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Author(s):SharonStraus,DavidSackett
ISBN(s):9781118446027,111844602X
Edition:1
FileDetails:PDF,1.51MB
Year:2013
Language:english
Mentorshipin Academic Medicine Mentorshipin Academic Medicine SharonE.StrausMD,FRCPC,MSc
LiKaShingKnowledgeInstitute
St.Michael’sHospital; DepartmentofMedicine UniversityofToronto Toronto,ON Canada
DavidL.SackettOC,MD,FRSC,FRCP Director,TroutResearch&EducationCentre IrishLake,ON Canada
Thiseditionfirstpublished2014, © 2014byJohnWiley&Sons.
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Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inany formorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,exceptaspermittedbytheUK Copyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988,withoutthepriorpermissionofthepublisher.
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Thecontentsofthisworkareintendedtofurthergeneralscientificresearch,understanding,anddiscussiononlyandare notintendedandshouldnotberelieduponasrecommendingorpromotingaspecificmethod,diagnosis,ortreatment byhealthsciencepractitionersforanyparticularpatient.Thepublisherandtheauthormakenorepresentationsor warrantieswithrespecttotheaccuracyorcompletenessofthecontentsofthisworkandspecificallydisclaimall warranties,includingwithoutlimitationanyimpliedwarrantiesoffitnessforaparticularpurpose.Inviewofongoing research,equipmentmodifications,changesingovernmentalregulations,andtheconstantflowofinformationrelating totheuseofmedicines,equipment,anddevices,thereaderisurgedtoreviewandevaluatetheinformationprovidedin thepackageinsertorinstructionsforeachmedicine,equipment,ordevicefor,amongotherthings,anychangesinthe instructionsorindicationofusageandforaddedwarningsandprecautions.Readersshouldconsultwithaspecialist whereappropriate.ThefactthatanorganizationorWebsiteisreferredtointhisworkasacitationand/orapotential sourceoffurtherinformationdoesnotmeanthattheauthororthepublisherendorsestheinformationtheorganization orWebsitemayprovideorrecommendationsitmaymake.Further,readersshouldbeawarethatInternetWebsites listedinthisworkmayhavechangedordisappearedbetweenwhenthisworkwaswrittenandwhenitisread.No warrantymaybecreatedorextendedbyanypromotionalstatementsforthiswork.Neitherthepublishernortheauthor shallbeliableforanydamagesarisingherefrom.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Straus,SharonE.,author. Mentorshipinacademicmedicine/SharonE.StrausandDavidL.Sackett. p.;cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-1-118-44602-7(pbk.) I.Sackett,DavidL.,author.II.Title. [DNLM:1.Mentors.2.Education,Medical.3.Faculty,Medical.WB18] R735.A1 610.71–dc23
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12014
Contents Acknowledgements,vii
Introduction,ix
Chapter1:Whatistheevidenceformentorship?,1
Chapter2:Whatarethecharacteristicsandbehaviors ofeffectivementorsandmentees?,11
Chapter3:Howcanyouinitiatementorship?,25
Chapter4.1:Someeffectivementoringstrategies andtactics,35
Part1:Mentorshipmeetings,prioritysetting, andtime-management,35
Chapter4.2:Someeffectivementoringstrategies andtactics,50
Part2:Protectingmenteesfrom‘‘dys-opportunities’’,50
Chapter4.3:Someeffectivementoringstrategies andtactics,72
Part3:Mentoringforknowledgegeneration,72
Chapter4.4:Someeffectivementoringstrategies andtactics,87
Part4:Mentoringforknowledgedissemination,87
Chapter4.5:Someeffectivementoringstrategies andtactics,99
Part5:Mentoringforpromotion,protection,andjobprospects,99
Chapter5:Howcanyouassess,diagnose,andtreat mentorshipthatisintrouble?,110
Chapter6:Howcanyouinitiateandmaintain amentorshipprogam?,119
Chapter7:Howcanyouevaluatetheimpact ofamentorshipprogram?,133
Chapter8:Howcanyouscaleupandsustainamentorship program?,148
Index,153
Acknowledgements Wehavelearnedahugeamountfromourmentors,mentees,friends,and colleaguesaboutmentorshipandwethankthemfortheirongoingsupport andinspiration.WethankJenniferDeevyforobtainingpermissionsto reproducesomeofthetablesinthisbook,andwethankDavidNewton bothforhishardworkinorganizingourmentorshipsurveyresults,andfor hisgeniusincreatingthewebsite(www.mentorshipacademicmedicine.com) thataccompaniesthisbook.DarioSambunjakandMitchFeldmangenerously providedbothinsightsandfeedbackonearlydraftsofChapters6and7 respectively.VicNeufeld,DonaldCole,andLehanaThabanerevieweddrafts ofthebookandprovideduswiththoughtfulfeedbackonitscontents.
Wethankeachofouramazingcolleagueswhonotonlyserveasrolemodels ofexcellentmentorship,buttookthetimetotellushowtheydiditthrough completionofasurvey(andareallowingustosharetheirinsightsandexpertisewithyou).Theyinclude:PaulArmstrong,JesseBerlin,MohitBhandari, DianneBryant,JohnCairns,BillClark,RebeccaClarke,DeborahCook,Gary Cutter,DaveDavis,SimonDay,JulianDesmond,JohnEikelboom,Justin Ezekowitz,BrianFeldman,AmitGarg,HertzelGerstein,PaulGlasziou, ChristianGluud,CharlesGoldsmith,VladimirHachinski,RobertHart,Brian Haynes,BrendaHemmelgarn,CarlHeneghan,AsbjørnHr ´ objartsson,Clive Kearon,AndreasLaupacis,FranceL ´ egar ´ e,SandyMacPherson,Bonani Mayosi,MaureenMeade,CindyMulrow,JockMurray,JimNeaton,Andy Oxman,BarryPless,DonRedelmeier,RobertaScherer,DavidSimel,Peter Szatmari,ShaunTreweek,AndrewVickers,AllynWalsh,andJamesWare.
Sharonwouldliketoparticularlythankherfamilyfortheirpatienceand support.ShegivesspecialthankstoJeremyGrimshaw,BrianHaynes,Andreas Laupacis,andArthurSlutskywhocontinuetoprovideherwithmentorship.
MuchofDave’scontributiontothisbookisanexpansionofhis‘Cliniciantrialistrounds’columninthejournal ClinicalTrials,andhethanksitseditor, SteveGoodman,forshepherdingthatenterprise.Individual“rounds”were guest-ledbySharon,PeterSzatmari,andAndyOxman,andfrequently incorporatedcommentsfromfellowtrialiststheworld’round.
Introduction Wereckonthatfewacademicswouldargueagainsttheimportanceof mentorshipinacademicmedicine;afterall,you’rereadingthisintroduction! AswehopetoconvinceyouinChapter1,effectivementorshipisamajor determinantofacademicsuccessandbothjobandlifesatisfaction.However, althoughmoststudiesofacademicfacultysuggestthattheywantmentorship [1–3],therearelotsofacademicsettingsinwhichlessthan20%ofthem getit.Inrecognitionofthisyawninggap,manyacademichealthinstitutions aredevelopingmentorshipprogramsand,indoingso,haverecognized thepaucityofeducationalaswellasadministrativeresourcestoeducate andsupportbothmentorsandmentees.Wewrotethisbooktohelpmeet thisneed.
Howdidwegetinterestedinmentorship? SharonbecameinterestedinmentorshipwhilecompletingaresearchfellowshipattheUniversityofOxfordunderDave’ssupervision.Attheirfirst meeting,Daveaskedhertooutlinehercareergoalsaswellasthoseforher researchtraining.Dave’sresponsechangedherlife:hetoldherthathisjob wastomakesuresheachievedwhatshewantedinherfellowshipandto supportherinthedevelopmentofhercareerpath.Thisaltruismwasrole modeledthroughoutthenextfewyearsandDave’samazingmentorship skillsandexpertisedirectlyinfluencedhercareerandherownattemptsat mentorship.WhenpreparingtoleaveOxfordandbeginherfirstfaculty position,SharonaskedDavehowshecouldeverrepayhimforwhathe’d giventoherandhisimmediateresponsewas,“Dothesameforothers.”Now, aftermentoringmorethan50graduatestudentsandnewfaculty,Sharon statesthatoneofthemostfulfillingpartsofherjobistobeabletointeract withandlearnfromhermentees.Itistheseexperiences,plusthescarcity ofresourcesdescribinghowtodevelopandsupportmentorship,thatledto severalresearchprojectsand,ultimately,tothisbook.
Dave,akintoMoli ` ere’sMonsieurJourdain∗ ,wasgettingmentoredfor yearsbeforeheknewit.BeginninginaUSmedicalschoolin1958(backwhen manstillhad48chromosomes),andinhisinternship,firstmedicalresidency, andnephrologyfellowship,hewas“adopted”inturnbyabenchscientist, achairofmedicine,andanephrologistwhodidn’tsimplyrecruithiminto theirbailiwicksasanextrabrainandpairofhandstobe“supervised.” Instead,andinturn,theytooktimeeachweekorsotochallengehiswaysof thinkingaboutwhathe“knew”andmightbeabletofindoutabouthuman biologyandclinicalmedicine,toopendoorstotheplaces(“restricted”labs andgraduatecourses)wherehemightlearnhowtofindthosethingsout,to critiqueandimprovehisplebeianwritingandspeakingskills,toexplorehis careerinterestsandambitions,andtohelphimthinkhowhemightpursue themthroughhisnextcareermoves.Twenty-fiveyearslater,aftergetting educatedaboutmentoringandinstitutingitatanewCanadianmedical andgraduateschool,hisseventhmentorhelpedhimthinkthroughand implementhissecondmedicineresidency.He’snowonhistenthmentor andgazillionthmentee,andbeginningtogetthehangofit[4].
Whoarethepotentialreadersofthisbook? Wehavewrittenthisbookforaspiringacademicresearchersandeducators (whomwe’llhereaftercall mentees)andthoseexperienced,empathicpersons whoguidetheminthedevelopmentandre-examinationoftheirown ideas,learning,andpersonalandprofessionaldevelopment(whomwe’ll call mentors).Weareacademicphysicians(namely,wearesubspecialistsin internalmedicineandgeriatricmedicineanddon’tpresumetobeexpertsin otherclinicalareas)whohavelargelyworkedinNorthAmericaandtheUK. Mostofourmenteeshavebeenphysicians,butwehavementoredpeople fromvariousdisciplinesincludingnursing,medicine,rehabilitationtherapy, biostatistics,healthinformatics,education,andengineeringamongstothers andfromdifferentcareerpathsincludingclinicianeducators,researchers, andadministrators.Whilethereissomematerialinthisbookthatis relevanttoanyoneworkinginanacademicinstitution,wedon’ttopretend tobeexpertsinmentorshipforothertypesofcliniciansandacademics (suchasthoseinotherclinicaldisciplinesorcareerpaths)orforthose workinginlowandmiddleincomecountries,andweencouragethem toidentify(orcreate)mentorshipresourcesthatoutlineissuesuniqueto theirmentorshipneeds.Weinvitethesereaderstosharetheseresources
∗ whoexclaimed:“Well,whatdoyouknowaboutthat!ThesefortyyearsnowI’ve beenspeakinginprosewithoutknowingit!”Moli ` ere: TheBourgeoisGentleman,1670.
withusviaourwebsite(www.mentorshipacademicmedicine.com)andto leaddiscussionsonthewebsiteaboutwhichcontentsfromthebookare usefultothemandwhichonesaren’trelevant.Intheliteraturereview thatweconductedtoinformthisbook,mostofthearticlesfocusedon mentorshipforclinicianscientists.Wefoundlessresearchthattargeted clinicianeducatorsandclinicianadministratorsandthusourdiscussionof mentorshipforacademicsfollowingthesecareerpathsisnotexhaustive. Again,weencourageourreaderstosendanyrelevantresearchtargeting theseindividualstoourwebsite.
Wehavetargetedourbookprimarilyatmentoringinacademicinstitutions.Accordingly,wehaveviewedourreadersandtheirinterests,goals, aspirations,opportunities,resources,challenges,anddilemmasthroughthat lens,andatboththeindividualandinstitutionallevels:
• Attheindividualmentor–menteelevel,we’vepresentedthebestevidence wecouldfindonwhattheyshouldlookforineachother,howtheyshould findeachother,howtheyshouldtreateachother,howtheyshouldplanand runtheirmentoringsessions,andhowtheyshouldidentifyandmanage theopportunities,challenges,andproblemsmenteesencounterasthey launchtheiracademiccareers(includinghowtofixorsevermentorships thataren’tworking).
• Attheinstitutionallevel,we’vepresentedthebestevidencewecouldfind onhowtoassessaninstitution’sneedforandinterestinmentoring,how todevelopamentoringprogramandtrainmentors,andhowtoevaluate it,correctitsfaults,andsustainit.Whilemostoftheliteraturefocuseson clinicianscientists,wehaveincludedinformationforothercareerpaths wheneverwehavefoundit.Similarly,althoughmostoftheevidence focusesonmentoringtraineesandjuniorfaculty,we’veaddressedissues forseniorfacultywheneverpossible.
Isthisbookaboutthetheoryorpracticeofmentorship?
Therearesomebrilliantpeoplewhoarecontinuingtodevelopatheoretical basisformentoring[5,6]:wearenotamongthem.Thisbookisaboutthe practiceofmentoring.
Howisthisbookorganised?
Thisbookemploysacase-stimuluslearningapproach:
• Eachchapterbeginswithascenarioforthereadertoponderandsolve.
• Next,comesthebestevidencewecouldfindabouttheissuesraisedin thescenario.
• Finally,weclosewithsomeevidence-based,actionablesolutionstothe challengespresentedinthescenario.
Wheredidwegettheevidenceforthematerial inthisbook?
Weidentifiedtheevidenceineachchapterfromthreesources:
1 Oursystematicreviewsandupdatesofthementorshipliterature.Updates sincethisbookwenttopresscanbefoundonourwebsite.
2 Our2012surveyofinternationalcolleagueswhohavebeenrecognized bytheirpeersasbeingexcellentmentors.Weidentified271colleagues fromvariousacademicsettingsaroundtheworldwhohavebeenactivein variouscareerpathwaysandhavesomeexpertiseasamentor.Weinvited themtocompleteasurvey,eitherelectronicallyorviaphoneinterview, andtosharetheirthoughtsontargetsforeffectivementorship,tipsfor achievingthesetargets,potentialmentorshipproblems,andstrategies forovercomingtheseproblems.Forty-fivecolleaguesrespondedtoour requestandwehaveincorporatedtheiranonymizedresponsesinthis book.Wehavepostedthesurveyonourwebsitethataccompanies thisbook(www.mentorshipacademicmedicine.com)andweinvitereaderstotakeafewminutestoreviewitandsharetheiranswerstothesurvey withus.
3 Ourownexperiencesasmentors,menteesanddevelopersofinstitutionlevelmentorshipprograms.
BecausetheGRADEsystem[7]doesn’tyethaveascaleforassessing qualitativeliterature,weusedamodifiedversiontodescribethevalidityand “trustability”oftheevidencewepresentineachchapter.Inbrief,welabelled evidenceas highquality whenwearehighlyconfidentthatthetrueeffectof thementoringinterventionliesclosetothatestimatedinthepublication. Forexample,evidenceisjudgedashighqualityifallofthefollowingapply:
• thereisawiderangeofstudiesincludedintheanalyseswithnomajor limitations
• thereislittlevariationbetweenstudies
• thesummaryestimatehasanarrowconfidenceinterval.
Wejudgeevidenceas moderatequality whenweconsiderthetrueeffect islikelytobeclosetothepublishedestimateoftheeffect,butthereisa possibilitythatitissubstantiallydifferent.Forexample,evidencemightbe judgedasmoderatequalityifanyofthefollowingapplies:
• thereareonlyafewstudiesandsomehavelimitationsbutnotmajorflaws
• thereissomevariationbetweenstudies
• theconfidenceintervalofthesummaryestimateiswide.
Finally,wejudgeevidencetobe lowquality whenthetrueeffectmaybe substantiallydifferentfromthepublishedestimateofitseffect.Forexample, evidencemightbejudgedaslowqualityifanyofthefollowingapply:
• thestudieshavemajormethodologicalflaws
• thereisimportantvariationbetweenstudyresults
• theconfidenceintervalofthesummaryestimateoftheeffectisverywide [7,8].
Whatothermentorshipresourcesareavailable tocomplementthisbook? Wearesupplementingandupdatingthecontentsofthisbookonour websiteatwww.mentorshipacademicmedicine.com.Asthisbookwasbeing published,itincluded:
• amentorshipchecklist
• anindividualdevelopmentplan
• interviewswithvariousmentors
• somementorshipscenarios.
Amajorportionofthiswebsitewillprovideupdatesofnewevidencefor eachchaptersothatreaderscanseewhat’snewordifferentsincethebook waspublished.We’llupdatethisevidence-basebyrepeatingoursystematic reviews.Furthermore,we’lltranslateanynew,validevidenceintonew, effectivestrategiesandtacticsformentees,mentors,andinstitutions.
Weinviteyou,ourreaders,totakeover† thewebsite.
• Whenyoucomeacrossmoderate-orhigh-qualityevidenceonmentoring thatwemissedinpreparingthisbook,pleaseaddittothewebsite. Forexample,we’veworkedmostlyinacademiccentersinhigh-income countries,andwe’dwelcomecontributionsfromcolleagueswhoare mentoringinothersettingssuchasthoseinlow-incomecountries.
• Whenyouhavehadaparticularlypositiveornegativeexperiencein mentoringorbeingmentored,pleaseaddittotherespectivechapter, tellingtherestofuswhatyouthinkits“active”principlewassothatwe canduplicateordiscarditaccordingly.
• Whenyoufindimportantgapsthatwesimplyfailedtocover,letusknow.
• Andwealwaysappreciatehavingthisbook’serrors(includingtypos, misspellings,andothergoofs)identifiedandcorrected.
† Theusualstandardsforwebsiteparticipationwillbeemployed,andyouarefreeto signyourcontributions(andbeacknowledgedforthem)orremainanonymous.
1.GenuardiFJ,ZenniEA.Adolescentmedicinefacultydevelopmentneeds.JAdolesc Health2001;29:46–49.
2.WiseMR,ShapiroH,BodleyJ, etal.Factorsaffectingacademicpromotionin obstetricsandgynaecologyinCanada.JObstetGynaecolCan2004;26:127–136.
3.PalepuA,FriedmanRH,BarnettRC, etal.Juniorfacultymembers’mentoring relationshipsandtheirprofessionaldevelopmentinU.S.medicalschools.Acad Med1998;73:318–323.
4.SackettDL.Onthedeterminantsofacademicsuccessasaclinician-scientist.Clin InvestMed2001;24:94–100.
5.RaginsBR,KramKE. TheHandbookofMentoringatWork:Theory,Researchand Practice.ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications,2007.
6.BozemanB,FeeneyMK.Towardsausefultheoryofmentoring.AdmSoc2007; 39:719–30.
7.GuyattGH,OxmanAD,VistGE, etal.GRADE:Anemergingconsensusonrating qualityofevidenceandstrengthofrecommendations.BMJ2008;336:924–6.
8.GRADEWorkingGroup.Availablefrom:http://www.gradeworkinggroup.org/ AccessedSept20,2012.
Chapter1 Whatistheevidence formentorship? Scenario Attheendofyourfirstyearasanacademicclinician–investigatorinabig, busyclinicaldepartment,withsome200facultymembers,you’vejustfinished discussingyourannualreviewwithyourdepartmentchair.Shetellsyouthat you’redoingextremelywellforanewfacultymember,whichisagreatrelief toyou.Althoughyouthinkyou’vedoneprettywell–inthepastyear,you receivedapeer-revieweddevelopmentgrant,first-authoredtwopapersand co-authoredfourothers,haveasystematicreviewinpress,haveanabstract acceptedforanationalmeeting,areenjoyingyourtimeontheclinicalservice, andthemedicalstudentsandresidentssubmittedglowingassessmentsof yourbedsideteaching–youfeelpressedfortime,worryaboutyourwork–life balance,andwonderwhetheryou’re“ontherighttrack”forasuccessfuland enjoyableacademiccareer.Althoughyou’vereceivedencouragementfrom severalseniormembersofthedepartment,you’vebeenconsciousofhow busytheyareanddon’twanttoimposeontheirjam-packedschedulestoask foradvice.Butnow,stimulatedbyarecentsessiononmentoringwhichyou attendedatanacademicmeetingandemboldenedbyyourchair’spraise, youtellherthatyouandsomeofyourcolleaguesareconcernedaboutthe lackofaformalmentorshipprograminthedepartment.Shesaysthatto beableto“sell”thisideatothedepartment,shewantstoseetheevidence thatsuchaprogramdoesmorethanwastetime,money,andenergy,and shechallengesyoutoleadaworkinggrouptotrackdown,appraise,and summarizetheevidencethataformalmentoringprogrambenefitsthecareer developmentandlife-satisfactionofacademicclinicians.Withthepromiseof somestaffsupportforyourworkinggroup,youacceptherchallenge.
Yourfirststepinthistaskistogathertheevidence; specifically,what’sthecaseformentorship?
Inthischapter,we’llsetthestageforourmentorshipdiscussionprovidingthe definitionsandterminologythatwe’llusethroughoutthisbook.Inparticular, MentorshipinAcademicMedicine,FirstEdition.SharonE.StrausandDavidL.Sackett. © 2014JohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.Published2014byJohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.
we’lloutlinethescopeforourdiscussion,includingwhatmentorshipisand isn’t,andhelpyoutoprovidethe“caseformentorship”basedonthe relevantevidence.Weinviteyoutojoinusinthisdialogueviathewebsite (www.mentorshipacademicmedicine.com)thataccompaniesthisbook;we’d lovetohearabouthowyoudefinementorshipandhowyouwouldmeetthe challengeweposedintheabovescenario!∗
Whatismentorship? TheconceptofmentorshipcanbetracedtoGreekmethodology.Odysseus placedhismucholderfriendMentorinchargeofhispalaceandofhisson TelemachuswhenheleftfortheTrojanWar.Interestingly,Athenadisguised herselfasMentoronseveraloccasionstoprovideguidancetoTelemachus. Itwasfromthisstorythattheterm“mentor”wastakenandbeganbeing usedtomeanatrusted,senioradvisorwhoprovidesguidancetoamore juniorperson.
Movingalongtomorerecenttimes,therearemanydefinitionsofmentorship,includingthosefrombusiness[1]andpsychologyliterature[2],butour focusinthisbookisonacademicmedicine,includingclinicianswhowork inuniversitiesandacademichealthsciencecentres.So,forourdiscussion, we’llusethedefinitioncommonlycitedinacademicmedicalliterature:
Aprocesswherebyanexperienced,highlyregarded,empatheticperson(the mentor)guidesanother(usuallyyoungerormorejunior)individual(the mentee† )inthedevelopmentandre-examinationoftheirownideas,learning, andpersonalandprofessionaldevelopment.Thementor,whooften(butnot necessarily)worksinthesameorganizationorfieldasthementee,achieves thisbylisteningortalkinginconfidencetothementee[3].
Oneelementthatwethinkismissingfromthisdefinitionisthatmentorship isaboutanexchangebetweenthementorandmenteeandprovidesbenefits tobothparties;we’llexplorethesebenefitslaterinthischapter.
Berkandcolleagueshavefurtherelucidatedtheconceptofmentorship tospecifythatitcanrangefromaninformal,short-termrelationshipto aformal,long-termrelationship[4]. Informal mentoringisarelationship betweenindividualsthatdevelopswithoutorganizationalinterventionsand
∗ Therearedifferentwaysoftacklingthischallengeandwe’veprovidedourproposed solutiontothisscenarioattheendofthischapter.
† Notethatweusetheterm“mentee”torefertothetargetofmentorship.Inthe literature,prot ´ eg ´ eisatermthatissometimesusedinterchangeably,butwefindthis termpaternalisticandwillsticktomenteeinthisbook.
isthenatural“comingtogether”ofamentorandmentee.Forexample,a residentmayidentifyastaffphysicianwithwhomtheyworkedonaclinical rotationanddevelopedagoodrapport;thisinteractionmayleadtoaseries ofconversationsthatultimatelyresultsinamentoringrelationship. Formal mentoringisinitiated(insomeplaces,mandated!)byanoutsidepartyor organization,aswhenadepartmentchairnotonlyrequiresthateachnew recruithasamentorbutmakessurethattheygetone.
Acommonsourceofconfusioninthementorshipliteratureisthatthe term“mentor”isoftenusedinterchangeablywiththeterm“rolemodel”or “coach.”Wemaintainthattheseareverydifferentconcepts.“Rolemodeling” isa“passive,observationallearningmodelinwhichanindividualattemptsto emulateobserved,desirablebehavioursandqualities”[5].Indeed,theremay benopersonalrelationshipwiththerolemodel,andtheyareoftenoblivious oftheirrole!Ofcourse,amentorcanandoftendoesserveasarolemodel, butthat’sjustone,passivefacetoftheirfunction.Similarly,mentoringgoes farbeyond“coaching”ajuniorcolleagueontheperformanceofspecific tasksandskills[6].Thislatterfunctionisoftenthecompleteextentofan aspiringacademicclinician’sinteractionswiththeirresearchsupervisoror departmentchair.Wefoundaninterestinganalogy(foranyonewhohasseen StarWars)thatnicelyhighlightsthisdifference:“Yodaisacoach,teaching LukehowtousetheForce,andObi-WanKenobiisamentor,showinghim whatitmeanstobeaJediknight”[7].
Whoarethetargetsformentorship? Muchoftheliteratureonmentorshipfocusesontargetingjuniorornew facultymembers[8–10].However,facultyatanystageintheircareer canbenefitfromit.‡ Alargequalitativestudy(moderate-qualityevidence) ofclinicianresearchersacrosstwouniversitiesdocumentedthatsenior (orestablished)facultyoftenfeelthattheyareneglectedandshouldhave equitableaccesstomentors[11].Wealsofoundadescriptivestudyofa mentorshipprogramdevelopedinaDepartmentofPediatricsatanacademic medicalcentrethattargetedmentorshipactivitiesnotonlytojunior,but tomid-careerandseniorfaculty[12].Theirsurveyofmid-career(associate professorlevel)departmentmembersfoundthatrespondentscommonly wantedmentoringaroundtherequirementsandtimelinesforpromotion, abouthowtoredefinetheircareers,andhowtonetworkeffectively(they werelessinterestedinadvicefrommentorsonhowtotransitionto ‡ DaveSackettlinkedupwithhisfirstmentorin1958andiscurrentlymenteeto histenth.
administrativepositions)[12].Seniorfacultywantedmentoringaround howtotransitiontowardspart-timeopportunitiesandretirement,andon financialandsuccessionplanning.Theseresultshighlightthatasamentee’s careerprogressesandevolvestotakeondifferentresponsibilitiesorchange careerpaths,differentsortsofmentoringmayberequired.Forexample, amentee’semerginginterestinadministrationoreducationmayrequire mentoringskillsbeyondthoseoftheirearlierclinician–scientistmentor.
Inacademicmedicine,clinicianscanhavedifferentcareerpathsincluding thoseofascientist,educator,oradministrator,andhavingthiscareer flexibilityisoneoftheprivilegesandpleasuresofacademicmedicine. Interestingly,surveysandqualitativeliterature(moderate-qualityevidence) suggestthatclinicianinvestigatorsarebothmorelikelytoseekmentorship andmorecomfortableaskingforitthanareclinicianeducators[8–10].This differencemaybebecauseclinicianinvestigatorshavecompletedresearch training,arealreadyusedtohavingresearchsupervisors,andare“primed”to seekthegreaterbenefitsofmentors.Thesestudiesalsosuggestthatclinician educatorsaremorelikelytohavedifficultywithpromotionthanclinician scientists,raisingthepossibilityofacausalrelationship[8–10].Throughout thisbook,wewillidentifydifferencesinmentorshipissuesforeachofthese careerpathswheneverwefindthemintheliterature.
Whatistheimpactofmentorship? Mentorshipclaimstodevelopandmaintainfacultywhoareproductive, satisfied,collegial,andsociallyresponsible.However,notonlyarethereno randomizedtrialsofmentorship;wedoubtwewilleverseeone,sinceitwould bebothmethodologicallyandethicallychallengingtorandomizecliniciansto eitherreceiveamentororbedeniedaccesstoone.§ Accordingly,webasedthis sectionontheresultsfromthreesystematicreviewsoftheliterature[8–10], updatedbymorerecentliteraturesearchestothefirstweekofMarch2012. Studiesofanydesignwereeligibleforinclusion,butthefinalselectionwas restrictedtoEnglish-languagereportstargetingacademicmedicalfaculty. Muchoftheevidencebaseissummarizedinaquantitativesystematic reviewthatexploredtheimpactofmentoringoncareerchoicesandacademic advancement[8].Itincluded42articlesdescribing39studies(34ofwhich werecross-sectionalself-reportsurveys).Asecondsystematicreviewofthe
§ Ontheotherhand,ifwecanidentifyenoughacademiccenterswithaninterestin mentorshipbutnoprograms,asteppedwedgeclusterrandomizedtrialcouldprovide powerfulevidenceonwhetheritworks.We’dbekeentohearfromanyprogramsthat mightbeinterestedintacklingthischallenge!
qualitativeliteratureonmentorshipidentified9relevantstudies[9].Sincethe publicationofthesereviews,weidentifiedanadditional13eligiblestudies:
• 7surveys[13–19]
• 2nestedcasecontrolstudies[20,21]
• 1uncontrolledbefore-and-afterstudy[22]
• 1caseseries[23]
• 2qualitativestudies[24,25].
Mostoftheevidencebasecomesfromcross-sectionalsurveysofacademic clinicianswhohadorhadnotbeenpreviouslymentored.Themethodologicalshortcomingsofsuchstudiesmustberecognized.Specifically,if mentoredacademicsaremoresuccessfulintheseobservationalstudies,possibleexplanationsfortheirsuccessextendbeyondmentoring,andinclude thepossibilitythattheyweredestinedtobestarsfrombirthandtherefore hadaselectionadvantageingettingaccesstosuperiortrainingprogramsthat providedcoincidentalbutunnecessarymentoring.And,themajorityofthe studiesthatwe’vefoundtodateweredoneatasinglesiteanddidn’tfollow mentees’careersoverasufficientlylongperiodoftime.
Bearingthesecaveatsinmind,thereappeartobecareer-andlife-benefits ofmentorshiptobothmentorsandmentees.We’llexplorethebenefitsto menteesfirst:
1 Academicclinicianswhogotmentoredreportedgreatercareersatisfaction [moderatequalityevidence;14–16,22,26].Mentorshipnotonlyinfluences careerchoice[10,24],itinfluencesjobsatisfaction.Forexample,inasurvey offacultyfrom24USmedicalschools,facultymemberswithmentorshad significantlyhighercareer-satisfactionscores(62.6vs59.5ona100-point scale, p < 0.003)thanthosewithoutmentors[26].Similarly,inasurvey ofgastroenterologistsintheUS,havingamentorwasapredictorofjob satisfaction(oddsratioof2.32, p < 0.001)[15].And,inasurveyofmentors andmenteesfromthePsychiatryInstituteatKing’sCollege,London,having amentorwasassociatedwithgreaterjobwell-being[22].Incontrast,Stamm andBuddeberg-FischerhavefollowedacohortofSwissmedicalschool graduatesformorethansevenyearswithbothrepeatedsurveysandanested case-controlstudyandshowedthathavingamentorwasnotpredictiveof jobsatisfaction[20].However,mentorshipdidpredictself-perceivedcareer success[20].
2 Academicclinicianswhowerementoredgotmoreresearchgrants [moderatequalityevidence;27,28].Mentorshipcanenhanceproductivity.For example,asurveywithinanestedcase-controlstudyfoundthatmentored primarycarefellowsweretwotothreetimesaslikelytobeaprincipal investigatoronaresearchgrant[28].
3 Academicclinicianswhowerementoredreportedmoreprotectedtimefor scholarlyactivitiesandproducedmorepublications [moderatequalityevidence; 17,26,29–31].Asurveyofmorethan3000facultymembersintheUSfound thatthosewithamentorhadmoretimeallocatedtoresearch(28%vs15%, p < 0.001)thanthosewhodidn’thaveamentor[26].Inanotherstudy, surveyrespondentswhohadamentorweremorelikelytoallocatemoretime toresearchandweremoreproductiveinresearchintermsoftheirnumbers ofgrantsandpublications[28].
4 Academicclinicianswhowerementoredwerepromotedmorequickly [moderatequalityevidence;8,18,32].Notsurprisingly,giventhatmentorshipisassociatedwithgreaterproductivityofacademicoutputs,mentorship seemstofacilitateacademicpromotion.Forexample,astudyofCanadian obstetricsandgynecologyfellowsfoundthatthosewhoreportedthatthey hadamentorweremorelikelytoachieveapromotion(hazardratio2.3; 95%confidenceinterval1.36–3.99)[32].SurveysintheUS,Canada,and Germanyfoundthattheabsenceofeffectivementoringwasamajorobstacle toasuccessfulacademiccareer[8].Inasmallsurveyof12faculty,Daleyand colleaguesfoundthathavingaseniormentorwasafactorindetermining promotion[18].
5 Academicswhowerementoredweremorelikelytostayattheiracademic institutions [moderatequalityevidence;33].Mentorshipmayplayakeyrole inrecruitingandretainingstaffinacademicmedicine.Forexample,ina two-tieredprogramconsistingofoneyearofpreceptoringnewfaculty(to orientthem)plusmentoringjuniorfacultywhohadbeenthereforatleasta year,38%ofjuniorfacultywhodidnotformmentorpartnershipsleftthe organization,comparedwith15%ofthosewhodid[33].
6 Academicclinicianswhowerementoredreportedgreateracademic“selfefficacy” [moderatequalityevidence;13,22].Academicself-efficacyisdefined asthebeliefinone’sabilitytosucceedinacademicmedicine.Asurveyof facultymembersattheUniversityofCalifornia,SanFranciscoreportedthat thosewhohadamentorreportedsignificantlygreateracademicself-efficacy thanthosewithoutmentors[13].Similarly,Duttaandcolleaguesfoundthat havingamentorwasassociatedwithbothself-efficacyandself-esteem[22].
Thereislessliteratureavailableontheimpactofmentorshiponmentors, andweidentifiedjusttworecentstudiesthatexploredthisissue[22,34]. Inasurveyofmentorsformedicalstudents,mentorshipwasreportedto reinvigorateinterestandleadtopersonalandprofessionalgrowth[34].In theirbefore-and-afterstudy,Duttaandcolleaguesdocumentedmentors’ enjoymentinbeingabletohelpsolvementees’problems,“togiveback,”
providesupport,seetheirmenteesdevelop,andinusingthementorshipto reflectontheirowncareersandskills[22].
Gapsintheevidence Asweemphasizedattheoutset,therearenorandomizedtrialsofmentoring. Whilecompletingamulti-centeredrandomizedtrialofmentorshipwould bechallenging,werepeatourinvitationtocolleagueswhomightwishto collaborateindesigningandexecutingthesteppedwedgeclusterrandomized trialdescribedearlierinthischapter.Shortofthis,longer-termcohort studiesofaspiringacademics,withandwithoutmentors,whichexamine theimpactofmentorshipontheretention,productivity,abilitytomentor others,qualityoflife,andsatisfactionofmenteeswouldshedimportant additionallightonitsrisksandbenefits.
Bottomlineandscenarioresolution Weconcludethateffectivementorshipisvitaltocareersuccess.Itproduces benefitsforbothmentorsandmentees.Conversely,weconcludethatabsent orfailedmentorshipleadstolowerproductivityandhamperstheabilityto achievecareerbenchmarksandpersonalgrowth.Inthenextfewchaptersof thisbook,wewillpresentsomewaystothinkaboutmentors,mentees,mentoringstrategiesandtactics,andhowtodevelopandmonitoramentorship program.
Returningtothescenariothatopenedthischapter:
1Youdevelopaworkinggroupof8to10colleaguesfromyourdepartment includingthosefromdifferentcareerpaths(clinicianeducators,investigators, administrators)andrank(assistant,associate,andfullprofessor).Youuse purposivesamplingtoensurethatyouincludecolleagueswhoareperceived asbeingopinionleadersinyourfacultyandwhocouldbechampionsfor thisinitiative,andincludeskepticsaswellasproponentsofmentorship.
2Aftercirculating,discussing,anddebatingtheevidence,yourworkinggroup concludesthatmentoringdoesfarmoregoodthanharmtobothmentees andmentors,andoughttobesystematicallyimplementedinyourdepartment.Youcreateaone-pagesummarywithkeymessagesthatoutlineyour conclusions.Ifacceptedbyyourchair,thesemessageswillformtherationaleforyourmentorshipstrategyandwillbeusedtoengageothersinthe mentorshipprogram.
3Youpresentyourreporttoyourchair,who–aftervigorousdebate–iswon overbyboththequalityofyourreviewandthestrengthofyourconclusions.
4Sheagreestosupportyouincarryingouta“needsassessment”withyour facultymemberstobegintobetterunderstandtheneedformentorship amongstyourcolleagues.Asaresult,yourworkinggroupconductsasurvey
todeterminehowmanyfacultymemberscurrentlyhaveamentor,wanta mentor,areamentor,orareinterestedinbecomingamentor.
5Yoursurveydocumentswidespreaddissatisfactionwiththecurrent,informal “hit-and-miss”mentoringthatexistsinthedepartment,andwidespread advocacyofanorganizedmentoringprogramwiththeinitialgoalofprovidingmentorstoeveryseniortraineeandallnewfaculty.
6Yourchairagreestofundastart-upmentoringprogram(includingsupport staff).
7Finally,yourchairsendsformallettersofcommendationtoyouandyour committeemembersforyoutoaddtoyourpromotionandtenuredossier.
References 1.KramKE.Mentoringatwork:developmentalrelationshipsinorganizationallife. Glenview:ScottForesman,1985.
2.LevinsonDJ,DarrowCN,KleinEB, etal. TheSeasonsofaMan’sLife.NewYork: Knopf,1978.
3.StandingCommitteeonPostgraduateMedicalandDentalEducation.Supporting doctorsanddentistsatwork:anenquiryintomentoring.1998.Availablefrom: www.mcgl.dircon.co.uk/scopme/mentor5.pdf.Accessed24April2012.
4.BerkRA,BergJ,MortimerR, etal.Measuringtheeffectivenessoffaculty mentoringrelationships.AcadMed2005;80:66–71.
5.DonovanA.Viewsofradiologyprogramdirectorsontheroleofmentorshipin thetrainingofradiologyresident.AJR2010;194:704–8.
6.FieldenSL,DavidsonM,SutherlandVJ.Innovationsincoachingandmentoring. HealthServicesManRes2009;22:92–9.
7.ManagementMentors.Anexampleofagoodmentor.Availablefrom:http:// www.management-mentors.com/about/corporate-mentoring-matters-blog/bid /17517/An-example-of-a-good-mentor.Accessed24April2012.
8.SambunjakD,StrausSE,MarusicA.Mentoringinacademicmedicine:asystematicreview.JAMA2006;296;1103–15.
9.SambunjakD,StrausSE,MarusicA.Asystematicreviewofqualitativeresearch ofthemeaningandcharacteristicsofmentoringinacademicmedicine.JGenInt Med2010;25:72–8.
10.StrausSE,StrausC,TzanetosK.Careerchoiceinacademicmedicine:asystematic review.JGenIntMed2006;21:1222–9.
11.StrausSE,ChaturF,TaylorM.Issuesinthementor-menteerelationshipin academicmedicine:qualitativestudy.AcadMed2009;84:135–9.
12.SchorNK,GuilletR,McAnarneyER.Anticipatoryguidanceasaprincipleof facultydevelopment:managingtransitionandchange.AcadMed2011;86: 1235–40.
13.FeldmanMD,HuangL,GuglielmoBJ, etal.Trainingthenextgenerationof researchmentors.ClinTransSci2009;2:216-21.
14.ChungKC,SongJW,KimHM, etal.Predictorsofjobsatisfactionamong academicfacultymembers:Doinstitutionalandclinicalstaffdiffer?MedEd 2010;44:985–95.
15.TravisAC,KatzPO,KaneSV.Mentoringingastroenterology.AmJGasteroenterol2010;105;970–2.
16.WassersteinAG,QuistbergA,SheaJA.MentoringattheUniversityof Pennsylvania:Resultsofafacultysurvey.JGenIntMed2007;22:210–4.
17.KaderliR,MuffB,StefenelliU,BusingerA.Femalesurgeons’mentoring experiencesandsuccessinanacademiccareerinSwitzerland.SwissMedWkly 2011;18:141.
18.DaleySP,BroylesSL,RiveraLM, etal.Aconceptualmodelforfacultydevelopment inacademicmedicine:Theunderrepresentedminorityfacultyexperience.JNatl MedAssoc2011;103:816–21.
19.AndersonMS,HornAS,RisbeyKR, etal.Whatdomentoringandtraininginthe responsibleconductofresearchhavetodowithscientists’behavior.AcadMed 2007;82:853–6.
20.StammM,Buddeberg-FischerB.Theimpactofmentoringduringpostgraduate trainingondoctors’careersuccess.MedEduc2011;45:488–96
21.OrandiBJ,BlackburnS,HenkePK.Surgicalmentors’andmentees’productivity from1993to2006.AmJSurg2011;201:260–3.
22.DuttaR,HawkesSL,KuipersE, etal.Oneyearoutcomesofamentoringscheme forfemaleacademics:apilotstudyattheInstituteofPsychiatry,King’sCollege London.BMCMedEduc2011;11:13.
23.InterianA,EscobarJ.Theuseofamentoring-basedconferenceasaresearch careerstimulationstrategy.AcadMed2009;84:1389–94.
24.BorgesNJ,NavarroAM,GroverAC.Womenphysicians:choosingacareerin academicmedicine.AcadMed2012;87:105–14.
25.TaylorCA,TaylorJC,StollerJK.Theinfluenceofmentorshipandrolemodeling ondevelopingphysician-leaders:viewsofaspiringandestablishedphysicianleaders.JGenInternMed2009;24:1130–4.
26.PalepuA,FriedmanRH,BarnettRC, etal.Juniorfacultymembers’mentoring relationshipsandtheirprofessionaldevelopmentinU.S.medicalschools.Acad Med1998;73:318–23.
27.CurtisP,DickinsonP,SteinerJ, etal.Buildingcapacityforresearchinfamily medicine:istheblueprintfaulty?FamMed2003;35:124–30.
28.SteinerJF,CurtisP,LanphearB,VuKO.Assessingtheroleofinfluentialmentors intheresearchdevelopmentofprimarycarefellows.AcadMed2004;79:865–72.
29.IllesJ,GloverGH,WexlerL, etal.Amodelforfacultymentoringinacademic radiology.AcadRadiol2007;7:717–24.
30.LevinsonW,KaufmanK,ClarkB,TolleS.Mentorsandrolemodelsforwomen inacademicmedicine.WestJMed1991;154:423–6.
31.PearlmanS,LeefK,SciscioneAC.Factorsthataffectsatisfactionwithneonatalperinatalfellowshiptraining.AmJPerinatol2004;21:371–5.
32.WiseMR,ShapiroH,BodleyJ, etal.Factorsaffectingacademicpromotionin obstetricsandgynecologyinCanada.JObstetrGynecolCan2004;26:127–36.
33.BensonCA,MorahanPS,SachdevaAK,RichmanRC.Effectivefacultypreceptoringandmentoringduringreorganizationofanacademicmedicalcenter.Med Teach2002;24:550–57.
34.Stenfors-Hayes,KalenS,HultH, etal.Beingamentorforundergraduatemedical studentsenhancepersonalandprofessionaldevelopment.MedTeacher2010; 32:148–53.
Chapter2 Whatarethecharacteristics andbehaviorsofeffective mentorsandmentees? Scenarios Picktheonethatbestfitsyourcurrentsituation:
1 Fornewjuniorfaculty:Havingjustcompletedbothyourclinicalandadvanced research/educationtraining,youhavestartedyourfirstacademicjob.Your departmentchairhasaskedyouwhetheryou’dbewillingtobeamentor todepartmentalgraduatestudents.Stopreadingatthispointandmake twolists:
a)Intermsofcharacteristicsandbehaviors,whatdoyouthinkanideal mentorshouldbelike?
b)Ifyou’regoingtotakethison,whatcharacteristicsandbehaviors wouldyouwantyourmenteestohave?
2 Formid-careerfaculty:Youareasuccessfulmid-careerresearcher/educator, andyourdepartmentalchairhasaskedyouwhetheryou’dbewillingtobe amentortograduatestudentsand/ornewfacultymembers.Stopreading atthispointandmaketwolists:
a)Intermsofcharacteristicsandbehaviors,whatdoyouthinkanideal mentorshouldbelike?
b)Ifyou’regoingtotakethison,whatcharacteristicsandbehaviors wouldyouwantyourmenteestohave?
3 Fornewgraduatestudents:Havingcompletedyourclinicaltraining,todayis yourfirstdayasagraduatestudentinappliedhealthresearch/education. Theprogramfacilitatesaccesstoamentor,andyouwillmeetyoursinafew days.Stopreadingatthispointandmaketwolists:
a)Intermsofcharacteristicsandbehaviors,whatwouldanidealmentor foryoubelike?
b)Ifyou’retomakethemostoutofthismentoringopportunity,what shouldyourbehaviorbelike?
4 Analternativescenariofornewjuniorfaculty:Havingcompletedbothyour clinicalandadvancedresearch/educationtraining,todayisyourfirstday
MentorshipinAcademicMedicine,FirstEdition.SharonE.StrausandDavidL.Sackett. © 2014JohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.Published2014byJohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.
asajuniorfacultymember.Thedepartmentfacilitatesaccesstoamentor, andyouwillmeetyoursinafewdays.Stopreadingatthispointandmake twolists:
a)Intermsofcharacteristicsandbehaviors,whatwouldanidealmentor foryoubelike?
b)Ifyou’retomakethemostoutofthismentoringopportunity,what shouldyourbehaviorbelike?
5 Forlate-careerfaculty:You’vehadahighlysuccessfulacademiccareer,and wonderwhetherseekingany(more)mentoringatyourstagewouldbe worththetimeandeffort.Stopreadingatthispointandmaketwolists:
a)Intermsofcharacteristicsandbehaviors,whatwouldanidealmentor foryoubelike?
b)Ifyou’retomakethemostoutofthismentoringopportunity,what shouldyourbehaviorbelike?
Highlysuccessfulacademicsfrequentlycreditoneorajustafewoftheir seniorcolleaguesforstimulating,nurturing,andgreatlyacceleratingtheir professionalandpersonalgrowthanddevelopment.Thischapterwillsummarizeourcurrentunderstandingofthoseattributesandbehaviorsofboth mentorsandmenteesthataremostcloselyassociatedwiththisacademic success,andhowtheyareexpressed.
AspointedoutinChapter1,thisunderstandingisderivedfromcircumstantial(moderate-quality)evidence:retrospectiveobservationsfromand aboutsuccessfulandunsuccessfulacademics,cross-sectionalsurveysofthe desiresandpreferencesofmentees,andhorror-storiesofmentors’theftfrom andabuseoftheirmentees.
Effectivementors Whatarethecharacteristicsofeffectivementors?Arecentsystematic review[1]ofqualitativestudiesamongbothmentorsandmenteesidentified severalqualitiesofeffectivementors.Wehaveupdatedthesearchsince thisreviewwaspublishedandidentifiedandincludedanadditionalreport ofthequalitiesthatledtoLifetimeAchievementinMentorshipawardsat theUniversityofCalifornia,SanFrancisco[2].SummarizedinTable2.1, qualitiesofeffectivementorsareofthreesorts:personalattributes,behaviors towardmentees,andprofessionalstature.
Personalattributesofeffectivementors Thepersonalattributesofeffectivementorsarethosethatnotonlyallow,but enableandencouragethecreationofasafeenvironmentforthefrankand
Table2.1 Characteristicsofeffectivementors
DimensionCharacteristic
PersonalattributesAltruistic/generous Enthusiastic
Understanding/compassionate Nonjudgmental
Patient Honest Responsive Trustworthy Reliable
Excelsatactivelistening Motivating
Self-appraising
Behaviorstoward mentees Accessible Workshardtodevelopanimportantrelationshipwiththementee Consistentlyoffershelpinthementee’sbestinterests Identifiesthementee’spotentialstrengths Assistsmenteesindefiningandreachingtheirgoals Holdsahighstandardforthementee’sachievements Compatiblewithmentee’spracticestyle,vision,andpersonality ProfessionalstatureAlreadysuccessfulandwell-respectedintheirfield Well-connectedtosourcesofadditionalhelp
Adaptedfrom:[1]SambunjakD,StrausSE,MarusicA.Asystematicreviewofqualitative researchonthemeaningandcharacteristicsofmentoringinacademicmedicine.Gen InternMed2010;25:72–8,withkindpermissionfromSpringerScienceandBusiness Media;and[2]ChoCS,RamananRA,FeldmanMD.Definingtheidealqualitiesof mentorship:Aqualitativeanalysisofthecharacteristicsofoutstandingmentors.AmJ Med2011;124:453–8,withpermissionfromElsevier,Copyright © 2011,Elsevier.
confidentialidentificationandexplorationofallthepositiveandnegative attitudes,hopes,fears,andexperiencesofmenteesastheyembarkon academiccareers.
• Altruistic/generous:Mentorsmustreallyliketomentor,andmustbewilling todevotethesubstantial(attimesenormous)timeandenergyrequired toservetheirmenteesinaselflessfashion.Asoneformergratefulmentee wrote:
Shemakeslittledistinctionbetweenprojectsonwhichsheisorisnota co-author,orbetweenfellowsorfacultywithwhomshehasacloseor distantmentoringrelationshipforresearch.Forexample,shehaswithout hesitationprovidedmemanyhoursofthoughtfuladviceonmypapersand grantsfromwhichshewillreceivenoprofessionalrecognitionorbenefit[2].
Thisaltruistic,generousbehavioralsogeneratesrewardsformentors.As mentionedinChapter1,thereisn’talotofevidenceontheimpacton mentorsanditislargelyqualitative.Thisevidenceandourownexperience
suggeststhatmentoringcanrepaythepastdebtowedtotheirown mentors,canprovidethethrillandprideofseeingamenteesucceed,offers theenjoymentandexcitementoftakingpartialcreditforthatmentee’s success,canenhancethementor’sacademicreputationthroughspotting anddevelopinghighlytalentedyoungpeople,andfrequentlydevelopsa dependable,collaborativejuniorcolleague[3].
• Enthusiastic:Effectivementorsdisplayintense,eager,andinfectiousenjoymentandinterestinacademichealthcare,inthepursuitandapplicationof newknowledgethatwillimproveit,andinlifeingeneral.Oneofthemost importantfactorsformenteeschoosingacareerinacademicmedicinewas exposuretoanenthusiasticmentorwhoshowedpassionfortheirjob[4].
• Understanding/compassionate:Effectivementorsunderstand“wheretheir menteeiscomingfrom,”andaredeeplyawareofhowdifferencesin ethnicity,language,gender,andgenerationcancreatebarrierstoeffective mentoring[5].
• Non-judgmental:Effectivementorsavoidforcingtheirownideasabout “whatisbest”forthecareerpathsanddevelopmentoftheirmenteesandare non-judgementalabouttheirmentees’values,attitudes,andaspirations. Rather,theyhelpmenteessorttheseoutforthemselves.
• Patient:Menteeshavedifferentlearningandworkingstylesandeffective mentorsareabletodiagnosetheseandbepatientwiththeirmentee’s false-starts,rethinks,andlimitations.
• Honest:Effectivementorsaretruthfulinofferingopinionsandhistoricexamplesonthemeritsandlikelysuccesses(andfailures)oftheir mentees’researchideas,protocols,papersandpresentations.Alwayssupportive,andstatingmajornegativecriticismsconstructively(i.e.with suggestionsforimprovement),inprivate,awayfrommentees’peersand superiors,effectivementorsavoidglossingovererrorsorignoringtheir mentee’sunresearchableideas,unfundableprotocols,incomprehensible manuscripts,andinscrutablepresentations.
• Responsive:Effectivementorsnotonlyencouragetheirmenteestoraise anythingfordiscussion(fromhowtohandleapoliticalissuewithintheir clinicaldepartmenttohowtoarrangetheirscheduletomakesurethey canpickuptheirchildrenfromschool),butalsoareabletorespond tothem.Becauseeffectivementoringhastoservetheentiregamutof factorsaffectingamentee’scareerdevelopment,issuesmayarisethatcall forinformationorexpertisebeyondtheknowledgeorcompetencyof theirmentor.Anexampleoftheformermightbethespecialchallenges associatedwithparentalleavebroughttoachildlessmentor;ofthe latter,itmightbeconflictswiththeon-callandon-servicescheduling ofaclinicaldepartmentbroughttoanon-clinicalmentor.Auniversal
challengeformenteesistheirwork–lifebalance[6],especiallyinthe earlyyearswhenmanyofthemarestartingfamilies,orlateronwhen balancingtheneedsofagingparents.Whentheseissuesariseandare beyondtheirexpertise,effectivementorsquicklyrecruitknowledgeable colleaguesfortheirexpertinputsandensurethatthereistransparent communicationacrossthe“newlyenhancedmentorshipteam”around theseissues.Occasionallyamenteedecidestopursueresearch(orother scholarlyactivities)inadisciplinethatisnotrepresentedattheirhome institution.Inthiscase,theireffective“home-institution”mentorwillhelp themenlista“researchmentor”atanotherinstitutionwhilemaintaining responsibilityfortheotherelementsofcareerdevelopmentthatarespecific tothelocalpoliciesandpoliticsoftheirhomebase.Again,it’simportant thatthereiscommunicationacrossthismentorshipteamtoensurethere isnotconflictingadvicebeinggiventothementee.
• Trustworthy:Giventheneedforopencommunication,effectivementors mustmaintaintheconfidentialityoftheirmutualcompact.Because menteesmustbeabletofreelydiscussproblemswithpersonalfinances andacademicadvancement,theirmentorshouldnotdirectlycontroltheir academicappointment(mentorsshouldbeadvocateshere,notjudges), basesalary,orothersubstantialresourcessuchasspaceoradministrative support.Suchcontrolsinterferewiththefreeandopenexchangeofideas, priorities,aspirations,andcriticisms.
• Reliable:Effectivementorskeepmentoringappointmentsandfollow throughwiththeirpledges.Accordingly,effectivementorsdon’ttakeon newmenteesunlesstheyhavethetimetomeetwiththem(andeffective departmentchairsanddeansdon’ttakeonmoregraduatestudentsunless theyalsorecruittheadditionalfacultyrequiredtomentorthem!).
• Activelylistening:Inrespondingtotheirmentees,effectivementorsexhibit allthreestepsof:
• makingsuretheycomprehendwhattheirmenteeissayingthroughboth wordsandbodylanguage
• makingsuretheyretainwhattheirmenteeiscommunicating
• makingsuretheyavoidroadblocksthatofteninterferewithcommunication(suchasdismissingmentees’concernsormoralizingabout them).
• Motivating:Effectivementorsarerole-modelsthat display (notsimply state!)theirhighmotivationforacademicexcellence,ethicalbehavior,and properprofessionalconduct.
• Self-appraising:Effectivementorsregularlyevaluatetheirperformanceasa mentorthroughself-assessmentandinvitedfeedbackfromtheirmentees. Effectivementorsperiodicallyseekfeedback(atleastannually)abouthow
theyareperformingfromtheirmentees,withanopportunityforano-fault breakupifthingsaren’tworking.Theymustperiodicallyevaluatetheir ownperformance,decidewhethertheyremainthebestpersontomentor theirmentee(and,ifnot,helpfindamoresuitablementor),andidentify waystoimprovetheirmentoringskills.Asmenteesprogress,effective mentorsalsoworkwiththemondevelopingtheirownmentorshipskills throughrolemodelingandfeedback.
Effectivementors’behaviorstowardmentees Theforegoingpersonalattributesareexpressedinspecificbehaviorstoward theirmentees:
• Accessibility,especiallyonshortnoticeandformenteeemergencies;note thatthisdoesn’thavetobein-personbutcanbedoneoverthephone,via Skype© ,emailetc.
• Workinghardtodevelopanimportantrelationshipwiththeirmentee,by workinghardtomakethementor–menteerelationshipasuccess.When differencesinethnicity,language,gender,andgenerationthreatenthe mentorship,effectivementorscreatesafe,trusting,respectful,supporting partnershipsthatrenderthesesometimes“undiscussable”issuesdiscussable[5].
• Consistentlyofferinghelpintheirmentee’sbestinterests,indefiningand workingtowardtheiracademicandpersonalgoals.Theforegoingtwo behaviorsareexpressedintheideaofmentorsactingas“guides”,
sensitivetothedifferencebetweenaguideandsomebodywhoforces thestudentintoorthementeeintoaparticularpath[who]maywelloffer someadvicebutrecognizethatitisonlyadvice,it’snotorders[7].
Putanotherway:“Themostimportantthingisnottryingtosolvetheir problemsbuttohelpthemfindsolutions.”
• Identifyingtheirmentee’scurrentandpotentialstrengthsandweaknesses. Throughbothexperienceswithpriormenteesandtheexerciseoftheir understanding,honesty,activelistening,andresponsiveness,effective menteesidentify,label,andhelpmenteesrecognizeandbuildupontheir currentandpotentialstrengthsandovercomeoravoidtheirweaknesses.
• Assistingtheirmenteesindefiningandreachingtheirgoals.Twoquotes fromthequalitativeassessmentofthenominationlettersreceivedforthe mentorshipawardattheUniversityofCalifornia,SanFranciscoprovide glowingexamplesoftheprevioustwobehaviors[2]:
Asamentor,[he]provideddirectionandopportunity,allowingmetochart myownpath,butatthesametimeguidingmealongtheway.
[He]waslikeasolidrocketbooster,ensuringthatIachievedtheliftand trajectorynecessarytomakeitintoorbit.Butratherthandroppingoff atthatpoint,hehasremainedaconstantfeatureinmylife,muchlike missioncontrol,monitoringmyprogress,offeringincrediblyhelpfuladvice onaregularbasis,andservingasasoundingboard,editor,orstrategist, dependingonwhatIneeded.
• Holdinghighstandardsfortheirmentee’sachievements:Demonstratedin anotherquotefromtheUniversityofCalifornia,SanFranciscoreport[2]:
[He]continuestoaccuratelyassessmyskills,knowledge,andattitudes,and tochallengemetoseekhigherpersonalachievementthanIwouldonmy own.So,[he]isanoutstandingmentorbecausehesawwhatIcouldbecome.
• Compatibilitywiththeirmentee’spracticestyles,visions,andpersonalities. Effectivementorsrapidlydiagnoseandcomparetheirmentees’practice styles,visions,andpersonalitieswiththeirown,andquicklydetermine theircompatibility.Whenthereisamismatch,effectivementorsarrange foramorecompatiblementortotakeover.
Theprofessionalstatureofeffectivementors Highprofessionalstatureisacardinalrequirementbeforebecominganeffectivementor,forfourreasons.Firstistheachievementofsufficientacademic successandrespectfromone’speersforthementortobecomfortabletaking abackseatinmattersofauthorship,grants,andrecognitionoftheirmentee’s work.Indeed,effectivementorsactivelypursuethissecondaryrole.Aswe willdescribeinChapter5,disastersoccurwhenmentorscompetewiththeir menteesforrecognition.Atitsworst,itleadstothetheftofmentee’sideas formentor’sgrantsandtheembezzlementofleadauthorshipsfrommentees whoearnedthem.Tragically,suchcompetitioniscommon[7],andmentees shouldseekhelpfromchairsorprogramdirectorswhenthishappens.Even whenmenteesregaintheirintellectualpropertyandduerecognition,they maybescarredbytheexperience,oftenhavetroubletrustingcolleagues thereafter,andsometimesleavetown.Moreover,we’veobservedtwonasty effectsontheirjuniorcolleagueswhoobservethisawfulbehaviour.Worst, whenitgoesuncheckedtheymaycometoregarditasstandardacademic behaviorandstartmodellingitthemselves.Alternatively,theymayregardit asasymptomofasecond-rateinstitutionandleavetown,orleaveacademia altogethertoavoidasimilarexperience.
∗ Notethatthroughtheseactions,effectivementorsalsoserveasrolemodelsfortheir menteeswho(itishoped!)willinturnbecomeeffectivementors.
Thesecondreasonwhyhighprofessionalstatureisaprerequisitefor effectivementorsistheirabilitytocalluponthenetworksofuseful,helpful colleaguesandcontactstheyestablishedalongthewayintheacademic, healthcare,researchfunding,andregulatorycommunitiesforthebenefit oftheirmentees.Theirabilitytoopendoorstoopportunitiesforsocial interaction,advice,electivesandshort-termsecondments,moresenior trainingposts,andevenpermanentacademicpostscanbenefitboththe qualityandspeedoftheirmentees’academicadvancement.
Thethirdreasonwhyhighprofessionalstatureisaprerequisitefor effectivementoringisthemassofpractical,pragmatic,time-andenergysavingstrategiesandtacticsforconductinganacademiccareertheyalready carryintheirtoolkits.Theyalreadyknowhowtosetanddecideamong competingpriorities[8],protectwritingtime[9],manageemail[10],say “no”(nicely)torequeststotakeontasksthattheyreallyshouldn’t[11],run anoffice,hireandmanagestaff,andthelike.Menteeswithaccesstothese toolkitscantaketheenormousamountsoftimeandenergytheysaveand devotethemtoacademicpursuitsandtoimprovingtheirwork–lifebalance.
Thefourthreasonisthe“authority”thataccompanieshighprofessional statusandcanbeusedtoshelterandrescuetheirmenteesfromthe unreasonabledemandsandbadbehaviorofother,evensenior,academics andadministrators.Whenmenteesarereluctanttosay“no”(nicely)to requeststotakeontasksthattheyreallyshouldn’t,mentorscandoitfor them(oratleastbeidentifiedasstronglyadvisingagainstit).Andsenior mentorscancomedownlikeatonofbricksonany“sharks”[12]who attempttoharmtheirmenteesbywordordeed.
Giventheforegoing,although“peermentors”[13,14]–drawnfrom traineesorjuniorfacultywithlittleornomoreadditionaltrainingor experiencethantheirmentees–canprovideexcellentmoralsupportand short-termpracticaladvice,theylacktheestablishedacademicsuccess, networks,experience,andnon-competitivenessoftheeffectivementors thatarethefocusofthischapter.Theexceptionhere,ofcourse,areaging academicswho,whenseekingmentoring,looktotheiryoungerpeers.
Effectivementees ThecharacteristicsofeffectivementeeswereidentifiedintheUniversity ofCalifornia,SanFranciscoreviewofqualitativestudiesinmentorship discussedabove,andaresummarizedinTable2.2.
Table2.2 Characteristicsofeffectivementees
DimensionCharacteristic
PersonalattributesUnderstanding/compassionate
Enthusiastic
Nonjudgmental Patient Honest Responsive
Trustworthy
Reliable
Excelsatactivelistening
Opentofeedback
Self-appraising
Behaviorstoward mentors
Takesresponsibilityfor“drivingtherelationship” Respectsmeetingtimes
Comesprepared
Pro-activeinidentifyingandpresentingproblemsandissues
Respectfulofmentors’timeandothercommitments
Adaptedfrom[7]StrausSE,JohnsonMO,MarquezC,FeldmanMD.Characteristics ofsuccessfulandfailedmentoringrelationships:qualitativestudyacross2institutions. AcadMed2013;88:82–9withpermissionfromWoltersKluwerHealth.
Personalattributesofeffectivementees
Mentees’personalattributesmirrorthoseofeffectivementors.
• Understanding/compassionate:Understanding“wheretheirmentoriscomingfrom,”anddeeplyawareandsympathetictowardsothers’challenges anddifficulties.Forexample,iftheirmentorisreviewinggrantapplications forseveralmenteeswhoareworkingtothesamedeadline,effectivementees recognizeandaccommodatethesemultiplesimultaneousdemands.
• Enthusiastic:Liketheirmentors,effectivementeesalsodisplayintenseand eagerenjoymentandinterestinacademichealthcare,inthepursuitofthe researchmethodsthatwillgeneratethenewknowledgethatwillimproveit, andinlifeingeneral.Enthusiasticmenteeskeeptheirmentorsstimulated andalsoprovidegoodrolemodelsforjuniorfacultyandtrainees.
• Non-judgmental abouttheirmentor’svalues,attitudesandaspirations. Whiletheymightnotagreewiththeirmentor’sideasabout“whatisbest” fortheircareerpathsanddevelopment,theywillrespectthemaslongas theydon’tinhibitorotherwisehampertherelationship.Thatbeingsaid, menteessortouttheirownvalues,attitudes,andaspirationsforthemselves.
• Patient withtheirmentor’sschedule,othercommitments,andlimitations.
• Honest inofferingtheirideasandopinions,inrespondingtocriticisms, andinevaluatingthesuccessofthementorshipandhowitmightbe improved(or,ifnecessary,terminated).Whenissuesarisebeyondthe experienceandcompetencyoftheirmentors(e.g.parentalleavebrought toachildlessmentor,conflictswiththeon-callandon-servicescheduling ofaclinicaldepartmentbroughttoanon-clinicalmentor)theyshouldnot hesitatetoaskforoutsidehelp.
• Responsive toanyandallissuesraisedbytheirmentors.
• Trustworthy inmaintainingtheconfidentialityoftheirmutualcompact.
• Reliable inpreparingformentoringmeetings,inkeepingmentoring appointments,andinfollowingthroughwithpledgesthattheymaketo theirmentor.
• Activelylistening;inrespondingtotheirmentors,exhibitingallthree stepsof:
• makingsuretheycomprehendwhattheirmentorissayingthroughboth wordsandbodylanguage
• makingsuretheyretainwhattheirmentoriscommunicating
• makingsuretheyavoidroadblocksthatofteninterferewithcommunication(suchasdismissingmentors’concernsormoralizingabout them).
• Opentofeedback:Asoneparticipantinaqualitativestudyofmentoring putit:
thementeeshouldlistentothementorandtakethemseriouslyand thatdoesn’tmeanfollowingeverybitofadvice ... ifyou’reworkingwith someoneandthey’regivingyouadviceyouknowifyoukindofignoreall ofitthenit’ssortofafruitlessinteraction[7].
• Self-appraising,regularlyevaluatingtheirperformanceasbuddingacademicsthroughself-assessmentandinvitedfeedbackfromtheirmentor, teachers,juniortrainees,andcolleagues.
Effectivementees’behaviorstowardmentors • TheUniversityofCalifornia,SanFranciscostudyidentifiedtheessential behaviorofmenteestakingresponsibilityfor“drivingtherelationship”:
... youcan’tjustgoinandbeanundifferentiatedblobaboutwhatyou want,youhavetoreallyhavethoughtbeforeyougoinandmeetwithyour mentoraboutwhattheissueisthatyouneedhelpwithandyouknowit’s muchmoreusefulifyoubringyourownanalysisinwithyouandthenthe mentorcangiveyoutheiranalysisandyoucantalk[7].
• Effectivementeesrespectmeetingtimeswiththeirmentors,comeprepared withpreviouslyidentifiedtopicsfordiscussionandtimelinesforprojects, andarepro-activeinidentifyingandpresentingproblemsandissues.
• Effectivementeesalsofollowthroughaftermeetings,carryingoutthe agreedtasksinatimelyfashion.Indoingso,theyarerespectfulofthe mentor’stimeandothercommitments.Thisrespectisexpressedbysending draftsofmanuscriptsandgrants[15,16]insufficientadvanceofmeetings topermitmentorstogivethemthoroughreview;indeed,repeatedrequests forquickreviewswithoutadvancenoticehasbeenidentifiedasasourceof notonlymentorstressandstrainedrelationsbut,formentorscaringfor multiplementees,mentorburnout.
Productivementoring Theforegoingattributesandbehaviorsofbothmentorsandmentees,when “insynch”andfullyexercised,revealthemselvesinthefivebenchmarksof productivementoring,illustratedinTable2.3:
• a personalconnection,beyondfriendshipandfarbeyondtheordinary “pupil–teacher”fences
• asetof sharedvalues aroundhowoneapproachesresearch,clinicalwork, andsociallife
• mutual respect foreachother’stime,effort,andexpectations
• clearexpectations aboutaccountabilitytoeachother
• reciprocity inbotheffortsandrewards.
Chapters3and4willshowhowthesecharacteristicsandbehaviorscan beharnessedintoestablishing,executing,andenjoyingeffectiveandefficient mentorships.
Howmanymenteescaneffectivementorsmentor? Weidentified30colleagues(listedintheIntroduction)inNorthAmerica, Europe,andAfricawithtrackrecordsforeffectivelymentoringgraduate studentsandjunioracademics,andaskedthemthisquestion.Hereisour summaryoftheirresponses,statedintermsofthe“prevalence”ofmentees theywerecurrentlyservingatthetimeofoursurvey.
1 Atthegraduatestudent/traineelevel,theydistinguishedthesissupervision(whichmightberestrictedtoaddressingthescientificissuesinvolved inproducinganddefendingahigh-qualitydocument)frommentoring forpersonalandprofessionalcareerdevelopment.
2 Someofourcolleaguessuperviseasmanyassixthesesperyear(and lamenttheend-of-termcrushofsimultaneoussubmissionsanddefenses).
Table2.3 Howtheattributesandbehaviorsofmentorsandmenteescanresultin positive“themes”inthementoringprocess
ThemeIllustrationsfromqualitativeinterviews
Developmentofa personal connection between mentorandmentee
Sharedvalues aroundtheir approachtoresearch, clinicalwork,and personallife
Mutualrespect for one-another’stime, effort,andqualifications
Clearexpectations ofthe relationship,outlinedat theoutsetandrevisited overtime,withboth mentorandmenteeheld accountabletothem
Reciprocity:recognizingthe bidirectionalnatureof mentoring,including theconsiderationof strategiestomakethe relationshipsustainable andmutuallyrewarding
“ havingthatconnectionwhereyoufeellikesomeone actuallycarestoknowwhatyou’rethinkingandwho youareandisreallyactuallydoingitbecausetheycare toratherthanbecauseyouknowthey’reforcedto”.
“Mentorsandmenteesshouldhavethe‘samechemistry’ but‘notjustbeingfriends”.
“TherearemanypeoplethatIdidmeetthathadsimilar interestsasmebuttherejustwasn’tapersonal connection”.
“Mentorshipworkedwhenmentorswereonafairly commonground,havesimilarideasandinterestsand values”.
“Bothindividualsneedtorespectthequalificationsofthe otherandtheneedsoftheotherandworktogether towardsacommongoal”.
“Mutualaccountability:notonlythatthementorhas expectationsofthementee,butthatthementeealso hasexpectationsofthementor”.
“It’shelpfultosetupsortofthoseguidelinesinthe beginning,sortofwhatthementeecanexpectfrom therelationshipbutalsowhatthementorexpectsyou toknow”.
“It’sgottobeatwowaystreet–itcan’tjustbeaone waygivingrelationship’causethenit’sjustgoingto burnout.ImeanIthinkthementorgetsalotoutof justthesatisfactionofseeingtheirmenteesucceedand thatisimportantontoitself,that’sthemostimportant partbutyouknowbeyondthatthementoralsoneeds somesortoftangiblerewardfromtherelationshipthat willkindofrefreshthemandmakethemkeepwanting tocomebackformore.Andthatcanbeyouknow beingonapublicationorbeingrecognized”.
Adaptedfrom[7]StrausSE,JohnsonMO,MarquezC,FeldmanMD.Characteristics ofsuccessfulandfailedmentoringrelationships:qualitativestudyacross2institutions. AcadMed2013;88:82-9withpermissionfromWoltersKluwerHealth.
3 However,theyrarelymentormorethanthreegraduatestudents/trainees atatime(occasionallymorethanthisattheMSclevel,andusuallyfewer thanthisatthePhDlevel).
4 Thenumberofmenteestheyareserving‘full-time’atthepostgraduate/ juniorfacultylevelexhibittwomodes.Manymentors(especiallythose withheavyclinicalresponsibilities)workwithjustonementeeata time(andofteninitiatethismentorshipduringtheirmentee’sgraduate
training),whereasthesecondclusterofmentorsareservingthreementees atatime.Earlyon,thismentoringisintense,withweeklyorevenmore frequentcontact.
5 Mentoringintensitydecreasesascurrentmenteessucceedinobtainingresearchgrantsandgeneratepeer-reviewedpublications,creating openingsfornewmentees.
6 However,academicallysuccessfulmenteesusuallymaintainlinkswith theirmentors,participatinginperiodicreviewsoftheirprogressand priorities,especiallywhenconsideringjob-opportunities.
7 Thenumberofmenteesreportedaboveisanunderestimateatcenterswhereresearchassociates,studycoordinators,etc.alsorequire mentoring.
The“humanresource”implicationsofoursurveyresultsfordepartments andinstitutionswhohope(orclaim!)toprovidehigh-qualitymentoring forgraduatestudentsandnewfacultyareprofoundforall,andprobably awesomeforsome.Short-termsolutionsinclude“mentoringatadistance” forsomementees’needs,butthecreationorexpansionofgraduateprograms inordertoreapgreaterprofitorprestigewithoutthecreationorexpansion ofhigh-qualitymentoringcapabilitydeservetheresultantwhirlwindsof studentunrestandfallingcredibility.Similarly,ifuniversitiesmandatethat everyfacultymemberhastohaveamentor,theymustalsorecruit,train, andmaintaintheadditionalmentorsrequiredtomeetthisgoal,reimburse theiradditionaltravelrequirements,andrecognizetheircontributionsin institutionalpromotionandtenureprocesses.
Gapsintheevidence Aswediscussed,mostofthematerialinthischapterisata“moderatequality” GRADElevel,basedoncross-sectionalsurveysandinterviewsofmentors andmentees.Wedidn’tfindanyliteraturelookingateffectivementorship overanentireresearchcareerorforthoseindifferentcareerpaths.
Bottomlineandscenarioresolutions Howwelldidyourdescriptionsoftheidealattributesandbehaviorsofmentors andmenteesmatchtheonesdescribedinthebodyofthechapter?Ifyou missedimportantones,thinkwhy.Ifwemissedimportantones,writetousat ourwebsite!
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