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The Routledge Handbook of Language and Culture 1st Edition Farzad Sharifian
Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society
The Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society is an interdisciplinary resource that focuses on contemporary Japan and the social and cultural trends that are important at the beginning of the twenty-first century. This Handbook provides a cutting-edge and comprehensive survey of significant phenomena, institutions, and directions in Japan today, on issues ranging from gender and family, the environment, race and ethnicity, and urban life, to popular culture and electronic media.
Written by an international team of Japan experts, the chapters included in the volume form an accessible and fascinating insight into Japanese culture and society. As such, the Handbook will be an invaluable reference tool for anyone interested in all things Japanese. Students, teachers, and professionals alike will benefit from the broad-ranging discussions, useful links to online resources, and suggested reading lists.
The Handbook will be of interest across a wide range of disciplines, including: Japanese Studies, Cultural Studies, Anthropology, Sociology, and Asian Studies in general.
Victoria Lyon Bestor is Executive Director of the North American Coordinating Council on Japanese Library Resources.
Theodore C. Bestor is Reischauer Institute Professor of Social Anthropology and Japanese Studies at Harvard University.
Akiko Yamagata is a Museum Educator, focusing on East Asian art, at the Harvard Art Museums.
“Few books offer such a broad and kaleidoscopic view of the complex and contested society that is contemporary Japan. Students and professionals alike may use this as a stand-alone reference text, or as an invitation to explore the increasingly diverse range of Japan-related titles offered by Routledge.”
Joy Hendry, Professor of Social Anthropology and Director of the Europe Japan Research Centre at Oxford Brookes University, UK
“This is the first reference work you should pick up if you want an introduction to contemporary Japanese society and culture. Eminent specialists skillfully pinpoint key developments and explain the complex issues that have faced Japan and the Japanese since the end of World War II.”
Elise K. Tipton, Honorary Associate Professor of Japanese Studies in the School of Languages and Cultures at the University of Sydney, Australia
Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society
Edited by Victoria Lyon Bestor and Theodore C. Bestor, with Akiko Yamagata
First published 2011 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY10016
Routledge is an impr int of the Taylor & Francis Group, an infor ma business
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2 011
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The right of Victoria Lyon Bestor and Theodore C. Bestor to be identified as editors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patent Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Routledege handbook of Japanese culture and society/edited by Victoria Lyon Bester and Theodore C. Bestor, with Akiko Yamagata.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Japan–Civilization–21st century. 2. Japan–Social conditions–21st century. I. Lyon-Bestor,Victoria. II. Bestor, Theodore C. III.Yamagata, Akiko.
DS822.5.R68 2011
952.05–dc22 2010043729
I S B N 0-203-81845-8 Master e-b ook I S B N
ISBN 978-0-415-43649-6 (hbk)
ISBN 978-0-203-81845-9 (ebk)
6.1 A line of spectators awaits entry to the Supreme Court Building in Tokyo
16.1 The International House of Japan, exterior view, c. 1956
16.2 Tange Kenzo-, National Gymnasium, Tokyo, 1964
14.3 Life expectancy at birth and total fertility rate of Japan
Notes on contributors
Theodore C. Bestor is Reischauer Institute Professor of Social Anthropology and Japanese Studies at Harvard University. He will be President of the Association for Asian Studies during 2012–13. His books include Tsukiji: The Fish Market at the Center of the World (University of California Press, 2004) and Neighborhood Tokyo (Stanford University Press, 1989). He has published extensively on Tokyo, markets, auctions, and the impact of global fisheries on local economies, international management regimes, and the environment. He is the co-editor of Doing Fieldwork in Japan (University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003). His current research interests include the global fishing industry, the commodification of regional cuisine in Japan, and the visual representation of nineteenth- and twentieth-century Tokyo. His website is available at http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~bestor/.
Victoria Lyon Bestor has served as the Executive Director of the North American Coordinating Council on Japanese Library Resources (the NCC) since 1999, where she has helped develop information resources for those interested in Japan, making them freely available to users everywhere. NCC’s most recent creation is the Image Use Protocol Website, which offers guidelines on best practices for image use and bilingual templates for permission, available on the NCC website at http://www.nccjapan.org/. Her research interests include the role of Rockefeller philanthropy in Japan and its impact on the development of Japan’s civil sector. She is the co-editor of Doing Fieldwork in Japan (University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003) and is co-editing a book on Japanese cuisine and consumption.
William H. Coaldrake is Professorial Fellow at the University of Melbourne. He was born in Japan of Australian missionary parents, received his doctorate from Harvard University and was Lecturer on Fine Arts at Harvard for three years before returning to Australia. From 1992–2007 he was the Foundation Professor of Japanese and head of Japanese Studies at the University of Melbourne. He has also been a Visiting Research Fellow in the Department of Architecture of the University of Tokyo, Senior Research Fellow at the Australian National University, and Edwin O. Reischauer Visiting Professor of Japanese Studies at Harvard University. His books include The Way of the Carpenter:Tools and Japanese Architecture (Weatherhill, 1990) and Architecture and Authority in Japan (Routledge, 1996).
Ian Condry is Associate Professor of Comparative Media Studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He is the author of Hip-Hop Japan: Rap and the Paths of Cultural Globalization (Duke University Press, 2006), published in Japanese in 2009 as Nihon no Hip-Hop. His second book, The Soul of Anime: Collaborative Creativity and Japan’s Media Success Story, is in press, with Duke, and he recently began research for The Uses of Social Media: An Ethnographic Comparison of
Japan and the US. He is the organizer of the joint MIT–Harvard project Cool Japan: Media, Culture and Technology. Ian Condry’s website is at http://iancondry.com.
Peter Duus, an historian of modern Japan, is William E. Bonsall Professor of History Emeritus at Stanford University. After completing an AB in History at Harvard College and service in the US Army, he did graduate work at the University of Michigan and at Harvard University, where he received his PhD in History. His published work includes Party Rivalry and Political Change in Taisho ¯ Japan (Harvard University Press, 1968), The Abacus and the Sword:The Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895–1910 (University of California Press, 1995), The Japanese Discovery of America (Bedford Books, 1997), several edited volumes on Japanese colonialism and imperialism, and numerous articles on Japan’s modern intellectual, economic, and colonial history. He is the editor of Volume 6 of the Cambridge History of Japan (Cambridge University Press, 1988) and the author of two widely used textbooks, Feudalism in Japan and Modern Japan. In 2000–01 he served as President of the Association for Asian Studies.
Aaron Gerow is Associate Professor in Japanese Cinema in the Film Studies Program and the Department of East Asian Languages and Literatures at Yale University. His monograph Kitano Takeshi was published by the British Film Institute in 2007 and A Page of Madness by the Center for Japanese Studies at the University of Michigan in 2008. He co-authored Research Guide to Japanese Film Studies (Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, 2009) with Abé Mark Nornes. His book on early Japanese film culture, Visions of Japanese Modernity: Articulations of Cinema, Nation, and Spectatorship, 1895–1925, was published in 2010 by the University of California Press, with a Japanese version expected from University of Tokyo Press. He is currently preparing manuscripts on the history of Japanese film theory and on 1990s Japanese film. He also manages the KineJapan mailing list and runs his own Japanese film website, Tangemania. His website is at http://www.aarongerow.com/.
Roger Goodman is Nissan Professor of Modern Japanese Studies and Head of the Social Sciences Division at the University of Oxford. His main research interests lie in the education and social welfare systems of modern Japan. He is the author of Japan’s ‘International Youth’: The Emergence of a New Class of Schoolchildren (Oxford University Press, 1990) and Children of the Japanese State: The Changing Role of Child Protection Institutions in Contemporary Japan (Oxford University Press, 2000) and the joint author or editor of a further eight books, including Family and Social Policy in Japan (Cambridge University Press, 2002) and, most recently, The ‘Big Bang’ in Japanese Higher Education:The 2004 Reforms and the Dynamics of Change (Trans Pacific Press, 2005) and Ageing in Asia: Asia’s Position in the New Global Demography (Routledge, 2007). He is currently writing a monograph on the reform of the Japanese higher education system.
Nanette Gottlieb is Professor of Japanese Studies in the Japan Program of the School of Languages and Comparative Cultural Studies at the University of Queensland in Brisbane, Australia. She is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Professorial Fellowship (2007–11) for a major research project on “Immigration, technology and literacy: key challenges for language policy in a changing Japan.” Her research interests center on the sociology of language in Japan, particularly the written language, and she has published widely on the development of modern written Japanese, on the impact of technology on written Japanese, and on the use of language on the Internet in Japan. Her books include Linguistic Stereotyping and Minority Groups in Japan (Routledge, 2006), Language and Society in Japan (Cambridge University Press, 2005), and Japanese Cybercultures (Routledge, 2003, co-edited with Mark McLelland).
Koichi Iwabuchi is Professor of Media and Cultural Studies at the School of International Liberal Studies,Waseda University. His work includes cultural globalization and transnationalism, East Asian media cultural connections, multicultural questions and cultural citizenship, and cultural policy issues. He is, together with Chris Berry, an editor of the book series TransAsia Cultures: Screen (Hong Kong University Press). His publications include Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism (Duke University Press, 2002) and East Asian Pop Culture: Analyzing the Korean Wave, co-edited with Chua Beng Huat (Hong Kong University Press, 2008). His new book, Undoing Cool Japan: Culture and Administration in the Age of Brand Nationalism (tentative title) will be forthcoming from Paradigm Publishers in 2011.
William W. Kelly is Professor of Anthropology, the Sumitomo Professor of Japanese Studies, and Chair of the Department of Anthropology at Yale University. Since 1996, he has been conducting field research in the Kansai area of Japan on the history and present patterns of professional baseball in the cities of Osaka and Kobe. He has published many articles in English and Japanese on this work and is now finishing a book on one of the Kansai clubs, the Hanshin Tigers, entitled The Hanshin Tigers and the Practices of Professional Baseball in Modern Japan He has edited and contributed to Fanning the Flames: Fandoms and Consumer Culture in Contemporary Japan (SUNY Press, 2004), This Sporting Life: Sports and Body Culture in Modern Japan (Council on East Asian Studies, Yale University, 2007), and The Olympics in East Asia (Greekworks, 2010).
Robin M. LeBlanc is Professor of Politics at Washington and Lee University in Virginia. She has investigated how social identities such as gender have structured what it is possible or difficult to do in public life in surprising ways for both men and women, but she has also worked to record the practices through which individuals manage to express an ethical agency that is simultaneously built of and challenging to the structures that constrain them. She is the author of two political ethnographies – Bicycle Citizens: The Political World of the Japanese Housewife (University of California Press, 1999) and The Art of the Gut: Manhood, Power, and Ethics in Japanese Politics (University of California Press, 2010) – as well as a number of articles on gender and politics. Currently, she is working on two projects, an examination of how changing residential architecture is shaping community in Japan, and an auto-ethnography project, The Single Mother’s Glamour Manifesto
David Leheny is the Henry Wendt III ’55 Professor of East Asian Studies at Princeton University, where he has taught since 2007. From 1998 to 2007, he was on the faculty of the Department of Political Science at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and he previously served as research associate (joshu) at the Institute of Social Science at the University of Tokyo. His publications include Think Global, Fear Local: Sex, Violence, and Anxiety in Contemporary Japan (Cornell University Press, 2006) and The Rules of Play: National Identity and the Shaping of Japanese Leisure (Cornell University Press, 2003), as well as the co-edited volume (with Kay B. Warren of Brown University) Japanese Aid and the Construction of Global Development (Routledge, 2009). His current work examines moral authority and debates about values in Japan, the United States, and Vietnam.
Mark McLelland is Associate Professor and Convenor of the Sociology Program at the University of Wollongong, Australia, and was the 2007–08 Toyota Visiting Professor of Japanese at the Center for Japanese Studies, the University of Michigan. His recent publications have
focused on the postwar history of Japanese queer cultures and the development of the Internet in Japan, and include the books Queer Japan from the Pacific War to the Internet Age (Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), Male Homosexuality in Modern Japan: Cultural Myths and Social Realities (Curzon, 2000), and the co-edited Queer Voices from Japan (Lexington, 2007), Genders, Transgenders and Sexualities in Japan (Routledge, 2005), and Japanese Cybercultures (Routledge, 2003, with Nanette Gottlieb).
Mark R. Mullins is Professor in the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Graduate School of Global Studies, Sophia University, Tokyo, where his teaching and research focus on religion in modern societies. After spending his childhood in Japan, he returned to North America for higher education, receiving his PhD from McMaster University. He is the author or co-editor of a number of works, including Religion and Society in Modern Japan (Asian Humanities Press, 1993), Perspectives on Christianity in Korea and Japan (Edwin Mellen Press, 1995), Christianity Made in Japan: A Study of Indigenous Movements (University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998), and Religion and Social Crisis in Japan: Understanding Japanese Society through the Aum Affair (Palgrave, 2001). The Japanese edition of Christianity Made in Japan (Transview, 2005) received the twenty-first Joseph Roggendorf Book Award. His current research focuses on neo-nationalism and religion–state issues in contemporary Japanese society.
Susan Napier was born and raised in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and received her undergraduate and graduate degrees from Harvard University. She held the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Professorship of Japanese Studies at the University of Texas at Austin and has also taught at Princeton, Harvard, and the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London. She is currently Professor of Japanese Studies at Tufts University. She is the author of four books: Escape from the Wasteland: Romanticism and Realism in the Fiction of Mishima Yukio and Oe Kenzaburo (Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1991); The Fantastic in Japanese Literature:The Subversion of Modernity (Routledge, 1996); Anime from Akira to Howl’s Moving Castle (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005); and From Impressionism to Anime: Japan as Fantasy and Fan Cult in the Mind of the West (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007). She is currently working on a book on the anime master Miyazaki Hayao.
Akihiro Ogawa is Assistant Professor in the Department of Japanese Studies at Stockholm University, Sweden, and also a postdoctoral fellow (2009–11) in the Institute of East Asian Studies at the University of Duisburg–Essen, Germany. He received a PhD in Anthropology from Cornell University (2004) and then conducted postdoctoral work at Harvard University. His main research interest is political anthropology, focusing on social movements, civil society, and the public sphere. His first book, The Failure of Civil Society? The Third Sector and the State in Contemporary Japan, was published in March 2009 by SUNY Press. He is currently researching his second book, New Knowledge and Globalization: Lifelong Learning in Japan for the 21st Century. Akihiro Ogawa’s academic homepage can be found at http://www.akiogawa.net/.
Lawrence Repeta has served as a lawyer, business executive, and law professor in Japan and the United States. The primary focus of Repeta’s advocacy and research is transparency in government. In 2004, he joined the faculty of the newly formed Omiya Law School, an institution created to take advantage of Japan’s historic judicial system reforms, and is now Professor in the Faculty of Law at Meiji University. He was an Abe Fellow at the National Security Archive, upon which his 2006 publication of Yami o Utsu: Secrecy and the Future of America, published in
Japanese by Nihon Hyo-ronsha, was based. He is best known in Japan as the plaintiff in a landmark suit decided by the Supreme Court of Japan in 1989 that opened Japan’s courts to note-taking by courtroom spectators. He is a founding director of Information Clearinghouse Japan, an NGO devoted to promoting open government in Japan (www.clearing-house.org).
Richard Siddle is Professor in the Research Faculty of Media and Communications at Hokkaido University, where he combines his interests in modern history and social anthropology to teach and research in the areas of race, ethnicity, nationalism, and identity politics in Japan. His work has explored these issues with regard to Japan’s indigenous Ainu people and the inhabitants of Okinawa, and he is currently researching multiculturalism in Japan. His publications include Race, Resistance and the Ainu of Japan (Routledge, 1996), Japan and Okinawa: Structure and Subjectivity (RoutledgeCurzon, 2003) and various articles and book chapters. He has held Visiting Research Fellow positions in both Hokkaido - and Okinawa, and during 2009–10 he served as Director of the Sheffield University Doshisha Centre at Doshisha University in Kyoto.
David H. Slater is Associate Professor of Cultural Anthropology and Japanese Studies in the Faculty of Liberal Arts and the Graduate Program of Global Studies at Sophia University, Tokyo, and received his PhD from the University of Chicago. He works on capitalism, education, youth, urban space, and gender. He is the co-editor, with Hiroshi Ishida, of Social Class in Contemporary Japan (Routledge, 2009). Recent articles include: “The Making of Japan’s Working Class: ‘Freeters’ and the Progression from Middle School to the Labor Market” ( Japan Focus 3279) and “The Contradictions of Masculinity under Neoliberal Japan” (under review, co-authored with Patrick Galbraith). He is currently finishing a book manuscript on youth labor from Japan Inc. to neoliberal Japan.
Carolyn S. Stevens, an anthropologist with degrees from Harvard College and Columbia University, is Associate Professor and Deputy Director of the Asia Institute, University of Melbourne, Australia. Her first book was On the Margins of Japanese Society: Volunteers and the Welfare of the Urban Underclass (Routledge, 1997). Other publications include work on the public health and welfare of foreign mothers and their children in Japan. Her other main research interest is Japanese popular music. Her latest monograph is entitled Japanese Popular Music: Culture, Authenticity and Power (Routledge, 2008). Her current research includes work on disability in Japan and Australia, including the journal article on accessibility in Tokyo, “Living with Disability in Japan” ( Japanese Studies, 2007,Vol. 27, No. 3).
Leng Leng Thang is a socio-cultural anthropologist with research interest in aging, intergenerational programming, intergenerational relationships, gender, and retirement migration. She is currently Associate Professor and Head of Department of Japanese Studies at the National University of Singapore and holds a PhD in anthropology from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. She is the author of Generations in Touch: Linking the Old and Young in a Tokyo Neighborhood (Cornell University Press, 2001), co-editor, with W.H. Yu, of Old Challenges, New Strategies? Women, Work and Family in Contemporary Asia (Brill, 2004), and numerous other articles on intergenerational issues. She is Vice-Chair of the International Consortium for Intergenerational Programs.
Paul Waley is a Senior Lecturer in Human Geography at the University of Leeds. His interests cover urban and cultural geography, both historical and contemporary, with a focus on Japan. Recent publications include Japanese Capitals in Historical Perspective: Place, Power and Memory in
Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo, co-edited with Nicolas Fiévé (RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), “Ruining and Restoring Rivers: The State and Civil Society in Japan” (Pacific Affairs, 2005, Vol. 8, No. 2), “Tokyo-as-World-City: Reassessing the Role of Capital and the State in Urban Restructuring” (Urban Studies, 2007, Vol. 44, No. 8), and “Distinctive Patterns of Industrial Urbanisation in Modern Tokyo, c. 1880–1930” ( Journal of Historical Geography, 2009,Vol. 35, No. 3).
Merry White is Professor of Anthropology at Boston University. She received her BA, MA, and PhD degrees from Harvard University. Her publications include: Perfectly Japanese: Making Families in an Era of Upheaval (University of California Press, 2002); The Material Child: Coming of Age in Japan and America (Free Press, 1993); The Japanese Educational Challenge (Free Press, 1987); and The Japanese Overseas: Can They Go Home Again? (Free Press, 1988).With Sylvan Barnet, she co-wrote Comparing Cultures: Readings on Contemporary Japan for American Writers (Bedford Books, 1995), and with Robert A. LeVine, she co-wrote Human Conditions: The Cultural Basis of Educational Development (Routledge, 1986). A frequent contributor to Gastronomica: The Journal of Food and Culture, Merry White has also written two cookbooks. She is currently completing a social history of the café in Japan. Her teaching includes courses on Japanese society, on food and culture, and on the anthropology of travel.
Akiko Yamagata received her BA from Williams College and her MA from Harvard University in Japanese art and culture. She is a Museum Educator, focusing on East Asian art, at the Harvard Art Museums. Her current projects include an article on Japanese sweets and a translation of a sixteenth-century narrative hand scroll.
RUSSIA
CHINA
NORTH KOREA
Hokkaido¯
SOUTH KOREA
Sea of Japan
Kobe 100 km
Hiroshima
Fukuoka
Kyoto
Sendai
Honshu
Tokyo
Yokohama
Nagoya
Nara Osaka
Shikoku
Nagasaki
¯ ky ¯u I s l a n d s
Okinawa
Major regions of Japan
Hokkaido¯
Map of Japan
To¯hoku
Sapporo
Shikoku
Kansai Chu¯goku Kanto¯ Chu¯bu
Introduction
Victoria
Lyon Bestor, Theodore C. Bestor, and Akiko Yamagata
This Handbook is intended as an interdisciplinary reference work for a broad international audience of those interested in the culture and society of contemporary Japan – university-level readers, professionals, and the general reading public seeking accurate information and thoughtful perspectives. To serve that end we have assembled a distinguished group of twenty-two international contributors of diverse disciplinary backgrounds, whose current research and teaching specialties span broad arrays of topics on contemporary Japan. Contributors to the volume include Australian, European, Japanese, North American, and Southeast Asian scholars of Japan, all of whom have engaged in extensive fieldwork in Japan during their lengthy research careers. Since the Handbook is intended primarily as an introductory resource for readers who are not specialists on Japan, the majority of the contributions are from non-Japanese scholars who are regularly engaged in the cross-cultural translation and analysis of Japanese culture and society for non-Japanese audiences.
Our goal for the Handbook is to provide broad introductions to many significant phenomena, institutions, and directions in Japanese culture and society today, and to point readers to yet other areas they may explore. Each chapter is intended as an overview on a specific subject, outlining principal trends, issues, and debates relevant to its central topic. A conscious strategy in the Handbook has been to place contemporary Japanese social and cultural phenomena in the spotlight and to keep disciplinary or theoretical perspectives in the background. Our aim is a narrative, in each chapter and through the volume as a whole, which illuminates issues and questions pertinent to current scholarship on Japan, in a form that is accessible to readers who may have little previous background on either Japan or the disciplinary and theoretical concerns that currently dominate scholarly discourse in the social sciences and humanities.
Temporally, the focus of these chapters is on contemporary Japan. In general, the essays take the end of World War II (1945) as the starting point. But the contributors’ discussions necessarily refer back to major historical events and transitions that precede 1945. Continuities of institutions, values, and practices across a span of generations from the mid-nineteenth century, the early twentieth century, and the immediate prewar and wartime years, are all important elements for understanding contemporary Japan, and many of the chapters refer back, if only briefly, to the Tokugawa period (1603–1868), the Meiji period (1868–1912), the Taisho¯ period (1912–26), and the early Sho¯wa period (1926–45).
Many of the social and economic developments that characterize the postwar decades often have prewar roots in the early years of the Sho¯wa era, and in many cases, a full appreciation of the issues requires an even longer view. It is essential, for example, to trace trends such as stateled policies in education, law, social welfare, and religion back at least to the beginning of Japan’s “modern period,” which for our purposes begins in 1868 with the Meiji Restoration. The drive toward modernization and Westernization after the end of Tokugawa shogunal rule included, along with the embrace of European legal and education models, the codification of gender roles and family structure as well as the systematization of a national language and state religion, whose ramifications stretched long into and past the decades of postwar growth.
The flows of continuity notwithstanding, contemporary Japanese culture and society have been shaped in response to a number of radical shocks or historical disjunctures. There is no smooth narrative of Japanese culture and society over the past 150 years, and any account has to consider or reflect the breaks as much as the continuities. There are several such periods of transformation that figure prominently across the chapters in this Handbook
The first fundamental transition, which set Japan on the course of becoming a modern nation, was the Meiji Restoration of 1868, in which the Tokugawa shogunal government (which had ruled Japan for more than 250 years) was replaced by a regime centered on the emperor and determined to defend Japanese national sovereignty and cultural integrity by the rapid adoption and adaptation of Western technologies and institutions in the pursuit of equal standing with Western nations. During the Meiji period (1868–1912), the government largely succeeded in these goals.
For the purposes of talking about contemporary Japan, its defeat in 1945 was another sharp break. World War II devastated vast areas of the country, especially urban regions. The leaders of the Allied Occupation (1945–52) transformed Emperor Hirohito (the Sho¯wa Emperor), spared from prosecution as a war criminal, from the object of a state-sponsored cult of imperial worship into a human symbolic leader. Many social institutions, practices, and public attitudes were also radically realigned in an effort to break away from the prewar and wartime social norms of authoritarian militarism and rigid hierarchy in the service of imperialism. In the wake of these changes, for a society transformed but not shattered by the war, the 1950s were an era of national rebuilding and laid the foundations for an ethic of hard work, cooperation, and conformity that characterized much of Japanese society throughout most of the remainder of the twentieth century. During the later 1950s and early 1960s, the government promoted “highspeed economic growth,” which spurred industrialization to new levels and rapidly moved Japan’s rural population to cities, where emerging but still modest affluence was giving rise to the lifestyles of new urban middle classes, often centered around corporate employment (for men), full-time domesticity (for women), and the relationship among family, education, and aspirational consumption. High-speed growth ushered in the rise of mass media and a broad consumer culture and the promise of the “bright life,” and Japan celebrated its rapid growth with the spectacular Tokyo Olympics of 1964, followed a few years later by Osaka’s Expo ’70, both of which put on display for the world the fruits of Japan’s “economic miracle.”
By the 1970s, Japan had firmly established itself as an economic superpower, and Japanese were stung by the pejorative label “economic animals,” applied to them by foreign critics who derided the country for its extreme pollution, the destruction of the natural environment, the regimentation of corporate conformity, and the relatively low standard of living – measured in terms of housing, recreation, and so forth – in comparison with other advanced industrial nations.
In some respects the prosperity of the 1970s reversed some of these issues. Notable strides were made in reducing pollution and improving public amenities. And, with affluence, more and
more Japanese adopted lifestyles similar to those of middle-class urban consumers in other industrialized societies. But what are now seen retrospectively as the excesses of affluence –flamboyant investments in insubstantial public projects and the ostentatious display of consumption by wealthy individuals – came to characterize what are now known as the “bubble years,” from roughly the early 1980s to the very early 1990s, during which an economy of speculation on a massive and very broad scale developed around triangles of investments in real estate (land prices reached astronomical levels), bought with easy credit, often secured through investments in an overheated stock market. For a time, Japan looked to have a Midas touch.
However, the government, in the hands of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) since 1955, did little to rein in this speculative economy, and the institutional structures of government bureaucracies and businesses alike remained locked in the rigid hierarchical structures developed in the 1950s. The bubble burst in the early 1990s, with massive collapses both in the stock market and the real estate market; large corporations were forced to restructure and sacrosanct notions of “lifetime employment” disappeared. In the so-called “long recession,” lasting from the early 1990s to the present, many institutions, once considered the mainstays of postwar Japanese life, have been fundamentally altered or called into question, and a feeling of national malaise has pervaded public discussion of Japan. The media focuses on crisis after crisis to decry the disarray of contemporary society, the failure of educational institutions to prepare young people for the changing future, the failure of the economy to provide jobs, the failure of the government to be able to respond quickly and effectively to natural disasters, like the 1995 Great Hanshin Earthquake, or the failure of young Japanese to embrace the kinds of lives and aspirations held dear by their parents and grandparents.
During the “lost decade” (stretching from the early 1990s to the present) the promise of middle-class affluence and the illusion of social, political, and economic equality perpetuated in the postwar years vanished along with steady economic growth. The long recession, the destabilization of employment, widening income gaps, a declining fertility rate, the growing population of elderly, and the government’s unresponsiveness to problems with the pension, healthcare, and education systems, contributed to the consequent attenuation of the LDP’s control of Japanese politics, unshaken for nearly a half-century.
These shifts in Japanese society during and since the final decades of the twentieth century and their implications have been central concerns in Japan, and many chapters in this volume deal with societal and individual responses to them, considering how these responses have intersected with notions about Japanese society, culture, the nation, and their relationship to individuals, families, and communities. The defeat of the LDP by the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) in the September 2009 general elections has been the most recent of these major transformations. Whether or not a DPJ-led government represents the sea change that party rhetoric implied, the DPJ’s victory has resulted in a political landscape significantly different from the preceding decades of single-party dominance, and several authors end their essays with reflections and speculations on the impact of a DPJ-led government upon the Japanese political sphere and upon society at large.
Another of the most discussed changes of recent decades, both in Japan and in these chapters, has been the increasingly pronounced demographic shifts, which contributed to the LDP’s defeat through the party’s failure to address such altered circumstances or to envision their long-term ramifications. Currently, Japan has the highest percentage of elderly and the second longest life expectancy in the world, coupled with one of the lowest fertility rates, whose fall below the replacement rate of 2.1 in 1975 augured the current “declining birth rate aging society” (sho¯shi-ko¯reika shakai). The contributors illuminate various dimensions of these demographic changes – their impact upon economic policy, social welfare, education, immigration
policy, civic engagement, and issues of gender, as well as their discursive construction as Japan’s central crisis.
The steady increase in the visibility and recognition of diversity is yet a further aspect of change taken up by the contributors to this volume. The image of Japan – propagated by Nihonjinron essentialist cultural theories popular in the high-growth period – as a homogenous nation with a unique culture, a single language, and a nearly universal middle class never reflected social reality. However, as ethnic and linguistic minorities, families that did not conform to the nuclear model, those who resisted its gender ideology, immigrants, the unemployed, homeless, new underclasses like “freeters” (part-time workers), and members of marginalized subcultural groups – those who have been excluded from the normative model of Japanese life – have advocated for acceptance and recognition, the gap between discourse and reality, as well as the need for the government to redress inequities resulting from it, has become conspicuous.
Across these historical events and recent transitions, the contributors to the Handbook present narratives that are largely about continuities, for, as David Leheny (Chapter 2) points out and as many of the other contributors make clear, although there are real changes that can be discerned, “[e]ven … narratives of change … construct a Japanese political past whose reality was always more complicated than [either] the cheerleaders or critics [of postwar Japan’s dominant social, political, and economic models] would have it” (p. 40). These continuities emerge as themes linking the authors’ elaborations upon various aspects of Japanese society and culture, through a set of common concerns and questions.
The complex relationships between Japan and the West, on one hand, and its Asian neighbors, on the other, are woven through the chapters in a diachronic account of the various ways that they gave shape to Japan’s conception of itself, its social, political, and economic institutions, its popular culture, and its projected image. Institutional Westernization, for example, was an integral part of the Meiji leaders’ efforts to build a modern nation state through, for example, the adoption of European models for the legal system, as Lawrence Repeta explains (Chapter 6). And as Japan sought the recognition of American and European leaders, the common nineteenth-century ideas about the racial basis for national identity propelled efforts to homogenize many aspects of Japanese society and culture in the process of forging a new nation. To take two examples from many, the relocation and forced assimilation of ethnic minorities such as the Ainu, coupled with the elimination of ethnic and regional linguistic diversity in the codification of a national language, helped to define Japan as a nation of a singular and unique language, race, and culture, and therefore distinct from and superior to other “Asiatics.” Both Richard Siddle (Chapter 12) and Nanette Gottlieb (Chapter 3) illuminate how the consequences of such policies continue to be seen in the present day, connecting them with the history of Japanese colonialism and imperialism as well as contemporary patterns of discrimination, immigration policies, language education, and social advocacy and reform.
The cultural aspect of this same concern – Japan’s relationship with the West and other Asian countries – has been the focus of many mass media and scholarly examinations of contemporary Japan ever since Douglas McGray’s assertion in 2002 that Japan’s global power was exerted through its “Gross National Cool.” Although anime, manga, and numerous other cultural products are now known throughout the world and may often be heralded either as uniquely Japanese forms of popular culture or as instantiations of Japan’s alternative model of global cultural power, early Japanese animation and cartoons (as in film) took inspiration from European and American precedents in these new technologies as well as from native forms of pictorial representation. Whether in the circulation of musical genres between the US and Japan,
television serial dramas in East Asia, or other global or regional flows of popular culture, the identification of “foreignness” or “Japaneseness” has been negotiated by individual performers, producers, and audiences in specific social and historical circumstances and within larger discourses on Japan’s position vis-à-vis the West, Asia, or the world.
Japanese attempts at self-definition and in relation to other national or cultural entities have been continually informed by notions about Japan’s “past” and “tradition,” and the impact of such notions upon contemporary Japanese subjectivities. The authors demonstrate how traditional cultural forms and ideas have been refashioned and adapted in the service of a modern ideal, not the resurrection of an unchanging traditional past. Whether of corporate loyalty (the salaryman embodying samurai filiality), or the use of traditional temple rooflines in the development of a Japanese modernist architecture (discussed by William H. Coaldrake in Chapter 16), the real and rhetorical use and construction of “Japanese tradition” is a thread common to chapters as diverse as Merry White’s discussion of Japanese families (Chapter 10), William W. Kelly’s historical contextualization of “indigenous” sports (Chapter 20), and Theodore C. Bestor’s examination of “traditional” Japanese foods (Chapter 22).
As these and other chapters demonstrate, the growth in the postwar decades of a mass commodified culture (which had its beginnings in the urbanization and industrialization of the 1920s) included quotidian aspects of life, such as food, shelter, clothing, and shopping, as well as new media technologies (e.g. mass journalism, radio, film, and television), new genres of expressive culture in anime, manga, and music, and expanded leisure activities, including sports, travel, and hobbies. Each of the contributors addresses a dimension of this mass culture as it developed during the period of high economic growth as a fulcrum for the “bright life.” Introduced in “New Constitution, Bright Life,” a 1947 government booklet distributed to popularize the new constitution and its democratic principles, the term came rather to represent by the 1960s the ideal of postwar affluence, in which consumption – of household appliances and each new device of modern domesticity – defined Japan’s middle mass (see Murakami 1982), supported by the salaryman’s self-sacrifice for his corporate employer and his dedicated housewife’s similar efforts on behalf of her husband and children.
As was noted earlier, participation in the national ideology of middle-class Japanese cultural identity was never universal, and the collapse of the bubble economy brought to the surface many inequities of class, status, gender, and education that had been obscured in the decades of Japan’s economic expansion. The Handbook’s contributors seek to look at the bubble’s collapse and the long recession, along with contemporaneous demographic shifts, as significant for their real consequences and for their challenges to prevailing narratives about the nature of Japanese society.
These chapters also turn our attention to the responses of the government, the media, and the population as a whole to these shifts and ask us to consider them in relation to the postwar narrative of the nation’s modern history. For example, the decline in marriage and fertility rates, which according to Robin M. LeBlanc (Chapter 9) indicates the disinclination of some younger Japanese to adhere to twentieth-century expectations of gender and the family, has been blamed variously on overexposure to Western democratic ideals in postwar education, on the lack of a Western form of spirituality, and on post-bubble structural economic barriers to the financial independence of young adults. These disparate explanations, the disparagement of unmarried adults (often women) who live with their parents as “parasite singles,” and the blame laid upon such individuals for the larger ramifications of the “low birth rate, aging society crisis,” make evident the resilience of dominant ideas about gender and family as well as the salience of the introduction of Western political ideas and the emphasis upon the role of the female in the idealized male breadwinner/female homemaker relationship in postwar ideology.
Criticisms launched by the mass media, political and community leaders, and by ordinary citizens against gender non-conformers – among whom we might also include growing numbers of openly queer individuals and young girls, who by adopting masculine language flout deeply ingrained expectations of femininity – lament the attenuation of “traditional” mores and contemporary Japan’s decline. This construction of Japan, as a society in disarray, appears in rhetoric surrounding other societal concerns such as the purportedly increasing problem of “shut-ins” and other anti-social behavior among young males; the social disengagement seen in youth culture; the debasement of the Japanese language; and the relationship between immigration and rising rates of crime.
These several strands – of changes and continuities, and Japanese concerns about both – are woven through the chapters of this Handbook. Not all authors address each of the strands discussed above, but many of these appear repeatedly across different essays. As the reader goes through these chapters, whether selectively or in succession, we hope that this Introduction will serve to highlight the points of intersection among these twenty-two essays, which are described in greater detail below.
Outline of the book
The Handbook has been organized into three parts – on Japan’s social and cultural foundations, on class and social identities, and on aspects of popular culture. The chapters that comprise these parts each treat a specific aspect of Japanese society and culture, providing historical context, an overview of the topic and its central questions, often including a very brief summary of significant scholarship in the field. Each chapter is followed by a short list of recommended reading for further exploration of the topic.
Our first cluster of chapters examines Japan’s cultural and social foundations and how they have changed in the decades since the end of World War II. Peter Duus (Chapter 1) begins with an overview of recent history focused on the Sho¯wa period (1926–89). During Sho¯wa’s sixtythree years Japan went from being a young “modern” nation experimenting with Western styles and perspectives to become a highly militarized state, whose aggressive conquests across East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific were brought to an end with Japan’s defeat in World War II. Peter Duus traces Japan’s “miraculous” rise to prosperity from devastation during the postwar decades through the 1980s, and into the post-bubble present when the influence of “Cool Japan” has replaced that of Japan Inc.
David Leheny (Chapter 2) follows with a chapter on what he terms the four cultures of Japanese politics, dealing with the ways in which Japanese politics is discussed as a cultural phenomenon. Examining the institutional and discursive dimensions of four common accounts of Japanese politics, he argues that these “political cultures” should be seen as both narrative and strategy within the context of Japanese political actors’ self-perceptions, goals, and interests, rather than with respect to reductive notions of an essential “Japanese political culture.”
Nanette Gottlieb’s chapter on language (Chapter 3) explores how Japanese language ideology has been employed politically, morally, and culturally in establishing the image of a monolingual and monoethnic nation. She considers how language policies have recently had to address non-normative forms of literacy because of growing immigration, the subcultural geneses of alternative scripts in Japan’s ever-expanding virtual realms, and challenges to once widely accepted gendered language, a subject later elaborated by Robin M. LeBlanc in her chapter on gender and politics (Chapter 9).
Roger Goodman (Chapter 4) explores the rapidly changing Japanese educational system, from the roots of the modern system, chosen selectively from France, Germany, the US, and
England in the late nineteenth century, into its recent celebration, both in Japan and abroad, as the reason for Japan’s economic success. Goodman discusses post-bubble educational reform, informed by assumptions and criticism from the high-growth period about the relationship between education and the economy, and the state of education today, saddled with empty classrooms and judged responsible for producing greater social inequality.
Mark R. Mullins’ chapter (Chapter 5) examines the social context of religion in contemporary life in a country where the majority identifies with no single religious tradition and religious practice is focused on important rites of passage connected with household and community membership. Mullins also describes the significant minority of Japanese involved in regular religious practice through an organized religious community, such as Christian and New Religion groups, as well as the increasing interest in informal religious groups and individualized explorations of spirituality through the Internet and other mass media.
Lawrence Repeta (Chapter 6) writes both from the perspective of a legal scholar and as one of the leaders of the small number of foreign lawyers practicing in Japan today. His chapter examines the contemporary Japanese legal framework, its reputation for slow deliberation and efforts for reform, and the difficulties of a criminal justice system that relies heavily on the near-universal practice of confessions, as well as various issues of status – such as citizenship – that are subjects of current legal debate.
Part I, on Japan’s cultural and social foundations, ends with Chapter 7, Paul Waley’s chapter on landscape and the character of rapid urbanization that has transformed the small-scale agrarian society of pre-World War II Japan into an intensely urban, industrial society, with nearly identical cities that sprawl outward and climb upward in ever-denser high-rise construction. The contrast between Japan’s essentialized images of rock gardens, maple leaves, and pristine landscapes and the unrelenting grey concrete seen in all directions may be the first-time visitor’s most startling impression.
Part II takes a closer look at the many diverse facets of Japanese social class, identity, and status. David H. Slater (Chapter 8) leads off with an overview of rapid changes in Japanese social class and social identity, explaining the conception of class during the period of high-speed growth, and contrasting this with the growing ranks of the underclass, including marginalized youth who never found a place in a “permanent” workforce.
Robin M. LeBlanc (Chapter 9) engages with the politics of gender in a society known for its strong patriarchal character, adding greater context to perspectives on language and gender initially addressed by Nanette Gottlieb in the first cluster (Chapter 3). LeBlanc’s chapter illuminates the various ways in which Japan’s gender role expectations are shored up by political institutions, social custom, individuals’ own interests and self-perceptions, teasing out ways that conventional gender identities both lend power to and require compromise by contemporary Japanese men and women.
Merry White (Chapter 10) further explores how the structure and coherence of the Japanese family, which looks increasingly little like Japan’s stereotyped patriarchal stem family, have adapted to changing traditions, economic realities, and the pressures of social expectation. White demonstrates how urbanization, climbing educational costs, rising female workforce participation, increasing rates of divorce, and low fertility rates have contributed to transformations of family life.
Mark McLelland (Chapter 11) traces the history of Japan’s queer cultures and practices, from a premodern society in which forms of male–male eroticism and love were socially accepted, through periods during which highly Victorian attitudes dictated clearly defined normative gender and sexual preferences (a central aspect of Japan’s imagined universal homogeneity), to more recent developments toward political recognition and social visibility for queer individuals and communities.
Richard Siddle (Chapter 12) addresses the realities of Japan’s racial and ethnic diversity, focusing on Japan’s traditional ethnic minorities, Burakumin, Ainu, Okinawans, and Resident Koreans, and their struggles with assimilation and acceptance against the mainstream views of Japan as an ethnically homogeneous society. He also examines the recent impact of foreign minorities who have come to Japan to fill manual laboring jobs.
Carolyn S. Stevens’ chapter (Chapter 13) expands upon issues of marginality introduced in Chapter 12 by Siddle and looks at the lives of homeless, migrant laborers, and people with disabilities. She examines the connections between their economic instability, dangerous manual labor (known as “3K”), and social and physical vulnerability to demonstrate how this underclass – including “freeters” (part-time workers) and other new classes of underemployed –are particularly susceptible to changes in the mainstream Japanese economy and society.
Leng Leng Thang (Chapter 14) addresses the social and economic consequences of a rapidly aging population in a country with already the world’s most aged society and an economy that has been in decline for more than a decade. Her chapter further outlines how traditional expectations of family-based care have finally given way to a growing range of elder-services, which may yet contribute to the global service industry.
Akihiro Ogawa (Chapter 15) concludes Part II, on class, identity, and status, by discussing the new prominence of civil society organizations in Japan, many of which serve the country’s increasingly diverse classes and marginalized minorities. He illuminates how crises (for example, the 1995 Great Hanshin Earthquake, which devastated Kobe), changing views of government and the nation (such as the pacifist Article 9 of Japan’s postwar Constitution, promulgated in 1947), and demographic shifts (retiring baby boomers) have contributed to growing civic activity.
The Handbook’s final cluster of chapters is devoted to aspects of Japanese popular culture sometimes characterized as “Cool Japan.” William H. Coaldrake (Chapter 16) begins Part III with an overview of modern and contemporary Japanese architecture, bringing our attention to how notions of the “contemporary” – and its position vis-à-vis “tradition” – were monumentalized in major landmarks of Japan’s postwar built environment.
Aaron Gerow (Chapter 17) provides an overview of Japanese film and television, with a special emphasis on early Japanese films and the transnational influences flowing into and reverberating out from Japan. He underscores how debates among film creators, production companies, audiences, and the government over the meaning and purposes of the new medium were closely connected to efforts to define and delineate the nation and its subjects.
Susan Napier (Chapter 18) explores the worlds of Japan’s comic book (manga) culture, and the global impact of Japanese animation (anime). Her chapter provides an introduction to manga and anime, including works of auteurs such as the “god of manga” Tezuka Osamu and Miyazaki Hayao, and discusses the intersections of socio-political contexts, consumer markets, the material circumstances of production, and the aesthetic visions of creators (whether professional artists or dedicated amateurs) in the development of the distinct styles and contents of Japanese visual culture.
Ian Condry (Chapter 19) considers Japan’s diverse music cultures – jazz, enka ballads, idol pop, and hip-hop – and asks what makes music “Japanese” or “Western,” when musical genres and styles have always been involved in transnational flows. He demonstrates how “global” and “local” are negotiated at the site of production, or genba, by artists, producers, and audience through dialogue, performance, and experience.
William W. Kelly (Chapter 20) discusses the centrality of sports to Japanese community life, school curricula, corporate values, mass media, gender relations, and patriotic sentiments. He illuminates how sports are neither wholly foreign nor native, and how, as the example of judo
(and other martial arts) demonstrates, they have been formalized and incorporated into diverse cultural milieus through transnational flows in global sports.
Koichi Iwabuchi (Chapter 21) examines the recent profusion of regional cultural flows in popular media that traverse Japan and East Asia, and argues that perceptions of proximity in culture and experiences of modernity and capitalism give a common sense of an “East Asian modernity” in television dramas, films, and popular music throughout the region.
And finally, Theodore C. Bestor (Chapter 22) considers how a mundane aspect of daily life – what Japanese eat – has been transformed by war, industrialization, and the gentrification of taste, and how Japanese food culture is a significant source of cultural identity, within Japan and across the globe. Along with the other contributions to the Handbook, his chapter explores the intersections between historical circumstances and recent trends in globalization, illuminating how these have given shape to notions of “tradition” and identity, in the contemporary context of “Cool Japan.”
The contributions to this Handbook, we hope, will introduce readers to many important aspects of culture and society in Japan in the early years of the twenty-first century. We hope that these chapters will be springboards to further research on other aspects of Japan and that each essay will pique the reader’s interest to pursue further reading, online exploration, and reflections.
The back sections of the Handbook present resources that will be useful in those pursuits. In addition to a detailed bibliography and an index, we include a glossary of relevant terms, as well as a brief timeline of major dates in Japanese history, with most attention given to the period after World War II. We also include a list of major websites that should be useful. Although many of those websites were originally created in Japanese, we have selected those that contain robust English language content for those who may not read Japanese. In some cases those sites may have alternate pages in languages other than Japanese and English; however, we offer no evaluation of or recommendation on the content presented in other languages.
In addition to the resources contained in this Handbook, readers interested in learning more about the kinds of fieldwork in which researchers of Japan engage may find useful two volumes of essays about scholars’ experiences conducting long-term research in Japan. Doing Fieldwork in Japan (Bestor et al. 2003) contains twenty-one accounts by anthropologists, historians, political scientists, religion specialists, and sociologists about their experiences in Japan while doing research on a wide variety of topics. Politics and Pitfalls of Japan Ethnography (Robertson 2009) consists of six essays that critically evaluate the practice and presentation of ethnographic research on Japan.
Part I
Social foundations
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