NutriNews International September 2023

nutrinews.com

SEPTEMBER 2023

MYCOTOXIN LEVELS IN SOYBEAN MEALS p. 4

EXPLORING THE CROSSROADS OF NUTRITION: UNVEILING NEW PERSPECTIVES ON IMMUNITY, TOXINS, AND SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK FEEDING

I

n our dynamic world of animal nutrition, the relentless pursuit of knowledge is paramount for researchers and industry professionals alike. The latest issue of Nutrinews International serves as a lighthouse amidst the vast sea of information, illuminating captivating topics that have the potential to reshape the very foundations of nutrition. This comprehensive exploration reaffirms our steadfast commitment to being an indispensable source of wisdom for all fervent enthusiasts of nutrition science.

Spotlight on Recent Events Our coverage begins with an insightful review of the recent American Society of Animal Science annual meeting, which convened in Albuquerque, New Mexico. This gathering was a veritable cornucopia of knowledge, delving into diverse facets of animal science. A prominent focus was placed on companion animal nutrition, with presentations spanning topics such as pet food evaluation, amino acids, alternative ingredients like insect-based food, and the profound impact of feed additives on gut health. This spotlight underscores the burgeoning importance of companion animal nutrition, a field undergoing remarkable evolution.

Unraveling the Mycotoxin Enigma We then delve into the pressing issue of mycotoxins in soybean meals and their profound implications for animal nutrition. This exploration emphasizes the critical need for a nuanced approach to feed quality control, ensuring the well-being of our animal counterparts.

Additionally, we navigate the intricate relationship between mycotoxins and endotoxins, highlighting the necessity of a multifaceted strategy to ensure the safety of animal feed.

Exploring Sustainable Feeding Practices With sustainability taking center stage, we turn our attention to alternative feedstuffs like peas in poultry diets.

As the demand for resource-efficient practices grows, we examine how these alternative feed sources can

contribute not only to economic benefits but also to the environmental sustainability of poultry farming.

Moreover, we explore the fascinating correlation between feed additives and poultry fatty acid profiles, advocating for a holistic approach that enhances both animal and consumer health.

EDITOR

COMMUNICATION GROUP AGRINEWS LLC

Innovations in Swine Farming Within the realm of swine farming, we engage in a discussion surrounding low-crude-protein diets. This illuminating dialogue provides valuable insights into innovative feeding strategies that strike a delicate balance between protein production and environmental sustainability.

We also address the critical issue of the ecological footprint of pig farming, emphasizing the industry’s profound responsibility in championing environmental stewardship.

The Complexity of Nutritional Science Our diverse coverage extends to intriguing relationships, such as the interplay between nutrition, urea, and somatic cells in sheep’s milk. Furthermore, we underscore the significance of controlling residual feed intake in dairy cattle, a topic of growing importance in contemporary livestock management.

Tackling Methane Emissions Lastly, we investigate the promising field of reducing methane emissions in ewes through a dietary blend of essential oils (EOs) and polyphenols. This innovative approach holds the potential to address a pressing environmental concern while ensuring the health and productivity of our livestock.

ADVERTISING Luis Carrasco +34 605 09 05 13 lc@agrinews.es Anna Fernández Oller +34 609 14 50 18

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CUSTOMER SUPPORT Mercé Soler EDITORIAL STAFF Álvaro José Guzman TECHNICAL DIRECTION Dr. Edgar Oviedo (poultry) David Solà-Oriol (swine)

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The new issue of Nutrinews International encapsulates the ever-expanding landscape of nutrition science. Each topic explored contributes to a holistic understanding of animal nutrition, guiding informed conversations and propelling the industry toward a sustainable, efficient, and ethical future of food production.

Together, we journey toward a nourished and harmonious world.

1 NutriNews International September 2023

04

Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón

30

Prestage Department of Poultry Science, NC State University

12

Developments, Implications, and Constraints of LowCrude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming Maykelly da Silva Gomes, Jansller Luiz Genova, Gabriel Cipriano Rocha

Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins

Federal University of Viçosa

Prof. Simon Jackson Molendotech Ltd.

40 22

Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón

Prestage Department of Poultry Science, NC State University

2 NutriNews International September 2023

Environmental impacts of pig farming Ines Andretta

Professor and researcher at UFRGS

48

Feed additives and their relationship with fatty acid profiles in poultry

62

Gabriela Miotto Galli1, Aleksandro Schafer da Silva2 e Ines Andretta1

Department of Animal Science, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.

2 Department of Animal Science, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina-UDESC, Chapecó, SC, Brazil

Alberto Stanislao Atzori

Department of Agricultural Sciences, Section of Animal Science, University of Sassari, Sassari, Sardinia, Italy.

1

54

70

Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition Iglesias BF 1, Charrière MV 1, Gaggiotti M2, Fain Binda V 1, Chale J1, Prieto GM3.

Poultry Section, INTA-EEA Pergamino; 2 Forage Laboratory, INTA-EEA Rafaela; 3 AER Arroyo Seco, INTA-EEA Oliveros.

1

A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants

Controlling Residual Feed Intake: Maintaining a Balance Fernando Bacha NACOOP, S.A.

76

Nutrition, urea and SCC in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships Alberto Stanislao Atzori

Department of Agricultural Sciences, Section of Animal Science, University of Sassari, Sassari, Sardinia, Italy.

nutrinews.com 3 NutriNews International September 2023

MYCOTOXIN LEVELS IN SOYBEAN MEALS

nutrition

Edgar O. Oviedo Rondón1 , Anneliese Mueller2 and Bettina Behler-Wöchtl3 1Prestage Department Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA 2DSM firmenich, Getzersdorf, Austria 3DSM-firmenich, Getzersdorf, Austria

M

ycotoxin evaluation is frequent in feed mills for grain sources like corn, wheat, and barley or products like peanuts and cottonseed.

However, soybean meal, the most common protein source in feed for all animal species, needs more attention in this critical quality aspect.

4 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals

Several studies have indicated that soybean meal appears to be less susceptible to mycotoxin contamination than most grains.

However, significant differences can be observed in contamination with mycotoxins among sources of soybean meal.

Previous reports have indicated that the main mycotoxins eventually observed in soybean meals can be:

Fumonisins (FUM) Deoxynivalenol (DON)

Aflatoxins (Afla)

Ochratoxins (OTA)

Trichothecenes (T2)

However, several publications suggest

Global evaluations of samples are necessary

some variability per region. That effect

since soybean meals have considerable trade

should be clarified to determine if

worldwide. Relevant differences in nutrient

contamination relates with:

and processing quality have been reported

nutrition

Zearalenone (ZEN)

among countries of origin.

The location where samples were

The data reported here also indicate

collected or The origin of production and manage risks according to these factors.

differences among sources of soybean meal on mycotoxin contamination.

DESCRIPTION OF THIS WORLDWIDE MYCOTOXIN SURVEY The data on mycotoxin levels in soybean meal presented in this article are part of the dsm-firmenich World Mycotoxin Survey.

The increasing sample size over the

Starting in 2004, it is the longestrunning and most comprehensive data set on mycotoxin occurrence and allows studying variation in mycotoxin

years gives detailed insights into the incidence of the six major mycotoxins in the agricultural commodities used for

occurrence worldwide.

livestock feed.

Dsm-firmenich offers mycotoxin

This information aids in identifying the

analysis to customers as a service to identify mycotoxin risk in their raw commodities and final feeds.

potential risks posed to livestock animal production per region or in imported feed ingredients.

5

nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals

METHODS USED Most results included in the survey are obtained using methods like ELISA, HPLC, or state-of the art LC-MS/MS-based multimycotoxin methods.

Samples that tested positive for one of the main mycotoxins are also presented as the percentage of contaminated samples.

The average and median of positives are calculated in ppb of all positively tested samples. The maximum levels are also described.

Such high levels are seldom observed, but still, they occur and underline the

nutrition

importance of testing for mycotoxin occurrence.

SOYBEAN MEAL PRODUCING COUNTRIES China, the United States, Brazil, Argentina, and India are leading soybean meal producers. The 27 European Union countries may produce more soybean meal together than India, but not as individual countries.

Considering the production volume and the data in the dsm-firmenich World Mycotoxin Survey that can track the origin of the soybean meal, we looked at the results of soybean meal samples from China, USA, Brazil, Argentina, and India analyzed from June 2022 to June 2023.

6 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals

nutrition

RESULTS OF THE MYCOTOXIN SURVEY

The most significant number of samples evaluated were from Argentina and Brazil,

The results of this study are summarized

and the lowest was from India.

in the following Table and the prevalence of each mycotoxin per

Variability in the number of samples

country in the Figures.

per country corresponds to all samples received from each origin for mycotoxin screening this year.

The contamination levels of all soybean samples worldwide are always lower than reported in grains, confirming what scientific papers have indicated.

However, they are present in this feedstuff and may occasionally

The most frequent mycotoxins observed were ZEN, FUM, and DON. They indicated contamination with Fusarium molds is the most common in soybean meals worldwide.

contribute to total feed contamination.

It is evident that the differences among soybean meal-producing countries on types of mycotoxins and levels of contamination observed.

7 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals

% CONTAMINATED SAMPLES

100% 80% 60%

86%

40% 20%

57%

46%

29%

0%

0%

Afla

ZEN

DON

7%

T2

FUM

OTA

Figure 1. Prevalence of mycotoxins detected in soybean meal samples from China

In China (Figure 1), Argentina

(Figure 4), and India (Figure 5), 86% or 82% of the samples were positive for ZEN; however, in India, 97% of the samples analyzed were positive for OTA and 92% positive for T2 (Figure 5).

% CONTAMINATED SAMPLES

nutrition

100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 5%

28%

Afla

ZEN

42% 12%

0%

DON

5% T2

14% FUM

OTA

Figure 2. Prevalence of mycotoxins detected in soybean meal samples from the United States United States soybean meal (Figure 2) had

Aflatoxins were the second most common

the lowest percentage of samples positive

mycotoxin observed in Argentinian soybean

for ZEN (28%) among all five countries

meals, with 63% of the 1,459 samples

studied and the lowest average and median

evaluated being positive (919 samples).

concentration (17 and 15 ppb) or maximum level (38 ppb) of ZEN.

However, contamination levels were around 2-3 ppb in Argentinian

In all other countries, the ZEN levels

soybeans, and similar levels

observed were almost three times (2.3

were observed in the

to 3.6) higher. The highest levels of ZEN

Chinese and Indian soybean

(Table 1) were observed in samples from

meals, with 29 and 26% of the

Argentina and Brazil (1000 and 809 ppb).

samples positive for Afla.

8 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals

% CONTAMINATED SAMPLES

100%

673) and the USA (2 out of 43) had Afla

60% 40% 20%

44%

2% Afla

However, the median concentration of Afla in Brazilian samples was

meal were positive for OTA (Figure 3), indicating low or no contamination with Penicillium molds in these samples.

% CONTAMINATED SAMPLES

No samples of Brazilian soybean

OTA

60% 40% 20%

82% 47%

63% 19% Afla

No T2 was observed in the Chinese of 56) were positive for DON.

FUM

80%

0%

samples (Figure 1), but 46% (26 out

T2

DON

100%

samples reached a median of outliers and hard to observe again.

ZEN

0%

Figure 3. Prevalence of mycotoxins detected in soybean meal samples from Brazil

4 ppb. In comparison, the two USA 45 ppb, which could be considered

5%

10%

0%

(Figures 3 and 2).

9%

nutrition

A few samples from Brazil (13 out of

80%

ZEN

DON

T2

19%

1%

FUM

OTA

Figure 4. Prevalence of mycotoxins detected in soybean meal samples from Argentina

% CONTAMINATED SAMPLES

100% 80% 60%

82%

40% 20%

63%

47% 19%

0%

Afla

ZEN

DON

19% T2

FUM

1% OTA

Figure 5. Prevalence of mycotoxins detected in soybean meal samples from India 9 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals

The United States soybean meals positive for mycotoxins generally had the lowest average and median concentrations of DON, T2, FUM, and OTA observed worldwide (Table 1).

Using only the median values of positive samples, the US soybean meal had 7.1 to 17.6 times less DON, 2.8 to 4.4 times less T2, 6.6 to 23.4 times less FUM, and 2.0 to 18.0 times less OTA than other countries.

China and the USA soybean meals had similar number of samples positive for FUM (Figures 1 and 2) and similar median concentrations (Table 1).

nutrition

China

USA

Brazil

Parameter

Afla

ZEN

DON

T2

FUM

OTA

Number of samples

56

56

56

14

14

14

Average of positives (ppb)

3

49

581

96

10

Median of positives (ppb)

3

49

600

37

10

Maximum (ppb)

4

88

1160

0

306

10

Parameter

Afla

ZEN

DON

T2

FUM

OTA

Number of samples

43

43

43

43

43

43

Average of positives (ppb)

45

17

97

8

127

2

Median of positives (ppb)

45

15

34

8

38

2

Maximum (ppb)

90

38

309

11

1058

4

Parameter

Afla

ZEN

DON

T2

FUM

OTA

Number of samples

673

603

672

95

683

17

Average of positives (ppb)

4

48

485

28

873

Median of positives (ppb)

4

37

438

26

350

Maximum (ppb)

14

809

1700

59

13224

10 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals

0

India

Afla

ZEN

DON

T2

FUM

OTA

Number of samples

1459

1555

451

1205

383

537

Average of positives (ppb)

3

53

359

32

1161

4

Median of positives (ppb)

2

49

280

22

890

4

Maximum (ppb)

30

1000

1090

179

3760

4

Parameter

Afla

ZEN

DON

T2

FUM

OTA

Number of samples

38

38

38

38

38

38

Average of positives (ppb)

10

61

2328

36

332

35

Median of positives (ppb)

4

34

240

35

250

36

Maximum (ppb)

33

794

6720

91

590

89

nutrition

Argentina

Parameter

Table 1. Results of the dsm-firmenich World Mycotoxin Survey in soybean meal samples collected from June 2022 to June 2023 and classified by country of origin.

CONCLUSIONS Based on the median concentration of these mycotoxins and the number of positive samples within the survey, the United States soybean meal is currently the safest source to avoid multi-mycotoxin contamination.

However, monitoring mycotoxins in

Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals DOWNLOAD ON PDF

all soybean meals every year is always advisable because concentrations of mycotoxins may occur due to annual weather fluctuations.

11 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals

ENDOTOXINS IN

ANIMAL FEED AND THEIR

RELATIONSHIP WITH

MYCOTOXINS mycotoxins

Prof. Simon Jackson, Molendotech Ltd., Devon, United Kingdom

WHAT ARE ENDOTOXINS? Endotoxins are major components of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.

Endotoxins are composed of a lipid anchor known as lipid A and a repetitive polysaccharide unit, giving them the alternate name of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) (Figure 1).

12 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins

Central region

O-specific chain

Acyl chains

Lipid A

Inner core

Outer core

Repetitive polysaccharide

Endotoxins elevate the negative charge of the bacterial cell membrane, providing stability to the overall membrane structure.

As a result, they create a robust permeability barrier that effectively repels small and hydrophobic molecules. This inherent resistance to various antimicrobial agents makes Gram-negative bacteria naturally resilient.

While the overall structure of endotoxins is comparable among Gram-negative bacterial species, variations in the composition of polysaccharides (such as

mycotoxins

Figure 1. Structure of E. coli endotoxin (adapted from Abate et al., Journal of medical microbiology, 2017).

Apart from their role in maintaining bacterial stability and identification, endotoxins play a significant role in human and animal diseases, particularly in relation to immune and inflammatory responses.

WHAT IS THE BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF ENDOTOXINS? The biological activity of endotoxins is linked to the lipid and polysaccharide components of lipopolysaccharides (LPS).

specific O chains or O antigens) create a

Lipid A is linked to toxicity.

diverse array, distinguishing them between

Immunogenicity is associated with

different bacterial strains.

polysaccharide components.

The O antigen plays a crucial role in identifying particular strains of enteric bacteria, such as E. coli (e.g., E. coli O157), with the “O” indicating the presence of the O antigen.

13 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins

Lipid A is a potent modulator of the biological response and can stimulate the immune system of mammals.

It binds the endotoxin molecule in

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENDOTOXINS AND EXOTOXINS?

the outer membrane of bacterial

Endotoxins, by themselves, are not as toxic

cells, exerting its biological

as other toxins, such as exotoxins.

effects when the endotoxin is released from the cells. This detachment during bacterial growth or when bacteria are lysed due to autolysis, complement attack, phagocytosis, or certain

EXOTOXINS

can happen through natural Exotoxins are proteins that specific strains of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria produce and secrete. They usually target specific cells where they induce toxic effects, such as

antibiotics.

altering metabolism and leading to cell death.

mycotoxins

It is crucial to understand that endotoxins are exceptionally

For instance, in the case of entero-

heat-stable and cannot be eliminated

toxigenic E. coli (ETEC), it generates

through standard autoclaving or heat

a heat-stable enterotoxin (STa) that

inactivation methods. Furthermore,

attaches to receptors on enterocytes

unlike bacteria, endotoxins are

in the intestine, causing disruption to

unaffected by antibiotics and can still

ion and water transport, leading to

induce their toxic effects even in the

severe diarrhea.

ENDOTOXINS

absence of viable bacteria.

In contrast, endotoxins are released upon bacterial lysis and do not have specific target cells.

The immune system “detects” them as signals of Gram-negative bacterial infection, triggering an innate inflammatory immune response.

14 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins

specialnutrients.com

HOW DO ENDOTOXINS STIMULATE THE IMMUNE SYSTEM?

Endotoxins also activate the Complement system and trigger the blood coagulation

The “toxicity” associated with

system (Figure 2).

endotoxins is a result of the host’s

FEED

immune response. Endotoxins are recognized by the immune system as signals of an infection caused by Gram-negative bacteria, triggering an innate inflammatory immune

COMPLEMENT ACTIVATED

IMMUNE CELLS ENDOTOXIN

COAGULATION

response.

Even minimal amounts of endotoxins (<1ug) in the bloodstream, which is typically sterile, can induce a

mycotoxins

significant inflammatory response.

Immune cells, such as macrophages and monocytes, have surface receptors known as Toll-like receptors 4 (TLR4),

Inflammatory gene expression TNFα, IL-6, IL-1, Lipid mediators (PAF)

INFLAMMATION

Figure 2. Endotoxins found in animal feed can activate the host’s immune system, leading to an inflammatory response that can potentially harm tissues and organs, ultimately leading to animal death.

which recognize endotoxins.

The attachment of the endotoxin to TLR4 triggers a series of

This further stimulates inflammatory

cellular signaling events that

responses, allowing a rapid activation of

result in gene expression and the

the innate immune system to combat any

synthesis of proteins that induce an

bacteria before the infection progresses

inflammatory response:

too far.

Cytokines: Interleukin 6 (IL-6) and

Nevertheless, the strong

TNFα.

inflammatory response must be

Inflammatory mediators: Plate-

regulated and “switched off” to

let-activating factor (PAF) and

prevent harm to the host.

Interleukin 1 (IL-1).

16 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins

HOW ARE ENDOTOXINS DETECTED? Throughout evolution, the response to This balance is achieved by producing

endotoxins has been preserved, bestowing

anti-inflammatory mediators,

our ancestors with a survival advantage in a

such as interleukin 10 receptor

world full of Gram-negative pathogens.

antagonists and interleukin 1 receptor antagonists, along with proteins that bind to endotoxins, like lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP).

Additionally, immune cells such

In fact, a response to endotoxins has been observed in ancient marine creatures like the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus), which has been on Earth for millions of years (Levin and Bang, 1968).

as macrophages and neutrophils can help eliminate endotoxins by the lipid A portion of the endotoxin molecule.

The liver also plays an important role in this process.

The identification of an immune clotting response to endotoxins in horseshoe crabs paved the way for the creation of a remarkably sensitive test to detect bacterial endotoxins. This test utilizes the blood cells (amebocytes) of these organisms and is known as the Limulus

mycotoxins

producing enzymes that degrade

Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) test (Figure 3).

In the event of a substantial influx of endotoxins into the bloodstream or their delayed

ENDOTOXINA

clearance, the inflammatory response may intensify, causing a “cytokine storm” that overwhelms the regulatory capacity of anti-inflammatory mechanisms. This can result in damage to the host’s tissues and organs.

This condition is known as sepsis and can lead to a high mortality rate.

As a result, the presence of endotoxins in the bloodstream can be fatal, and measures must be taken to minimize their entry.

Figura 3. illustrates the principle of the LAL test, which is utilized to detect bacterial endotoxins. In this process, endotoxins from Gram-negative bacteria bind and activate Factor C in Limulus amebocytes, initiating a series of enzyme reactions that culminate in the formation of a blood clot (coagulin). The addition of a chromogenic substrate enables the reaction to produce a colored product.

C FACTOR

ACTIVATED C FACTOR

ENZYMES OF THE COAGULATION CASCADE

COAGULIN CHROMOGENIC SUBSTRATE

COLORED PRODUCT

17 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins

Nevertheless, intestinal injuries, a diet The LAL test is a standard procedure in the

rich in fats, pharmacological treatments,

pharmaceutical industry, ensuring that all

infections, or immaturity (e.g., neonates)

medications and medical devices, including

can facilitate the translocation of

pacemakers, catheters, and other invasive

endotoxins through the membrane and

instruments, are free from endotoxin

into the systemic circulation.

contamination. This stringent testing is essential as the inadvertent introduction of endotoxins into the human body could trigger

In animals, impairment of intestinal

potentially fatal immune reactions (sepsis)

barrier function is also a concern, and

(Abate et al., 2020).

stress in pigs or subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) in cattle can facilitate the entry of endotoxins into the bloodstream, resulting in pathological

Molendotech Limited researchers have created a modified LAL

mycotoxins

test capable of analyzing environmental samples to detect endotoxin levels, including bacterial or fecal contamination in water, food, and animal feed.

consequences.

Low doses of endotoxins have been shown to induce SARA symptoms, including inflammation, decreased ruminal pH, and alterations in the microbiota (Jing et al., 2014).

Therefore, inhalation or ingestion of endotoxins can trigger severe disease in young animals.

Gram-negative bacteria, particularly

HOW CAN ENDOTOXINS ENTER THE BLOODSTREAM? The intestine is a massive reservoir of

E. coli, are extensively utilized in recombinant technology for producing feed additives such as amino acids and vitamins.

Gram-negative bacteria and consequently contains large amounts of endotoxins that can enter the bloodstream through intestinal absorption.

The body has developed

If endotoxins from contaminated

compartmentalization as a protective

bacteria enter the additives, it may

mechanism to prevent excessive

pose a risk to both animals and

amounts of endotoxins from entering the

workers handling the additives, as

bloodstream.

well as consumers.

18 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins

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workers exposed to inhaled endotoxins

CAN MYCOTOXINS INFLUENCE THE RESPONSE TO ENDOTOXINS?

from poultry house dust or other sources

Mycotoxins are toxins produced by fungi

present clinical symptoms, including

(molds) that grow on crops or feed

decreased lung function (Health Council of

ingredients during storage. They can cause

the Netherlands, 2010).

a range of adverse health effects and pose

It has been documented, for example, that

a serious threat to the health of humans and livestock.

Mycotoxins commonly found in feed While farm animals are consistently exposed to endotoxins from their

include aflatoxins, zearalenone, T2 toxin, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxin A.

mycotoxins

environment, including feed, diets with elevated endotoxin levels

Feeds contaminated with mycotoxins

carry a risk. Even small doses that

and endotoxins lead to the

manage to cross the intestinal

simultaneous presence of both

barrier can lead to serious diseases

substances in the gastrointestinal tract

(Mani et al., 2013).

of production animals. Studies have revealed that this combined presence exerts synergistic adverse effects on

Hence, it is prudent to restrict the inclusion of feed ingredients

animal health, causing subsequent economic impacts.

containing endotoxins in animals with compromised gastrointestinal barrier function (Wallace et al., 2016).

Animals are also expected to react to inhaled endotoxins present in feed and poultry dust similarly to human workers.

However, there are few studies on animal

As mentioned earlier, an intact intestinal barrier is crucial to reducing the incorporation of endotoxins into the bloodstream and preventing their inflammatory consequences.

exposure to inhaled endotoxins, and

Furthermore, a well-functioning immune

exposure limits are uncertain.

system and liver play a crucial role in regulating the level of endotoxins in the bloodstream.

Mycotoxins damage the intestinal epithelium, allowing more intestinal contents, including endotoxins, to enter the bloodstream.

20 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins

Additionally, mycotoxins impact the functioning of immune cells and cause liver damage, resulting in heightened inflammatory responses and reduced

HOW CAN WE MITIGATE THE PRESENCE OF ENDOTOXINS AND MYCOTOXINS IN ANIMAL FEED?

elimination mechanisms for endotoxins (Figure 4).

Thus, mycotoxins present in animal feeds act synergistically with endotoxins, causing severe

In order to mitigate the effects of

consequences for the health of animals

endotoxins and mycotoxins in feeds,

that consume contaminated feeds.

it is essential to treat them with

Young animals, especially during

substances that can bind and remove

the weaning phase, are particularly

these molecules (Boyacioglu, 2019), and

vulnerable (Wallace et al., 2016).

it is crucial to validate their efficacy in eliminating endotoxins.

Detoxification mechanisms

Liver

Endotoxin

Gut epithelium barrier

Mycotoxin

mycotoxins

Additionally, feed samples can undergo

Immune cells

testing to assess the presence of Gram-negative bacteria and endotoxins.

Tests for various mycotoxins do exist, but they tend to be more complex. However, there are promising developments in the pipeline, and soon, general screening for fungal contamination should become more accessible with the availability of new tests.

Endotoxin

Figure 4. Mycotoxins affect immune cells and the liver, hindering the production of endotoxin detoxification enzymes and other anti-inflammatory molecules. They can also alter the intestinal epithelial barrier, which typically prevents the entry of endotoxins into the bloodstream.

Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins

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21 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins

COMPANION ANIMAL NUTRITION AT THE AMERICAN ANIMAL SCIENCE MEETING

pet nutrition

Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón North Carolina State University

T

he annual meeting of the American Society of Animal Science

was held between July 16 and 20 at the Albuquerque Convention Center in New Mexico. This annual scientific event brings many

animal nutrition sessions, among many other topics such as breeding, genetics and genomics, precision livestock farming and management, health, growth and development, physiology and reproduction, teaching, training, and extension.

22 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting

These presentations covered a great variety of topics that included: Feeding and weight control Amino acid digestibility and metabolism Evaluation of feedstuffs and pet food products Alternative ingredients, including insect food Trace mineral and vitamin nutrition Fiber utilization are sections for ruminant and monogastric nutrition.

Methodologies to determine energy and digestibility values for pet food

However, in the past years, the

Impact of diverse feed additives on gut

companion animal nutrition section has

health

been growing. This year, four sessions were dedicated to companion animals, and nutrition was the primary focus.

Additionally, 30 posters were presented on topics related to pet food.

pet nutrition

In animal nutrition, there

Governmental regulations, pet owner consumer trends Implications of processing and handling on the functionality of plant and animalderived products for pet food

This meeting delved into numerous captivating aspects of companion animal nutrition. Yet, given our article's space constraints, we've opted to summarize specific papers focused on amino acid digestibility, requirements, and metabolism, due to the importance of these nutrients for dogs and cats.

23 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting

AMINO ACID DIGESTIBILITY FOR PET FOOD INGREDIENTS Estimating the amino acid digestibility of protein sources for pet foods is challenging. Nutritional research in companion animals has many limitations compared to farm animals. Precisionfed customized rooster assays are used to obtain digestibility since correlations between rooster and dog data are high, r = 0.90 for total essential amino acids and r = 0.92 for total amino acids. These data are used to estimate the digestible indispensable amino acid score or DIAASlike values. These DIAAS values provide

pet nutrition

the amino acid quality of food proteins based on ileal digestibility studies rather than total tract digestibility, and values for each amino acid may be calculated.

This is the formula used to estimate DIAAS-like (%)

DIAAS-like (%) =

100 x mg of digestible AA in 1 g of the dietary protein mg of the same AA in 1 g of reference protein

Pigs are recognized as an

the amino adequacy of the meal may be

appropriate model to determine

calculated.

DIAAS for human food proteins, and rooster digestibility data is currently the model for pet food. Considering that digestibility values for amino acids in individual food proteins are additive in mixed meals, DIAAS values for mixed meals may be calculated. By comparing the DIAAS values of mixed meals to the requirements for digestible indispensable amino acids,

DIAAS-like calculations estimate the protein quality of each ingredient. The limiting amino acid of each ingredient is identified using references like the National Research Council, 2006, NRC; the Association of American Feed Control Officials, AAAFCO, or the European Pet Food Industry, FEDIAF, for each life stage (growing, adult) and species (dog, cat).

24 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting

A research group from the University of Illinois led by Dr. Patricia Massae used this technique to evaluate the digestibility of amino acids in the microbial protein (MP) produced by Calysta (https://calysta.com/) for pet food.

Dr. Van Straten from Alberta also presented a study to evaluate the apparent total tract

Their study also included an

digestibility (ATTD) of extruded vegetarian

evaluation of corn gluten meal,

dog foods in pigs and adult dogs. There were

chicken meal, pea protein, and

two diets: low protein containing 24% crude

black soldier fly larvae as a reference.

protein, including 35% field pea flour and 15% lentil flour, and high

In this study, corn gluten meal had the highest amino acid digestibilities. However, the MP

protein containing 43% crude protein,

evaluated had digestibilities higher than 85%

including 50% pea

for all indispensable amino acids. The lysine

protein concentrate

digestibility of MP was 92.3%, higher than all other ingredients. The MP tryptophan

and 20% lentil protein concentrate.

gluten meal and pea protein. Methionine was a limiting amino acid for MP. In conclusion, the MP is a highly digestible, high-quality protein source for companion animal diets in almost all life stages evaluated. However, to estimate additional potential effects, palatability, stool quality, and other health outcomes should be evaluated in dogs and cats.

pet nutrition

digestibility was 97.2%, higher than corn One of the objectives of this project was to compare the digestibility of both species. The results indicated that pigs have higher digestibility than dogs.

The prediction for ATTD of organic matter was R2 = 0.90 and R2 = 0.89 for crude protein.

Consequently, pig digestibility values can be used to predict dog digestibility.

In the same study, an enzyme blend containing four enzymes: phytase (12-17 thousand U/kg of diet), cellulose (480-510 thousand U/kg of diet), xylanase (360-680 thousand U/kg of diet), and protease (960-1,360 thousand U/ kg of diet), was added to both diets before and after extrusion. The addition of enzymes did not increase the digestibility of these dog foods. Still, it did reduce fecal quality, increasing moisture and impacting fecal metabolites, increasing acetate, propionate, glucose, and xylose.

25 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting

pet nutrition

AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS AND UTILIZATION

For example, tryptophan and tyrosine are

Dr. Julia Pezzali from Iowa State discussed

anxiety-related and agonistic behavior

functional amino acids in dogs and cats and their implications for overall health and methods to assess requirements and utilization of sulfur amino acids. Amino acids have diverse roles beyond protein synthesis and may affect their behavior, cognitive capacity, feed intake control, activity, and health.

Dr. Julia Pezzali presenting functional amino acids in dogs and cats.

precursors of serotonin and catecholamines, respectively. They may reduce stress in dogs. The surplus of arginine may improve cognitive function in aging dogs, likely by enhancing nitric oxide synthesis.

Supplementation of branch-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) may also improve the ability of senior dogs to sustain cognitive performance during exercise.

Cognitive dysfunction in dogs could be related to amino acid deficiencies.

26 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting

In adult cats, phenylalanine may delay gastric emptying and promote satiety.

These effects could be interesting in controlling appetite and preventing feline obesity. On the other hand, low phenylalanine and tyrosine plasma levels due to low dietary intake can cause

pet nutrition

reddish hair coat in black cats.

Changes in hair color in black cats due to tyrosine and phenylalanine deficiency.

The DL-Methionine can help to acidify urine in cats and dogs, avoiding urinary stones. However, excess (1g DL-Methione/kg of body weight per day) can cause hemolytic anemia with a marked increase of methemoglobin (MetHb) concentration and Heinz-body formation in cats. Methionine excess can also cause hyperhomocysteinemia with the same harmful implications in cardiovascular disease, some brain issues, and behavior changes observed in other animal species.

27 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting

Based on this information, it is clear that estimating optimum levels of methionine for dogs and cats

pet nutrition

is critical. Dr. Pezzali discussed this topic in her second presentation. The metabolism of the four

Unlike dogs, cats cannot

sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine, cysteine,

further metabolize cysteine to

homocysteine, and taurine is highly related.

taurine, making the latter an

Methionine can be used in protein synthesis or to produce homocysteine, which can be remethylated

indispensable amino acid for the cat.

to methionine or irreversibly catabolized to cysteine. The differences in metabolic pathways can be observed in Figure 1.

Figure 1. General pathway of taurine synthesis in the liver from sulphur amino acids. The activities of the enzymes cysteine dioxygenase and cysteinesulphinic acid decarboxylase are low in cats, which severely restricts synthesis of taurine.

Cysteine is largely metabolised to pyruvate, which provides an energy substrate whereas taurine cannot be oxidised by cats.-KG,ketoglutarate; GLU, glutamate.

28 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting

Dr. Pezzali presented the results of her research using amino acid oxidation while feeding practical Cats have a greater need for sulfur

experimental diets to

amino acids due to differences in

estimate the methionine

their metabolism.

requirements.

Applying this technique, her research team observed higher methionine requirements

Felidae family use methionine and cysteine to produce a unique sulfur amino acid called felinine. Felinine is synthesized in the liver and is excreted in the urine of all cats but is found in the highest concentration in the urine of adult, intact males. The urine of intact tomcats contains felinine concentrations up to six-fold greater than those found in castrated males and intact females. Male intact cats may have a greater requirement for the sulfur amino acids than sterilized female and male cats.

for adult cats, Labrador, and Beagle dogs, but not for Dachshunds, compared to the recommendations proposed by the NRC

pet nutrition

1 First, cats and other members of the

(2006) and AAFCO (2023). These results and others recently published also indicate differences in sulfur amino acid metabolism among dog breeds. Under specific dietary conditions, these changes can make taurine indispensable for some dog breeds.

Julia highlighted the need to standardize methodologies to investigate the effects of nutritional factors on the metabolism of sulfur amino acids.

2 Second, felines need to maintain a thick hair coat and have a higher need for methylation reactions during a higher rate of phospholipid synthesis than other mammalians. Increased phospholipid synthesis in cats could be necessary to absorb and transport the high-fat level usually included in a cat’s diet. Lastly, the cat’s requirement for

Several other research contributions presented at this event have significant practical applications, and we encourage our readers to review them in the Journal of Animal Science or to attend the next Animal Science meeting in Calgary in July 21-25, 2024.

dietary taurine increases the need for sulfur amino acids.

Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting

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29 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting

DEVELOPEMENTS, IMPLICATIONS, AND CONSTRAINTS OF

LOW-CRUDE-PROTEIN DIETS IN SWINE FARMING Maykelly da Silva Gomes, Jansller Luiz Genova, Gabriel Cipriano Rocha

Nutrients

Federal University of Viçosa

Introduction Feeding programs in pig production are usually divided into three phases: nursery, growth, and finishing (Rostagno et al., 2017). In each of these phases, it is essential to provide an adequate supply of dietary crude protein (CP) to meet the requirements for essential amino acids and nitrogen (N) for non-essential amino acid synthesis (van Milgen and Dourmad, 2015).

30 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming

Consequently, the emphasis has shifted

Experimental studies have shown that

towards supplying a comprehensive

even lower levels of CP can be achieved

array of amino acids rather than solely

by supplementing amino acids such as

focusing on CP, as this approach is

Histidine, Leucine, and Phenylalanine.

more widely acknowledged (Millet et al., 2018).

Nonetheless, excessively low levels of crude protein can adversely impact swine performance due to the reduction of non-essential amino acids, intact protein, and essential

five essential amino acids

bioactive compounds such as peptides and isoflavones in the diet.

(Lysine, Methionine, Threonine,

Indeed, altering the CP level in the

Tryptophan, and Valine) are

diet, even while keeping the ideal

being utilized, enabling the

ratios of essential amino acids with

formulation of diets with

Lys, has shown negative effects on

reduced CP levels.

Moreover, the inclusion of the amino acid Isoleucine in diets depends on its economic value and the specific feeding program.

swine performance.

Nutrients

Presently, in swine nutrition,

The objective of this review is to examine the advancements and consequences of low-crude-protein diets that are wellbalanced for all essential amino acids and assess their influence on swine performance.

Methionine

31 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming

Benefits and Limitations of Low-Crude-Protein Diets ndpoint:

From a performance sta

of low-CrudeThe economic efficiency depending on Protein diets can vary the animals ingredient prices and how respond to the diet. ts have wellLow-crude-protein die al benefits due to established environment ion. reduced nitrogen excret rotein diets Balanced low-crude-p ential amino acids supplemented with ess enhance intestinal have been employed to health in swine.

Nutrients

of soybean Through the reduction e-protein diets meal content, low-crud of indigestible exhibit decreased levels e and raffinose) carbohydrates (stachyos (glycinin and and antigenic proteins known as β-conglycinin), which are antinutritional factors. rotein diets Additionally, low-crude-p l to reduce the may have the potentia nic bacteria and proliferation of pathoge stinal tract, including toxins in the gastrointe es. ammonia and polyamin

However, some studies have reported a decline in swine performance when decreasing the CP level in the diet, even when the diets were balanced for essential amino acids.

While research has focused on ensuring sufficient provision of essential amino acids, the literature provides explanations for the detrimental effects on swine performance when low-crude-protein diets are employed.

32 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming

The synthesis of non-essential amino acids from essential ones may pose a limiting factor in swine performance when utilizing low-crude-protein diets (Peng et al., 2016).

Pigs fed low-crude-protein diets have exhibited decreased blood levels of non-essential amino acids, especially Arg, Gln, Glu, and Pro (Zhang et al., 2013).

As a result, certain non-essential

Additionally, the supplementation of industrial amino acids allows for the reduction of protein sources like soybean meal, which contains biologically active compounds such as isoflavones, saponins, and bioactive peptides that are essential for maintaining performance (Rochell et al., 2015).

Furthermore, bioactive peptides have been suggested to possess antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities (Hou et al., 2017).

amino acids may become functionally essential and, thus, deficient in low-Crude-Protein diets.

Under such circumstances,

Nutrients

supplementing these nonessential amino acids may be necessary to maintain swine health and growth.

Hence, when formulating low CP diets, it is essential to consider a minimum CP level to prevent the restriction of other nutrients that could become deficient if CP is reduced below a certain level.

Meta analysis Due to discrepancies in the literature and the practical implications for swine formulation strategies, a meta-analysis was conducted to determine the minimum CP level that would not compromise swine growth performance.

A database was co mpiled from 46 publi cations, comprising a total of 60 experiments. Th e primary criteria used to select articles we re as follows: Assessment of vario us levels of crude pro tein.

Comparable standard ized ileal digestible lysine (SID Lys) and metabolizable energ y (ME) between contr ol and low-crude-prot ein treatments.

Ensuring all essentia l amino acids in the diet met or surpassed the ideal ratio with Lys (NRC, 2012).

Clearly documented

performance outco

34 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming

mes.

The meta-analysis study utilized the NLIMIXED procedure of SAS (SAS, Inc., Cary, NC, USA) and employed a nonlinear statistical model.

1 Nursery phase According to NRC (2012) and Brazilian

The suggested minimum CP level for

Tables (Rostagno et al., 2017), a corn

nursery pig diets is lower than the levels

and soybean meal-based diet for 7 kg

recommended by NRC (2012) and

body weight pigs typically contains

Brazilian Tables (Rostagno et al., 2017),

approximately 20.5% CP.

suggesting that CP levels lower than

According to the current metaanalysis, the estimated breakpoint for

those provided in the Tables can be used for diet formulation in this phase.

CP was 18.4%, below which average

Moreover, the study also estimated

daily gain (ADG) would be reduced.

the highest levels of industrial

Taking into account feed efficiency,

lysine that could be supplemented

the estimated level was 18.3% CP.

without compromising ADG and feed

Nutrients

efficiency, which were 0.42% and 0.43% L-lysine, respectively.

This is equivalent to 0.54% L-lysine HCl (78.8% purity) or 0.71% L-lysine sulfate (60.0% purity).

The utilization of the SID Lys:CP ratio can serve as a reliable indicator of the degree of CP reduction (Millet et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2019).

By considering the SID Lys:CP ratio, it was determined that 6.6% is the upper threshold beyond which both average daily gain (ADG) and feed efficiency would be compromised.

35 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming

Nutrients

Lysine

2 Growth phase

In contrast to the nursery phase, diets in the growth phase are formulated with a lower crude protein level.

According to the statistical model used in

For a similar phase, NRC (2012) and Brazilian

the current meta-analysis:

Tables (Rostagno et al., 2017) suggest 15.7% and 18.9% CP, respectively. The result found in the present study falls within these CP ranges.

In the growth phase, it is possible to decrease the CP (crude protein) content to levels of 16.1% and 16.3% without negatively impacting ADG (average daily gain) and feed efficiency.

During the growth phase, it was challenging to establish a specific point for L-lysine supplementation breakpoint or the SID Lys: CP ratio’s influence on performance. However, the average highest level of L-lysine supplementation during this phase reached 0.42, which corresponds to 0.53% L-lysine HCl or 0.70% L-lysine sulfate supplementation.

36 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming

3 Finishing phase Protein is an expensive nutrient, and

These levels are within the range

due to the increased feed intake in the

recommended by NRC (2012) for pigs in

finishing phase, nutrient utilization

the first (12.1% CP) and second (10.5%

efficiency directly impacts production

CP) finishing phases, likely due to the

costs.

consideration of both phases in our

As per the Tables (NRC, 2012;

model.

Rostagno et al., 2017), a diet for the

On the other hand, the suggested

initial finishing phase (70 to 100 kg)

levels are lower than the

can be formulated with around 12.3%

recommendations provided by the

CP, whereas a diet for the second

Brazilian Tables (Rostagno et al., 2017)

finishing phase (100 kg to slaughter)

for pigs in the finishing phase.

with approximately 11.0% CP, all the while maintaining the suggested concentration of essential amino acids.

Thus, lower CP levels than those recommended in the Brazilian Tables (Rostagno et al., 2017) can be used without compromising

Nutrients

zootechnical performance.

Taking into account the average daily Aligned with this, the statistical model indicated that reducing the CP level by as much as 11.6% and 11.4% wouldn’t lead

gain (ADG), it is possible to supplement up to 0.24% L-lysine, which is equivalent to 0.30% L-lysine HCl or 0.40% L-lysine sulfate supplementation.

to any compromise in terms of ADG and feed efficiency, correspondingly.

37 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming

Conclusions In conclusion, there is a minimum level of crude protein that compromises swine performance, even when diets are balanced for all essential amino acids.

Evidently, there exists a critical threshold of CP below which non-essential amino acids, bioactive compounds, and other nutrients become limiting factors.

Based on the meta-analysis, considering ADG and

Nutrients

feed efficiency, the minimum crude protein levels were estimated as follows: 18.4% and 18.3% for nursery pigs, 16.1% and 16.3% for growth, and 11.6% and 11.4% for finishing pigs, respectively.

Furthermore, it was estimated that the highest levels of L-lysine (100% purity) to be supplemented without compromising performance were 0.42% in the nursery phase and 0.24% in the finishing phase. Additionally, a maximum supplementation level of 0.42% L-lysine is suggested for growing pigs.

Finally, the study revealed that a SID Lys:CP ratio of 6.6% is the point at which ADG and feed efficiency of nursery pigs are compromised.

Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming

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This report is based on the article “Rocha, G. C., Duarte, M. E., & Kim, S. W. (2022). Advances, Implications, and Limitations of Low-CrudeProtein Diets in Pig Production. Animals, 12(24), 3478.”

38 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PIG FARMING:

YET ANTOHER EXAMPLE THAT WE CAN

ONLY IMPROVE WHAT WE MEASURE!

sustainability

Pig farming in the context of global food demands Meeting the rising global food demand is undoubtedly one of the greatest challenges we will face in the coming decades. The productive sector (including agriculture and livestock) will need to feed an increasingly larger population without compromising the ability of future generations to meet

Ines Andretta Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. ines.andretta@ufrgs.br

However, there is still room for improvement when it comes to environmental sustainability.

In this regard the old saying “we can only improve what we measure”, becomes truly relevant.

their own needs.

In other words, the development of sustainable agri-food systems is a mandatory requirement. Pig farming already demonstrates high levels of performance and plays a crucial social role in ensuring food security for the planet.

40 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!

How to assess environmental impacts?

Every product has some level of

The environmental impacts of pig farming

environmental impact, whether it is

have generally been analyzed in isolation (e.g.,

associated with its production process,

focusing on the animal) or limited to direct

the raw materials it consumes, or its

associations (e.g., emissions in the animal’s

use and final disposal. In the case of

environment).

pig farming, a finished animal ready for slaughter is obtained after a long chain of

These indicators are useful when the chain’s pollutant emissions have a local

events and phases (crop harvesting, grain transportation, farrow-to-wean, feeder pig

environmental effect and are often used to

or nursery, finishing, breeding stock, and

assess the emission of substances such as:

farrow-to-finish, etc.). In each stage of this production chain, energy is consumed, and pollutants are generated.

nitrates

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a widely

sustainability

ammonia

recognized tool in the context of global phosphates

environmental impact analyses.

This technique permits the assessment of a particular system (be it a

However, pig farming is a complex chain,

service or a product) through a

and therefore, environmental impacts

systematic analysis of the flows and

can be better understood through

environmental consequences linked to

multidisciplinary approaches that consider

its complete life cycle ( (“from cradle

its entire production cycle.

to grave” - from the initial stages to its eventual disposal), under the

Global assessment techniques generate

premise that each source or unit of

more representative environmental

energy utilized within the system

indicators as they consider not only

carries an environmental impact.

the direct impacts of the activity but also the emissions associated with the raw materials used throughout the production chain.

41 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!

Throughout the analysis, all

Life cycle assessment can be employed to

noteworthy emissions or

pinpoint areas within the chain that hold

energy consumptions across

potential for enhancement in terms of

the life cycle are combined and

environmental sustainability. Furthermore,

represented in relation to the

it can serve as a proactive tool for aiding

selected functional unit (e.g.,

decision-making and strategic planning.

1 ton of feed or 1 ton of pig; as

This, in turn, aids in diminishing the impact

illustrated in Figure 1).

stemming from the production of goods of

Transport

sustainability

societal significance, such as meat production.

Soybean crops

Production of other ingredients

Feed production

Processing

Corn crops

Piglet production

Nursery

Growth & finishing Waste management

Energy, seeds, machinery, fertilizers, pesticides, and other substances.

Emissions to air, soil, and water

Functional unit: 1 ton of live pigs ready for slaughter

Figure 1. Illustration of stages encompassed within a life cycle analysis

42 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!

LCA applied to pig farming A systematic literature review was recently

Argentina

1

conducted (Andretta et al., 2021; DOI: 10.3389/

Brazil

8

Spain

6

France

5

China

4

other categories of environmental impact,

Denmark

3

such as:

Netherlands

3

Belgium

2

Canada

2

Cuba

2

fvets.2021.750733), which identified 55 studies applying life cycle assessment to pig farming (Figure 2). In addition to the potential for climate change, LCA studies also considered

Eutrophication Acidification Energy use Land use

Germany

2

Italy

2

Japan

2

Sweeden

2

USA

2

Greece

1

Norway

1

Portugal

1

UK

1

Figure 2. Countries whose pig production systems were investigated in life cycle analysis studies.

Changes in feeding practices (diet

sustainability

composition or feeding programs) were studied in 25% of the articles. This is because the relative contribution of feed production (which includes the life cycle, manufacturing, and transportation of each ingredient) is quite high, accounting for up to 76% of the total potential climate change impact associated with swine

Contribution of feed to the total impact, %

production (Figure 3).

100 75 50 25 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 29 3 Available studies

Figure 3. Relative impact of feeding on the total climate change potential associated with pig production in various scientific articles

43 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!

Contribution of feed to the total impact, %

28 29 29 30 31 32 32 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 Available studies

sustainability

Figure 3. Relative impact of feeding on the total climate change potential associated with pig production in various scientific articles

In a context where most of the ingredients

The prevalent instance of this cross-

used for feed production have global markets,

continental impact distribution, as discussed

it is important to highlight that the impacts

in the previously mentioned studies,

associated with a particular product are

revolves around the use of imported

practically shared among several countries

soybeans from South America, with Brazil

involved in international trade.

being the primary source (making up 49% of the studies).

Under such scenario, it is possible to infer that part of the impacts associated with swine production in China or Europe also occur in Brazil. Considering that the South American country is one of the major producers of this main ingredient for pig diets.

44 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!

Feed composition in terms of the

Feeding practices as mitigation tools

ingredients, is also a way to reduce nutrient excretion and, consequently, the composition of waste. Hence, the selection of ingredients demands careful consideration,

The environmental sustainability of

concentrating not solely on their source but

pig farming is closely linked to the

also on the nutritional value of the product.

optimization of feeding practices.

Strategies that reduce nutrient excretion are crucial for mitigating As a result, numerous strategies can

environmental impact.

be recommended to mitigate this these strategies revolves around the transportation of ingredients and feeds.

The geographical separation between the feed ingredient production site and their intended utilization can be regarded as a significant factor influencing the choice (or substitution) of ingredients.

sustainability

environmental impact. A portion of Several examples could be cited here, such as the use of: Exogenous enzymes Synthetic amino acids that partially replace traditional protein ingredients Diets with lower levels of crude protein and minerals This discussion is common when it comes to economic impacts but is also extremely valid for environmental issues. Shorter distances betweeen producers and consumers, result in reduced transportation requirements, subsequently leading to decreased costs and emissions.

Modifying feed formulation methods and adopting precision feeding techniques are also very important tools in this context.

In more straightforward terms, precision feeding can be defined as the practice of supplying the appropriate quantity of feed with the correct composition, tailored to meetl the requirements of each animal within the herd.

45 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!

Each animal has unique growth and consumption characteristics, therefore, it is also unique in its nutritional

In the context of Brazil, a research

requirements. Furthermore, these

undertaken by Andretta et al. (2018;

requirements shift dynamically and, in a

DOI: 10.1017/S1751731117003159)

comprehensive framework of precision

demonstrated that substituting

nutrition, should be understood and

traditional feeding practices (where

addressed in “real-time.”

the same feed is given over multiple days) with daily feeding (involving daily adjustments of nutrient supply in diets)

Technological progress and the enhancement of scientific knowledge in this domain now enable the

could potentially curtail eutrophication impact by 4% and acidification impact by 3%.

customization of nutrient supply, precisely aligning it with the real-time nutritional requirements of the animals.

Mitigation was even greater (up to 6% for climate change and 5% for

sustainability

eutrophication and acidification) when the nutrition program was adjusted for Although these production models are still limited to research centers, the most recent results are quite promising.

In practical application, augmenting the number of phases can be regarded as a preliminary move towards precision feeding, alongside the practice of rearing animals in more uniform groups.

each animal (daily and individually).

In both scenarios, the main advantage of precision feeding programs lies in the greater efficiency in nutrient utilization. In other words, the same amount of product (e.g., pig) is produced using fewer resources (e.g., lysine).

Even with the diversity observed across the studies existing in the literature, the role of feed in the overall impact of animal production holds substantial importance and warrants further emphasis within strategies aimed at mitigating environmental impact.

46 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!

sustainability

Final Considerations Pig farming has undergone substantial evolution, and numerous practices outlined in this text are already being implemented by nutritionists and producers.

Recognizing these environmental benefits, which encompass those already integrated into production systems, offers an alternative way to enhance the value of the production chain and acknowledge its strides toward sustainability.

Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!

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47 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!

FEED ADDITIVES AND THEIR

RELATIONSHIP WITH FATTY ACID

PROFILES IN POULTRY Gabriela Miotto Galli1, Aleksandro Schafer da Silva2 e Ines Andretta1 Department of Animal Science, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.

Department of Animal Science, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina-UDESC, Chapecó, SC, Brazil

1 2

BROILER PRODUCTION OVERVIEW phytogenics

The use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animal production has been the subject of numerous discussions over the past decade.

Taking into account that rising antimicrobial resistance, presents a major public health problem at a global scale. Under such context, the use of natural feed additives as antioxidants in poultry, represents a promising alternative for the improvement of fatty acid profiles in chickens.

The European Union banned the use of antimicrobial growth promoters in 2006. Following suit, Brazilian authorities established a partial ban on some of these drugs in 2018 and 2020.

Even under the context of AGP use during the ’70s, researchers already claimed that chicken meat was more prone to lipid oxidation compared to other meats (Gene and Pearson, 1979). Affecting its nutritional and sensory qualities.

In an effort to reduce the impact of oxidation, the animal feed industry has incorporated artificial antioxidants into feed formulations, with the goal of attaining nutraceutical benefits and extending the shelf life of meat products (Castañeda et al., 2005).

48 nutriNews International September 2023 | Feed additives and their relationship with fatty acid profiles in poultry

There are reports of carcinogenic effects associated with the use of synthetic antioxidants in humans. As a result, investigations have been conducted since the 1990s to assess natural antioxidants and their viability in substituting synthetic substances (Chen et al., 1992).

Phytogenics

As a result of the ban on conventional growth promoters in certain countries, alternative commercial products have come to the forefront:

Phytotherapeuticals

Herbal compounds to replace pharmaceutical products

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FEED ADDITIVES AND POULTRY MEAT Natural antioxidants are generally regarded as safe, thus being an alternative to synthetic antioxidants (Hang et al. , 2018).

In a study conducted by Daneshyar et al.

(2011), it was confirmed that incorporating turmeric into broiler diets led to reduced levels of saturated fatty acids (SFAs).

Particularly, this decrease was observed in palmitic acid and C18:1 n-7 (monounsaturated fatty acids – MUFAs) within the thigh muscles. This phenomenon can be attributed to a decline in the liver’s de novo synthesis of fatty acids.

phytogenics

Essential oils

This yields a positive impact by diminishing myristic and palmitic acids, which are linked with elevated levels of LDL cholesterol and, subsequently, the development of cardiovascular disease.

Upon introducing curcumin to the broilers’ diet, Hang et al. (2018) witnessed elevated proportions of linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) and total omega-six polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). As a result, an accumulation of linoleic acid in breast meat was noted.

Furthermore, over a span of three months of storage, no alterations were detected in omega-3 fatty acids like eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which is advantageous. This also underscores the protective effect that curcumin provides for these fatty acids.

49 nutriNews International September 2023 | Feed additives and their relationship with fatty acid profiles in poultry

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Regarding the poultry production cycle, it led to a decrease in the proportion of saturated fatty acids (SFA) present in breast meat (P = 0.001; Figure 1).

Conversely, there was an observed rise in the proportion of overall polyunsaturated fatty acids (P=0.001; Galli et al., 2020b).

Ciftci et al. (2010) found that cinnamon oil can increase the proportion of PUFAs and decrease the SFAs in chicken meat. This is due to the hypolipidemic properties of cinnamon oil.

The addition of glycerol monolaurate (GML) to the diet of chickens decreased the waterholding capacity of meat (Fortuoso et al., 2019), while chickens presented a lower lipid content in their meat (Valentini et al., 2019).

This study also demonstrated that the inclusion of 200 and 300 mg/kg of FFM in the diet can reduce the total number of saturated fatty acids while increasing the number of polyunsaturated fatty acids (Valentini et al. , 2019). Which is a desirable effect and property for meat consumers.

Consumption of phytogenics containing:

Thymol

Carvacrol

Cinnamaldehyde

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

a

P<0.001 CP FI

CN

b

b a

a

b

SFA Total fatty acid profile

PUFAs

phytogenics

In their study, Hashemipour et al. (2013) incorporated thymol and carvacrol into the chicken diet, resulting in reduced levels of saturated fatty acids (SFAs).

Simultaneously, they noticed a rise in omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids within the thigh region.

% of fatty acids in meat

!

Figure 1 illustrates the composition of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the meat of broilers. These broilers were provided with a basal ration (CN), a combination of antibiotic and coccidiostat (CP), and a phytogenic blend containing thymol, cinnamaldehyde, and carvacrol (FIT). Similar letters indicate no significant differences according to Tukey’s test (P > 0.05).

!

Additionally, it resulted in a decrease in the quantities of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). This was coupled with an elevation in the presence of the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) within breast meat (GALLI et al., 2020a; Figure 3). These findings indicate that the incorporation of curcumin acted as a safeguard against lipid peroxidation, preserving the integrity of fatty acids.

51 nutriNews International September 2023 | Feed additives and their relationship with fatty acid profiles in poultry

The addition of 100 mg/kg of curcumin in broiler diets reduced SFAs (P=0.05). It also increased PUFAs (P=0.02) compared to the group supplied with growth promoters (Galli et al., 2020a; Figure 2).

% of fatty acids in meat

CP

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

31,5a

30b

SFA

29

27,5b

Fatty acid profile

P<0.05 CU

PUFAs

phytogenics

Figure 2 displays the composition of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) within the meat of broilers. These broilers were provided with antibiotics, coccidiostat (CP), and curcumin (CU). Similar letters indicate no significant differences based on Tukey’s test (P > 0.05).

It is widely acknowledged that substances categorized as phytogenics, which encompass: Herbal extracts Fatty acids and various feed additives, possess the ability to modify the fatty acid composition within meat. However, the precise mechanism by which they accomplish this remains undisclosed.

There is a proposition that the decreased proportion of saturated fatty acids (SFA) within meat could stem from a decline in the liver’s de novo synthesis of fatty acids and/or an elevation in the activity of the lipogenic enzyme Δ 9-desaturase (stearoyl-CoA desaturase). This particular enzyme is recognized for its role in regulating fatty acid biosynthesis by converting saturated fatty acids into monounsaturated fatty acids (Poureslami et al., 2010).

As mentioned earlier, this aspect holds advantages, given that saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are accountable for elevating levels of LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream. This type of cholesterol conveys cholesterol from the liver to the veins, where it accumulates and contributes to the development of cardiovascular disease.

ROS, TBARS

SOD, tióis

antioxidant enzymes and shelf life.

Figure 3. The addition of curcumin reduced lipid peroxidation in meat, thereby mitigating the harm induced by reactive oxygen species in muscle tissue. This enhancement contributed to an extended shelf life and elevated quality of the end product.

Feed additives and their relationship with fatty acid profiles in poultry

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Feed additives lead to a rise in the proportion of overall polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) within meat. The likeliest reasoning behind this phenomenon is an augmented synthesis of desaturase enzymes A5, A6 (Mendoza et al., 2019), and A9 (Kumar et al., 2020), along with elongases.

Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids (FAs) hold advantageous implications for human well-being. Nutrition experts recommend and promote the intake of products that are rich in these specific fatty acid types. In turn, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) play a role in regulatory mechanisms within the cardiovascular and immune systems (GRASHORN, 2007). Additionally, they play a part in cell membrane synthesis and contribute to favorable impacts on skin, hair, and vision.

52 nutriNews International September 2023 | Feed additives and their relationship with fatty acid profiles in poultry

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NUTRITIONAL CHARACTERIZATION OF

PEAS AND THE EFFECTS OF

MICROWAVE DEACTIVATION

FOR ITS USE IN POULTRY

NUTRITION

raw materials

Iglesias BF1, Charrière MV1, Gaggiotti M2, Fain Binda V1, Chale J1, Prieto GM3.

1 Poultry Section, INTA-EEA Pergamino; 2 Forage Laboratory, INTA-EEA Rafaela; 3 AER Arroyo Seco, INTA-EEA Oliveros.

INTRODUCTION Feed accounts for approximately 55% of total production costs in poultry (Nahara, 2018). This sector currently faces a new and challenging scenario: rising prices of traditional ingredients.

In the last 24 montshs, International corn and soybean prices increased 88% and 57% respectively.

(IndexMundi, 2022).

This scenario has created the need to look for alternative ingredients that help reduce production costs.

54 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition

Their protein content is mainly composed of albumins and globulins. They are deficient in sulfur amino acids and tryptophan, but rich in lysine.

Peas, (Pisum sativum) represent a viable

The digestibility of protein and amino acids

alternative to be used as a replacement for

is similar to that of soybean meal. They

conventional ingredients in animal feed.

have low fat content and a high starch

Argentina’s INASE (National Seed Institute,

content (42-51%) (de Blas et al., 2019).

2022) has more than 87 registered

The most common cultivars in Argentina, are: Viper (green peas) and Yams (yellow peas) (Prieto, 2009).

Pea grains have the potential to be considered as ingredients for animal feed.

They are characterized by:

Generally speaking, legumes are characterized by the presence of anti-nutritional factors, such as: Trypsin inhibitors Phyto-hemaglutinins

raw materials

varieties.

Cyanogenic glycosides

High crude protein content (20-26%)

Saponins

Good palatability

Alkaloids

Low content of antinutritional factors

Non Protein Amino Acids (Cubero &

(Galméus, 2012; de Blas et al. , 2019).

Moreno, 1983; Monari, 1996), which negatively impact bird performance (Iglesias & Azcona, 2012).

Most of these anti-nutritional factors can be deactivated with heat (extrusion, steam and hot air). The application of heat treatments, such as the extrusion of peal meal, has been shown to improve starch digestibility in trout. (Burel et al., 2000).

A similar effect was achieved using microwaves at a laboratory level (Chale et al., 2017).

55 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition

Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) was also determined through the Goering and Van

OBJECTIVES

Soest method (1970), with the addition of α-amylase. Acid detergent fiber (ADF) was determined according to Van Soest

Characterize the nutritional composition of two different pea cultivars(green and yellow).

Assess the effects of microwave deactivation.

methodology(1963).

In addition, urease activity and trypsin inhibitors were measured.

To complement the chemical characterization, true metabolizable energy (TME) was determined (Sibbald, 1976), as well as its nitrogen correction

MATERIALS & METHODS

(TMEn), using 6 roosters per sample.

Pea samples were taken from the Viper

raw materials

and Yams cultivars, from the 2019 and 2020 campaigns grown in Argentina.

The following parameters were determined: Dry Matter Crude Protein (CP) through the

A 200 g sample of raw peas in the form of a monolayer was placed on a microwave

Kjeldahl method

dish with a 900 Watts

Ether Extract (EE) extracted through

at 70% power for different

the use of hexane

cooking times (0, 3, 5, 6,

Crude Fiber (CF)

power output. It was cooked

7 and 9 min), in 3 batches (repetitions) (Chale et al.,

Ashes

2017). This process was carried

Starch

microwave deactivation.

out to evaluate the effects of

A completely randomized design with 6 treatments and 3 repetitions each was employed.

56 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition

The analyses performed on the sample were: Dry matter Crude protein using the Kjeldahl method Urease activity (UA) Protein solubility (PS)

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Insoluble nitrogen in acid detergent (INAD) True metabolizable energy through the Sibbald method (1976). 3 roosters were used per repetition.

Nutritional Composition of Viper and Yams peas from the 2019

variance (ANOVA). When the degree of

and 2020 campaigns, as well as the pea

significance was less than 5%, the mean

values published on FEDNA tables (de

comparison was performed through the

Blas et al., 2019).

minimum significant differences test (Di Rienzo et al., 2020).

Viper

Table 1. Treatments Data standardized to 88% DM, except dry matter. GE: Gross energy; TME, True metabolizable energy; TMEn: True metabolizable energy corrected by nitrogen. *Source: (de Blas et al., 2019).

Yams

FEDNA *

Parameter (%)

2019

2020

2019

2020

2018

Dry matter

90,88

92,47

90,12

88,81

88,10

Crude protein

19,15

17,18

19,32

19,54

20,58

Ether extract

0,84

1,20

0,86

1,17

1,40

Ashes

3,02

2,58

2,77

2,70

2,80

Crude fiber

3,83

5,16

4,20

8,98

5,99

NDF

23,83

17,27

13,98

16,75

12,09

ADF

16,90

7,68

6,66

8,52

7,39

Starch

40,22

43,65

45,32

44,70

42,45

Calcium

0,20

0,49

0,12

0,53

0,08

Phosphorus

0,13

0,08

0,13

0,07

0,40

Urease Act. (▲pH)

0,04

0,07

0,05

0,07

Trypsin inhib. (UTI/mg)

1,32

0,79

1,10

1,76

CE (kcal/kg)

3883

3885

3884

3867

TME(kcal/kg)

2774

2816

2670

2821

TME/ CE

74,1

73,0

69,5

73,0

TMEn (kcal/kg)

2639

2655

2543

2548

TMEn / CE

68,0

68,9

66,2

65,9

57 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition

raw materials

Table 1 shows the composition results

The data was subjected to an analysis of

Although a statistical analysis was not carried out due to small number of samples; there were no significant differences between cultivars nor between campaigns.

The parameters that were most affected by the cultivar, as well as by the campaign, were those related to fiber.

Including: CF, NDF and ADF. In regards to EE, significant differences were only observed between campaigns, but this did not affect CE values.

raw materials

When comparing local cultivars with those tabulated by FEDNA (de Blas et al., 2019), the parameters which differed the most, were the same: CF, NDF,ADF and EE. However, the yellow variety (Yams) presented greater similarity to the values expressed on these tables.

Effect of microwave deactivation Table 2 shows the results of pea deactivation through the use of microwaves.

Table 2. Effect of microwave deactivation on chemical parameters.

Cooking time (min)

*Standardized data to 88% DM. MS: Dry matter;CP, Crude protein; UA, Urease activity; SP, KOH soluble protein 0.2%; ADIN: Acid detergent insoluble nitrogen. Means with different superscript differ statistically (p≤0.05).

DM

CP*

UA

SP

ADIN

%

%

▲pH

%

%

0

88,74f

24,05

0,06a

71,77a

2,19b

3

90,62e

22,56

0,04b

71,77a

3,74b

5

92,54d

23,67

0,03bc

55,62b

3,23b

6

c

94,14

25,03

cd

0,02

c

43,80

3,39b

7

95,01b

25,10

0,02cd

35,94d

4,93b

9

a

96,39

24,72

d

0,01

e

24,01

12,76a

Probability

<0,01

0,16

<0,01

<0,01

<0,01

Linear effect

<0,01

0,49

<0,01

<0,01

<0,01

Cuadratic effect

0,31

0,33

0,24

<0,01

<0,01

CV (%)

0,4

3,9

26,8

8,2

38,0

58 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition

the sample's humidity decreased.

This lead to a linear increase in

Table 3. Effects of microwave deactivation on energy parameters.

DM percentag (p≤0.05) as it was expected.Whereas, the percentage

Cooking time (min)

TME

TME / CE

kcal/kg

%

0

2738cd

70,63b

3

2793cd

72,06b

5

2942a

75,54a

In regards to urease activity, a linear

6

ab

2901

74,12ab

effect was found due to cooking

7

2812bc

71,93bc

time (p≤0.05). This also occurred for

9

d

2702

68,69d

Probability

<0,01

<0,01

of protein standardized to 88% DM was not affected by the cooking time (p>0.05).

SP in KOH. However, a quadratic effect was

Linear effect

0,85

0,53

also found for this last parameter

Cuadratic effect

<0,01

<0,01

CV (%)

2,2

2,0

(p≤0.05.), This could be due to the lack of differences between 0 and 3 min of cooking (p>0.05).

Meanwhile, this value decreased significantly with a cooking

raw materials

As the cooking time increases,

Effect of microwave deactivation on energy parameters. Standardized data to 88% of DM. TME: True metabolizable energy; GE: Gross energy.

9 Means with different superscripts, differ statistically (p≤0.05).

time of 5 minutes (p≤0.05), and continued to do so in each of the subsequent times that were evaluated (6, 7 and 9 min).

In the case of ADIN, there was a quadratic response (p≤0.05).

However this parameter proved to be less sensitive, considering that a significant difference was only found after 9 min of cooking (p≤0.05).

Table 3 shows the energy values according to the different cooking times.

59 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition

Regarding the energy analysis, as the

Improvements were observed in energy parameters (+204 kcal/kg in TME and +4.9 percentage points in TME/CE, after 5 min of cooking).

cooking time increased, the sample’s TME increased significantly (p≤0.05), reaching a maximum at 5 min of cooking time (+204 kcal / kg with respect to crude oil)/ Similar to what

This may not only be due to the deactivation of the antinutritional factors, but also due to other effects like the denaturation of protein and starch chains. Which makes them less refractory to enzymatic action (Kakade et al., 1973).

happens with the use of GE (TME / GE), which evidenced a clear quadratic response for these parameters (p≤0, 05,

Table 3 and Figure 1).

A similar situation was observed with soybeans, but the time needed to achieve optimal microwave deactivation was 6 min (Chale et al.,

raw materials

2017).

78

3000

76 2900

74

TME (kcal/kg)

70

2700

68 66

2600

64

2500 2400

TME / CE (%)

72

2800

62 0

1

2

3

4 5 6 Cooking Time (min)

7

8

9

10

60

TME

Figure 1. Effect of microwave pea deactivation on true ME and gross energy utilization.

TME / CE

60 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition

CONCLUSIONS Nutritional characterization of peas No major differences were found between pea cultivars, nor between crop campaigns (2019 and 2020). The parameters that varied the most were CF, NDF and ADF.

raw materials

Effects of microwave deactivation Although peas have low levels of antinutritional factors, a beneficial effect was found when applying a thermal process using microwaves. It was established that the best results for TME and GE use, were achieved with a cooking time of 5 min at 70% power in a microwave of 900 watts.

Bibliography available upon request

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61 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition

A DIETARY BLEND OF ESSENTIAL OILS AND POLYPHENOLS TO REDUCE METHANE EMISSION IN SMALL RUMINANTS

feed additives

Alberto Stanislao Atzori Dipartimento di Agraria, Sezione di Scienze Zootecniche, Università di Sassari, viale Italia 39, 07100 Sassari, Sardinia, Italy

Introduction Decreasing the emission of enteric methane

Methane production in the rumen fulfills

(CH4) by ruminants is crucial because it

these animals’ basic physiological needs by

represents a significant contributor to global

maintaining the ruminal environment’s redox

warming. Most Archaea bacteria that reside in

potential (Moss, 2002).

the rumen produce CH4 by aerobic catabolism of carbohydrates, and the fermentation byproducts of other microbes in the rumen also contribute to methane production.

62 nutriNews International September 2023 | A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants

The fermentation of the organic matter of

Some of these additives are hydrogen

feed is responsible for about 90% of the CH4

acceptors, such as polyunsaturated

produced in the rumen (Murray et al., 1976), and

fatty acids and nitrates, which decrease

Archaea reduce CO2 to CH4 using electrons

the level of electrons needed for

derived from hydrogen (Hook et al., 2010; Nolan et

CO2 reduction (Lind et al., 2021). The

al., 2010). This represents a loss of 6 to 10% of gross energy (Johnson and Johnson, 1995). It is also

mitigating effect of dietary lipids on

assumed that preventing this energy loss can

when these lipids account for 3.5 to 7.0%

increase feed efficiency and energy use and

of total dry matter, and this mitigation

decrease production costs at the farm level

depends on the amount of fat, fatty acid

(Hristov et al., 2013).

composition, and composition of the

CH4 production ranges from 12 to 38%

basal diet (Lind et al. 2022; Patra, 2013; Martin et Many additives can decrease in

al., 2016).

vitro fermentation and mitigate CH4

feed additives

production (Pirondini et al., 2012). Several in vitro and in vivo trials have quantified the CH4 emission potential of feeds and examined the effects of different bioactive compounds on ruminal fermentation and gas production

(Asanuma et al., 1999; Eckard et al., 2010).

A nitrate additive can decrease CH4 production by up to 30% (Feng et al.,

2020; Lind et al., 2021), but its use is limited due to the risk of nitrite toxicity (Lee and Beauchemin, 2014). The investigation of natural compounds that can have an inhibitory effect on enteric CH4 production is critical, and a vast amount of literature exists on this topic, even if the results are often not univocal.

Different classes of bioactive substances can modify metabolism in the rumen, such as polyphenols (Vasta et al., 2019) and essential oils (EOs) (Belanche et al.,

2020). Polyphenols (such as tannins) and EOs decrease enteric CH4 production by interfering with the metabolism of microorganisms in the rumen.

63 nutriNews International September 2023 | A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants

Tannins from Recent studies showed that the tannin-mediated decrease in CH4 emission was related to their ability to decrease fiber degradation, which prevents the attachment of microorganisms to plant cell walls, inhibits microbial enzymes, and thereby alters the function of ruminal microorganisms (Vasta

et al., 2019). Recent reviews and tests showed that inhibitory effects on fiber degradability were observed with high doses of tannins or blends with other bioactive compounds, whereas limited amounts reduced

chestnut (Castanea sativa L.) are the most commonly extracted hydrolysable tannins from temperate plants, and these tannins are efficient in decreasing CH4 emissions from ruminants (Hassanat and Benchaar,

2013; Aboagye and Beauchemin, 2019). However, the effect of this decrease is highly variable, ranging from 4.3% to 70% in vitro and from 6.0% to 68% in vivo (Aboagye and Beauchemin 2019).

emissions without adverse effects on digestibility (Lind et al.,

feed additives

2021; Foggi et al., 2023).

Some studies have used flavonoids, the largest class of phenolic compounds, to decrease CH4 emissions by enteric microorganisms, and their effect depends on the chemical structure of the specific flavonoids (Oskoueian et al., 2013). Tannins have anti-methanogenic effects mainly due to their effects on microbial populations in the rumen because they are toxic to some strains of bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and Archaea (Patra and Saxena, 2011).

The results of in vitro and in vivo studies consistently indicated the potential efficacy of tannins in mitigating enteric CH4 emissions from ruminants, and hydrolyzed tannins with little structural variability are incredibly influential

(Aboagye and Beauchemin 2019).

64 nutriNews International September 2023 | A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants

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EOs are widely used as a feed additive and an alternative to antibiotics because of their antimicrobial activity (Patra et al., 2017).

Several studies showed that EOs modulate rumen metabolism by improving microbial fermentation and decreasing CH4 production due to their inhibition of Archaea (Benchaar et al., 2008; Benchaar and

Greathead, 2011).

Materials & Methods Twenty-four dry Sarda ewes were allocated to two homogenous groups: control (CNT) and treatment (TRT) groups. Both were fed

An advantage of EOs is that they are

with a total mixed ration (TMR), and the TRT

natural compounds. Several studies

group was supplemented with one gram/

showed that EOs decreased CH4

ewe/day of EOP blend.

production and had no adverse effects on feed intake or productivity (Belanche et

feed additives

al., 2020). However, very few studies have evaluated the effects of EOs and their

In particular, the EOP

constituents on CH4 emissions in vivo.

consisted of a coated blend

Specific studies are needed to confirm the

of EOs, mainly from clove

effect of EO blends after an initial period

(Syzygium aromaticum),

of rumen adaptation (Belanche et al., 2020).

coriander seed (Coriandrum sativum), and geranium (Pelargonium cucullatum); tannins (CT) from chestnut

In addition, different compounds (EOs, flavonoids, and tannins) can act with different mechanisms as methane production modulators. Using their mix could have a synergistic effect. Using in vivo experiments on commercial farms to

(Castanea sativa); and bioflavonoids (BF) from olive (Olea europea). The EO:CT: BF ratio was 1:2.5:0.1, and the blend (EOP) was a commercial product (Anavrin, Vetos Europe SAGL,

via delle Industrie 18, 6593 Cadenazzo, Switzerland).

quantify CH4 emissions from ruminants is essential. Dietary modification may be a relatively simple and effective way to mitigate climate change.

66 nutriNews International September 2023 | A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants

Each animal followed a 20-day adaptation period before methane emission measurements. Methane emissions were measured using a ventilated hood system equipped with a digital gas analyzer (GMS810 SICK S.p.A., Vimodrone, MI, Italy) for 24 24-hour measurement period (Figure 1). The ventilated equipment of the experimental barn of the University of Sassari (Italy) was used to perform direct measures of methane emission and indirect calorimetry of small ruminants using sheep as animal models. Lind et al. (2022)

feed additives

report a more detailed hood description.

Figure 1. Metabolic cage with installed Ventilated Hood for gas collection and the digital gas analyzer located at the Experimental farm of the University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy.

67 nutriNews International September 2023 | A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants

Results & Discussion The dietary EOP blend used in this study indicated that a low dose (1 g/day/ewe) led to significant reductions in the production of CH4 by ewes when calculated as g CH4/kg dry matter intake, g CH4/kg Organic Matter Intake, and g CH4/kg digested Organic Matter and had no impact on intake or

Ewes that received the EOP blend had

The EOP blend at a daily dose of 1 g/day

a 13% lower methane yield than ewes

per ewe decreased methane yield under the

that received the control diet (22.4 vs.

experimental conditions described in this

25.5 g of CH4 per kg of dry matter intake;

work. Thus, feeding an EOP dietary blend

P < 0.05; Figure 2). Otherwise, the EOP

to ewes can decrease methane emissions.

blend did not impact daily methane

These results were obtained in vivo with

emission when calculated as

typical farm conditions, suggesting a similar

g CH4/ewe or g CH4/kg body weight.

response may occur in field conditions.

Methane emission, gr of CH4/gr of DMI

feed additives

digestibility.

26 26 25 25 24 24 23 23 22 22 21 21

25.5 a

22.4 b

TRT

CNT

This entry is a summary of the following scientific article in press in Animal Production Science, where all the cited literature is available contacting the author (asatzori@uniss.it): Atzori A.S., Porcu M.A., Fulghesu F., Ledda A., Correddu F. 2023. A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emissions in small ruminants. Animal Production Science, In press. https://www.publish.csiro.au/ AN/justaccepted/AN23070 For more information you may contact the author at: asatzori@uniss.it

Figure 2. Methane emission from sheep supplemented with one g/d per ewe of Essential oils and polyphenol blend (TRT) and Control (CNT) groups.

Letters, a and b indicate a difference for p < 0.05 between groups.

A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants

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68 nutriNews International September 2023 | A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants

CONTROLLING RESIDUAL FEED INTAKE: MAINTAINING A BALANCE (PART I)

research

Fernando Bacha Baz Nacoop, S.A.

T

he progress of the animal production sector has delivered noteworthy enhancements in the efficiency of

food consumption, owing to advancements in genetics, technology, and management practices.

Livestock production, viewed as a business endeavor to obtain one or multiple products, requires the use of measuring tools to assess ongoing outcomes. This evaluation helps ascertain the accomplishment of objectives, rectify deviations, facilitate strategic adjustments, and formulate new plans.

70 nutriNews International September 2023 | Controlling Residual Feed Intake: Maintaining a balance (Part I)

Production records can be defined as: A systematic format for gathering information about the origin, management, behavior, and destination of animals, with the goal of assisting the producer in decision-making

Among the methods of regulation is the computation of “Residual Feed Intake” (RFI), delineating the variance between projected and actual feed consumption. This calculation takes into account:

Supplying feed to animals constitutes the main cost across all animal production systems. Nonetheless, the benefit lies in its straightforward quantification.

body size weight change milk production making it a valuable measure for

Practical trial on residual feed intake For instance, during a study, Sainz and Paulino

research

understanding feed efficiency.

Clearly, the animal with higher efficiency would yield greater profits.

(2004) from the University of California, Davis, discovered that: Two calves with identical intakes (7.43 kg) exhibited a difference of more than 50% in their average daily gain: 1.51 kg versus 0.98 kg,

However, in the same trial, two animals with nearly identical growth rates (1.5 kg/day) had significantly different feed intakes (7.43 kg versus 9.22 kg/day).

respectively.

Obviously, the animal with the same growth rate and lower feed intake would be much more profitable.

This phenomenon arises when animals fail to ingest sufficient feed to fulfill their nutritional requirements, potentially resulting in adverse impacts on their health, growth, and overall productivity.

71 nutriNews International September 2023 | Controlling Residual Feed Intake: Maintaining a balance (Part I)

Feeding activity/behavior

Digestive efficiency No change Potential difference in microbiota

Basal metabolism

Selection for lower RFI Very lean Slightly lower growth Lower meat quality

Reduction in extra caloric production.

Modification of lipid distribution with high-fiber diets.

Lower maintenance needs of the gastrointestinal tract.

Decrease in standing behavior.

Decrease in social interaction with other animals.

Decrease in eating behavior.

Responses to stressors (lactation, heat stress, inflammation) No disadvantages identified.

Protein metabolism Energetic metabolism (glycolytic, oxidative, lipid) Almost no interaction between dietary energy sources. Different metabolic processes within the muscle influence energy balance.

research

Figure 1. Impact of reducing RFI on major physiological functions.

Not clear Increase the requirements of AA/kg of feed.

GIT= Gastrointestinal tract; AA = Amino acids

The utilization of nutrients by an animal encompasses intricate biological mechanisms and interactions within its environment

(Figure 1). Moreover, this process is further complicated by the strong correlation between feed intake, body size, and production level.

To address these challenges and establish a connection between feed intake and production system efficiency, several metrics (Archer et al., 1999) can be categorized as

RFI is a measure of feed efficiency

follows:

in beef cattle which is independent

gross efficiencies partial growth

from: production level, body size, and growth rate.

It serves as a valuable metric

maintenance

for exploring the physiological

maternal/offspring

variations in feed efficiency.

mechanisms that contribute to

RFI

72 nutriNews International September 2023 | Controlling Residual Feed Intake: Maintaining a balance (Part I)

Physiological factors of variation Five physiological processes contribute to Among a range of factors to be taken into

its variation:

account, the genetic aspect influencing

Feed intake

the diversity in these physiological processes still lacks conclusive

Digestion

resolution. Numerous studies have

Metabolism (including variations in body

indicated that the intricacies of these

composition)

interconnected physiological processes are associated with hundreds of genes.

Physical activity Thermoregulation

Residual feed intake represents an individual measurement

The distribution of variation in these processes is elucidated by:

derived from extended feeding trials (lasting a minimum of 70 to 84 days), wherein animals are accommodated either in individual enclosures or in collective settings.

research

In certain studies where calves were categorized according to RFI levels, scientists noted that heat generation from metabolic processes, body composition, and physical activity accounted for 73% of the variation in RFI.

It emphasizes the need to perform measurements for both daily feed

Protein turnover,

offerings and rejections,

Tissue metabolism, and stress (37%)

gains. In group settings, these

in addition to daily weight measurements are typically

Digestibility (10%),

averaged.

Heat increment and fermentation (9%), Physical activity (9%),

Research has supplied evidence that

Body composition (5%); and

points to considerable individual diversity in projected feed intake,

Feeding patterns (2%)

accounting for factors such as body weight and growth, within both

Nevertheless, elucidations for recognized

higher and lower ranges.

physiological mechanisms are grounded in a limited number of studies and typically involve small sample sizes.

73 nutriNews International September 2023 | Controlling Residual Feed Intake: Maintaining a balance (Part I)

This, along with the fact that individuals of the same body weight require significantly different amounts of feed for the same level of production, establishes the scientific foundation for measuring RFI.

Measurement techniques In recent times, methods utilizing electronic devices for the identification of individual animals have emerged.

Individual feed intake is assessed in animals housed within group settings.

In one of the experiments, three diets varying in forage type and quantity were analyzed, with all three trials featuring lactating Holstein cows:

[n = 27 (trial 1) or n = 16 (trials 2 and 3)] The interventions encompassed diverse feed quantities to achieve a daily per-cow rejected feed volume of either 5% or 30% of the provided feed. Additionally, for trial 1, a rate of 15% was incorporated.

research

While this approach can be adopted, slight disparities have been noted when contrasting these two housing methodologies.

Therefore, obtaining RFI data is labor-intensive and costly, which has limited its dissemination as a measure of feed efficiency.

The actual rejection rates achieved were very close to the target values, averaging 7.1%, 15.0%, and 28.3%, respectively.

There was no variation in dry matter intake between treatments for cows fed with either of the two low-forage silage-based diets (trial 1), or for those fed a chopped hay-based diet (trial 2).

Ad libitum intake is achieved by providing a diet in quantities surpassing the projected intake.

However, the degree of surplus can

Nonetheless, the intake of dry matter was 39% greater than the highest feeding rate for cows fed a high-forage silage-based diet (trial 3).

impact the consumption of specific diets and give rise to queries regarding the exact definition of ad libitum intake. In trials with the aim of gauging feed intake, milk

Neither milk production nor the composition of the feed refused per cow per day differed with the treatment.

production, and the composition of lactating cows, various surplus feed levels were employed by offering total mixed diets.

74 nutriNews International September 2023 | Controlling Residual Feed Intake: Maintaining a balance (Part I)

Final considerations Offering excessive amounts of feed can result in elevated intake.

Assessing the suitability of the 10% rejection rate recommendations for maximal intake is crucial within diverse diet types, feeding systems, and climatic conditionss, both in research and commercial feeding scenarios.

In the upcoming editions of our magazine, Part 2 will explore further dimensions related to residual feed intake.

Controlling Residual Feed Consumption: Maintaining a balance (Part I)

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NUTRITION, UREA AND SOMATIC CELLS

IN SHEEP’S MILK:

INTERESTING RELATIONSHIPS

animal health

Alberto Stanislao Atzori Department of Agricultural Sciences, Section of Animal Science, University of Sassari, Sassari, Sardinia, Italy.

A

nimal nutrition greatly influences milk composition, which can be controlled

to improve its milk characteristics for human nutrition. However, it is also true that milk composition is an excellent indicator of the animal’s nutritional status. Some changes in macro-components can also be related to the animal’s immune response.

76 nutriNews September 2023 | Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships

Some insights into the relationships between nutrition and somatic cells in milk were recently presented in a paper in the journal “Small Ruminant Research” by the Animal Science Section of the University of Sassari, Italy.

The true protein of milk, the synthesis of which is under high genetic control, is much less influenced by animal nutrition than milk fat.

In contrast, the non-protein nitrogen fraction of milk is primarily influenced by nutritional factors.

animal health

The solubility and degradability of dietary protein and energy availability in the rumen can particularly influence milk urea.

Milk urea concentration is known to be a good indicator of protein excesses and deficiencies in the ration but also of energy metabolism, whereby low urea levels are associated with fermentable carbohydrate deficiency in the rumen (Giovanetti et al., 2019).

77 nutriNews September 2023 | Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships

P value

animal health

Milk yield, g/d x head

0-999

1000-1499

1500-1999

>2000

SEM

Milk Yield

Urea

Milk Yield X urea

< 0.001 < 0.001

0.748

Milk Urea, mg/dl

<43

>43

<43

>43

<43

>43

<43

>43

N

121

90

169

185

136

194

57

142

SCC, score

3.82

3.16

3.38

2.68

3.11

2.55

2.99

2.32

0.023

SCC, n x 1000

6668 A

1435 BC 2410 B 480 D 1285 C 335 D 982 C

208 E

140

Table 1. Relationship among milk urea and somatic cell count (SCC) within different classes of milk yield observed from 11 to 165 DIM in primiparous sheep (n = 72) fed a diet with 16.5% of crude protein on DM basis.

Urea concentration in milk is also

Furthermore, data on milk production

associated with adverse effects on health,

and composition of 72 ewes fed dry

reproductive performance, and immune

unifeed (with a constant protein content

response in dairy ewes.

of 16.5 percent on SS fed from parturition

It is particularly interesting to note that urea concentration in milk is inversely

to 165 days of lactation; Atzori et al., 2019) were specifically analyzed.

associated with somatic cell count

Urea was negatively associated with

(SCC) in ewes and cows.

SCC (r = -0.57; P < 0.001), and this was independent of milk production

Surprisingly, when urea concentrations of Sarda sheep milk analyzed by the Farmers Regional Laboratory in Sardinia (today LAORE LAB; more than 150,000 milk samples in 2017) were correlated

In ewes that produced more than 1.0 L/day of milk, urea values above 43 mg/dL were associated with values below 500,000 SCC/mL (Table 1).

with milk composition parameters, a robust negative relationship between urea and SCC was observed.

78 nutriNews September 2023 | Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships

Indeed, milk production only partially explains the effect of the lactation stage on milk SCC content, and this result agrees with previous evidence reported in dairy cows (Godden et al., 2001; Hojman et al., 2004; Aguilar

et al., 2012).

However, analysis of 1,500 determinations in individual milk

It is emphasized that these reports refer to physiological processes that need to be clearly explained and generate

from Sarda sheep showed that with an increase in urea, there was a paradoxical improvement in milk

confusion in using urea and SCC as

coagulation parameters, probably due

nutritional indicators.

to the negative relationship between urea and SCC. However, laboratory cheese yield in bulk milk, measured as detailed by

Manca et al. (2016), decreased as urea increased.

animal health

Indeed, as a consequence of increases in the N fraction of milk due to changes in urea concentration, a deterioration in the technological properties of milk is expected

79 nutriNews September 2023 | Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships

Other errors in sheep nutrition, by

Numerous experimental trials are

unbalanced formulations in composition

accumulating on the positive effects

or inappropriate feeding behavior,

of polyphenols on milk SCC. On

may predispose the mammary gland to

legume-rich pastures (76% Medicago

inflammation and thus a higher likelihood

polymorpha L.), administration

of mastitis occurrence, thus increasing SCC.

of chestnut tannin extract led to a significant reduction in SCC of

Frequent dietary errors that could influence milk SCC include energy

Sardinian ewes compared with the control group (Pulina et al., 2010).

deficiencies (Ingvartsen and Moyes, 2013), imbalance in the energy/protein ratio

(Kehrli et al., 2006), protein deficiencies and excesses of NPN in the diet (Kehrli et al., 2006), and dysmetabolic such as

Specific nutritional deficiencies of

sub-acidosis or sub-acute ketosis

Mn, Fe, vitamin A, beta-carotene, and

(Leslie et al., 2000).

vitamin C, could be linked to mammary

mineral micronutrients, such as Se, Zn,

animal health

gland health and milk SCC. Several micronutrients are components of antioxidant enzymes that play an essential role in protecting cell membranes and the cell integrity of the Again, an increase in plasma

immune system.

beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) concentration, a marker of subclinical

Therefore, in case of infection, enzyme

ketosis, has been found to correlate

deficiency worsens the bactericidal

with an increased incidence of mastitis

activity of PMN leukocytes and

and a reduction in bactericidal

consequently reduces the defense

activity of polymorphonuclear

against intramammary infection

neutrophils (PMNs) against mammary

(Sordillo et al., 1997).

pathogens (Grinberg et al., 2008).

Adequate mineral and vitamin supplementation positively affects milk SCC, as observed in sheep. This study summarizes several experiments in which vitamin A administration reduced milk somatic cells.

80 nutriNews September 2023 | Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships

Supplementation with Se is beneficial when ewes are fed mainly hay or silage, which can suffer substantial losses of betacarotene and vitamin E during storage.

Ex: i) 5 mg vitamin A/kg body weight and 0.1 mg Se/kg body weight three days before parturition -53% SCC and reduction of leukocyte PMN -43%, Morgante et al.,

In conclusion, this highlights that appropriate nutritional management can improve sheep milk composition.

To some extent, some milk compounds can be used to monitor animals’ nutritional balance and

animal health

ii) synergistic effect of vitamin E 400 IU/head×day + Se 0.3 mg/head×day, from two weeks before parturition until 60 DIM, reduced SCC compared to vitamin E supplementation alone; Pauselli et al., 2001.

health status.

Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships

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These reports are critical, especially considering that there are several Se-deficient areas in Italy, as confirmed by the high incidence of white muscle disease in lambs

(Sfacteria et al., 2009).

This note is a summary of the following scientific article published in Small Ruminant Research where all the cited literature is given: Anna Nudda, Alberto Stanislao Atzori, Fabio Correddu, Gianni Battacone, Mondina Francesca Lunesu, Antonello Cannas, Giuseppe Pulina, 2020. Effects of nutrition on main components of sheep milk, Small Ruminant Research, 184: 106015, G.C. Fthenakis - Editor, special issue in Small Ruminant Research in the theme of ‘Mammary health - Production of quality and safe milk from sheep.’

Effects of nutrition on main components of sheep milk

READ ARTICLE Complete reference list is available by contacting the author: asatzori@uniss.it

81 nutriNews September 2023 | Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships

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