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“ThroughcelebratingtheworkofShahrilTalibRobert,theauthorsinthis volumeremindusofadeepereconomicandpoliticalheritagethatisoftenlost intherubbleofconfusingnationalpolitics.AllwhocareforMalaysiawillfindthe studieshereanupliftingaffirmationofthevalueofopen-mindedanddedicated scholarship.Icongratulatetheeditorsandtheircolleaguesforbringingsomuch moreofthecountry’svariedfoundationstoourattention.”
—Prof.WangGungwu, NationalUniversityofSingapore,Singapore
Editors
RajahRasiah
Asia-EuropeInstitute UniversityofMalaya
KualaLumpur,Malaysia
JatswanS.Sidhu
Asia-EuropeInstitute UniversityofMalaya
KualaLumpur,Malaysia
AzirahHashim
FacultyofLanguagesandLinguistics UniversityofMalaya
KualaLumpur,Malaysia
ISBN978-981-16-0649-6ISBN978-981-16-0650-2(eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0650-2
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Thispublicationprovidesamostfittingtributetothelifeandworkof thelateProfessorShaharilTalibRobert,inthedepthandrichnessofthe scholarshipthatitbringstogether,aswellasinitsrangeandscope.It embodiesShaharil’sconceptofhistoryasbeingsomethingthatisactively constructed,throughthecriticalinterrogationofexistingperspectives, androbustuseofevidence.Thisapproachiswhatweseeondisplay hereinalltheindividualcontributions,whilethebroaderquestionthe bookaddresses—oftheintersectionofthenational,regional,andglobal scales—also,ofcourse,layrightattheheartofhiswork.
AmongShaharil’sfundamentalconcernswasthewayinwhichnarrativesareshaped,andhowthepresentationandinterpretationofthefacts determinewhatbecomestheacceptedversionofhistoricalorcurrent
events.Ashesawit,theroleofhistoriansistoensurethata‘better’truth canbetold,oramoreaccurateandcomprehensiveversionofevents.
Toachievethis,historiansmustcriticallyengagewiththemanipulation ofinformationbythosewhoseektogainfromsodoing.Theymust employrigorousscientificmethods.Andtheymustbringtotheforegroundtheviewfrombelow,byhighlightingthestoriesandactorsmore oftenexcludedfromthedominantnarrative.
Theseconcernsappearevermorepertinenttoday,inourpost-truth worldofsocialmedia,conspiracytheories,andthesystematicdistortion offactstoservetheinterestsofparticulargroups.Shaharil’sapproachof meetingthischallengethroughwell-craftedhistoriography,focusedon previouslymarginalizedperspectives,wasinspiredinpartbythework ofhistorianandFrenchresistancehero,MarcBloch.Bloch’spioneering insightsevolvedduringaperiodwhenfascismwasintheascendent. Thetotalcontrolandmanipulationofthepublicdiscourseisanessentialelementoffascism,andinsuchconditions,theneedtoquestion constructeddiscourses,andtoworktirelesslyagainstthedistortionofthe factsbyspecialinterests,becomesevenmoreurgent.
Shaharilwascommittedtothissearchforhistoricalaccuracyandtruth, totryingtomakesenseofthe‘bewildering’and‘tangled’relationships anddynamicsofthecomplexworldwearenavigatingthrough.Iamoften remindedofhismetaphorofhistoryasbeinglikeashipchartingacourse throughthedangerouswatersofideologyandinterests,‘inordertoarrive atsomeunifiedandholisticunderstandingofourpastandpresent,’as heputit.Hethusconceptualizedhistoryassomethingwemustactively engagewithandshapeourselves,ashistoriansandactors,inorderto challengeandcorrectitsbiasesandomissions.
Shaharil’sintellectuallegacy,withallitsvariousfacets,ishonoredin thisvolumemostablybyhisformercolleagues,peers,andstudents.All ofthechaptersquestionacceptedtruths,andapplycarefullyconsidered newevidencetoexistingorthodoxies,orunexploredaspectsofourpast andpresent.Inthisvein,thereisevenaquestioningandextensionof hisownworkontheMalayaristocracy,whichI’msurehewouldhave welcomedandenjoyed.Thedepthandbreadthofthecontributions,all undertherubricofMalaysia’sintegrationwiththeworldeconomy,and themulti-scalarramificationsofthisprocess,attesttothedeepimpact Shaharil’sworkhashad.Thebookunderscoresitsimmenseinfluenceon thepracticeandstudyofhistoryinthiscountryandbeyond.
Shaharilandhisworkhavehadaprofoundinfluenceonmyown academicresearch,particularlyinrelationtomychoiceofmethodology anduseofarchivalsourcematerial.Thepursuitofthisresearchhasproved bothfulfillingand,Ihope,useful,andIthusowehimanimmensedebt forhisguidanceandinspiration.Iknowtherearemanyotherswhofeel similarly,includingmanyofthosewhohavecontributedchapterstothis volume.
Iwanttocongratulatetheeditorsforthismostfittingcelebrationofthe lifeandworkofShaharilTalib.Asawhole,thebookfulfillsadmirablythe historian’sultimategoalofhelpingustobetterunderstandfromwherewe havecome,sothatwecannavigatemoreeffectivelythechoppywatersof ourcurrenttimes,inkeepingwiththelateprofessor’svision.Anditserves toreassureusthathisintellectuallegacywillcontinuetoresonatestrongly, despitehispassing.Thislegacywillhelptoensurethatourhistoricalnarrativewillcontinuetobeinformedfrombelow,andthatthosewhoseeka moreaccurateandholisticversionofeventswillprevailoverthosewho deliberatelyseektomanipulateanddistortthefacts.
KualaKangsar,Malaysia November2020 HRHSultanNazrinShah
ThisbookseekstocelebratethecontributionofthelateProfessorDato’ ShaharilTalibRoberttoscholarshipingeneral,andhistoryandforeign policyinparticular.Hewasarareacademicwhowasabundleofintellectualenergythatsynergizedothersinhiscompany.Alwaysbubblingwith hischarmingsmile,ShaharilTalibneverstoppedmotivatingtheyoung ontheresponsibilityofascholartoseektruthandnoveltyinfurthering theirfields.Hewastedlittletimewithacademicswithclosedminds,even shyingawayfromshallowcriticstospendhisprecioustimeonworthy discourse.GroomedinthespiritofMarcBlochandFernandBraudel, ShaharilTalibsoughttoandencouragedotherstorecrafthistoryby usingcutting-edgemethodologiesandinnovativeanalyticaltechniquesto generatenewinsightsforestablishinggreaterrigor.Indoingso,hecalled forscholarshiptobesterilizedfromideologyandself-interest.Shaharil Talibcampaignedforhistoricalinterrogationtobesensitivetothemultiscalarnatureandpluralityofsocialrelations.Whilehewasdamninginhis condemnationoftherepressionthemassesfacedundercolonialism,he alsopressedforsuchaccountstobetoldtruthfullywithconcreteevidence. Shaharilencouragedresearchonundocumenteddevelopmentsunrelated tocolonialinterventionthatwereimportanttounderstandingMalaysian history.WhileShaharil’shistoricalresearchstretchedbeyondMalaysiato includeSoutheastAsia,hetookgreatprideinservinghisnation,Malaysia. Amongcontributionshemadetothecountryincludehiskeyadvisory roleontracingthehistoricalmapsoftheIslandsofPedraBranca,Middle
Rocks,andSouthLedgetoassisttheMalaysianteamcontestingtheir nationallocationinadisputebetweenMalaysiaandSingaporethatwas heardattheInternationalCourtofJudgement,TheHague.
InthescholarlyspiritofShaharilTalib,thisbookbringstogethera collectionofchaptersthateitherdocumentdevelopmentsthatarenewto theuniverse,orcontestexistingdocumentationsinawiderangeoftopics thatconstitutepre-colonial,colonialandpost-colonialrelationsinMalaya. Indeed,Iwouldarguethateachofthechaptersprovidesarefreshingly newperspectivetoMalaysianhistory.
Shaharilwasbornin1946andpassedawayin2018leavingbehindhis dancerwife,DatukAzaninAhmadanddaughterSheinShaninShaharil. Hewasafamilymanwhowasfondofthemboth.Shaharilwaseducatedat theVictoriaInstitutionbeforeundertakinghisdegreeatUniversitiMalaya andhisdoctorateatMonashUniversity.HewasmadeProfessorandHead oftheSoutheastAsianStudiesDepartmentatUniversityofMalayabefore beingappointedasthefoundingExecutiveDirectoroftheAsia-Europe InstituteatUniversityofMalaya.Hesharedthesamedoctoralsupervisor atMonashUniversity,MichaelSwift,withShamsulAmriBaharuddinand ZawawiIbrahim.Shaharilshowedutmostrespectforthemonarchy,and evenusedtowearblackclothestoworkallthetime.Hewouldproudly tellmethatweMalaysiansarethesubjectsofourmonarchy,andblack attiresimplydenotesouracceptanceoftheroyalnorm.HewasparticularlyclosetoHisRoyalHighnessSultanNazrinShahofPerak.Nevertheless,Shaharilcriticizedtheelitistnatureoftypicalhistoricalaccounts,and soencouragedotherstodocumentthehistoriesofthepoor,including theworkingclass.Heoftentoldmeofhowhappyhewasinhaving supervisedMaznahMohamadtoproduceaseminalpieceofscholarship documentingthedisappearanceofMalayhandloomweaversinMalaysia. Unlikethosewitholdwaysofdoingthings,Shaharilwasopentonew ideassolongasitopenednovelpathwaystopursuingscholarship.Inmy mind,ShaharilTalibwasawonderfulexampleofascholarwhocarried enormousexperienceandtacitnesswithhim,yetalwayskepthishumility. Althoughheisnolongerwithus,hislegacy,whichincludestheseveral graduatestudentshesupervised,andthemanyfriendsheconnectedwith, willcarrythetorchhelit.Iforonehavemissedhearinghissoftvoice, engagingsmile,andthemanyintellectualdiscussions.Hewaslikean elderbrotherwhocarednotjustfortheresearchIdid,butalsoforme personally.
Iwishtotakethisopportunitytoacknowledgethecontributionsof severalindividualswhowereeitherdirectlyorindirectlyinvolvedinthe developmentoftheAsia-EuropeInstitutewhenIservedasShaharil’s DeputyDirectorbetween2004and2005:HisRoyalHighnessSultan NazrinShah,DatukProf.Dr.HashimYaacob,Prof.Dr.RoziahOmar, Dr.ShamsulbahriahKuAhmad,Dr.GiovanniCapanelli,OmarFarouk, ProfessorDato’D.HassanSaid,TanSriGhaniPatail,TanSriVisu Sinnadurai,DatukSothiRachagan,TanSriAjitSingh,Dr.Mokhtar Thamin,GarethApiRichards,Prof.AmitavAcharya,RajarethnamM., Dr.AzmiSharom,ProfessorAjitSingh,ProfessorSanjayaLall,Dr.Gabriel Palma,Prof.CarloPietrobelli,Prof.TanEuChye,HEThierryRommel, Prof.AntonyBryant,ProfFernandoRodrigo,SyedFaridAlatas,Dato Dr.ThillainathanRamasamy,GnasegarahKandaiya,HarbansSinghSohan Singh,Dr.IchiroSugimoto,PatriciaMartinez,TinHtooNaing,Dang MinhQuangandAmerHamzahJantan.Finally,Iwouldliketothank thethreeanonymousrefereesfortheirconstructivecommentsonthe chapters.Theusualdisclaimerapplies.
ShamsulAmriBaharuddin isasocialanthropologistandtheFounding Director,InstituteofEthnicStudies(KITA),TheNationalUniversityof Malaysia(UKM)since2007.Todate,heisoneoftheonlyfiveDistinguishedProfessorsappointedbytheMinistryofEducation,Malaysia; recipientoftheAcademicPrize,FukuokaAward,Japanin2008;inducted asaFellow,AcademyofScienceMalaysiain2018;inJanuary2019 appointedasChair,NationalCouncilofProfessors(MPN),Malaysiaand inSeptember2019wasawardedtheUNESCOCHAIR(CommunicationsandSocialCohesion)atUKM.Heisknownasthearchitectof Malaysia’s BlueprintforNationalUnity2015 anditsfirst-ever National UnityIndex2018 (IPNas2018)and TheNationalUnityActionPlan (2021–2025).InJuly2020hewasappointedastheAdvisoronUnity, MinistryofNationalUnity,Malaysia.
AzirahHashim isaSeniorProfessorintheEnglishLanguageDepartment,FacultyofLanguagesandLinguistics.Herpreviouspositions includeExecutiveDirectoroftheAsia-EuropeInstitute,Directorof theCentreforASEANRegionalism,DeanoftheHumanitiesResearch ClusterandDeanoftheFacultyofLanguagesandLinguistics.Sheisalso aFellowoftheAlexandervonHumboldtFoundation,Germany.
ZawawiIbrahim retiredasaProfessorofAnthropologyatUniversityof BruneiDarussalamandiscurrentlyavisitingProfessoratTaylor’sUniversity.HewaspreviouslyaProfessorofAnthropologyatUniversityMalaysia
SarawakandUniversityofMalaya.Heisalsoanacclaimedsongcomposer, musicianandsinger.
AnthonyMilner isanEmeritusProfessor,AustralianNationalUniversity;ProfessorialFellow,UniversityofMelbourneandVisitingProfessor, UniversityofMalaya.HehaspublishedwidelyonMalayhistoryand politicalculture—andonSoutheastAsianregionalrelations.
RahulMishra isaSeniorLecturerattheAsia-EuropeInstitute.Before this,hewasaConsultantattheForeignServiceInstituteofIndia’s MinistryofExternalAffairs.HehasalsoworkedwiththeIndianCouncil ofWorldAffairsandInstituteforDefenceStudiesandAnalysesforfour yearseach.RecipientoftheAsiaFellowshipoftheEast-WestCenterin Washington,DC,KoreanandtheAustralianGovernmentFellowships,he wasalsopreviouslyaffiliatedwithNanyangTechnicalUniversityandthe NationalUniversityofSingapore.
MaznahMohamad isanAssociateProfessorandHeadoftheDepartmentofMalayStudiesattheNationalUniversityofSingapore.Herareas ofresearchandpublicationsareGenderandIslam,BureaucraticIslam, MalaysianPoliticsandtheHistoricalDeconstructionoftheMalayWorld.
SivachandralingamSundaraRaja isanAssociateProfessoratthe FacultyofArtsandSocialSciences,UniversityofMalaya.Heformerly headedtheDepartmentofHistory,FacultyofArtsandSocialSciences, UniversityofMalaya.Hismainareaofspecializationisinthefieldof MalaysianeconomichistoryandalsoworksonBritishimperialhistoryof thelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyandcontemporaryIndians inMalaysia.
RajahRasiah isaDistinguishedNationalProfessorofEconomicsat theAsiaEuropeInstitute,UniversityofMalaya.Heisalsoholds visitingpositionsatSunwayUniversity,InstituteofEnergyPolicyand Research,UNITEN,InstituteofCapitalmarketsResearch,Cambridge University,OxfordUniversityandUNU-MERIT.Heisthe2015recipientoftheCelsoFurtadoprizefromtheWorldAcademyofSciences foradvancingthefrontiersofsocialscience(Economics)thought.He wasmadeDistinguishedProfessorofEconomicsin2017byMalaysia’s MinistryofHigherEducation,andawardedtheMerdekaPrizefor scholasticexcellencein2018.
JohanSaravanamuttu isaProfessorEmeritusatUniversitiSains MalaysiaandAdjunctSeniorFellowattheS.RajaratnamSchoolof InternationalStudies,NanyangTechnologicalUniversity.Healsoheld positionspreviouslyasProfessorofPoliticalScienceatUniversitiSains MalaysiaandSeniorVisitingFellowattheInstituteforSoutheastAsian Studies,Singapore.
ViswanathanSelvaratnam isathird-generationMalaysianandaWorld Bankretiree.HehadpreviouslytaughtattheUniversityofMalayaandat theNationalUniversityofSingapore.
JatswanS.Sidhu isanAssociateProfessorintheDepartmentofInternationalandStrategicStudies,FacultyofArtsandSocialSciences,UniversityofMalayainKualaLumpur.HeisalsoExecutiveDirectorofthe Asia-EuropeInstitute(AEI),UniversityofMalayaandDirector,Centre forASEANRegionalism,UniversityofMalaya(CARUM).
PeterBrianM.Wang hasservedintheMalaysianGovernmentformore than17yearsholdingvariousportfolios,themajorityofwhichwasspent attheMinistryofInternationalTradeandIndustry(MITI)ofMalaysia. HeiscurrentlyattachedwiththeNationalInstituteofPublicAdministration(INTAN)wherehelecturesandundertakesresearchoneconomicandinternationalrelations-relatedpolicy.Heiscurrentlyworkingonhis Ph.D.onthearchitectureofregionalordersattheAsia-EuropeInstitute.
DannyTzeKenWong isaProfessorofHistoryandDeanoftheFaculty ofArtsandSocialSciences,UniversityofMalaya.HeisaformerDirector oftheInstituteofChinaStudiesatUniversityofMalaya.Hisresearch focusesontheChineseinMalaysia,Sino-Malaysiarelationsandhistoryof Sabah.
Fig.2.1Contributionofexporttaxesfromtinandrubber incolonialrevenue,Malaya,1906–1957(Source Plotted fromFederationofMalaya[1957])20
Fig.2.2Manufacturingemployment,Malaya,1947and1957 (Source FederationofMalaya[1957])25
Fig.2.3Manufacturingfirmsusingpowermachinery,Malaya,1955 (Source AdaptedfromFederationofMalaya[1957])28
Historyhasremainedafascinatingfieldforscholarsandfollowersseeking toknowhowtheworld’scivilizationshaveevolved,aswellasthecomplex socialrelationsthathaveadvanced.However,thedominantaccountof colonialismhasbeenoneofthecolonizersseekingtohelpuncivilized kingdomstofreethemassesfromcannibalismthatcharacterizedthem, andhence,theestablishmentofthedoctrineofthe‘Whiteman’sburden’. Forexample,writingoncolonialIndia,Marx(1853)drewoncolonial reportstoarguethatcolonialismwasgoodformaterialaccumulation asheequatedKingdomsthatexistedbeforetoEuropeanantiquity,and thatcolonialismwillcreatetheconditionstobypassfeudalismtoopen
R.Rasiah(B) · A.Hashim · J.S.Sidhu Asia-EuropeInstitute,UniversityofMalaya, KualaLumpur,Malaysia
e-mail: rajah@um.edu.my
A.Hashim
e-mail: azirahh@um.edu.my
J.S.Sidhu
e-mail: jatswanh@um.edu.my
©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SingaporePteLtd.2021
R.Rasiahetal.(eds.), ContestingMalaysia’sIntegration intotheWorldEconomy, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0650-2_1
thepathforcapitalistaccumulation.SuchdepictionsalsodidnotrecognizethescientificprogressachievedbytheKingdomsofespeciallythe Incas,Mayas,Indians,Chinese,Egyptians,andArabs.Theseaccounts, shapedbytheconquerors,(whichhaveoftenbeencoloredbypowerful interestgroups)(Polanyi, 1944),buriedoutofsightcontributionsofthe conquered.Inaddition,thelimitedattentiongiventoprecolonialhistorieshasoftenpreventedamaterialcomparisonofitwithcolonialand post-colonialhistories,therebydenyingreadersanequalfootingfora symmetricunderstandingofthesocialrelationsandmaterialconditions betweenthetwophases.1 Indeed,Reid(2011)hadlamentedoverthe marginalizationofAfricanprecolonialhistoryashistoriansbegantofocus oncolonialhistory.
InlinewiththespiritofthelateShaharilTalib’sworks,thisbook seekstointerrogateMalaysia’sintegrationintothecapitalistworld economywithaspecialfocusonthecolonialperiod.However,given theentrenchednatureofsocialrelationsitisinevitablethatthespan ofinquiryshouldbelengthenedtocoverpre-colonialandpost-colonial socialrelations.Inthisintroductorychapter,wediscussthecriticalissues andintroducethebook’schapters.
WhileseveralWesternhistoricizationsofpre-colonial,colonial,andpostcolonialeconomieshavebeenbereftofscientificlogic,therehasalso beenanobsessionamonglocalscholarstoequatecolonialactions tosimplisticclaimsofbeingtriggersofunderdevelopment.Influenced heavilybyBloch(1954)andBraudel(1969),Shaharil(2005:4)argued thatattemptstorecrafthistoryshouldnotonlyuseessentialmethodologiesandexistingtechniques,butalsoutilizeinnovativetechniquesto generatenewinsightsforgreaterrigor,andthereshouldbeeffortsto stayclearofideologicalpredilectionsandvestedinterests.Shaharil(2005: 7)alsoarguedthateffortstointerrogatehistorymustbesensitiveto themulti-scalarnatureandpluralityofsocialrelations,andthatattempts toarticulatethemwouldrequiretheacceptanceoforganizedrandomnessthatprovidesemblanceofcausality,contingency,contradictions,
1 AsShaharilTalibhadoftennoted,itisalsothecasethatmuchofdocumentedhistory iselitistinnature.ExceptionsinthecaseofMalaysiaincludetheworkofAbraham(1970) andFauconnier(1990).
andconnections.2 Forexample,itiscertainlyimportanttorecordthe devastationthatBritainwreakedonIndiaduringcolonialrule,including robbingthecountryofUSD44.6trillionovertheperiod1765–1938 (Patnaik, 2018).However,itisalsonecessarytoexaminethechanges thattookplaceundercolonialismasIndiasuccumbedtocapitalistintegration.Indeed,adynamicMarxistanalysisofcapitalistintegration,and howitaffectedtheproductiveforcesinIndiaisnolessimportant(Marx, 1853;Luxembourg, 1951).HowevertumultuousthedestructiveexperienceIndiawentthrough,asCarr(1961)argued,itispertinentfor historianstoalsodocumentthesechangeswithoutbeingemotionally drownedintoromanticmoralism.Indeed,onecanarguethatthefragile socialfabricoftherulingclassinIndia,(whichhadbecomeextremely repressivetowardstheend)hadalreadyleftIndiavulnerabletoexternal control.TheMoghulEmpireforonehadbecomedecadentandhighly parasitic,therebycausingmasssufferings.Also,Indiawastechnologically stagnatingatthetimeIndia’sconquestbeganwiththeBattleofArcot in1751(Henty, 1999)andthebattleofPlasseyin1757(Harrington, 1994).KumarandDesai(1983)provideevidencetoshowthattheIndian textileindustryhadforhundredsofyearsbeencharacterizedbyhandloomweaving,whichmadeclothingaluxurythatonlyafewcouldafford. ImportsofwaterjetloomsfromBritainprovidedtheinitialtechnological leaptosupportmassproduction.
FittingShaharil’s(2005)callforinnovativeinterrogation,SyedMuhd Khairudin(2015)providedanuancedelucidationoftheradicalexperienceofMalaysfightingtoendcolonialisminMalaya.Thisfascinating accountisaclassicexampleofhistoricalinterrogationthatnotonly addedtorichhistoricizationthatunfoldedoppositionagainstcolonialism butalsohowsuchresistancegroupswereorganizedagainstthecolonialpower.Lees(2017)workqualifiesinthatspiritasshedemonstrated thattherelationshipsbetweenrulersandtheruledwerebothcomplex andconflictingwith,inthewaytheydealtwiththeirsubjects,aswell asthecolonialofficials.Thescopeandmethodologicalapproachused enabledafreshrevisitthatproducednewfindingsonimperialism,urbanization,immigration,labour,andcommodityproduction,includingsocial mobility,andcross-culturallearninginBritishMalaya.
2 Unfortunately,mainstreameconomicshasgoneintheoppositedirection,whichis drivenbymechanisticanddeterministicpostulations.
ThehistoricalinterrogationcalledforbyShaharil(2005)alsoopens thedebateonmacro-developmentsshapedbypastgovernancestructuresandhowsuchstructuresaresometimesreconfiguredbychanging socialrelations.Inthisregard,usingabroad-brushmacroapproachwith micro-evidence,Azlan(2012)discusseswhetherdemocratizationisnecessaryandifitwaswhetheritwassufficientlyachievedduringMalaysia’s effortstoindustrializecoveringaperiodfrom1824till2011.Thenovelty inthebookgenerallyrelatestohowcolonialruleshapedthenature ofsocialrelationsinthecountryfollowingindependence.BritishcolonialeffortstoshapeMalaysia’sexternalrelations,hearguesledtothe supportofWestern-educatedelitestogovernthecountry.Nevertheless, heprovidesevidencetoshowthatthepost-colonialstatehaslostsome ofitspoliticallegitimacyowingtowideningsocialdisparities,increased ethnicpolarization,andprevalentcorruption.Thenewmediaisseento havedriveninformationalglobalizationthathasempoweredMalaysians inanewstruggleforpoliticalreform,therebyreconfiguringthebalance ofpowerbetweenthestateandcivilsociety.
Whilegeneralaccountsofhistory,especiallythosedocumentedfrom oralhistories,continuetoflagtheaccountsofthedominantpowers, drawingonarchivalresearchseveralhistorianshaveincreasinglyquestionedsuchaccounts.Amongthefamouscontrapositionsofsuch accountsincludeAlatas’(1977)famousworkdebunkingcolonialreferencetothenativesasbeinglazy.OthersincludeSwift’s(1965)dismissal ofWesternnotionsthattheMalayspreferredlargenumbersofchildrentoworkintheirfarms.Indeed,unlikethereductionistWestern accountswhichwereconjecturedwithoutcarefulevidence,andwhich producedaneconomisticassessmentoftheconductofMalays,Swift (1965)providedevidencetolucidlyarguethattheMalaysenjoyedhaving childrenwhogavethementertainmentandfulfilment.Inestablishingthe localaccountoftheactorsinvolvedintheTerengganurebellion,Shaharil (1984)offeredevidenceonthelocalactorswhowereinvolved.
Thecontestationofhistoryisalsolacedwithanalysessuggestingthe existenceofsociallycohesivesocietiesthatwerenotdominatedbyclasses priortocolonization.Itisinthiscontextthathistoricalaccountsofcapitalistintegrationoftenportraythegovernanceofprecolonialkingdoms asmorecaringtothemassesthancolonialregimes(see,forexample, Lim(1977)).Infact,theMalayprovinceswereconsideredtohavebeen ruledbySultansthroughatribute-payingmodeofproduction(Jomo, 1986).SuchaccountssuggestthattheSultanstookanominalpayment
throughfarmsurplusesinreturnforprotectionfromtheroyalty.The tribute-payingmodeofproductioncanbeviewedasanextensionof theAsiaticproductionthatwasexaminedbyAlavi(1975)andCurrie (1984).Suchromanticaccountsmaywellbetruewhenbenevolentkings ruledthesekingdoms.However,thesocialrelationsthenlackedthe organizationessentialtoengendertheconditionsforrapidgrowthand technicalchange(Luxembourg, 1951).Albeititremainscontroversial amonghistoriansandscholarsfromtheSouth,itisforthesereasons Luxembourg(1951)hadarguedthatthedestructivepenetrationofcolonizationshouldbetakenasanopportunitytogalvanizepost-colonial nationalaccumulation.
ShaharilTalibemergedfromacelebratedDepartmentofHistoryinthe UniversityofMalayathatproducedinternationallyrecognizedhistorians. Ledbyworld-renownedhistorians,suchasWangGungwu,AnthonyReid andWilliamRoffamongothers,thedepartmentproducedoutstanding historians,includingSharilTalib,KhooKayKim,AmarjitKaur,Chandran Jeshrun,JeyamalarKathirithamby-Wells,OmarFarouk,RanjitSingh,Lee PohPing,LeeKamHing,andM.Santhanaban.Inadditiontotheworks reviewedinthischapter,severalotherincisiveworksonMalaysianhistory exists(e.g.Arasaratnam, 1970;Sandu, 1969;Khoo, 1972,Sharom, 1984; Ariffin, 1993;Kaur&Meltcalfe, 1999;RanjitSingh, 2003).
ShaharilcarriedtwotraitsthatdefinedCarr’s(1961)expectationof ahistorian.First,Shaharil’s(1977)worksshowdetailedassessmentsof powerstructuresbetweentheroyaltyandotherelitesandthecommoners, forexample,inTerengganu.Hemappedthelineageoftheroyalclass inTerengganuinthelatenineteenthcentury.Second,Shaharil(1984) narratedthedevelopmentsthatfilledupthegapsleftbehindbyWestern scholarsincapturingtherelationsbetweenthem.
Westernaccountsofcolonialintegrationtendtoshowadeterministic biastowardscolonialstrategieswithlittleaccountoflocalsettingsthat togethershapedtheprocesses.HoweverpowerfulRoff’s(1967)argumentsonhowtheBritishcolonialpolicyshieldedtheMalaypeasantry fromsecularization,itstilllackedaprofoundaccountfromtheMalay elitesandpeasantryonhowtheyrespondedtothesedevelopments.In doingso,Shaharil(1984)showedtremendouscourageandconvictionto complimentWesternaccountsofcolonialintegrationinMalaysiaandthe struggleputupbytheroyaltiestoresistEuropeanencroachmentinto theirdomain.Shaharil(1984)evidentlycapturedthespontaneousnature bywhichlocalresistancebeganassocialfrictiongrewfromdisagreements
betweenthelocalrulersandBritishappointees,whichincludedtheBritish resident.Usinghisextensiveevidenceaccumulatedfrombothlocaland foreignsources,Shaharil(1984)wasabletotraceinanuancedwaythe survivalstrategiesoftheTerengganuroyalty.
LikeCarr(1961),thepoliticalhistorylensesthatShaharilhadhoned allowedhimasoundfootingininternationalrelations,ashemadehis markonhowSoutheastAsianforeignpolicyshouldbeshaped.He extendedhislogicoftheMalaystatestotheSoutheastAsianstates. Hisnotionofthe tanahair (waterland)referredtoMalaysiaascharacterizedbythewater-faringMalaysofdifferentethnicities,including theBugis,Minangkabaus,Javanese,Achinese,Bataks,andMandalings, freelysailingfromonelandtoanother.Hence,Shahariltookaleafout ofhistorytopromoteSoutheastAsiaasaplaceboundbywaters,free ofboundaries,wheredifferentethnicgroupswithcommonalitiesinteractedoverthecenturiestoproducetheircultures.3 Althougheconomic interestshaveeventuallytakencontroloverthedevelopmentoftheAsian EconomicCommunity(AEC),Shaharil’s(2005)calltodrawstrength fromthehistoricalshapingofthe tanahair cultures,stillsresonatein someasanimportantchannelthatshouldbeharnessedtobuildsocial bondsbetweentheSoutheastAsianstates.ThelateSurinPitsuwanonce narratedtothefirstauthorofthischapterattheInstituteofEconomic ResearchinASEANandEastAsia(ERIA)thatsuchculturalbondsshould beconsideredwhennegotiatingproblemsoftheglobalcommon,suchas thehaze,(whichcontinuestoaffectIndonesia,Malaysia,andSingapore).4
Historyisalsoabouteventsandwhathadhappened.Whilethecauses oftheeventscanbededucedthroughlogicalargumentation,becauseof informationimperfectionslogiccanbeblurred.Hence,whilethepredictivepowersusinghistoricalevidencecanalwaysbequestioned(Popper, 1944),makingsenseofparticularconjuncturescanalsohavelimits.As Popper(1945a, b)hadfamouslyargued,predictionsofthefutureonthe basisofjustthepastalonecanbefutile.Justbecausewehaveseenthe suneverydayinthepast,itdoesnotmeanthatwewillseeitforever.In
3 Inhisinaugurallecture,Shaharil(2005:32)arguedthatthepre-colonialworldwas ‘witnessedbyaliquidworld—literallyencompassedbythesea-bornetiesofcommerce andkinship,andmetaphoricallyrepresentedbythe tanahair …Inthecolonialworldby contrast,weseethemakingoftheregionasafixedbounded,annexed,andterritorialized andthenconnectedtothecentresofempirethroughaseriesofhubs-and-spokes’.
4 InterviewwithSurinPitsuwanon22April2011inJakarta.
otherwords,therearelimitstoattemptex-postrationalizationofevents purelybasedonpastevents.Evenmoreso,humanswiththeirsubjective minds,oftenactirrationallytoconjureeventsthatcouldbemindbogglingforresearchers.Inthiscontext,onecanalsoquestionsomeofthe sociologicalexplicationsusedtoconstructcapitalisthistory.However,any attempttorefutepasthistoricalaccountsmustbebackedbyscientific evidence(Popper, 1959).AnincisiveattempttoreconstructMalaysia’s historyusingscientificevidencecanbeseenfromtheworksofSultan NazrinShah(2017, 2019).Theseworksforthefirsttimeconstructeda historicalGDPseriesthat,amongothers,allowedforaconsistentassessmentofgrowthandstructuralchangeinMalaysiaovertheperiod1900 till1939andsubsequently,theyearsafter1945.Scholarsinthepastwere oftenrestrictedbyscantdata,whichwasnotonlydiscontinuousbutalso presentedatdifferentprices.5
Whilethebookseekstoofferareinterpretationandundocumented elementsofdevelopments,events,andissues,itdoesnotattemptto provideanexhaustiveaccountoftheseelements,whichisneitherpossible nornecessary.Attemptstohistoricizewillcontinueasresearchersdiscover undocumentedandinadequatelytreatedissuesthatarecriticaltohistory. Inotherwords,historicalinterrogationshallremainacontinuousexercise.
Thisbookfocussesonissuesthatarelargelyconfinedtocolonialhistory, issuesthatconnectpre-colonialdevelopmentswithcolonialrule,and post-colonialdevelopmentsthathavetheiroriginsincolonialrulein Malaya.Indoingso,theprimethreadthattieseachofthechaptersis theuseofnovelinterpretationstorethinktheseissues.GiventheenormouscontributionShaharilTalibmadetoourunderstandingofMalaysian history,itisonlyrightthatscholarsofhighstandingareallowedthespace toproblematizeissuesforwhichreinterrogationoffersnewlight,aswell asextendingnoveltybythosewhohavecarriedhistorchintootherfields.
Aftertheintroductoryfirstchapter,inChapter 2,RajahRasiahrevisits colonialindustrializationinMalayawithafocusonthekeydrivers.While
5 (1995a, b),forexample,usedfactorpricesandonlyselectedsectorsoverparticular periods,andmarketpricesandothersectorsoverotherperiodstoexaminehoweconomic laissezfairism withintheBritishempireimpactedoncolonialMalaya.
officialtraderegulationsincolonialMalayadidnotimposetariffson severalimportsfromwithintheBritishEmpire,hearguesthatsignificantdeparturesfromthedoctrineoffreemarketsdidtakeplaceas Malaya’slocation,specificityofproduction,andnatureoftheembeddingenvironmentwerecriticalinshapingthenatureofmanufacturing thatevolvedincolonialMalaya.Althoughmarketswereimportant, giventheinherentlyunevenandsegmentednatureoflabourmarkets inemergingeconomies,heprovidesevidencetoshowthatfirmsgraduallyadoptedcapital-intensivetechnologyinanumberofoperations toimprovecoordinationbetweensupplyanddemand.Aslocalmanufacturingwasexposedtointernationalcompetitioninwhichlarge-scale demandwasmetfromimports,localmanufacturingfirmsremainedsmall despiteabsorbingcapital-intensivepower-driventechnology.Rajahargues thatcolonialindustrializationinMalayawasshapedbyamyriadofinstitutions.Whilemarketswereimportant,sowereotherinstitutionsthat promotedthedevelopmentofproductivecapacityatproximatelocations, whichgaverisetothemanufactureofheavymachineryandequipment, andships,andfoundries,especiallytrust,whichwasinstrumentalinovercominguncertaintiesandriskstoensuresmoothcoordinationintin miningandsmelting,andrubbercultivationandprocessing.
ZawawiIbrahimdiscussesinChapter 3 howacontinuousanthropologicalinterestintheMalaypeasantryfromthe1930shascreatedarich theoreticalandempiricalliterature,whichoffersacriticalgenealogical accountofknowledgeproductionspanningfourgenerationsofanthropologists.Henotesthatthefirsttwogenerationsweredominatedby Westernanthropologists,(especiallyRaymondFirthandMichaelSwift), whofocussedonlatecolonialism.Thelattertwogenerationswereledby indigenousscholarswhoconsciouslygrappledwiththeintellectuallegaciesofthepastwhile,atthesametime,openingupnewresearchvistas. Usingaclosereadingofsomeofthekeyanthropologicaltextsproduced ontheMalaypeasantry,aswellasananalysisoftheinstitutionalizationof professionalanthropologyinMalaysia,thischapterdiscussesthetensions ofintergenerationalcontinuitiesandruptures.Whileacknowledgingthe enormousdebtthatmanyindigenousscholarsowedtotheirWestern mentors,thechapterarguesthatthereemergedaqualitativebreakwith thepastduringthelate1970sand1980s.Thissawindigenousanthropologistsgrapplingwithpost-peasantrystudiesandopeningupnewfields ofinquiryonthelargerissuesofagrarianchange,capitalistmodernity, ideationalformation,andcontemporarypolitics.
InChapter 4,ShamsulAmriBaharuddinarguesthatcolonialknowledgehasbeenthemostpowerfulformofknowledgeindecolonized societiesbutisincreasinglylessrecognizedbecauseithasbecomenaturalizedandembeddedwithinthosesocieties.Indeed,heassertsthatit remainsthesinglemostdominatingsourceofpowerandlegitimacyfor thepost-colonialstate,particularlythosesurvivingonethnicnationalism. Indoingso,thechapterexplorestheroleoftheliterarycomponent,as partofcolonialknowledge,intheconstructionof‘Malayethnicity’.In theprocess,itdemonstratesthattheliterarycomponentisanintegraland indispensablepartofthecolonialinvestigativemodality.Infact,Shamsul demonstratesthattheliterarycomponentof‘Malay’isanintegraland indispensablepartofthecolonialinvestigativemodality,andhence,the constructionofclassificationsandcategoriesthatelaborate,refine,and evenembellishtheinventedethniccategoryof‘Malay’.
InChapter 5,AnthonyMilnerseekstodefinethecontributionof ShaharilTalibtothestudypre-modernMalayapoliticalsystems.Hisessay outlinestheextraordinaryrangeofanalyticalapproachesemployedover theyearsuptoShaharil’stime.BeginningwiththeworkofThomas StamfordRaffesandJohnCrawfurdtwocenturiesago,thenconsideringsuchlaterscholar-officialsasHughCliffordandRochardWinstedt, andfinallynotingtheinfluenceofdifferentanthropologicalandMarxistinfluencedperspectivesdevelopedinthepost-colonialperiod,thechapter thenexaminesthemajorstudyonTerengganu,whichShaharilpublished.
Milner’smainfocusisonthesignificantshiftsandcontestsinthe historiographyofpre-colonialMalaysocieties,seekingtoshowinparticularwhereShaharil’sendeavourscanbeappropriatelypositioned.In Milner’sview,Shaharilinnovatoryinadoptingadiachronicapproach— portrayingtheMalaystatesassocietiesinmotion.Milnernotesthat Shaharil’sconclusions,andinterpretiveframework,whichheemployed, haveprovokedscholarlydebate—andthis,Milnersays,underlinesthefact thatShaharilproducedaclassicworkinthefieldofMalayhistory.
MaznahMohamadusesShaharil’sinnovativescholarlylensestorevisit herworkonhandloomweaversinMalaysiainChapter 6.Indoingso, MaznahattemptstoenlivenShaharil’slegacyinsharpeningourunderstandingoftheconceptofsocialclass,itscondition,andthecolonial statewithinahistoricaltrajectoryinanattempttodeconstructcriticalelementsofthepast.Goingbeyondthetypicalpaternalisticcolonial narratives,Maznahdiscussespassionatelythehandloomweavingindustry ofTerengganu,KelantanandPahang.Althoughthehandloomweavers
engagedintextileweavingwerewipedoutduringcolonialintegration, shedocumentstheformofindustrializationthattookplace,whichwas thelifebloodoftheurban-based‘middle-class’oftheoldMalayworld then.
Chapter 7 bySivachandralingamSundaraRajaanalysescasestudies inthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiestoarguethatMalay aristocratswerenotjustinterestedbutwerealsodirectlyinvolvedinbusinessactivitiesbeforeBritishintervention,andbecamemoreactiveduring BritishruleintheFederatedandUnfederatedMalayStates.Theexpansionintheirbusinessactivitiesarosefrombothadrasticreductionintheir allowancesduringtheBritishadministration,aswellasthegrowingcapitalistopportunitiesduringcolonialism.Indoingso,hearguesthatthe colonialgovernmentactivelyapprovedapplicationsbythearistocratsto dobusinessinminingandagriculture.TheBritishalsosupportedthe Chettiartohelpthearistocratstoretaintheirlavishlifestyle.
InChapter 8,ViswanathanSelvaratnamarguesthattheBritish Empire’spoliticalintervention,territorialexpansion,administrativedominance,landgrabbing,andimportationofindentured‘coolie’labour wastoexploitthenaturalresourcesofPeninsularMalayafortheaccumulationofcapitalatthemetropolitanBritain,whichevolvedasan asymmetricrace-classpowerstructurebetweentheimperialpowerand itscoloniestargetedatinstitutionalizinganempire-widecheap,exploitative,andrepressivecoolietrade.Thechapteroutlinestheimpactof theconstellationofexploitativeandrepressivepoliciesofBritishimperialism,thecolonialstate,andcolonialcapitalismonSouthIndiancoolies. Thecontinuationofthechangingcapitaliststructurecombinedwith theperpetuationofthepro-capitalistandclass-cum-racepolicystrategieshasinfantilizedthesubjugatedSouthIndian‘coolies’toberelegated tothestatusofanoppressed,marginalized,dispossessedandprecarious underclasstobe‘mercilesslylefttotheirfate’.
Usingalongitudinalhistoricalapproach,DannyWongTzeKendocuments,inChapter 9,thedevelopmentoftheHakkaidentityinSabah since1882,includingitstiestotheBaselChurch,aswellastheway thechurchprovidedimpetustoreinforcetheHakkaidentity.Indoing so,hearguesthattheBaselChurch’sinstitutionalizationofHakka-ness, boththroughlanguageandactivities(e.g.churchesandschools),have beeninstrumentalinenhancingtheHakkaidentityamongtheChinese inSabah,thoughtheadmissionofothermembersandinfluenceshave beguntoposenewchallenges.
JohanSaranamuttudiscusses,inChapter 10,thesteadydeclinein Westerndominanceinpost-colonialSoutheastAsiangeopoliticssincethe VietnamWar.Hearguesthatthepost-ColdWarperiodhaswitnessed acontinuanceofasystemofwatered-downAmerican-ledarrangements aimedatmaintainingregionalstabilityamongSoutheastAsianstates, whichwastemperedbytheemergenceoftheAssociationofSoutheast Asia(ASEAN)regionalisminthelate1960sandtheprogressivefashioningofASEANconstructsforregionalstability.ASEANovertime evinceditsownagencyincraftingregionalinstitutionsandnormsto leverageonthenotionof‘ASEANcentrality’instabilizingregionalpoliticsintothetwenty-firstCentury.Hitherto,thenotionofhegemonic stabilityintheinternationalrelationsliteratureimpliedthatamajor hegemon,suchasEuropeanpowerlikeBritainortheUnitedStates, wouldundergirdregionalstability.WiththeapparentdeclineofAmericanhegemony,thechangingcharacterofglobalpoliticshasallowedfor alargemeasureofagencyandflexibilityintheforeignpolicyofsmalland mediumstatesinASEAN,whichincludeMalaysia.
ThefinalchapterbyRahulMisraandPeterBrianM.Wangpresents argumentstoshowthatinsteadofmerelybeingoneofmany,Malaysia’s colonialpasthashadadeepandmeaningfuleffectonnotonlytheshaping ofMalaysia’sforeignpoliciespersebutalsoonthemenresponsible initsshaping.ThechapterfocussesonMalaysia’sforeignpolicyduring theadministrationofTunkuAbdulRahman,thefirstPrimeMinisterof Malaysia.Intheprocess,thechapterlooksintotheroleofcolonialism, particularlytherelationswithBritain,ininfluencingMalaysia’spoliticosecurityandmilitaryoutlookanditsapproachtowardsinternational multilateralforumssuchasASEANandtheNon-AlignedMovement. RahulMisraandPeterBrianarguethatMalaysia’spursuitofaprowesternandanti-communistforeignpolicyintheearlypost-independence years,insteadofbeingaparadox,wasadirectby-productofMalaysia’s experiencewithcolonialization.
Overall,thechaptersinthebookmeetthe raisond’être forreinterrogatingMalaysia’sintegrationintotheworldeconomy.Chapters 2 and 6 byRajahRasiahandMaznahMohamadreinterpretandintroducetheemergenceofmodernindustrializationandthedisappearance ofcottageindustrializationrespectivelyduringcolonialrule.Zawawi IbrahimandShamsulAmriBaharuddindiscussusinganthropological lenses,theindigenousperspectiveofunderstandingtheMalaysandtheir socialrelationstodebunkcolonialconstructsabouttheminChapters 3
and 4.AnthonyMilnerremindsusthatShaharil’smajorstudyonTerengganuisacasestudyofearlyMalayeliteendeavourstoengageinthe growinginternationaleconomy(thoughMilneralsoarguesthatsucha materialistapproachisonlyonewaytointerpretsocio-economicand culturalactivitiesinMalaystatesontheeveofcolonialrule).
SivachandralingamSundaraRajaprovidesfreshevidenceinChapter 7 toarguethattheMalayroyaltywasinvolvedinbusinesspriorto colonialism,anactivitythatexpandedstronglyduringcolonialrule owingtoreducedrevenuebroughtaboutbycolonialrule.Viswanathan SelvaratnamoffersinChapter 8 arigorousassessmentofIndiancoolie historyduringcolonialrule,whichaddsfurthertoexistingaccountsofthe repressivenatureoftheirrelocationfromIndiaandsubsequentexploitationinMalaya.DannyWongTzeKendocumentstheroleoftheBasel ChurchinshapingtheHakkaidentityinSabahinChapter 9.Finally, Chapters 10 and 11 byJohanSaravanamuttuandRahulMisralinkthe foreignpolicyofindependentMalaysia,andASEANtotheircolonialpast.
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Historicalnarrativesoncolonialindustrializationhavetendedtovacillatebetweenoneoflargelyfreetradewithinthedomainofparticular sphereofcolonialempires(e.g.,Bauer, 1948;Benham, 1949;Corden& Richter, 1963;Little, 1982)andhostileinterventionisteffortsbycolonialgrandmasterstoprotectcolonialinterests(e.g.Puthucheary, 1960; Lim, 1977;Jomo, 1986).Ascoloniesactedaslabour-surpluseconomies dominatedbydisguisedunemployment,theneoclassicaldictumshould haveseenaspecializationinagricultureandlabour-intensiveindustrialization.UsingtheexperienceofcolonialMalaya,weshowinthisarticle thatcolonialruleinMalayasawtheaggressiveopeningoftinminesand rubberplantationstoservetheinterestsoftheBritishempireratherthan capitalistaccumulationinMalaya.However,initsquesttoextractsurplus fromtinminesandrubberplantations,thecolonialgovernmentdideffect institutionalchangethatleftthecountrywithfairlygoodbasicinfrastructure,securityandpoliticalstabilityforthepost-colonialgovernment
R.Rasiah(B)
Asia-EuropeInstitute,UniversityofMalaya, KualaLumpur,Malaysia e-mail: rajah@um.edu.my
©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SingaporePteLtd.2021
R.Rasiahetal.(eds.), ContestingMalaysia’sIntegration intotheWorldEconomy, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0650-2_2
topursue,interalia,industrialdevelopment.Whilethebrutalmethods throughwhichsurplusextractionevolvedraisedseriousquestionsabout Britishrule(Fauconnier, 2003;Cheah, 2012),colonialruledidquicken capitalistintegrationandsowedtheseedsforindustrialtransformationin thecountry.1
Bothplantationagricultureandphysicalinfrastructurebenefittedfrom technologytransferasthedeploymentoffarminginstruments,suchas rubberprocessingandcoagulation,hybridseedsinagriculture,hydraulic sluicing,gravelpumpinganddredgingintinmining,andtheconstructionandmaintenanceofinfrastructurereliedonforeigntechnology(Allen &Donnithorne, 1957;Thoburn, 1977).However,colonialrulealso limitedindustrializationtoservicingagricultureandservices,aswellas intopettycommoditymanufacturing.WhileBritishruleunderanimperialpowerfocussedonprotectingBritishcapitalistinterestsrestricted thepotentialforlocalindustrialaccumulation,italsoexposedColonial Malayatomodernmanufacturingtargetedatservicingtheagricultural andinfrastructuresectors.
Ibeginmyanalysisbyarguingthatthecolonialgovernmentgenerally limiteditsroletosupportingcapitalistinterestsbyassumingmarketenhancingpoliciesbutonanumberoftimesdepartedfromdeterministic relativepriceargumentsowingtoassetspecificityandproductioncontrol requirementsaffectedbydistanceandwar-timedisruptions.Subsequently, Iexaminetheextentandshortcomingsofindustrializationachievedunder colonialpolicies.Indoingso,weseektouseevidencetopresentthe historyofcolonialindustrializationinMalaysiainthetraditionofCarr (1961)ratherthanrationalizingit expost inthe,whichisconsistentwith thehistoricalaccountsundertakenbyShaharil(1995, 2005).
Whilecolonialtradewaslargelylaissezfaireinnaturewithincolonial spheresofinfluence,governmentsdidintervenetoprotectthecolonial
1 WhileChineselabourrecruitmentandcontrolwerehandledbyChineseheadman withoutdirectmanagementbyWesternowners(Cheah, 2012),thecolonialgovernment wasmoredirectlyinvolvedinIndianlabourrecruitmentandmanagement.Theoppressive labourconditionsinestateswerepursuedthroughrepressivelabourcontrolmethods, whichincludedsupervisorsfromdifferentethnicitiesandcastes,andaggressivetreatment metedouttothoseattemptingtoorganizelabour(Jomo, 1986;Jain, 1988, 1993).
interests.Threesignificantinstitutionswerecriticalinshapingcolonial economicgovernance.2 Relativeprices(markets)hadacriticalroleinthat theminingandsmeltingoftinandcultivation,tappingandprocessing ofrubberweredrivenstronglybyrelativeresourceendowments.This lineofeconomicargumentwasadvancedbyRicardo(1817),Heckscher (1935)andOhlin(1933),3 whichwaslatermodelledmathematically bySamuelson(1948)toformtheneoclassicalmodelofspecialization onthebasisofrelativefactorendowments.Althoughsubsequentrefinementshavetakenplace,thefreetradeargumentsofBhagwati(1988)and Krueger(1997)essentiallyemphasizethedominantroleofmarkets.
ThenewinstitutionalistsofCoase(1937),North(1990)and Williamson(1985)madethecaseforcircumstanceswhenmarketfailures occurandhowinstitutions,suchastrusthelpcorrectmarketfailures.4 Scaleeffectsandfrequencyoftransactions,andassetspecificitiesareexamplesofwhenmarketsareadaptedtocorrectmarketfailures.However, Veblen(1915),NelsonandWinter(1982)andRasiah(2011)argue thatmarketsoftendonotdictatecircumstanceswheneconomicagents seektopursuetrustandothernon-formalinstitutionstodeterminetheir choices.5 Itisinthiswaythateconomicagentsoftencaptureopportunitiestointroducetechnologiesthatdeviatefromrelativefactorprices. Forexample,theeconomicsofdistanceandwar-timedisruptions,as wellastheneedtocoordinateadaptationstocapitalgoods(e.g.heavy) machinerybylocatingtheirmanufactureclosetomining,cultivationand processingoperationsoffertheopportunityforeconomicagentstoenter inthemanufactureofcomplementarygoodsthatdefyrelativefactor endowments.Albeitspecificexamplesarescant,Hirschman(1958, 1970) madethecasethattheexpansioninexportsoffershost-governmentsthe opportunitytostimulateinstitutionalchangetopromotebackwardlinkagesthatoftenenterintotheproductionofintermediateandcapital
2 Institutionsaredefinedasinfluencesthatshapetheconductofeconomicagents (individuals,firmsandorganizations)(Veblen, 1915).
3 Inthetwofactormodeloffreetrade,Heckscher(1935)andOhlin(1933)used assumptionsofperfectmobilityofcapitalandlabourwithincountrybordersandtheir perfectimmobilityacrosscountryborders.
4 Suchviewsareoftenreferredtothenewinstitutionalistaccountofinstitutions(Rasiah, 2011).
5 Theseviewsarepopularlyknownastheevolutionaryviewofinstitutions(Rasiah, 1995a, b; 2011).
goods.Businessesandgovernmentscloselyworkingwiththemoften appropriatethesepecuniaryandtechnicalexternaleconomiestostimulate structuraltransformation.
Giventherisksanduncertaintiesinvolvedinenteringtheproduction ofscale-andcapital-intensivegoods,theextentofentryofeconomic agentsintosucheconomicactivitiesoftenrequiresupportfromhostgovernmentsandbusinessassociationstocheckcut-throatcompetition andthattherightincentivesareinplacetounderwriterisksanduncertainties(Rasiah, 2019).
HowevermuchthecolonialstateavoidedandinsomecasesdiscouragedthegrowthofmanufacturinginMalaya,onecanexpectthatthe smoothfunctioningoftheexport-orientedcolonialminingandagriculturewouldhaverequiredsomedeparturesfromtheroleofmarketsas aninstitutionofgovernance.Hence,inthischapter,weexplorethe interactionsofamyriadofinstitutionalinfluencesintheemergenceof manufacturingundercolonialrule.
AlthoughthereareconsiderableaccountsofprecolonialMalayathat includeotherstates,suchasKedah,Kelantan,PerakandJohore(Wong, 1965),Malaccaisthemostdecoratedprecolonialkingdomthatwas involvedintradingofIndianpiecemealgoodsforspices,aromaticsand dyewoods,whatReid(1993)classifiedasearlymercantilisminMalaya. Tradewasmainlyconfinedtofewports(especiallyMalacca),though IndiantradersvisitedotherpartsofMalaya,suchasKedah.TheMalays werelargelyinvolvedinsubsistencefarmingandfishing,locatingtheir settlementsclosetotherivers(Ooi, 1961:350).Onlysmall-scaleoffseasonminingwascarriedoutwiththeMandailingsfromSumatra, importantparticipantswhoused Dulang (bucket)tohandminetinore fromtherivers(Burns, 1982).Pettycommodityproductioncharacterized manufacturing,whichwaslimitedtocraft-workandcottageindustries. Handicrafts(e.g.,floormats,blindsandrattanbaskets)andsimplefood processing(e.g.keropok[fishcrackers])wereamongthemainmanufactures.Traditionalhumanskillscharacterizedthetechnologydeployedin suchmanufacturingactivities.Traditionalwood-andrattan-basedhome andboatmakingwerethemostsophisticatedmanufacturingoperation then.