How the brain processes information memory retention and learning(tracey tokuhama espinosa)

How the Brain Processes Information: Memory, attention and learning Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D. IDEA, Universidad San Francisco de Quito UDLA, Quito Mayo 2010

 “Mind, Brain, and Education

(MBE) Science is the new and improved brain‐based learning. It is the scientifically substantiated art of teaching.

It is the intersection of neuroscience, education, and psychology. And it is a paradigm shift in formal education…” (p.22)

"Tracey Tokuhama‐Espinosa’s book is not only an excellent guide for teachers, a most needed review of the cutting edge research on neuroeducation, but also a model of pedagogy. The author has done a generous effort to guide the readers step by step in the fascinating exploration of the new transdisciplinary field called MBE, Mind, Brain and Education. I recommend this book to every teacher. It will clarify many issues and promote many educational initiatives." ‐Antonio M. Battro, MD, PhD President of IMBES, International Mind, Brain and Education Society “Tracey Tokuhama‐Espinosa has written a highly accessible, extraordinarily well‐ documented compilation of essential information for all educators. She firmly establishes the links between neuroscience and psychology provides the background knowledge needed to evaluate research for validity. In doing so, Tracey Tokuhama‐Espinosa offers the important principles teachers can follow to be critical consumers. The exposures of the neuromyths, that have plagued optimal progress in the incorporation of appropriately supported research into our textbooks, teacher education, and classroom strategies, is accompanied with tools for differentiating between valid research interpretations and future neuromyths. Readers will be vital resources for students, colleagues, and the future of our educational system. This breakthrough book guides informed decision making using the best science has to offer to return joy and authentic learning to our classrooms.” ‐Judy Willis, M.D., M.Ed, neurologist, middle school teacher, author and renowned speaker on brain‐based education

Today’s focus 1. Assumptions 2. Definitions:  Neurogenesis  Neuroplasticity 3. Memory 4. Attention 5. Learning and classroom

implications: What every teacher should know

Background  Master’s from Harvard University in

International Education and Development and doctorate (Ph.D.) from Capella University (cross‐ disciplinary approach comparing findings in neuroscience, psychology, pedagogy, cultural anthropology and linguistics). Bachelor’s of Arts (International Relations) and Bachelor’s of Science (Communications) from Boston University, magna cum laude.  Director of the Institute for Research and

Educational Development (IDEA), Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Ecuador and professor of Education and Neuropsychology.  Teacher (pre‐kindergarten through university)

with 22 years of comparative research experience and support to hundreds of schools in 17 countries.

There is an explosion in research about the brain that is changing how we think about learning and education.

"We know a little of what goes on in the brain when we learn, but hardly anything about what goes on in the brain when we teach," (Blakemore & Frith, 2008, p.118).

In brief  Concepts from Mind, Brain, and Education science,

commonly referred in the popular press as “brain-based learning,” have been applied indiscreetly and inconsistently to classroom teaching practices for many years.

 While standards exist in neuroscience, psychology and

pedagogy, until recently there were no agreed upon standards in their intersection, Mind, Brain, and Education science. Some of these standards will be discussed today.

Assump8ons 1. The new academic discipline in discussion is the

intersection of neuroscience, education and psychology.

2. The focus is equally balanced between knowledge of how humans learn and how best to teach.

3. Education is not a “one-size-fits-all” practice (recipe approach).

4. The first rule of Education is the same as that of Medicine: “Do no harm.”

Good teaching methodologies and ac8vi8es can come from….  …a single discipline  …bilateral cooperation between

disciplines  …multiple disciplines  However, the more academic fields

that offer support for a teaching methodology or activity, the more credible it is.

Where does this informa8on come from?

Dissertation 1. Grounded Theory development based on a metaanalysis of the literature (1977-2008), over 4,500 documents reviewed (2,266).

2. New Model developed.

3. Delphi expert panel (20 experts from six countries) discussed 11 topics (25; 7) in three rounds.

4. New Model modified.

5. Comparison with existing literature.

Delphi Par8cipants           

Daniel Ansari Michael Atherton Jane Bernstein Sarah Jayne Blakemore Renate NummelaCaine Donna Coch David Daniel Stanislas Dehaene Marian Diamond Kurt Fischer John Geake

 Usha Goswami  Christina Hinton  Mary Helen

Immordino-Yang  Eric Jensen  Jelle Jolles  Michael Posner  Marc Schwartz  Rita Smilkstein  David Sousa  Judy Willis

Virginia Berninger  John T. Bruer  Howard Gardner  Paul Howard-Jones  Hideaki Koizumi 

Neuroscientists Psychologists Educators

Topics Researched in Mind, Brain, and Science Educa8on 1. Neuroimaging 2. Neurotransmitters and Chemicals 3. Neurogenesis and Plasticity 4. Theories of Consciousness 5. Beliefs about Intelligence 6. New Learning Theories 7. Neuroethics 8. Learning Differences 9. Mind-Body Connection a. Sleep b. Physical Exercise c. Nutrition

Major Brain Func8ons in the Research Life Skills

School Subjects 1.

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6.

7.

Art Creativity Language Reading Math Music Science

1.

2.

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10.

Affect and Empathy Emotions Motivation Attention Executive Functions and/or Decision-Making Facial Recognition and Interpretation Memory Social Cognition Spatial Management Time Management

Eleven Areas Discussed by the Experts 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Name of the emerging field; Academic roots; Definition of terms; The overarching research, practice and policy goals of the emerging field; History; Thought leaders; Steps to judging quality information; Organizations and societies qualified to judge the information; BELIEFS AND NEUROMYTHS (today’s focus); Enhanced communication between professionals in the parent disciplines; Design of a new Master’s program to meet the needs of new professionals in the emerging field.

For complete dissertation, email tracey.tokuhama@gmail.com

The Foundations of Instructional Guidelines in the New Model

The New Model

Instructional Guidelines

Principles

Tenets

Beliefs and Myths



 

The categorization of neuromyths and the beliefs agreed upon by the Delphi expert panel pointed to the main tenets and principles of Mind, Brain, and Education science.

The tenets are relative to each individual learner while the principles are important in the same way for all learners.

The tenets and principles define the instructional guidelines of the field.

Categoriza8on criteria  In Understanding the brain: The birth of a learning science, (OECD, 2002)* the authors propose a continuum of four categories of information quality.

*OECD= 30 countries (Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxemburg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States.

Criteria used to categorize concepts Categories: A. What is well-established (i.e. plasticity, which now has hundreds of credible human studies behind it); B. What is probably so (i.e., sensitive periods, which has hundreds of studies behind it, though not all conducted on humans); C. What is intelligent speculation (i.e., gender differences, which has thousands of studies behind it, albeit of mixed quality and sometimes with contradictory findings); and D. What is popular misconception or a neuromyth (i.e., "right brain" and "left brain" discussion, which has been the target of thousands of books and articles, some of which promote the term, but most of which criticize the lack of factual accuracy of the claim).

76 Educa8onal Concepts Well-established

Probably so

Intelligent speculation

Neuromyth

5

19

24

28

concepts

concepts

concepts

concepts

Conceptual Assump8ons

Ques8on: Attention + Memory = Learning?

Probably so:

ATen8on + Memory = Learning  To learn something new means

you have to pay attention to it, and to remember it.  Declarative memory depends on being able to pay attention.  It is impossible for a student not to

pay attention if (s)he is the protagonist of the activity.

However, it is very easy to get distracted when the attention is focused on others.

Defini8ons

Neurogenesis (“new birth”)

 Neurogenesis is the production of cells in the nervous

system in the brain (neurons) and glial cells. Most notable in neo‐natal stages, but occurs throughout the lifespan.  In humans, neurogenesis has been documented most notably in the olfactory bulb and hippocampus.

Neurogenesis  Neuogenesis in

mammals was established in 1992, and documented in humans in 1998.

Eriksson P.S., Perfilieva, E., Björk-Eriksson, T., et al. (November 1998). Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nature Medicine,4 (11). 1313–1317.

Myth: Neurons are never replaced

 This myth is defied by

the existence of neurogenesis.

Myth: Learning can be op8mized if 8med with neurogenesis.  This is a myth because learning

takes place with or without neurogenesis.  You cannot anticipate moments of neurogenesis.  There is no evidence that better learning occurs with “new” versus “old” neurons.

Synaptogenesis “new synapses”

 The formation of

synapsis between neurons.

1.

3.

1. Human brain (model) 2. Cut of a human brain (real) 3. Neurons in a human brain (real) 4. Synapses between neurons (model) 2.

4.

http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/cs449/figs/brain2.jpg; http://www.alzheimers-brace.org/images/ brain_images.jpg

“Hebbian synapse”  “Use it or lose it.”

Myth: You lean more if you 8me lessons with periods of synaptogenesis.  This is a myth because

learning causes synaptogenesis (not the other way around).

(Neuro) plas8city  The ability of the brain

to re‐wire itself using non‐traditional pathways if a “normal” route is damaged or blocked.

(Neuro) plas8city

Plas8city: A paradigm shic in how we look at the brain  BEFORE we believed in “localizationism” which we

now know is an oversimplified vision of the brain.

Plas8city We now know that….  “we see with our brains, not with our eyes.”* Example: Seeing with tongue (Bach‐y‐Rita).  “Children are not always stuck with the mental abilities they are born with; that the damaged brain can often reorganize itself so that when one part fails, another can often substitute; that is brain cells die, they can at times be replaced; that many ‘circuits’ and even basic reflexes that we think are hardwired are not.”**  Michel Merzenich; Norman Doidge; Paul Bach‐y‐Rita *Doidge (2007, p.14).;** Doidge (2007, p.xv).

Myth: Plas8city is due to good pedagogy  This is a myth because

plasticity is a natural neural process and occurs with or without good pedagogy.  Examples: addiction, racism.

Memory 

Ques8on: True or false?

“The brain changes daily with experience.”

Well established: The brain changes constantly with experience

 “The brain is a complex, dynamic, and integrated system that is constantly

changed by experience, though most of this change is only evident at a microscopic level.”  You will go to bed tonight with a different brain with which you awoke. Each smell, sight, taste and touch you experience and each feeling you have can alter the physical form of your brain. The complexity and dynamic nature of the brain remind teachers that even when they feel they are not reaching students, they may very well be changing them, bit by bit.

Ques8on: True or False?

“Past information inEluences how we learn something new.”

Well‐established: Influence of past knowledge 



“Connecting new information to prior knowledge facilitates learning.”

We learn better and faster when we relate new information to things that we already know.

Intelligent specula8on: Memory  “Different memory systems (i.e., short term-, long

term-, working-, spatial-, motor-, modality-specific-, rote-, etc.) receive and process information in different ways and are retrieved through distinct, though sometimes overlapping, neural pathways.”  Human memory is a complex system and it is vital for learning. Information is stored and retrieved in various forms, implying that teachers should vary their methods of instruction in order to create a variety of pathways through which it can be retrieved, thus facilitating the recall process. (e.g., Multiple Intelligences Theory instructional practices) Not yet well-established because documentation in classroom contexts using neuroscientific criteria is sparse.

Intelligent specula8on: Exis8ng knowledge  “Human learning is a constructive process

in that humans construct meaning from existing knowledge structures. Such existing knowledge structures are individually defined.”  People take past experiences and make conceptual building blocks from them, upon which new knowledge is developed. The building metaphor is the basis for the constructivist philosophy of education.

While proven in education and psychology, not yet well-established because documentation in neuroscience is sparse.

Neuromyth: “Memory is like an objec8ve recording of a situa8on, and reality exists in an abstract form for all to perceive.”  This is a neuromyth because

individual human memories are not recorded as if stored on a hard drive, but are rather influenced by the experiences of the learner.  The filters through which events are recalled are subject to false recollection and/or misinterpretation.

Neuromyth: “The brain remembers everything it has ever experienced; forgegng is simply an absence of recall ability.”  While forgetting is an absence

of recall, the brain does not necessarily remember everything that it has ever experienced. Only information that has moved from working to long-term memory (in its many forms) is retrievable is remembered.

Memory  There are various types

of memory:

 Long term  

Declarative Procedural

 Working  Short term  Emotional  Episodic

Requirements for long‐term memory  For information to get into

long‐term memory it has to have at least one of three traits: 1. Survival 2. Association 3. Emotional or personal value

Think about…

Three things that are easy to remember.

Three things that are hard to remember.

Probably so: Sleep  “Sleep is important for declarative memory

consolidation, (though other types of memories, such as emotional memories, can be achieved without sleep). Sleep deprivation also has a negative impact on memory.”  Lack of sleep compromises one’s abilities to be attentive and to organize mental activity efficiently and effectively.  Memory consolidation is dependent on REM (rapid eye movement) sleep.  Without a good night’s sleep, memory is compromised.

Not yet well-established because there are only a few studies available on school-age populations.

Strategies to remember  ….?  Repetition  Elaboration  Association  Timelines  Sensory variation  Other?

Probably so: Novelty

 “Human brains seek and often

quickly detect novelty, (which is individually defined).”  We are quick to notice things that are out of place or different, and we actually unconsciously look for things that don’t belong. (e.g., “2+3=5” and “5-3=2”) Not yet well-established because the individual nature of “novelty” makes it hard to study.

Probably so: PaTerning  “Human brains seek patterns upon which they

predict outcomes, and neural systems form responses to repeated patterns of activation (patterns being individually defined).”  We categorize our world in ways that help us understand information. Part of how we do this relates to designing patterns for the things we find. These patterns are like a road map that tells us where to go next. This road map is the neural system for that group of like experiences. (e.g., math, writing genres, social interactions, etc.)

While proven in neuroscience and psychology, not yet well-established because of the limited number of classroom studies.

Probably so: Rehearsal  “The rehearsal of retrieval cues aids in

declarative memory processes.”  While memory can be created by emotionally shocking experiences, declarative memory (associated with school learning) is improved through rehearsal. This is why the use of mnemonic cues (including repetition and rehearsal) improves the ability to retrieve information. (e.g., “good” homework; explicitly teaching mnemonic devices, etc.)

Not yet well-established because of lack of consensus on what type of rehearsal aids memory best.

Probably so: Elabora8on  “The elaboration (overt teaching)

of key concepts facilitates new learning.”  Teachers achieve better results if they give explicit explanations of the core concepts. (e.g., priming, use of concepts, assessment of concept knowledge, and re-teaching of concepts) While proven in psychology, not yet well-established because not enough studies available in classroom contexts.

ATen8on

ATen8on  How long is the average attention span?

ATen8on Attention spans  Recognize that students have

an average 10‐20 minute maximum attention span.

In prac(ce:

 This means that teachers need to change the person,

place or activity every 10‐20 minutes to maintain a high level of attention.

“Primacy‐Recency” The Primacy‐ Receny Effect  People remember

best what happens first, second best what happens last, and least what happens in the middle.

In prac(ce:  This means that

moments in the “middle” should be dedicated to student‐ centered practice.

In prac(ce:  The last part of the class

should be dedicated to summarizing important concepts and bridging to next class.

Classroom implica8ons: What every teacher needs to know…

The reten8on of new informa8on  Depending on the chosen methodology, students have varying

attention levels.

 The best way to learn anything is….

Reten8on varies with method:

National Training Laboratories, Maine, as cited in Sousa (2000).

Reten8on varies with method:  REMEMBER: Just because

you taught something does NOT mean they learned it!

 Students need exposure to

new concepts between 10‐59 times to “get it”!

In prac(ce: The Law of 10:

1. Present the new concept 2. Give an example 3. Ask students to explain the concept 4. Clarify doubts 5. Design an activity in which the concept is used by the

student 6. Review results of the activity and clarify concept 7. Send homework that applies the concept 8. Review homework in class 9. Clarify doubts about the concept 10. Design an activity that applies the concept or direct use of the concept by student.

In prac(ce:  If you use lecture,

use it wisely (clarification of core concepts).

In prac(ce:  Homework should be

used to reinforce the new ideas and concepts.

Best prac8ce…  Best practice activities have certain traits:       

Student‐centered Experiential Holistic Authentic Expressive Reflexive Social

• Collaborative • Democratic • Cognitive • Developmental • Constructivist • Challenging • (Fun)

In prac(ce:  Activities that have one or more

of the aforementioned characteristics are more likely to have an impact and create significant learning experiences.

Examples of best prac8ce ac8vi8es….?

10 Guides for BeTer Teaching

Guide 1: Learning environments The best learning environments provide:  Emotional and physical security  Respect  Intellectual liberty  Self‐directed experiences  Paced challenges  Feedback  Active learning (Billington, 1997)

Guide 2: Sense, Meaning and Transfer Students tend to learn better when…  …course content makes

sense  …has a clear logic  …has significance in their lives.

Guide 3: Different memory pathways  Long term memory

depends on linking information to…  survival needs  past knowledge

(association)  values, emotions or interests

Guide 4: Attention limits  Remember that students’

attention spans are only 10‐20 minutes long.  Remember to change the activity, place, or main person of focus frequently.

Guide 5: Social learning  The brain is a social organ and people learn better

when they can “bounce” ideas off of one another.

Guide 6: Mind‐Body Concepts  Students learn better when

the needs of the body and mind are both satisfied. This includes sleep, diet and physical exercise needs.

Guide 7: Teacher metaphor: Orquestra director  The teacher can be seen as an orchestra director who

knows how to integrate the different voices, sounds and talents of each member.

Guide 8: Ac8ve proceses

 Students learn best when they

can participate actively in their own learning.  “I hear, I forget; I see, I

understand; I do, I remember.”

Guide 9: Meta‐cogni8on y Self‐reflec8on  To remember best, it is necessary to reflect upon our

experiences.

 Given the vast amount of information that students are

bombarded with daily, it is important to give them “down time” to process.

Guide 10: Learning across the lifespan  The brain has the ability to learn

across the lifespan.

 For this reason, while it is

important to take advantage of sensitive periods in childhood, we should also recognize that we can learn into old age.

Ques8ons?

For more informa8on: Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D. Universidad San Francisco de Quito Casa Corona Telf: 297-1700 x1338 desarrolloprofesional@usfq.edu.ec

Bibliography  For a list of more than 2000 book related to this study see:

http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/ pqdt.shtml y el nombre “Tokuhama-Espinosa” (gratis).  You can find this presentation on:

www.educacionparatodos.com