Issuu

Headington School STEM Magazine - Summer 2022

Contents Soft Robotics

Minimal surfaces

The history of oscillatory reactions

Crest projects

Sticky gas

The importance of telescopes in the scientific world 14 Some facts about strokes 16 Science blogpost 18 The science behind euthanasia

Humanitarian medicine 22 Crispr Technology 24 Why have fertility rates decreased in the 21st century

The brain 26 Schizophrenia 28

Pleurel Effusions

Scientist profiles

Fun experiments to do at home

Science poems

Events throughout the year

Crosswords

Crossword answers 44 For your reading list... 46 Dear Reader Following several fallow years during the pandemic, it gives us great pleasure to present Issue 6 of Headingtonium, the school’s Science magazine. This bumper addition contains a variety of interesting student articles and, for the first time, Science Poetry entered for the 2022 IF Oxford Science & Ideas Festival. Whether you are an avid reader of science literature or simply interested in STEM subjects, we hope there is something for you within. Enjoy the read! Best wishes Science Ambassadors & Science Faculty

Soft Robotics what can robotics learn from the octapus

For many years robotics prioritised efficiency, speed and power and immediately looked to rigid structures to base joints around. If the base material is strong and precise, the robot that is made from these materials should be too. However, issues arise because of their rigidness, which leads to robots becoming dangerous and ineffective in practice. The materials, and therefore the robots, can not deform or adapt to problems presented by the unpredictable real world.

Engineers, therefore, looked to nature for inspiration. It

Students and researchers at UC Santa Barbara

was noticed by Steven Vogel in 1995 that “nature uses soft

engineering created a robot they named Vine Robot,

materials frequently and stiff materials sparingly”. The

after a vine that inspired its design. The concept of said

octopus is famous for its ability to adapt and solve

robot is elegant in its simplicity and can be explained as

problems. Its flexible tentacles allow the octopus to open

a cylindrical tube that grows from the tip as air pressure

jars and carry massive amounts of weights under

is pushed through it. The air pressure can be turned up to

immense hydraulic pressure. This is possible not only

allow the robot to navigate around conditions other

because of an intelligent brain but also because of its soft

mechanisms would have difficulty with, such as sticky

body. In artificial intelligence, there is a term called

surfaces, altering directions, narrow gaps and even

embodied intelligence. This refers to the fundamental

through nails. An inflatable robot normally faces

role our body plays in determining our ability to solve

difficulty with possible punctures that would cause it to

problems we are presented with. In order to best adapt

deflate, but the vine robot has a continuous stream of air

embodied intelligence in robotics, one can follow the

pressure that can be turned up and high enough air

strategy of nature with flexibility.

pressure has enough force to ignore the leaking air and continue pushing the robot to grow further.

Therefore, a new field termed soft robotics was created. The first step was to create compliant bodies, which refer

These robots are cheap to make and simple in design so

to materials or structures that can undergo extreme

many can be made easily. They also have many uses,

deformations. Then, engineers had to find ways to

such as for surveillance in tight or collapsed spaces, or

continuously control the shape of these compliant

use in medicine, such as flexible needles. The simple

bodies. Since there are no joints, links, gears or screws,

tube can have many more uses when methods of

this presented entirely new techniques in robotics.

controlling it keep developing. Currently, engineers

Many times, soft shapes were created to mimic the

have created artificial muscles for the robots by

presence of joints with segmented bodies. However,

attaching tubing of special material to the sides of the

once engineers began to play into the unique capabilities

main tube that have their individual air sources. Each of

of such adaptive robots, innovations were made that

these artificial muscles work by expanding sideways

completely detached the form of these robots from the

when air fills them, therefore decreasing their length.

traditional view of what a robot should look like.

5 This works by picking fabric with specific braidings, such as nylon braided at 45 degrees, as this means the fabric will stretch sideways but stays stiff in the perpendicular direction. When connected to the main tube, each additional tube acts as a tendon does in your arm. When a tendon shortens, your hand is moved in the opposite direction, this principle is used to steer the vine robot.

Methods of controlling how materials can be bent with an input like air pressure have been explored in depth by engineers responsible for developing these soft robots, meaning no electronics are necessary for controlling the motion of these robots. Everything is pneumatic, so these new inventions can be used in areas where electronics produce the risk of explosions, such as in deep mines.

On a basic level, soft-bodied robots look less scary than traditional ones made of heavy material. This has a social benefit of welcoming more people to trust robots and further, artificial intelligence. Contrary to their weak appearance, with the vine robot, just a 10th of an atmosphere can generate enough force over a square metre to lift 1000kg of weight whilst still remaining soft.

These soft robots also have the advantage of being able to mimic nature, since so much of nature is not rigid. And so, new opportunities became available to directly copy structures from nature for things such as deep-sea exploration. Here, ties to origami engineering can be seen since soft robots can essentially “grow” from input such as air pressure, meaning they can be inserted through small openings and adapt to needs within the body.

Besides from being highly adaptable, soft robotics also have the advantages of being able to be produced in smaller proportions, since materials are compliant; being cheaper; having fewer parts and therefore no backlash with the removal of joints; using more lightweight materials, for use such as in space exploration; being able to drastically change volume and being safer for humans, since compliant materials naturally can exert less maximum force than a metallic robot. There are massive amounts of optimism for this new field in robotics and a wide range of potential uses.

Alina H

Minimal surfaces A mathematical concept linking black holes to bubbles

A minimal surface is a surface that is described to locally minimise its area. As confusing as the definition is for minimal surfaces, it can be more easily understood by comparing it to shapes we are familiar with, such as soap bubbles. When blowing soap bubbles, a loop is dipped into soapy water and a flat film can be seen stretching across the loop when lifted from the bubble solution. This film takes the simplest shape possible, a perfectly flat surface with no bumps. It naturally minimises surface tension and also minimises area. Imagine if the flat circle gained bulges, each bulge would add unnecessary surface area. Once blown, a perfect sphere is created. Here we once again witness the tendency for nature to form efficient shapes. A sphere has the least surface area for a given volume.

surface shapes were called the catenoid (left) and the helicoid (right) The catenoid can be formed by dipping two rings in soapy water and joining the films to form a tube shape. One might initially assume that a cylinder will be formed, since at any point on a ring to another identical ring, a straight line would be the shortest length required to cross that distance. However, the catenoid is formed,

This is the starting point for understanding minimal

which is essentially a cylinder which tapers in at the

surfaces, though a soap bubble is still not a minimal

center before broadening back out symmetrically.

surface, since the air pressure within the bubble stops it from collapsing from the opposite force of

Now, finally going back to the original definition of

its surface tension, which wants to form a flat plane.

locally minimising area, a minimal surface is

In comparison, the flat plane of the dipped loop is a

essentially a surface that whenever you define a

minimal surface, as it does not need to account for

boundary upon it, the area within that boundary

any additional force a spherical bubble has that

has the minimal surface it can have. Another

prevents it from collapsing into the minimal surface

definition explains that a minimal surface, like a

area possible. The effect of air pressure can be seen

catenoid, occupies the least area when bounded by a

by gently blowing on the flat surface of the dipped

closed space. The thin middle allows a catenoid to

loop. The added force disrupts the surface but as

occupy less space than a cylinder.

soon as you stop, it goes back to the flat plane. It was Leonardo da Vinci who first started studying soap films but it was mathematicians of the 18th century,

Leonhard

Euler

and

Joseph-Louis

Lagrange who had taken up the subject of minimal surfaces and discovered two others from the original, trivial plane. The two new minimal

7 Minimal surfaces has its foundations in theoretical mathematics but it ties in with relativity and quantum mechanics. What is particularly interesting is how Black Holes have been theorised to display Marginally trapped surfaces around their event horizon which create a hypersurface that are constructed of quasi-minimal surfaces. Closed trapped surfaces are a concept used in black hole solutions of general relativity which describe the inner region of an event horizon. This surface is one where light is not moving away from the black hole. The event horizon is the boundary marking the limits of a black hole. The apparent horizon is a surface that is the boundary between light rays that are directed outwards and moving outwards and those directed outward but moving inward. The apparent horizon is also an example of a minimal hypersurface, linking the theory of black holes to minimal surfaces and the Plateau problem, raised by Joseph-Louis Lagrange in 1760 but is named after Joseph Plateau who experimented with soap films. This problem encompasses the finding of surfaces with a minimal area enclosed by a given curve in three dimensions. The mathematics associated with this is extremely complicated and has no easy summary. If you are interested I strongly recommend you delve deep within the many papers published analysing this idea

oid elic rh

u circ la

noid e t a

Alina H

The History of Oscillatory Reactions

ction rea

elous B e o Th

abotisnk h Z y v

The story of development and discovery of a new field of chemistry through rejection, failed publications and ultimately, scientific collaboration. The Belousov- Zhabotisnky reaction is an equilibrium reactions are a well known field of oscillating reaction that was discovered by chemistry in the modern day; since the early Soviet scientist Boris P. Belousov in 1951, when 19th century, oscillating reactions have had he was trying to investigate the reaction applications in electrochemical cells which mechanisms of the citric acid cycle using produce alternating current (G.T. Winfree), to Cerium ions, citric acid and bromate ions. He measuring rates of chromium dissolution stumbled upon a reaction which seemed to (Ostwald). show

periodic

colour

changes,

which Although oscillating reactions have been

continued for an hour before finally coming to around for such a long time, our understanding a stop. This finding was fascinating as this of them was a lot different back in the days of seemed to directly violate the second law of G.T. Winfree. For one, it was a widely accepted thermodynamics.

belief that oscillating reactions had to be

Compared to the 1950s, oscillatory and non- heterogeneous, meaning the reactants had to

be in different states. This was an accepted

any fundamental laws, as equilibrium was

fact by the scientific community until Alfred

actually reached when oscillations stopped,

J. Lotka proposed several kinetic models of an

and the Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction went

idealised homogenous oscillating reaction.

on to influence the creation of a new field of

This was received by William C. Bray, who

non-equilibrium dynamics.

was the first man to discover a genuine

However, in the modern day and age, the

homogenous oscillatory reaction, the Bray-

Belousov- Zhabotinsky reaction is widely

Liebhaufsky reaction. The Bray-Liebhafsky reaction was described as a ‘chemical clock’ by Bray in 1921. It is the catalytic conversion of hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water by iodate, the anion of iodic acid. When this reaction was first discovered, it was criticised by most chemists and the oscillations were said to occur

due

heterogeneous

impurities. The

Belousov-

Zhabotinsky

reaction is considered to be the immediate descendant of the BrayLiebhafsky reaction. It was also a homogenous oscillating reaction, and thus was wholly rejected by the scientific community for being in violation of the second law of thermodynamics. In fact, the paper that

used in areas such as self-oscillating gels and

Belousov wrote was rejected by 2 scientific

polymers which are commonly used in

journals over a span of 7 years, making

biomimetic actuators in order to gain a better

Belousov swear off publications for the rest of

understanding of autonomous biological

his career. He was told by the editors of the

processes, and self-actuating gel pumps that

journals that they would only publish the

don’t require electrical components and are

reaction if he also presented a correction of

driven by chemo-mechanical energy from

the second law of thermodynamics in favour

the reaction.

of his reaction, which he couldn’t achieve. Later, with the help of Western scientists, namely Field, Koros and Noyes, it was shown that the reaction was not actually violating

Zeynep A

CREST 10

projects

lasercutting in action !

(Alina H and Elaine G’s gold crest project on oragami engineering)

(Zeynep A’s gold crest project on the Belousov-Zhabotisnky reaction)

12 12

Sticky Gas

what can robotics learn from the octapus

If there are sticky soli sticky liquids, then ar sticky gases?

Sticky solids and sticky liquids holding your schedule togethe Now consider this. All substanc sticky liquids, then are there st orld.

How about sticky gases then? How

looking at stickiness as the binding

Sticky solids like adhesive tape, bin

We can consider the molecular mo

weak intermolecular forces. Molec

proportion to the space they occupy

the ter ia l is of a ma liquid or s s e in r a stick state, conside cts the hat a ffe . We would osit y. In liquid other. w , y ll a s Essenti cula r force s a high v isc lide over each hold a s d ole inter m ‘stick y ’ if it h cked but ca n molecules a n nger n o ti een ely pa y stro m s b tw lo r e solu c e b e t th r the ex is toge les a molecu lecula r forces ules a re held nerg y to pull rces, e c o fo Inter m ether. If mole it ta kes more r molecula r leum g te o , them to cula r forces tronger the in action of petr ple is r s ole f m e a a m r x , th e n te e r in r e, y. Bit um faces, fo Strong T herefo apa r t. er the v iscosit v ing road sur cula r size. more le a h o e p b ig m rge d for the h es, to nly use of its la er Waa ls forc ce giv ing it a d commo k y because sa me c les, hen (or va n ver y sti cula r forces tween molecu r solids, the cules le fo e o le s b o m A d r m . e ld es s rm inte rces ho stick in ) a re fo e work specific cosit y a nd its r molecula r fo hesives we us te d is a high v lies where in ’. A lot of the p k logic ap a nd they ‘stic r . e le th e ip g to inc a me pr on the s

forces are not one of the most impo

We can perhaps look at it from ano

with absorption, is the adhesion of

the physical bonding of gas molecu

by van der Waals forces. Atoms on molecules. As a result, gas molecu

existing might be valid. In fact, so

molecules in gas state can be obser

metal surfaces of the instrument an

Chemisorption is a kind of adsorpti as a physical property, chemisorpt

Finally, we could answer the question all along

how we define sticky. Stickiness is not a physic

sticky gases are everywhere. Alternatively, if w

is essentially the same as asking if water is wet. chemical world.

ids and re there

are everywhere. From the golden syrup on your breakfast waffles to the sticky notes er, sticky solids and liquids are very useful and in the case of golden syrup, delicious. ces exist in three physical states: solid, liquid or gas. If there are sticky solids and ticky gases as well?

exactly is a gas sticky? However, before we move on to sticky gases, we must specify what stickiness is. In this article, we are

g ability of a material on another material as a physical property. Sticky liquids like syrup, binds to the surface of utensils.

nds to the surface of paper. Similarly, for a gas to be sticky, it must bind to another surface.

odel of gas and use the same principle as we did for solids and liquids. However, gas mostly exists as discrete molecules with

cules are also free to move around and do not occupy a fixed amount of space. The molecules are usually much smaller in

y that we do not really consider their masses as a factor affecting the strengths of the intermolecular forces. If intermolecular

ortant factors affecting the arrangement of molecules, then in this case this model is not much use to us.

ther perspective. On a molecular level, physisorption and chemisorption can be considered. Adsorption, not to be confused

f atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid or dissolved solid to a surface. Physisorption, also called physical adsorption, is

ules to the surface of a solid or liquid that the gas comes into contact with at low temperatures. Again, physisorption is caused

n the surface of a material is not bounded completely by other atoms. These surface atoms then form dipoles and attract gas les are bound to the surface of the material without undergoing any chemical reactions. Therefore, the idea of sticky gases

ome gases do bind to specific materials, usually metal surfaces. With scientific instruments under high pressure, water

rved to slowly get removed from the system. Because of such high vacuum in the system, water molecules are binding to the

nd slowly release.

ion which involves a chemical reaction between the surface and the adsorbate. Since we are only looking at the binding ability ion is not considered.

g: are there sticky gases? The answer is yes and no. The conclusion on whether sticky gases exist depends hugely on

cal property used in the chemical world. Gas molecules do stick to surfaces and if you consider that sticky, then yes

we look at cohesion instead of adhesion, we might get completely different conclusions. Whether a gas is sticky or not

. There is simply not a definite answer because stickiness and wetness are not physical properties well defined in the

Megan C

The importance of telescopes in the scientific world Some people will have never used a telescope; most will have tried one once or twice to get a closer view of the sky. However, what few appreciate is the scientific power of the telescope which goes galaxies (both metaphorically and literally) beyond the beautiful view of a starlit nightscape. It was in the early 17th century that this machine was discovered by a Dutch eyeglass maker Hans Lippershey who named this device a “looker”. Galileo,

one of the greatest physicists of all time, increased the magnification of this contraption to examine extraterrestrial bodies. It was from this development and many more advancements in technology over the subsequent years that the idea of the modern day telescope (now defined as ‘a device used to form

magnified images of distant objects’) came about. So many of today’s most important physics concepts have been proven by using a telescope. Possibly the most prominent of these was the use of a telescope in order to age the universe. The most famous telescope named the Hubble telescope was named after an astronomer Edwin Hubble and was constructed in 1993. This particular telescope played a significant role in helping astronomers calculate the distance since the Big Bang by measuring the brightness a special type of star called a Cepheid variable and then calculating the distance of 56 million light years which then helped them work out the rate of the expansion of the universe and subsequently how old it was. This discovery was huge as it changed the prediction of how old the earth was from a huge range of 10-20 billion years to a much more specific 13.8 billion years and this number was

then useful for investigations.

other

scientific

Another important concept telescopes are responsible for is the proof of the existence of black holes. This was another discovery that had the Hubble telescope at its fore. The theory of what a black hole was at the time was an ‘object with a pull of gravity so strong that even light can’t escape it”. The Hubble telescope provided images that clearly prove that the gravity created by a black hole did affect light. Furthermore, a collection of NASA telescopes went on to prove further discoveries in this field. In 2004 NASA’s swift telescope observed gamma ray bursts which visually look like sudden flashes of light and the Hubble telescope collected data from the event’s aftermath, named the “afterglow”. From these two bits of data scientists were able to conclude that large explosions can occur when a black hole and a neutron star react and they can lead to the formation of another black hole. The Hubble telescope has also

managed to discover that nearly every major galaxy is anchored by a black hole at the centre.

To conclude, a telescope is an astronomer’s main tool. It has been at the heart of too many major scientific discoveries to fit into this article. It plays such a major role in astrophysics which allows infinitely important discoveries that put our small earth in perspective inside the complicated and ever changing universe that

Nell D

ke s

out ab

Put simply, a stroke is a condition where the blood supply to your brain gets cut off, affecting your psychologically, cognitively and physically. It is so serious that you could end up with speech problems, visual problems and even paralysis if not treated

om e

Fact s

o r St

One of the most common types of strokes is an ischemic stroke, caused by a blood clot blocking or narrowing an artery leading to the brain. This usually happens due to cholesterol and calcium building up along the artery walls, forming what’s known as an artherosclerotic plaque. If this plaque ruptures, it could also cause a blood clot (thrombus), which would block the flow of blood and therefore cut the oxygen supply to the brain. On a more complex level, the plaque is formed by high levels of LDLs (Low density lipoproteins that carry cholesterol) depositing in the tunica intima and oxidising, which ultimately become “foam cells” that die and release their lipid, causing the plaque to rupture. I have two family members who have suffered from a stroke and got treated in time, so although an ischemic stroke is fatal, it can be treated if symptoms are recognized in time. Some warning signs of a stroke are problems with vision e.g. dimness or loss of vision, dizziness, problems with movement, numbness or weakness of the face or leg (usually one side of the body). Since this topic is quite close to heart for me, I came across an article a while ago, explaining how a protein named cytokine APRIL found in rodents can be used to prevent plaque formation. A very brief conclusion is that a chemical named proteoglycan Perlecan is known to promote the possession of LDL cholesterols which are needed to form atherosclerotic plaque. APRIL is able to bind to Perlecan, so higher levels of it would reduce the chance of plaque formation. Furthermore, scientists were able to identify an anti-APRIL antibody that enhanced the binding of APRIL to Perlecan. They had tested it on mice and found that it reduced the chances of atherosclerosis in mice. The most promising part of this study is that scientists discovered that another form of APRIL can be found in human blood, the level of which can be analysed and used to predict the risk of death from cardiovascular diseases in humans!

Ninnin R

Science Blogpost

Lately, I have been reading a fiction book which is set in the future. In the book, there is one thing that catches my attention. The people there do not need to charge their electronic products from time to time, as they have electricity charging towers which can charge everything contactlessly and wirelessly. At that time, my world is being updated. I always thought that electronic products should be charged by either plugging in the wire or putting it on top of a wireless charging pad. In my world, there was no such thing as a contactless charger. This then made me want to drill in more. I surfed the internet, and, out of my expectations, Mr Nikola Tesla had once proposed this contactless and wireless charging idea in the 1890s. He wanted to make wireless power over long distances. For this, he even built a tower which is called the Wardenclyffe Tower. However, Mr Tesla failed at that time. Although he failed, he really was ahead of so many people at that time or even now. I was impressed. According to his theory, he made a Tesla coil, which takes in high current and transforms it into high voltage. At the same time, it creates a change in magnetic field. When an electrical appliance comes near it, an induced current will be made and provide energy for the appliance.After knowing this, I was shocked. It is because I always think that the mechanism behind will be very complicated, but in fact it is an application to something I have learned in my IGCSE Physics. This let me learn a lot, not only the mechanism of wireless charging, but also that things

company uses magnetic fields to transmit

can go far even with simple methods.

energy to devices. As they say, the true thing that is difficult is to control the magnetic field,

Although Mr Tesla has his theory, his plan

to make it more flexible, multi-device and

failed due to a huge amount of power being

extend its useful range. Since the charger

wasted. However, an article published in The

would be connected to multiple devices, how

Conversation UK told us that the coming of

to make each magnetic field able target a

wireless power may not be long. Authors in

device is the problem. However, the company

the article suggested that the 5G network may

did manage to get out of it and successfully

accomplish what Mr Tesla has dreamed

made Pi. Despite the success of Pi, due to the

about. The network of masts used for 5G

lack of market response, Pi at last gave up on

transmission may also send power wirelessly

its original contactless charger and went back

to small devices. This could create a wireless

to a normal wireless charger which charges

charging environment. However, the huge

devices when they are put on a pad.

power loss problem remains unsolved. The mechanism behind contactless chargers was actually the same as a wireless charger, but with a longer distance. The primary coil in the charger changes magnetic fields and induces an induced current in the secondary coil in the phone. However, since air is not a good conductor but an insulator, increasing the charging distance may be very difficult. But does contactless charger really doesn’t exist? Through further surfing on the internet, I found a real contactless charger which has been proposed and produced. Its name is Pi. Although Pi still cannot accept long distance charging, it can already do short distance contactless charging. The

Although normal wireless and contactless wireless chargers use the same theory to charge devices, it is a pity that they did not continue developing the contactless wireless chargers. Without the further development of long distance wireless charger, it may take a really long

time

before

contactless

charging

becomes our norm.

Kylie T

The science behind euthanasia Euthanasia has been a topic that evokes As these drugs prevent it from respiring and strong ethical dilemmas throughout decades. thus from acquiring oxygen, it will experience Tracing euthanasia back to its roots, “the dose hypoxia and eventually be unable to operate makes the poison”, poison and healthcare are and send nerve systems to muscles, most strongly intertwined in the therapeutic usage significantly to the cardiac muscles, from of medicine. The dosage of drugs can which blood would not be able to be pumped completely convert the effect, a suitable to organs, and organs would fail to respire, dosage can heal people, and yet an overdose and stop working altogether eventually. can be lethal. The mechanism behind euthanasia is precisely overdosing the patient. The group of drugs used for euthanasia is called barbiturates, known as sedativehypnotics, purposed by its effects ranging from mond relaxing, numbing the sensation of pain, to loss of conciousness. Sodium thiopental is a rapid-onset short-acting barbiturate, it is commonly used to carry out euthanasia by injecting it intravenously, followed by pancouronium bromide to paralyse muscles and stop breathing. This drug decreases neuronal activity and thus cerebral

metabolic

rate

oxygen

consumption. The cerebrum’s main functions are for thinking, intelligence, consciousness and memory.

21 Loss of consciousness is induced within 30-45 seconds at a typical dose of 5g of sodium thiopental (which is 14 times more than the normal dose, for example anesthesia), its efficiency can be explained by its rapid distribution to fat throughout the body. Euthanasia is not completely painless, however, as described by its name which means good death in Greek. Where using sodium thiopental might really offer patients a painless and dignified death, some euthanasia inducing drugs might take up to 30 hours to take effect on the patient (to result in the patient passing away). Undesired side-effects include prolonged duration of the dying process, difficulty in getting intravenous access and in swallowing oral agents.

In-

break in West Africa was all over the headlines I was just about

Sophelia L

In 2013, the Ebola Virus outbreak in West Africa was all over the headlines - I was just old enough to remember it and was full of questions such as how was it being transmitted, why can’t they cure it, what started it, and most importantly, why was the virus in Africa and not here in the UK. Of course all of those questions were soon answered but I kept on wanting more information. I was incredibly jealous to learn that a friends dad was flying out to Sierra Leone and got to work first hand with the patients while I was stuck at home reading long articles on my mum’s phone. The desire to help the disadvantaged has stuck with me, and as a result I recently read the book War Doctor. The author David Nott has travelled across the world using his knowledge of trauma care to improve the lives of many people, be it delivering the baby of a underage girl who was raped, saving the life of someone who lost a limb in an explosion, or simply by performing basic procedures that previously couldn’t be done because there was no-one qualified to do so. It’s always surprised me how many people don’t seem to be aware of these inequalities and just go about their lives enjoying the excessive access to healthcare we

have in the UK. Not many people seem to realise its the exception to trend compared to lots of the rest of the world. Even currently with the COVID-19 pandemic, people forget to think about life in less developed parts of the world. There are constant discussions regarding the comparative efficacy of the Astra-Zeneca

CR te

humanitaria medicin

and Pfizer vaccines in the UK, whereas in Madagascar only 0.3% of the population have been fully vaccinated - unsurprising in a country where almost 80% of people live in extreme poverty. I thought healthcare was meant to be a universal right that everyone deserves access to? Eveline S

RISPR echnology

an ne

CRISPR (An acronym for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) is a method of gene editing that can change the sequence of DNA very precisely. It was first discovered by a team of scientists led by Yoshizumi Ishino at Osaka University in 2012. It is used to disable or repair mutated genes which could cause diseases. CRISPR is particularly interesting because of its potential to cure a multitude of genetic conditions such as Down Syndrome, Cystic Fibrosis, Hemophilia and many others.

Most of these theories are still in preclinical trials, however, at the University of Pennsylvania, they have completed phase one of their trials of using CRISPR to cure cancer. They have used Cas 9 to remove three genes that help cancer invade the immune system and added another gene that will help the immune cells recognise tumour cells. The results of the trial were optimistic and have encouraged further trials on a cure for cancer. Scientists also believe that they can use a combination of CRISPR and antiretroviral drugs to cure viral infections such as AIDS by removing HIV DNA from the host cell genomes. They have begun trials on mice at the University of Nebraska and hope to find the first-ever cure for this disease.

Charlotte R

Around 10% of women in the United Kingdom struggle with infertility, causes include ovulation dysfunction, uterine issues, tubal infertility and cervical factors. One common cause that is easily curable (if caught early), is Chlamydia. It is the most common STI in the UK, it is a prevalent disease that affects an estimated 15% of women from the ages of 15-25 years, and 75 % of those women are unaware of this, leading to untreated cases and potentially decreasing fertility. Chlamydia trachomatis can lead to PDI, (pelvic inflammatory disease), this results in tubal scarring or inflammation. Tubal factor infertility (TFI) is where bacteria spreads up from the cervix, along to the endometrium and into the fallopian tubes. The epithelial surface of the fallopian tubes become inflamed, this surface is made up of many fine tissues, so after inflammation scarring occurs. Scarring intern causes adhesions in the tube, which is only 1-4 mm in diameter. This prevents the natural passage of the egg going down the fallopian tube, preventing implantation of the egg, or an atypical implantation within the fallopian tube, causing a non viable ectopic pregnancy. The medical term for this is salpingitis, and it can also be caused by other STI’s - although Chlamydia is the most common cause in the UK. Infertility due to tubal factors, makes up approximately 30% of cases, so regular screening for Chlamydia would reduce PDI and TFI, helping increase fertility rates again, and also increase disease awareness.

Male fertility rates have also declined, at an alarming rate. The way male fertility is measured best is by a scale named total motile sperm count, this is the fraction of sperm that can move to swim to the egg. Data showed that there has been a 10% decrease in the last 16 years of men with normal motile sperm count. There are a variety of reasons for this, including hyperthermia of the testes (sitting, driving), obesity, caffeine, alcohol, drug use, smoking and increased radiation. However one factor that is not normally discussed is environmental toxicity. Environmental toxicity disrupts our endocrine system, that is a complex system of glands and other tissue that secrete hormones and other biological substances. These toxic molecules are commonly found in pesticides, toxic gases and heavy metals. They mimic hormones in our bodies, hence can alter testosterone levels, which are responsible for keeping a healthy motile sperm count. Regretfully these substances are found in what we consume and even our atmosphere. Fruit and vegetables are sprayed with pesticides for preservation; The plastic in single use bottles contain plasticizers - these can increase the hormone oestrogen (unhelpful for male fertility) and decrease androgen (testosterone and other related male hormones) and even the air we breathe contains harmful gases, such as nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide, which can alter DNA. The pituitary gland secretes the hormones LH and FSH. LH is responsible for making the testes produce testosterone, the production of sperm is driven by FSH, however the process also needs testosterone, from the testes, to produce sperm with a high motile count. Henceforth environmental toxicity. which tampers with precise levels of hormones, testosterone, can significantly lower fertility in men.

An e with over The p to m seek behi one

Why have Fertility Rates Steeply Declined in the 21st Century? 25

estimated 1 in 8 couples struggles infertility, the inability to conceive r a twelve month period or longer. psychosocial impact of this extends most communities, and this essay ks to understand some key factors ind this occurrence, by examining e of the many causes per sex that decrease fertility.

Lastly, and arguably the biggest reason for the decline of fertility rates, is related to the biology of ageing. Societal norms to reduce the number of children you have, and increase the age at which you have them impact upon fertility rates and overall pregnancy outcomes. Studies show that in the 1960’s the average age to have your first child was 21 years, comparatively in 2017 the average age was 30 years. Modern medicine and contraception has now allowed couples to have control over whether or when children are born. Consequently women have been able to delay childbearing, should they choose, in order to focus on their careers and gain financial stability or for other reasons of preference. With modern technology couples may also feel more confident delaying childbearing, due to resources like IVF, ovulation induction, artificial insemination, and surrogacy. However it is known that quality and quantity of ovums decline with age unil menopause, and quality and motility of sperm decreases - albeit less dramatically. If this is positive or negative, is a moral and ethical issue, beyond this discussion in this essay.

To conclude, there has been a significant decline in both male and female factor fertility in the 21st century. Simple measures to reduce the factors above would be reducing use of single use plastic, buying organic produce, regular STI screening (male and female) and educating our nation about the potentially preventable causes of infertility. Lastly, we can have a conversation as a society about the current pressures, circumstances and provisions (maternity and paternity leave), such that people can choose an appropriate time to start a family.

Honor S

RAIN B E

We all know that the brain is an extremely important part of human. But have you ever thought about , what will happen to humans if the right and left hemisphere of the brain is cut apart? The hemispheres communicate with each It was then used to cure Epilepsy, which was other through the corpus callosum, which is a caused by the many abnormal signals running bundle of fibres. So cutting the corpus through the two sides of the brain and cause callosum will separate the two brains. It may vigorous shaking. seems ridiculous. However, William wagning was the first person who did the Corpus Callosotomy possible!

surgery and proves that its

After the corpus callosum severing, all participants’ personality, intelligence, and emotions appeared to be unaffected. However, the testing done by Sperry and Gazzaniga showed the subjects demonstrated unusual mental abilities. A display with a spot was put infront of the patient who did the surgery before. Normally, we can tell and draw things we see on both sides. However, people who did the surgery cannot. In the experiment, a word”pan” was shown on the left side of the spot, but the patient said he couldnt see it. However, when he was told to draw it with left hand, he could draw a pan! More surprisingly, when a saw is shown on the left and a hammer is shown on the right, he said he saw a hammer, however, he drew a saw on his left hand! It is due to the fact that two parts of our brains are responsible for different duties separately. Our left brain will do language and written work, while our right brain will do creativity and imagination. Also, our left brain controls the right hand and right eye, vice versa. Hence, when our corpus callosum is cut and our brains are separated, there’s no linkage between the brains and the results happened! The experiment proves that the two brains are actually working independently. And that our brains have two consciousness!

Charlotte S

Brain Disorder: Schizophrenia Up to 1 billion people suffer from all types of neurological disorders, Alzheimer and Parkinson disease, strokes, dementia, and etc. Schizophrenia is one of them. According to WHO, 24 million (1 in 300) people worldwide suffer from schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia does not only suffer from the symptoms, but also stigma, discrimination and violation of human right in the society. They are 2-3 times more likely to die early than the general population. Different from Alzheimer’s disease, its onset is most often during late adolescence and the twenties, and onset tends to happen earlier among men than among women. Schizophrenia is classified as a chronic mental illness, meaning that patients cannot expect full recoveries from it. People often experience persistent difficulties with their cognitive or thinking skills. There are two types of symptoms which the patient may experience: positive and negative. Positive symptoms are when the symptoms add to their experience of life. These may include hallucinations and delusions. Hallucinations are characterised by a distorted view or perception of real stimuli or perceptions of stimuli which have no basis in reality. One of the three kinds of hallucinations in schizophrenia is auditory hallucinations, which is also the most common one, where people may be hearing voices in their heads. The voices could be angry and demanding or whispering and looming. It is suggested by some scholars that Vincent van Gogh experienced hallucinations during his life, which could be why he had cut off his left ear. when they feel like something is touching or moving on their body.

Another type of hallucination is visual hallucinations, where people see things that are unreal, typically deceased loved ones, possibly accompanied by trouble with depth perception and distance. Tactile hallucinations also occur in some patients, generallywhen they feel like something is touching or moving on their body. Except for hallucinations, delusions have also been affecting the patients of schizophrenia. This is a set of beliefs with no basis in reality at all, the most common delusions are persecutors and delusions of grandeur. In many of the cases, patients often become paranoid of being stalked by people (e.g. being stalked by the Royal Family) or think that they are special and are in a higher hierarchy than the others. In contrast to those positive symptoms, negative symptoms tend to affect people by removing certain mental functions and experiences in them. Patients may show speech poverty, where there is a significantly low level of the frequency and quality of speech. In addition, patients may undergo avolition and catatonia, which is a lack of motivation and movement towards day-to-day tasks respectively.

Through research, scientists have failed to identify a single cause of schizophrenia, but multiple explanations. One of the explanations is the biological factor, using genetics as there appeared to be a strong familial link for inheriting schizophrenia. Gottesman (1991) discovered a positive correlation between the genetic closeness of family members and the risk of developing schizophrenia. Another biological factor proposed was the dopamine hypothesis: hyperactivity of dopamine may be a result of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. However, biological explanations were criticised for being strongly deterministic, as it suggests that it is impossible to prevent the development of schizophrenia as it is determined by genetic factors, the psychological factor is also involved in the development of schizophrenia. The ‘double-bind’ theory suggested that the development is due to abnormal family communication styles created by the ‘schizophrenogenic mother’, who is characterised by being cold and rejecting. According to the theory, the child receives mixed messages from both parents about what is right and wrong, and when the child makes a mistake, they are punished through a withdrawal of love. This leads to the child perceiving the world as unfair and confusing, hence increasing their risk of developing schizophrenia.

The purpose of finding out the causes of the disorder was so the patients could be treated, accordingly, different treatments targeting each symptom or cause were developed. For instance, schizophrenia that originated from excess dopamine was given dopamine antagonist drugs to block the entry of dopamine neurotransmitters into the neurons to reduce its effect. Psychologically, positive symptoms could be treated by challenging their beliefs, particularly when the patient is experiencing delusions; patients with negative symptoms were provided with cognitive behavioural treatments. For example, avolition sufferers would receive day-to-day tasks which progresses from simple tasks such as making a cup to tea, to more complicated tasks that help them to return to normal daily activities. Even though there is currently no known cure for this disorder, the different types of therapies are constantly improving, helping the sufferers to return to their normal life as much as possible.

Angelia C

Pleurel Effusions LIGULA MANGA No. 001

Why I chose to write about this…

Over the summer, I spent two weeks doing work experience at the John Ratcliffe hospital. For the first week, I was on the respiratory ward, and the second week, I was in the children’s hospital, experiencing paediatric radiology, surgery clinics, and the

then to clarify the catheter has been placed in the fluid in the pleural space. I also helped undress the woman, so the doctor could access her back, as she was frail and unable to do this herself. It resulted in a remarkable two litres of fluid being drained off this tiny woman’s chest. I stood there wide-eyed, taking in what I had just witnessed. The delicacy and precision of modern medicine amazed me as well as what the human body is capable of doing. The experience of being taught by multiple medical students, registrars and consultations over the course of the two weeks has left a lasting impact on me. It has solidified the thoughts I had about doing medicine at university.

What is a pleural effusion?

woman’s hospital also. I was exposed to the reality of hospital livelihood and through multiple ward rounds, encountering the complexities and less glamorous side of the medical field. One of the most impactful things the doctors involved me in, was the insertion of a chest drain into an elderly woman’s chest. She was experiencing liver cirrhosis and as a result, had obtained a pleural effusion. The registrar showed me how the procedure was done, talking me through each step. He got me really involved in the approach; I helped with the ultrasound scan, used to locate the fourth and fifth intercostal space and

A pleural effusion is an abnormal buildup of fluid in the spaces between your pleura. This is the thin membrane lining the surface of your lungs and the inside of your chest wall. Everyone has a small volume of watery fluid in the pleural space, allowing lubrication in your chest cavity for smooth breathing. This fluid can become excessive due to a number of reasons:

Causes: -Leaking from other organs. Congestive heart failure is the most common cause of this due to the insufficient pumping of blood around your body. Both liver and kidney disease can also stimulate a

build up of fluid in your body which will -ral effusion, X-rays are often done when the leak into the pleural space. patient is lying on their side. This is so the doctor can observe whether the fluid is -Cancer, usually lung cancer flowing freely within the pleural space. -Infections such as pneumonia or tuberculosis -Autoimmune conditions, for example Lupe of rheumatoid arthritis.

Treatement:

-Pulmonary embolism: a blockage in an artery of the lungs, leading to a A doctor may administer the insertion of a pleural effusion. chest drain. A small incision is made between the patients fourth and fifth intercostal space flowed by a further dissection down into the pleural space. This is done using a plastic needle to ensure the lung isn’t punctured. A catheter is then inserted and the tube is connected to the drainage bag or chamber. The mechanism lets air/fluid out of the pleural space whilst preventing outside air/fluid from entering the pleural space. An underwater seal is used to achieve this. The distal end of the drainage tube is submerged into water, creating a hydrostatic resistance of +2cmH2O in the drainage chamber. The intrapleural pressure is normally negative however in patients with fluid in the pleural space, this pressure becomes positive. When this pressure exceeds +2cmH2O, the fluid leaves the pleural space and flows into the drainage chamber. This is because it moves from a higher to lower pressure down a pressure gradient. The fluid will then drain using gravity into the drainage chamber and won’t flow back into the pleural space.

X rays:

On an X-ray, fluid appears a light colour, while air space looks black. This is because structures that are dense will block most of other X-ray particles so will appear white. Therefore, dense material such as metal or contrast media will show up white. Structures containing air, such as the lungs, absorb very little of the X-ray beam. Most of the beam will strike the detector after passing through the air. This results in a black appearance on X-ray. When a patient has a suspected pleuAbigail H

Scientist Profil 32

BARBARA ASKINS

Askins was born in Belfast, Tennessee in 1939. She began her career as a teacher. She is a mother of 2 and waited until her children were in school until she went back to college to finish a bachelor and a master’s degree in Chemistry. After graduating, she became a chemist for the Marshall Space Flight Center in 1975. Askins is best known for her invention of the autoradiograph, which helped to improve the development of the x-ray It also allowed space images to be taken with a higher resolution and was later used in the restoration of old photographs With this invention, she became the first woman to win National Inventor of the Year by the Association for the Advancement of Inventions and Innovations in 1978

Dr Becky

Her research interests include supermassive black holes, galaxy evolution and black hole growth. She studies the interaction between galaxies and the supermassive black holes at their centres. She has won the Institute of Physics Mary Somerville Prize Medal and the Caroline Herschel Prize Lectureship in 2020, The Royal Astronomical Society And Vice Chancellor’s Public Engagement with Research Prize in 2019, and many others in earlier years Dr Becky is a junior research fellow at Christ church college. She is Undergraduate and master astrophysics degree in the University of Durham and is currently completing her Phd in the University of Oxford. Her YouTube channel is called ‘Dr Becky’ where she has has over 360,000 subscribers and over 22 million total views. She also published a book name: ‘Space: 10 things you should know’

les 33

Mary Sommerville Mary Somerville was a scottish scientist that grew up in the 18th century and made many contributions to science, maths astronomy and geography. She was only able to attend school for one year at the age of ten where she read Euclid’s elements and quickly became absorbed in all things science. She also became enthusiastic about maths when spending summers at her aunts and uncles house, where she had access to many books on algebra.

Mary is such a significant scientific figure because of the scientific texts she wrote at a time when women were discouraged from taking part in education. She was nominated alongside Caroline Herschel as the first two honorary members of the Royal Astronomical society. She was involved in the discovery of neptune, through her book the connection of physical sciences, where she discussed the possibility of another planet having an effect on the path of uranus. In 1834, Mary’s book was being reviewed by a well-known reviewer, William Whewall. In writing his review, when he would normally have referred to the author as a mathematician or an astronomer or whatever other field the author specialized in, he might also have referred to the author as a “man of science.” None of those titles, however, were appropriate in this case because the author of this extraordinary book did not specialize in any single field. More importantly, the author was not a man. Whewell needed a new term for Mary, so he invented one. He came up with the word “scientist.” We have been using that term ever since. Somerville College at Oxford University was named after her in 1879, just a few years after her death. It was created for women when universities refused the entrance of women. This is as a result of her strong belief in equality for women, and support for women’s education.

scan the QR code for a fun video!

p e x r e ime n u F n e m at ho to do

lava lamp

1. Fill the container 1/3 of the way

with water.

Praesent by Iaculis el Finibus

2. Fill the rest container most of the

way with vegetable oil.

Praesent by Iaculis el Finibus

3. Add a few drops of food coloring;

your choice of color.

Praesent by Iaculis el Finibus

4. Break an alka-seltzer tablet (aspirin) into a few small pieces and drop them in the flask one at a time.

Science poems 36

The Big Bang by Margarita H

Bang! Crash! Tear space The universe appears. A work of wonder of the unown race, Now humans don’t cease to exist. When will it end? Will we destroy it all, what the Big Bang made? A theory of an event that happened long ago, Pulled down by its own humanity. Smoke chugging, Car’s roaring, Everyone busy, Too busy to notice... The fall of their existence. Green trees failing, falling to where they came from, Used as fuel and tools. Gas and pollution, No solution.

Dreaming by Sophia S-C

In a black that is mixed with midnight blue Whispering to its heart, Balletic stars take to their stage And so I keep dreaming. But aren’t we the stars in this velvet dark, Aren’t we the blaze that dares to light up the night? I think so. But science wouldn’t agree, And so I keep dreaming. The galaxy spins the ever-long time of space, Observing the motions of life forms upon planets That have entirely different notions of time and reality, And so I keep dreaming. I’m flying on a red and white bird with a fiery blast, I gaze out the blue window and think, This place is qute peaceful. This place has had no human wars. Oh how I long for this dream to come true.

Science poems 38

My Heart by Natasha D

The heart is the organ inside of my chest That has the prime function to beat and not rest. The inside is decorated with components elaborately, And here is a list of all its anatomy: The aorta, atop, carries the blood away rapidly, Sends the blood to my lungs, does the pulmonary artery! The pulmonary valve gives oxygen to my body, And the aortic and mitral valves keep the direction steady. The right ventricle, to the pulmonary artery, gives the blood, The left one pumps oxygenated blood as it should, That is emptied from the right atrium, The left atrium receives blood low in oxygen. Tricuspid valve helps direct the blood from the right atrium to ventricle, The supply of blood from my body through the vena cava is plentiful. All of these things about the heart and cells, Maybe the heart can love as well.

Had My Ion You by Ellie H and Imogen C

We fell like apples in gravity, fast And utterly against the laws of nature. You were so much like that angle - acute And we shared interests like covalent bonds share electrons. I wish I always had my ion you, But you were uranium in fission, Present for only a second. Or shall I compare you to the explosion That started the universe, because you made my heart go bang. You were laser-blindingly beautiful and sometimes You made me brain-dead with your smile. You told me love was like pi, Irrational and never ending. I felt like life had come full circle when I kissed you.

EVENTS 40

science ambassadors presentaion for lowerschool

you.

eureka club

you.

THROUGHOUT THE YEAR 41

Young scientist of the of the year awards Senior physics olympiad

Intermediate physics challenge

CROSSWORDS

ANSWERS

For your rea 46

With beautiful covers and wonderful illustrations make them even more attractive. these are great introductions to alot of in depth information. O your mind to countless new theories and theorists. Many of these are not simple, depthless reads, and do in fact deal with very complex ideas, and you’re a visual learner like me you’ll benefit from the comic book format.

Personally, I really treasure this book. This book was my first time reading about or being introduced to many concepts, and it is a major contributing factor to the love I have developed for the subjects I do. The author presents complex ideas in step by step and structured yet digestible manner, so even the least enthusiastic about physics can get something out of reading it! This book is genuinely a fun read and, in my humble opinion, a really great place to start developing your curiosity about a field that seems so far out of reach otherwise. I would recommend it to pretty much anyone, I firmly believe that no matter how uninterested you may be in physics, this book will still leave you satisfied.

(Higgs: Th I highly re lous disco It is really that go int

ading list... 47

(the music of the primes) You are not going to believe that a book on a math subject would be hard to put down but this book is brilliantly written. The author writes the whole book like this is THE GREATEST treasure hunt ever. This book explores a brief history of many mathematicians who have tackled prime numbers and introduces some revolutionary theories. These concepts are not easy to understand but they are presented in such a way that anyone interested in maths (and specifically the Riemann hypothesis) would enjoy reading it and would undoubtedly gain useful new knowledge.

Open d if

he Invention and Discovery of the ‘God Particle’) ecommend this book for anyone who is interested in particle physics or anyone who is curious for an explanation on how scientific collaboration can bring forward miracuoveries! y inspiring to read about the buildup to such an amazing discovery, and it is truly motivating to read about the process of the scientific method and the collective efforts to such a breakthrough.

This book, while on the shorter side, is certainly eye-opening and provides food for thought for those who read it. It discusses the nature of the scientific method, and the many ideologies and scientific philosophies which have relevance on the way it is conducted, as well as the meanings and interpretations results of experimentation. I would say this book is a must- read for anyone who wants to go into research, as it provides some really useful insight and knowledge which is widely applicable across all sciences, and discusses generally important concepts which also frequently get used in the classroom.

Science ambassadors: Eveline S Angelia C Nell D Sophelia L Ninnin R Honor S Kylie T Sophie w Charlotte R Abigail H Charlotte S Megan C

Magazine editors: Alina H Zeynep A

Special thanks to Mr. Morris, all the science teachers. and everyone who contributed to the making of this magazine