics. The thick double arrows that connect teachers’ knowledge of learners to TSPCK show that there exists a strong relationship between them. This is because economics teachers’ knowledge of learners is a function of their

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. and content knowledge are not well connected. This finding is contrary to Aguilar González, Muñoz Catalán and Carrillo (2018) whose teachers’ practical knowledge of Mathematics was demonstrated in a procedural ordered and precise way using different teaching methods when teaching mathematics.

The National Research Foundation (NRF) supported this research

knowledge about learners’ learning difficulties, the conceptions, pre conceptions and misconceptions about the topic.

Furthermore, while Mavhungas’ model did not indicate any relationship to exist between TSPCK and knowledge of the context, our new model shows that a direct relationship exists between them because teachers’ use of Topic Specific PCK is observed through lessons delivered in the classroom context. Finally, a direct relationship exists between the main components, Topic Specific PCK and other knowledge domains shown with the longer red arrow.

The interplay among our ETSPCK components and its’ sub components seem contrary to the literature assertions by Peng (2013) & Veal and MaKinster (1999) that the development of one component will lead to the development of the other components. In our model, though we assumed that all the teachers have developed Topic Specific PCK however, efficient use of one component does not guarantee efficient use of the other components. Our findings about the interplay among the components fall in line with Park and Oliver (2008) claim that “Lack of coherence among the components would be problematic within an individual’s developing PCK and increased knowledge of a single component may not be sufficient to stimulate change in practice”. Understanding the complexity of the inter relationships and the interplay among the components and the sub components of our model is useful in facilitating the teaching of not only Market Dynamics but also other specific topics in economics.

This research focused mainly on developing an economics model for teaching MD, thus ET TSPCK model was developed. The model was developed from an integrative view and described the inter relationships that existed among the components. Based on the developed model, this research has contributed to economics education literature on Topic Specific models for MD teaching and the teaching of other topic economics specific using the transferability principles. The development of ET TSPCK model is new and has filled the gap of absence of a seemingly valid model for economics teachers to reflect on in order to improve the teaching of MD ET TSPCK model is recommended for both Pre service teachers and in service economics teachers on the teaching of MD. The findings of this study are recommended as reference to the Department of Basic education in their curriculum development. Further research could be conducted on the nature of teachers’ TSPCK for teaching MD with reference to the results of this study.

Acknowledgement

5. Conclusion

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1. learner prior knowledge

2. curricular saliency 1. Observe if teacher displays horizontal and vertical connections of curriculum.

4. Addresses learners’ misconceptions

7. 7. Taps into learners’ prior knowledge to clarify expected difficulties

2. knowledge of curriculum activities, projects and programs

5. Displays expectations of possible difficulties learners may face during learning and address such.

6. Discusses learners’ ways of thinking about a concept.

Lesson Observation Protocol 1

Lesson Observation Protocols

4. Identifies/recognises relationships between concepts, state goals and curriculum goal/objectives, how often does she refer to textbook as a guide to curriculum etc.

3. Displays skills for solving problems in the area of Market Dynamics.

TSPCK element to be observed Evident when the teacher…. Observeddisplayedpractice

1. Exhibits deep and thorough conceptual understanding of identified aspects of Market Dynamics.

3. Ordering of topics in the curriculum does he/she adheres strictly to the order of topics in the curriculum or makes adjustments

2. Identifies critical Economics components within the topic that are fundamental for understanding and applying the concepts in Market Dynamics.

1. Uses most effective teaching strategies that march the topic

3. Does he/she assess end results or the process of the teaching?

4. Uses appropriate activities in Instruction

2. Does he/she identify and lay emphasis on the more important objectives, what needs to/needs not to be assessed

3. Uses real life examples to demonstrate important points

5. Body language: does she identify confusion or agreements from learners’ faces, through nodding of heads etc.

2. Uses alternative strategies where necessary

1. How does she/he define or construct MD concepts?

3. The teacher makes an instructional decision that alters the flow of the classroom by asking a question or directing learners to perform a particular task.

1. Integrates representations into teaching 2. Uses examples, analogies, graphs to represent and show important facts

2. knowledgecontent

4. Does the teacher method of assessment match the topic treated

7. Applying Economics content to everyday lives relating content to current news/events.

4. strategies.Teaching

4. Uses real life examples and analogies in instruction

5. Utilises different instructional strategies in presentations Adapted from Sibuyi (2012)

8. Demonstrates multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary knowledge

3. knowledge of representations

6. Demonstrates specialized, common and horizon content knowledge of Market Dynamics.

341 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Lesson Observation Protocol 2 lExtremey low Low iFar hiHg lExtremey ghhi 1. Aims and objectives 2. Introduction of topic 3. Presentation of the lesson 4. Specific teaching strategies 5. Time limit of the lesson 6. Content presented 7. Teaching atmosphere 8. Specific classroom activities 9. Teacher talk time 10. Resources used 11. Subject expertise 12. Challenges learners to think critically 13. Responds appropriately to learners’ 14.questionsVerbal communication: clarity of speech, tone and pace 15. Non verbal communication skills: body language, movements, andgestures 16. Humor 17. Learner attention and participation Adapted from Romylos (2018).

Chief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Editorial Board Dr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir Benmostefa Dr. Giorgio Poletti Dr. Chi Man Tsui Dr. Fitri Suraya Mohamad Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh Dr. Abu Bakar Dr. Eglantina Hysa Dr. Mo'en Salman Alnasraween Dr. Hermayawati Hermayawati Dr. Selma Kara Dr. Michael B. Cahapay Dr. Bunmi Isaiah Omodan Dr. Vassiliki Pliogou Dr. Meera Subramanian Dr. Muhammad Kristiawan Dr. Wahyu Widada Dr. Som Pal Baliyan Dr. Reem Khalid Abu Shawish Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

PUBLISHER Society for Research and Knowledge Management

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The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, educators, teachers, trainers and other practitioners on all aspects of education to publish high quality peer reviewed papers. Papers for publication in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research are selected through precise peer review to ensure quality, originality, appropriateness, significance and readability. Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, original surveys and case studies that describe significant advances in the fields of education, training, e learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit papers to this journal through the ONLINE submission system. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated by IJLTER.