THE HAILEYBURY HYPOTHESIS
THIS YEAR
Stan-X - L6th
StanX is an academic extension programme offered to L6th at Haileybury. It is run with the help of Stanford University and their professors. It involves research on fruit flies and their genetic theory, which is an opportunity that most wouldn’t be able to find until undergraduate level. Students this year had the opportunity to even present their data at a fly conference in the United States. Apply in fifths for a chance to be involved in this amazing research collaboration!
Biology Society- Thursdays 5:45
This is a student-led society where you can experience hands-on biology and practice your skills in activities such as dissections, forensics and discussing ethics in biology. One of our favourite sessions has been the crime scene investigation where we carried out a series tests to find the culprit. Our society has also enjoyed the many dissections we have done, including an eye, a rat, a frog, a locust, a fish and a heart dissection.
Physics Society - Mondays 4:45
This is a society where students learn more about the philosophy aspect of physics and many theories of the curriculum. Students also have the opportunity to present a topic in physics that they are passionate about.
IN SCIENCE
Chemistry Society - Tuesdays 5:45
This is a society available to L6th to expand their interest in chemistry by having the opportunity to carry out experiments or even sitting the Royal Society of Chemistry Olympiad, which is a challenging competition connecting content learnt in the classroom with real-world problems.
LS Science Club - Thursdays 1:40
This is a student-led society available to those in Lower School where they have the opportunity to apply their scientific knowledge in various fun and interesting experiments that test their practical skills and allow them to grow as young scientists.
PHYSICS
SPACE
DEMETRIOS T
THIS ARTICLE EXPLORES THE KEY FEATURES OF SPACE AND DELVES INTO THE INTRICACIES OF BLACK HOLES
THE SEARCH FOR EXTRATERRESTRIAL LIFE
BÉRENGER M
THIS ARTICLE QUESTIONS WHETHER ALIENS EXIST AND TAKES A LOOK AT HOW LIKELY IT IS THAT THERE IS EXTRATERRESTRIAL LIFE
SUBATOMIC AND MASSLESS PARTICLES
ELAINE W
THIS ARTICLE SUMMARISES MOST TYPES OF PARTICLES AND TALKS ABOUT THE BENEFITS IT CAN BRING TO SOCIETY
WHAT DO HUMANS NEED TO SURVIVE ON MARS?
HENRY B
THIS ARTICLE DISCUSSES HOW WE COULD LIVE ON MARS BY CONSIDERING CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS
SPACE
DEMETRIOS T
The word Space comes from the Latin spatium and means room, area, distance or stretch of time Space is a vast vacuum where planets, stars, galaxies, rocks and other matter orbit the sun or another planet. Sound can’t travel through space due to there being no particles for it to travel on in order to reach another human or animal's ear. On the contrary, light is able to travel through space as it doesn’t require any matter to carry its energy, which means light can travel through a vacuum
Where does space start for us? Space is thought to begin at the Karman line, which starts 100m above sea level At this altitude, blue starts to turn black because oxygen molecules are not in enough abundance to turn the sky blue. No one knows how big space is because since we measure long distances in space in light-years it is difficult for us to determine it Light-Years represent the distance it takes for light to travel in a year Nowadays we have outlined galaxies almost as far as the Big Bang, which is believed to have taken place about 13 8 billion years ago
Have you ever thought about how the universe came to be?
This is being studied by astronomers Astronomers are scientists who are trying to explain the way the universe began, they have thought of the Big Bang theory. The Big Bang theory is that the universe started at one small point and grew larger and larger due to collisions, explosions, inflation and stretching This was all due to the extremely high temperatures In fact, right after the Big Bang, Neutrons, protons, electrons, anti-electrons, photons and neutrinos were generated
When the Big Bang happened it was an explosive expansion which ballooned our universe faster than the speed of light This theory has been studied for many years by mathematicians, philosophers and physicists. More in particular the branch of astronomy that is involved with the origins and the evolution of the universe from the Big Bang to today is called cosmology. (Cosmology is the science of how the universe began, their key belief at the minute and focus is the Big Bang Theory, in the future, they will start diving into more depth on the particles that helped create the universe and how it all came to be )
This being said, all galaxies, planets and everything they contain was created by the Big Bang. A very important region of space-time was also created by this phenomena: The Black Holes…
What is a Black Hole?
“A black hole is a place in space where gravity pulls so much that even light can’t get out of its strength The gravity is so strong because matter has been squeezed into a tiny space ” “They are points in space that are so dense they create deep gravity sinks ” Nothing can escape its gravitational pull
“Black holes are created by a large star dying in a supernova explosion which traps light and other particles. This is why smaller stars are not big enough because when they explode they don’t have the power to trap light, this is why only the big stars can create black holes ” A black hole is made up of 2 parts There is the surface which is the point where gravity gets too strong for anything to escape The second part is the centre which is called the singularity. This word describes a point that is infinitely small and infinitely dense. In addition, if you approach a Black Hole you will notice a disc of glowing material surrounding it. This is due to the gravitational pull of matter into the orbit of the black hole, which produces light and heat, and can reach millions of degrees Celsius
Astronomers have discovered the closest black hole to earth, this is called Gaia BH1. This is approximately 3 times closer than the previous record holder. They know this is a black hole because they looked at the behaviour of a nearby star which proved that this was a black hole without looking at it directly
Are Black Holes dangerous?
We are in no danger of Black Holes, this is because they are so unlikely to be located near Earth and they can’t move towards a certain location, they have no mind so they create and stay there. Of course, they grow bigger and bigger due to the gravity suction bringing in matter and particles. Human beings have always been intrigued by Space and its possibilities and have for a long time searching for ways to reach it
Humans have discovered the ability to use space flight, this allows them to fly into space and will help with our future to develop technology and research. But it is not that easy, also because we have only ever been to the moon once and that was 53 years ago. It takes an incredibly long time to make the spacecraft, but on top of that, you have to have certain abilities and training to fly
SUBATOMIC AND MASSLESS PARTICLES
ELAINE W
Subatomic particles, also called elementary particles, are self-contained units of matter and energy that are fundamental building blocks of all matter Subatomic particles include electrons, protons, and neutrons Protons and neutrons are also made of elementary particles themselves
Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons
The electron is a subatomic particle with a negative charge of -1. Electrons are usually found orbiting the nucleus of an atom, as they are attracted to the positively charged protons inside it. The electron was discovered in 1897 by physicist J.J Thomson. However, not all electrons orbit atoms, some are found separated from atom nuclei with ions; in the state of matter called plasma
The nuclei of an atom contain protons and neutrally charged neutrons Protons and neutrons are held together by a strong force, the strongest known fundamental force.
Quarks
If we could zoom in on a proton or neutron, we would find that they are made of a trio of particles that are very small Two physicists, Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig first theorised the existence of quarks in 1964
There are 6 types of quarks, each of them different in mass and charge. They are up, charm, strange, top, bottom, and down. Just like protons and electrons, quarks also have charges But unlike protons and electrons, quarks have fractional charges Down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -⅓ Up, charm, and top quarks have charges of +⅔ The most common combinations of quarks in protons and neutrons are 2 up quarks, and 1 down quark; or in a neutron, 1 up quark, and 2 down quarks. A proton with a quark combination of uud, its charge would be: uud=2/3 + 2/3 + (-1/3) = +1
A neutron with a quark combination of udd, its quantum charge would be: q(udd) = 2/3 + (-1/3) + (-1/3) = 0
Particles made of 4 or 5 quarks were first theorised in the early 2000s, and in 2020, international collaborators at the Large Hadron Collider observed a pentaquark and the first-ever pair of tetraquarks
SUBATOMIC AND MASSLESS PARTICLES
Photons and Gluons
Gluons are “messengers” of the strong nuclear force, which binds quarks and the protons and neutrons they make together Quarks emit and absorb gluons, like how electrically charged particles do with photons Like quarks, gluons carry a “strong charge” known also as colour; with this gluons can interact between themselves In 1979, the concept was confirmed with observations and studies of highenergy particle collision at Deutsches ElektronenSynchrotron, in Hamburg.
Both force-carrying particles, photons and gluons are massless Photons are associated with the electromagnetic force, and gluons with the strong nuclear force. However, these massless particles still carry energy and momentum. The graviton, a particle linked with gravity, is theorised to be massless, however its existence has not been confirmed. Massless particles have unique properties They are stable and do not lose energy decaying into other particles As all the energy of these particles are kinetic, they always travel at the speed of light Thanks to special relativity, Flip Tanedo, assistant professor of physics at the University of California says, “things travelling at the speed of light don’t age… So a photon is not ageing relative to us.”
Gravity is often thought of as a force that acts on objects with mass. While this is true, gravity actually affects all particles with energy. This means that gravity also has a force on massless particles. Light bends around objects like black holes and other ones with high mass due to gravity The mass doesn’t pull or exert force on the massless particle, instead space time is by the mass which the particles travel
Benefits to Society
Particle physics research has led up to the discovery of many uses of subatomic particles. The use of particles in cancer treatment and medical imaging, such as MRI and PET scans have hugely assisted advancements in the medicinal sector Some of the lesser known uses of particles include using lowenergy electron beams to decontaminate food packaging in an eco-friendly way More than 30,000 particle accelerators are used around the world today. Using our knowledge and research of subatomic particles, they clean water, spot suspicious cargo, and shrink tumors. An estimate states that the use of particles has treated more than 30 million people around the world Studying the behaviours of subatomic particles have also helped scientists understand conditions of the universe only seconds after the Big Bang, when the universe was nothing but quark and gluon “soup” 10 The study of subatomic particles, both theoretical and experimental, has helped expand the scientific community’s understanding of the nature of energy and matter.
WHAT DO HUMANS NEED TO SURVIVE ON MARS?
HENRY B
Since the beginning of our time on Earth, humans have been taking Earth’s resources for granted and slowly destroying the planet This has led to some people asking whether humans could survive on another planet In particular, could humans survive on Mars, our closest planet? Whilst Mars is very different from Earth, it is similar enough that we may be able to adjust it to support human survival. However, it is not quite that straightforward. There would be many challenges standing in our way, the most major of these being the human need for oxygen, water, food and shelter
Mars’ atmosphere has a very different make-up to Earth’s As we can see from this pie chart, just 0 1% of Mars’ atmosphere is made up of oxygen For context, 21% of the Earth’s atmosphere is oxygen On top of this, a whopping 96% of Mars’ atmosphere is Carbon Dioxide, whilst Earth only has 0 04% This makes it extremely difficult to create breathable air. In July 2020, NASA launched Perseverance, a Mars probe carrying an instrument called MOXIE (Mars Oxygen In-situ Resource Utilisation Experiment)3. MOXIE is designed to create oxygen molecules from CO2 It works by using a mechanic called an electrolyser, which effectively melts some of the bonds between oxygen and carbon This leaves carbon monoxide and oxygen The carbon monoxide is released into the atmosphere and the oxygen is stored NASA tested MOXIE for one hour and successfully created around 6 grams of oxygen, enough to last an astronaut for around ten minutes. Whilst this would not be nearly enough by itself for human survival, an upscaled version of a MOXIE machine might be a feasible option to create oxygen on Mars
WHAT DO HUMANS NEED TO SURVIVE ON MARS?
Water is our second priority for survival on Mars Similar to Earth, Mars is colder at the poles, where there are ice supplies. This ice could be extracted and utilised for water supplies. NASA has been working on two major projects to find water on Mars: SWIM (Subspace Water Ice Mapping project) and M-MIM (Mission Mars Ice Mapper) SWIM is a project in which two satellites view the Martian Northern hemisphere in an attempt to find the best landing site for future missions, which would have access to ice and therefore a water supply M-MIM is a concept which uses four large satellites with radars which are designed to detect large masses of underground ice. This data is sent back to Earth and can also be used to find landing sites with the easiest access to water for manned missions. Along with creating oxygen on Mars, Perseverance is sampling Mars soil and putting it in tubes NASA is hoping to send a mission to collect these tubes in the future and assess what the best tool to extract ice beneath the soil would be Finally, we would hope to be able to use the same process to clean this water as we use on Earth, principally filtration and evaporation.
This process is not without challenges as we would initially need to transport equipment to Mars to carry out processes such as extraction and filtration. Mars may also have limited ice supplies and so we have to be very careful that none of the ice goes to waste However, once we have the data, this may be a comparatively simple first step, which could be further developed
Food is the toughest need to meet on Mars, as there isn’t any food available at all Importing food would be expensive, inefficient and would not provide a long-term solution. For example, whilst we could import meat, it is perishable and heavy to transport. However, there are some other options which are being considered. For example, we could create insect farms Insects produce a lot of calories, need little care to make them edible and are very space efficient They also reproduce rapidly and so would last humans a long time Whilst this may be a solution for early pioneers, it may be unpopular for later travellers Research could also be carried out to initiate growing crops on Mars. The main challenge would be to create an Earth-like environment which would support crop growth. This would require a lot of materials such as an oxygen source, water source and Earth soil Due to the light and temperature conditions on Mars, we would also need to create an artificial atmosphere in which the plants could grow This would be approximately 21-24 degrees Celsius and would contain lights to simulate photosynthesis Whilst this would be expensive, it may be a long-term solution to the need for food.
WHAT
DO HUMANS NEED TO SURVIVE ON MARS?
Due to Mars’ extreme climate and temperatures, shelter is absolutely necessary for survival on the Red Planet. For early settlers, a tent-like shelter would be the most realistic option, to protect from the frequent storms. Other than the airtight entrances and exits, it would have to be largely Martian materials to be energy-efficient The shelter would use solar power to generate electricity and heat, which would need to bring the temperature up by 80 degrees Celsius as Mars’ climate is very cold NASA is also exploring creating shelters out of fungi The idea is that we would create a basic frame and allow rapidly growing fungus to grow around it, hopefully creating a functioning structure. Finally, we could create underground shelters using large tunnels. The rocks mined to make these could also be used to create overground structures as well
Earth’s resources have been damaged and depleted by humans. This and increased interest in space exploration, means that humans are considering whether it would be possible to settle on another planet. Mars is our closest planet and could potentially be modified to support human life Meeting the basic human needs of oxygen, water, food and shelter is not simple, but not impossible Whilst there is still a lot of work to be done, research indicates that human survival on Mars may be possible and may provide a solution to many of the problems faced on Earth.
THE SEARCH FOR EXTRATERRESTRIAL LIFE
BÉRENGER M
In our tiny solar system, multiple candidates could potentially host life, taking into account that there are over 400 billion planets in the Milky Way alone. The chances of finding life in the vast expanse of space are very likely There are more planets in the observable universe than the number of grains of sand here on earth
Life will not last forever on earth however, there are many threats, and we must continue to explore and travel across our solar system and beyond to be able to continue our species generation after generation. Like Columbus did in 1492, we must discover as well. In this article, I will explain to you possible ways/methods we could discover extraterrestrial life, as well as places that could potentially harbour life
“Exploration is not a choice really; it is an imperative” Michael Collins, Apollo 11 Astronaut
Drake Equation
In 1961, Frank Drake created the Drake Equation which is a mathematical formula for the probability of finding advanced extraterrestrial civilisation in the observable universe After multiplying out the constants, the answer is around 15.6 million (factor of +/- 100); meaning that in theory, there should be over 15 million civilisations according to Frank Drake.
Contacting the Extraterrestrial Life
Voyager 1 which is currently the furthest man-made object away from earth, with its speed of over 70km per second, would arrive at Proxima Centauri in nearly 7000 years. This makes travelling to distant exoplanets nearly impossible as there is just too vast an expanse of space. But how about communicating with extraterrestrial life?
In 1974, Frank Drake sent a radio message to the M13 star clusters using the enormous 300m Arcedio Observatory in Puerto Rico The message contained vital information about earth, including its location, position from the sun, the periodic table, a portrait of a man, a DNA human genome and much more This message is over 230 trillion miles away yet we still have heard no replies. The fact is, even travelling at the speed of light, it still takes years for it to travel across space.
Many scientists have taken the path of using telescopes to observe potential exoplanets and scan them for life The Kepler telescope is one of the most renowned one of these
The Kepler space telescope is retired and served successfully for over 9 years, orbiting the earth at tremendous speed. This telescope achieved many things, including identifying the properties of exoplanets to see if they could host/harbour life. It was sent into space by NASA to detect earth-sized planets in our galaxy; The Milky Way
Throughout its lifetime, 530,506 stars were detected and 2,662 exoplanets were confirmed The main difficulty of finding/discovering exoplanets is the fact that they are often outshone by the star they orbit. There have been many methods, shown below, for observing exoplanets in these cases.
Transit Method
The difficulty of finding exoplanets is that almost always the star outshines its nearby exoplanets The transit method observes when an exoplanet passes between the star and the observer, this causes a slight dimming of the star allowing astronomers to determine atmosphere composition, habitability, as well as size based on the dimming recorded.
Looking at our own Solar System
There are many candidates that are in our small Solar System that potentially could host alien life The moons of our gas giants: Europa, Enceladus and Titan have properties that could result in extraterrestrial existence.
What is fascinating about these moons is that under the thick icy surface, there are oceans filled with water; with Titan as an exception. Water is one of the basic components of hosting life Titan has liquid methane that, although toxic, still has the minerals and ingredients to sustain a form of microscopic life
There are many candidates that are in our small Solar System that potentially could host alien life The moons of our gas giants: Europa, Enceladus and Titan have properties that could result in extraterrestrial existence.
What is fascinating about these moons is that under the thick icy surface, there are oceans filled with water; with Titan as an exception Water is one of the basic components of hosting life Titan has liquid methane that, although toxic, still has the minerals and ingredients to sustain a form of microscopic life
In the late 1990s, Galileo made around a dozen flybys of the Jupiter system and discovered that under Europa's icy surface, there is a global ocean twice the depth of Mount Everest. The icy surface can protect the water from radiation even though Europa does not possess a strong magnetic field like we have on Earth
One of the obstacles to investigating further is that we need to sterilise and clean our spacecraft so we don’t introduce any bacteria that could kill the potential life that could be living on these moons.
Huygen, which is the furthest probe away from Earth, was launched from a spacecraft circling Jupiter's moon: Titan.
The probe landed 3 weeks later. It took detailed photos and sent them back to earth. The surface at first glance was like earth’s; rocky hills and steep valleys all in sandy, red rock.
But where are the aliens?
Many speculate why we haven't confirmed that there is life out there, the answer is that we simply haven't spent that much time or resources on it. For centuries, humans have always looked up into the night sky and wondered if we are alone, but it’s only been the last couple of decades that we humans have begun making progress
CAN CRUSHING
Equipment and ingredients:
2 empty aluminium cans (eg Coca Cola)
Frying pan
Electric/gas stove (Bunsen burner)
Water
Tongs
Two bowls
Ice
Put a small volume of water in each can which is enough to cover the bottom.
Set your stove to high heat and place your frying pan on the stove.
Place the two cans upright in the pan for the water to boil.
While the cans are being heated, place plenty of ice in a bowl full of water.
Once you can see steam forming at the top of cans, use tongs to pick up a can and immediately place it upside down in the bowl of water
If you have carried out the experiment correctly, the can will be crushed immediately!
Tie long hair back
Tuck away loose clothing.
Do not touch hot objects (eg hot pan, heated cans)
Wait for the cans to cool down before you touch them
BIOLOGY
THE SLIME THAT BUILT A SUBWAY BENJAMIN W
THIS ARTICLE LOOKS AT A SLIME WHICH HELPED DEVELOP A SUBWAY SYSTEM IN A MORE EFFICIENT WAY
THE SAVAGE STORY OF SALMON SUMMER C
THIS ARTICLE SUMMARISES THE LIFE CYCLE OF A SALMON AND ADAPTATIONS WHICH HELP THEM SURVIVE
WOODFROGS JASPREET C
THIS ARTICLE IS ABOUT THE UNIQUE ADAPTATION OF WOODFROGS WHICH ALLOW THEM TO THRIVE IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT
THE ENIGMA OF SLEEP ERICA F
THIS ARTICLE DESCRIBES THE CIRCADIAN RHYTHM AND TYPES OF SLEEP
HYPNOSIS
ELEONORA L
THIS ARTICLE EXPLORES WHAT HYPNOSIS IS AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE BRAIN
LUCID DREAMING
CLAUDIA C
THIS ARTICLE ILLUSTRATES THE IMPACTS OF LUCID DREAMING WITHIN THE BRIAN
FOOD FOR THOUGHT MATTEO H
THIS ARTICLE DEMONSTRATES THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE ON THE BRAIN
THE SLIME THAT BUILT A SUBWAY
BENJAMIN W
The acellular slime mould, Physarum polycephalum, has gained a lot of scientists´ attention in the last few decades The often bright yellow coloured plasmodium can typically be found in dark and damp places, such as the understory of forests There it usually colonises rotting wood and the fruiting bodies of fleshy fungi, but has also been observed colonising living plants
The organism is of interest to scientists due to several abilities and the fact that it can be easily cultured Therefore it is often used as a model organism for the study of cell differentiation, cell motility and cell growth, as well as the cell cycle, specifically nuclear division It is also the largest unicellular organism discovered in terms of flat square area with the largest bred specimen measuring roughly 5 54 square metres in its plasmodial stage It is also well known for its ability to restructure itself for the most efficient nutrient transport It was later given the name “Blob” in reference to the horror film “Blob”
Physarum polycephalum starts its life cycle as a zygote and develops through the process of mitosis It then develops into its plasmodium stage, the stage most often observed and used in experiments It starts off as a feeding plasmodium and after it has eaten enough it develops into a mature plasmodium preparing to fruit It is noticeable that while the feeding plasmodium is more like a slime The mature plasmodial form has a more net-like structure allowing for more efficient nutrient transport Following the plasmodial stage it develops into a sporangium (a capsule in which reproductive spores are produced), which will be the final form for one specimen. Similarly to the plasmodial stage there are two forms of sporangium, a young and a mature sporangium. The mature plasmodium first develops into a young sporangium that will eventually grow into a mature sporangium made up of clusters of flower-like heads connected to a stalk. These structures begin to form in the young sporangium.
Inside the head of the mature sporangium the spores then form through meiosis and when these are released they start germinating. As the “Blob” reproduces sexually the germinating spores give rise to the two differentialized gametes called amoeboid cells and flagellated cells. These in turn form a diploid zygote and so a new “Blob” is “born”.
Even though P.polycephalum is a single celled organism, lacking a brain, it has demonstrated signs of complex behaviour. For example, they can construct connections between points as efficiently as human built systems and can navigate complex mazes. It has been found that it can evaluate a trade-off amongst robustness, cost and the efficiency of transport and can thus form fault tolerant networks. Moreover due to its ability to reform connections, for more efficiency, it can not only quickly adapt to static environments, but also to dynamic environments. Thus it can evaluate when it should move away from a location to one with more favourable conditions. To avoid the areas it has already been or that are non-favourable, scientists have observed possible signs of cell memory. As a result of the seeming general intelligence of P.polycephalum scientists have attempted to use complex algorithms to simulate the slime moulds’ behaviour, but all attempts have so far been less efficient than the organism.
Even though P polycephalum is a single celled organism, lacking a brain, it has demonstrated signs of complex behaviour. For example, they can construct connections between points as efficiently as human built systems and can navigate complex mazes. It has been found that it can evaluate a trade-off amongst robustness, cost and the efficiency of transport and can thus form fault tolerant networks. Moreover due to its ability to reform connections, for more efficiency, it can not only quickly adapt to static environments, but also to dynamic environments. Thus it can evaluate when it should move away from a location to one with more favourable conditions. To avoid the areas it has already been or that are non-favourable, scientists have observed possible signs of cell memory. As a result of the seeming general intelligence of P.polycephalum scientists have attempted to use complex algorithms to simulate the slime moulds’ behaviour, but all attempts have so far been less efficient than the organism.
To test its limits researchers at the Hokkaido University used it to simulate the Tokyo railway network. A specimen was placed in a wet dish and oat flakes were used to indicate key locations, while white LEDs were used to simulate unfavourable geological features, as the slime mould tends to avoid bright areas Whilst the mould would first form random connections to the flakes it later reorganised itself to reach the flakes more efficiently and created a network like system closely resembling Tokyo s railway system Some scientists even say that the system formed by P polycephalum may even be more efficient and stable than the human made network
THE SAVAGE STORY OF SALMON
SUMMER C
With the benefits such as being an excellent source of protein and providing Omega-3 fatty acids, salmon’s popularity has risen in human diets
Salmon consumption worldwide is at 3 times higher than it was in 1980 and salmon aquaculture accounts for 70% of the market, as a food production system But how much do you know about the story behind salmon?
Salmons’ life cycle
Salmon is a type of fish that is called anadromous, which means they are born in freshwater, migrate to the ocean as they grow and finally, return to their birthplace to reproduce and die
The first stage of a salmon’s life is an egg The fertilised eggs lay in redds (a depression created by the female salmon using its tail), and are covered by gravel along the streambed in either streams or rivers The flow of water provides oxygen and removes excess sediment or waste products The eggs will remain buried until they are developed enough to emerge.
The eggs become alevins, which are tiny salmon and they rely on an egg yolk sac attached to their bellies to survive until they have grown enough to swim away from the redd as a fry. They start surviving on their own and may begin migrating to saltwater. This migration makes a fry go through biological changes to survive in the ocean’s saltwater.
As an adult, salmon stay in the ocean for 1-8 years, depending on their species When adult salmon start migrating back to freshwater, their bodies undergo more changes, their colour changes, and some of them grow humped backs or hooked jaws For this journey back to their natal streams, many may not make it there After they leave fertilised eggs in new redds, they have completed their lifecycle and will die shortly after The remains of a salmon contribute to releasing its nutrients back to its habitat and other species, and those from salmon are especially valuable as they release nutrients from the ocean
THE SAVAGE STORY OF SALMON
Salmon’s in-built navigation Salmon always go back to the stream where they were born because they know it is a good place to spawn. Although not fully understood, there is a theory about how salmon find their way back to their home stream. According to scientists, salmon imprint on the earth’s magnetic field at the mouth of their home stream when they leave as a smolt. So they are able to home in on that pattern years later. Their magnetic detection ability made them very efficient at navigating David Noakes, a professor of fisheries and wildlife at the Oregon State University (OSU) and the director of the Oregon Hatchery Research Center has supported this hypothesis due to his research findings Magnetite, an oxide of iron and a primary iron ore (Fe3O4) is the most magnetic out of the Earth’s naturally occurring minerals, and it is found in the specialised receptor cells in the noses of salmon Some other animals also respond to magnetic fields and magnetite material is also present in some organisms The scientists from OSU also found that the growth of magnetite crystals within salmon cells, called biomineralization, is used by magnetotactic bacteria to grow these chains of crystals, then use them to orient themselves according to Earth’s magnetic field to move to regions of optimal oxygen content Although how salmon exactly navigate still remains a mystery, the fact that salmon have microscopic crystals of magnetite in their tissue reinforced the theory that they use the Earth’s magnetic field to navigate
After arriving at the river mouth, salmon rely on their sense of smell to help them locate the exact stream of their birth A series of experiments in the 1950s demonstrated that salmon become sensitive to the unique odour of their home when they enter the smolt period These odours of heightened sensitivity are then stored in their brain for later use when they return home In 2009, an odd event happened in Canada’s Fraser River where millions of wild sockeye salmon did not return to their home stream so scientists propose the possibility that there is a glitch in the salmon’s navigational abilities Concerns were raised on how raising salmon in hatcheries might have altered the fish’s “internal GPS” The earth’s magnetic field is relatively weak and can be overpowered by man-made objects like iron reinforcements in fish tanks, where these salmon are spawned This could potentially interfere with the salmon’s magnetic imprinting Problems of salmon born in hatcheries getting lost on their way back home arose and they might interbreed with wild salmon populations and produce genetically weaker offsprings that are not as capable of surviving outside.
Osmoregulatory adaptations of salmon to saltwater and freshwater environment
You may wonder, how do salmon survive in both saltwater and freshwater? These challenges can be overcome by various osmoregulatory organs of salmons, including gills, intestine and kidneys Due to osmotic difference, water molecules move from a higher to lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane, thus equalising the concentration on each side In saltwater which is hypertonic, there is a lower water potential due to the higher salt concentration
Sherefore, water exits the body cells of salmon with a net water loss and excessive salts gained from the surrounding saltwater The opposite happens when living in freshwater, where water will enter from the hypotonic environment; the concentration of solute is greater inside the cell than outside of it Salmons will not be able to survive if they could not regulate the loss and gain of water in saltwater and freshwater environments respectively As salmon live in both saltwater and freshwater, they need a way to regulate the enter and exit of water in their cells to avoid them dehydrating or bursting; hence osmoregulation.
Physiologically, to maintain the proper concentration of salts inside the cells, salmon have a special enzyme in their gill epithelial that hydrolyses ATP and uses the energy produced to move salts (both Na+ and Cl- ions) with active transport, against the concentration gradient, to maintain homeostasis inside the salmon. This enzyme actually belongs to the ATPase family, namely Na+-K+-ATPase. The active transport by Na+-K+-ATPase requires energy from the breakdown of ATP into ADP. As salmon are anadromous, the ATPase plays a key role in salt regulation (ionoregulation) in two ways: one that drives the uptake of salts into the salmon’s cell in freshwater and one that drives the transport of salt out of the cell in saltwater.
The osmotic and ionic movements in seawater and freshwater can be potentially disruptive to salmon, so their gill epithelium, kidneys and intestines work together to compensate for them In freshwater, they tend to gain water osmotically and lose salts to the environment To cope with this, they actively uptake NaCl through their permeable gill epithelium and their kidneys excrete large volumes of dilute urine to remove excess water In seawater, salmon ingest more seawater to absorb water in the intestines and excrete excess salts through their kidneys and gills to compensate for water loss osmotically and salt gained in seawater
These behavioural and physiological changes in a salmon cannot take place immediately as the environment changes, it happens gradually when a young salmon moves from freshwater to saltwater and vice versa. Therefore, when a salmon first reaches the salt water at the mouth of its home stream, it stays there for several days to weeks to adapt to the new environment. It begins drinking and absorbing more salty water via its gut, its kidneys start producing concentrated, low-volume urine and its gills start pumping NaCl out of the blood into the water. Likewise, when an adult salmon is ready to go back to its home stream to spawn, it remains in the transition zone between the two extremes until these changes are able to reverse.
WOODFROGS
JASPREET C
In the colder months of winter, wood frogs utilise an extraordinary survival technique - freezing their bodies These amphibians nestle themselves into leaves and allow their heart, brain, and body to freeze to the point where they become like ice, capable of shattering if dropped
The process of freezing involves the formation of ice on the frog's skin, which penetrates into the veins and arteries, freezing the brain and causing the eyes to glaze over. The ice then pushes the blood towards the heart, which freezes solid. To prevent freezing, the frog's biochemistry undergoes significant changes, including the rearrangement of cells by microRNA molecules. The frog's liver distributes large amounts of glucose, which acts as an antifreeze for vital organs, including the inside of cells. Without this mechanism, the ice could be fatal to the frog.
The remarkable ability of wood frogs to freeze and thaw their organs has caught the attention of researchers who are exploring its potential application to human medicine For example, organs intended for transplantation could be surrounded in glucose and frozen, dramatically increasing their shelf life and reducing the pressure on doctors and transporters. Additionally, understanding how wood frogs handle high blood sugar levels can provide valuable insights for treating diabetic patients. Researchers are also interested in the frog's ability to continue circulating blood without clots or potential problems, which could be beneficial in treating stroke or heart attack patients.
In conclusion, further research into wood frogs' incredible ability to freeze and thaw has the potential to unlock significant medical benefits for humans.
THE ENIGMA OF SLEEP
ERICA F
The enigma of sleep and dreams has long intrigued neuroscientists, who seek to comprehend why we need sleep and the purpose of dreaming Dreams demonstrate the capacity of our brain to generate a world of conscious experiences without external stimuli While scientists do not fully understand the purpose and meaning of dreams, investigating the brain and its function during sleep can provide insights into our subconscious minds
Our body's internal clock is governed by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a part of the brain situated in the hypothalamus The SCN responds to light and darkness, and the optic nerve in our eyes detects morning light, which leads to the release of cortisol, boosting our energy levels As natural light disappears, the SCN signals the pineal gland to produce melatonin, a hormone that induces sleep The rise and fall of natural light help to maintain our sleep cycle, known as the circadian rhythm
Throughout a typical night's sleep of around eight hours, an individual completes two sleep cycles Each cycle comprises four stages: Stage 1 NREM (light sleep), Stage 2 NREM (deep sleep), Stage 3 NREM (most relaxed state), and Stage 4 REM (when most dreams occur)
NREM (Stages 1 to 3) sleep facilitates memory consolidation and growth hormone secretion, whereas REM sleep leads to muscle atonia (paralysis of major skeletal muscles), cortical activation, and dreaming
NREM and REM have a big impact on memory. NREM is associated with declarative memory consolidation (factual information), such as recalling names, dates, and places. In contrast, REM is linked to procedural memory improvement, which involves learning how to perform tasks like riding a bike The hippocampus stores short-term memories, while the neocortex stores long-term memories in the brain During NREM sleep, the brain transfers the day's information to the neocortex, enhancing motor learning and memory recall.
REM sleep rapidly retrieves information from the hippocampus to generate dreams, and many of our dreams incorporate our daily experiences However, the communication between the neocortex and hippocampus is disrupted during sleep, leading to fragmented memories during dreaming instead of a complete episodic replay. Researchers suggest that the purpose of dreaming is to integrate our experiences into long-term memory to be stored in the neocortex. The challenge of recalling dreams after waking is linked to changes in the levels of two neurotransmitters, acetylcholine and noradrenaline, which play a vital role in memory retention. As we fall asleep, acetylcholine and noradrenaline drop significantly. During REM sleep, acetylcholine increases to wakefulness levels, which places the cortex in an aroused state. However, noradrenaline remains low throughout, reducing our ability to recall memories of our dreams, leading to dream amnesia.
REM sleep commences with signals from the base of the brain, known as the pons The pons transmits signals to the thalamus, and a specialized set of neurons sends signals to the visual, auditory, and motor cortex, enabling us to create images without any new sensory stimuli. At the same time, the pons transmits signals to the spinal cord, which inhibits motor neurons to prevent us from physically acting out our dreams (muscle atonia). The prefrontal cortex, associated with higher-level reasoning, becomes deactivated during REM sleep. Its deactivation results in bizarre narratives in dreams while preventing us from distinguishing between dreams and reality.
The emotions we feel in our dreams are connected to the activation of the amygdala in the limbic system, which regulates fear.
HYPNOSIS
ELEONORA L
Hypnosis Have you ever tried to search for this word? If you did, you will probably come across this definition: Hypnosis is a changed state of awareness and increased relaxation that allows for improved focus and concentration Have you ever been to a magician's show and seen or even experienced hypnosis? What are your thoughts about it? Is it magic? Is it all staged up? Well, in this article I will explore this argument a little further, especially its effect on the human brain.
Brain “magic” deals with psychological and mindreading effects. An example of brain magic is optical illusions such as the one here reported.
The purple and yellow image can make your brain spin by making it look as if it’s moving when it’s not The key to getting it to stop is to try and look into the centre
This field is commonly called brain magic because of the apparent lack of explanation Still, in reality, there have been lots and lots of studies and research behind this "magic", which uses the power of words, linguistic deceptions, non-verbal communication and various other techniques to create the illusion of a sixth sense.
A practice that was, and still is, considered brain magic is hypnosis. Long before fMRI machines were invented hypnosis was a powerful tool to understand the mind and body connection. It has been used by psychiatrists for decades to help patients to achieve many different aims such as reducing pain or stopping a smoking habit, among other reasons.
How does hypnosis work?
Our brain is divided into five areas: The frontal lobes, which play a significant role in planning, controlling our behaviour, problem-solving, organising skills, memory and decision-making;
HYPNOSIS
the Parietal Lobe, the part of our brain that tells us what’s hot and cold, which way is up and which down and helps us acknowledge our surroundings; the Occipital Lobe helps us see shapes and colours; the Temporal Lobes are important for the recognition of sounds, the understanding of speech and speaking; the Cerebellum, crucial for standing upright, keeping our balance and move around
What happens in someone’s brain when they are in a hypnotic state?
David Spiegel, a psychiatrist at Stanford University School of Medicine, tried to answer this question by researching, through brain scans, whether hypnosis left a ‘mark’ in the brains of the patients Spiegel found a distinctive signature in the brain when patients underwent hypnosis
In the study, 545 healthy college students were subjected to a test to see how hypnotisable they were They then selected 36 highly hypnotisable subjects and 21 who couldn’t be hypnotised and scanned the brains of all the selected individuals during hypnosis The first 36 subjects displayed a distinct pattern of brain activity, one that was completely different from any other, which Spiegel described as a ‘different brain state’ In this state, the connections between multiple regions of the brain became stronger while the region called the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, in the frontal lobes, which helps people stay observant about their surroundings, became less active Furthermore, other regions of the brain normally important for self-consciousness became disconnected
The psychologist M Kinsbourne explains that there are two waves in our brain, one that comes to us carrying all the information from the external world and the other one coming from the cortex with all our evaluations, beliefs and expectations Consciousness is the collision of these two waves, and, according to Spiegel's research, here is where hypnosis is thought to intervene.
All this process would explain is how people under hypnosis can be induced to do things they might never do in their normal life but, why does this happen? What impulses push these connections to be weakened or heightened?
Multiple scientists have referred to hypnosis in terms of a placebo effect The placebo effect is when a person's physical or mental health appears to improve after taking a placebo or 'dummy' treatment
Both the placebo effect and hypnosis utilise complex brain processes based on expectations that are not fully understood, and both are effective against the same things, such as contrasting pain, anxiety and sleep problems
HYPNOSIS
According to psychologist Irving Kirsch, an expert on hypnosis and placebos, the brain is an expectationprediction machine Our mind holds incredible power over our body and even by just convincing it of something, thus increasing specific expectations in it, breathtaking results can be obtained
A great example was given by Professor D R Patterson during a lecture on hypnotism that he gave at Vanderbilt University Peterson tried to hypnotise a patient, who had burns covering more than half of his body, whose nurses described as “angry at the world” Patterson explained: “Every time a nurse tried to remove this patient’s bandages to wash his wounds, he screamed and writhed in pain, despite a stream of powerful drugs”. The young patient was sure he couldn’t be hypnotised and, even if he eventually agreed to try it, he was confident in doing the opposite of what he was told. This way Patterson suggested he had to become tenser and tenser. As intended at the beginning the man did the opposite and became relaxed. He slipped into a deep, peaceful trance. While the patient was in this state his nurses were able to finally remove his bandages and cure his raw sores.
Patterson explained that “During hypnosis, our brain rhythms get slower and slower- about the only way to get them any slower would be to fall into a coma”.
I believe this example makes us think of why, if it works this ‘easily’, hypnosis isn’t practised more often when treating a condition. Patterson explained that: “If you see ten patients, there’ll be two of them where the hypnosis will make your jaw drop, and then you are all excited. But you try it with another person and it’s just not that dramatic.” Although most people respond relatively well to hypnosis, the population that responds strongly to hypnotism is only 10 per cent. In addition, due to the incredible amount of variables that affect hypnosis, even just considering every different subject, it is impossible to standardise an experiment on hypnotism
Patterson and his research partner Jensen have made further examinations of hypnotic trances using electroencephalography, which measures electricity, generated from neurones, in the brain During meditation, Patterson and Jensen found out that the electrical impulses between many parts of our brain became measurably slower than in daily life; in hypnosis, these impulses became even slower To fully understand the results, the different roles of alpha, theta and delta waves in the human brain have to be outlined Alpha waves prevail when we are about to go to sleep or in a state of deep relaxation Theta waves arise when we are lost in our thoughts and delta waves when we are asleep or in a coma. Jensen’s work suggests that theta and alpha waves may be key to pain relief. Thus, if hypnosis can trigger slower brain waves, these may replace the faster patterns consequently replacing the perception of pain. But still many experiments and studies are being brought forward to understand whether this could constitute a real possibility. “Meditation takes care of a problem that you have. Hypnosis builds on a skill,” says animatedly Jensen.
If Patterson and Jensen were right, their research could be able to back up the relatively diffused scientific view of hypnosis as an ‘exotic brain state that directly accesses expectation and perception’. Even Spiegel hoped that brain scans could help him come up with ways in which hypnosis could affect regions of the brain, enhancing or inhibiting some performances.
So while a placebo effect offers something, mostly physical, that could relieve your symptoms, hypnosis could make you ‘float along a stream that could suddenly make you feel better’. Which one do you think is better? Which one would reach your expectations of future pain relief the most? What do you think is the reality of hypnosis today? Is it still magic or did I change your perspective? More time and experimentation will be required to unravel the truths of hypnosis but in the meanwhile, the suggestion, if anyone wanted to try it, is to make sure any person you seek treatment from has appropriate health qualifications
LUCID DREAMING
CLAUDIA C
Lucid dreaming has been a topic of interest for philosophers for thousands of years, and in 1981, scientists confirmed its existence. During lucid dreaming, the dreamer is aware that they are in a dream and can control it at will. This phenomenon occurs during REM sleep, characterized by rapid eye movement and low muscular tone throughout the body REM sleep increases neural activity in certain brain regions while deactivating others, reflecting the visual hallucinations, emotional intensification, and cognitive abnormalities that are common in dreams
Research has shown that lucid dreaming may have some benefits. For instance, lucidity was found to be accompanied by increased activation of the frontal lobes compared to regular REM-sleep dreams This increased brain activity could facilitate brain stimulation, which favors the development of interneuronal connections Moreover, lucid dreams can help alleviate anxiety by allowing people to confront their fears in a safe environment In fact, some research suggests that learning to control dreams can reduce fear of dreaming, boost selfconfidence, and increase optimism in people suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder.
Lucid dreaming has also been associated with increased brain activity in regions that are responsible for insight, attention, and agency, as well as memory, emotions, and problem-solving This enhanced brain activity may improve awareness, capacity for self-reflection, and creativity.However, lucid dreaming also carries some risks. Frequent lucid dreaming may disrupt the sleeper's sleep-wake cycle, which could affect emotional regulation, memory consolidation, and other aspects of daily life associated with sleep health
Moreover, lucid dreaming may be dangerous for people who suffer from mental illnesses or have trouble distinguishing between dreaming and reality. Lucid dreaming involves metacognition, which is a form of self-awareness that may lead to a dissociative mental state, similar to what some individuals suffering from mental illness experience Additionally, lucid dreaming can lead to sleep paralysis, a condition where a person is awake and aware but unable to move Sleep paralysis can be upsetting, and people who suffer from lucid dreaming, narcolepsy, or other sleep disorders are more likely to experience it.
It's essential to keep in mind that lucid dreaming is still a relatively new area of study, and more research is needed to fully understand its effects on the brain and overall health If you are interested in lucid dreaming, talk to your healthcare provider, especially if you have a history of mental illness or sleep disorders Practising safe sleep habits, such as maintaining a consistent sleep schedule and avoiding alcohol and drugs before bed, can also promote healthy sleep
FOOD FOR THOUGHT
MATTEO H
Neurodegenerative diseases are extremely common among older people In the UK 1 in 14 people aged 65 and over live with some form of dementia, a figure which increases to 1 in 6 by the age of 80 and over As of 2022, there are more than 55 million people who suffer from dementia worldwide along with 10 million new cases each year From loss of memory to complete cognitive decline, the effects of dementia such as Alzheimer's disease are as widespread as they are pernicious
Alzheimer's disease is thought to be caused by the abnormal buildup of proteins throughout the brain Although research has been inconclusive, there was found to be a direct correlation between Alzheimer's disease (AD) and beta-amyloid (AB), a polypeptide which oligomerises (joins together) to form plaques believed to inhibit neuronal function in AD patients. AB protein is formed from the breakdown of an elusive larger protein called amyloid precursor protein (APP), whose endogenous function is debated but researchers suspect may bind other proteins on the surface of cells. There are many forms of beta-amyloid, but one form, AB-42, especially impairs the brain's function
A
Beta-amyloid plaques are highly neurotoxic, and when a neurone is near AB, it is prohibited from sending electrical signals to other nearby neurones According to the principles of Hebbian plasticity, synapses (connections between neurones) become weaker when they are less active, so this inhibition of neuronal firing can cause important brain circuits to become less effective When neurones lay dormant, they are also more likely to degenerate, which is problematic as most neurones in the adult brain cannot be replaced In a healthy brain betaamyloid levels are controlled by naturally occurring enzymes but in an Alzheimer's brain, this regulation does not occur
Another group of proteins linked with Alzheimer's are known as the tau proteins. The tau proteins are a group of six highly soluble protein “isoforms” or variants produced by a process called alternative splicing of the gene encoding Microtubule-Associated Protein Tau (MAPT). MAPT is an extremely important protein in the brain which is responsible for maintaining of the stability of microtubules. Microtubules are rigid hollow fibres which give neurones and all cell types their structure. Build up of tau protein in the brain coincides with Alzheimer's disease. This is caused by the increased activity of enzymes known as tau kinases, which makes the proteins clump and misfold, forming tangles in the neurons known as neurofibrillary tangles. Neurofibrillary tangles block the neuron's microtubule transport system, which harms the cell's synaptic communication between neurons. This leads to similar consequences as those discussed previously with regard to beta-amyloid plaques.
FIGURE
FOOD FOR THOUGHT
Figures A represents a series of scans showing the tau and beta-amyloid protein levels in the brains of a young adult, an older adult with high betaamyloid and tau volume and an Alzheimer's disease patient The scans in Figure B show how neuronal activity across the brain differs between a healthy adult, an early dementia patient at the mild cognitive impairment stage, and an Alzheimer’s disease patient Alzheimer’s progressively leads to a substantial decrease in brain activity When figures A & B are compared, the correlation between the Tau and AB proteins and neurone activity becomes apparent - the higher volumes of protein AB and tau proteins coincide with this reduction in brain activity But how can we protect ourselves from the buildup of these harmful proteins? The answer may lie in our diet
The Chicago Health and Ageing Project (CHAP) was a longitudinal study conducted from 19932012 This study looked at the correlation between diet and the risk of developing neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and mild cognitive impairment It followed thousands of people's diets and cognitive health closely, until their eventual death The results were striking
The CHAP discovered that a specific type of fat called trans fat harmed the brain and increased our chances of developing Alzheimer's disease Very small quantities of trans fat are found naturally in meat and dairy, however, the vast majority of trans fats in the Western diet are made industrially from vegetable oils and added to highly processed packaged foods Another recent study from the University of California discovered that men under the age of 45 who consumed high levels of trans fat exhibited bad moods, decreased memory and even increased aggression and restlessness. This is because our brains rely on natural fats to create and maintain cell membranes and to allow fat-soluble vitamins such as E, D, A and K into the brain and transport systems.
Trans fat binds to our neurone cell membranes and hinders the ability of essential vitamins and minerals to be absorbed by our neurones. Trans fat causes cellular destruction and harms hormone production via inflammatory damage in the brain. Brian inflammation inhibits the body's absorption of omega-3 fatty acids which are essential for healthy brain function. It was found in a study that Trans fatty acids compared to cis fatty acids increase the processing of APP. This results in an increased production of AB proteins which develops into plaques. Reducing the consumption of trans fat can greatly increase the chances of keeping our brain healthy as well as avoiding harmful protein buildup, decreasing the chances of developing a neurodegenerative disease.
Another fat found to hurt the brain is saturated fat. The CHAP study found that daily average saturated fat consumption ranged between 13 and 25g. It was found that people who consumed 25g per day of saturated fat had a 3.5 times higher risk of developing Alzheimer's disease than people who consumed 13g of saturated fat. Saturated fat is found in bacon, red meat and most notably in dairy products. For context, 100g of butter contains an average of 51g of saturated fat and red meat contains 4.6-8g per 100g. Like trans fats, a small percentage of all the fats we consume gets absorbed into our neurones' cell membranes This causes an inhibitory effect They replace other fats in the cell membrane (such as omega 3s and omega 6s) which have a more facilitatory effect on electrical signalling
FIGURE B
FOOD FOR THOUGHT
However, a criticism of this study is that the CHAP study does not account for how saturated fat consumed in the Western diet typically comes from industrial-farmed animals Who are fed a diet which consists of grain and is not nutrient dense There are many different types of saturated fats, some healthier than others Though not thoroughly understood, it is accepted that saturated fats consumed from healthy, well-fed free-range animals are better for us than the saturated fat from processed factory-farmed animals
Through our diet, we also consume many metals such as copper and most notably iron which make their way into our bloodstream and brain. A trace amount of iron is necessary and beneficial, but an excess of iron can cause complications within the brain. Overconsumption of iron-rich foods, such as red meat, whilst using supplements contributes to a common problem of iron excess. Too much iron in the diet can lead to build-up in body tissues including the brain. This is problematic because iron can react with substances such as hydrogen peroxide found in the body to generate reactive oxygen species known as free radicals. Free radicals are molecules with an unpaired electron and are thus highly unstable. Free radicals react with various biological substrates such as lipids, proteins and DNA, causing damage known as oxidative stress to the brain (and the rest of the body). This is what causes free radicals and therefore an excess of iron to be so harmful. Unfortunately, this problem is not unique to iron and many of the nutrients we tend to consume in excess in the Western diet can also cause oxidative stress in this way.
However, there is a way to combat this. Vitamin E is very commonly found in vegetables, nuts and seeds. Vitamin E is an antioxidant, which in turn protects cell tissue against free radical damage. Because vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin, it is absorbed most effectively from fat-rich sources including nuts and seeds In the CHAP, it was found that adults who consumed an average of 8 mg of vitamin E per day halved their chances of developing Alzheimer's compared to people getting less than 8 mg
In a recent meta-analysis conducted in 2018 by Mulan and colleagues, 51 studies were evaluated and results showed that vitamin E levels are on average 11% lower in Alzheimer patients' brains than in control brains. Vitamins B6, B12 and B9 also have been found to have beneficial effects on the brain.
Certain fatty acids, most notably omegas 3/6 also have an advantageous effect on the brain A 2015 study found that taking supplements of omega 3 resulted in significant improvements in short-term and episodic memory (long-term memory of specific events) in later life This study suggests that eating a well-balanced and nutrient-rich diet can greatly reduce the risk of brain degeneration as we get older.
The most researched diet with respect to its effect on Alzheimer's is the Mediterranean diet (MD) The MD consists of leafy green vegetables, whole grains, white and oily fish, legumes, high-quality dairy products and extra-virgin olive oil, as well as moderate amounts of poultry, beans, nuts and berries Several studies pertaining to the Mediterranean diet insinuate that this eating pattern significantly reduces the risk of developing Alzheimer’s. It is important to note that no one singular nutrient or supplement has been proven to directly decrease the risk of AD and some studies have found inconclusive results This is because we still do not fully understand the pathology of Alzheimer’s itself It is still a highly researched topic and studies are ongoing
While a perfect study is not possible, robust conclusions can be drawn from patterns observed across many such studies over time, and continuing technological advances allow us to probe exactly how diet affects brain health more and more. Largely, the major studies which have been carried out so far indicate what is already intuitive A diet based on whole foods, rich in fruits and vegetables, legumes, whole grains, as well as some unprocessed meat and fish and high-quality dairy, is likely to be a safe bet in its protection against neurodegenerative diseases
MAKE YOUR OWN TERRARIUM
Equipment and ingredients:
Terrarium container (mason jar, vase, glass jar)
Spray bottle
Small Tools (tongs, tweezers, spoons, chopsticks)
Scissors
Small pebbles and stones
Soil
Plants (succulents, ferns, air plants)
Any decoration (moss, small flowers)
Clean and dry your container.
Place pebbles in the container to cover the bottom
Place soil on top; enough for the plant's roots to sit inside
Use a spoon to make a hole in the soil and place the plant inside Flatten the ground around it
Repeat step 5 with other plants. Ensure each plant has enough space to grow
Place more pebbles to cover the soil and add any decorations you wish
Ensure to water your terrarium, make sure it has enough light and is not too hot or cold
CHEMISTRY
PIRANHA SOLUTION AND ITS MECHANISM EGE Y
THIS ARTICLE EXPLORES THE COMPOSITION OF 'PIRANHA SOLUTION' AND ITS USES
REFLECTIONS ON TOXICOLOGY FROM PARACELSUS AND BEYOND FILIP L
THIS ARTICLE SUMMARISES A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOXICOLOGY
PIRANHA SOLUTION AND ITS MECHANISM
For regular people, the 0.01% bacteria left behind after washing your hands may not be very intimidating, however, for a chemist trying to make a discovery or save a life, that tiny amount of ‘bacteria’ left behind may interfere or even completely invalidate a result This is where the piranha solution, also known as piranha etch, comes in Much like actual piranhas, the mixture eats away at the organic matter, however, unlike piranhas, it does not leave a hint of any bones or blood behind, decomposing every trace of carbon-based material
To give an overview, the solution is made up of a quarter of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) at 30% concentration, and three-quarters of concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) What makes this solution so unique, however, is both how the solution is immensely quicker and cleaner than other acids at decomposing matter, as well as how it fascinatingly alters the structure and chemical composition of surfaces it can’t dissolve so that it can
EGE Y
It’s able to achieve this thanks to how the two acids work simultaneously to execute multiple different violent reactions, which complement each other perfectly, where some side products simply increase the rate of reaction, and others act as a range of reagents (a substance used to cause a chemical reaction) The result is this phenomenon that can decompose, vaporise or dissolve a range of different substances, to such an extent that it will decompose itself if not used upon mixing
Preparation:
Preparing this disruptive solution comes with lengthy hazard documents due to there being many different ways in which the smallest neglections can cause the chemicals to explode and harm the user
PAGE 36
PIRANHA SOLUTION
Different ratios of peroxide and acid may be used depending on the job, but going as low as 1:1 will cause an explosion due to the excessive amount of the peroxide reacting too rapidly The same is true for; using anything above 50% concentration of the peroxide, if the acid is poured into the peroxide rather than the other way around, not pouring the peroxide at a slow rate, making a large batch of the olution at a time, or mixing the solution too quickly This is because of the rapid increase in temperature when the peroxide reacts with the acid and boils the solution Even when being extremely cautious while obeying the specific instructions, the temperature of the solution can reach over 100 degrees Celsius.
The solution always has to be prepared upon use as it will be continuously decomposing the hydrogen peroxide it has, producing gas and possibly exploding its container due to pressure and the solution will only work with the peroxide.
Before delving deeper into the mechanisms of the reaction, here’s a picture of a small piece of paper, one of the more basic organic substances, being added to a small amount of piranha solution.
As seen, when being mixed initially, the colourless liquid causes effervescence as it boils, then when the paper is added, its molecules are broken down into pure carbon in the form of black tar, and lastly converted into carbon dioxide gas, diffusing into the atmosphere, going back to being a colourless, clear liquid like water.
Mechanism:
Concentrated sulfuric acid by itself has a strong dehydrating property This means that it’s able to remove hydrogen and oxygen from compounds and form water molecules, leaving the rest of the organic compound behind For example, the basic sugar we consume in our daily lives sucrose has the formula C12H22O11, where we can see that one molecule of sucrose will have 11 oxygens (O), 22 hydrogens (H) and 12 Carbon (C) atoms When exposed to concentrated sulfuric acid, the acid will be able to remove the hydrogen and oxygen atoms to produce water/steam, leaving the carbon atoms behind as soot or just black tar:
C12H22O11(s) → 12 C(s) + 11 H2O(g/l)
This reaction is the main half of and most occurring reaction caused in the solution It is also very endothermic, meaning that it will take in energy from its surroundings rather than release energy to its surroundings This massively increases the temperature of the solution, speeding up the rate at which the reaction occurs as well as allowing other reactions to occur Nonetheless, the reaction still has many limitations e g how the organic matter has to have oxygen to be dehydrated, the acid isn’t the most powerful and won’t be able to decompose some substances very quickly or at all, or how the carbon produced also creates a large mess which takes a while to clean up
The temperature and the chaotic nature of this dehydration is the main reason why the solution is extremely dangerous to handle, and it’s also partly where it gets its name from, resembling a horde of piranhas at a rapid eating craze, leaving puddles of blood behind
The second half of the mechanism explains the other part of the piranha analogy and is much more interesting, resembling how piranhas will eat through anything they can
PIRANHA SOLUTION
Although hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidising agent, a chemical which gains electrons in a reaction (by donating oxygen atoms or removing hydrogen atoms from another compound), carbon in its pure solid form is notoriously known for its ability to resist oxidation This causes the carbon to dissolve as carbon dioxide, preventing even strong oxidisers from decomposing it This is where sulfuric acid comes in
The first reaction’s jump in temperature and ability to create an even more acidic environment from the charged hydrogen atoms being released in the dehydration process immensely strengthens the oxidising capabilities of the peroxide. On top of this, two distinct reactions occur between the acid and the peroxide, which give even more oomph to the solution’s oxidising capabilities:
H2SO4 + H2O2 → H2SO5 + H2O H2SO4 + H2O2 → H3O+ + HSO4- + O•
The two important products formed are Caro’s acid (H2SO5, Peroxymonosulfuric acid) and the oxygen radical (O•). While Caro’s acid is an extremely strong oxidising agent, which comes in useful later on, the oxygen radical is what finally breaks down the carbon.
The solid carbon comes in lengthy chains of C atoms bonded together which is what makes it so rigid, however, the oxygen radical has a property shared among all radicals, an unpaired electron. Electrons, being one of the three main particles that make up atoms, are paired together and orbit the nucleus of atoms with opposite spins. Without an opposing spin, however, an electron becomes unbalanced. This extremely unstable and highly reactive form of oxygen with a single unpaired electron will react as quickly as physically possible, forcing itself to be substituted with one of the carbon atoms, which breaks down the long chains into smaller and smaller chains by continuous substitution of the radicals formed, leaving the carbons in much smaller chains
The smaller chains will have larger surfaces areas around their carbon atoms, finally granting the hydrogen peroxide, and even stronger Caro's acid the ability to attack the carbon atoms to oxidise them further, forming carbon dioxide gas:
With organic compounds such as plastics or flesh being ripped apart at their carbons to be dissolved as carbon dioxide, other substances such as reactive metals can be cleaned either by the remaining sulfuric acid (e g iron [Fe] can be dissolved by the acid and leave behind hydrogen gas in exchange [H2] which will dissipate, Fe + H2SO4 → H2 + FeSO4) or by the acid’s other property to make surfaces such as fabrics soluble in water through making them hydrophilic These properties allow the piranha solution to get rid of any traces of almost all organic and some inorganic substances
Application:
Lastly, contrary to popular belief, the solution would be very inefficient for a serial killer to use to dispose of a body As previously mentioned, at larger scales the solution will cause explosions no matter how slowly it’s prepared, and although having the body in smaller pieces may be able to assist the issue, the reaction is too vigorous to not attract any attention and hydrogen peroxide usually isn’t available in larger amounts Instead, the solution is used commonly for microelectronics and cleaning glassware when the components need to be etched at specific locations or when surfaces need to be cleaned as accurately as possible
REFLECTIONS ON TOXICOLOGY FROM PARACELSUS AND BEYOND
FILIP L
“What is there that is not poison? All things are poison, and nothing is without poison Solely the dose determines that a thing is not a poison"Paracelsus
We are all worried, at least to some extent, about the environmental risks which surround us, especially in our post-industrialised era and with the increased attention on pollution, global warming and the dangers which accompany the benefits of new technologies However, the idea of poison stretches back a very long way to the hazy times of prehistory The primitive men - through their daily experience often based on trial and error - became quickly aware of how poisons available from plants or animals can enhance the killing ability of a spear or arrow We should mention the case of the dart frog, whose poison is used on the tips of arrows by tribal people in South America to paralyse prey and make hunting easier
What we might not be as aware of is that even harmless substances may cause a hazard In fact, any substance, including food, drugs, or nutrients, can harm an organism, behaving then like poison
Paracelsus and the concept of threshold We should go back in time and meet the famous scientist and alchemist Paracelsus (1493-1541), a Renaissance man, a contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci, Martin Luther, and Nicholas Copernicus Paracelsus, son of a biologist and chemist, is considered the father of toxicology, the field of science that helps us understand the harmful effects that chemicals, substances, or situations, can have on people, animals, and the environment He can also be seen as the father of medicinal chemistry He studied at various universities in Europe and he was mostly linked to the University of Ferrara where he got his bachelor’s in medicine in 1510 and his doctorate in 1516
REFLECTIONS ON TOXICOLOGY
It was at this time that he assumed the name Paracelsus (para, meaning beside/beyond, and Celsus, a famous Roman physician)
Paracelsus tried to bring chemistry and the scientific method into medicine In fact, he saw the human body as a machine characterised by chemical processes Moreover, Paracelsus also believed that diseases tend to localise in a particular organ, a concept developed further as a target organ of toxicity
One of his works, published posthumously, dealt with the respiratory diseases that miners in the Alps succumbed to because of the poor conditions of their job. It was titled, ‘On the Miner’s sickness and other diseases of Miner’s’, written in 1567, and it was one of the very first surveys of an occupational disease. We can already see that Paracelsus was rather ahead of his time. It would not be an exaggeration to speak of a “Paracelsus revolution” in medicine similar to the Copernican Revolution in Astronomy. During his lifetime he was recognised by many as the "Luther of Medicine". His works in medicine and chemistry have paved the way for some of the most extraordinary developments in the field of this science.
If we think of the supplements and vitamins which are particularly popular nowadays, it is important to remark that there is a range within which these substances bring a benefit to the organism. For example, too much iron would be harmful, as well as too much vitamin D. However, what is more, relevant to the history of medicine is that Paracelsus inspired the later generations of scientists to explore the concepts of a threshold.
“The dose makes the poison” has become the basic principle of toxicology. If any substance can be poisonous if the dose is above a certain level, we can also conclude that any poison is not dangerous if the dose is below the threshold
In fact, in modern toxicology, we found the concept of median lethal dose (usually referred to as LD-50) It is the dose at which a substance is lethal for 50% of animals tested Thus LD-50 provides a measure of the toxicity of a substance A substance with a high LD50 would have a low toxicity, while a substance with a low LD50 would have a high toxicity
A practical example which is surely familiar to many dog-owners is the toxicity of chocolate in dogs Chocolate contains a chemical called theobromine, which is poisonous to dogs The quantity of theobromine ingested can make a difference in the poisoning For example, dark chocolate would be more poisonous than milk, as it has a higher concentration of theobromine
REFLECTIONS ON TOXICOLOGY
Beyond Paracelsus: The Genotoxicity
A further field of toxicology that goes beyond the legacy of Paracelsus is the difference between toxicity and genotoxicity. Genotoxin is an agent (often a chemical) that can cause DNA or chromosomal damage. In fact, genotoxic chemicals, like radiation, induce DNA damage and mutations that may lead to cancer.
The use of chemicals in society is permitted if the intake level is below the ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake). The concept underlying this risk management approach is exactly the principle established by Paracelsus: any poison can be nontoxic if the dose is below the appropriate threshold.
The default assessment of genotoxins is that human exposure at any level poses a risk. For such agents, exposure should be As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA). For non-genotoxic carcinogens, it may be possible to define a threshold that is a level of exposure below which the agent does not present a carcinogenic risk to humans.
However, the principle of Paracelsus cannot be applied to genotoxic chemicals As mentioned, genotoxic chemicals are substances that interact with DNA and may subsequently induce mutations Although the question is still discussed, owing to their DNA interaction properties, genotoxic chemicals are not considered to have a safe threshold or dose and they can become very risky to humans even at very low concentrations Therefore, once a chemical is considered genotoxic and carcinogenic, it will be banned for use as a food additive, pesticide, or veterinary drug This is in contrast to the policy for non-genotoxic carcinogens, which may be used in the market if the intake level is below the ADI
Thus, the ability to distinguish between genotoxic and non-genotoxic chemicals becomes of critical importance in the regulation of chemicals.
MAKE YOUR OWN ICE CREAM
Equipment and ingredients:
One small resealable bag
One large plastic bag
240ml single or double cream
2tbsp caster sugar
½ tsp vanilla extract
Ice
75g of salt
Any toppings of your choice
Mix cream, sugar, and vanilla extract in a small resealable bag Ensure excess air is removed and then seal.
In the large plastic bag, mix the ice and salt. Place the smaller bag in the larger bag and shake vigorously for 7-10minutes, until the mixture hardens
Remove from the bag, add your toppings and enjoy
ABOUT US
The editors of the Haileybury Hypothesis are Laura B, Oliver C, Alexander F, Martha L and Lina Y, a group of ambitious A-Level Lower Sixth pupils.
As a group we all have a keen passion for science, hence we have thoroughly enjoyed the process of creating this magazine. Additionally, we are all part of an academic extension programme called StanX, which is run in collaboration with Stanford Univeristy. It is a highly-selective course designed to develop our understanding of molecular genetics through the research with Drosophila Melanogaster (fruit flies). We have recently travelled to the United States to present our research data at the International Fly Conferencewhat an experience!
As the editors, we were fortunate enough to carefully read through over 150 articles and learn a broad range of topics from extraterrestrial life to salmon to hypnosis. Due to the large number of excellent entries, we were challenged to only select a finite number of articles to then produce a comprehensive magazine. Over the course of this year, we have met weekly to work on editing articles, selecting the best written entries and piecing together the magazine itself.
Ultimately, the experience of this project has helped to develop our teamwork skills and diligence. We are all very grateful for the amazing opportunity to produce a pupil-written magazine, and this all would not be possible without the help from Miss Childs. We hope that you enjoy your read of this year's addition of the Haileybury Hypothesis.
THE HAILEYBURY HYPOTHESIS IS A COLLECTION OF SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES WRITTEN BY PUPILS WHERE THEY EXPLORE BEYOND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM THROUGH THEIR OWN EXTENSIVE RESEARCH. THE AUTHORS OF THESE ARTICLES RANGE FROM ALL YEAR GROUPS AT HAILEYBURY, DEMONSTRATING THE EXTENT OF PASSION FOR SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE WHOLE SCHOOL.
OUR AIM IS TO INSPIRE THE PUPILS TO ENGAGE WITH THE OPPORTUNITIES AVAILABLE TO THEM AT HAILEYBURY. WE ALSO WISH TO HIGHLIGHT THE TALENT AND HARDWORK OF THESE CONSCIENTIOUS AUTHORS. THEREFORE, THE HAILEYBURY HYPOTHESIS PROMISES AN INSIGHTFUL AND ENGAGING READ.