2019 Hebarist 84

Frost on nettle leaves. credit: Robert Reisman

It is the policy of The Herb Society of America not to advise or recommend herbs for medicinal or health use. This information is intended for educational purposes only and should not be considered as a recommendation or an endorsement of any particular medical or health treatment.

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questions in life, such as: “Why are you putting raisins in that?”

salt on anything?” “How can you even taste it with that much ci

STINGING NETTLES

“Why don’t you put some more butter on that?” One surprise w

a variety of cooking styles is the varying use of herbs and spices

I met our dear family friend Mary several years ago. I st mother and I ate in her home. We sat down at her kitchen table

so simple, yet inviting and warm (very warm; it was summer in

in Palestine and Jordan, and on her table sat a few familiar appe

drizzled over it, a small plate of olives, and warm flat bread. Bu Literature Cited

something else we had never seen before. Mary had placed two

Bown, Deni. 2001. The Herb Society of America new encyclopedia of herbs & their uses. London and New York: Dorling Kindersley Limited.

a pool of olive oil and the other a pile of an herb blend that we h

Carey, Jennifer H. 1995. Urtica dioica. Accessed December 12, 2017. Available from https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/urtdio/all.html Carpenter, Anita. 2005. A nettlesome question. Wisconsin natural resources. Accessed February 1, 2018. Available from dnr.wi.gov/wnrmag/html/stories/2005/jun05/nettle.htm

This delicious mix is called za’atar. Insert image of za’atar ‫زعتر‬

Davis, B.N.K. 1991. Insects on nettles. Exeter, UK: Pelagic Publishing Ltd.

Lamiaceae family. In some regions, other

Emmelin, N. and W. Feldberg. 1947. The mechanism of the sting of the common nettle (Urtica urens). J. Physiol. 106:440-455. Accessed January 31, 2018. Available from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article/PMC1393807/pdf/jphysiol/01488-066.pdf

1994), but for our purposes I will be referring to the simplest ve

Gerard, John. 1597. The herbal, or, general historie of plantes. 1st ed. London: John Norton. Accessed February 4, 2018. Available from https://archive.org/details/ mobot31753000817749

part in Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and Syria. It is often r

Humphries, David J. and Chris K. Reynolds. 2014. The effect of adding stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) haylage to a total mixed ration on performance and rumen function of lactating dairy cows. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 189: 72-81. Accessed February 2, 2018. Available from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S0377840114000327

This elegantly simple mix balances the mild acidity and saltines

Illinois Wildflowers. Slender nettle. Accessed February 2, 2018. Available from www.illinoiswildflowers.info/savanna/plants/sl_nettle.htm

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New England Wildflower Society. Laportea canadensis. Accessed November 22, 2017. Available from https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/laportea/canadensis/ Porter, Cedric L. 2008. Taxonomy of vascular plants. Caldwell, NJ: The Blackburn Press.

The Plant List. Urticaceae. Accessed March 3, 2018. Available from www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/Urticaceae University of Maryland Medical Center. 2017. Stinging Nettle. Accessed August 25, 2017. Available from www.umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/herb/stinging-nettle Weed, Susun S. 2003. Healing wise. Woodstock, NY: Ash Tree Publishing WikiHow. Identifying stinging nettle. Accessed February 1, 2018. Available from https://www.wikihow.com/Identify-Stinging-Nettle

Bibliography 2017 World Nettle Eating Championship. Accessed November 3, 2017. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=by0212pJmzg Adelman, Charlotte and Bernard L. Schwartz. The Midwestern Native Garden: Native Alternatives to Nonnative Flowers and Plants an Illustrated Guide. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. 2011 Alderleaf Wilderness College. Cordage: Making Natural Rope. Accessed February 1, 2018. Available from https://www.wildernesscollege.com/cordage.html Bone K. and S. Mill, eds. Principles and Practices of Phytotherapy, Modern Herbal Medicine. London: Churchill Livingstone. 2000.

Brenner, Kelly. Nettle. Metropolitan Field Guide (an online blog).

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Literature Cited Angier, Bradford. 1974. Field guide to edible wild plants. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books.

Bahar, Banu and Tomris Altug. 2009. Flavour characterization of sumach (Rhus coriaria L.) by means of GC/MS and sensory flavor profile analysis techniques. International Journal of Food Properties. 12:2, 379-387.

Bsisu, May S. 2005. The Arab table. New York: HarperCollins.

Kremezi, Aglaia. 2009. Mediterranean hot and spicy: healthy, fast, and zesty recipes from Southern Italy, Greece, Spain, the Middle East, and North Africa. New York: Broadway Books.

Lukas, Brigitte, Corinna Schmiderer, Chlodwig Franz, and Johannes Novak. 2009. Composition of essential oil compounds from different Syrian populations of Origanum syriacum L. (Lamiaceae). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 57 (4), 1362-1365.

Mayo Clinic. Poison ivy rash - symptoms and causes. Accessed April 15, 2018. Available from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/poison-ivy/symptoms-causes/ syc-20376485 Meyers, Michele (ed.). 2005. Oregano and marjoram: an Herb Society of America guide to the genus Origanum. Kirtland, OH: The Herb Society of America. Accessed January 18, 2018. Available from http://www.herbsociety.org Missouri Botanical Garden. Origanum syriacum. Missouri Botanical Garden Plant Finder. Accessed April 16, 2018. Available from http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/ PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?kempercode=f247 National Plant Germplasm System. Sesamum indicum. Accessed January 18, 2018. Available from https://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/ Oplinger, E.S., D.H. Putnam, A.R. Kaminski, S.V. Hanson, E.A. Oelke, E.E. Schulte, and J.D. Doll. 1990. Alternative field crops manual: Sesame. Accessed April 16, 2018. Available from https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/index.html Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center at San Angelo. 2007. Sesame - Production Guide. Accessed April 16, 2018. Available from https://sanangelo.tamu.edu/ extension/agronomy/agronomy-publications/sesame-production-guide/ University of Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service, the University of Minnesota Extension Service and the Center for Alternative Plant and Animal Products. Alternative field crops manual: sesame. 1990. Accessed April 16, 2018. Available from https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/index.html Wolfert, Paula. 1994. The cooking of the Eastern Mediterranean. New York: Harper Collins.

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BRAZIL

BRAZIL

Pão de Queijo, Brazilian cheese rolls.

Photo Credit: Allrecipes

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Tales of Herbal

Literature Cited Balick, Michael J. 2014. 21st century herbal. New York: Rodale, Inc. FAOSTAT Database. 2019. Cassava production in 2016, Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity from pick lists. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.

Accessed January 3, 2019. Available from: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#rankings/countries_by_commodity Bibliography Bown, Deni. New Encyclopedia of Herbs and their Uses. London: Dorling-Kindersley, 2001.

Caskey, Liz. South American Cooking. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot Press, 2010.

Farah, Fernando. The Food and Cooking of Brazil. London: Anness Publishing, 2014.

Kijac, Maria. The South American Table. Boston, MA: The Harvard Common Press, 2003.

Mors, Walter R. Useful Plants of Brazil. San Francisco: Holden-Day, Inc., 1966.

Schwartz, Leticio M. The Brazilian Kitchen. London: Kyle Books,2010. van Wyk, Ben-Erik. Food Plants of the World. Portland, OR: Timber Press, 2005.

Pop Quiz Answers Guyana, English and French Guiana, French.

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Literature Cited Bhardwaj, H.C. and Kamal K. Jaim. 1982. Indian dyes and dyeing history during the 18th-19th century. Indian Journal of History of Science. 17(1): 70-81.

Accessed Sept. 27, 2018 Archived through http://202.41.82.144/rawdataupload/ upload/insa/ INSA_1/200005af6_70.pdf Encyclopædia Britannica. 1911. Madder. Available from https://en/wikisource. org/w/index.php?title=1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/ Madder&oldid=6492832 Accessed Sept. 27, 2018 Goodwin, Jill. 1982. A dyer’s manual. London: Pelham Books Limited.

Horsfall, R. S. and L. G. Laurie, 1927. The dyeing of textile fibers. London: Ernest Benn Limited.

Open University. 2007. The birth of (synthetic) dyeing. Accessed December 14, 2018. Available at https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-sciencetecnology-and-medicine/history-science/the-birth-synthetic-dyeing.

Pellew, Charles. 1913. Dyes and dyeing. New York: McBride, Nast & Co. The Toxic Free Foundation. 2008. Coal tar dyes. Accessed December 14, 2018.

Available at http://thetoxicfreefoundation.com/database/ingredient/ coal-tar-dyes.

Wikipedia. 2018. Alzarin. Accessed September 26, 2018. Available from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzarin.

Additional Reading Martha Stewart Blog. Accessed December 15, 2018. Available at https://www. marthastewart.com/266730/turkey-red-damask.

Bibliography Dirr, Michael A. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants: Their Identification, Ornamental Characteristics, Culture, Propagation and Uses. (6th edition.)

Champaign, Illinois: Stipes, 2009.

Sandberg, Gosta. The Red Dyes: Cochineal, Madder, and Murex Purple: A World Tour of Textile Techniques. Asheville, North Carolina: Lark Books, 1996.

Still, Steven M. Manual of Herbaceous Ornamental Plants, (4th edition).

Champaign, Illinois: Stipes, 1994.

Illustration from Manual of Herbaceous Ornamental Plants (4th edition) with permission from Stipes Publishing L.L.C.

Coal tar dyes are artificial coloring agents made by combining various hydrocarbons, which are obtained from the distillation of bituminous coal. These became the synthetic dyes commercially used by the growing textile industry of the 19th century. (The Toxic Free Foundation; Open University) 1

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TALES OF HERBAL PASSIONS

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Bibliography Literature Cited

Boland, B. Gardener’s Magic and Other Old Wives’ Lore. London: Bodley Head, 1977.

Anonymous. 1932. The famous book of herbs. St. Albans, England. Heath & Heather Ltd.

Frazier, G. and B. Frazier. Aphrodisiac Cookery: Ancient & Modern. San Francisco: Troubador Press, 1970.

Bais, Mitraja. 2018. Mala: the floral garlands of India. Garland Magazine.

Accessed February 5, 2018. Available from https://garlandmag.com/article/ mala-the-floral-garlands-of-India

Leyel, Mrs. C.F. Hearts-Ease; Herbs for the Heart. London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 1949.

Hendrickson, R. Lewd Food: The Complete Guide to Aphrodisiac Edibles. Radnor, PA: Chilton Book Co., 1974.

Bellowing Bantam. 2008. _____ Guide to aphrodisiacs: Satyrion, stones and pearls. Accessed February 7, 2017. Available from bellowingbantam.blogspot.com/2008/08/guide-toaphrodisiacs-satyrion-stones.html _____ Guide to aphrodisiacs: onions – an aphrodisiacal gift of the gods.

Accessed January 31, 2018. Available from bellowingbantam.blogspot. com/2008/08/guide-to-aphrodisiacs-onions.html _____ Guide to aphrodisiacs: oysters as aphrodisiacs. Accessed January 31, 2018. Available from bellowingbantam.blogspot.com/2008/08/guide-toaphrodisiacs-oysters-as.html Connell, C. 1966. Aphrodisiacs in your garden. New York: Taplinger Publishing Co. Corporation for Digital Scholarship. Herbs and drugs used as aphrodisiacs.

Accessed January 31, 2018. Available from https://foodanddining.omeka.net/ exhibits/show/aphrodisiacs-and-other-drugs/aphrodisiacs-and-their-uses/ herbs-drugs-aphro Cunningham, Scott. 1986. The magic of incense, oils and brews. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications. _____ 1988. Cunningham’s encyclopedia of magical herbs. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications.

Dharmananda, S. Ho-Shou-Wu what’s in an herb name? Institute for Traditional Medicine, Portland, Oregon. Accessed January 2013 (confirmed January 31, 2018). Available from http://www.itmonline.org/arts/hoshouwu.htm Herb Wisdom. 2019. Damiana. Accessed February 18, 2019. Available from http://www.herbwisdom.com/herb-damiana.html Laws, Bill. 2010. Fifty plants that changed the course of history. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books (U.S.) Inc. Leyel, Mrs. C.F. 1948. Elixirs of life. London: Faber and Faber Ltd. _____ 1986 (original 1938). Herbal delights. New York, NY: Gramercy Publishing Company.

Logue, M.J. 2015. Here’s rosemary, that’s for remembrance … Accessed January 31, 2018. Available from http://englishhistoryauthors.blogspot. com/2015/03/heres-rosemary-thats-for-remembrance.html Lucas, Richard, 1966. Nature’s medicines – the folklore, romance and value of herbal remedies. West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Company.

Manniche, Lise, 1989. An ancient Egyptian herbal. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press (published in co-operation with British Museum Publications).

Mrak, E.M. and G.F. Stewart. 1957. Advances in food research. Vol VII. New York: Academic Press.

Meyer, C. 1986. Herbal aphrodisiacs from world sources. Glenwod, IL: Meyerbooks.

Roybal, B.A. and G. Skowronki. 1999. Sex herbs: nature’s sexual enhancers for both men and women. New York: Grammercy Books.

Stark, Dr. R. 1981. The book of aphrodisiacs. New York: Stein and Day. The Smart Witch. 2018. Magical formulary. Accessed February 2, 2018.

Available from http://www.thesmartwitch.com/The_Smart_Witch_ Formulary.html

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A Quick Reference List of Sex Herbs from Allium to Zingiber Allium spp. – Onions, leeks and garlic all have reputations as aphrodisiacs, or at least as supports to a healthy constitution. The practice of rubbing a mixture of garlic and lard for lasting erections (Meyer, 1986) is a little beyond modern sensibilities, however.

Pimpinella anisum L. – Anise, with its rich history as not only a flavoring but as a medicinal, imitates the female hormone estrogen and is purported to increase sexual desire, intensity, and satisfaction (Roybal, 1999).

Anethum graveolens L. – Dill seeds and leaves have many associations with magic or love potions. To be irresistible, one need simply add dill seeds to bath water (Cunningham, 1988).

Piper methysticum G. Forst. - Kava is a general use herb, good as a tonic and stimulant. It serves as a muscle relaxant and pain reliever, helping some to enjoy sex more fully. It should only be used in small amounts (Roybal, 1999).

Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels – Known as a woman’s ginseng, dong quai has a reputation for relieving numerous female complaints. It balances female hormones, dilates blood vessels, and relieves vaginal dryness and itchiness (Roybal, 1999).

Reynoutria multiflora (Thun.) Moldenke – The story goes that an impotent Chinese man used fo-ti with success, sired many children, and lived to an incredibly old age. Its general stimulant effects are said to increase sexual desire and drive. It can have a laxative effect, so caution is indicated to avoid becoming dependent on its properties (Roybal, 1999).

Borago officinalis L. – The ancient Greeks infused their drinks with borage to attain a sense of courage, elation and sexual stimulation (Leyel, 1986). Gerard says it “maketh men and women glad and merry.” A simple recipe is to simmer two lemons with a little sugar, water, and a handful of borage leaves. Cool, and combine with white wine for a refreshing drink.

Crocus sativus L. – The ancient Phoenicians used saffron to flavor love cakes which they dedicated to Astoreth, the goddess of fertility. Cunningham also describes its use in love sachets to increase lustful feelings (Cunningham, 1988).

Elettaria cardamomum L. - This fragrant pod, called cardamom, has been particularly favored in Asian and Middle Eastern culture since ancient times (Laws, 2010). Used in love and lust potions, it is a great addition to coffee, cakes, and cookies.

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. – Like anise, fennel contains estragole and may increase sex drive in women (Roybal, 1999). During the middle ages people used it to guard against evil forces and to satisfy hunger, especially among the poor (Cunningham, 1988).

Rosmarinus officinalis L. - “Hang the flowers on thy bed and place rosemary in the bath to make thee lusty, lively, joyful, liking and young” writes William Langham in The Garden of Health, 1579 (Logue, 2015). Rosemary stands for constancy in love, as it retains its freshness and fragrance longer than any other herb when cut.

Satureja hortensis L. - Summer savory has been known as an aphrodisiac since ancient times and is associated with the satyrs and lusty behavior (Leyel, 1986).

Trigonella foenum-graecum L. - Farmers in Germany, Hungary, and Austria make a drink by decocting fenugreek seeds and flavoring the result with either lemon or mint. Then they used the ground seeds to fatten animals. In Tunis, brides-to-be drank a concoction of boiled milk, honey, and fenugreek seeds to make them a larger size for the marriage market.

Because of its ability to lower cholesterol, it may help increase blood circulation and therefore may help with impotence in men (Roybal, 1999).

Zingiber officinale Roscoe – Ginger, when chewed after a kola nut, Cola spp., enhances the aphrodisiac properties of the nut (Meyer, 1986). Ginger raises sperm motility and count (Roybal, 1999).

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Bibliography Damrosch, Barbara. The Garden Primer. New York: Workman Publishing Company, 2003.

Edwards, I.E.S. The Cambridge Ancient History, Part 1 Prolegomena and Prehistory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970.

Gleason, Henry and Arthur Cronquist. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada 2nd Edition. New York: The New York Botanical Garden, 1991.

Haines, Tim with Paul Chambers. The Complete Guide to Prehistoric Life. Richmond Hill, ON: Fire Fly Books Ltd., 2006.

Hine, Robert (ed). A Dictionary of Biology (Oxford Quick Reference). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

Kaufman, Peter B. Plants: Their Biology and Importance. New York: Harper Collins College division, 1989.

McFee, John. Annals of the Former World. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux Publishers, 1983.

Medsger, Oliver Perry. Edible Wild Plants. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1939.

[CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2016] Phillips, Roger and Martyn Rix. The Botanical Garden Vol. 1 Trees and Shrubs. Richmond Hill, ON: Firefly Books Ltd., 2002. _____ The Botanical Garden Vol.2 Perennials and Annuals. Richmond Hill, ON: Firefly Books Ltd., 2002.

Price, John T. Man Killed by Pheasant and Other Known Kinships. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press, 2012. _____ The Tallgrass Prairie Reader. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press, 2014.

Sunset Northeastern Garden Book. Birmingham, AL: Oxmoor House, Incorporated, 2001.

The Herb Society of America Ceanothus L., Ceanothus species. 2018. Accessed February 19, 2019.Available from: https://herbsocietyorg.presencehost.net/explore/hsa-conservation/ hsa-notable-native-herbs.html _____ Equisetum L., Equisetum species. 2018. Accessed February 19, 2019.Available from: https://herbsocietyorg.presencehost.net/explore/hsa-conservation/hsa-notable-nativeherbs.html Thompson, Kenneth. The Book of Weeds: How to Deal with Plants that Behave Badly. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2009.

Watts, May Thielgaard. Reading the Landscape of America. New York: Collier Books, 1975. 1975

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Literature Cited Calabrese, Angelica. 2016. The history and uses of the magical mandrake, according to modern witches. Atlas Obscura. Accessed April 19, 2019. Available from https://www. atlasobscura.com/articles/the-history-and-uses-of-the-magical-mandrake-accordingto-modern-witches Carter, Anthony J. 1999. Dwale: an anesthetic from Old England. British Medical Journal.

319: 63-162.

Cunningham, Scott. 1988. Cunningham’s encyclopedia of magical herbs. St. Paul MN: Llewellyn Publications. _____ 1998. Magical herbalism – the secret craft of the wise. St. Paul MN: Llewellyn Publications.

Folkard, Richard. 1884. Plant lore, legends and lyrics. London: R. Folkard and Son. Accessed December 3, 2018. Available from www.gutenburg.org/ebooks/44638 Grieve, Maude. 1931. A modern herbal. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.

Hansen, Harold A. 1978. The witch’s garden. Santa Cruz CA: Unity Press.

Kroll, David. 2017. The origin of witches riding broomsticks: drugs from nature, plus Shakespeare. Forbes. Accessed April 19, 2019. Available from https://www.forbes.com/ sites/daidkroll/2017/10/31/the-origin-of-witches-riding-broomsticks-drugs-fromnature-plus-shakespeare/#3fc57baa61a9 Lewis, Walter H. and Memory P.F. Elvin-Lewis. 2003. Medical botany. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.

Liberman, Anatoly. 2009. An analytic dictionary of English. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Accessed March 26, 2019. Available from https://books.google.com/ books?id=_m7k1Oi-cakC&pg=PA108&lpg=PA109&dq=henbane+An+Analytic+Dicti onary+of+English#v=onepage&q=henbane Mann, John. 1992. Murder magic and medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Meier, Allison. 2016. The first known depiction of a witch on a broomstick. Hyperallergic.

Accessed April 19, 2019. Available from https://hyperallergic.com/332222/first-knowndepiction-witch-broomstick/ Moran, Robin C. 1995. In search of the fern seed (Part 1 of 3). Fiddlehead Forum. 22:37-40.

Accessed October 24, 2018. Available from https://www.ou.edu/cas/botany-micro/ben/ ben120.html Parkinson, J. 1640. Theatrum botanicum: the theater of plants: or, An herball of a large extent .... London: Printed by Tho. Cotes. Download of full text available from https:// catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/102454428 Rose, Stephanie. Fascinating herbal histories from around the world. Accessed March 26, 2019. Available from https://garden-therapy.ca.herbal/histories/ Roth, Harold 2017. The witching herbs, 13 essential plants and herbs for your magical garden. Newburyport, MA: Red Wheel/Weiser Books.

Schultes, Richard Evans, Albert Hoffmann, and Christine Ratsch. 1998. Plants of the gods.

Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. Available from https://www.scribd.com/ document/339397962/Schultes-Hofmann-Plants-of-the-Gods-Healing-Arts-2001-pdf Smythe, Lynne. 2003. Halloween’s herbal legends. Herb Quarterly. Fall.

WebMd. 2018. Hyoscyamine Tablet. Accessed March 26, 2019. Available from https:// www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-13766/hyoscyamine-oral/details Bibliography Boland, Bridget. Gardeners Magic and Other Old Wives’ Lore. Farrar Straus Giroux, 1977 Dunwich, Gerina. Wicca garden. New York: Citadel Press, 1996.

Johnson, Cody. Magic Medicine: A Trip Through the Intoxicating History and Modern-day Use of Psychedelic Plants and Substances. Beverly, MA: Fair Winds Press, 2018.

Manniche, Lise. 1989. An ancient Egyptian herbal. Austin TX: University of Texas Press.

Thiselton-Dyer, T.F. The Mythic & Magickal Folklore of Plants, New York: Samhain Song Press, 2008. (through lulu.com).

McCulloch, Sam. 2018. Twilight sleep – the brutal way some women gave birth in the 1900s. Accessed March 26, 2019. Available from https://www.bellybelly.com.au/birth/ twilight-sleep

Thompson, Helen. “How Witches’ Brews Helped Bring Modern Drugs to Market.”

Smithsonian Magazine. October 31, 2014.

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hr at 35°C in an oven. In Yr. 2, all stigmas were dried at room temperature for ~48 hr. The dehydrated stigmas were weighed to determine yield and held in clear Petri dishes sealed with Parafilm® (Fig. 2).

Quality Assessment. Saffron contains over 150 volatile compounds, but the contents of three chemical components are commonly used to evaluate saffron quality: crocin which imparts the typical orange-yellow color and aroma; safranal, which gives saffron its characteristic odor; and picrocrocin, which confers the distinct flavor. We conducted a review of the various ways to test saffron quality and anticipated using the standard ISO standard method with spectrometry. We discussed the options with Dr. Charles Cantrell, Natural Products Utilization Research Lab, Univ. of Mississippi, Univ., MS, who has extensive experience with saffron quality assessment. He advised us to use Fig. 2. Fresh saffron stigmas, stamens high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), not spectrometry. HPLC and petals before weighing. analyzes the concentration of the actual saffron constituents, while spectrometry uses color. The correlation between color and the chemical analysis of saffron is uncertain. He offered to complete the analyses of our samples for this project. Because of challenges with regard to the stability of the commercially available picrocrocin standards, he recommended we focus on analysis of safranal and crocins in Year 1. In that year we compared saffron quality based on these two compounds for the two dehydration methods, on the harvest date (early vs late season) and location. In Year 2, analyses of safranal, crocins and picrocrocin were conducted. Because of challenges with saffron analysis and the instability of its compounds, it was not possible to obtain absolute concentrations of the three key compounds. However, a relative value was obtained, which allows comparisons among the treatments and regions of production. The specific samples tested each year, and various growing and drying parameters are described in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Saffron samples analyzed in Yr. 1 (2015) from different regions, harvest times, and drying regimes

Sample code

Saffron source1

VT1

Vermont

VT2

Vermont

Growing method

VT3

Vermont

VT4

Vermont

VT5

Vermont

VT6

Vermont

PA1 IR1 SP1 IT1

Pennsylvania Iran Spain

In-crate/ High tunnel In-crate High tunnel/ In-crate High tunnel/ In-ground High tunnel/ In-ground High tunnel In-ground/ High tunnel In-ground/Field In-ground/Field In-ground/Field

Italy

In-ground/Field

Collection date (2015)

Harvest time2

2015 Unknown Unknown

Early-season (Day 6 of harvest) Late season (Day 19 of harvest) Late season (Day 19 of harvest) Early season (Day 6 of harvest) Late season (Day 16 of harvest) Late season (Day 16 of harvest) October Unknown Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

18 Oct. 31 Oct. 31 Oct. 18 Oct. 28 Oct. 28 Oct.

Drying regime Room temp. for 48 hrs Room temp. for 48 hrs Room temp. for 24 hrs and in the oven for 1 hr at 35°C Room temp. for 48 hrs Room temp. for 48 hrs Room temp. for 24 hrs and in the oven for 1 hr at 35°C Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

1

All Vermont saffron came from corms purchased from Pennsylvania.

2 Harvest period in Vermont trial was ~40 days.

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Table 2. Saffron samples analyzed in Yr. 2 (2016) from different regions, harvest times, and drying regimes Sample code VT7 VT8 VT9 VT10 VT11 VT12 VT13 ME1 PA2 MA1 IR2 LB1 LB2 SP2

1

Saffron source Vermont1 Vermont2 Vermont2 Vermont3 Vermont4 Vermont2 Vermont4 Maine5 Pennsylvania6 Massachusetts7 Iran8 Lebanon9 Lebanon10 Spain11

Growing method In-crate/High tunnel In-crate/High tunnel In-ground/High tunnel In-crate/High tunnel In-crate/High tunnel In-ground/High tunnel In-ground/High tunnel In-ground/Field In-ground/Field In-ground/Field In-ground/Field In-ground/Field Unknown Unknown

Sample from VT harvested in 2015, held 1 year before analysis.

Corms from Holland, planted in Sept. 2016.

Corms from Pennsylvania, planted in Sept. 2016.

4 Corms from Pennsylvania, planted in Aug. 2015.

5 Sample from Maine grower, corms planted in Aug. 2016.

6 Sample from Pennsylvania grower.

Corm source & Harvest year PA 1st year Holland 1st year Holland 1st year PA 2nd year PA 1st year PA 2nd year PA Holland Pennsylvania Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown 7

Planting year 2015 2016 2016 2016 2015 2016 2015 2016 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Drying regime Room temp.

Room temp.

Room temp.

Room temp.

Room temp.

Room temp.

Room temp.

Mixed Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Sample from Massachusetts grower.

Sample from Iran, purchased on line (2016 product).

Sample from field trials of Amer. Univ. of Beirut, Lebanon.

10 From market in Beirut, Lebanon.

11 From market in Spain.

2

8

3

9

Chemical analysis. Dry saffron samples were sent to the USDA-ARS Natural Products Utilization Research Unit to assess quality with HPLC. Results were compared with commercial standards: safranal 88%, dry their saffron. It is reported that the drying method significantly affects the content of the key compounds for crocins and picrocrocin. Saffron stigmas were placed in a glass dish and cut with a razor blade to produce a unied a ratio of 1, andform others were ranked relationship towith that value.

Analwhich weground tested.

Saffron has been produced the US the Pennsylvania Dutch since the late 1600s. They powder.

The plantin material was removed a spatula or in paintbrush intoby pre-weighed 20-mL scintillation vials.

Around 50-60out mg oftoeach saffronsignificant sample was weighed in a 25-mL volumetric flask for exDuncan multiple range test were carried assess differproduce saffron in open fields without protection and use simple dehydration methods, “cooking the saffron in traction. Each sample was extracted with 8-mL of degassed methanol to eliminate oxygen and sonicated for 1 mples in Year 2, using SPSS V.24. analysis offor theasamples copper panswas atStatistical a high few minutes”.

Three of the (from Maine, Massachusetts and hr. The entire process carried out temperature in the dark at room temperature.

After in sonication, volumetric flaskssamples were placed in the dark overnight.

Samples were removed, sonicated for 1 hr, and brought to volume with previously fron quantities were too small to allow for replication.

Pennsylvania) we tested were grown and processed in degassed methanol. Each extracted sample was filtered using a 1-mL Tuberculin syringe with a 0.20-μm filter this wayvial and those with high quality. tip into an HPLC for were analysis.among Each 25-μL sample was immediately injectedReinto an HPLC connected to a diodesearch array detector to determine the content of each compound relative to the standard. The HPLC system used is needed to determine the best dehydration was an Agilent 1260 series consisting of a degasser, quaternary pump, ALS auto-sampler and diode array detecmethod for maximizing onmm, safranal concentration, An Agilent Zorbax SB-C-18, 4.6 x and 250 5μm column was for this analysis with a column flow of content of crocinstor. (linked with saffron color aroma) for theused Vermont 1 mL/min.

In 2015 samples were analysed for crocins and safranal; whereas in 2016 analyses for crocins, safrathough beyond the scope of this project. was not significantly different among samples regardless of how they were nal and picrocrocin were completed. Sample injections were made at 25 μL for all samples and standards. Using how they were dried (room temperature or room temperature in the a solvent system of H2O and ACN, a gradient elution was used and for analysis.

The analyses were triplicated for Saffron is sometimes adulterated, resulting inovsample. Safranal was detected at 320 nm, all crocins (a mixture of 5 crocins) were detected at 440 nm, and ed (early season or each late season) (Fig. 3).

The content of crocins in the Verpicrocrocin was detected at 250 nm. products of questionable quality, as we observed for the

r than for saffron from other locations, including thosepoints, from traditional safQuantitative Analysis. Withfrom five concentration an external standard least sample purchased a market in Lebanon.

While it squares regression for quantification was used. The three analytes: safranal, crocins (all 5), and picrocrocin were used to formulate erseas (Iran, looked like pure saffron to the untrained eye and was separate calibration curves. The response factors were calculated using the equation RF=DR/C where DR is nt of safranal the detector response in peak area (PA) andclearly C is the analyte concentration. chromatograms of each saffron labeled as such, analysis showed that it The cony less than the sample were compared to the standards. The target peaks were confirmed by retention time and UV spectral tained very little saffron.

Most of the sample was probdata. Confirmed integrated peaks were then used to determine the analyte percentage. The R.F. of the target ong the six analyte was used to determine the “percent in dry weight” for each sample is using the equation: ably safflower, (Carthamus tinctorius), which often for safranal (PA/R.F./C)*100 = % (Peak Area/Response Factor/Concentration). The R² for the three standard curves was used to adulterate saffron (Fig. 5).

Developing low cost 0.999. The range of injected standard concentrations was between 1 to 0.001mg/mL for safranal, 1 to 0.001 0.21 and were methods to0.500 assess saffron is picrocrocin. an important compomg/mltest for the crocins, and to 0.005 mg/mL for The limit of quantification for all compofrom Spain nents was 0.0001 mg/ml. To assess the relative ratios, the samples with the highest concentration of crocins, nent of strengthening the US saffron industry. The ent from those 3 quality of a saffron product is critical for developing a ngly, the local or global market for this high value specialty r both the crop. The quality of saffron produced in Vermont in were very simhigh tunnels and in the field in other New England

Saffron is sometimes adulterated, resulting in products of questionable quality, as we observed for the sample purchased from a market in Lebanon. While it looked like pure saffron to the untrained eye and was labeled as such, analysis clearly showed that it contained very little saffron. Most of the sample was probably safflower, (Carthamus tinctorius), which is often used to adulterate saffron (Fig. 5). Developing low cost test methods to assess saffron is an important component of strengthening the US saffron industry. The quality of a saffron product is critical for developing a local or global market for this high value specialty crop. The quality of saffron produced in Vermont in high tunnels and in the field in other New England states suggests that there is potential to add this high value crop to the Northeast agroecosystems.

IR2

states suggests that there is potential to add this high value crop to the Northeast agroecosystems.

Fig.Fig. 3. Relative ratiocrocus of the level of and crocin and picrocrocin in samples 5. Saffron flower dry saffron (L); safflower harvested Vermont (grown(R). in crates or raised beds; harvested early or bloom in and dried petals late in the season, and dried at room temperature or at room temperature and in an oven), Pennsylvania, Iran, Spain and Italy.

Fig. 4. Relative for saffron harv and Spain. Mea 0.05 significanc were not signifi

VT13

VT10

VT11 VT12

VT8 VT9

VT7

SP2

ME1

MA1 PA2

LB1 LB2

IR2

VT6

VT5

VT4

VT3

VT2

VT1

SP1

PA1

IT1

Fig. 5. Saffron crocus flower and dry saffron (L); safflower bloom and dried petals (R).

IR1

Vermont samgreatest for Pennsylvania the crocins or method of e collected in owest crocins affron sample he other sama market in ect that this w crocin level s.

dry their saffron. It is reported that the drying method significantly affect which we tested. Saffron has been produced in the US by the Pennsylvan produce saffron in open fields without protection and use simple dehydra copper pans at a high temperature for a few minutes”. Three of the sampl Pennsylvania) we tested were grown and processed in this way and were among those with high quality. Research is needed to determine the best dehydration method for maximizing on safranal concentration, though beyond the scope of this project.

Fig. 4. Relative ratio of picrocrocin, crocin and safranal levels for saffron harvested in Vermont, Maine, Pennsylvania, Iran and Spain. Means were compared with the Duncan-test at a 0.05 significance level. Bars with the same lower case letters were not significantly different within a chemical component.

ne Vermont sample is HERBARIST 44in 2016—the one that had been stored since 2015. ItThe significant difference between results in Year 1 and 2. Safranal was detected amples from Iran, Maine and Pennsylvania. No safranal was detected from nese market, further suggesting the sample was tainted with non-saffron

Issue 84 2019 45 Acknowledgments. This research was funded by the Herb Society of America w Vermont College of Agric. & Life Sciences, USDA Hatch Program, and the VT

© 2018 University of Vermont. Not for publication or reproduction wit

Bibliography Anderson, Gregory J. and Hill, James D. Many to Flower, Few to Fruit: The Reproductive Biology of Hamamelis virginiana, American Journal of Botany 89(1): 67–78.

2002 Dirr, Michael. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants. Stipes Publishing, Champaign, IL. 1975, revised 2009.

Fire Effects Information System, USDA. Species: Hamamelis virginiana. Online: https://www.fs.fed.us/ database/feis/plants/tree/hamvir/all.html. Accessed January 28, 2019.

Mione, Thomas and Bogle, A. Linn. Comparative Ontogeny of the Inflorescence and Flower of Hamamelis virginiana and Loropetalum chinense (Hamamelidaceae), American Journal of Botany, 77(1): 77-91. 1990. Accessed online by subscription from JSTOR, February 2, 2019.

USDA Plants Database. Hamamelis www.plants.usda.gov Wang, Hongshan, Blanchard, Jane, Dilcher, David L. Fruits, seeds, and flowers from the Warman clay pit (middle Eocene Claiborne Group), western Tennessee, USA, Palaeontologia Electronica Vol. 16, Issue 3; 31A; 73p; Online: https://doi.org/10.26879/

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Kim Labash

LoudounValleyHerbs@yahoo.com

Loudoun Valley Herbs Specializing in Lavender and Rose products.

19405 Woodtrail Rd., Round Hill, VA 20141 540-554-2748

7815 Highway 212 E, Chaska, MN 55318 herbs@shadyacres.com

NOW AVAILABLE!

Beyond Rosemary, Basil, and Thyme UNUSUAL, INTERESTING, AND UNCOMMON HERBS TO ENJOY

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$24.95

Available through www.shadyacres.com and Amazon

Discover plants new to you, how to grow them, interesting ways to use them, and unusual facts about these fascinating herbs. Based on Theresa’s 45 years of experience growing and selling herbs, this 230-page book is filled with lush color photographs, recipes, and stories for incorporating these herbs into your daily life.

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Happy 20th Anniversary to

Mid-Atlantic Conference Williamsburg September 25-26, 2020

Visit us in Reading Pennsylvania Monthly meetings: September - April, including speakers and herbal studies.

Public Events: Garden Bus Tour in June; Symposium Luncheon in October.

Visit our website for program and event information

www.paheartlandhsa.org

Visit our herb gardens Penn State University, Janssen Conference Center, Reading PA White Horse Tavern & Mouns Jones House, Morlatton Village, Douglassville PA Daniel Boone Homestead, Birdsboro PA

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The Virginia

OF THE HER B SOCIET Y OF A MER ICA

invites you to visit the herb gardens we designed, planted & help maintain

JOHN MARSHALL HOUSE

MCGUIRE VA MEDICAL CENTER POLYTRAUMA REHABILITATION CENTER

HENRICUS HISTORICAL PARK

, MAYMONT S “HERBS GALORE & MORE!”

1201 BROAD ROCK ROAD • RICHMOND, VA

818 EAST MARSHALL STREET • RICHMOND, VA

251 HENRICUS PARK ROAD • CHESTER,VA

THE NEW ENGLAND UNIT VISIT TH E TEA C H IN G H ER B G A R D EN A T TH E G A R D EN S A T ELM B A N K , M A SSA C H U SETTS H O R TICU LU R A L SO CIETY, W ELLESLEY, M A

FIN D U S AT W W W .N EU H SA.O RG FACEBO O K/N EW EN GLAN D U N IT

1700 HAMPTON STREET • RICHMOND, VA

Visit our booth at Maymont’s Herbs Galore & More!

This popular herb festival is Virginia’s largest and oldest herbal event, held the last Saturday of April each year.

Our unit specializes in peppers,

over fifty different varieties!

T H E V I RGI N I A COM MON W E A LT H U N I T H A S BE E N A U N I T OF T H E H E R B SOCI ET Y OF A M E R ICA SI NCE 1987

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The Herb Society of America, Pioneer Unit

We invite you to enjoy our herb study gardens at Cheekwood Botanical Garden and Centennial Park whenever you visit Nashville, Tennessee.

CHEEKWOOD HERB GARDEN

Celebrating 25 Years!

1994-2019

CENTENNIAL GARDEN IN MAY

T h e h e r b S o c i e T y of N a S h v i l l e A Unit of the Herb Society of America www.herbsocietynashville.org

❧ Please join us at Cheekwood in September for our annual Herb Day event

• Refreshments • Speakers • Garden Tours • • Vendor Area • Crafts • Garden Tools • Art • • Lunch • Door Prizes • and More!

Supporting the Brenham Elementary Sensory Garden

Supporting the Herb Gardens at Festival Hill in Round Top

P.O. Box 23 Round Top, TX 78954

25th Annual Herbal Forum at Round Top

March 20 & 21, 2020 Mexican Mint Marigold—Tagetes lucida Our Herb for 2020

In Memory of Madalene Hill Pioneer Unit Member 1994-2009

For information please visit herbsocietypioneer.org, festivalhill.org or call 979-249-3129

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Texas Thyme Unit The Herb Society of America

Happy 10th Birthday Texas Thyme Unit Huntsville, Texas In our short history, we have created the Ella Ruth Herb Garden, the Children’s Sensory Garden, and the Memorial Rose Garden on the grounds of the historic Wynne Home in Huntsville. In addition, our gardens are certified as GreenBridgesTM and Monarch Waystation gardens. We have educated thousands of Huntsville school children about herbs over the years and have hosted eight annual herb festivals.

The Texas Thyme Unit is a 501(c)3 non-profit, whose mission is to promote the knowledge, use, and delight of herbs through educational programs, research, and sharing the experience with the community. www.texasthymeunit.org www.facebook.com/texasthymeunit

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The Herb Society of America Ozark Unit

Central Ohio Unit of The Herb Society of America

We cordially invite you to visit our Herb Garden at Inniswood Metro Gardens 940 South Hempstead Road Westerville, Ohio

Our garden features a collection of

headquartered at the Ozark Folk Center in Mountain View, Arkansas

over fifty different thymes Among a delightful display of herbs

You are invited to visit us at

Grown both for their ornamental

the Folk Kids’ Mountain Garden and the Heritage Herb Garden

And herbal attributes.

The Herb Harvest Fall Festival featuring HSA’s Award-Winning Herbalists

Annual Plant Sale The first weekend in May at

Sunny Sundays

Inniswood Metro Gardens.

From May through October Unit members are in the Herb Garden On Sunny Sunday afternoons

It’s About Thyme www.centralohioherbsociety.org

to answer garden visitors’ questions.

The Spring Herbal Hike and Medicinal Herb Symposium

1400 Culinary & decorative herbs, scented geraniums, perennials, trees & shrubs from around the world, colorful conifers, natives for pollinators.

Annual Display Gardens at the Arkansas Flower and Garden Show

Download our Handbook/Catalog! www.sandymushherbs.com or send $5.00 to: Sandy Mush Herb Nursery Dept. HSA 316 Surrett Cove Rd Leicester, NC 28748-5517

For schedules and details, please visit https://www.facebook.com/groups/HSA.Ozark and https://ozarkfolkcenter.ticketleap.com

The Herb Society of America

New Orleans Unit est. 1995 Encourages you to visit The Ellen Biddle Shipman designed

Walled Herb Garden at Longue Vue House and Gardens &

The Salvia Collection at the New Orleans Botanical Garden To find out more about our project sites visit: www.longuevue.com www.neworleanscitypark.com/botanical-garden Like and follow us on Facebook Herb Society of America– New Orleans Unit

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The Herb Society of America, Frankenmuth Mid-Michigan Unit is celebrating the 30th anniversary of our unit’s herb garden, located in the heart of a town known for its old world Bavarian charm.

Arkansas Unit of The Herb Society of America

The Herb Society of America—Baton Rouge Unit

Celebrating 50 Years in the Garden of Exploration

Baton Rouge, Louisiana

at the Arkansas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired in Li:le Rock

Celebrate Herbs Come visit our community gardens in Baton Rouge!

40 years at Cranbrook Gardens

The Heritage Garden at the LSU AgCenter Botanic Gardens The Traiteur’s Garden at the Rural Life Museum

The Herb Society of America Southern Michigan Unit hsasmu.org hsasmu@gmail.com

The Sensory Garden at BREC’s Independence Park Botanic Gardens

Visit our website and like us on Facebook! www.hsabr.org

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www.facebook.com/BatonRougeUnitHSA/

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In 1969, the Garden of Exploration became the Arkansas Unit’s first public garden. We would later add the Mansion Herbary at the Governor’s Mansion and the Mary Fletcher Worthen Medicinal Garden at the Historic Arkansas Museum. In 2019, we celebrate 50 years in our themed sensory herb garden!

Look us up on Facebook as The Herb Society of America Arkansas Unit!

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