Herbarist 76 - 2010

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HERBAR1ST

CONTENTS ___ OF THE

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HERBARIST BOARD OF DIRECTORS Lois Sutton, Ph.D. President

Linda Lain, Vice-President

A Place to Land: Hie Herb Gardener’s Role in Pollinator Conservation....................................................................... 2

By Rhonda Fleming Hayes

Elizabeth Kennel, Sccrctary/Commumcations Chair

Gretchen Faro, Treasurer/Finance & Operations

Ann Brokamp, Central District Membership Delegate Susan Licchty, Great Lakes District Membership Delegate

Katherine Schlosser, Mid-Atlautic District Membership Delegate

Claudia Van Nes, Northeast District Membership Delegate Mary Docbbeling, South Central District Membership Delegate Debbie Boutclicr, Southeast District Membership Delegate Karen Mahshi, IVesl District Membership Delegate

Carol Czcchowski, Education Chair Gloria McClure, Botany & Horticulture Chair Peggy Rados, Membership Choir Karen O’Brien, Development Chair Anne Abbott, Nominating Chair

William C. Welch, Ph.D., Honorary President

ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF Katrinka Morgan — Executive Director Lauric Alexander — Development Coordinator Karen Frandanisa — Accountant

Robin A. Siktberg — Editor/Horticulturist

Helen Tramtc — Librarian Janeen Wright—Educator/Membcrship Coordinator THE HERBARIST

Editor: Robin A. Siktberg

Design: Libby Armstrong Printer: Sheridan Press

Coft’ee & Tea: History in a Cup.............................................................. 8

By Anna Reich The Three Travelers: Coltsfoot, Comfrey & Mullein..................16

By Katherine Yvinskas Herbs in Greek Mythology.................................................................... 21

By Marie G. Fowler Rempah, Rendang & Rojak: A Taste of Malaysian Cuisine..... 25

By Alina Niemi All in a Lather: Herbal Soap Plants................................................... 34

By Katherine Montgomery Homegrown Harvest: CSA Farms...................................................... 39

By Sandie Parrott Tiny Treasures: The Narcissus of Glenan........................................ 43

By Caroline Holmes Holy Aromas: Herbs & Spices of the Tabernacle......................... 46

By Jo Ann Gardner Tantalizing Tisanes.................................................................................. 52

By Bryna O'Sullivan and Cynthia Nobles

THE HERBARIST COMMITTEE Elizabeth Kennel - Chair, Anne Abbott, Caroline Amidon, Joyce Brobst, Loretta Clements, Kathryn Giarratani, Stefan Lura, Sara Moore, Kathleen Peabody, Ellen Scanned, Lois Sutton, Ph.D.

In meinoriam, with thanksfor their contributions: Loretta Clements

Kathryn Giarratani

Kathleen Peabody The opinions expressed by contributors are not necessarily those of The Society, Manuscripts, advertisements, comments and letters to the editor may be sent to: The Hcrbarist, The Herb Society ofAmerica 9019 Kirtland-Chardon Rd. Kirtland, Ohio 44094 (440) 256-0514 phone • (440) 256-0541 fax e-mail: editorffflherbsociety.org website: www.hcrbsociety.org The Hcrbarist, No. 76

Front Cover: A bee searches for nectar on a lavender blossom, collecting pollen as it goes.

Inside Front Cover: AJoe-pye weed flower (Eupatoriuni purpureum) provides a landing spot and sustenance for a tiger swallowtail butterfly.

Photos by Robin A. Siktberg

Disclaimer: It is the policy of The Herb Society ofAmerica not to mlvisc or recommend herbsfor medicinal or health use. The information in this publication is intendedfor educational purposes only and should not be considered as a recommendation or an endorsement ofany particular medical or health treatment. Please consult a health core provider before pursuing any herbal treatments.

THE HERBARIST

Issue 76 2010

enei s Pole in Pollinator Co

By Rhonda Fleming Hayes /I mong the Joys of herb /1 gardening, and there are

v many, is the chance to observe the abundance of wildlife that visits: the industrious bee, the fleeting butterfly, hovering hummingbirds and more. Of course there are others less welcome: the hungry rabbit or mischievous raccoon, but still most agree that a garden without wildlife risks seeming static, even sterile.

While seeking food, water, shelter and nesting sites in and around our herb gardens, many of these animals and insects are also engaging in the valuable mechanism of pollination.

Plants and their pollinators have co­ evolved to acquire physical traits that attract one another in a mutualistic relationship, making sure that pollen is carried from one flower to another.

In addition, the flowering times of the plants have evolved to be closely aligned with the life cycles and needs of their pollinators. Together these characteristics form what is called a pollination syndrome. Using knowledge of these syndromes, herb gardeners can learn to attract and increase pollinator numbers, making for a healthier and livelier landscape.

a flower to the female stigma of the same or another flower. When this transfer is successful, fertilization occurs, which leads to seed devel­ opment and fruit production, thus guaranteeing the plant’s continuing existence.

Eighty percent of all plants rely upon pollination for survival. But more astoundingly, for humans, one out of every three bites of food is made possible by pollination. Without pol­ lination, say goodbye to cabbage and avocados, watermelons and coconut, but more tragically, strawberry short­ cake, blueberry cobbler, apple pie, and chocolate anything. Hamburgers can’t happen without the pollination of alfalfa to feed cattle. As it turns out, pollination hits very close to home.

Pollination

Pollinators are keystone species, meaning that a large number of other species de­ pend upon them for their existence.

Pollinators are also considered an indicator species, with their well­ being connected intimately with the bigger picture of overall environ­ mental health. Dramatic declines in pollinator populations are attrib­ uted to three main factors: loss and fragmentation of habitat, degradation of remaining habitat and pesticide poisoning.

Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of

There are two types of pollination —biotic and abiotic. Eighty percent

Opposite page: A bee searches for nectar from a calamint blossom.

Photo by Robin Siktberg 3

of all pollination is biotic, meaning carried out by animals, insects, birds etc. Abiotic pollination is accomplished by wind or water; the vast majority is by wind.

Grasses are an example of plants pollinated by wind; they produce fine grains of pollen in copious quantities to allow for the vagaries of the weather, while at the same time vexing human beings with annoying allergies. Corn and wheat are domestic crops that are dependent upon the wind for pollination.

All other pollination is performed by a variety of animals, birds and insects ranging from tiny tachinid flies to the rather large and unlikely lemur.

Most common pollinators are birds, bees, butterflies, beetles, bats, ants, moths and flies.

It can be said that flowers are the tools plants use to make seeds and thereby fulfill their genetic destiny. Floral strategies to attract pollinators take many forms, sucKas visual cues, food, scent, mimicry and entrapment.

Visual cues are most evident in flower color and shape, and sometimes, a nectar guide is present.

A nectar guide is like an arrow on a road map indicating the Ideation of nectar in the form of veining or a TH E HERBARI ST •

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pattern on flower petals. Sometimes these guides are only visible in ultraviolet light. Nectar is the obvious reward for many pollinators in searching out plants; it is a rich cocktail of sugar water, amino acids, minerals and vitamins. Some insects will also eat some of the pollen that they are intended to carry.

Scents that attract various pollinators range from highly fragrant to putrid.

Some flowers will mimic the very insect it needs for pollination by posing as a possible mate. Lastly, some plants will lure pollinators only to trap and then dissolve the unsuspecting victim.

Beyond that, plants have evolved with different flowering times throughout the growing season to decrease competition and provide pollinators

The HSA GreenBridges Program By increasing the number of avenues through which pollinators may safely and successfully travel from one plant population to another, genetic diversity among our native plants is made more secure. It is with this goal in mind that HSA created the GreenBridges Program.

Certified GreenBridges gardens serve as corridors for the movement of birds, bees and butterflies that are pollinators for native herbs. GreenBridges also serves as a network connecting those with shared interests, providing opportunities for communication, education and research. For more information, contact HSA Headquarters at (440)256-0514.

with a constant food supply. In turn these pollinators have adapted with specialized body .parts and behaviors to transport the pollen from one plant to another.

Bees Herb gardeners are well aware that bees love herbs; blooming herbs almost vibrate with their activity as summer arrives? They especially love lavender, thyme, mint, marjoram, oregano and bprage, among others.

But what is it that actually attracts them?

The pollination syndrome of bees tells us that th'ey select brightly colored day-blooming flowers, full of nectar, often tubular in shape, with a structure that provides a landing platform. Bees are said to prefer flowers pf blue or yellow color, although it is not unusual to see them on blossoms of any color. Their favorite flowers also emit a sweet or minty fragrance. Beyond that, it depends upon the length of their tongue whether they ..visit a plate-like calendula or a cup-like!sage.

Since there are about 4,000 different species of bees, there are plenty of variations besides just tongue-length.

Bees are grouped by their nest­ building behavior and by whether they are solitary or social. While the commercial honeybee may live in the iconic white box hive, just over two-thirds of bee species are groundnesters. They lay their eggs or tend their larvae in burrows where they provision individual cells for their young. The rest are wood-nesting, constructing homes in mostly abandoned beetle larva tunnels or dry

Solitary bees are not loners; they actually live in an aggregation with other solitary bees, but they only tend their own nests. Mason bees, leafcutter bees and carpenter bees are examples of this category.

Solitary bees may take up to a year to complete their life cycle, and pupae can lay dormant during cold and drought, waiting until conditions are more favorable.

Social bees like the well known honeybee and the bumblebee form colonies where they build nests together and tend young in a more complex hierarchy of queens and workers. A high turnover of generations occurs, with development only taking four to six weeks.

Most solitary bees are “polylectic," meaning that they feed and gather pollen from a large number of flowering plants and can adapt to changing availability of food sources.

Others confine themselves to a particular plant family and some even are dependent upon a single plant species. These latter types are most at risk from habitat loss.

Social bees are also polylectic.

Herb gardeners, who observe bees systematically mining a particular group of herbal flowers at a time, are^eeing a behavior called “flower constancy,”“where bees feed from a single species on a particularfofaginj? trip.

Prolific and efficient, bees are the most successful pollinators; they can gather and deliver large amounts of pollen on the stiff hairs of their bodies or carry it in specialized body parts, or pollen baskets. It is

cavities of dead trees, and sometimes man-made structures like hollow walls and barns. Others will parasitize and

alarming that bees are now under threat; entomologists believe that

rob the nests of other bees.

environmental stress, disease and parasites are acting alone and/or in

concert to cause a worrying decrease in numbers.

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Nectar Seekers: (Left) a bee on purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea) (Center) A hummingbird moth hovers near a bee balm blossom (Monarda didyma). (Right) A monarch butterfly on its most preferred plant, milkweed (Asclepias syriaca). Photos on left and center by Robin Siktberg. Right photo from istockphoto.

Birds Birds have no sense of smell, so pollinating birds rely instead on their keen vision to search out flowers with deeply hidden nectar. Once they find their food source, hummingbirds and other nectar-eating birds are dusted around their faces with pollen that they then take to the next flower.

Some birds accomplish pollination while hunting for insects and spiders concealed within flowers. *Of the 2,000 species of bird pollinators across the globe, hummingbirds are the most wellknown anglljeloved. They need to eat

several times their weight in nectar ?very day to maintain the frenetic pace of their beating heart, more than 1,000 beats per minute! It is pure joy to watch them hover and feed among ethe flowering herbs in our gardens.

The tiny birds possess an eagle’s eye to spot theiffayored red, orange and yellow flowers but tfieyare also seen frequently feeding on the blue-toned blooms of herbs like catmint and sage. Their slender pointed bill and long tongue are adapted to probe tubular, funnel-shaped flowers such as lobelia and nasturtium. Beyond

the herb garden, hummingbirds are a key species responsible for wildflower pollination.

Herbs with Flowers Accessible to Butterflies Achillea spp. (Yarrow)

Butterflies

Allium schoenoprasum (Chives) Butterflies are less efficient than bees but just as persistent at pollination. Butterflies see the redcolored flowers that bees cannot.

They use their long tongue called a proboscis to siphon nectar from suitable flowers, while their bodies accumulate pollen grains. Butterflies need a flower structure that supplies a landing platform on which to perch while feeding; bright, day-blooming flowers growing in clusters or flat­ topped umbels meet this description.

In the herb garden, butterflies love the blossoms of chives (Allium schoenoprasum), thyme (Thymus spp.), basil (Ocimum spp.), coneflower (Echinacea spp.), pot marigold (Calendula spp.), yarrow (Achillea spp.), garlic chives (Allium tuberosum), and butterfly weed (Asclepias spp.) among others.

Anethum vulgare (Dill)

Asclepias spp. (Butterfly Weed)

Calendula officinalis (Pot Marigold) Carum carvi (Caraway) Chamaemelum spp. (Chamomile) Cichorium intybus (Chicory)

Clinopodium spp. (Calamint) Echinacea spp. (Coneflower)

Foeniculum vulgare (Fennel) Heliotropium arborescens (Heliotrope)

Hyssopus officinalis (Hyssop)

Lavandula spp. (Lavender)

Melissa officinalis (Lemon Balm) Mentha spp. (Mint)

Ocimum spp. (Basil)

Origanum majorana (Marjoram) Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum (Oregano)

Moths • .

Moths need the saijie landing platform as butterflies, but since they fly at night their targeted-flowers are white or other pale colors better

Rosa spp. (Rose)

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Thymus spp. (Thyme)

Issue "6 2010

honey possums are kno,..„ to p0||inate eucalyptus.

Helping to Conserve and Support Pollinators The very act of planting an herb garden is a big first step in helping to conserve pollinators. So all herb gardeners have already progressed to the point where they can fine-tune their gardens to increase the number and variety of pollinators that visit.

The red tubular flowers of bee balm are a magnet for hummingbirds.

Photo by Joe Schneid. Wikimedia Commons seen in moonlight. Often these flowers only open in late afternoon or evening. Besides their color, evening primrose (Oenothera spp.), yucca (Yucca spp.), Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum), and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) attract moths with a sweet fragrance that lures them to the hidden nectar.

scents. Water lilies use a devious system of entrapment to achieve pollination: luring the beetle to its luminous inflorescence, filled with a liquid over the female flower part that drowns the unsuspecting insect leaving the pollen to settle to the EEI E H ERBA RIST

issue 76 2010

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It should incorporate a succession of flowers in order to provide blooms throughout the entire growing season.

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It should have several different species in bloom at any one time.

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It should combine annuals and perennials.

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It should be free of pesticides.

bottom of the bloom. Roses are among other flowers pollinated by beetles.

Flies

This group of pollinators includes gnats and mosquitoes—yes, mosquitoes! It is usually the syrphid, or flower flies and tachinid flies that do the job of pollination. They are Beetles dfawn to dull green, white, cream or even dark-recldish brown flowers, Beetles were one of the first pollinators and therefore visit ancient some with translucent patches upon the petals, often with unpleasant species like magnolia. They look odors. As'annoying as midges are, for white, dull or pale green day- , they make chocolate possible. They blooming flowers shaped like bowls with the sex organs exposed for , • are enticed to the small, white downward-facing flowers of the cocoa effortless access. Howeyerptffey will ■ .. also.^ttend small flower clusters with c plant (Theobroma cacao) by their

easily available pollen, like goldenrod (Solidago spp.) or butterfly weed (Asclepias spp.). They are attracted to fruity, spicy and sometimes fetid

The fun part of this effort, if it can even be called that, is planting more flowering herbs to serve as foraging habitat. Whether using herbs or not, there are four important characteristics to follow when establishing the habitat:

mifclyoom-like smell.

Other Pollinators Ants and slugs do their part in3 • • pollination by crawling into lowgrowing, inconspicuous flowers like that of wild ginger (Asarum canadense).

Bats are vertebrates that pollinate more tropical herbs like mangoes and guavas as well as the agave from which tequila is made. Larger animals such as

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One example of a pollinator­ friendly herb garden might be starting with purple garden chives (Allium schoenoprasum'), sweet woodruff (Galium odoratum), and thyme (Thymus spp.) in spring; adding summer-blooming monarda (Monarda didyma), Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile),

German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) and borage (Borago officinalis); ending with lateL,blpomiugJ.oe5pye weed (Eupatoriuni purpureum), hyssop (hyssopus officinalis), calamint (Clinopoaiutn a

spp.) and garlic chives (Allium tuberosum).

There should be a diversity of flower

shapes to accommodate the different

Herbs with Tubular Flowers Borago officinalis (Borage) Digitalis spp. (Foxglove)

Jasminum officinale (Jasmine)

Lobelia spp. (Lobelia) Monarda spp. (Bee Balm) Nicotiana spp. (Tobacco, Flowering Tobacco) Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary)

Salvia spp. (Sage) Stachysspp. (Lamb's Ear, Betony)

Tropaeolum spp. (Nasturtium) Yucca spp. (Yucca)

mouth parts of all the pollinating insect and birds. Offering a spectrum of colors will attract more pollinators as well. However, it is best to plant blocks of color (at least four feet in diameter of each species) to help the pollinators locate the food source more easily.

At this point it is appropriate to note that native plants that have evolved along with the pollinators are the best food sources, allowing them to forage the most efficiently. Native mints, clovers, and coneflowers are just a few likely candidates, among a very long list of possibilities.

Consulting a university extension Web site to identify plants native to certain regions would be advisable.

Leaving the garden a little less tidy can be a good thing! Allowing spent herbs to stand over winter provides nesting and overwintering sites for pollinating insect adults, larvae and eggs. For the same reason, unless it is a danger, leaving a dead tree can be an important component in building habitat.

Other common landscape features like evergreen hedges, rock walls,

Butterfly weed (Asclepiasspp). provides nectar for a wasp.

stone patios, and mulched paths can all shelter various pollinators at different points in their life cycle.

Water sources can be backyard ponds, bird baths and even puddles.

Leaving some bare ground gives a home to ground-nesting bees.

Butterflies need damp spots to “puddle” or siphon nutrients from the ground.

A truly successful herb garden is one where pollinators find food, water, shelter and nesting sites. The presence of fluttering birds and buzzing insects only builds upon the joy we find in our gardens, while adding another link in the chain of wildlife habitats to help ensure the survival of these invaluable creatures.

The Challenges of Pollinator Conservation As pollinators struggle to survive in a changing world, it seems unlikely that one individual herb gardener can do much for the daunting task.

In fact, in The Forgotten Pollinator, Stephen L. Buchmann states fatalistically, "Alone, a small garden for pollinators can’t conserve threatened or endangered pollinators or plants, but it can remind people of the primacy of the precious keystone relationships between them.”

But if we imagine a series of small habitats, a corridor of interconnecting “patches” of pollinator-friendly properties, eventually the fragmentation might lessen.

Rhonda Fleming Hayes has been gardening in some form or fashion since she was a child ot her grandmother's knee. A native Californian, she has lived in the southern and Midwestern United States and England. She is a member at large ofHSA and a Hennepin County Master Gardener in Minnesota, her most recent home. She now writes and gardens between a pond and a marsh

by Gray's Bay on Lake Minnetonka.

by Anna Reich any of us begin our a comforting cup of hd or coffee. While we sip it' may mentally plan our schedule, read a book, watch the morning news or the birds at the feeder by the window. But while each person and each culture puts their own stamp on how and when they enjoy coffee or tea, it is a ritual shared by millions of people that dates back thousands of years.

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The coffee plant, Coffea arabica, is a large shrub or small tree, sometimes growing up to twenty feet tall. The leaves are four inches long, coarsely toothed and sharply veined. They are a glossy dark green. Clusters of sweetly scented white flowers grow in axillary clusters along the branches, giving way to first green, then red berries, which are often called “cherries." The oblong cherries are a little less than one-half inch in diameter, and each contains two coffee “beans,” which are actually the seeds. Unlike many plants, which usually produce flowers and fruit in progressive stages, the coffee plant may have both flowers and ripe fruit on the plant at the same time.

Coffees history with humans begins more than a thousand years ago in Ethiopia, where the ancient Abyssinians harvested the fruits of the wild coffee trees that grew abundantly in the forests. They used it initially as a food, and then as a highly prized stimulant. The cherries were picked from the trees,

ed with other herbs . - , fat and rolled into small . The Abyssinians made . ent beverages frornThe-' menting the ripe cherries e-like drink’ drying the rsing them in water; and crushing _ d seeds before immersing then^mwater.

ground. and ani edible b three di cherries:

The Kingdom of Kaffa in Ethiopia' ' is reputed to be the origin of both the coffee plant and the beverage; however, the origin of the use and effect of coffee is shrouded in legend. There is a story, for example, of a young Ethiopian herdsman named Kaldi who observed his animals leaping about wildly after eating the leaves and fruit of the coffee bush. In another account, a Yemenite Sufi mystic named Shaikh ash-Shadhili, who was traveling in Ethiopia, noticed the goats’ unusual vitality, and upon trying the cherries, experienced the same effect.

In eleventh bentury, Arabs trading on the east coast of Africa observed the native people chewing small balls such as those described previously.

Curious about this substance, they purchased some and after chewing the balls found they had amazing effects, not only keeping them awake, but also alert when they were on watch. They named the mi«^||tah

pleasurable sti t. They perfected coffee as the’beverage we know today by boiling the\water in which it was immersed. In^1200 Arabs experimented further, making a decoction from the dried hulls of the beans. Later, they roasted the dried hulls over a charcoal fire.

Until 1090 Arabia monopolized and supplied most of the worlds coffee.

An effort was made to keep control of the world market by imposing strict rules and regulations, such as forbidding removal of the seeds from the plantations and banning visitors from the coffee plantations.

Only beans that had been boiled or partially roasted (and therefore unable to germinate) were allowed to be exported. Despite these attempts to control the lucrative industry, the seeds found their way to other parts of the world. Muslim pilgrims spread the beans all over the Muslim world, including India. Traders stole plants, which were then cultivated in Java, giving rise to Java coffee.

Following Arabia as the first supplier of coffee were the West Indian colonies of Spain and France, namely, Jamaica, Haiti, Guadeloupe, Puerto .Rico, and Cuba. By 1830 the Dutch East Indies colonies ofjava and Sumatra overtook the West Indies in trade, while the English controlled

qahwah, which translates to Keeping • India and Ceylon. Brazil also became a leading producer of coffee by the awake.” Aware of the value of this early 1800s. Coffee became popular find, they very quigkly traced the in Europe but until supply could source of the small seed to Ethiopiay keep up with demand, it was so and discovered it was known as expensive that only the wealthy could coffea arabica. Arabs cultivated enjoy it. it both as a medicine and a very 9

THE HERBARIST

Issue76.2010

The indigenous people of the European colonies were often forced into slavery to clear fields, plant and prune the coffee plants, and harvest the beans.

Africans were also forcibly taken from their homelands in great numbers and forced to work on the coffee plantations. By the early 1830s, more than a million African slaves were working on plantations in Brazil alone. Once coffee prices came down, its use swept through Europe, and the Americas.

birth

became fashionable and nineteenth coinciding with the and the ’ Coffee became drink of democracy.

were boiled together and served as a demitasse. Venice saw its first coffee shop in 1729, when Hie Florian was established at Piazza San Marco. It remains the oldest surviving coffee shop in the world today. In 1773, following the Boston Tea Party, drinking tea became unpatriotic for Americans; as a consequence, America became a nation of coffee drinkers.

While coffee had become a widely popular drink, the method for roasting the beans remained the same. Coffee beans were purchased raw and roasted by hand at home, usually in a frying pan on a stove.

Soldiers and outdoorsmen roasted the beans over campfires and ground them by hand in small coffee mills before brewing. Methods of filtering out the grounds were crude at best, and ranged from brewing the beans in cloth bags (which still managed to leak grounds) to putting eggshells and eel skins in the cup to settle the grounds to the bottom. Fortunately,

houses were known universities,” because for of a one-cent cup of coffee, could learn from the enlightened conversation around you. The first French cafe, the Cafe Procope, which was established in 1689 opposite the Comedie Frangaise, was the haunt ofphilosophers, writers, and political activists. Powdered coffee, cinnamon, cloves, amber, and sugar

in 1908, an enterprising German housewife named Melitta Bentz came up with the idea for a coffee filter made from blotting paper. The Melitta Company that she formed in

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1912 still makes filters, coffee makers and coffee products today.

In the mid-nineteenth century, Hemileia vastatrix, a fungal disease popularly called coffee leaf rust, struck Asia, wiping out all coffee growing in India, Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, and Malaya. This paved the way for Brazil to emerge as a dominant coffee producer, and it remains the number one producer of Cojfea arabica today. Brazil’s rich volcanic soil and climate provide perfect conditions for growing coffee.

Ironically, all was not lost for Asia. As the coffee trees were cut down, limbs were removed and sent to London where they were turned into coffee table legs!

The expansion of coffee drinking in the twentieth century has been remarkable. The decaffeinization process is a highly significant recent advancement, as are certified organic farming and labeling practices, but it must be noted that coffee was organically grown by default from the beginning.

The status of coffee in American culture skyrocketed during the late twentieth century. In 1985, the

from this center of origin.

As early as 2700 B.C.E., tribesmen made a brew by boiling the gre£n leaves of the wild trees in ancieag^ kettles over a fire. *

Starbucks chain of coffee shops was founded, rising to a dominant retail position in an industry that peaked at $12 billion in sales. There are many other coffee shop chains, for example, Peet’s (which inspired the founding of Starbucks), Caribou, and Dunkin Donuts.

Today almost 30 percent of this industry relates to “specialty coffees," bought and sold directly by entrepreneurs who reward the growers with higher prices and profits. They have assisted co-ops of subsistence growers, who have never used chemicals in their growing practices, to be organically certified and market their coffee directly to specialty roasters and consumers.

These actions help raise the economies not only of growers, but also of their impoverished countries.

Two new occupations have evolved in the coffee industry: “cupper” and “barista.” Cuppers grade and taste coffees. A barista is one who has acquired expertise in the preparation of espresso-based coffee drinks,

and is sometimes expected to have a working knowledge of different blends of gourmet coffees.

Tea Throughout its 5,000 years of history, tea has been used as food, medicine and beverage. Made from the leaves of the tea plant, Camellia sinensis (one of the first plants on earth to be cultivated by humans), today it is the second most frequently consumed beverage in the world—second only to water.

Many credit the Chines^ emperor Shen Nung, “Tire Divine Cultivator,” with the discovery of tea.* According to legend, he was resting under a tea tree when some leaves fell into his cup of hot water. He liked the flavor and from then on ensured that tea trees were cultivated in China. In 2737 B.C.E. he is said to have written, “Tea grows in the winter in the valley, by the streams of Ichow, gathered [on the] third day of the third month and then dried.” He further asserted that, “It quenches thirst. It lessens the desire for sleep. It gladdens and cheers the heart.” (1)

Those who lived among the tea plants and nurtured their growth were known as “cloud wanderers” because of the mountain heights where they lived. These mountain

The Chinese first learned the use of tea from observing aboriginal tribesmen living in the hills southwest of the Chinese border, now Southeast Asia (specifically around the intersection of latitude 29° north and longitude 98° east, which is the confluence of the lands of northeast India, north Burma, southwest China and Tibet.) The plant was introduced to more than 52 countries

Right: A worker weighs a bag of freshly harvested tea leaves.

Photo: USDA APHIS PPQ Archive, USDA APHIS PPQ Bugwood.org 11

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Issue "6 2010

mystics and herbalists initially used Camellia sinensis and other herbs for medicinal purposes and were responsible for starting tea cultivation. Tea helped them to stay awake to meditate and offered refreshment. Monastic mountain dwellers (Buddhists, Taoists and spiritual recluses) viewed everything as endowed with a spiritual nature.

Some called this the “Tao” or the “Way.” On their return from the mountaintops to civilization, they spread praises of “Tao” and its association with tea. This association of Tao with tea was referred to as the "Tao Te Cha” (the way of Tea), “Cha Tao” or "Tao of Tea.”

From Leaf To Cup

Camellia sinensis (China tea) is a tree that grows up to 30 feet tall if left unpruned. Commercially cultivated plants are pruned into shrubs about six feet tall, and the harvesting of the leaves keeps them closely clipped.

Camellia sinensis var. assamica (India tea) is the other main type of

Harvested tea leaves are first dried, or "withered" by either laying them on racks to air dry or have hot air blown over them. The leaves are then crushed, or "rolled" by machine and allowed to ferment on flat trays—this time in a humid environment. During the fermentation process, the sap in the leaves mixes with the air, a process called oxidation. The amount of time the leaves are oxidized determines the type of tea that will be produced.

When fermentation is complete (two to four hours depending on the type), the leaves are dried by blowing hot air over them, which stops the process.

Sometimes the leaves are cooked in a hot pan before or after some of these steps.

commercially grown tea. It has larger leaves than C. sinensis, and grows taller—up to 60 feet. The leaves of both are a glossy dark green, and the plant produces small, one to twoinch diameter fragrant white flowers.

Tea has been used as a food source since antiquity. For example, in Siam (Thailand) the leaves were eaten

with dried fish, garlic, salt and oil.

Koreans sucked raw eggs and drank tea. The Burmese were famous for their pickled tea salad. In Kashmir tea was served with red potash, anise seed, and salt. Tibetans combined tea, barley, and salt with goats’ milk.

In India they ate tea leaves with oil and garlic.

Around 350 C.E., Chinas wild trees were almost wiped out by overharvesting as the farmers tried to keep up with the demand for tea.

In order to do so, they cultivated the THE H ERBA RIST

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Tea Varieties There are several main types of tea. They all come from Camellia sinensis, but differ in how they are processed.

Black Tea - The leaves are withered for many hours, then heavily rolled for nearly an hour, before they are oxidized for up to four hours. It contains more caffeine than other types. It can have a smoky, flowery, woody taste or have chocolate overtones.

Oolong Tea - After a short, 20-minute withering time, leaf edges are bruised and allowed to oxidize for 2-3 hours before pan-firing and then rolling. It has a light amber color and fruity aroma.

Japanese Green Tea - the tea leaves are not withered, but steamed, rolled and dried. The flavor is more grassy and color is greenish. No oxidation takes place.

Chinese Green Tea - the leaves are withered for 20 minutes, pan-fired, rolled and dried. No oxidation takes place. It is yellowish in color and has a flowery, toasty flavor.

White Tea - It is not oxidized or rolled, and only new, unopened buds are used. They are withered for 2-3 days, then dried. The flavor is light and sweet.

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Herbal Teas While this article has focused on tea from Camellia sinensis, many different herbs and fruits have been used in tea preparations.

These include commonly used herbs, such as:

Sage (Salvia officinalis). The Chinese regarded sage tea so highly that at one time they traded with the Dutch at triple the rate of their premier tea.

Bee Balm (Monarda didyma), sometimes referred to as Oswego tea after the native Americans who also drank it.

Worker's-eye view: Among the leaves at a tea plantation

Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla, Chamaemelum nobile)

tea plants, quite primitively, in the Szechuan Hills. As tea became more popular, growth expanded to the Yangtze Valley.

tea. By 1775 a persons patriotism was measured by how much he or she enjoyed herbal teas, sometimes referred to as "liberty tea.”

China developed a banking system using tea as currency before the western world was civilized. Bricks of tea (steamed leaves made into a paste with plum juice and/or animal dung, then molded and baked) were used as payment to aboriginal tribesmen, farmers and herdsmen. In 780 C.E., the Chinese government imposed a tea tax. China monopolized tea growing until the nineteenth century.

It often took the slow ships of the East Lidia Company nearly a year to carry tea from China to London.

After the American Revolution ended, the American clipper ships, which were much faster and lighter, began to be used because they could go from New York to China and back in just eight months. Hie first three American millionaires, T. H. Perkins of Boston, Stephen Girard of Philadelphia and Jacob Astor of New York, all made their fortunes from the tea trade.

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)

Eighty-five percent of the tea drunk in the United States is iced tea—more than two billion cups per year. The first iced tea was served in 1904 at the St. Louis Worlds Fair.

Richard Blechynden, a tea plantation owner, originally planned to give free samples of hot tea to the Fair visitors; but when a heat wave hit the LfiUe, no one was interested in hot tea.

■fnechynden quickly improvised by < ice cubes into the brew; it

was a very successful and lucrative idea. While he was probably not the first person to drop an ice cube in a cup of tea, he does seem to have been the first to do it in such a large and public way.

Peter Stuyvesant brought the first teas to the American colonies in 1650. Soon the high taxes the British imposed on it became a point of contention as tensions between the colonists and the king increased. On December 17, 1773, ships carrying a heavily taxed tea cargo were not allowed to unload at Boston Harbor.

During the night of “The Boston Tea Party,” disgruntled colonists heaved 342 tea chests intone harbor. this, drinkingACanyas cJnsiderea ' * unpatriotj^®Verbal teas-Vegan to be usedfflp replacement for Chinese

Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis) Peppermint (Mentha ^piperita) Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

13

Rarer teas included those made from: Labrador Tea (Rhododendron groenlandicum)

Dried raspberry leaves (Rubus idaeus), called Hypernian tea.

Sweet Goldenrod (Solidago odora)

Corn silk (Zea mays) New Jersey Tea (Ceanothus americonus), which was considered the best substitute for Chinese tea.

In 1908, Thomas Sullivan of New York, a tea merchant, wrapped tea samples in small silk bags, which he delivered to restaurants around New York. When he called on them

THE HERBARIST

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The clipped green rows of tea plants carpet the hills for miles at a tea plantation.

Photo by Manfred Mielke USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org

later, he was amazed to find that they were brewing the tea in the bags— another successful and lucrative idea discovered by accident.

Elaborate ceremonies have often accompanied the serving and drinking of tea. In ancient China, "tea masters” served tea in tea rooms and were judged on the quality of the tea they brewed. In Japan, a very precise tea ceremony was developed, often nearly four hours long. Special tools are used and every action is carefully planned. The tea ceremony represents harmony, respect, purity and tranquility—important values in the Japanese culture.

After the Dutch began shipping tea to Europe in the early 1600s, it became a very popular drink among the wealthy—the only ones who could afford it. Catherine of THE HERBARIST ■<*/• Issue 76 2010

Braganza, a Portuguese princess who married King Charles II of England, is credited with making tea popular in that country, which is now the greatest consumer of tea in the world.

cups, often from China. In the mid 1800s, beautiful silver tea sets were available. The tea itself was stored in airtight wood, china or silver tea caddies.

In the early 1800s, Hie Duchess In 1864 the first tea shop opened in of Bedford, Anna Maria Stanhope, England. Patrons could shop, but found it hard to wait between the also sit down and enjoy a cup of noon meal and the evening dinner. tea and refreshments. In America, She first had her servants sneak tearooms, which served not only tea food to her in her rooms, but finally gbut also lunch and dinner, opened decided to invite friends to share _ in department stores and hotels. a pot of tea and small cakes and gjl They xtf’ere designed to be places for sandwiches with her. They so love® . light-hearted socializing. Tea rooms the idea that it quickly jjecame wenyjsually decorated whimsically popular with other hostesses and. the] and aere often run by women. Their “English tea” was born, first among popularity was highest in the 1920s, during Prohibition. the upper classes, and, as tea became more affordable, among all classes.

The British tradition of morning and afternoon tea has spread around the As in Japan, the English developed world, ancient Chinese and Japanese rules about the proper way to serve traditional tea ceremonies are still tea. It was usually served in porcelain commonly practiced, and modern teapots and poured into porcelain 14

tea shops have sprung up across America offering these services and tea tastings. Many five-star hotels in America serve afternoon tea in the traditional English style.

Davids, Kenneth. Coffee: A Guide to Buying, Brewing, and Enjoying. 5th ed. Santa Ana, CA: Griffin, 2001.

Our enjoyment of these two beverages has inspired many variations in tea and coffee services, flatware, porcelain, and furniture over the centuries.

A great variety of coffee urns and tea kettles has been designed for brewing the beverages, along with teapots for serving and sealed jars for storing these precious commodities.

Silver services are proudly displayed on matching silver trays.

Round-topped tables were manufactured in mahogany, rosewood or walnut especially for use during the consumption of these beverages.

These accoutrements were the hallmark of gracious living.

Ellis, Hattie. Tea: Discovering, Exploring, Enjoying, London; New York: Ryland Peters & Small, 2002.

Since the nineteenth century, almost every nation has enjoyed the mystique, romance, and refreshing sensation that a hot cup of tea or coffee can provide.

Reference List 1. Schapira, Joel, Karl Schapira, and David Schapira. 1996. The book ofcoffee and tea.

2d ed. New York: St. Martin's.

Bibliography Buchanan, Rita. “Real Tea.” The Herb Companion, December 1991/January 1992.

Dattner, Christine. The History of Tea. Translated by David Radzinowicz. Paris: Flammarion, 2007.

Ellis, Hattie. Coffee: Discovering, Exploring, Enjoying. New York: Ryland Peters & Small, 2002.

Tea Association of the U.S.A. "Tea Fact Sheet.” http://www.teausa.com/general/501g.cfin (accessed March 4, 2009).

Weissman, Michael. God in a Cup: The Obsessive Questfor the Perfect Coffee. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2008.

Whitmann, Christine. “Early American Tea Herbs.” The Herb Companion, December 1991/ January 1992.

Flaster, Trish. “Tea by the Ton." The Herb Companion, December 1991/ January 1992.

Gleason, Carrie. The Biography of Tea. Ontario: Crabtree Publishing, 2007.

Heiss, Mary Lou. The Story of Tea: A Cultural History and Drinking Guide.

Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 2007.

Hoheneggcr, Beatrice.

Liquid jade: The Story of Teafrom East to West.

New York: St. MartinsPress, 2006.

Langsner, Louise. “Herbs for a Tea Garden." The Herb Companion, December 1991/ January 1992.

Lumsden, Sharon Lappin. ''Preserving Herbs for Tea." The Herb Companion, December 1991/January 1992.

Meares, Portia. "Tea for Health." The Herb Companion, December 1991/January 1992.

McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking. New York: Scribner, 2004.

Morganelli, Adrianna. The Biography of Coffee.

Ontario: Crabtree Publishing, 2007.

Anna M. Reich was born and educated in Sydney, Australia, and is a member of the Potomac Unit of The Herb Society of America. She trained os a chef and was employed for 34 years with a prominent family in Australia, becoming an expert in culinary herbs. In 1995 she married Dr. Warren T. Reich of Washington, D.C. She writes a monthly column for the "Potomac Potpourri" highlighting the stories of members who have been instrumental in establishing the unit.

Ober, Richard, ed. The National Herb Garden Guidebook. Springfield, VA: Potomac Unit, The Herb Society of America, 1996.

Pcndergrast, Mark. Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How it Transformed Our World. New York: Basic Books, 1999. London: National Trust, 2001.

Smith, Andrew, ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Twining, Sam. Aly Cup of Tea. London: James & James, 2002.

Dattner, Christine. The Taste of Tea. Translated

by David Radzinowicz. Paris: Flammarion, 2007.

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THE HERBARIST ■«/. Issue 76 2010

.Jde'ibs ale one ofnatu’ie s many gifts to man. ^Thloughout liistoly, this gift has continually blessed man with its valied virtues, not the least ofwhich is its beauty.

- JJenly /Beston

Three Travelers

I' H I: HER BA RI ST •

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16

by Katherine Yvinskas

C

oltsfoot, Comfrey and Mullein... how did these three plants arrive in my garden?

Plants often find a home in your garden without your knowledge. The yellow flowers of coltsfoot appeared in my garden as a first announcement of spring along with the yellow blossoms of Chinese witchhazel and the delicate white flowers of snowdrops. Those yellow flowers are a joy to behold and seem like a greeting to all the other plants just stirring from their winter s sleep.

As for comfrey, another spring­ blooming plant, a friend kindly gave me a cutting. I wanted to grow it because of its beautiful blue flowers and the way they hang on their pendulous stem. Through the years I have observed how this plant has been a first stop for hungry winged insects, especially the bees, providing nourishment after a long winter.

Both coltsfoot and comfrey form their own colonies and fit perfectly where I have planted them. Wildlife, particularly deer, sometimes nibble at them, which is fine with me. My approach to gardening is about partnering with nature, to arrange your own experiments to see how certain plants work together.

Mullein, my favorite among the three, found its own way to my garden and has reseeded itself in many areas through the years. I am in awe of the mullein’s torch-like vertical energy, guarding my garden with its majestic spires.

I’ve called them "The Three Travelers” in honor of their centuries-old

reputation as journeymen having healing abilities that affect the lungs, bones, ears, digestive system, and support wound healing. Imagine seeing comfrey, mullein and coltsfoot standing together, taking on various ailments that come their way. A mighty trio! And they can grow in your own garden, as they do in my home herbal apothecary.

Coltsfoot, Tussilago farfara, Asteraceae family (Coughwort, Horsehoof, Foal’s Foot, Bullsfoot, British Tobacco, Butterbur) A cousin to the dandelion, another spring bloomer, and often mistaken for it, coltsfoot is a perennial herb that gr ows in two stages. Tire emergence of the flowers is tire first stage and begins in very early spring. It often coincides with the joyful song of spring peepers.

Tire plant first sends up fleshy scapes, which are brown, leafless flower stalks that develop before the leaves emerge.

A yellow blossom is the crowning point of this stalk. There are no leaves present, and this is an easy way to recognize a patch of blossoming coltsfoot compared with a patch of dandelion. Only after the flowers have withered to white puffs do the leaves grow into their broad hoof-shapes. A whitish coating called bloom dusts the leaves. This habit of growth earned coltsfoot its early Latin name, Filins antepatrem, which means “the son before the father,” a common way of describing the growth of this plant during the Middle Ages (2).

Coltsfoot is considered an indicator plant, which is a plant that indicates a particular type of soil. In the case of coltsfoot it is a mixture of clay and 17

The yellow flower of coltsfoot is one of the first signs of spring.

Photo by Jorge Hempel, Wikimedia Commons

They Really Travel!

Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara) and mullein (Verbascum thapsus) are on the Noxious Weed List of several states: T farfara in Alabama, Connecticut and Massachusetts, and V. thapsus in Colorado and Hawaii. The Herb Society of America does not recommend planting these plants if you are a resident of one of these states.

Please note that all three plants mentioned here can become invasive in your garden. However, since they may already be abundant in your yard, it is worth learning about them and appreciating their history, beauty and unique characteristics.

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2010

Coltsfoot's flower and seedhead (above) strongly resemble those of dandelion (Taraxacum vulgare) but are smaller.

Photo by Robin Siktberg loam, with a pH in the alkaline range (2). Coltsfoot enjoys full sun and damp areas. It is easily propagated so give it plenty of room to roam.

Coltsfoots underground stolons spread rapidly, a habit that makes it an excellent groundcover. However, ifyou have a small garden, you may want to think twice about planting it as it can spread quite widely. It is this tendency that has earned coltsfoot the title of noxious weed in three states: Alabama, Connecticut and Massachusetts. Since I practice organic methods on my property, I have transplanted coltsfoot to places that are open to the wide variety ofwildlife in our semi-rural area. By doing this, I am hoping to curb some more invasive plants such as garlic mustard orJapanese stilt grass. Coltsfoot is a tough competitor, commanding its own space. Once established it doesn’t appear to be very susceptible to pest or disease problems.

A native of Europe and Asia, coltsfoot is easily harvested for both its blossoms and its leaves, which have been used in medicines. It attained an early reputation in medicinal practice and was considered a highly valued herb. Its genus name, Tussilago, means “cough dispeller” (4). Herbalists as far back THE HERBARiST

Issue 76 2010

as Pliny and Dioscorides in the first century C.E. have regarded coltsfoot as the best herb for lung complaints.

In fact many of the great physicians of antiquity recommended inhaling the smoke of coltsfoot to treat pulmonary infections, a practice that was followed by the English and the Swedes (5).

Preparations of coltsfoot were recommended in the British Pharmacopoeia for coughs, asthma and bronchitis, from its earliest publication in 1864, which drew upon four centuries of earlier regulation of medicinal products dating back to the riegn of King Henry VIII. Odd as it may seem, people used to smoke coltsfoot to obtain its curative properties. In fact it was the primary ingredient in British herb tobacco, which also contained a mixture of buckbean, eyebright, betony, rosemary, thyme, lavender and chamomile flowers (4). Imagine rolling your own medicinal cigarettes!

Comfrey, Symphytum officinale, Boraginaceae family (Knitbone, Knitback, Bruisewort, Consound, Gumplant, Slippery Root, Ass Ear)

This showy member of the borage family has been considered for centuries 18

Comfrey is easily recognizable by its clusters of bell-shaped flowers (above center) and thick roughlytextured leaves (above).

Photo (above) by Katherine Yvinskas (right) by John Cardina, The Ohio State University, Bugwood.org by herbalists to have powerful healing abilities for a wide variety of ailments.

It is a plant that is easily cultivated in the garden and is also high in calcium, potassium, phosphorus and other trace minerals. The leaves are rich in vitamins A and C (4) and the dried leaves serve as an excellent plant food or compost for tlie garden.

Comfrey has been used medicinally for centuries. Its leaves were applied externally as a poultice for swellings, bruises and broken bones. The name comfrey is thought to be a corruption of the Latin confervere, “to heal.” Tlie generic name, Symphytum, is derived from the Greek symphyto, meaning “to

unite.”

However, because comfrey contains high levels of toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids, it is not recommended for internal use. In fact, in 2010 The Review ofNatural Products stated that neither internal nor extensive topical use of comfrey is recommended because of numerous reports of liver toxicity.

However, comfrey leaves provide excellent nourishment to other plants.

Add them to the compost pile or dry them and use them as a side dressing to your other plants. Or, brew a decoction for watering your plants.

A lovely addition to the garden, comfrey grows to about two to three feet in height and has a spread of one to two feet or more if you let it. This plant is a hardy perennial and prefers a rich, moist soil with either full sun or partial shade. It has no major pests or diseases. Once you plant comfrey in a spot, it will persist there forever. It can be invasive, so it is wise to select a long­ term location (6). S. officinale is a native ofAsia and Europe.

Mullein, Verbascum thapsus, Verbascum olynipicum, Scrophulariaceae family

to Europe and Asia, while V. olynipicuni is a native ofTurkey.

Both are hardy biennials and are exceedingly abundant in North America as naturalized weeds.

However, even with its tendency to spread, mullein is welcome in my garden.

Although V. olynipicuni has made its home in my garden, the area where I live is filled with mulleins (V. thapsus) growing all over.

V. thapsus is a biennial plant that reaches three to six feet tall when in flower. Its small yellow flowers are densely grouped on the stem, which grows arrow straight from a large rosette of velvety leaves. Both V. thapsus and V. olynipicuni thrive in dry, sandy or gravelly soils, although they can grow in a variety of habitats such as my garden, meadows, along roadsides, forest clearings and pastures. Both also spread prolifically with many tiny The towering flower spikes of mullein dominate a corner of the garden at HSA Headquarters. seeds that fly in the wind.

Photo by Robin Siktberg

Mullein can grow in a crack in the pavement and can withstand long periods of drought. It often grows in uncultivated, rocky wasteland, such as vacant lots, with other plants like thistles and mugwort. No pests or diseases seem to hamper this plant. I am glad to have it growing in various places in my garden but it chooses the place it wants to grow without any help from me.

V. olympicum is a remarkable perennial that originates in Turkey’s Bithynian Mountains. Large, felted, wavy-edged leaves form a huge, silvery basal rosette that lasts through the winter. In summer, woolly "candles” branch out at the base and soar skyward with cheerful clusters of bright yellow flowers. It is outstanding as a feature plant in a shrubby Mediterranean border. It blooms from mid-summer into early fall and reaches a height of six to eight feet with a twoto three-foot spread. It is a beauty in the garden as an accent plant although you may find several babies growing next season, all in places you didn’t expect.

That’s the magic of mullein!

Both species of mullein mentioned here can be found all over Europe, Asia and North America. V thapsus is native

There are other mulleins commercially available from nurseries and seed catalogs that are not mentioned here.

(Torches, Mullein Dock, Our Lady’s Flannel, Velvet Dock, Blanket Herb, Clown’s Lungwort, Aarons Rod, Velvet Plant, Candlewick Plant, Jacob’s Staff

19

Each is attractive in its own way though the culture is the same.

Mullein’s large velvety leaves were used as substitute toilet paper in the wild, placed in shoes to cover holes in the sole or as a cushion for tired feet.

The Romans referred to mullein as candellaria and used it to make candles for night expeditions by dipping them in pitch. Roman women used the flowers to lighten their hair (5).

During the Middle Ages, stems were dipped in suet or tallow and made into long-lasting torches. It was often thought that witches used mullein to makes torches for their ceremonies. The superstitious carried a mullein leafwith them to ward off demons, and monks grew it around their monasteries for protection (2). Throughout Europe,

How to Make Mullein Tea Add 1 tbsp, of dried mullein leaves to the steeping ball. (Flowers can also be used). Place in a coffee cup.

Pour boiling water into the cup and through the ball to release the properties of the mullein. Allow to steep for 10 minutes

References 1.

Brooke, Elisabeth. 1999. A women’s book of herbs. London: Womens Press Ltd.

2.

Fischer-Rizzi, Susanne. 1996. Medicine of the earth. Portland, OR: Rudra Press.

3.

Grieve, Maude Mrs. 1981. modern herbal.

New York: Dover Publications, Inc.

4.

Kowalchik, Claire and William H. Hylton, ed. 1974. The Rodale herb book. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press.

5.

Schneider, Anny. 2002. Wild medicinal plants. Toronto, Canada: Stackpole Books.

6.

Sturdivant, Lee and Tim Blakley. 1999.

Medicinal herbs in the garden,field and marketplace. Friday Harbor, Washington: Sanjuan Naturals.

Remove steeping ball and drink.

Mullein leaves and flowers have FDA GRAS (Generally Regarded As Safe) status. The hairs may irritate the skin so you may wish to make tea from the flowers (3). The seeds are not safe for use in tea.

Bremness, Lesley, Herbs. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 1994.

Up Close: the individual flowers of mullein.

Photo by Robin Siktberg mullein was considered a benevolent, magical spirit, a protector that could help in times of distress and danger.

Mullein takes a prominent place in the ancient practice of Herb Blessing, a custom still practiced in rural areas ofsouthern Germany. The period between August 15th (in Christian faiths associated with Mary’s ascension into heaven) and September 8th (the birth ofMary) was referred to as the “30 days of Women” and was considered an auspicious time for gathering an herbal bouquet. This bouquet of ritual herbs occupied a special place in the house. The herbs were chosen by ritual numbers that can be traced to ancient Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations. The nine plants frequently collected were mullein, in the lead, along with St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum), centaury (Centaurium erythraea), yarrow (Achillea millefolium), German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), valerian (Valeriana officinalis), peppermint (Mentha ^piperita), and arnica (Arnica montana). All were regarded as important medicinal herbs to have in a home apothecary. People

expressed their gratitude for these healing plants, asking the blessing of the goddess under whose protection the herbs and the household were placed.

Christian lore placed mullein (or heaven’s blaze) under Mary’s protection and there is an old saying, “Our Dear Lady travels the land, carrying heaven’s blaze in her hand.” (2) Mulleins flower buds open from midsummer to mid-autumn. The parts used are the leaves, flowers and root. The flowers were used to flavor liqueurs, and added to herbal tobacco to treat coughs. Hildegard of Bingen, a twelfth century writer and visionary, recommended a decoction of mullein flowers as a treatment for hoarseness.

The velvety leaves have been used as emergency bandages and the stalks were used as tinder for fires.

Mullein is thought to rule the brow chakra, (a Sanskrit word denoting a point where mind and body meet) connected with psychic and spiritual vision (1). When you feel that you are in need of a “lift,” brew a pot of mullein tea, sip slowly and affirm your divinity and your sacredness. Having these three herbs in my garden is an added herbal blessing.

THEHERBARIST

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Bibliography Bown, Deni, Encyclopedia ofHerbs and Their Uses.

New York: Dorling Kindersley, 1995.

20

Coon, Nelson. Using Plantsfor Healing. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 1979.

Duke, James, A. Ph.D. Herb a Day. Virginia Beach, VA: Eco-images, 2007.

Gibbons, Euell. Stalking the Wild Asparagus. New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1971

Mars, Brigitte. Natural First Aid. Pownal, VT: Storey Books, 1999.

Tierra, Lesley. Healing with the Herbs ofLife Berkeley, CA: Crossing Press, 2003.

Katherine Yvinskas is a member at large of The Herb Society ofAmerica.

She is an artist, Master Gardener and herbalist living in New Jersey. She has created many original works inspired by plants and nature. Katherine received her MFA in 1981 from Northern Illinois University and is a member of the American Society of Botanical Artists. Her work has been widely exhibited and published.

H<RBS IN <R«K MYTHOLOGY

By Marie G. Fowler erbs figure prominently in Greek and Roman mythology.

They symbolized life, death, good fortune or bad omens, aided lovers and provided healing. The origins of many plants were explained in the context of mythological stories.

Sometimes a person is turned into a plant by a god in order to save them or punish them; sometimes the plant springs up from bodily fluid like blood or tears. Certain plants were often strongly associated with a particular god or goddess and would often be used in that god's festival or temple. It is fascinating to read these stories and know that thousands of years ago people were looking at the same plants we know today. There are dozens of plants in the Greek myths—the stories that follow feature herbs.

H

Violets According to mythology, people of that long ago time were frequently

transmogrified, or turned into some other life form, usually a plant. To be changed into a plant was certainly better than the fate of poor Io, who was loved by Zeus, the ruler of Mt Olympus. Io was an exceptionally beautiful young woman, so it is not surprising that she attracted the attention of Zeus.

Unlike so many of the ladies loved by the gods, Io returned Zeus’s love and they had an affair even though he was already married to Hera. Hera was a very suspicious and jealous goddess and there are many stories of the punishment she meted out to those with whom her husband dallied. It made no difference whether they were willing or unwilling; Hera never forgot an injury.

In order to hide one of his meetings with Io, Zeus shrouded the earth with a dark cloud. Instead of allaying his wife's suspicions, this only aroused them; Hera descended to earth and dispersed

the clouds. And, there was Zeus... with his arm around a beautiful white heifer. Hera was not deceived. With a

honeyed voice she asked if Zeus would make her a present of the heifer. Zeus was in no position to refuse (1).

Zeus could not restore lo’s form, but when she cried that she had only coarse pasture grasses to eat, Zeus created white violets for

her (2).

Even then, Hera still had her revenge, since it is well known that cattle that forage on too many spring violets will have bad cases of diarrhea.

Giant Fennel In the beginning, Prometheus took earth and water and kneaded it into clay. He used that clay to shape a man.

When he was done, he ascended into the heavens and lit his torch from the fiery chariot of the sun, so he could bring fire to his creation. This so angered the gods they took away the fire (1). Prometheus knew that man would need fire to survive, so he again ascended into the heavens.

This time he took with him the giant fennel, so he could conceal the fire in its hollow stem and thus could bring fire to his creation. For this act of defiance, Prometheus was horribly punished, but that is another story for another time.

Giant fennel (Ferula communis) blooming in the hills in Corsica.

Photos: Tigrente, Wikimedia It was Aphrodite and her son, Cupid, who are credited with the creation of the blue violet. When Aphrodite and her handmaidens got into an argument about who was the most beautiful, Aphrodite asked Cupid to be the judge and settle the quarrel. It was in Cupids nature to create mischief, so he picked one of the handmaidens over his mother. This made Aphrodite very angry, so she beat the unfortunate ladies until they turned blue and then she transformed them into violets, still beautiful, but no longer any competition. Another, more poetic myth, said the violets sprang up from tire ground where Orpheus laid his lute

when he stretched out to sleep.

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The giant fennel is not our garden fennel. It is Ferula communis, which was used by ancient Greeks to carry fire embers from village to village.

The hollow stem of this plant contains a pith that is flammable—once lit it will burn for a long time (4).

Pot Marigold Of all of the gods, Apollo .was considered to be the best looking. As the sun god, he was always portrayed as having light radiating from his body. Women could not help falling in love with him and this included the handmaidens ofhis sister, Diana.

Their constant bickering over which of them he found most attractive was so annoying that Diana finally decided to put a stop to it. She turned 22

the quarreling maidens into yellow marigolds so they could do nothing but gaze at their beloved as he drove his chariot across the sky each day.

If you watch the marigolds in your own garden, you will see that their heads still follow the passage of the sun each day. Of course the marigolds of this story are not the French marigolds that we grow as bedding plants, but Calendula officinalis.

Bay By far tire most familiar story about Apollo is that of his pursuit of the nymph, Daphne. Apollo made the mistake of offending Cupid over some trivial matter. Cupid could be counted on to play a practical joke to avenge any offense and so he did. He pulled an arrow from his quiver, choosing one that would cause Apollo to fall helplessly in love with die very next maiden he saw... and that was Daphne.

To complete the joke, the arrow Cupid chose to shoot into Daphne was one that caused her to loadi everything about Apollo. When Apollo declared his love for Daphne, she replied diat she did not love him and fled. Of course, as a mortal, she could not hope to outrun a god, so she called on her modier, Gaia, for help. Apollo caught up with Daphne at die edge of the river, but when he put his arms around her, he found himselfhugging the rough bark of a tree. Apollo mourned his lost love and declared he would never forget her. He made her tree, which we call the bay laurel, Laurus nobilis, into his emblem (1).

Wreaths of bay leaves were given to ..winners ofApollo’s adiletic contests and eventually were awarded to any who demonstrated courage ’ or achievement of any sort, but particularly for scholastic endeavor.

Wenolonger give laurel wreadies to our graduates, but we still honor the custom in the form of the

baccalaureate, a time when scholastic achievements are recognized.

There is a great deal of folklore about die bay tree. It was known as a plant of protection, so it was often planted by die door to protect the house and all its inhabitants from witches, lightning and even poisoning. The Roman emperor, Tiberius, is said to have hidden under his bed clutching branches of bay every time a storm threatened (3).

Plants under the protection of Aphrodite were used to cure the sickness of love. The most beloved of her flowers was the rose, Rosa spp., which is still considered an emblem of love. Legend holds that roses sprang up where Aphrodite emerged from the sea. After the gods sprinkled diem widi nectar they were covered with white blossoms. White roses decorated Aphrodites temples and were worn by her priestesses.

In Greek legend, Aphrodites son Cupid is given credit for giving roses their scent and is the cause of their having thorns. He was carrying a cup of fragrant nectar when he tripped, spilling the liquid over the roses, which still retain the nectar’s aroma.

One day when Cupid was playing in the garden, he was stung by bees and ran crying to his mother, Aphrodite.

To distract his attention, she removed the stingers from the offending bees and used the bees to string Cupid’s bow. Looking for a place to put the stingers, her eyes fell on the canes of some rose bushes and so she stuck them there, where one may still find them today.

She may have come to regret this, because later she was walking in her garden and stepped on a rose cane with her bare foot, tearing her flesh.

The blood from her wound stained the flowers. This is one story of how red roses came to be (3). Another myth says the red color is from the

blood of the god Adonis, who was gored by a stag. A Roman version of this story says Venus (the Roman name for Aphrodite) was beating Cupid with a rose branch, and his blood caused the roses to turn red.

recoil whenever a maiden in a state of sin passed by. We sometimes call the mimosa by another name, sensitive plant, because of the way the leaves fold at the touch. No maiden, however virtuous, could have passed this test.

Marjoram

Mint

Sweet marjoram, Origanum majorana, was another plant especially favored

by Aphrodite. One story says that its sweet perfume came from the brush of her fingers, but a more popular myth gives credit to a servant to the king of Cyprus. The youth, named Amaracus, was entrusted with the task of carrying a rare and valuable perfume to the king. In the process, Amaracus tripped, sending the precious vial flying—it shattered on the marble floor of the palace. It was an accident of course, but Amaracus was terrified of what the king would do. As he lay trembling on the floor, one of the gods took pity on him and changed him into a plant that gave forth the fragrance of the lost perfume whenever it was touched.

The nymph, Minthe, attracted the roving eye of Hades, god of the underworld. Unfortunately for her, Hades’ wife Persephone was insanely jealous. She knocked Minthe to the ground and was trampling her to death when Pluto appeared and turned the nymph into the green herb, Mentha spp., to protect her.

Forever after this herb was sacred to Pluto. (Other versions of the story say

Marjoram was frequently planted on gravesites, because the ancient Greeks believed if marjoram grew on the graves of the departed, it meant that the dead were enjoying eternal life.

In the language of plant symbolism, sweet marjoram means peace and happiness.

Mimosa

The satyr Pan, part goat and part god, was well known for his lusty affairs.

The Greek maiden Cephisa became the unfortunate object of his lust, which she did not welcome. She fled in terror when Pan approached. Alas, she could not hope to outrun a god, and it seemed that Pan would surely catch her. She cried out for help from the other gods and her prayers were answered. She was changed into a mimosa tree, whose leaves would

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Persephone turned Minthe into mint as punishment.) Mint’s connection with the underworld probably came from its use (along with rosemary and myrtle) at funerals to offset the smell of decay.

Mint was a very important herb in the lives of the Greeks and Romans.

It was often strewn on the floor, so that its fragrance would be released when it was stepped on. The Greeks associated the fragrance of mint with strength. For that reason, Athenian warriors rubbed their arms with mint leaves before combat. Aristotle, however, counseled soldiers not to use mint before going into battle because he considered it such a powerful aphrodisiac that its use would sap them of their energy and will to fight. On the other hand, Pliny recommended that poets and philosophers wear wreaths of mint to sharpen their minds.

The seasonings used by the Greeks made their cooking famous in the ancient world. The techniques and even some of their basic sauces are still in standard usage today. Homer wrote about the Greeks cultivating herbs, and among those he mentioned THE HERBARIST

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are many that we know and grow today, including anise, dill, coriander, cumin, savory and saffron, as well as basil, parsley, sage, rosemary and thyme.

not considered edible until a much later time. Instead, parsley was fed to horses before races to enable them to run faster.

References 1.

Bulfinch, Thomas. 1978 edition.

Bulfinch's mythology. New York: Avenel Books. [Bulfinch, Thomas. 1796-1867.

Bulfinch's mythology. The three works, popularly known as Bulfinch's mythology, were originally written and published separately.]

2.

Grieve, Mrs. M. 1971. A modern herbal.

New York: Dover Publications, Inc.

3.

Kowalchik, Claire and William H. Hylton, Eds. 1987. Rodales illustrated encyclopedia of herbs. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press.

4.

Plants for a Future. Ferula communis. http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants. phplFerula+communis (accessedJune 17, 2010).

Thyme

Parsley Opheltes, the cherished baby son and heir of the King of Nemea, met an untimely death when he was strangled by serpents. His nurse left him on the grass while she showed the Argive (from the island of Argos) army where to find water. When she returned and found the dead infant, she realized he was lying on a bed of parsley. Some versions of this story have the parsley sprouting from the blood of the child; others say the child was left on the bed ofparsley, which brought him bad luck. The prophet Amphiaraus told the Argives that this was an omen of their own doom. The dead child was renamed Archemorus, which means “the beginning of doom.”

Because of this association with death, wreaths of parsley were often used at Greek funerals. This was such a common usage that when a Greek said someone was in need of parsley, it meant that person was either dead

or dying.

A Greek army marching to battle once met mules with baskets overflowing with parsley on their way to the market. The soldiers who saw that much parsley at one time took it as a very bad omen, foretelling the disastrous fate that awaited them if they met the enemy that day. They turned and fled, forfeiting the battle.

Thyme, Thymus vulgaris, was supposed to have sprung from the tears of Helen ofTroy. Whatever its origin, thyme is still a much beloved herb today. Mt. Hymettos was covered with the fragrant foliage of thyme during the golden age of Greece. Honey made from its flowers was said to be exceptionally delicate and delicious. Thyme was strewn freely at Grecian banquets because its fragrance was thought to be an aphrodisiac.

The thyme growing on Mt. Hymettus was not our garden thyme, Thymus vulgaris. It was Coridothymus capitatus, which is sometimes listed as Thymus capitatus. That thyme is much too strongly flavored to be used for culinary purposes. For cooking, the Greeks valued T. vulgaris as a culinary seasoning just as we do today.

The ancient Greeks used myths both to teach and explain the unexplainable. Including plants in the stories made perfect sense to people who lived and worked on the land. It is hard to overestimate the importance of useful plants for healing and food to people without modern medicine and agricultural techniques. Plants were part of their culture, as was their religion; each served to enhance the other.

Parsley was recognized for centuries as being highly nutritious, even though the ancient Greeks did not know about vitamins. But they were right. Parsley is very good for us. At that time, however, the association of parsley with death was so strong it was

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Bibliography Baumann, Hellmut. The Greek Plant World in Myth, Art and Literature. Translated and augmented by William T. Stearn and Eldwyth Ruth Steam. Portland, OR: Timber Press, 1993.

Bernhardt, Peter. Gods and Goddesses in the Garden: Greco-Roman Mythology and the Scientific Names ofPlants. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1952.

McIntosh, Christopher. Gardens ofthe Gods: Myth, Magic and Meaning. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., 2005.

Niebuhr. A. D. Herbs of Greece. Boston, MA: Herb Society ofAmerica, 1970.

Polunin, O. Flowers ofEurope: A Field Guide.

Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1969.

Polunin, O. and A. Huxley. A. Flowers ofthe Mediterranean. Richmond, Surrey, England: Hogarth Press, 1987.

Marie Fowler's interest in herbs goes back many years, during which she has been a researcher, lecturer, teacher, grower, greenhouse owner and writer. She has been a member of HSA formore than 34 years.

Marie started an herb study group in Illinois that is still thriving before moving to Arkansas, where she was an active member of the Arkansas Unit. In 2002, Marie was awarded HSA's Certificate ofAchievement.

By Alina Niemi

REMPM, WW MD ROM A Toste of Malagsian Cuisine

M ^lule most people are IW familiar with Chinese W K stir-fries, Indian curries,

and spicy Thai noodles, the cuisine of Malaysia, which includes similar versions of all of these dishes, is still relatively unknown. Its food is as complex as its history, with many countries and spices playing a part.

International Influences Malaysia consists of peninsular Malaysia, just south of Thailand, plus the states of Sabah and Sarawak on northern Borneo, bordering Indonesia and Brunei. The country’s location in the heart of Southeast Asia not only influenced its history, but also its cuisine. Due to Malaysia’s location adjacent to the spice routes between China, India and Europe,

Malaysian cuisine became a blend of flavors from many different regions.

As long ago as 2500 B.C.E., Egyptians imported cassia and cinnamon from China and Southeast Asia to use for embalming. Arab traders maintained a monopoly for several centuries, lying to the ancient Greeks and Romans about the source of these exotic spices. Meanwhile, merchants from South India and China traveled marine and overland routes, such as the Silk Road, to trade

valuable commodities, including pepper, which was often used as currency.

In the first century C F cnilnrc rtisccivered that the seasonal monsoon winds prevailed east to west for part of the year and then reversed.

Applying this knowledge meant more efficient, widespread sailing.

More countries were able to use the oceans to trade, rather than relying on the Arab overland routes, resulting in the end of Arabias

i The Malaysian Seasoning Pantry : Onions, garlic, shallots provide an aromatic vegetable flavor base i Ginger and galangal add pungency, depth of flavor, and subtle heat ! Turmeric and saffron exude color and aroma

! Chilies provide fruity and fiery spiciness

Belacan, fermented shrimp paste, adds deep, rich undertones Lemongrass, kaffir lime leaf, and kasturi limes add citrus hints Tamarind, Garcinia atroviridis and kasturi limes add sourness

Cloves, cinnamon, cardamom, star anise, nutmeg, coriander, fennel and fenugreek allow for subtle variations in flavor and aroma

Fresh herbs, including laksa leaf, cilantro, garlic chives, basil, curry leaves and mint, add brightness and fresh, distinctive scents

Soy sauce and sweet soy sauce add saltiness, depth of flavor, and color Coconut and coconut milk add creaminess, richness, and texture

Kerisik (roasted, ground coconut) adds deep, distinctive flavor Pandan leaves add green color and a nutty aroma

Palm sugar adds a subtle, molasses-like flavor Torch ginger buds add pink color and distinctive flavor and aroma

the Japanese during World War II, followed by internal power struggles among the British colonies, local Communist rebels, and various ethnic and regional groups, who were attempting to set up a unified federation. In 1957, Malaysia became independent from Britain, and Singapore withdrew in 1965, finally leaving Malaysia free of control from foreign powers.

These centuries of outside influence have left their mark on culture and cuisine. Many words in the national language, Bahasa Malaysia, have foreign origins. Nanas, pineapple, comes from the Portuguese ananas; keju, cheese, from queijo. The word for noodles in Malaysian, mee, comes from the Chinese word with the same pronunciation. Dutch influence resulted in pergedel, potato patties, which remain a popular snack.

A Cultural Smorgasbord wealth and power. Southeast Asia, with a front-row seat to the traffic, became a hub of activity and wealth.

Ships plying the spice trade routes from India and Europe needed to sail through the Strait of Malacca between the Malaysian peninsula and Sumatra or travel overland in order to reach Indo-China and China.

From the seventh to the fourteenth centuries, the kingdom of Srivijaya, based in Sumatra (present-day Indonesia) was a powerful force in the area. In 1400, a rebel prince established Malacca on the west coast of the Malaysian Peninsula, which became an important port on the shipping routes. As a result, Islam spread widely throughout Malaysia and remains the predominant religion in the area.

In 1453, the Turks closed the overland route between Asia and Europe, leaving European countries struggling to capture a piece of the lucrative spice trade via waterways.

The Portuguese took control of strategically located Melaka in 1511, and their descendents still keep remnants of their Portuguese culture alive there today.

In the early 1600s the Sumatran­ based Sultanate of Aceh rose to power.

Establishment of the East India Company in 1641 gave the Dutch control, followed by the British in 1874. Then came occupation by

Etlingera elatior (Torch Ginger) Photo by Scott Zona, Wikimedia Commons THE HERBAR1ST

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Modern-day Malaysia consists of a racial mix of mostly Chinese, Malays and Indians, with smaller numbers of Arabs, Portuguese and Eurasians. Each of these cultures,

Chai tow kway, carrot cake Photo by Ruth Ellison, Wikimedia Commons plus intermixing among them, have influenced the rich and varied cuisine, blending local ingredients with traditional dishes and cooking techniques from afar.

The widespread use of curries in Malaysia is likely due to the influence of South Indians. The Indians, masters of spice blending, mixed ingredients such as cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) and pepper (Piper spp.), indigenous to India, with tropical ginger (Zingiber officinale'), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), and turmeric (Cucurma longa) to make curries. Curry leaves (Bergera koenigii), coconut milk, and spices are used liberally. The resulting dishes are served with rice and/or flatbreads (roti) such as thosai, idli and chapati.

South Indians traditionally eat off of a banana leaf instead of a plate. The practice is so well incorporated in Malaysia that not only is it common to be served food on a banana leaf, but many establishments use plates that resemble banana leaves.

Mamaks are Indian Muslims and most famous for their Mamak stalls, or convenient, affordable restaurants.

They offer a wide variety of Indian and Indian-fusion nasi kandar dishes, which include favorites like curry and rice. Roti canai, a popular curry-dipping flatbread, is a version of Indian paratha. The Mamaks spin dough around to create thin envelopes, which are then placed on a griddle to cook. The flaky layers are sometimes wrapped around

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eggs, meat, or bananas. Roti jala, net bread, is made from a batter dripped in swirling patterns onto a griddle, creating a lacy, delicate treat.

Both Malays and Indians (who traditionally eat with the fingers of the right hand) serve a number of dishes along with rice. Chilies arc featured ingredients, working their way into sauces such as various sambals, fiery condiment pastes of ground chilies and vinegar, salt, sugar, and other ingredients.

Coconut milk, grated coconut, and kerisik, toasted coconut, pounded to a paste, are freely used to provide richness, texture, and a counterbalancing creaminess to the chilies. continued on pg. 29 THE HERBARIST

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Plants of Malaysian Cuisine

have a dark purplish or green blotch in the lower middle area.

Perennial in hot climates, it is hardy to 32°F. It can be brought indoors before the first frost and grown in a well-lit, warm room.

Lemongrass Cymbopogon citratus

Malaysian name: serai

Stems with leaves can be placed Found in parts of Africa, in water, where they will easily Australia, Central, South and sprout roots and can then be North America, Mexico, India planted. Plants can be divided and much of Asia, this wellby cutting through the center known plant can be grown from with a knife. This easy-to-grow, seed but is easily propagated Cymbopogon citratus (lemongrass) Photo by moisture-loving perennial Hakcipta Yosri, Wikimedia Commons by root division. Alternatively, prefers semi-shade or full sun purchase fresh stalks at a grocery with abundant water. The plants store or ethnic market, place in water, and roots will can also be partially submerged, such as at the edge appear in two to fourteen days. Plant it in full sun or of a water garden. They need organically rich soil and dappled shade. an area in which to sprawl. This rapid grower will stop

Because it is native to the tropics, this fast-growing, tender perennial likes warmth and humidity and will not withstand frost, although it survives in a variety of climates. It can withstand temperatures of 10° to 20°F with very heavy mulching, and it can be grown in the ground or in containers. Some gardeners mulch lemongrass heavily to overwinter it in cooler climates, or cut the growth down and bring it into a cool, but not freezing, garage or basement where it will remain in a semi-dormant state.

Clumping, grass-like leaf blades have sharp edges and can grow three to six feet in length. Diseases and pests are not common, although aphids are an occasional problem.

Leaves can be used for tisanes, and stalks are chopped or added whole to stews, curries, and soups, where they impart a light, lemony fragrance. Only the bottom four inches of stalk is used, and outer, tough portions are removed before chopping.

Laksa Leaf Persicaria odorata

Malaysian names: daun laksa or daun kesum English names: Vietnamese Mint, Vietnamese Coriander, Smartweed, Fragrant Knotweed

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Leaves are best used young; older leaves get tough and somewhat bitter. They are often used as a garnish, imparting a distinctive aroma to soups and salads, or to dumplings and spring rolls, along with mint. The flavor is somewhat peppery, with hints of citrus, and has also been described as soapy or similar to a mild cilantro, for which it can be substituted.

Pandan Leaf Pandanus amaryllifolius Malaysian names: daun pandan, pandan wangi English names: Screw Tree, Umbrella Tree, Screwpine

Widely cultivated throughout Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Sri Lanka and South India, these shrubby perennials look like vegetative feather dusters. Stems produce aerial roots from the nodes, reaching five to six feet long if untrimmed.

Leaves are blade-like, 12 to 18 inches long and 1 to 1.5 inches wide, arranged in spirals.

Propagation is easiest by division. Side branches will form and eventually develop roots. Remove the tip and place in potting soil, or wait until roots form on the side shoot, remove the plantlet and plant it into a pot.

These clump-forming plants will grow in partial shade, although a full sun location with good air circulation

Native to Indochina and cultivated in Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, P. odorata gets one of its English names from the stem, which looks like many joints connected by knots. The plant forms a sprawling mass of sideways stems, which then bend upwards at almost a 90° angle. The leaves I: HERBA RIST

producing leaves when it outgrows its container and will need to be divided or transplanted to a larger pot. Pinching tips helps to stimulate branching and maintains compact, dense growth. It can also be cut back to the ground to encourage new leaf growth.

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will deter spider mites and mealy bugs that may become a problem in shadier spots.

Leaves are added whole or finely chopped to rice and dessert dishes, and add a grassy fragrance similar to that of jasmine or basmati rice.

They also are wrapped around food to impart flavor when cooking.

Torch Ginger Bud Etlingera elatior Malaysian name: bunga kantan English names: Philippine Wax Flower, Torch Lily, Wild Ginger, Porcelain Rose

Believed to be native to Indonesia, Malaysia, and southern Thailand, torch ginger is grown extensively throughout Southeast Asia and the Indo-Pacific region in tropical areas. Leafstalks and inflorescences rise separately from the underground rhizome, growing to 20 feet tall and 3.5 feet wide.

Torch gingers have a clumping growth habit and grow best in full sun or light shade and rich, welldrained soil, with protection from strong winds. The showy flowers come in red, pink or the rare white varieties and bloom all year. They are perennials in warm and tropical U.S. Zones 10-11, hardy to 3°F but need to be in a warm greenhouse or brought indoors in colder climates. Propagation is by rooted stalks divided from the mother plant or from seeds.

Immature flower bud tips are finely sliced or chopped and used in soups and curries. The peppery, distinctive aroma is remarkably similar to that of laksa leaves, Persicaria odoratum, although the two are not related, and are often found together in recipes.

Pandanus amaryllifolius (pandan leaf) Photo by Dekoelie, Wikimedia Commons

Baba-Nyonya Cuisine Chinese merchants and businessmen often married local Malay women.

Male offspring of these unions were known as baba and the females as nyonya. Their cuisine incorporates Chinese cooking techniques and dishes with local ingredients. Herbs play a key role, helping to produce the aromatic spiciness and tang that is one of its features.

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) juice provides sourness, and candlenuts (Aleurites nwluccanus) are ground

and used for thickening. Laksa leaves (Persicaria odorata'), pandan leaves (Pandanus amaryllifolius), kaffir lime leaves (Citrus hystrix) and the buds of torch ginger flowers (Etlingera elatior) add distinctive aromas to Baba Nyonya foods. One of the most popular and complex dishes, laksa, a spicy noodle soup, is made differently in every part of the country. The Nyonya version depends on laksa leaves, tamarind, torch ginger buds, and mint to make

asam (sour) laksa.

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Bclacan, a pungent, salty paste made from fermented shrimp, plays a starring role in Baba-Nyonya cooking. Small amounts of this pungent, fermented shrimp paste are added to give depth of flavor and a distinctive aroma. In kangkung bclacan, water convolvulus (Ipomoca aquatica), a local weed similar to spinach, is stir-fried and flavored with chilies and belacan.

Signature dishes include incite kabin, a version of chicken nuggets, which are marinated in Chinese Five Spice Powder, soy and oyster sauces and then deep-fried. Another favorite dish is otak otak, fish mousse, with ties to nearby Indonesia and Thailand. In this dish, mackerel, salmon or other fish are flaked and combined with a paste of chilies, lemongrass, galangal, turmeric, roasted candlenuts, garlic and shallots, as well as belacan. This is then mixed with coconut milk, kaffir lime leaves, betel leaves and eggs and then wrapped in banana leaves and steamed. Kari kapitan, a spicy chicken curry flavored with tamarind, was named after THE HERBARIST

; Nasi Kunyit, Turmeric Rice Nasi Kunyit, in its most basic form, calls for : rice, water, salt, pandan leaves, turmeric and coconut milk. It is often made with glutinous rice and served at celebrations. | This simpler version uses jasmine rice and can be made on the stovetop, or more easily, in an electric rice cooker.

2 cups jasmine rice, rinsed 1.5 teaspoons salt 6 cloves 1 stick cinnamon

4 star anise

8 cardamom pods, smashed with the side of a knife 1 teaspoon turmeric powder 2 cloves garlic, chopped

1 tablespoon chopped ginger

Nasi kunyit. Photo by Alina Niemi the “Kapitans political and social leaders who were respected by both Malays and Chinese alike.

"The Baba-Nyonyas are also famous for their kueh, or sweets. Coconut and beans (various types are used) are sweetened and used as fillings in rice dumplings, cakes and pancakes. Pineapple tarts made from flaky, buttery pastry rolled around sweetened pineapple are ubiquitous snacks in cities rich with BabaNyonya history, such as Penang and Melaka.

Chinese Influence The Chinese who settled in Malaysia were predominantly from the southern parts of the country. Their cuisine has permeated everyday Malaysian life, from the rice vermicelli, bihoon, that is fried for breakfast, to steamed buns, bao, with various fillings, such as sweet roast pork or jicama, that are eaten as snacks. Some popular dishes retain the names of the dialects that are spoken, such as Hainanese chicken or hokkien mee, noodle soup.

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1 can (13.5 fluid oz/400 ml) coconut milk, plus enough water to make 31/4 cup liquid 3 pandan leaves, optional Add rice, salt, spices and liquid to either an electric rice cooker or a large pot with a tight-fitting lid. Mix well to dissolve salt. Tie pandan leaves in a knot. Add to pot and cover.

If using a rice cooker, turn pot on. If using a stove, cook over medium heat for 30 minutes. When cooking is done, remove pandan leaves. Mix well, place pandan leaves back in the pot, cover, and let sit an additional 10 minutes or more. Remove pandan leaves and whole spices before serving.

Two popular snacks have similar names but are very different. Char kuey teow is chewy, fried rice noodles, while chai tow kway is called “carrot cake” in English, although it is quite different from the carrot cake familiar to Americans. This savory dish gets its name from turnip or daikon, referred to as "white carrot” in Chinese, which is mixed with rice flour and steamed.

Herbal ingredients include chilies, shallots, garlic and cilantro.

Influences From Other Neighbors Neighboring Java and other Indonesian islands have also left

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their mark on Malaysian cuisine.

The Javanese discovered the process of fermenting soybeans to create tempeh, a firm, cake-like protein source, which is occasionally eaten

by Malaysians, who top it with a thick soy-and-molasses sauce that was probably influenced by the nearly identical Indonesian kecap manis, or sweet soy sauce.

Thailand, peninsular Malaysia's northern neighbor, also has influenced the cuisine, especially in areas near their shared border. Mee siant, Siamese noodles, is noodles and sauce made from soybeans, chilies, tamarind paste and coconut milk, with scallions, bean

Rojak Rojak uses firm or under-ripe fruits and vegetables that will not get soggy when mixed with the savory sauce, such as jicama, apples, and zucchini. I have successfully used strawberries, melons, nectarines and bananas, but they tend to get mushy and are less desirable, albeit delicious. The recipe below calls for eight cups of fruit, including cucumbers.

Dressing 1 jalapeno, chopped

2 tablespoons sugar 2 tablespoons tamarind concentrate 2 tablespoons soy sauce 2 pears, chopped

1 Asian pear, chopped 1 cucumber, chopped 1 can (20 oz) pineapple chunks, drained

1/2 cup roasted salted peanuts, ground in a blender Mix dressing ingredients together. Combine with fruit and half the peanuts; mix well. Adjust the flavors if necessary.

You want a nice balance of sweet, sour and salty, with a hint of heat. Serve immediately, or refrigerate several hours, which improves the flavors. Sprinkle the remaining ground peanuts on top before serving.

sprouts, eggs, shallots, and topped with a squeeze of lime. It is very much like the more well known pad that noodle dish that most Westerners have tasted in a Thai restaurant.

Religious Influences While the main religion in Malaysia is Islam, several other faiths peacefully coexist and impact the cuisine in interesting ways. Muslims only eat food that is halal, or permissible by Islamic law. Most poultry, seafood, fruits, vegetables and grains are allowed. Pork is forbidden to Muslims but is widely consumed by the Malaysian Chinese population. Beef that is halal is consumed by Muslims but avoided by Hindus and some Buddhists. Mutton is a popular meat with the Indian population.

On the other hand, the presence of large numbers of Hindus, Buddhists and Jains (an ascetic, primarily Indian, religion that preaches doing no harm to living creatures) mean there are many vegetarians, so vegetarian options abound. Chinese vegetarians have a long history of mock meat dishes that use soybeans or soymilk sheets, wheat gluten, or seitan, and grains. Whole mock fish or mock chicken drumsticks use sugar cane or skewers to simulate bones. Indian vegetarian cuisine makes frequent use of lentils, beans, vegetables and hearty curries.

Alcohol is also strictly forbidden

by Islamic law and is a very sensitive issue. Its availability and consumption varies widely from area to area, depending on the makeup of the local population.

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Rojak. Photo by Alina Niemi

Muslims fast and pray during the holy month of Ramadan. Even non­ Muslims, however, joyously celebrate tlie months end on celebration day, called Hari Raya in Malaysia. Various sweets and dishes are prepared for the indulgence. Traditionally, kctupat, rice cooked in woven palm-leaf pouches, is served with rendang, a dish in which meat or vegetables are cooked slowly in a sauce until the liquid all but evaporates, allowing the flavor to be absorbed. Rendang incorporates the by now familiar shallots, garlic, coconut milk and chili peppers, along with ginger, lemon grass, coriander, fennel, cumin, nutmeg, cloves and cinnamon.

Of Pounding and Pastes The one thing that all religions and ethnicities share in Malaysia is the wealth of available herbs, spices, fruits and vegetables. The tropical climate and history of active trade with other nations ensures a bounty of flavorful ingredients.

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The huge fruits of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) are used in desserts and to supply firmness to vegetable dishes. Photo by ShahnoorHabib Munmum, Wikimedia Commons Vegetables such as long beans (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis), bittermelon (Momordica charantia), eggplants, okra, Chinese greens, sweet potato leaves, jicama (Pachyrhizus erosus) and pumpkin find their way

into curries, stir-fries and stews.

Fruits, including durian (Durio zibethinus), lychee (Litchi chinensis), longan (Dimocarpus spp.), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) and mountain or rose apple (Syzygium malaccense), can play double roles in sweet and savory dishes. Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) is used both as a firm

Rojak, a mixed fruit and vegetable salad with fresh cucumber, jicama, pineapple, water apple, (Syzygium aqueurn) bean curd, and cuttlefish in

kola (Centella asiatica) and torch

a thick, aromatic paste, uses firmer fruits such as starfruit (Averrhoa carambola), guava, and unripe

In addition to curry spices such as coriander, cumin and fennel, many dishes rely on a flavoring paste called rempah. It is here where the magic happens. Hie spices, along with chilies, turmeric, ginger, garlic, galangal (Alpinia ojficinarum) shallots,

mango. These are flavored with soy sauce, chilies and belacan, the fermented shrimp paste. Chopped peanuts bring the dish together into a sweet-savory interpretation of fruit salad.

vegetable and in desserts. Dozens of varieties of banana fruits are used

Herbs such as lemongrass, cilantro, basil and mint, which thrive in the heat and humidity, are artfully added

in either sweet or starchy dishes, and banana flowers are cooked and shredded in curries.

to Malaysian dishes and used as garnishes. Nasi ulam, herbal rice, relies on fragrant laksa leaves, gotu

THE HERBARiST

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32

ginger buds for its subtle perfume and flavor.

candlenuts and lemongrass, are ground, traditionally in a mortar and pestle, but these days often in a food processor, to create a textured paste.

Many cooks insist on doing it the traditional way, arguing that the flavor of a slowly pounded rempah can never be equaled by modern machinery.

The paste is then gently simmered in

i

oil until the flavors have melded and become silky, and all traces of rawness have gone. The other ingredients, including coconut milk, are added and simmered until the dish has taken on the complex, rich flavors.

Every cook prepares rempah using his or her own blend of ingredients in just the right proportions. Many younger Malaysians today swear that even when they have a recipe from an older cook, and follow it precisely, they cannot get the dish to taste the same. They blame it on the rempah and suspect the combination is not quite right, or that some secret of its blending has been withheld from them.

To balance the richness of the coconut milk, a tart ingredient is often incorporated. Sometimes it is tamarind water, made by soaking tamarind fruit pulp in water and straining out the solids. Sometimes it is the juice of kasturi lime, also called calamansi (X Citrofortunella microcarpa), which has hints of orange and bitter undertones. Sometimes a slice of asam gelugor (Garcinia atroviridis) is added and allowed to simmer, releasing subtle tartness.

This fruit, which has no English name but is sometimes erroneously called tamarind, is sliced whole and dried.

Another plant that is widely used is pandan, or dwarf screwpine (Pandatias atnaryllifolius) . Leaves are added to rice dishes and desserts, where they impart a vanilla-like, nutty fragrance.

Clearly, the cuisine of Malaysia is too complex and varied to explain fully in one article, but I hope you have had enough of an introduction to whet your appetite. Don’t fret ifyou aren’t able to travel to Malaysia any time soon. The accompanying recipes will give you an authentic sampling of dishes featuring vegetables, fruits and herbs easily found in Malaysia.

You may be able to find most of them in an Asian market or Chinatown.

I have included recommendations for substitutions whenever possible.

Selamat makan! (Happy eating!)

Bibliography About.com. "Five Spice Powder and the Five Elements Theory." http://chinesefood.about. com/od/foodingredients/a/fivespicepowdcr. htm.

Asian Recipes Online. “Nyonya Otak." www. asianrecipesonline.com/nyonya/otak.php (accessed March 24,2010).

Brissenden, Rosemary. South East Asian Food: Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. Kingsport, Tennessee: Kingsport Press, Inc., 1972.

Doraisingam, Samuel S. Pcranakan Indians of Singapore and Melaka: Indian Babas and Nonyas— Chitty Melaka. Pasir Panjang, Singapore: Institute ofSoutheast Asian Studies Publications, 2006.

Katzer, Gemot. Gemot Katzer s Spice Pages.

Available from World Wide Web (http://www. uni-graz.at/~katzcr/engl/index.html) Jeroxie.com (Addictive and Consuming). “Chai Tow Kway." http://jeroxie.com/addiction/chaitow-kway/ (Accessed March 24,2010).

Malaysian Food.net. "Mee Siam." www. malaysianfood.net/recipes/recipemecsiam.htm.

(Accessed March 24,2010)

Oseland, James. Cradle of Flavor: Home Cooking from the Spice Islands ofIndonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. New York: WW. Norton and Co. Inc., 2006.

Owen, Sri. Indonesian Food and Cookery. London: Prospect Books, 1993.

Passmore, Jacki. Tastes of Malaysia and Singapore.

Kuala Lumpur: S. Abdul Majeed and Co., 1991.

Rosengarten, Frederic Jr. The Book ofSpices. New York: Jove Publications, Inc., 1973.

Staples, George W., Kristiansen, Michael S. Ethnic Culinary Herbs: A Guide to Identification and Cultivation in Hawaii Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999.

Alina Niemi loves growing herbs that continue to survive despite her neglect and Honolulu's erratic weather and abundant insects. A life member of The Herb Society ofAmerica, she fell in love with Malaysian food after a trip there, where she took notes from everyone who would show her how to make it. You can find out more about Malaysia, plus aword-winning vegetarian recipes at her blog: http://almostveganinparadise. wordpress.com

Tune-Life Books Foods of the World. Recipes: The Cooking ofIndia. New York: Time-Life Books, 1975.

Winstedt, R.O. A Flistory ofMalaya. Kuala Lumpur: Marican ^^^^and SonsSdn. Bhd., 1982.

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THE HERBARIST

Issue 76 2010

All in o Lather:

Goap Plants

by Katherine Montgomery ave you ever wondered why some plants are referred to as soap plants? Maybe you know that ifyou chop up their leaves, stems, or roots, and swish them around in a pan ofwater, you get a frothy liquid that can be used for washing. But why does that happen? Which plants have this property, and what makes them different from other plants? Chemicals called saponins play a key role in the soap-making property of these plants.

To understand what role saponins play in cleansing, it is necessary first to understand a bit about how soap works. Much dirt can be eliminated simply by shaking or rubbing. Before vacuum cleaners people beat their rugs for a good reason; a lot of dust and dirt fell out in the process.

Dirt that doesn’t shake out is usually composed of fats or oils that cling.

Water is the most common means of eliminating this dirt. Water has what is called surface tension; that means that the molecules ofwater are bonding together and pulling those on the surface inward. This property can be

at the other end. Add the soap before you immerse tire dirty dish, and the hydrophilic ends attach to the surface of the water while the lipophilic ends wave in the air, effectively breaking the surface tension and creating bubbles.

When you immerse the greasy dish in the water, the oil lifts off the dish to attach to the lipophilic ends, and more soap molecules try to burrow in with their hydrophilic ends waving behind.

The oil is thus surrounded by soap To illustrate what happens in the molecules and held in suspension in cleaning process, assume that you eat a the water, thereby creating an emulsion salad with dressing for-limch. You want of soapy water and dirt. The dish is to wash the salad plate by hand, so yoii% cleaned, and the dishwater becomes immerse it in water. Any crumbs from ■ dirty and can be rinsed away. the accompanying bread fall off the What are the so-called soap plants, plate. The oil in the dressing, however, and how do they fit into this process? sticks to the surface. You can try to Many plants, ranging from soybeans to sponge it off, but with water alone tomatoes to oats to chickwced, contain you will end up just smearing the oil saponins. Not all of them have the around the plate because oil and water concentration of saponins that earns do not mix. You need to add soap to them the label of soap plant. Four the water to clean the plate. major ones stand out in this category: Soap molecules, including saponins, soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), are long strands consisting ofwater­ Mojave yucca {Yucca schidigera), the loving, or hydrophilic, atoms at one soapbark tree (Quillaja saponaria) end and fat-loving, or lipophilic, atoms THE HERBARIST Issue76 2010 35

seen when water “beads” on a surface such as cotton or woolen fabric. For cleaning to occur, the surface tension must be broken by what is called a surfactant or surface-active agent.

Surfactants reduce the surface tension causing the water to spread and really wet the surface. They also loosen dirt and emulsify or disperse it in water as well as hold it in suspension until it is rinsed away

Soponoria officinalis (soapwort) Photo by Joan Simon, Wikimedia Commons

and the soapberry tree (Sapindns mukorossi). In addition, several other soap plants have been used in this country in earlier eras.

Saponaria officinalis, or soapwort, is a perennial that is easy to grow and is hardy in Zones 3-8. It tolerates most soils and grows best in full sun, but will survive in light shade. It stands one to two feet high, but has a tendency to sprawl. It can become invasive if the flowers are not deadheaded before they produce seed. The flowers are pinkish white. S. officinalis is often found in roadside ditches and hedgerows where it has naturalized.

A native ofsouthern Europe, soapwort has been in use for centuries. Its many common names point to some of its uses: bruisewort, latherwort, fulling herb, bouncing bet, sheepweed and wild sweet william. It was used as a soap by the Assyrians in the eighth century B.C.E. Pliny the Elder (C.E. 24-79) wrote that in Roman times THE HERBAR1ST -a.-- Issue76 2010

wool was washed in water containing leaves ofsoapwort to remove the grease before dyeing. In the Middle Ages in England soapwort was added to the water used for fulling wool, a process of agitation that shrinks and mats woven fibers together. The name bruisewort goes back to a time when people applied the leaves to bruises and aching joints. In Elizabethan times, soapwort was called bouncing bet; the pink flowers may have reminded people of a laundress bending over to do the washing, revealing her rear amidst pink petticoats. Shepherds feared that their sheep would become ill from eating so-called sheepweed, but sheep generally do not like its aroma. In some countries, though, sheep were washed before shearing, sometimes in a soapwort bath.

Saponins are contained in all parts of the soapwort plant: flowers, leaves, stems and roots or rhizomes. The plant 36

parts can be used fresh or dried, and the saponins are released simply by chopping up the plant and swishing it around in a basin ofwater.

More will be released, however, if the water is heated and the chopped up plant parts are infused in it. The saponins act as a surfactant, breaking the surface tension of the water and gently removing dirt. Soapwort is neutral rather than alkaline, as are many soaps, which makes it especially useful for cleaning wool and silk, because their protein fibers can be damaged by alkaline substances. The gentle action of soapwort made it especially useful to museums and textile curators who used it to clean tapestries, rugs, and old textiles. In recent years, however, synthetic soaps

Hie trees are sometimes found in California or the southern states, but they are not hardy below 10°F. The inner bark contains saponins. The bark is ground to a powder or can be purchased in flake form and used as soap or, more particularly, shampoo.

Its soapy qualities also make it useful as an adjuvant, or auxiliary substance, in agricultural sprays, much as we might add dish soap to home-prepared insecticidal spray for plants to help the liquid spread out and cling to the leaves.

Yucca schidigera (Mojave yucca) Photo by Gory A. Monroe @ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database

have displaced soapwort as the soap of choice for textile conservators.

Another plant, which has a long history of being used for soap, is Mojave yucca (Yucca schidigera'), also known as Spanish dagger for its sharp, dagger-like leaves. Native to the Mojave and Sonoran deserts as well as Baja California, it is a flowering plant that grows to about 15 feet with a dense crown of leaves arranged in a spiral at the top. It grows best on rocky desert slopes in full sun; it must be in soil with excellent drainage. Native Americans used the fibers in the leaves to make rope, sandals and cloth.

The soapbark tree (Quillaja saponaria) is another soap plant. Native to the mountains of central Chile and north to Peru, it grows 65 feet tall with thick dark brown bark. It has attractive evergreen leaves and produces three to five white flowers in clusters at the tips of the branches in spring. These flowers turn into star-shaped fruits.

In recent years the soapberry tree (Sapindus spp.) has been used for commercial applications in the West. Native to India and the lower forests of Nepal, it produces fruits called soapnuts. When dried, the fruit becomes a very effective soap, because the saponin in the outer shell is released upon contact with warm water. Soapnuts have become a popular alternative laundry soap and can even be purchased online. It is suggested that just a few in a cloth bag dropped into your washing machine will clean your clothes just as well as commercial detergents.

Because soapnuts have some insecticidal properties, they are sometimes added to shampoos to kill head lice.

Two varieties of soapberry are found in this country.

Wingleaf soapberry (Sapindus saponaria) grows in Florida and the Caribbean, and western soapberry (S. saponaria var. drunimondii) is found along the Mexican border as far as east as Louisiana and north to southern Missouri. They are both hardy to Zone 5, are often found in

Y. schidigera roots contain saponins and were used as a soap. They are dug up and cut into small pieces for use fresh or dried. When it’s time to use them, soak them in water and knead the pieces until they soften, then stir to make suds. Strain the liquid and add more water before use. Yucca can leave an irritating residue on the skin, so a good rinsing is required.

The fruit of Sapindus spp., the soapberry tree makes an effective soap when dried.

Photo by Jeff McMillion, @ USDANRCS PLANTS Database 37

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shelterbelts but are sometimes planted as ornamentals. They will grow up to fifty feet tall in poor soil. Clusters ofwhite flowers turn into yellow cherry-like fruits that mature in September and hang on the tree all winter, turning black and leathery. Birds do not eat them, and they can be harvested for soap throughout the -winter.

The soap lily (Chlorogaluni pomeridianunt) is a native of

California and grows on dry open hills and plains along the coast. During the rainy season it resembles a tall grass, sending up leaves that are two to three feet tall. Its flower stalk can reach 10 feet in height and has small white flowers that bear seeds from which it can be readily grown. Soap lily has a large, oval bulb that contains saponins beneath its outer covering. Once dried, the bulb can be grated and used as soap flakes; these must be soaked in water and kneaded to produce the most suds.

Ceanothus spp. is another soap plant that grows along the west coast. It is an evergreen shrub that thrives in hill sun and is not cold hardy. Native Americans and early settlers used the flowers, which have a pleasant aroma, as soap. Mock orange (Philadelphus lewisii) also is found along die west coast, primarily the Pacific Northwest. Its bark is used for natural dyeing, but the leaves and flowers as well as the bark produce suds in cold water. The Indians in that region used the plant for bathing and laundry.

Many people view soapwort and some of the other soap plants as weeds and don’t want them in their gardens.

However, they have been useful to mankind for centuries.

As we learn more about the harmful effects of manmade chemicals in our manufactured products, perhaps it’s time to look at the past in going toward the future. These old plants may hold the key to keeping our homes and ourselves clean in the years to come.

Bibliography About.com. “How Soap Cleans." Anne Marie Helmenstein, Ph.D. http:// chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/aa08 1301a.htm. (accessed March 10, 2010).

BBC Home. “How Soap Works." http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/ alabaster/A2S3259 (accessed March 10,2010).

Bown, Deni. Encyclopedia ofHerbs. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 1995.

Buchanan, Rita. A Weaver's Garden. New York: Dover, 1987.

Herbs2000.com. "Saponins." http://www.herbs2000.com/h_mcnu/ saponins.htm. (accessed March 10,2010.

Maine, Sandy. The Soap Book. Loveland, CO: Interweave Press, 1995.

Molecular Expressions: Exploring the World of Opticsand Microscopy.

“Saponins." Florida State University, http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/ phytochemicals/pages/saponin.html. (accessed March 10,2010.

Plants for a Future. "Soap Plants." http://www.pfaf.org/leailets/soap.php. (accessed March 10,2010).

The Soap and Detergent Association. "Chemistry." http://www.cleaningl01 . com/sdalatest/html/soapchemistryl.htm. (accessed March 10,2010).

Finally, pokeweed (Phytolacca americana), the bane ofmany

gardeners, is a plant with enough saponins to qualify as a soap plant Known mostly for its early, edible leaves in poke salad in the South, its large taproot, which is difficult to dig up completely, contains the saponins. It can be ground'or chopped into small pieces and agitated in water to make a good lather.

Katherine Montgomery lives on a farm in western Kentucky where she tends a large herb and vegetable garden, makes baskets and spins wool for knitting and weaving. Washing raw fleeces led to her interest in soap plants.

Katherine received a Certificate of Appreciation from HSA in 2010 and managed the HSA Seed Exchange from 2002-2009. She is a member of the Western Pennsylvania Unit.

Through the years these saponin-containing plants have been used for many other purposes besides soap. Saponins are highly toxic to cold-blooded creatures because of their surfactant properties; native peoples often used them to sedate fish in a pool or in the preparation of poison arrow or spear tips. An extract from Yucca schidigera is used as an additive in many livestock feeds to help reduce and control odor, ammonia and other gas emissions. Foaming drinks such as root beer or bottled beer and even firefighting foams may contain saponins. The mining industry has employed them for ore separation.

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38

CSA Farms

By Sandie Parrott Almost every state in the U.S. buys 85% of itsfood outside ofits boundaries (1).

The number ofsmallfamilyfarms is decreasing due to the retirement ofolder farmers, competitionfrom huge commercialfarms, low-costfoodfrom other countries, rising production costs and many otherfactors.

However, high food prices and several scares involvingforeign-grown food have refocused attention on locally grown produce. An innovative business model is making itpossiblefor smallfarms to guarantee a marketfor their crops while the public obtains access to high quality, locally grown produce at lower prices. Read onfor more about Community Supported Agriculture farms, the newest trend in small-scalefarming.

here can you bury your nose in a bunch of fragrant basil, take a bite of a sweet cherry tomato, obtain fresh-picked, crisp, mouth-watering vegetables while learning about sustainable agriculture, organic methods and healthy living practices?

Additional benefits include family camaraderie, getting your hands dirty and creating a sense of community. Where is this fantastic utopian place?

It is your local CSA (Community Supported Agriculture) farm.

What is Community Supported Agriculture?

CSA farms are becoming an increasingly popular union between people wanting fresh, local, safe food along with culinary or medicinal herbs and farmers wishing to produce food for their community on family-owned farms. CSA harkens back to the way our country was founded—on individual sustainable farms—but with a modem twist to ensure the farms remain financially viable. The idea of CSA farnis first originated in Japan 30

years ago, and similar programs thrive in Europe. The first CSA farm in the United States was created in 1985 by Robyn Van En, in South Egremont, Massachusetts (3). The CSA movement has grown from an estimate of only 50 farms nationwide in 1990 to more than 2,500 today (2).

Angelic Organics CSA Farm, an hour and a half northwest of Chicago, shows off its colorful flower and herb border.

Photo courtesy of Angelic Organics CSA Farm

The 2008-201 O^ISA Board of

Directors is proud to sponsor this article in honor of Dr. Lois Sutton, HSA President from 2008-2010 and a native of Michigan.

Washington. Sister Sage delivers five to eight types of culinary and medicinal herbs per month for about five months of the year. Among them are root crops such as Echinacea, osha (Ligusticum porteri), ashwagandha root( Withania sonmifera') and Loriiatium dissectum (carrot-leaf biscuit root) along with written instructions for drying, preparation, recipes and folklore.

If interested, sign up early. CSA farms have waiting lists months before the first vegetable or herb is harvested.

Organic?

It is busy on pick up day at Rocky Gardens CSA, Davisburg, Michigan. Mark Angelini, Karen Antrim, Amber Stankovich and Mary Herzenstiel gather their shares and herbs. Photo by Sandie Parrott

A CSA farm produces vegetables, At the beginning of the season, the herbs or other items for members farmer determines the budget for who pay in advance for a share (or the year and divides up costs based risk) of the harvest. Farmers get on how many families the farm can money up front to help pay for seeds, support. Families purchase “shares,” fertilizer, labor and equipment, and in which provide the weekly produce return, provide members with fresh, needs of a family of four. Share prices often organically grown produce can vary widely, but generally average between S300-S600 (1). Discounted throughout the growing season.

Members receive their share once share prices are sometimes available to a week by picking up a box at the those who volunteer a certain number farm or going to a distribution point. of hours at the farm. Thus, farmers A season lasts about 20 weeks in have a guaranteed direct market for most climates, but hoop houses and their crops, and consumers have a guaranteed (as much as any crop storage techniques can extend the can be guaranteed) supply of quality season to almost year round. Some farms require members to work and produce. It is a win-win situation for learn more about the food they eat, everyone. while other farms have hired help Farmers adopt the CSA concept for and ask volunteers to assist with various reasons, to save the family packing boxes, cleaning vegetables or farm financially, to live a more other tasks outside of the garden. An natural lifestyle or to adopt as a life additional benefit of the CSA system philosophy. Small family farms have is that farmers can grow a wide variety been disappearing; however, CSA is of crops, ranging from herbs to root helping to change that. crops, vegetables and fruit. Some also have apiaries and hens to supply Newer CSA farms are branching honey and eggs. Other CSA farms out to share medicinal herbs, herbal include baked goods, flowers and products and flower bouquets. Some alliances with other producers of milk have bread, fruit or egg shares and or beef. apprenticeship programs. A few CSA farms are 100% herb-related, such as the Sister Sage Herb Farm in Vashon, THE HERBARIST

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All CSAfarms are not certified

>

organic, but most

• S

use basic organic practices. According to the 2008 Summer Gardening Trends Research Report conducted by the Garden Writers Association Foundation in June 2008, public interest in organic gardening has grown from less than 10% of households a decade ago to almost half of the households today (45%).

Sustainable gardening has gained the attention of approximately 2 out of 5 households (38%).

CSA farms are gaining popularity all across the country. The following are just a few examples of CSA farms, their philosophy and offerings.

Rocky Gardens CSA in Davisburg, Michigan, is a notable example of a community garden. Diane and John Frankin’s modest five-acre farm (of which only two acres are planted) is able to support 55 members (with more clamoring to join!) by using intensive planting, a hoop house and organic principles. “At Rocky Gardens we practice environmental friendly methods that protect soil, water and nature. No harmful synthetic chemicals are used in the gardens or on the plants; we care about the

Paul and Mark Angelini picking basil at Rocky Gardens CSA. When their mother was unable to work at the farm, they Stepped in to help. Photo by Sandie Porrott

microscopic organisms in our soil and the beneficial characteristics a healthy eco-system provides,” states Diane Frankin. “Healthy Food for Healthy Families” is their motto.

Members are required to work a minimum of 34 hours to assist the farm. One benefit is getting to know the farm community. The setting is attractive and inviting. The farm includes organized gardens, a hoop house, barn and flower gardens where members are invited to snip flowers. An herb garden and a modern country house with a white-picketfenced courtyard garden complete the picture. Frankin also believes that exposure to soil organisms is healthy for everyone, especially for children.

Diane Frankin looks her work as a ministry; she feels drawn to help people eat healthier and improve their health and lifestyle.

“It is a lot of work. I could go back to banking and make more money, [but] I get cards and letters that say I have helped families. You can’t put money on that,” says Frankin. “Diets of children are horrendous, it borders on child neglect,” Frankin adds with conviction.

The historic farm began in the 1930s with the main products being dairy and poultry. It began struggling in the 1980s and by 1990 converted to organic gardening and to CSA in 1992. Shareholders are supported by 25 acres of vegetables and herbs, including basil, cilantro, parsley, dill, anise hyssop, lemon balm, marjoram, mint, sage, summer savory, tarragon, thyme and oregano. Shareholders receive one or two herbs in their share each week.

According to Joanne Lenz-Mandt, part of the Frankin communicates with members office team, "To preserve the through involvement on pick-up days, herbs, we place unwashed coaching members on healthful eating bunches in a cooler for 24 and how to assist on the farm. She also to 48 hours until they are shipped, provides tips on vegetable and herb and a newsletter is included with storage and use, along with recipes their share that explains what they are and where to find other local healthy receiving and how to use it.” Angelic products. You can find her most days Organics has produced a cookbook, zipping between gardens on a golf cart Farmer John's Cookbook: The Real directing member workers or hauling Dirt on Vegetables, by founder John healthy produce.

Peterson. This popular cookbook was compiled from newsletters and Angelic Organics, located in farm recipes. It is very popular at CSA Caledonia, Illinois, is a very large CSA farms throughout the country. farm with 1,300 shareholders and A non-profit group, Angelic Organics 27 distribution points. This makes it Learning Center was started ten years more difficult to connect with all of ago to bring people closer together their shareholders, although members by teaching sustainable farming skills can pick up produce at the farm and and to help the community learn visits are encouraged. about healthy eating. Classes like

Along with many vegetables, Rocky Gardens produces basic oregano, the very popular ‘Hot and Spicy’ oregano, basil, thyme, lemon thyme, chives, sage, lemon balm and tarragon. “You would be surprised how the kids love the herbs. They love to help cut, pick and munch on them,” she adds. Most vegetables are provided in boxes so members can choose their own, but herbs are snipped or picked from the garden by members and put in their own containers. Frankin supplies scissors for members and children to gather herbs while they chat.

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Issue 76 201

Student Organic Farm has started a class called Culinary and Medicinal Herbs that has generated so much interest that more medicinal herbs will be grown in the future. According to Professor Biernbaum, “Growing herbs will not produce a large income, but they add value to a CSA farm, and they are quick to produce and harvest for shareholders.”

A student harvests lettuce at the Michigan State University CSA Farm, where vegetables and herbs are available eleven months per year. Photo by Sandie Parrot “Cornbread from the Ground up” requires participants to shuck, shell, winnow and grind com. Made from freshly gathered fresh eggs and other form ingredients, the bread is baked in an outdoor earthen oven called a cob.

The “Earth Oven Workshop” teaches participants how to build their own outdoor cob, clay, straw and sand oven using age-old techniques.

Heartsong Farm Healing Herbs, located in Groveton, New Hampshire, offers shares of preparations such as Echinacea tincture, healing salve, herbal tea blends, Wild Cherry Bark Cough Syrup and organic garlic. They offer an herbal healing network, an e-mail newsletter on herbal issues and events at the farm.

Michael Phillips relates how he and his wife Nancy came to medicinal herbs after studying the “peoples medicine” and the connection of working with healing plants. “In the early 1990s, besides our apple orchard, we were trying to develop a local CSA farm as well as sell organic produce to restaurants. Both were a struggle... and so by the late 1990s we recognized our answer to our farm lay in medicinal herbs. We could solar dry green leaves and roots and thus obtain a shelf-life factor that allowed us marketing opportunities throughout the year at various herb conferences and via the Internet. This sure beat

THE HERBAR1ST

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dumping unsold loads of lettuce to the sheep! We recognized that some people needed a ‘medicinal kit’ to launch their own understanding into the effectiveness of earth medicines, which lead to our CSA-style herb share."

Phillips continues, “The plants give to us all the time. When you plug into this green understanding—seeing again and again how effective earth medicine is to yourself, family and friends—you naturally want to share your knowledge and appreciation with others.”

MSU (Michigan State University) Student Organic Farm with CSA is unique as a teaching facility. Produce and herbs are available eleven months of the year in the cold Michigan climate. The idea in 1999 was to apply principles learned in class on this farm. “Herbs are offered along with several vegetables in member shares, pick-your-own and [are] featured at pick up,” said Corie Pierce, Farm Manager and Instructor.

Many common culinary herbs are grown, but in the last two years more medicinals were added, such as valerian, calendula, chamomile, feverfew, yarrow, comfrey and motherwort.

John Biernbaum, Professor of Horticulture and Director of the 42

If you are interested in the CSA farm concept and would like to obtain food grown locally, research and visit a few community farms in your area. Observe how they operate and what they grow. Determine if their philosophy of healthy food fits yours, and for the ultimate test, sample some freshly picked produce and herbs.

Your grocery stores produce section will miss you.

References 1.

Roth, Cathy. 2008. Community supported agriculture. University of Massachusetts Amherst, www.umassvegetable.org/ food farming systems/csa/ (accessed November 25,2008).

2.

Local Harvest. Community supported agriculture, http://www.localharvest.org/ csa/ (accessed April 8,2009).

3.

Wilson College. 2009. Robyn Van En biography, http://wrvw.wilson.edu/ wilson/asp/content.sp?id= 1272(acccssed April 8,2009).

Sandie Parrott is

Master living inGardener a garden writer, and certified Clarkston, Michigan. Aphotographer, member at large of The Herb Society ofAmerica, she garden designer specializes in stories about gardeners who are passionate about a particular plant or their very personal gardens.

Read her stories in the Michigan Gardener or the Oakland Press newspaper.

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Caroline Holmes

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Many times ire hear only the bad news about native plant and animal populations that are

endangered by human IB? Vhis article provides the good Vpw news about a unique species that was severely threatened by tourists, industry and agriculture but bounced back once its habitat was protected.

rances most westerly department or county, Finistere (finis terre), is, as its name suggests, at the end of the earth, open to the Atlantic Ocean and brushed by the tip of the tail of American hurricanes. The Glenan Islands are an archipelago of a dozen low-lying islands and numerous rocky outcrops 12 miles south of the Finistere coast; here is nature in the raw open to the harsh forces of the ocean.

Which is the bliss of solitude;

k

In 1803 a unique wild daffodil was discovered on the Glenan Islands by I Theophile Bonnemaison, a

r

distinguished botanist. Far

from solitary, their profusion carpeted the centers of several islands. Curiously, the Glenan

than by bulbs.

Eager crowds followed in

The Glenan narcissus (Narcissus

triandrusvar. loiseleurii). Photo by Massecot, Wikimedia Commons

Bonneinaisons footsteps, attracted by descriptions of the elegant seductive charms of the port on the island of Saint-Nicolas, gateway to a unique floral experience. Over the decades, collectors gathered seeds, diminishing

the narcissus’ chances of reproduction.

Sadly, whether raised under botanical scrutiny in Quimper, Brest or Nantes or in amateurs’ back gardens they all failed to thrive. By 1869 it was noted that the flowery carpet on St. Nicolas was reduced to just over 500 square yards while the colonies on the islands of Penfret and Drennec were in danger from the burgeoning seaweed industry, the building of a new lighthouse and subsistence farming.

In 1906 botanist Emile Gadeceau reported that the narcissus populations were devastated. On April 25,1924, French botanist Auguste Chevalier noted seeing the narcissus in full flower but sounded a warning that the colonies on three islands were in danger of disappearing under agricultural incursions. He proposed planting a new colony on the He des Cicognes under the protective observation of the Maritime Laboratory in Concarneau. It would be another 50 years before the island’s flora received official protection.

N. Mandnis var. loiseleurii (syn. N. t. subsp. capax) has been the subject of scientific speculation and verification.

The delicate common name of angel’s tears is used for narcissus classified as triandrus, perhaps inspired by the way the flowers appear to be dripping from their stems. The trumpet of the flower looks like a hooped petticoat. The style within the trumpet varies—long and visible, level or just below the stamens. There are several almost identical forms that are native to the Iberian peninsula: the white-flowered N. triandrus subsp. triandrus of Galicia, N. t. var. cemuus and N. t. var. pulchellus of Northern Spain and Portugal, and the cream-to-clear yellow-flowered N. t. subsp. pallidulus that grows in the Tagus valley.

are one or more megasporophylls or carpels. A carpel carries style and stigma in its reproductive parts, as it consists of an ovary, a terminal prolongation called the style and the stigma, which is the receptive surface for pollen grains. The useful pollen only sticks to the stigma; undesirable alien pollen is rejected by secretions that inhibit fertilization. Extensive scrutiny using scanning electron microscopes charted differences in the pollens and their fertility, which helped to finally establish the N. triandrus subsp. panax as a unique species only found on the Glenan Islands.

Safeguarding the Future

In 1973 a natural reserve of about 37 acres was created on Saint-Nicolas.

In gaining national reserve status in At a glance, the trumpet petticoat of 1984, this smallest reserve in France the Glenan narcissus is more ribbed, provides protection to tire narcissus deeper and flares at its center. However, and a few other wild plants from this visual evidence requires scientific human depredations such as picking, proof in the form of an analytical trampling and litter, invasive wild botanical study. Stamens are technically plants and escaped garden plants as known as microsporophylls, and each well as grazing animals. In the last three one is made up of a filament or stalk decades, work has been undertaken A Host of White Daffodils bearing an anther. This is where the to halt or slow down natural and microspores, the staining, sparkling Bonnemaison’s original claim manmade erosion of the dunes and lights better known as pollen grains, are regarding the unique qualities of the coastline. There are boardwalks for produced. In the center of the flower visitors and their guides, as well as Sea thrift (Armeria maritima) thrives on the grassy slopes of the upper chestnut paling to fence off sensitive beach. Photo by Caroline Holmes areas and check sand movement.

The latter are deeply unattractive and alternative means are being investigated. Camping, water skiing and fires, including barbeques, are forbidden and eco-friendly means of power generation and sewage disposal have been installed. In 1995, graduate student Delphine Bronnec drew up a management plan. This preservation project is now jointly managed by Brest’s Conservatoire Botanique National, Finistere’s Regional Council, Bretagne VivanteSEPNB, Fouesnant s Local Council, and the regional environmental body.

The work has paid off; in April 2008,

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60,000 flowering stems of the Glenan narcissus were counted.

The native flora survives in two distinct areas: the coastal sand dunes and the central scrubby land where the narcissus flowers among carpets of bluebells, Hyacinthoides non-scripta.

Safeguarding a natural balance on this officially managed site requires careful attention by dividing plants into four categories: at risk, native but not protected, garden escape and invasive.

The narcissus is on the endangered plant list for the MassifArmoricain and the Livre Rouge for France, and the National and Regional (Brittany) List for protected species.

On the shore dunes, the following native plants are officially protected: sea cabbage (Crambe inaritima), sea holly (Eryngium tnaritimum), a sand­ loving toadflax (Linaria arenaria), quillworts (Isoetes hystrix), Omphalodes littoralis—commonly called white borage but not a Borago species—and a bulbous hawk’s beard (Crepis spp.).

Other wild plants that are not protected include sea thrift, Artneria maritime!, which is found on the upper beach with Spergularia rupicola (spurrey) Along with plants that thrive in dry gardens such as the sea holly, Eryngium campestre, there are the sweet-smelling dune pinks, Matthiola sinuata, and the horned poppy, Glauciumflavum. Unwelcome invasives include alexanders (Smyrnium olusatrum) and Pteridium aquilinum (eagle fern), formerly controlled by grazing sheep and goats. Garden escapes brighten up the dunes and margins of the island but nonetheless need strict controlling: the colorful flowers of pot marigolds (Calendula officinalis'), periwinkle ( Vinca minor) and the South African Hottentot fig (Carpobrutus edulis).

People no longer live on the islands but there is a small group of temporary residents from the end of March through to November. Fortunately, natural forces regulate the permanent population of rabbits, because their burrowing is destructive. The archipelago is a haven for sea birds; gulls are numerous but the numbers are monitored as their guano alters the soil fertility. Bird watchers flock to see the very rare roseate terns that pass through but have not nested since 1985. Other terns include the nesting common tern and, in a reserve on the nearby lies aux Moutons, the sandwich tern. In April 2008, we saw several of the twenty couples of the Kentish plovers, known in France as the gravelot a collier interrompu, wliich are now nesting on Saint-Nicolas.

The deep Baie de la Foret from which you depart for the island is a sheltered haven of wonderful walks, sandy beaches, rocky coves and blue seas—a striking contrast to the wind-lashed Glenan Islands. If you do visit, seek out guided walks with Lucienne Moisan, who is popularly known as Lulu. Her knowledge of plants, birds and the natural environment are matched by an ability to communicate with warmth and enthusiasm, and if necessary, in English. The pattern of these islands is definitely one to weave into your pensive inner fabric.

Bibliography Barker, Cicely Mary, Flower Fairies of the Spring, New York: Penguin Group, 1923.

Bioret, Frederic and Maxjonin (Eds.).

La Reserve de Saint-Nicolas des Gldnan. Publisher unknown, 2001.

Masse, Jules. Botanique Medicate. Paris: Henri Aniere, Librarie-Editeur, 1867 Vic New RHS Dictionary of Gardening (Vols. 1 -4).

London: Stockton Press, 1992.

Wordsworth, William. “Daffodils." Bluepete Poetry Pick, http://www.blupcte.com/ Literature/Poetry/WordsworthDaffodils.htm (accessed July 6,2010)

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Photo by Caroline Holmes

Caroline Holmes is a garden historian who lectures internationally, delving into the myriad ways people and plants have shaped landscapes. Design consultancies include a series of "historic" gardens for the Royal Opera House's new Production Campus for the Performing Arts including Operatic Borders, the plantings and lore for the Poison Garden in The Alnwick Garden and a Green Chronology of Gardens in Kent. She has written eight books, including Why do Violets Shrink: Answers To 280 Thorny Questions On The World Of Plants, Follies of Europe: Architectural Extravaganzas ondThe Romantic Herb Garden. Caroline is past chairman of the Herb Society (UK), member of The Herb Society ofAmerica, the Garden Media Guild (UK) and the Garden Writers Association (USA).

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"Take the herbs stacte, onycha, and galbanum-these herbs together with pure frankincense; let there be an equal part of each. Make them into incense, a compound expertly blended, refined, pure, sacred." Exodus 30:34-35

By Jo Ann Gardner ''

\ /\X V

ho has not enjoyed the sweet floating aromas of spring

lilacs or the summer’s first roses?

Perfumes, whatever their source, have an uplifting effect. So its not surprising that fragrant herbs and spices are featured in the recipes for the Tabernacle’s anointing oil and incense. Fragrance was meant to please God as it pleases us. A wellequippedan^ut household might keep s&f • 4^ perfumed oil and incens^BSlt^ d to soothe dry skin in a hot climate, or to burn as a room fumigant. However, with holy oil it is very important that the oil and incense be set aside solely for sanctifying the Tabernacle, the inner sanctum of the moveable sanctuary the ancient Israelites built to worship God on their journey to the Promised Land.

“Take choice spices: five hundred weight of solidified myrrh, half as muchtwo hundred and fifty-of fragrant cinnamon, two hundred and fifty of aromatic cane, five hundred-by the sanctuary weight-of cassia, and a hint of olive oil.

Make of this a sacred anointing oil.” Exodus 30:23-25 That anointing with perfumed oil was a common practice can be assumed by the heavy penalty for using the Tabernacle’s ingredients for secular purposes: “This [the sacred anointing oil] must not be rubbed on any persons body, and you must not make anything like it in the same proportions...

Whoever compounds its like, or puts any of it on a layman, shall be cut off from his kin" (Exodus 30:32-33). In the rites of the Tabernacle the priests anoint themselves and the furniture of the sanctum, thereby making them holy.

Later, holy oil would be used to anoint kings and prophets as a sign of their dedication to God.

myrrh is added to half a pint of oil, and later only a third of an ounce of cinnamon, the latter scent will dominate (2) (perhaps there is a clue here in the order of the Tabernacle s ingredients). As the text asserts, the ingredients must be “expertly blended” (Exodus 30:22).

The way the ingredients are listed in the text and their amounts'suggest their fragrance was imparted to the olive oil by steeping. Olive oil, the means for anointing, carried its own significance as a symbol of light and of life itself, as in the story of Noahs Ark (Genesis 6:9-9:17), when the dove brought a branch of light-bearing olive leaves as a sign of life to the anxious The curling reddish bark of a cinnamon tree family waiting for the flood (Cinnamomum verum) Photo by Marion Schneider and to subside. The light of Christoph Aistleitner, Wikimedia.com the [olive] oil, the rabbis taught, is Holy Incense everlasting.

From the earliest Greek and Roman herbals we know that it was thought that the order in which the ingredients were added to the oil was very important. Fourth century B.C.E. Greek author Theophrastus, for example, knew that if one pound of

Burning certain ingredients together, usually on hot coals, to produce aromatic smoke (the word incense comes from the Latin word for bum, incendere) was a widespread practice throughout the Near East, associated

47

with pagan worship (3), so it seems the Israelites took over this custom for their own purposes. Hie high priest Aaron is instructed to bum incense on the altar every morning when he tends the lamps, “and Aaron shall burn it at twilight when he lights the lamps, a regular incense offering before the Lord throughout the ages” (Exodus 30:7-8). Its symbolic significance as a carrier of prayer is evident in David's psabn, “1 call You, O Lord, hasten to me; give ear to my cry when I call You. Take my prayer as an offering of incense... ” (Psalm 141:1-2).

Just as God’s presence is felt in the pillar of smoke and fire that accompanies the Israelites in their journey to the Promised Land, so too must incense carry a sense of the holy and divine in its smoke and fire. As with die anointing oil, anyone who violated the taboo against using the same proportions for other purposes, was subject to severe punishment. “Whoever makes any like it, to smell of it, shall be cut off from his kin” (Exodus 30:37). However, in later times,

the incense offering, gready elaborated, was associated with hypocrisy and vanity by the prophets, who indicated that God rejected their offerings because they were not carried out with a pure heart (a reference to the Israelites’ worship of pagan gods): “Bringing oblations [to God] is futile," Isaiah warns, “Incense is offensive to Me” (Isaiah 1:13).

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Above: Known mostly for its scent, frankincense (Boswellia sacra) has attractive flowers as well. Photo by Scott Zona, Wikimedia Commons. Right: The bright red new leaves and glossy foliage of Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon.)

Photo by H. Zell, Wikimedia Commons.

The Bible describes how in Solomons Temple (about 960-586 B. C. E.) burning incense was associated with bread offerings, sacrificial burnt offerings, in honor of the Sabbath, the new moon, and festivals (II Chronicles 2:3), the ingredients were

mixed together in huge quantities.

Approximately five hundred pounds were prepared once a year in the Temple, first pounded in a mortar, each ingredient by itself, then mixed together with a small amount of salt (only the salt of Sodom from the Dead Sea area, “melah Sedonmit”) and piled up (4).

(reminiscent of God’s pillar of smoke?), obviously a desired characteristic which none but the Avtinas family could effect.

Herbs and Spices of the Tabernacle While the names of more than twenty spice plants and the fragrances extracted from them are mentioned throughout the Bible (especially in the Song of Songs) and in rabbinic literature, translating the Hebrew or Aramaic common name into an English common name, then applying a corresponding Latin binomial for

In Second Temple times (516 B. C. E.-70 C. E.), members of the House

the plant source is nearly impossible.

Does the word, for instance, refer to

ofAvtinas, as recorded in ancient Jewish commentaries on the Bible, the Mishna and Tosefta (Yotna 3,11; Yom Kippurim 2,7), were skilled perfumers, the only ones who knew the identity of the plant whose name meant “smoke rising.” This mystery plant, or an extract from it, was reputed to be responsible for their incense producing smoke

a particular plant or only its saps and perfumes or the compounds mixed

that rose straight up in a column

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from them? Does the word have the same meaning when it appears elsewhere in the text? These problems are exacerbated by the secrecy that

surrounded the ingredients and their uses, as in the story about the Avtinas

family. The appointed perfumer was regarded as an expert, so naturally he 48

(or she?) would

want to keep his secrets to himself (like some cooks who reluctantly give away their recipes but leave out an important ingredient or crucial step in the process).

“Myrrh” and “frankincense” are widely recognized names, but what do they and the other ingredients in holy anointing oil and incense look like, where do they come from, and why is their perfume so special? Being able to visualize them as real substances brings the text to life, and gives us a window into the material world in which they were so highly prized.

Myrrh Myrrh, an ingredient in perfumes, incense, ointments, medicines, and used in Egypt for embalming, corresponds to the Hebrew mor according to many authorities® (5). It is a solidified oily sap exuded from the

fragrant stems and branches of a species of Commiphora, a very thorny, unshapely bush about six feet tall that grows in semi-arid regions of Somalia and Yemen. Despite the legendary reputation of its resin, the tree itself is hardly a beauty. Bare of its small threelobed leaves most of the season, its flowers are white and tiny; the small fruits are beaked.

For commercial purposes, now as in die past, the thick stems and trunk are cut to promote the flowing of a fragrant, light yellowish sap or gum, which naturally hardens to a light yellowish-brown resin in crystallized “tears” of various sizes.

Later tliey are collected in baskets, sorted and brought to market. This is not as exotic as it sounds. Many trees exude gums, as any woodsman will tell you. Spruce gum, for instance, is a favorite, bitter at first, but then pleasant to chew (not much flavor, though).

Myrrh has well-known medicinal properties; it is considered a tonic and antiseptic and in various forms has been used to treat infected gums, ulcers and throat ailments and is used in the manufacture of mouthwashes, gargles, toothpaste, and liniments (1).

However, its main claim to fame is its heavy sweet scent with vanilla and cardamom overtones, mixed with a general woodsy (resinous) aroma. It is not difficult to imagine the proverbial harlot who advertized her scented bed as a means ofseducing the “youth without sense” in Proverbs 7:17: “I have sprinkled my bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon.”

Frankincense Like myrrh, frankincense is a resinous, solidified sap extracted from the trunk of a tree, in this case species of Boswellia that grow in the hot, arid conditions ofArabia and East Africa. In biblical

times the main producing species were B.jrereana and B. sacra in Somalia and Arabia, and B.papyrifera in Ethiopia).

It is a small bushy tree characterized by peeling, papery bark. Its compound leaves are small (to conserve moisture) and die flowers are star-like, ranging in color from pink to greenish-white, depending on the species. According to eyewitness accounts, trees seem to grow out from the sides of “nearly polished rock'".”

more pungent, less sweet and delicate than true cinnamon bark. Some claim it was oil of cassia that was used in incense, rather than its bark, but the process of distilling essential oils from plants was not known until the fourth century B.C.E. Steeping the plant parts, or in this case, the bark, in olive oil, as already discussed, seems more likely.

When freshly exuded from the tree, frankincense resin is pearl-like in appearance and the consistency of condensed milk; after the resin dries it is yellowish. The whitish sap is preserved in the Hebrew name, levonah, and the Arabic name luban, meaning “milk.” The aroma of frankincense is sharper, more balsamic and woodsy and more penetrating than myrrh, not as sweet.

“Incense” is virtually synonymous with “frankincense,” as preserved in the Latin word for frankincense, jrancum incensutn, meaning “pure incense.”

The true cinnamon tree, C. vertim (syn.

C. zeylanicum) is native to Ceylon and the coast of India. It grows from twenty to thirty feet tall, has large leathery leaves, and its inner bark, like that of cassia when it is peeled oft the tree, curls up when dried. It is in this state that it is bundled together in lengths for export. Most cooks and bakers encounter cinnamon as a powder, but if you’ve ever bought stick cinnamon you will notice how the edges of the sticks are tightly curled. Cinnamon has properties beyond simply smelling nice and tasting good in cakes and cookies. It has been used as a stimulant, digestive and antiseptic. In the Middle East, cinnamon is combined with sugar and water and made into a pleasing winter tea.

Galbanum

Who has not heard of cinnamon, an important ingredient with cassia in holy oil? They are often mentioned alone or together in old herbal recipes for making perfumes and ointments.

Cassia is also called “bastard cinnamon” because it was (and is) substituted for the more expensive true cinnamon. It is the inner bark of the cassia tree, Cinnamomum aromaticum, and is native to East Asia where it may reach thirty feet in height. Its bark is

49

Exotic spices such as cinnamon and cassia would have had to come to ancient Israel from a great distance. Is this possible? Zohary maintains that they and other drugs and perfumes originating in tlae East could have reached southeast Arabia via the “silk route” from the East (5), and from there, to Israel, Egypt, and other centers by way of tire famous camel caravans of the “incense route,” which originated in southern Arabia.

The incense route was undoubtedly the source for myrrh and frankincense.

The other well-worn route for moving precious substances not locally available was from Syria to Egypt by way of Israel (ancient Canaan),

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and is mentioned in the Bible when Josephs brothers, looking up, "saw a caravan ofIshmaelites coming from Gilead, their camels bearing gum, balm, and ladanum to be taken to Egypt” (Genesis 37:25).

Perhaps this latter route supplied galbanum (helbenah in Hebrew), a fragrant resin for incense with a greenish tint, thought to be exuded from the stems and root of a species of Ferula native to Persia. The plant looks like an oversize fennel with similar finely cut foliage. Because of its bitter taste (in common with most resinous gums) and its reputed strange aroma (not entirely pleasant), the rabbis drew the moral lesson that “A public fast in which transgressors do not participate is no fast. For though the odor given forth by galbanum is unpleasant, it is nevertheless one of the essential ingredients of the fragrant spices of the incense offering.”1'’

Stacte There is no consensus about the identity of stacte (natajm Hebrew) in die Tabernacles incense. Considered to be a resinous gum, it has been identified as liquid myrrh from either Commiphora gileadensis, a shrub that grows wild in southern Arabia (perhaps it was also grown in ancient Israel in the tropical conditions ofJericho and Ein-Gedi, where equipment for the commercial production of balm was found), or from Liquidambar orientalis,' a medium-size tree with a weeping habit, native to Cyprus, Rhodes, and western Turkey, whose resin is said to smell like benzoin.

Other Ingredients Almost all the ingredients for the anointing oil and incense, of those that can be identified, were raw, unprocessed gums, resins or bark—“aromatic cane,” probably a species ofsweet grass, (Cymbopogon spp.), is an exception. They were very useful in this form, and although expensive, not as costly as powders or oils would be.

Resins, moreover, especially myrrh and frankincense, possess fixative properties, which goes a long way toward explaining their prominent role in perfuming oils and incense.

Curiously, this important characteristic

which focuses almost exclusively on identifying the ingredients and their source rather than their properties. To a working perfumer this information would be vital.

A fixative is like a preservative; it both absorbs the fleeting scents of other ingredients and slowly releases them along with its own scent. Orris root, derived from Iris xgermanica Albicans,’ I. ‘Fiorentina’ and I. pallida ‘Dalmatica,’ and sandalwood chips (Santalum spp.) are examples of fixatives. These, as well as myrrh and frankincense, are still widely used in the production of potpourri, a mix of dried flowers. A fixative gives the products to which it is added a longer shelflife. Think of those huge piles of a year’s worth of incense stored in the Temple.

It has been suggested that the besamim (perfume) box full of spices at the Havdalah, or separating ceremony, of the Jewish Sabbath is in memory of the custom of burning incense in the Templevi. A traditional interpretation for the presence and benediction of the spice box is that perceptions and enjoyments through the sense of smell are the most delicate; that they afford not gross, material pleasure, but rather a spiritual one; and that the perfume of spices is, therefore, a comfort to the over-soul of the Sabbath (neshama yeterah, the extra soul bestowed to the Sabbath keeper), which grieves when the holy day departs (4). Which takes us back to the Tabernacle’s perfumed holy anointing oil and incense, to please God as sweet aromas please us.

is never mentioned in the literature,

Myrrh (Commiphoraspp.) is barren of leaves for most of the year. Photo by Mark HZ Skinner @ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database

Endnotes i.

In Nigel Hepper, Illustrated Encyclopedia of Bible Plants, the author estimates that the amount of substances in the anointing oil “by the sanctuary weight” (Exodus 30:24) would equal about 5 lbs., 7 oz. for the fragrant cinnamon and aromatic cane, and twice that amount for the myrrh and cassia. These would be mixed in a hin of olive oil, which the Jewish Study Bible in its “Weights and Measures Table” 2105, equates with 1.012 gallons.

ii.

In Neot Kedumim’s “Self-Guided Tour” booklet for Trail “B," Nogah Hareuveni suggests that mor could have come from the moriah plant, a fragrant species of sage, or Salvia. “It is possible that the moriah is the source of this spice [myrrh] as written by the Sages: ‘Mor is chief of all the perfumes; it is the patriarch Abraham who sacrificed his son Isaac on Mount Moriah’ (Shir Hashirim Rabba 3,5).’”

iii.

Hepper, quoted from a Victorian traveler in 1857.

iv.

Cited in Torah and Flora by Lois I. Rabinowitz, in the chapter “Sinner’s Spice,” as the reason why, prior to the recitation of the Koi Nidrei on the High Holidays, a public pronouncement is made that “we hearby declare it permitted to pray together with the transgressors.”

v.

Grieve cites Pliny, a first century C.E. Roman writer, as the source for identifying stacte as liquid myrrh. The other two identifications are found in Zohary and elsewhere.

vi.

In Nature in Our Biblical Heritage, author Nogah Hareuveni writes, “Whenever possible, as in the land of Israel, a piece of the fragrant hadass (Myrtus conununis), a glossy-leaved shrub and one of the Four Species of Sukkot is used, from which the custom arose of calling the spice box ‘hadass’.”

Jo Ann Gardner is a member at large from New York who lives in the foothills of the Adirondacks.

She is the author of Herbs in Bloom and Elegant Silvers: Striking Plants for Every Garden (with Karen Bussolini). Jo Ann is currently working on a book on the impact of land and flora on the first five books of the Hebrew Bible.

References 1.

Grieve, Mrs. M. 1971. A modern herbal. New York: Dover Publications.

2.

Manniche, Lisa. 1989. An ancient Egyptian herbal. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

3.

Metzger, Bruce and Michael David Coogan, eds.. 1993. The Oxford companion to the Bible.

New York: Oxford University Press.

4.

Singer, Isidore, cd. 1901-1906. The Jewish encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnails.

5.

Zohary, Michael. Plants of the Bible. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Bibliography Hepper, Nigel. Illustrated Encyclopedia ofBible Plants. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1992.

Hareuveni, Nogah. Nature in Our Biblical Heritage. Israel: Neot Kedumim, 1980.

Rabinowitz, Louis I. Torah and Flora. New York: Sanhedrin Press, 1977.

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by Bryna O’Sullivan and Cynthia Nobles erbs and spices have a long traditional use as a flavoring for food, but they have another role as “tisane” or to use the American term, “herbal tea." American tea-drinking has undergone a recent renaissance, with ever-growing numbers of tea salons, tea shops, and gourmet teas. AsJane McCabe noted in a 2005 edition of the Tea dr Coffee Trade Journal, “Tea salons are becoming the chic place to go.” The phenomenon is no surprise. In this age of organics and health consciousness, teas make a low-sugar drink alternative to soda. Herbal teas, which contain no caffeine, can only be a better option (3).

later as beverages (19).“Tisanieres” or medical tea-making facilities existed well into the twentieth century, and can be viewed in museums of hospital history such as the Musee de lAssistance Publique (Paris). New flavorings came out of experimentation with new leaves, new tastes and new situations (4). Although many eastern and non-industrial nations still rely on herbs to cure ills, for the western world today, steeping herbs is simply a tranquil social ritual, a way to pamper ourselves or enjoy time with friends (4).

Experimenting with new brews can allow the cook to practice his or her hobby outside the kitchen.

We drink these mixes on a daily basis, recalling familiar scents from home as they mix with other more foreign ones.

But where do the flavorful leaves and flowers that make up these mixes come from? What have they been used for in the past? Are there rules for combining these herbs and spices to make tisane? A quick look at the histories of Cinnamomum verum, better known as cinnamon, Rosmarinus officinalis, the familiar rosemary, along with the “exotic” lavender, Lavandula angustifolia, will answer these questions, and will also show how easy it is to create signature tea recipes.

Cinnamon

What we call herbal “teas” in reality contain no true tea (which is made from the leaves of Camellia sinensis), but instead are made from leaves, stems, fruits and roots of other plants. Steeping leaves and flowers creates an infusion, as opposed to a decoction, which is a drink made from simmering the woody parts of plants. Infusions can be made with either fresh or dried ingredients. For the best flavor, however, organics are encouraged whenever possible.

Cinnamon, (Cinriamomutn verum, syn. C. zeylanicum) is native to Sri Lanka and is without a doubt the most common flavoring for herbal teas. The common name of the spice is probably derived from the Hebrew qinnanion or the Greek kinnamomon.

There are other plants called cinnamon, most notably Cinnamomum aromaticum (syn. C. cassia), which is native to China. Although C. verum is considered the "true” cinnamon, C. aromaticum is often used as a substitute and the lore of the two plants has become mixed.

C. verum has a warm and peppery flavor, which primarily has been associated with Middle Eastern cuisine (10). It has commonly been used as an ingredient in bakery goods. The primary form of culinary cinnamon comes from the inner

Most herbal teas are infusions, although they are better known as tisanes; the word comes from the Latin ptisana.

Historically tisanes were used first as medicine and then 53

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bark of the 20-60-foot cinnamon tree (13). In addition to the bark, cinnamon oil is widely used for candies, soft drinks, liqueurs and toiletries; leaves are used to flavor dishes like grilled meats and curries (11).

Cinnamon has been a tradable commodity for centuries (10).

References to the spice can be found in Egyptian writings from as far back as 2800 B.C.E. (10). The Bible mentions cinnamon several times, including as part of the anointing oils for Moses (18). Ancient Chinese writings referred to cinnamon as the “Tree of Life." (6) Because of its difficulty in importation,

Refreshing Rosemary Infusion 2 teaspoons dried rosemary 1/2 teaspoon dried oregano ¥2 teaspoon dried mint

Pour 3 cups boiling water over herbs. Cover pot (top and spout), and steep T5 minutes. Strain into cup. ' k

it was highly valued and highly expensive; its use was restricted to the very rich and very powerful (18). The Roman Emperor Nero burned a year’s worth of sacred cinnamon in the funeral pyre of his dead wife, a testament to his grief (12). Though it was first and foremost

Lazy Lavender Afternoon Take a pot of this fragrant tisane with you to the hammock.

1 tablespoon dried lavender blooms V2 teaspoon dried peppermint Pour 2 cups boiling water over herbs. Cover pot (top and spout), and steep 15 minutes. Strain into cup.

This history can be formed into your daily life as a new drink. A successful tisane starts with a strongly flavored herb, with more delicate additions adding depth. Anise, for example, is a powerful flavor, and could be softened with a minty violet or flowery jasmine.

Cinnamon is an excellent base for a tisane and can be complimented with more subde flavors like rose hips or chamomile. Keep this in mind as we show the history ofseveral other possible bases: rosemary and lavender.

Rosemary used in a religious sense, the spice has held value for other reasons.

Outside of religious practices, there were many other uses for cinnamon.

The earliest culinary use of cinnamon was for flavoring wine (18). It could also hide the ill taste of spoiling meat and limit illness; as modern society has proved, it kills bacteria (20). Its second role was medicinal. During the Middle Ages, Europe’s elites used cinnamon to cure colds and digestive problems (18). For this group, it also served another use; it was popular to flaunt wealth by offering piles of cinnamon to guests (18). In the Victorian language of flowers, cinnamon stands for “My fortune is yours." (15) The popular spice has, sadly, resulted in much dispute over territory. During the sixteenth century, the Portuguese invaded Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) to gain control of the cinnamon trade (12). A hundred years later the Dutch wrangled control of Ceylon’s cinnamon plantations from Po^ugal (12) as a part ofa sea (6). In 1795, the English took antral of the area (9). With end of the age of empire and tlie resulting peace, cinnamon took a much wider foothold.

Today cinnamon grows in most .»tropical areas of the world (10).

Rosemary is primarily known as a culinary herb, but its pungent flavor makes a strong yet excellent tisane.

Bearing the scientific name Rosmarinus officinalis, the word rosemary originates from the Latin ros (dew), and marinus (sea) (1). In the language of flowers, it stands for remembrance (9).

Iced August Brew A brilliant pink, the color of the brew will be as strong as its flavor.

3 teaspoons dried rosemary 1 teaspoon dried lemongrass leaves 1 teaspoon dried spearmint 1 teaspoon dried hibiscus flower (use food-grade only) Pour 4 cups boiling water over herbs. Cover pot (top and spout), and steep 10 minutes. Strain into pitcher and dilute with 1 cup cold water. Pour over ice. Makes 4 tall glasses.

In mild climates, rosemary grows to about three feet tall and is often used in the landscape (17). The herb blooms in spring or early summer, and both its leaves and flowers can be used in tea (17). Rosemary prefers full sun, but can withstand cooler temperatures.

Cold Weather Cup A teacup, a fireplace, and thou.

4 cups boiling water 1 tablespoon dried lemon balm 1 tablespoon dried chamomile 1 stick cinnamon

of the herb to remember the deceased (10). Colonists brought rosemary to America, where they over-wintered their cherished plants indoors (10). It is still used both symbolically and in culinary methods today, but it must be noted that overuse may be harmful (5).

Lavender Pour boiling water over herbs and cinnamon in teapot. Cover and steep 5 minutes. Strain into cups.

Makes enough for four cups.

Some cultivars are hardy to Zone 6, but most must be brought indoors in the winter in Zone 8 and colder. Plant in well-drained soil, and be careful not to overwater (1).

Indigenous to the Mediterranean region, this strongly scented plant has often been associated with memory (1). Classical to modern authors make reference to that meaning. The plants migrated to Northern Europe in the packs of Roman soldiers (10). With the migration, its symbolic attributes multiplied. Traditionally, rosemary was used in a charm to ward off evil (5). In the Middle Ages newlyweds carried rosemary during the marriage ceremony as a symbol of fidelity (10). It was also used to perfume the castle hall (17). At funerals, mourners wore sprigs

In contrast to cinnamon, lavender (Lavandula spp.) rarely appears in commercial tea preparations, although it is a wildly popular garden plant.

Aromatherapy circles know it as one of the preferred essential oils; ten times more is sold of that oil in the United States each year than any other oil (21).

It is occasionally used in cooking as flavor for desserts (17), and it makes a wonderful tisane.

The word lavender comes from the Latin, lavo (to wash) (9) and stands for “distrust” in the Victorian language of flowers (14). The plant’s long, willowy, flower-spiked stems release a sweet scent when touched (13). The blooms’ colors range from light to dark purple, and a multitude of varieties exist with varying hardiness (2). Happy in mostly dry soil, it grows in full sun (2).

There are many species of lavender; most are native to the Mediterranean region (8). It was introduced throughout Europe by the Romans, migrated with colon! and has__

been spreading throughout the world ever since. A favorite in perfumes and potpourri for centuries, lavender has also been used in medicine and cooking (1). Protective connotations for the flowers exist in some societies (16). Today, lavender is used mostly for its scent (17). Highly cultivated across Europe, dried lavender is a popular souvenir of the famous French Provence region (8).

New Ideas for Creating Tisanes Herb combinations are endless, so we hope that understanding the history of these few herbs might help bring you some new ideas in the present.

At the very least, we hope that you might begin to consider the multitude of plants that you grow in your home garden in a new way. These few cited herbs and spices are not the only ones with a long history.

When concocting your own brews, remember that dried herbs are stronger than fresh. And pre-bagged herbs are fine for convenience, but nothing is quite as satisfying as sipping on your own favorite mixes growing from your own garden. Try spicing up thyme with peppermint, or mellow out fennel with sage. In time, you will learn what works for you.

Start out with a familiar flavor, and don’t worry about quantities. As a general rule, however, one teaspoon of dried herbs per cup of water is sufficient, but more or less can always be used to suit individual tastes. A clean pot or cup with a cover is essential, as is freshly boiled water. Fresh water contains more oxygen, and higher oxygen levels help release the full flavor of delicate herbs. Tisanes are best when steeped at least five minutes; it takes longer than regular tea for the flavors to come out. A common kitchen sieve works to strain the herbs from the pot, or use a tea ball for a little flair.

With a little practice, even a novice can master the art of creating your own personal blends in no time at all.

Package them decoratively for gifts or keep them all for yourself!

10.

Garland, Sarah. 1993. The complete book ofherbs and spices: an illustrated guide to growing and using culinary, aromatic, cosmetic and medicinal plants. Pleasantville, NY: Readers Digest.

11.

George, Leslie and Toshi Otsuki. A touch ofcinnamon. Victoria [online], (October 1998): 12(10) Ebscohost.com (accessed June 2,2008).

12.

Gottfreid, Kyle. The homestead kitchen: all about cinnamon. Countryside and small stock journal, Jan. 1,2007. http://elibrary. bigchalk.com (accessed June 2,2008).

13.

Green, Aliza. 2006. Field guide to herbs dr spices: how to identify, select, and use virtually every seasoning at the market.

Philadelphia: Quirk Books.

14.

Heriteau, Jacqueline. 1975. Herbs: how to grow and use them. New York: Grossctt & Dunlap.

15.

The history of cinnamon. Home cooking [online]. http://homeocooking. about.com/od/foodhistory /a/ cinnamonhistory.htm (accessed June 2, 2008).

16.

History of lavender, www.lavenderfarm. com/history.htm (accessed June 2, 2008).

17.

McVicar, Jekka. 2002. The new book of herbs: garden, kitchen, home, health. New York: DK Publishing.

References 1.

Bremness, Lesley. 1988. The complete book ofherbs: a practical guide to growing and using herbs. New York: Viking Studio Books.

18.

Osborne, Troy David. A taste of paradise: cinnamon, http://bell.lib.umn.edu/ Products/cinnamon.html (accessedJune 2, 2008).

2.

Brennan, Georgeanne and Mimi Luebbermann. 1997. Little herb gardens: simple secretsforglorious gardens - indoors and out. San Francisco: Chronicle Books.

19.

Perry, Sara. 1997. The book ofherbal teas.

San Francisco: Chronicle Books.

20.

3.

Brown, Kathleen. 1999. Herbal teas. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing.

Science Daily. Cinnamon is a lethal weapon against £. coli bacteria.http:// www.sciencedaily.comreleases/1999/08/ 990806074926 (accessedJune 2,2008).

4.

Chevallier, Andrew. 1996. Encyclopedia of herbal medicine. New York: DK Publishing.

21.

5.

Clevely, Andi and Katherine Richmond.

1994. The complete book ofherbs: the ultimate guide to herbs and their uses. New York: Smithmark.

Warda, Rosie. A love of lavender. Global cosmetic industry (March 2003): 171(3) http://proquest.umi.com/pqderb?did=3 2075691 J&Fmt=4&clientId=28972&R QT-309&VName=PQD (accessedJune 2, 2008).

6.

Com, Charles. 1998. The scents ofEden: a narrative ofthe spice trade. New York: Kodansha International.

7.

Day, Avanelle and Lillie Stuckey. 1968.

The spice cookbook. Gosset & Dunlap: New York.

8.

Gabriel, Ingrid. 1979. Herb identifier & handbook. New York: Sterling Publishing Co.

9.

Gardner, Jo Ann. 1997. Living with herbs: a treasury ofuseful plantsfor the home and garden. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press.

THE HERBARLST ■'V- Issue 76 2010

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Bryna O'Sullivan holds a B.A. in History and French Literature from Tufts University.

She has an interest in a wide range of historical topics, including medieval history, gardening and the American Civil War. She is also an avid gardener and especially loves learning about and raising herbs.

Cynthia Nobles is a food historian and contributing writer to the Newcomb College Culinary History Writers Group. She earned her degree in American History from the University of New Orleans and was a feature writer for the newly released book New Orleans Cuisine. Her Delta Queen Cookbook is coming out September 2010 and she is working on a new book, Southern Plantation Cooking, for release in 2012. She is a native of lota, Louisiana and lives in Baton Rouge with her husband Howard.

A Great Place to Visit A Great Place to Grow Herbs —T

From the mountains to the sea x NC gardeners grow herbs for use and beauty. The North Carolina Unit maintains^i&jb^r a rosemary collection at the North Carolina Botanical Garden in Chapel Hill. We extend an invitation for you to tour our collection and visit our web site, www.ncherbsociety.org

THE NORTH CAROLINA UNIT Greensboro, North Carolina

Ho’wdy Y’all! from

The Herb Society of America, Unit Supporting the Herb Gardens at Festival Hill, the Brenham Elementary Sensory Garden and the University of Texas Center for American History’s 1860’s McGregor Garden at Winedale

Come Join us at the 16th Annual Herbal Forum at Round Top March 18 & 19, 2011

P.O. Box 23 Round Top, TX 78954 herbsocietypioneer.org

“Getting Down to the Roots” A study of herbal roots and organic gardening.

For information on the Herbal Forum please visit herbsocietypioneer.org, festivalhill.org, or call 979-249-3129

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THE HERBARIST

Issue 76 2010

Lemony Herbs or Lotions Potions & Tokens A Compendium of Honey Wisdom and Herbal Recipes Our herbal booklets, ordering information at our website

PennsuCvctm'ii Heartland. Herb

Society.

!> Society of JiMferiae

Jt unib

For Information on our 30th Herbal Delights Symposium June 2012 Check Our Website: PHHSA.homestead.com

T)hioHerb

/ied> s/toft anda/todtecamf maaecton Nestled into an old general store, our

Education Center

An Herbal destination

herbal products for the body home and health, and home and garden dccore

Through its mission of education, the Herb Center offers informative classes, workshops, publications and products featuring the use of herbs for, but not limited to, culinary, decorative, garden, medicinal and

Greenleaf, M 5,126 1-920 W816

-I madurfornna ItlUn aurorasapothuaiySfiw i (hegroup an (acehook, for pidura, updates. andt -Tondour product on dsy.com

home applications.

The Center is located in the City of Gahanna—the Herb Capital of Ohio— just east of downtown Columbus and adjacent to Port Columbus International Airport in the heart of Gahanna. The Nafzger-Miller house, in which the Herb Center is located, is listed in the National Register of Historical Places with the original structure being built in 1855 and additions made to the home in 1910. The center includes a gift shop, parlor and kitchen and is used for classes, parties.

A print /magazine filled "vuith Lore, recipe;, craAtf, reredieF,!

meetings and rentals.

Hours: Wed-Fri: 1 Oam - 5pm Sat: ioam-2pm Other: by Appointment

3«d ruCh rore.

For kerbieF, vuritte^ by herbieF*.

vuvuvu.eFFeHtialherbal.cor> 1354 W. Ftrickler Rd. ~ Manheir’, PA ~ 17545

110 Mill St. • Gahanna. OH 43230 ‘ 614.342.4380 • www.ohioh8rbcenter.org

THE HERBARIST •<*/• Issue 76 2010

Melissa Hook 3197 Mill 81

58

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- 20/0

The New England Unit of The Herb Society of America t/tememtre/'ina Giw- Gauntlet's <With/ tu'atilude Anne Burrage Florence Bratenahl Harriet Brown Adeline. Cole Ellen.Greenslet Corinna Mitchell Frances Norton “For use and delight, For friendship, learning and herbs---Seventy-five years"

59

C.F. Hitchings

THE HERBAR1ST

Issue 76 2010

The Virginia Commonwealth Unit Invites you to visit the herb garden we designed, planted & maintain at the: John Marshall House

Ml.

iw

818 East Marshall Street Richmond, Virginia

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safe

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And the medicinal herb garden we designed and planted at:

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Henricus Historical Park

P.O. Box 523 Chesterfield, Virginia

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Visit us at our booth at Maymont’s Herbs Galore & More. The popular herb festival is Virginia’s largest and oldest herb event and is held the last Saturday of April each year. Our unit specializes in peppers and pelargoniums.

Maymont

1700 Hampton Street Richmond, Virginia

A unit of The Herb Society of America, Inc. since 1987.

THEHERBARIST -‘V- Issue 76 2010

60

Udi invites you to visit their garden at the Grosse Pointe War Memorial, 32 Lakeshore Dr., Grosse Pointe Farms

Please attend the Annual Herb & Holly Boutique November 20, 2010 9:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m.

Call 586-773-6682 for more information.

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THE HERBARIST

M.

Issue76 2010

Join us in 2011 for the HSA Annual Meeting and Education Conference

Western Pennsylvania Unit of The Herb Society of America Member Since 1958

Visit our Elizabethan Garden in Mellon Park and our Medicinal and Dye Garden in Old Economy Village

Celebrating 50 years of herbs

Two Crewel Kits

designed by our own

Sidney Duerr A Fragrant Herb Garden”

and Herbs for Use and Delight” $ 60 each (including shipping)

Contact: Liz DePiero (Jartfcn

J^XCRSS** dUSLflHp’pUlCHT

270 Arden Rd., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15216 Iizarddep@verizon.com

The Herb Society of America

The Ozark Unit of Arkansas Since 2006

invites you to attend our

Annual Herb Sale Come and Explore The Heritage Gardens

Maij 12th, 2011

& Herb Shoppe and to visit the gardens our members lovingly tend:

Ozark Folk Center 1032 Park Avenue

The Pragrant Garden Tyler Arboretum Lima, FA

Mountain View, AR 72560 www.ozarkfolkcenter. com

IS'11 Century Medicinal Herb Garden Historic Yellow Springs Chester Springs, PA

Attend annual events: Spring Heritage Extravaganzas Fall Herb Harvest Festival & Symposium

Visit us at www.hsapbiladclphia.org THE HERBARIST

Issue 76 2010

62

The Connecticut Unit

T7w Sferb Society of America, In

Tidewater Unit fittp://tmyurCcom/JferbSociety-'T'idewater

The Tidewater Unit meets the secondSunday of October, January, April & June at T/orfoCk Botanical (garden in T/orfoCk, 'Virginia

Sponsor an article in THE

herbarist The Herbarist needs your support! Sponsotarf article yourself or surprise a friend or colleague by sponsoring an article in their honor. Makes a great memorial, too!

For more information, contact Robin Siktberg at 440.256.0514 or rsiktberg@herbsociety.org

SOUTH T£XAs UNIT Invites you to Wsit

Our &ar£ei\ —

Our educational Events “

The Pregrant Careen in

Spring Kerb Day

Parfc

Pall Herbal Harvest Pair

Our Website POr Unit Tn-£or>natiOn av\d

Our cOa/icC Tn-€onnatiOn P.O. EOX 65<G

Details o£ events f Meetings

Houston, TX 77z-6ff-65lff

iPU'U'herbsOciety-stu.Org

7(3-ffrS—1808

» AunitocTUftUe^bso^ie-6Ya€ America s^e^ «

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THE HERBARIST -m- Issue76 2010

The Central Ohio Unit "f The Herb Society ofAmerica

We cordially invite you to visit our Herb Garden at Inniswood Metro Gardens 940 South Hempstead Road Westerville, Ohio

Our garden features a collection of over fifty different thymes among a delightful display of herbs grown for both their ornamental and herbal attributes.

Annual Plant Sale The first weekend in May at Inniswood Metro Gardens

It’s About Thyme

~When you visit Nashville. Tennessee. rhe "Athens ofthe SoutK. be sure to

THE HER BAR 1ST

Issue 76 2010

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