Foreword
Darknesshasalwaysfascinatedthehumanmind Acrosstimeandcultures,wehavesoughttodefine, understand,andevenjustifytheconceptofevil Isitaforcebeyondus,ordoesitstemfromwithin? Isitanaberration,oranintegralpartofhumannature?Thisissueof The Thinker darestoexamine evilfromeveryangle-throughart,literature,science,psychology,andphilosophy,unravelingits manyformsandimplications.
FromthetragicvillainsofShakespearetothemoraldilemmasofmoderntechnology,fromthe psychologyofmalevolencetothephilosophicalparadoxesofsuffering,weexplorehowevil manifests,howwerecogniseit,andhow,sometimes,wemightevenfindtracesofitwithinourselves. Theconceptofevilisnotjustconfinedtohistorybooksorfictionaltales;itpermeatesoureveryday lives,influencingourchoices,ourfears,andourunderstandingofjustice.
Weinviteyoutoreadwithanopenmind,toquestion,tochallenge,andtoreflect Forinexamining evil,wemaycomeclosertounderstandingnotjustthedarkness-butalsothelight
Happyreading, Safia,Lara,Maddie,AmandineandSerena
TheArts
Exploringhowtheartsilluminatethenatureofevil-throughliterature,filmandmore,weexamine howcreativitygrappleswiththedarksideofhumanexperience,shapingourunderstandingof morality,guilt,andthehumancondition
"The
purpose of art is to lay bare the questions that have been hidden by the answers."
- James Baldwin
EmilyDangY11
StrivingThroughSin:TheRoleofEvilinGoethe’sFaust
Existentialandepistemological,Goethe’stragedy,Faust,exploresthenatureandexistenceofevil throughtheinsatiabletemptationofknowledgeasembodiedbytherelentlesspursuitsofFaust.Itwas originallypublishedin1790,duringtheEnlightenment-aperiodwhichemphasisedscience,reason andrationality,andinrebelliontotheserestraintsandtraditions,Romanticismbegantoariseasa post-revolutionarymovement,drawinginspirationfromtheidealsofLiberté,Égalité,andFraternité thatemergedduringtheFrenchRevolution
Bothscholarandsinner,Faust,disillusionedwiththe intellectualandtemporallimitationsofhuman existence,makesametaphysicalgamblewiththe‘son ofHell,’Mephistopheles HepromisesFaustalifeof limitlesspleasure,knowledgeandpower,butatthe expenseofhissoulshouldheeverbecomefully satisfied Throughhismanipulationsofhumanity’s desireforforbiddenknowledge,Mephistopheles parallelstheChristiandevilinGenesis3,whotempts EvetoeattheappleintheGardenofEden
AlsolikeSataninJohnMilton’sParadiseLost, Mephistophelesencouragesarebukeagainstdivine authoritythroughhismanipulationofFaust’s,and indeedhumanity’s,intellectualdesires Atfirstglance, heappearstoembodypureevil;hechallengesdivine authorityashenotonlyattemptstooverrideFaust’s soul(ultimatelybelongingtoGod)butalsotampers withthegiftoffreewill(thecornerstoneofhuman existence)ashetemptsFausttotransgressagainstthe earthlyconstraintsofhumanknowledge The Romantics,despiteadvocatingforintellectualliberty, alsoacceptedconcepts,suchastheSublime,transcend thecapabilityofhumancomprehension These,they sawasatransgressionagainstnaturalandspirituallaw Infact,theRomanticsemphasisedtheunknowableandbeingcomfortablewithuncertainty,as illustratedthroughJohnKeats’poeticphilosophyofnegativecapability
Mephistophelesintroduceshimselfas‘theSpiritthatDenies!/Andrightlyso:sinceeverything created,/Inturndeservestobeannihilated,’adoptinganihilisticviewofexistence,suggestingthat destructionisbothinevitableandislogicallyjustifiable Hisoppositiontodivinelawisalso
establishedhereashenotonlyseekstodestroytheuniversecreatedbyGod,butalsotounderminethe sanctityandmeaningoflifeemphasisedinChristiancreationstories-inGenesis1,humanityisboth thepinnacleofcreationandcreatedintheimageofGod Mephistophelesalsodeclareshimselfas ‘partofthatpowerwhicheternallywillsevilandeternallyworksgood,’destabilisingtheideaofgood andevilasmutuallyexclusiveforces instead,weareinvitedtoconsiderwhethertheyareanymore contradictorythantheyarecomplementary
Faust’smoraldeclineoriginatesfromhisinsatiablepursuitofknowledge-anattributewhichisinfact virtuous-eventuallydegeneratingintodestructionthroughhisambition,recklessness,andindifference toconsequence Faust,havingtakenapotiontoreversehisage,ispromisedthateverywomanwillbe ‘asbeautifulasHelen[ofTroy],’andheimmediatelybecomesfixatedonayoung,innocent,and religiousgirlnamedGretchen Heeventuallyseducesherandconvinceshertoadministerwhatshe believestobeasleepingpotiontoherstrictmothersothattheycanspendmoretimetogether.Faust, however,isawareofthedeadlyconsequencesofthepotion,yetheisblindedbyhisselfishnessand desires,indierenttoGretchen'semotionsandmorality.AlthoughhedoesnotintendtoharmGretchen andhermother,heseesthemasmeansoffulfilmentratherthanpeople.Therefore,whilstFaustisnot adeliberatelymaliciouscharacter,theresultsofhisselfishactionsareundoubtedlyeviland ultimately,hisindifferencetotheseconsequencesillustrateshimasamorallycorruptfigure.
ImmanuelKantalsowroteaboutthelimitsofhumanknowledgeinhisCritiqueofPureReason (1781),inwhichheelaboratesontheconceptofthe‘noumenal’and‘phenomenal’realms.Although bothexistsimultaneously,humansarelimitedtothephenomenalworld-theperceivedworldas filteredthroughoursensesandsubjectiveexperiences.Faust,inhisquestforabsoluteknowledge, seekstoreachtheunattainablenoumenalworld(wherethingsexistastheyindependentlyare),andin doingso,hetransgressesnaturalanddivinelaw.However,hisendeavourissomewhatfutile,asthe momentthenoumenalworldisobserved,itbecomesphenomenal,andFaustdoesnotsimplywantto observeitbutembodyit.Nevertheless,theunattainabilityiswhatpropelshimtocontinuallystrive towardsabsoluteknowledgeandinturn,butperhapsinadvertently,achievespiritualgrowth.
Goethecomplicatestherigidityofmoral polaritythroughFaust’seventual redemption,suggestingthenecessityof evilforspiritualgrowth;redemptionisnot simplytherewardformoralvirtue,but alsotheresultofcontinuousstrivingfor growth,aligningwithcontemporaneous Romanticideals.Mephistophelesisalso utilisedasavehiclefortheexaminationof humannatureandtheinterplaybetween internalandexternalforcesofevil.
Towardstheendofthetext,asFaustis takenuptoHeaven,theangelssay,"Who striveswithallhispower/Weareallowed tosave,"yetitisultimately Mephistopheles’challengesand temptationswhichresultinFaust’s endlessstriveforintellectualandspiritual growth Mephistopheles,then,bothrevels inandrevealsthenatureofevilwithin humanity,especiallyasambitionand curiositybecomeinsatiable
Thenatureandroleofevilhavecaptivatedhumanityforcenturieswithitsomnipresentandinevitable existence,intriguingboththetheologicalandphilosophical Twodistinctphilosophiesthathave emergedfromthisdebatearedeontologyandconsequentialism Mostfamously,Kant’sCategorical Imperativeindeontologysuggeststhatamoralactionisdeterminedbyitsabilitytobeconsistently
universalisedwithoutleadingtoabsurdity:'Actonlyaccordingtothatmaximwherebyyoucanatthe sametimewillthatitshouldbecomeauniversallaw'Otherwise,actionsthatcannotbeuniversalised areconsideredimmoral Bycontrast,consequentialismevaluatesthemoralityofanactionthroughits ultimateoutcome,ratherthantheintentionbehindit Mephistopheles'role,then,becomes paradoxical;althoughhehasmaliciousintent,doesthefactthathisactionsfacilitateFaust’ssalvation suggestthattheultimateconsequencesofanactionalter,orevendiminish,itsmoralweight?
ChristianityteachesthathumanshavebeengivenfreewillfromGod,withwhichtheycanalsochoose tosin FriedrichSchelling,inhisPhilosophicalInvestigationsintotheEssenceofHumanFreedom (1809),arguesthattrue,meaningfulfreewillincludesthepotentialforevil,eventhroughdivinelaw; withoutit,moralchoiceslosetheirmeaning Evilthen,isnotjustacorruptingforceortheabsenceof morality,butalsoanecessaryvehicleforhumanliberation,allowingforspiritualgrowthand potentiallyredemption.
Overall,evilinGoethe’sFaustismultifaceted,exploredfromarangeofphilosophicalandtheological perspectivesaswellasinconjunctionwithhumannatureanditscontemporaneoussocietalideas ThroughFaust’spactwithMephistopheles,Goethehighlightshowexternalforcesofevilareperhaps necessarytofacilitatespiritualgrowth,whichwasalsoproposedbySchelling However,this challengeswhatweperceiveasevil;ifnecessary,andleadstospiritualascendancy,cantheaction trulybeclassedasevil?Ultimately,Faustillustratesthehumanexperienceasonethatshould continuouslystrivetowardsindividualdevelopment,evenamongstexternalforcesofevilandinternal desires.
ChloeCrowtherY9
TheDesirabilityandRomanticisationofEvil
Withtheriseofnewtropesinmodernliterature,apatternhasbeguntodevelopofthemorallygrey, evil,andscarredcharactersplacedintraditionallyheroicroles,causingawaveofdesirabilitytowards antiheroic,dysfunctional,andvillainouscharacteristics Popculturehasproducedafastfashion approachtoliterature,wheregenresarefastevolvingandeverchanging Evil,althoughmore prevalentinpopularworksnowthaninthepast,hasbeenanattractivequalityincharacters throughouthistory Oneoftheearliestexamples,Milton’sParadiseLost,transformedSatan,a religiouslyabhorrentcharacter,intoacharismatic,desirablefigure,whoserebelliousattitudecreated sympathyratherthandisgust Theidealizationofevilinthiscontextisinterestingtonote,asitreveals humansaredrawntothosewhobreakrulesandhavepower,especiallyifitcanbeexplainedwitha tragicbackstory Italsodemonstratesthathumanityatitscorecravestorationalizeevil
Thetropeoftheforbiddenpowercanbetracedthroughoutliterature,notablywiththeriseofthe Byronichero Thestereotypeofdark,brooding,andpowerfulcharactersbecamepopularinthe Gothicera,mirroringthetransformationfromarigidsocietywithfixed,chivalriccharacterstoone obsessedwithdarkness,irrationality,andthecomplexityofemotionandhumanity Thesecultural shiftsaligningwithchangesinliteraturereflectthepowerfulchangesinmoralitythroughtime,which isbothashockingwarningofourincreasingdarknessasaspeciesandatestamenttoourgrowthin understandingperspectivesandviewsonredemption Ourmorals,evenatatimewhenreligionand puritywasprevalent,anddevianceresultedinostracism,aresomalleablethatthemostdespised charactersinliteraturewereviewedasdesirable Thisbegsthequestionofwhywearedrawntoevil inliterature
Fundamentally,theheartoffictionistolivevicariously throughthelivesofcharacters,indicatingthatwetoo desirethesecharactersandwishtoembodytheirwayof livingwhileremaininginasafeenvironment Thisspeaks tothepowerofescapisminfiction,andaccountsforthe extremepopularityofthesetropesinthemodernworld, whereeverydaypeoplelackasenseofdangerandpower However,theveryfactthatweidolizethesecharacters andcravetheirexperiencesillustratesthetruedarknessof humannature ThepsychoanalystCarlJungfirst developedthetheoryofa“shadowself”,apartofthe unconsciousmindthatcontainsrepresseddesiresand impulses.Thislinkstothedesireandfascinationwith powerthathasplaguedhumanityforcenturies.Wecrave powerasasecuritytoensurecontroloverourlives,the needforwhichhasbeenreinforcedsocietallythroughsocialmediaandhistory,aswellasawayto triggerthebrain’srewardsystem,suggestingpowerisaddictiveanddrug-like.Theexplorationofthis partofourselvesoccurssafelyinthedarkpleasureofwatchingevilcharacters,andstatesthecuriosity ofthetabooandtheforbiddenoftenrepresentedinnovels.
Aswebegintoexerciseour“shadowselves”morefrequently,amarkethasbeencreatedtocaterto thesedesires,notonlyinliteraturebutthroughtelevision,themacabreandthetwistedshowcasedand normalized.FromthedepravityofSquidGamestothethrillofhorrorfilms,societyhasbecomeever moreentrancedwiththedesiretobecomeruthless,evilcharacters,heightenedbytheacceptanceof thisfromsociety.Alreadytheuseofevilcharactersinentertainmenthasincreased,oftenmade complexbyimpossiblecircumstances.TheadaptationofthisinrealityTV,suchasBeastGames,
wherepeopleoftenexperiencepsychologicallyingandmanipulation,hasshowntheharmless indulgenceinourbaserinstinctsonafictionallevelisabletobecomefrighteninglyreal
Whiletheinclusivityandperspectiveofoursocietyhasalloweddepthintoourperceptionofvillains, wehavebeguntoperpetuateadangerousconcept:allvillainsaremisunderstoodanddesirable With moviessuchasMaleficentandtheJokerchallengingperceptionsofvillains,andliteratureproducing morallygreyromanticinterests,weruntheriskofencouragingvillainousbehavioronthebasisthatit isforgivenandmakesyoumoredesirable
Imaginaryevilisromanticandvaried;realevilisgloomy,monotonous,barrenand boring Imaginarygoodisboring;realgoodisalwaysnew,marvelous,intoxicating
- SimoneWeil
GabriellaCatesY11
AllThat’sBestofDarkandBright:TheRomantics’ObsessionwithEvil
Thereisaparticularkindofevilthatdoesnotrepel,butseduces Notthecrudemaliceoftyrantsor criminals,butsomethinggrander,moreintoxicating-anevilthatstandsinresolutedefianceandwears sufferinglikeacrown ThiseviliswhattheRomantics,inalltheirfeverishyearningforthesublime, didnotmerelyacknowledge,butexalted
Tounderstandwhy,wemustinitiallyconsiderwhatitisaboutevilthatmakesitsoalluring Through theRomanticlens,theanswerliesnotinsimpleimmorality,butinfreedom True,defiantRomantic evilisnottheproductofmindlesscruelty,butofabsolutewill Itisthemomentwhenman,rejecting God,morality,andindeedallexternalconstriction,declareshimselfsovereign;withinthis,the Romanticssawsomethingtragic,terrible,andultimately,terrifyinglybeautiful
NofigureismoreomnipresentinRomanticmanifestationsofevilthanJohnMilton’sdepictionof Satan Tothedevoutmind,ParadiseLostisacautionarytale,anexplorationofhubrisanddamnation, buttotheromantics,Satanwassomethingelseentirely Hewasgreat,notbecausehewasrighteous, butbecausehewasawesome WilliamBlake,observedthatMiltonwas‘ofthedevil’spartywithout knowingit’,andonemustonlyreadParadiseLosttounderstandwhy UnlikeGod,whoremains remote,metingoutcoldjusticewithimpersonalpronouncements,Satanspeakstous Hesuffers, struggles,and,morethananyotherfigureinthepoem,acts Hisfallisnotpassive,butanintentional revolt anassertionofselfhoodsoabsolutethatitdefieseternityitself ‘BettertoreigninHellthan serveinHeaven,’hedeclares,andinthatmoment,wearegiventhegreatestpredecessorofall ByronicHeroes
ThisistheessenceofRomanticevil:notmerewickedness,butsublimetransgression TheRomantics, enmeshedwiththephilosophyofRousseauandthefervourofrevolution,sawrebellionnotasan aberrationbutanecessity IfRousseaudeclaredthat‘Manisbornfree,buteverywhereheisin chains’,thenSatanwasthefirstgreatrevolutionary,theonewhodaredtobreakfree Evenifthat freedomledtoruin,wasitnotstillworththeprice?
Furthermore,wecanseetheRomanticphilosophers,andtheirworkbecomeincreasinglyenmeshedin theromanticisingofevilitself Nietzsche,writingattheendofthe19thcentury,inheritedtheirvision oftransgressiveself-creation HisWilltoPoweris,inmanyways,aculminationoftheRomantic fascinationwithforgingidentitythroughrebellion TheÜbermensch,forNietzsche,doesnotobey externalmorality;hecreateshisown Yetindoingso,hewalksaperilouspath Hisfamouswarning that‘ifyoustareintotheabyss,theabyssstaresbackatyou’isapost-Romanticreckoningwiththe ultimateconsequencesofexaltingtransgression Ifalllimitsareshattered,ifmoralityisdiscarded, thenwhatisleft?
NooneembodiedthisideamorefullythanLordByron,whoseemedtoliveasifhewereaheroofhis owncreation ChildeHarold,Manfred,Caindonotsimplydoevil;theyinhabitit Theyare tormented,tortured,trulybrilliant,boundbynoauthorityexcepttheirown LikeMilton’sSatan,they donotseekredemption,onlymastery
TakeManfred,Byron’smostovertlydiabolicalprotagonist Asorcererburdenedbyforbidden knowledge-anddisgustingly,anincestuouslove-heembodiesthePrometheanfigure;this intellectualtransgressioncauseshisguilttohaunthim,yetherefusestoyieldtohisgnawing conscience Heisthemanwhohasactedbeyondmortallimitsandthereforesuffersforit Heis neithervillainnorhero,butsomethingbeyondboth amanwhodefiesevenfate,refusingtorepent albeitatthecostofhissoul Whenthedemonicforcesthattormenthimattempttoclaimhim,hedoes
notbegorsubmit Instead,hecommands: ‘Thou hast no power upon me, I feel; Thou never shalt possess me, that I know ’
Tobedoomedisonething;tochoosedoomisanotherentirely TheRomanticswerenotdrawnto sufferingitself,buttothosewhoembracedit,whoshapedthemselvesthroughit Tothem,evilwas notamoralcategorybutanactofexistentialauthorship Here,Byron,andtheRomanticsbroadly, departfromtraditionalChristiannotionsofsin If,intheclassicalreligioussense,evilisafailure-a fallfromgrace-thenfortheRomantics,evilisoftennecessaryatthecostofgreatness Amanwho neversins,nevertransgresses,neverreachesbeyondthelimitsimposeduponhimmayremainpure, yethecannevertouchthesublime
Blake’sart,likehispoetry,transformsevilintoasublimeand supernaturalforce,embodyingtheRomanticbeliefin imagination'sboundlesspower Hisilluminatedengravingsbrim withapocalypticintensity,wheredemons,spectresandfallen angelsarenotmerelyfiguresofterrorbutsymbolsofdefiance andvisionaryenergy InTheGhostofaFlea,hisgrotesqueyet magnificentcreatureexudesaneeriegrandeur,blurringtheline betweenmonstrousanddivine SataninhisOriginalGlory depictsLucifernotasagrotesquevillain,butasbeingof terrifyinggrace,arguingthatevilandbeautyhavealwaysbeen irrevocablyintertwined.Blake’sartdoesnotsimplyconveythe evilbutreimaginesitasamanifestationofcreativeforce,where thesupernaturalbecomesabattlegroundfortheRomantic strugglesbetweenconstraintandtranscendence.
Again,wearegivenoneofthesehauntingexpressionsofevilin theworkofHenry Fuseli,whosepaintingsrevelintheunnervingandthe supernatural.Hismostfamouswork,TheNightmare, epitomisestheRomanticfascinationwithdarkness not assomethingtobefeared,butasseductive,even beautiful.Theghostlymare,theincubusetchedatopthe helplesswoman,thedreamlikecomposition Fuseli transformsterrorintospectacle.LikeByron’sheroesor Milton’sSatan,TheNightmaredoesnotmerelydepict evil;itmesmerises.Itlingersintheliminalspace betweendesireanddreams,betweentheknownandthe unknown.InFuseli’swork,asinRomanticliterature, darknessisnotjustsomethingtofearbutsomethingto beenthralledby.
ThisiswhereRomanticvisionsofevilreachtheirmost hauntingconclusion.Theyfound,inthefigureofthedefiantrebel,akindoftragicnobility,onethat continuestohauntliteratureandphilosophytothisday.Yetthisvisiondoes,however,carrya warning.ThesameSatanwhodeclaresitis‘Bettertoreigninhell’,laterconcedes,‘WhichwayIfly isHell;myselfamHell.’TheByronicHerowhocastsoffallconstraintsoftenfindshimselfensnared byhisownsolitude,andinManfred’scase,hisguilt.ThisistheparadoxthatRomanticismneverfully resolves:Isevilanassertionofselfhood,orisitadescentintonothingness?Theanswerdependson whetheronecancreatemeaningoutofrebellion,orwhetherrebellionitselfbecomesthesole meaning.
PerhapsthisiswhyRomanticevilremainssocompelling.Notbecauseitjustifiesevil,butbecauseit remindsusofitsallure.TheRomanticerashowsusfigureswhoprecariouslystandattheedgeofthe abyssanddaretoleap,regardlessofwhethertheywillfallorfly.
OliviaWeberLVI
DisruptionofInnocence:HowEvilInfiltratesandCorruptsYouth
Youthisoftenassociatedwithsymbolsof innocence,purity,andblissfulignorance However,whenexposedtoevil,youngminds canbeeasilyinfluenced,manipulated,and ultimatelycorrupted Whetheritisthrough temptation,trauma,orthelackofpositiverole models,thedisruptionofinnocenceisa recurringthemeinbothliteratureandhistory thatrevealsthefragilenatureofmorality The interruptionofyouthfulnaivetecanlead individualstomoredecay,pollutingtheirsense ofrightandwrong,luredbypower,greed,and revenge Additionally,exposuretoviolenceand traumacanforcechildrentoconfrontharsh realities,strippingthemoftheirinnocence The potencyofevilisportrayedthroughthe disruptionofyouthfulinnocence,ultimately transforminghopefulpotentialintodestruction
Temptationanditsroleinmanipulatingandpollutinginnocenceservesasoneofthemostprominent factorsinmoraldecay,ordescentintoevil Exposuretoevil,inthiscase,temptation,influences peopletomakeimmoralchoices,oftenleadingtotheirdownfall Inbothliteratureandreality, childrenorcharactersofnaiveteandignoranceareoftentemptedbypower,greed,orrevenge, enablingthetemptationtocorruptthem Notonlydoesyieldingtotemptationdemoralisesomeone, butitalsoassertsdominanceandpoweroverthatperson,owningthem,inspiteofeffortstoregain morality Innocencecanonlybelost,foronceithasbeenperverted,onechangesinirrevocableways ThestoryofSatan’stemptationofAdamandEveisthemostinfamousforitsdepictionof succumbingtomalevolentforces;thereforelosingpartsoftheirmorality.WhileEveisnotachild,she isafigureofinnocence.SheandAdamareignorantofevil,havingbeenforbiddentoeatfromthe TreeofKnowledge.Whentheydoeat,theirepiphanyenlightensthemtounderstanddarkness,tohave obtainedknowledgeofevilthatonlyGodwassupposedtobecapableofknowing.InMilton’s ParadiseLost,Satan’ssophistryisaclearfactorinseducingEvetotransgression,butMiltonensures thatEveisjustasculpableforhersinasSatanis.Whetheritwastobe‘god-like,’toequalisethe powerbalanceinherrelationshipwithAdam,orsimplythepotencyofSatan’sseduction,Eve’s innocencewasdeductedassoonasshemadethechoicetotransgress,andshewillneverreturntothe blissfulignorancesheoncehad.Thesamecanbetrueforchildren,forexample,C.SLewis’TheLion, theWitch,andtheWardrobeportraysEdmund,aninnocent-althoughmischievous-child, immediatelycorruptedbytheWhiteWitch.Shetakesadvantageofhisignorance,andheletsgreed andhungergetthebetterofhim,whichbothwilllaterresultinbetrayinghisfamily.TheWhite Witch’sevilinfiltratesEdmund’sinnocence,justasSataninvadedbothEdenandAdamandEve’s ignorance.
Exposuretoviolence,war,andpersonaltraumaforcespeople,especiallychildren,tomaturetoo quickly,thereforelosingtheirsenseofinnocence.Whiletemptationisadeliberatecorruptingofa person,tragiceventsarebothinevitableandoftenunintentional.Thepresenceofwar,thelossof familymembers,ordisplacementanddangercanforcechildrentoevolveintoadulthoodsoonerthan theyshould.Golding’sLordoftheFliesexemplifiesthecorruptionofinnocenceinchildrendueto situationandthefaceofdanger.Theneedforsurvivalreplacesanysenseofchildhoodinnocence,and Goldingshowshowmoralitydisintegratesastheboysstruggletosurvive,forcingthemtoabandon orderandvirtue.Furthermore,astheboysareexposedtomoreandmoreviolence,theybecome
desensitisedtoit,relievingthemofguiltandshamethatcomeswithmakingmistakesasaninnocent child Beingforcedintoasituationinwhichviolenceissurvival,theboysbecameculpablefor horribleactions,deprivingthemofinnocence Additionally,theycannolongerbeignorantornaiveto violenceintheworld,asmostchildrenare Facedwiththreats,theyhavetoadapttoanewreality:a oneinwhichdefenseandbrutalityshapestheirnowadult-likemindset Whenchildrenareconfronted withtrauma,theyarestrippedoftheirrighttobeignoranttotherealitiesoftheworld,forcedtobuild amindsetthatreflectschoicesandopinionsofadults,whentheyshouldbeabletoenjoythenaivétéof childhood.
Thecorruptionofyouththroughtemptationandexposuretoviolencerevealshowfragileinnocence trulyis Whenpeople,especiallychildren,aretemptedbypower,greed,orrevenge,theyoftenmake immoralchoicesthatleadtotheirdownfall Atthesametime,experiencingtraumaandviolence forcesthemtomaturetooquickly,strippingthemoftheirchildhoodandreshapingtheirworldview. Whetherthroughpersonalambitionortheharshrealitiesofsurvival,thejourneyfrominnocenceto corruptionisatragicbutinevitableconsequenceofencounteringevil.Ultimately,theseforcesnot onlydisruptyouthbutalsohighlightthedangerouseasewithwhichmoralitycanbelost.
SafiaPancholiLVI
JustifyingtheWaysofGod:TheProblemofEvilinParadiseLost
“When we talk about knowing God, it must be understood in terms of man's limited powers of comprehension God, as he really is, far beyond man's imagination, let alone his understanding ” -JohnMilton,Christian Doctrine1
JohnMilton’sParadiseLostisnotjustanepic poemnarratingthefallofman;itisa theologicalandphilosophicalattemptto reconciletheexistenceofevilwithan omnipotent,benevolentdeity Bydeclaringhis intentionto“justifythewaysofGodtomen,” Miltonundertakesaformidabletask:rather thanpresentinganexplanationthatreassures faithwithoutquestion,heforceshisreadersto questionthenatureofdivinejustice,therole offreewill,andthenecessityofsuffering
Milton’sapproachtojustificationinParadiseLostreversestraditionaltheologicalframeworks Conventionally,justificationreferstohumanity’sreconciliationtoGodthroughChrist’ssacrifice In contrast,MiltonaimstojustifyGodtohumanity,effectivelypositioningGodastheoneinneedof defence Thisinversionraisesacontroversialquestion:ifGod’swaysmustbejustified,doesthis implytheyarenotinherentlyjust?TheFather’sportrayalinParadiseLostexacerbatesthisissue Unliketheomnibenevolent,impassableGodoftraditionalChristiantheology,Milton’sGodexhibits traitsassociatedwiththeYahwisticdeityoftheHebrewBible-capableofwrath,deliberation,and emotionalmovement ThisalignswithMichaelLieb’sassertionthatMilton'sGodisa“fullypassible being,”subjecttothesameemotionalturmoilashumans Thus,Miltonpresentsnotadetached, omniscientjudgebutadeityactuallyengagedinthedramaofcreationandrebellion
TheideaofjustificationcanbetracedtotheHebrewscriptures,wherethewordsedaqaisoften translatedas“justice”or“righteousness” Itsroot,sdq,impliesconformitytoamoralorlegalnorm In biblicalterms,bothYahwehandIsraelareexpectedtoupholdsedaqa-Godbykeepinghiscovenant promises,andIsraelbymaintainingfaithfulness ThiscreatestensioninpassagessuchasExodus 32:10,whereGodthreatenstodestroyhispeople,strainingtherelationshipbetweendivineretribution andmercy Milton’sdistinctionbetweenmakingrighteousversusdeclaringrighteousplaysintothis theme Justifying“thewaysofGod”doesnotmeanalteringGod’sessencebutshiftinghuman perceptionofdivinejustice Theactofjustificationthusbecomesoneofnarrativeandpersuasion ratherthantheologicaltransformation Milton’sproject,then,isoneofreframing:Godisnottobe changed,buthumanunderstandingofHimmustbe.
AmongthemostunsettlingaspectsofParadiseLostistheportrayaloftheFather WhilstSatan’s complexityandgrandeurhaveinspireddebatesabouthisstatusasatragichero,theFatherprovokesa differentkindofdiscomfort CriticssuchasWilliamEmpsonandCS LewishavedebatedMilton’s God,yetthereisnoclearscholarlyconsensus UnlikeSatan,whoinvitessympathyandresistancein equalmeasure,theFatherisaninscrutableforce-boththearbiterofjusticeandanagentof destruction.Thisambiguitytiesdirectlyintotheproblemofevil:canajustGodallow,orevenordain, suffering?BiblicaltextssuggestHedoes-inIsaiah45:7,Yahwehstates,“Iformthelight,andcreate darkness:Imakepeace,andcreateevil”and,similarly,Job2:10challengesbelieverstoacceptboth
goodandevilfromGod’shand BysituatingtheFatherwithinthistradition,Miltonsuggeststhat divinejusticetranscendshumanmoralstandardsandoperateswithinalarger,cosmicorder
Moreover,Milton’sGodisnotanimpassible, unmovedmoverbutabeingwhoexperiences andexpressesemotions TheFatherisdepicted asmakingstrategicdecisions,experiencing emotions,andrespondingtorebellionwith deliberationratherthaninevitability Thisraises theunsettlingpossibilitythatdivinejusticeisnot anabsolute,predeterminedforcebutonethat mustbeactivelymaintainedanddefended If Godcanfeel,canHealsodeceive?This questionisparticularlyprovocativegiven Milton’srepeatedassociationofSatanwithlies InParadiseLost,deceptionisexplicitly attributedtothefallenangels,yettheFather,too, engagesinrhetoricalmanipulation.Thedialogue betweentheFatherandtheSoninBook3 echoesbiblicalmodelssuchasAbrahamand Moses,figuresknownfornegotiatingwithGod. Thissuggeststhatdivinetruthmaynotbeas straightforwardasitappears,complicatingthe moralmessageoftheepic.
Milton’sreversalofjustificationisnotmerely theologicalbutalsolegalistic.Protestant traditions,particularlythoseofLutherand Calvin,emphasisejustificationasGoddeclaring humanityrighteousthroughfaith.Thisdiffers fromtheAugustiniantradition,whichviews justificationasatransformativeprocessmaking humanityrighteous.RichardBaxter,acontemporaryofMilton,definedjustificationasacquittalfrom thechargeofbreakingdivinelaw.Ifjustificationimpliesaccusation,thenMilton’sclaimtojustify GodinherentlyaccusesHimofneedingjustification.ThisboldframingpositionsMiltonasbotha defenderandanimplicitcriticofdivinejustice.Thenecessityofsuchajustificationimpliesthat divineactions,particularlythoseconcerningpredestination,sufferingandfreewillarenotbeyond question.
Ultimately,ParadiseLostforcesitsreaderstowrestlewiththeproblemofevil,notbyofferingsimple answersbutbycomplicatingthem.Milton’sGodisnotanabstractionofperfectionbutadynamic figurewhosejusticemustbeinterpretedandunderstoodwithintheconstraintsofhumanperception. InattemptingtojustifythewaysofGodtomen,Miltondoesnotremovethediscomfortofdivine justice-hemagnifiesit.
JenniferSzmiga-SmithLVI
TheEviloftheOtherandtheSelf:RepresentationofEvilinEuropeanPainting
FromGoya’smacabredepictionofSaturn DevouringHisSontoRubens’illustrationofsheer mischiefinhisTwoSatyrs,evilanddarknesshas alwaysbeenanincrediblycommonsubjectin painting Whetherthisisbecausedepictingevil canallowanartisttotakemorecreativelibertyor becausepaintingcanactasaneffective communicatorofwarningstoanaudience,artistsseemto lovetopainttheevilandwe,asan audience,inmostcases,lovetoseeit However, therearemany differentformsofevilandtheyare representedindifferentways Inthisarticle,we willexplore someofthesekindsofevilandhow artistschosetopaintit
Oneofthemostrecognizableformsofevilisthe religiouskind-categorisedbygrotesquedemons, scenesofhellishtormentandsin Inmanycases, particularlyduringtheRenaissance,depictionsof religiousevilinpaintingshaveactedasaversion ofmoralteaching,showingviewersthe punishmentthatawaitedthosewhostrayedfrom God,encouragingthemtoavoidwalkingasimilar path However,astimehasprogressed, representationsofreligiousevilhaveevolved alongwiththe valuesoftheaudience,resultingin depictionsthatarelesstraditionalbutnoless interesting
Anexampleofthislesstraditionaldepictionof religiousevilcanbeseeninAlexandreCabanel’s TheFallenAngel(1847),themostlikelyimageto popintoourmindswhenaskedtoenvision Lucifer It completelychallengesthemorecommon illustration ofSatan,makinghimbeautiful, emotionaland almosthumanratherthanuglyand monstrous DisplayedatTheSalonof1847,France’smost prestigiousartexhibition,one wouldthinkthatthe audaciousartworkwouldbe asourceofoutrageto theaudience,andwhileit mayhavebeenatatime liketheRenaissance,the oppositewastruetothe Frenchaudienceinthe throesoftheRomantic movement ManyartistsandwritershadreimaginedSatantobeatragic, almostByronicheroatthe time,amisunderstood figurewhosufferedduetohisambitionand rebellionagainstahigherpowerareimagination heavilyinfluencedbyJohnMilton’sParadiseLost (1667)whereSatanis characterisedtobeboth charismaticandheroic
Evenso,Cabaneldoesn’tignoretheevilnatureof Sataninhispainting Throughvariousmeans, suchascolour,compositionandslightsymbolism, hehighlightstheDevil’sdeceptivenatureina clever,subtleway Whetherthisbethrough contrastinvaluebetweenSatan’scolourpalette andthe angelsbehindhim,darkandboldin comparisontothelightandsoftcoloursofthe angelsbehind him,hintingathisdarker intentions;thewaySatan’sbodyispointedinthe opposingdirectionto theseangelsflyingbehind him,implyinghisdefiant,rebelliousnature,or eventhroughthethorny vinecurledbeneathhis reclinedform,eludingtothepotentialdangerhe represents.Evenhis expression,furiousyet saddened,makesSatanappearmorehuman, almostvulnerable,whetherthis isgenuineora facade,wecanonlyguess.Bydepictinghimtobe sostrikinglybeautiful,Cabanel highlightsthe deceptive,seductivenatureofSatanand consequently,thetemptingnatureofsin itself, presentingeviltobemoresubtleandelusive.
Anotherformofeviloftenexploredinartisamore personalkind-theevilpresentinhumannature Thehumanconditionisyetanothersubjectthat actsasbothaninteresttotheartistandthe audience
asitexposesthedeepestdepravitiesof mankindwhilealsoexploringthecomplexities,a subjectthat isbothenlighteningandoccasionally, exposing
Anexampleofanexplorationofthecomplexities ofthehumancondition,particularlyourcapability forviolenceanddestructioncanbeseenin SalvadorDali’sTheFaceofWar(1940),alsoknown as TheVisageofWarorLaCaradelaGuerrain Spanish Theoilpainting,madeduringthebrief period whereDalilivedinCalifornia,exploresthe traumaticeffectsofwar,highlightingtheseverity ofthe humanevilthatisitscause Thissubject wouldhavebeenincrediblyrelevantconsidering thiswork waspaintedbetweentheendofthe SpanishCivilWar(1936)andthebeginningofthe SecondWorld War(1939)
Dalirepresentsthecatastrophiceffectsofwaras wellasthetruenatureofhumanviolencethrough variousmeans,allstrategicandincredibly impactful Thepaintingdepictsawithering, almost corpse-likefacecontortedintoan expressionofpuremiseryandagony,surrounded byvicious snakes,allonableak,barren background Withintheeyesocketsandmouthof thefaceareidentical facesthathavethesamefaces withintheireyesandmouths Thiscycleisimplied togoonfor infinity,representingthecyclical natureofwarandviolenceanditseffects The hostilesnakes surroundingtheface,acommon symbolofevil,seemtobeopposingeachother, theirjawspointed, readytobite,apossible representationofopposingsidesofwar This portrayalalmostpaintsthese opposingsidestobe hypocritical,toofocusedontryingtostrikedown theiropponentstoevennotice theirown immorality.Thebarren,almostdead-looking backgroundillustratesthefruitsofwar-or rather thelackoffruit,theemptinessofthewasteland highlightingthefactthatwarprovidesnothing but takeseverything.Thisratherdisturbingpaintingnotonlyexploresthenatureofviolenceandits effects,butalsothenatureofthosewhoactoutin suchevilways,makingitaninterestingyet enlighteningdepictionofevil.
Cabanel’sTheFallenAngelandDali’sTheFaceof Warwere paintedalmostafullcenturyapartand couldnotbemore different,Cabanel’sbeing academicandaestheticallypleasing whileDali’s paintingismoredisturbingandsurreal.Thoughboth exploringthenatureofevil,onefocuseson theevilofanother,in Cabanel’scase,Satan,while theotherexplorestheevilofthe self,inDali’scase, theevilofthehuman.Theybothuncoverthe true natureofevilthatwesometimesrefuseto acknowledge, whetherthatisbecauseitis uncomfortabletodosoorbecauseit isnotsocially acceptabletodoso.Thetwopaintingsbothactas amirror,forcingtheviewertounderstandtheevil forcesaround themaswellastheevilthatlurksin theself,whetherobviousornot.
ThePsychologyofEvil
Exploringthepsychologicalrootsofevil-howmindsareshapedbydarkness,thefactorsthatdrive cruelty,andthefinelinebetweenordinaryandmonstrous
"We are each our own devil, and we make this world our hell."
- Oscar Wilde
EvaHoveY9
Areallpeoplecapableofevilgiventherightcircumstances?
TheLatentCapacity:ExploringtheSituationalGenesisofHumanMalevolence
TheStanfordPrisonExperiment,prematurely terminatedafterameresixdaysofitsintended fortnight,standsasastarktestamenttothe profoundinfluenceofsituationaldynamicson humanbehavior.Therapidtransformationof ordinarystudentvolunteersintofiguresof sadisticauthorityandpsychologically subjugatedprisonerscompelsustoconfronta fundamentalquestion:towhatextentareall individualssusceptibletomalevolentconduct underappropriatecircumstances?
Theexperiment'ssignificanceliesnotinits sensationalism,butinitsrevelationofthe potentinfluenceofcontextualfactors.The participants,largelyunremarkablestudents, underwentaprofoundbehavioralshiftwhen assignedroleswithinasimulatedprisonenvironment.Theguards,endowedwithasenseofauthority, quicklyadoptedpatternsofabusiveconduct,whiletheprisoners,subjectedtoarbitrarypowerandthe erosionoftheirindividuality,displayedsignsofpsychologicaldistressandsubmission.This transformationsuggeststhatmalevolenceisnotsolelyaproductofinherentcharacterflaws,buta potentialitythatcanbeactivatedbyspecificsituationaltriggers.
Thephenomenonofdeindividuationplayedacrucialroleinthistransformation.Theguards,cladin uniformsandmirroredsunglasses,experiencedadiminishedsenseofpersonalresponsibility, becominganonymousagentswithintheprisonhierarchy.Thisanonymity,coupledwiththeperceived legitimacyoftheirauthority,facilitatedthecommissionofactsthatwouldlikelybedeemed unacceptableoutsidetheexperimentalcontext.Conversely,theprisoners,strippedoftheirnamesand assignednumericalidentifiers,werereducedtoahomogenousgroup,theirindividualidentities subsumedbytheirprisonerstatus.
Furthermore,theexperimentelucidatesthecontextualnatureofmalevolence.Thebehaviorsexhibited withinthesimulatedprison,whileethicallyreprehensible,wereperceivedaspermissiblewithinthe confinesoftheexperimentalsetting.Thearbitraryrules,thepsychologicalmanipulation,andthe systematicdehumanizationoftheprisonerscreatedanenvironmentthatfosteredcruelty.This demonstrateshowtheperceptionof"evil"canbeshapedbythespecificcontextinwhichactions occur.
TheStanfordPrisonExperimentisnotanisolatedinstance.Historicalevents,suchastheHolocaust andtheRwandangenocide,providefurtherevidenceofthepotentialforordinaryindividualsto participateinactsofextremeviolenceunderspecificcircumstances.Theseeventshighlightthe fragilityofhumanmoralityandthesusceptibilityofindividualstotheinfluenceofsocialandpolitical forces.Theimplicationsofthisunderstandingaresignificant.Recognisingthelatentcapacityfor malevolencewithinallindividualsnecessitatesashiftinfocusfromidentifyinginherently"evil" individualstounderstandingthesituationalfactorsthatcontributetomalevolentbehavior.This requiresacriticalexaminationofpowerstructures,socialnorms,andinstitutionalpracticesthatcan fosterabuseanddehumanization
Moreover,itnecessitatesadeeperunderstandingofthepsychologyofconformityandobedience.The Milgramobedienceexperiments,forexample,demonstratedthealarmingextenttowhichindividuals willcomplywithauthorityfigures,evenwheninstructedtoperformactionsthatviolatetheirmoral conscience.Theseexperiments,liketheStanfordPrisonExperiment,underscorethepowerful influenceofsocialforcesonindividualbehavior Acknowledgingtheuniversalcapacityfor malevolencedoesnotabsolveindividualsofresponsibilityfortheiractions Rather,itprovidesa frameworkfordevelopingstrategiesforpreventionandintervention Byrecognisingthepowerof situationalfactors,wecancreateenvironmentsthatpromoteethicalbehaviorandmitigatethe potentialforabuse Thisincludesestablishingsystemsofaccountabilityandoversight,andfosteringa cultureofcriticalthinkingandmoralcourage Furthermore,itnecessitatesanuancedunderstandingof morality Ratherthanviewinggoodandevilasfixedcategories,wemustrecognizethefluidand dynamicnatureofhumanbehavior Thelinebetweenethicalandunethicalconductisnotalways clearlydefined,andevenindividualsofseeminglyvirtuouscharacterarecapableoftransgressingit underappropriatecircumstances
TheStanfordPrisonExperiment,thoughethicallycontroversial,offersavaluableinsightintothe humancapacityformalevolence Itservesasapotentreminderofthesusceptibilityofindividualsto situationalinfluencesandtheimportanceofvigilanceagainsttheabuseofpower Byunderstanding thelatentcapacityformalevolence,wecanstrivetocreateamorejustandethicalsociety,onethat promotescompassion,empathy,andresponsibleconduct
GwendolynBassiLVI
wedeemas"evil"?
eetheoriesonthepsychologicalqualitiesof'evil' esdoneinthepastyears
ofCopenhagenrevealedthatevilpeopletendto other's,andtakejoyinother'spain.Themost nditionsthatpeoplewiththesetendencieshave ownasthe'darktriad'whichincludes Machiavellianism Psychopathyandnarcissism hopathybeingalackofempathy,andnarcissism Machiavellianismisapersonalitytraitwhere nactionjustifythemeans Thetraitsofthedark dubbedtheD-factor Thisresearchdoneatthe u ve s yde ed e c o s ege e e dencytomaximizeone’sindividualutilitydisregarding,accepting,ormalevolentlyprovokingdisutilityforothers-accompaniedbybeliefsthat serveasjustifications” Anothertraitcommonlyaddedtothedarktriad,therefore,issadism-the tendencytoderivepleasurefrominflictingpainorharmontosomeone Overall,thisstudyarguesthat 'evil'peopleputthemselvesfirst,evenattheexpenseofotherpeople,andhaveanaccompanying justificationforthisactioninordertopreventfeelingsofshameorguilt
Baron-Cohenconductedresearchintothelinkbetweenalackofempathy and'evil'actions,andconcludedthatalackofempathyistherootofall evilactions Baron-Cohendescribesempathyas"ourabilitytoidentify whatsomeoneelseisthinkingorfeeling,andtorespondtotheirthoughts andfeelingswithanappropriateemotion,",andhearguedthatthosewho don'thavethisseeothersasmereobjects Hearguesthatthesepeopleare abletoinflictharmonotherswithoutfeelinganempathytowardswhat thosepeoplearefeeling InBaron-Cohen'sopinionpeoplearenotsimply 'evil',butratherthereisascientificexplanationfortheirbehaviour,which hedeterminestobealackofempathy
Finally,Adornoandcolleaguesdevelopedthetheoryofauthoritarianpersonality,andmanyconclude thatpeoplewiththispersonalityareevil ThistheorywasdevelopedintheaftermathofWW2asa waytotrytoexplaintheactionsoftheNazi'sandthereasonsbehindtheriseoffascismand totalitarianism Adornoconcludedthatthetraitsofsomeonewithanauthoritarianpersonalityarea strictadherencetoconventionalvalues,aggressiontowardsoutsiders,submissiontoauthority,anda veryrigidwayofthinking Theirinsistentadherencetoauthorityfiguresmeansthattheyarelikelyto blindlyfollowideasandpoliciesevenifthesegoagainsttheirownpersonalbeliefs,orevenifthey haven'tthoughtcriticallyaboutthesepolicies Peoplewiththispersonalityoftentendtobeprejudiced towardsminoritygroups,peoplewithdifferentsexualorientation,orgenerallyanyonewhodiffers fromthesocietal'norm' Finally,becausethesepeoplehaveastrongneedtocontrolanddominate others,theycanbeaggressiveindealingwiththosetheyseeasbeneaththeminthehierarchy Itis believedthatthisauthoritarianpersonalitytraitcanleadtoevilbypromotingpeopletofollowevil leaders-akeyexamplebeinginNaziGermany Additionally,thistraitcanleadtothe'evil'of discrimination,aswellasthe'evil'ofaggressivecontrolanddominationoverothers.
Inconclusion,therearemanytheoriesanalysingdifferentpsychologicalqualitieswhichcontributeto an'evil'personality,howeverakeystrandbetweenthethreewehaveexaminedtodayisalackof empathy PeoplewiththeD-factoractoutoftheirownself-interestwithoutbeingabletofully
acknowledgetheeffectsthishasonothers,andauthoritarianpersonalitytypesfailtoshowempathy towardsoutsidersandthosetheydeemaslowerinthe'socialhierarchy' Whilepsychologicaltraits mostprobablyplayarolein'evil',doyouthinkanyonecanbeevilundertherightcircumstances,and doweallpossessthecapacitytocommitthesamescaleofevil?
InesEscobarY11
StephenLaw’sEvil-GodChallenge
PhilosopherStephenLawpresentstheEvil-GodChallengeasacritiqueoftheodicyand,byextension, theism Hearguesthatbeliefinanall-goodGodisnomorereasonablethanbeliefinanall-evilGod TraditionalmonotheismholdsthatGodisall-powerful,all-knowing,andall-loving However,evenif argumentsforGod’sexistencearesound,theydonotnecessarilyestablishhismoralcharacter.The mereexistenceofadeitydoesnotimplythatthisbeingisomnibenevolent.Theevidentialproblemof evilstrengthensthisskepticismbysuggestingthatthesheeramountofsufferingintheworldprovides strongevidenceagainstanall-goodGod.IfsuchaGodexists,theremustbeajustifiablereasonfor everyinstanceofevil.Yet,whenweconsiderthevastextentofapparentlyunnecessarysuffering, beliefinabenevolentdeitybecomesincreasinglydifficulttodefend.
Theistsoftenrespondtothisproblemwiththeodicies:argumentsthatattempttojustifywhyagood Godwouldallowevil Lawchallengestheseresponsesinanunconventionalway Hearguesthatifthe existenceofevildoesnotdisproveagoodGod,thentheexistenceofgooddoesnotdisproveanevil God Inotherwords,thereasoningusedtodefendbeliefinabenevolentGodcouldjustaseasilybe appliedtojustifybeliefinamalevolentone Onecommontheodicyisthefree-willdefence,which claimsthatevilresultsfromhumanfreewill Godgrantedfreewillsothatpeoplecouldchooseto performmorallygoodactions,eventhoughthisalsoallowsforwrongdoing Theabilitytomake meaningfulmoralchoices,proponentsargue,ismorevaluablethanbeingmerepuppetscontrolledby God However,ifweapplythesamereasoningtoanevilGod,wecouldarguethathegrantsfreewill sothatpeoplecanchoosetocommitevilacts AnevilGodwouldprefervoluntarywickednessover compelledcruelty,justasagoodGodwouldprefervoluntarygoodnessoverforcedvirtue Iffreewill justifiestheexistenceofevil,itshouldalsojustifytheexistenceofgoodunderanevildeity
Anotherresponsetotheproblemofevilisthecharacter-buildingtheodicy,whichsuggeststhat sufferingstrengthensmoralandspiritualdevelopment Hardshipfostersresilienceandpersonal growth,makingusbetterpeople Yet,usingthesamelogic,wecouldarguethatgoodexperiences makebadonesseemevenworse AnevilGodmightcreateoccasionalhappinesstodeepentheimpact ofsuffering.Wealthandsuccessforafewmakethemiseryofthemanyevenmoreacute,and meaningfulrelationshipsintensifythepainofloss.Theideathatsufferingisnecessaryformoral developmentdoesnotnecessarilypointtoagoodGod;itcouldjustaseasilysupportbeliefinanevil one.
Anotherargumentsuggeststhatsecond-ordergoods,suchascompassionandcourage,require first-orderevils,likesufferinganddanger.Withouthardship,virtuessuchascharitywouldhaveno meaning.Yet,ifwefliptheargument,second-orderevils,suchasjealousyandcruelty,require first-ordergoods,likeprosperityandkindness.JustasagoodGodmightallowsufferingtoenable virtue,anevilGodmightallowmomentsofhappinesstoamplifysuffering Somearguethatwe cannotfullycomprehendGod’sways,andjustbecausewedonotunderstandwhythereissomuch evildoesnotmeanagoodGoddoesnotexist However,thisreasoningalsoappliestoanevilGod Thefactthatwecannotfullyexplainwhythereissomuchgooddoesnotruleouttheexistenceofa malevolentdeity Thissymmetrysuggeststhatneitherargumentisconclusive
Atthispoint,onemightobject:aren’tmiracles,religiousexperiences,andscriptureevidenceofa goodGod?Miracleshavebeenrecordedthroughouthistory,andreligiousexperiencesoftenbring peopleprofoundjoyandtransformation However,LawcountersthatanevilGodcouldbe intentionallymisleadingus Hecouldrevealhimselftodifferentgroupsincontradictoryways,leading toconfusion,division,andevenviolence Ifanall-goodGodwouldnotmanipulatepeopleinthisway, whydoesreligiousconfusionpersist?LawdoesnotclaimthatbeliefinanevilGodisreasonable
Rather,hearguesthatbeliefinagoodGodisnomoreplausiblethanbeliefinanevilone The symmetrybetweentheproblemofevilandtheproblemofgoodmakesbothdeitiesdifficulttodefend
Severaladditionalobjectionsariseagainsttheevil-Godhypothesis,buttheycanoftenbereversed.For example,somearguethatanevilGodwouldsimplysendeveryonetohellimmediatelyratherthan allowinganygood.However,thesamereasoningcouldsuggestthatagoodGodwouldsendeveryone directlytoheavenratherthanallowingsuffering.Otherscitetheontologicalargumentasproofof God’sexistence,yetthisargumentcouldbereversedtoprovetheexistenceofanevilGodinstead. EventheologicalclaimslikeAugustine’sargumentthatsufferingresultsfromAdamandEve’sfall facesimilarreversals,especiallygiventhequestionablehistoricityofthebiblicalfigures.
Ultimately,Law’sEvil-GodChallengeforcestheiststoreconsidertheirassumptions Iftheexistence ofevildoesnotruleoutabenevolentGod,thentheexistenceofgooddoesnotruleoutamalevolent one Thisthoughtexperimentdoesnotdisprovetheism,butitdoescallintoquestiontherationalityof believinginanall-goodGodwithoutequallyconsideringthepossibilityofanall-evilone
NicoleZabelinaY8
IsEvilalwaysachoice?
Theideaofwhetherevilisachoiceornothasbeendebatedbymanyfora verylongperiodoftime,withpeoplealltryingtounderstandwhatdoesit actuallymeantobeevil,whetherhumanbeingsalwayshavetheabilityto chooseevilovergood,knowingtheconsequences Below,Iwillexploreif peoplealwayschoosetodoevilthings,orifotherfactorsintheirlives heavilyinfluencethemtoactinwaysthatarenottheirfaultentirely
Tocontinue,itisnecessarytounderstandwhatevilis Thetextbook definitionis‘somethingthatisprofoundlywicked’,orinotherwords,anact thathurtssomebodyphysicallyoremotionallyfornogoodreason Thereal questionweshouldbeaskingourselvesthenisthis:isevilalwayssomethingwechoosetodo,orare theretimeswhenpeopledoevilthingswithoutreallythinkingit’swrong?
Onewaytolookatthequestionistothinkaboutfreewill Freewillmeansthatwehavetheabilityto makeourownchoices Ifevilisalwaysachoice,itwouldmeanthatpeoplehavethepowertodecide whethertodogoodthingsorbadthings Thisisthebeliefthatmanypeoplehold,especiallyinthe religionofChristianity,wherepeoplebelievethatGodgavethemachoice,freewilltodowhatthey want,buttheyareultimatelyresponsiblefortheirownactions Considerthisinreallife Ifaperson liestotheirfriend,theyhavethechoiceofwhattodo,tellthetruth,ortellthelie Theycanfind justifications,explanations,butultimatelytheychosetodotheevilthing,totellthelie,andthatis theirownresponsibility,andtheirburdenthattheymustcarry Veryoften,wefeelguiltyaboutdoing something;thisisprobablybecauseweknowthatwehavemadethe‘wrong’decision Thisgoesto showthatevilisachoice
Havingsaidthis,thereareargumentsthatsuggestevilisnotalwaysachoice Somepeoplebelieve thattherearecertainthingsthatcanmakeitharderforpeopletochoosegoodoverevilanddothe rightthing,thingsthatcloudtheirjudgement Forexample,ifsomeonegrewupinadangerous environment,theymightthinkthatitisn’teviltohurtpeopleordoterriblethings,justbecausethey haveseenthingslikethishappeningaroundthemallthetime Thisdoesn’tmeantheyareevil,itjust meanstheyhaven’tbeentaughtwhatisgood There’salsotheideathatourideasarenotreallyours, butareinfluencedbyourexperiences,feelings,orthingsaroundus Thiswasaphilosophybelieved byDavidHumeandJohnLocke,whothoughtthatwebaseallofourchoicesandthoughtson experience Ifthisisthecase,thensomeonewhohasbeenthroughalotintheirlifemightmakebad decisionsbecausetheyareinfluencedbythesefactors,notbecausetheyarechoosingtobeevil Additionally,thephilosophyofexistentialismraisesthequestionabouttheresponsibilityofchoosing goodoverevil ExistentialistssuchasJean-PaulSartrebelievedthathumansarecondemnedtobe free,meaningthatweareresponsibleforourownactions,butthatresponsibilityisveryoftentoo muchforustobear,andcanresultinanindividualmakingdecisionsbasedontheiremotionswhichis notalwaysthemostrationalthingtodo So,isevilalwaysachoice?Thetruthismostlikely h i h iddl metimespeoplereallydomakehorribledecisionstodoevilthings,even thoughtheyarecompletelyawareofwhatisgoingonandknowthe consequencesofwhattheyareabouttodo,whilstinothercases peoplemightdobadthingsbecauseofthingsthattheycan’tfully control;theirupbringingortheiremotions.Whilefreewillis important,wemustalsounderstandthatnoteveryonehasthesame opportunitiesorthesameabilitytomakethe‘right’or‘good’choices. Itisalwaysimportanttolookatthefullpictureandunderstandwhat isreallygoingonandwhathasinfluencedthisparticularindividualto makethisspecificdecision.
RaphaelaRafterLVI
AddictionToEvil:CanMalevolencebePsychologicallyRewarding?
Theideaofevilhasbeenacentralfocusin philosophical,psychologicalandevensociological discoursealikeforcenturies,oftenlinkedtoand analysedthroughexamplesofmalevolentbehaviour Frommythologicalfigurestoreallifeperpetratorsof harm,malevolenceremainspervasiveinhuman society Butwhatisthemotivationbehindtheaction? Whatdrivespeopletocommitactsofcruelty,deception andviolence?Isthereperhapsaneurologicalor psychologicalgratificationassociatedwiththis‘evil’ behaviour?Whiletraditionalmoralframeworks positionevilasinherentlyundesirablesimplybecause itisclassedas‘wrong’orharmful,manyindividuals derivepleasureorempowermentfromtheirmalevolent behaviours,causingthemtocommitthemagainand again Understandingthereasoningbehindthisisvital, particularlyincriminologicalfields,inordertodevise interventionsforthosepronetothisharmfulbehaviour
Evilistraditionallydefinedasaprofoundimmoralityorwickedness,usuallyleadingtotheinfliction ofharmuponothers Inpsychology,malevolenceisoftenexaminedthroughthelensofpersonality disordersandbehaviouraltendencies,particularlythoseencapsulatedinthe‘darktriad’-narcissism, Machiavellianism,andpsychopathy Thesetraitscollectivelycontributetocruel,manipulativeand antisocialbehaviours,generallycharacterisingpeoplewithanespeciallylargeproclivityfor malevolence Now,whilesomepeoplemaybemorepsychologicallypredisposedtomaliciousactions, thoughargumentsaboutwhetherthisispurelybiologicalorratheriftheenvironmentthepersonisin playsalargerrolecontinuetorunrife,HannahArendt’sconceptofthe‘banalityofevil’suggeststhat individualsmayengageindestructive,harmfulactivitiesnotduetointrinsicmalice,butasaresultof factorssuchasideologicalconformity,desensitisationorobedience.Thisimpliesthatapersondoes nothavetobe‘evil’persetocommitclassically‘evil’actsbutratherthata‘normal’personisequally ascapableofcommittingthesedepravedactswhenpushedbytheaforementionedfactors. Conversely,FriedrichNietzschepositedthatthepursuitofpowerisafundamentalaspectofhuman nature,whichcanmanifestitselfinbothconstructiveanddestructiveways,leadingtopotential gratificationfromtheacquisitionofthispower,withoutregardforthestepstakentoacquireit.
Researchindicatesthatpower,dominanceandcontrolserveasintrinsicmotivatorsforsomepeople, leadingthemtoengageinclassically‘evil’activities.Forinstance,thesenseofsuperiorityderived frominflictingharmonotherscanenhancetheself-esteemoftheperpetrator,reinforcingtheir perceivedauthority.Therefore,forindividualswithhighlevelsofnarcissism,harmingothersmay serveasamechanismforvalidatingtheirownselfworth,leadingthemtocommitmoredepravedacts astheyfeelsatisfactionorgratificationfromhavingdemonstratedtheirsuperiority.Furthermore, desensitisationalsoplaysacriticalroleinthereinforcementofmalevolentactionsasindividualswho repeatedlyengageinunethicalbehaviourexperiencediminishedmoralresistance,thusmaking subsequenttransgressionsmoremorallytolerable.Thisphenomenonisparticularlyevidentincriminal escalation,inwhichminorinfringementsgraduallyevolveintomoreseriousoffenses,forming habitualpatternsofmalevolenceandthereforethepersonsplitsthemselvesfromanymoralqualmsor reservationstheyfeelabouttheiractionsastheyhavenowbecomedesensitised.
Neuroscientificresearchhasdemonstratedthatactsofaggressionanddominancecanactivatethe brain’srewardsystem,especiallytriggeringthereleaseofdopamine.Thisisaneurotransmitterwhich
isassociatedwithpleasure,satisfactionandreinforcement,thereforealsoplayingasignificantrolein behaviourssuchasgamblingandsubstanceuse Forcertainindividuals,engagingincrueltyor manipulationtriggersasimilarneurochemicalresponse,reinforcingthebehaviourandincreasingthe likelihoodofrepetitionandtransformationintoahabitualaction Historicalcasestudiescanillustrate howpower,especiallywhengainedthroughmalevolence,canbepsychologicallyaddictive For instance,figuressuchasAdolfHitlerorJosephStalinexhibitedpatternsofescalatingcruelty, reinforcingtheirdominancethroughincreasinglyoppressive,violentactions.Similarly,serial offenders,rangingfromwhitecollarcriminalstoviolentperpetrators,oftendisplayaprogressive intensificationoftheirbehavioursastheneurologicalmechanismsthatsupportsuchactionscreatean ingrainedandself-perpetuatingcycle.
Addictioniscommonlyassociatedwithsubstancedependenceorcompulsivebehaviours,butthe psychologicalreinforcementofmalevolenceexhibitssimilarcharacteristics.Asexploredpreviously, whenindividualsengageinharmfulactionsandexperiencesocial,financialoremotionalrewardsthey aremorelikelytorepeatthesebehaviours.Thiscyclemirrorsthecompulsionsobservedinaddictive behaviourssuchasgamblingandsubstanceabuseas,inbothcases,ifthegratificationderivedis instantaneousenough,thepleasurecircuitsinthebrainbecomeoverwhelmedbyasurgeofdopamine, leadingtothecycleofactionsweknowasaddiction.Onlineenvironmentsprovideamore contemporaryexampleoftheideaofaddictiontoevilastheanonymityofdigitalplatformsallows peopletoengageincyberbullyingandharassmentwithminimalimmediateconsequences,allowing themtoonlyexperiencetheeuphoricrushofself-importancethroughsocialvalidationintheformof likesandshares,leadingthistopotentiallybecomeanaddictivebehaviour.Thispatternisalsoevident incasesofhabitualliars,manipulatorsandabuserswhosecontinuedengagementincruelbehaviour persistsdespitepotentialnegativerepercussionsas,intheseinstances,theimmediategratificationof powerorcontroloutweighsthepossibilityoflong-termconsequences,perpetuatingthecycleof addictionandharm.
So,thequestionthisbegsis:ifmalevolenceispsychologicallyreinforcingandgratifying,can individualsespeciallypronetoharmfulbehaviourberehabilitated?Psychologicalinterventions,such ascognitivebehaviouraltherapy(CBT),haveshownpromiseinaddressingantisocialtendenciesby restructuringpotentialcognitivedistortionsandplacinganemphasisonfosteringempathywithinthe people,aimingtodisruptthemechanismsofreinforcementthatperpetuateevilbehaviour.However, theeffectivenessoftheseinterventionsiscontingentupontheperson’swillingnesstochangeaswell astheirneurologicalpredispositions,makingsuccessmorerare.
Toconclude,malevolencecanbepsychologicallyrewardingtoaslargeanextentinwhichhabit cyclesarecreated,mimickingthesymptomsofaddiction,andthereforecausingthepleasurederived fromtheseactionstooutweighthemoralimplicationsoftheirundertaking.Doesthisthenmakethe personcommittingtheseactions‘evil’?Orperhaps,doesitsuggestthatHannahArendt’stheoryof normalpeoplebeingabletocommitheinousactsismorelikelyas,itcouldbeargued,peopleareat themercyofthechemicalsbeingreleasedintheirbrainsandthussuchimbalancesmanipulatetheir actionspastthepointofconsideringmoralityandgoodness?Thiswouldthereforeoffloadculpability fromtheperpetratoronto,essentially,humanbiology-however,thisthenleadsintoanargumenton freewillwhichispotentiallybettertodiscussasaseparateissue.Perhaps,bothofthesetheoriescan exist,anddoexist,intandem
Science
Investigatingthesciencebehindevil-neuroscience,genetics,andthebiologicalandenvironmental forcesthatinfluencehumanbehaviour.
"The
mind is its own place, and in itself can make a heaven of hell, a hell of heaven.”
- John Milton
DashaAntonovaLVI
AIinMedicine:Thefearofamedicaldystopiaandevilsurroundingartificialintelligence
Whilsttheintegrationofartificialintelligenceintomedicinehassparkedexcitementandenthusiasm, ithasalsobeenmetwithasenseofuncertaintyandconcern AIisrevolutionizingmedicine,offering groundbreakingadvancementsintreatment,diagnosisandpatientcare Itspotentialtoenhance accuracyandaccessibilityhasencouragedimmenseoptimism However,alongsidethisexcitement, thereisgrowingconcernaboutanAI-drivenmedicaldystopia CouldAIleadtoethicaldilemmas, lossofhumancontrol,andevenunintendedharmratherthanhelp?
AIhasbeentransformingthefieldofmedicinesinceitwasfirsthighlightedasausefultoolwithalot ofpotential Fromdiagnosticstoroboticassistedsurgery,AIiscontinuingtodevelopandimprove medicine Cancerdetectionhasbeenoneofthemostprevalentdevelopments,withAImodelslike Google’sDeepMIndandIBMWatsondemonstratingtheabilitytodetectbreastcancerandlung cancerwithgreateraccuracythanhumanradiologists,thusthepotentialforsavingliveshasbeen greatlyincreasedthroughthisdevelopmentalone Moreovertheexpandinguseofroboticsurgery worldwideisfurtherevidencetoshowhowAIinmedicineismakingsignificantprogressions TheDa VincisurgicalsystemisanAIpoweredroboticsystem,assistingsurgeonsinperformingminimally invasiveprocedures,withincreasedprecision,whilstreducingrecoverytimesandcomplications In addition,itisbelievedthatthedevelopmentanddiscoveryofdrugswillbesignificantlyimproved withtheuseofAI AIacceleratedtheidentificationofnewdrugcandidates,thusreducingthetime andcostrequiredfordevelopment Forexample,ithasalreadyhelpedtodiscoveranewantibiotic, Halicin,whichhasservedtobeextremelyeffectiveagainstdrug-resistantbacteria Essentially,these groundbreakingdevelopmentsintheindustryhighlightartificialintelligence’svastpotential,withthe excitementsurroundingAIstemmingfromitsabilitytoreducehumanerrorandultimatelyimprove patientcare,consequentlymakinghealthcaremoreefficientandaccessiblethanithaseverpreviously been
However,whilstAI’scrucialdevelopmentshave,uptothispoint,showntobebeneficialtoour society,somepeopleverbalisetheirfearofamedicaldystopia Firstly,thelossofhumantouchcould beacrucialbreakingpoint,whereAIbecomesdamagingtomedicine,ratherthanofbenefit WithAI takingonmoreresponsibilitieseveryday,thereisanongoingfearthatthecompassionateand human-centredaspectofmedicinecouldbelost Withempathyandcommunicationbeingattheheart ofmedicalcare,patientsmayfeeldisconnectedfromtheirdoctorwhilstinteractingwithalgorithms ratherthanhumandoctorsandnurses.Thiswouldcauseadevastatingeffectinthemedicalindustry, andthereforetheuseofAImustbemonitoredextremelycarefully.Furthermore,concernsmaybe raisedonDataprivacyandsurveillance.Inthemedicalworld,itiscrucialthatpatientinformationis keptstrictlyconfidential,withnoleaksofanydata.However,AI’srelianceonvastamountsofpatient datamaybegintobreachprivacy,withariskofhealthcarebecomingasurveillancedrivensystem accompanyingthis.Lastly,whilstthesetwopotentialconsequencescanbemanaged,theoverreliance
onAImayprovetobethemostproblematic Evenatschool,wecanalladmitthatitistemptingto useChatGPTfortheoccasionalhomeworkortohelpwriteanessay Butinafieldwhereitis necessaryforminimalmistakestobemade,theuseofAImayprovetobedetrimental WhilstAI enhancesdecisionmaking,blindtrustinitsrecommendationsmayleadtocatastrophicmisdiagnoses Therefore,withouthumansoverseeingtheartificialintelligence,AIdrivenhealthcarecouldendup compromisingpatientsafety
WhilsttheseareallnegativeoutcomesofusingAIinthemedicalworld,couldAIactuallybecome “Evil”?WithAIbecomingmoreembeddedinmedicine,ethicalconcernshavearisenaboutits potentialmisuse Eventhoughthisalmostseemstoofar-fetched,situationssuchasprofit-drivenAI, autonomousAI,andweaponizationofmedicalAIcouldallserveasdetrimentalfactorsinoursociety ProfitdrivenAIcouldpotentiallyprioritizefinancialinterestsoverpatientsafetyandwell-being,with insurancecompaniesorhospitalsusingAItodenycareormaximiseprofitoutcomesratherthan improvingdiagnosticsandpatientcare.Moreover,autonomousAIisraisingfearswhichencompass machinesmakingcriticalmedicaldecisions,withouthumanoversight,thusinevitablyleadingto dangerousoutcomes.Lastly,evenmorealarming,isthediscussionofweaponizationofmedicalAI, whereadvancedtechnologiescouldbeexploitedforbioterrorismandunethicalmedicalexperiments, leadingtoglobalhealthsecuritybeingthreatened.
Whilstalltheseoutcomesseemfrighteningandalarming,canwepreventadystopiainthemedical field,whereAIwouldcontinuetobeused?InordertoharnessAI’sfullpotentialwhileavoidingthe poorconsequences,strongregulationsandethicalguidelinesmustbeputinplace.Ensuringthat humansarealwaysattheforefrontofAI’suseisessential,andmaintaininghumanjudgementin medicaldecisionsisvital.Additionally,AIineducationformedicalprofessionalsandthewider generalpubliciscrucialtofosteraresponsibleadoptionandtrustinthenew,developingtechnology. Bystrikingtherightbalance,AIcanbeanextremelypowerfultoolforgooduseratherthanaforce forharm.
Inconclusion,AIinmedicinehasthepotentialtobeadoubleedgedsword,bothofferinghuge potentialtorevolutionisehealthcare,butalsoposingsignificantethicalrisks.Withitsabilityto enhancediagnosticsandtreatmentisundeniable,concernsaboutbiasandprivacycannotbeignored. Therefore,thefutureofAIinmedicinehighlydependsontheresponsibledevelopmentandstrict regulationsthatmedicalorganisationsandgovernmentsputinplace.WemustensurethatAIshapes andenhancesthefutureofthemedicalfieldwheretechnologywillenhance–notreplace–human care.
HeloiseKunstlerY9
BornWithEvil:TheScientificOriginsofVillainy
Evil Atermusedtoshapestoriesforcenturies,fromSnowWhitetotheSchoolforGoodandEvil Is villainypurelyasocietalconstruct,ormustitbeexplainedbyscience?
Theanatomyanddysfunctioningofthebrainisamajorcauseofvillainy Thiscanbeduetothelevel ofactivityoftheamygdala,thealmond-shapedpartofthebrainwhichprocessesemotions,notably fear,empathyandaggression Forexample,amoreactiveamygdalaleadstoincreasedpanicand irritability,makingsomeonewithahyperactiveamygdalamoreliabletoviolence Furthermore,aless activeamygdalacausesreducedempathy,whichcouldcausepsychopathy Psychopathicpeople, therefore,feellessempathyandemotion,explainingwhytheyaremorelikelytocommitviolent crimes Infact,accordingtotheFBI,psychopathsmakeupfor85%ofserialkillers The dysfunctioningoftheprefrontalcortexalsoplaysanotableroleintheshapingofevil,asitis responsiblefordecisionmakingandcontrollingimpulses Hence,adamagedprefrontalcortexcan causeindividualstostruggletocontroltheirimpulses,possiblyleadingtomoreanimalisticbehavior, forexample,aggression Toillustratethis,in1997,AdrianRaineconductedPETscansonmurderers, andfoundthattheirprefrontalcortexeswerelessactivethantheaverageindividual’s Lastly,itcanbe observedthatbraindamageandtumourscanaffectthesepartsofthebrain Forinstance,Charles Whitman,amanwithnohistoryincrime,unexpectedlymurderedhiswife,hismotheraswellas15 otherpeople Hisautopsydemonstratedthathehadabraintumourinthehypothalamuspartofhis brain,puttingpressureontheamygdala,and,asaresult,affectinghisemotionsandirritability, provinghowtumoursinthebraincausemoreviolentbehaviour Overall,itisclearthatthelevelsof activityofdifferentpartsofthebrainaffectsanindividual’stendencytoevil
GeneticsandDNAalsoplayacrucialroleinshapingevil Forexample,theMAOAGene,or‘Warrior Gene’,isresponsibleforthebreakdownofserotoninanddopamine,linkingittoimpulse-control This genehasanotherform,however,thatislinkedwithmoreaggressionandviolence Todemonstrate this:in1993,HanBrunnercompletedastudyonthemeninaDutchfamilywhichhadahistoryof commitingcrimesandfoundthattheyhadtherareformoftheMAOAgene:theMAOA-Lgene, hencetheirincreasedviolence However,itisparamounttonotethatthesemenonlyperformed violentactsincertainsituations,forexample,whentheywereafraid;suggestingthattheMAOA-L genealoneisnotsufficienttoexplainincreasedviolenceandthatcertainsituationsareneededin orderto‘trigger’thisviolence Inaddition,psychopathytraits,which,asmentionedbefore,often causesincreasedaggression,hasbeenfoundtobegenetic;with50-60%ofpsychopathictraitsbeing heritable.Itseemsblatant,therefore,thatgeneticsandheredityplayacrucialroleintheoriginsof villainy,althoughitmustalsobenotedthatsituationmustalsobetakenintoaccount,andthatgenes, alone,willnotexplainwhysomeoneisevil.
Neurotransmitters,whicharechemicalmessengersfromthebrainthatcarrychemicalsignalsfrom oneneurontoanother,orfromaneurontoamusclecell,andhormoneschemicalmessengersfromthe bodythattravelinthebloodstream-arealsoinvolvedintheoriginsofevil Serotonin,a neurotransmitter,isresponsibleformoodandanxiety.Asaresult,lowserotoninlevelsarelinkedto moreimpulsivebehaviourandlessreasoneddecisions,causingmoreviolentandaggressive behaviour,thatwerefertoasevil.Infact,
Mannlookedathowhighserotoninlevelswereinmurderersin1996,andfoundthatimpulsive murderershadlowerserotoninactivitylevelsthanthosewhohadplannedthemurder Thisprovesthat lowserotoninlevelsareassociatedwithmoreimpulsiveandanimalisticbehaviour,suchas aggression.Dopamine,anotherneurotransmitter,whichisassociatedwithgivingpleasureand motivation,cancauseaggressivebehaviourandrisk-takingtoberewardingandthrillingin individualswithhighdopaminelevels,makingtheseactsmoreliabletobeingrepeated.Highlevelsof testosterone,ahormone,oftencauseincreasedaggressionandviolentactions,whilelowlevelsof
cortisol,whichisnormallyreleasedinresponsetostressandanxiety,causefearless,daringbehaviour Thismeanspeoplewithlowcortisollevelsmaynotfeelanxietyaboutbreakingsocietalrules,making themmorepronetocommitingcrime Illustratingthis,in1991,Dabbsanalysedtherelationship betweencortisolandtestosteronelevelsandcriminalbehaviour,bycomparingthetestosteroneand cortisollevelsinmaleprisoners Hediscoveredthattheprisonerswithlowcortisolbuthigh testosteronehadcommittedmoreviolentcrimesonaverage,thanthosewithnormallevelsofthese hormones.Basedonthis,itisapparentthathormonesandneurotransmittersaffectthelikelihoodofan individualperformingacrime,oranevilaction,asdemonstratedbystudiesandevidence.
Insummary,itisblatantthatevilisnotmerelyahumanconstruct,butthatitisfoundinnately, becauseofbraindysfunctioning,genes,andhormones
IsabelSaraivaESilvaLVI
TheScienceBehindPsychopathy:UnravelingtheDarkMind
Researchtellsusthat1in100peoplearepsychopaths-astatisticthat mostdefinitelychallengesourperceptionofthosearoundus
TheNationalInstitutesofHealthdefinespsychopathytobea neuropsychiatricdisordermarkedbydeficientemotionalresponses, lackofempathy,andpoorbehavioralcontrols,commonlyresultingin persistentantisocialdevianceandcriminalbehaviour Popularmedia depictspeoplewithpsychopathyasserialkillersandmassmurderers Despiteoftenbeingsensationalised,psychopathyisaseverecondition affectingupto25%ofprisoninmates Intheseportrayals,psychopathsareoftenseenaspureevil,but inreality,theydonotactivelychoosethispathbutrathercannotprocesswhatisneededtomake decisionsproperly Improvementsandprogressinneuroscienceshowthepresenceofgenetic, structural,andchemicaldifferencesinpsychopathscontributingmajorlytotheirdisorder In understandinghowtheydifferandthesciencebehindtheirdifferentbehaviour,weopendoorstomore effectivetreatmentandriskassessment
Aleadingfactorthatdistinguishesthe‘typical’humanbrainfromthatofapsychopathisthe functioningoftheamygdala-acomplexstructureofcellsinthemiddleofthebrain Itissaidthatthe amygdalaactsasthemainemotionalbrainstructurewhichisconstantlyevaluatingandcombining sensoryinformationfromitssurroundingsandassignsthemvaluesofemotionaldimensions Therefore,itplaysacrucialroleinmediatingmanyaspectsofemotionalbehaviouranditisespecially knownforregulatingfear,aggression,andempathy Studieshaveshownthatserialkillershavea5to 10%reductioningreymatteraroundthelimbicsystem,theregionwhereemotionsareprocessed Thisisespeciallyprominentintheamygdala Psychopathyisassociatedwithdeficitsinapathetic conditioning,fearfulfacialexpressionrecognition,andaugmentationofthestartlereflex,eachof thesedeficitsbeingrelatedtolesionstotheamygdala Itisunknownhowthisdysfunctionarisesbutit ispredictedtooccurininitialdevelopmentalstages,eitherprenatallyorinearlychildhooddueto potentialhormonalimbalances Therefore,inhavingadysfunctionalamygdala,thereisa neuroscientificexplanationfortheirdecreasedempathy,explainingtheirinclinationtoviolenceand theirdisturbinglackofremorse
Severalscientistshypothesisethattheamygdalaor limbicregionaloneisnottheonlystructuralcauseof psychopathy,butthattheconnectivitybetweendifferent regionsofthebrainisakeycontributingfactor Above all,thecommunicationandinterplaybetweenthe amygdalaandtheorbitofrontalcortexhaveanimpacton decision-makingandcomportment Withthedisruption oftheconnectivity,theorbitofrontalcortexlosesits abilitytocreateaccuraterepresentationsoffeelingssuch asfearinresponsetothreats Notonlythis,butrecent researchhasshownthatpsychopathsmayhavelower levelsofassociationbetweenthetwohemispheresofthe brain Theprocessofpassinginformationfromoneside ofthebraintotheotherwasshowntobelongerin criminalpsychopathswhencomparedtocriminalswho
donotpossessthepsychopathdisorder Thereislimitedevidenceavailabletofullyconfirmthis, however,ifthishypothesisistrue,theirinabilitytoprocessconceptssuchasmoralityeffectivelycan beexplainedinthehopesofonedayprovidingthemwithpropertreatmentbetteringtheiremotional awarenessandregulation
Anothercontributingfactortopsychopathyinindividualsisgenetics Whilstthenotionofa‘psycho gene’hasbeendebunked,itcanbesaidthatacombinationofcertaingenescanfurtherincreasethe likelihoodofpsychopathyandexplainanindividual’sdeviancefromthe‘typical’humanbehavior Researchsuggeststhataround50%ofthegeneticfactorswhichaccountforthevariationof psychopathictraitsarehereditary AkeygenethatgreatlycontributestothisissueistheMAOAgene, otherwiseknownasthewarriorgene However,thegeneitselfisnottheconcern,buttheproblemlies withhowitisexpressed Studieshavebeenabletoconnectthelow-expressionvariantMAOA-Ltoan increasedpredispositiontoviolentbehaviour.How?ThiswarriorgeneencodesforMonoamine oxidaseAwhichbreaksdownimportantneurotransmitterssuchasdopamineandserotonin.A mutationinthisgenecangiverisetoararediseaseknownasBrunnersyndromewhichisanMAOA deficiency.Thisleadstoanexcessoftheseamineneurotransmitters-ultimatelycausingimpulsive behaviourbeyondthenorm:sleepdisorders,violence,hypersexuality,andmore.Despitethisbeing incrediblyrare,thepresenceofMAOA-Lismuchmorecommonandpresentinroughly40%ofthe population.Notallofthesearepsychopaths,ofcourse,imaginetheworldwewouldlivein!Research doesshowhoweverthatthosewiththisgeneticcompositionofMAOA-Laremorelikelytohavea smallerlimbicarea(theregionwheretheamygdalaandothersimilarstructuresarelocated), indicatingthatanindividual’sgenomecanbeafactorintheirpsychopathyandtheirevil-like behaviour,restoringasmallsliverofourfaithinhumanity.
Allthingsconsidered,despiteneuroscientificresearchinthisfieldbeingfarfromcompletethereis enoughevidencetoarguethatpsychopathyisnotasimplechoicebetweengoodandevil.Instead,this neuropsychiatricdisorderarisesfromseveralcomplexchangesinthehumanbrainandgenetic composition,ultimatelyalteringindividuals’behaviourbeyondtheircontrol.Despitetheconstant evolutionofscienceandresearch,itisimportanttonotethatpsychopathicbehaviourisnotevilin itselfandthatcriminalbehaviourisallaroundus.Notallpsychopathsarecriminals,andnotall criminalsarepsychopaths.Thehumanmindisincrediblyintricateandcomplexworkinginwayswe donotfullyunderstand-atleastnotyet.
SocialEvil
Socialevilexploresthesystemicandcollectiveforcesthatperpetuateharm-examininghowsocietal structures,inequality,andcollectivebehaviourcontributetothespreadofinjustice,cruelty,and suffering.
"To ignore evil is to become an accomplice to it."
- Martin Luther King Jr.
VictoriaArtemvaY9
Greedyforprofit:Howtheglobaleconomyincentivisesevil
Amidsttradedeals,manufacturing,andmarketing,is wovenatightlyknitfabricofbusinessownersgreedily prioritisingprofits,anddisregardingevilthatmaycome alongasaresultofthem Inthisarticle,Iwilldiscusshow theglobaleconomy-meaning‘thesystemofindustryand tradearoundtheworldthathasdevelopedastheresultof globalization’,andcompetitionandcorruptionwithinitcan incentiviseevil-usedinthisarticletomeanprofoundly immoralactions,oronesthatprioritiseotherbenefitsover morality,insomecasescausingasworkerexploitationand environmentaldamage,butalsohowthiscanbeavoidedin thefuture,andisnotnecessarilyalwaysthecase
Thewaythattheglobaleconomyissetupincentivisesevil duetocompanies’wantforprofit Thiscancausethemto drivedowncosts(suchasmanufacturing)tocompetewiththepricesofothercompanies,andcan oftenleadtoworkersbeingforcedtowork,oftenforlittleornopay TheInternationallabour organisationestimatesthattherewere276millionpeopleinforcedlabouronanygivendayin2021 Thiswasan11%increasefrom2016,showingtheseverityofthisissue,andtheimportanceof addressingit WhileitisillegaltouseforcedlabourforthemanufactureofproductsontheEU market,manycompaniesstilldoso TheRanaPlazafactorycollapseisamajorexampleofhow negligenceandcorruption,causedbywantforprofit,canleadto chaosanddestruction Thefinancialincentivepromisedbyprofit wasmorevaluedthanthemoralincentiveofprotectingworkers, showinghowmuchprofitisvaluedbycertainemployers
Fromautilitarianperspective,thisisunethicalasitleadstomuch moreharmthangood,andmaximisingtheeconomicgrowthofthe companyislessvaluablethanthesufferingofexploitedworkers Andwhilemoreeconomicgrowthcanleadtohigheremployment rates,meaningthatbusinessownerscaninfacthelpthelivesof workers,thepeopleworkinginsuchlabourjobscanoftenbe exploitedandunderpaid,leadingtomoreevilthangood
However,manysourcessuggestthattheendingofforcedlabour wouldbemorebeneficialtothedevelopmentoftheeconomyof countries,andthereforetheglobaleconomy Thisisbecausethere wouldbemoreinvestmentintothelabourmarketandcreatinga skilledworkforce,aswellasmoredisposableincomethatcanbespentonproducts,contributingto
theeconomy Soperhapstheglobaleconomydoesnotalwaysnecessarilyincentiviseevil Another waythatevilseemstotriumphovermoralityisinthematterofbalancingenvironmentaldestruction andotherbenefitssuchasprofit Manyofthecompaniesinvolvedintheglobaleconomy’sfocuson profitovermoralitycanalsooftenleadtoenvironmentaldestructionanddegradation
Theeconomiesofmanycountries,suchasBruneiandIraq,dependheavilyupontheoilmarketand oilexports However,whenusedforfuel,oilproducesgreenhousegasesthatcontributetoclimate change,whichcanaffectthelivesofpeopleallovertheworld Forthisreason,thesecountries prioritisefinancialgainoversustainabilityand‘doingtherightthing’-thisisawaythatevilis incentivisedandevennormalisedintheglobaleconomy Duetocheapermanufactureofitems,less durablematerialsandgoodscanbreakveryeasilyandcausemoreconsumerismtoreplacethem, creatinganunsustainablecyclethatisperpetuatedfortheprofitofbusinesses
Thefocusonprofitscanalsoleadtohigherpricesforcustomers,whichisanunnecessaryevilthat customershavetodealwith
Aphenomenoncalled‘shrinkflation’iswherethesizeofaproductisreduced,whilethepricestays thesame Thisisjustawaythatbusinessescanmaketheircustomerspaymoremoneyforlessoftheir products-thatsaid,itcanbefacedwithmuchcustomerbacklashandcriticism,meaningthatitisnot alwaysatacticthatisused,butcanstillhappen Companiesalsooftenrampuppricesunfairlybased onacustomer’swillingnesstopay-forexample,ifacustomerisbuyingplaneticketsthenightbefore theirflight,theywilllikelybemorewillingtopaythansomeonepayingamonthinadvance,andwill thereforebechargedmoremoney Thisisunfairtothecustomerastheyarebeingchargedahigher priceforthesameticket However,intheglobaleconomy,competitionwithotherbusinessesoften stopsthisfromhappening,meaningthatpricesareoftendrivendowninsteadofup
Incontrast,however,evilisnotalwaysviewedasthemoreprofitableoption-brandsthathavea modelofcorporatesocialresponsibility(abusinessmodelthathelpsacompanybesocially accountabletoitself,itsstakeholdersandthepublic)canoftenberewardedbycustomersforbeing ethical,andcanboostsales,showinghowevilisnotalwaysincentivised
Forexample,Patagoniahasquiteasuccessfulbusinessmodel,whichalignswithenvironmentaland sustainablepractices,andhasacorporatesocialresponsibilitymodel In2023,thecompanywas valuedataround$3billionandgeneratedanannualrevenueof$100million,showingitssuccess,and howethicalbusinessbrandscangeneratelargeprofitsfromtheirethicalbranding Thisis synonymouswithvirtueethics,inwhichphilosophyabusinessshouldprioritisemoralresponsibility overprofit,asanindividualwould Thatsaid,thesebrandscansometimesclaimtobeethical,when theydon’tpartakeinethicalpractices(suchasH&M,whichmademisleadingclaimsaboutthe sustainabilityoftheirproducts) Whichleadstothequestion:areconsumersreallymorally responsibleforsupportingunethicalcompanies,orisitthebusinessesresponsibilitytocultivate ethicalpractices?
Lastly,notallofthecontrolisinthehandsoftheglobaleconomy Immoralactionscanstillbe avoidedanddisincentivizedbylawsandregulations,ascompaniesintheglobaleconomyarestill subjecttointernationallaws However,thisisnotalwaysthecase,andcansometimesbehardto control,aswellcanbeunregulatedduetosystemiccorruption Thiscanleadtoseriousproblemssuch asexploitationofworkers,aspreviouslydiscussed
Inconclusion,althoughtheglobaleconomycanbecontrolledbyrulesandregulations,andcorporate socialresponsibilitycanberewardedbycustomers,manyofthemajorbusinessesoftheglobal economyprioritiseprofitovermorality,leadingtoenvironmentalimpact,labourexploitation,and harmtocustomers,andshowinghowevilcanbeacceptedwhenitisdecoratedwiththeincentiveof profit
BookRecommendations
Year7:Coraline, Neil Gaiman.TheLion,theWitchandtheWardrobe, C.S. Lewis.TheBad Beginning(A Series of Unfortunate Events,Book1), Lemony Snicket
Year8-LordoftheFlies, William Golding TheGraveyardBook, Neil Gaiman CityofGhosts, Victoria Schwab
Year9-AnimalFarm, George Orwell Frankenstein, Mary Shelley OfMiceandMen, John Steinbeck
Year10-Macbeth, William Shakespeare TheTrial, Franz Kafka Crime andPunishment, Fyodor Dostoevsky.ThePictureofDorianGray, Oscar Wilde Perfume:TheStoryofaMurderer, Patrick Süskind
Year11-1984, George Orwell.Man’sSearchforMeaning, Viktor E Frankl Evil:InsideHumanViolenceandCruelty, Roy F Baumeister The BrothersKaramazov, Fyodor Dostoevsky
VIForm-TheLuciferEffect:UnderstandingHowGoodPeopleTurn Evil, Philip Zimbard DisciplineandPunis AnatomyofEvil, M inJerusalem:ARep
