Coughing lambs in the summer period
Annually, during the summer months, the Veekijker receives reports of sheep that are coughing, often without further symptoms of illness. In most cases, this involved lambs. The animals often start coughing after exertion, but sometimes spontaneously as well; the sound of the cough is dry and rough. The animals are in good general condition and there is no fever or abnormal behaviour.
Treatments administered against possible bacterial causes rarely yield any improvement. Dry coughing in sheep is often caused by irritation of the upper respiratory tract, which can be the result of irritating substances or mechanical damage caused by panting. The role of viral infections is sometimes mentioned, although little is known about that.
Although the name would seem to fit, these are not cases of summer pneumonia. In cases
of summer pneumonia, a bacterial infection (Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Pasteurella trehalosi ) is responsible for damage in the lower respiratory tract. That condition is generally associated with a moist and expectorant cough, lethargy, fever, abnormal breathing sounds and reduced appetite. The clinical picture is often characterised by sudden mortality among growing lambs, often in the months September to November.
In the event of respiratory issues, it is a good idea to get the animals examined clinically. Additional diagnostics are not always straightforward while they are alive, partly due to the commensal occurrence of the causative agent of summer pneumonia, Mannheimia haemolytica. The vet can use the clinical picture when considering the need for antimicrobial therapy.
Q fever diagnosed in forest reindeer: reporting obligation extended
Q fever has recently been diagnosed in a herd of forest reindeer, after weakness and multiple stillbirths were noted. Test material was submitted for abortion diagnostics, in which the bacterium Coxiella burnetii (the agent responsible for Q fever) was detected. Further analysis by the Dutch reference laboratory WBVR revealed that this was not the Dutch outbreak strain (2005–2012) but a variant previously found in cattle. This variant has, in general, been less frequently associated with human infections than strains originating from sheep and goats. Q fever is a zoonosis that can be transmitted from animals to humans via aerosols. Various animal species are susceptible, but above all goats and sheep. In these species, infection can lead to serious reproductive problems such as abortion, stillbirth and weak offspring. Cattle can also become infected, although
infections are commonly less aggressive in these animals. Q fever can also occur in reindeer and camelids, although the knowledge is lacking for these species. In addition, pets such as cats and dogs, as well as various wild animal species, can carry and excrete the bacterium. The fact that Q fever is a notifiable disease, is a key tool in its control. Whereas the notification obligation previously only applied to cases involving sheep and goats, it has recently been extended: infections in reindeer and camels must now also be reported immediately to the veterinary authorities. For small ruminants, an elevated proportion of abortions must be reported to the Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NVWA). On top of that, bulk milk results that are PCRpositive for C. burnetii from sheep and goat dairy farms must be reported to the NVWA.
Animal health monitoring
Royal GD has been responsible for animal health monitoring in the Netherlands since 2002, in close collaboration with the veterinary sectors, the business community, the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Food Security and Nature, veterinarians and farmers. The information used for the surveillance programme is gathered in various ways, whereby the initiative comes in part from vets and farmers, and partly from Royal GD. This information is fully interpreted to achieve the objectives of the surveillance programme – rapid identification of health issues on the one hand and monitoring trends and developments on the other. Together, we team up for animal health, in the interests of animals, their owners and society at large.
Pseudolactation in backyard goats
Every year, the Veekijker receives questions about treating pseudolactation in backyard goats. In cases of pseudolactation, a nanny goat produces milk without having been pregnant or having recently kidded. The cause of this problem is unclear, but it is speculated that a hormonal imbalance or physiological response to environmental factors may explain the phenomenon. Examples of hormonal imbalance include elevated secretion of the hormone prolactin by the pituitary gland or
prolonged exposure to progesterone in the case of a PCL (persistent corpus luteum). In addition, underlying health problems such as ovarian cysts or other reproductive conditions could also play a part in this disorder. Excessive stimulation or manipulation of the teats can also lead to milk production. Highly productive breeds are generally more susceptible to pseudolactation. Pseudolactation is sometimes accompanied by pseudogravidity (false pregnancy) in goats. In practice,
determining the cause of pseudolactation is often difficult. Treating pseudolactation is complex because the cause is often unknown and medicinal interventions often prove disappointing, unfortunately. In rare cases, the udder may dry up spontaneously. If there is serious impairment of the animal’s welfare, particularly where additional inflammatory processes arise, surgical removal of the udder should be considered.
Urolithiasis in farm livestock and backyard animals
A billy goat was recently diagnosed with urolithiasis after behavioural abnormalities were observed and it proved unable to urinate. It transpired that there was an obstruction of the urethra. The goat underwent an operation and urine was collected for examination. Analysis of the sediment showed that it consisted of calcium carbonate stones.
Urolithiasis – urinary stones or grit forming in the urinary tract – occurs regularly in male goats, particularly in young castrated males that are fed a significant amount of concentrated feed. The narrow and winding shape of the
urethra means that male ruminants are at greater risk of obstructions than females.
The commonest stone types in ruminants are struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate), often the result of a proteinrich diet that contains phosphorus combined with a high (i.e. alkaline) urine pH, whereas calcium phosphate stones are often seen at high pH levels, and calcium carbonate stones are usually caused by feed with a high calcium content; silicate stones are rarer and usually associated with specific regions or food sources.
Haemonchosis in sheep and goats
From mid-July onwards, several lambs submitted to the necropsy room were found to have died from barber’s pole worm infections (haemonchosis). The worm causing this condition is known scientifically as Haemonchus contortus. Several reports of haemonchosis infections were also received via notifications from veterinarians and livestock owners to the Veekijker.
Controlling H. contortus remains a challenge for many sheep and goat farms. Whereas July and August used to be considered the riskiest months, the critical period has now lengthened: for
several years now, it has often lasted from June until well into the autumn. Changing climatic conditions influence the development of the worm’s larval stages, but are awkward to predict; combined with increasing resistance among worm populations to deworming agents, this means that an integrated preventive approach is needed.
Effective measures include regular monitoring of the faecal egg count and, a year-round grazing schedule, quarantine and preventive treatment of purchased animals if required, and monitoring the treatment efficacy.
When urolithiasis is diagnosed in a herd, treatment is not straightforward. Many problems can be prevented by making a few adjustments to the diet and drinking water. The right ratio of calcium to phosphorus, a limited amount of concentrated feed, sufficient clean drinking water and caution when using calcium-rich feeds such as alfalfa can reduce the risk. It is also advisable not to castrate billy goats too young, so that the urethra can develop fully and the risk of blockage is reduced.
Resistance of Haemonchus contortus to all the available groups of deworming agents has now been demonstrated in the Netherlands. GD therefore recommends always checking the effectiveness of the treatment after completion. If manure test results are positive and deworming is required, it is advisable to repeat the manure test 10 to 14 days after treatment. Veterinarians play an important supporting role in prevention that is specific to the farm.
Animal health barometer – Small Ruminants
Disease/disorder/health characteristic
Articles 2.1.a and 2.1.b of the Designation of Animal Diseases in the ‘Rules for Animal Health’/Implementing
(EU) 2018/1882 of the Animal Health Law (EU) 2016/429 (Category A disease)
Infectious pleuropneumonia in goats (CCPP)
(Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae)
Never detected in the Netherlands.
Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) FMD has not been reported in the Netherlands since 2001.
Various outbreaks in Europe since January 2025. An outbreak was confirmed in January at a water buffalo farm in Germany (serogroup O). Outbreaks were subsequently detected in Hungary and Slovakia (related O serogroups, but different from the serogroup O found in Germany). High-risk imports are investigated by the Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NWVA). There appears to have been no spreading to other countries. No new cases have been reported since April.
Infection with goat plague (a.k.a. PPR, peste des petits ruminants)
Infection with Rift Valley Fever virus (RVF)
Never detected in the Netherlands. Various outbreaks in Europe since July 2024. No new outbreaks have been reported recently in Hungary, Bulgaria, Greece and Romania; the situation appears to be stable at the moment. There were several outbreaks in Albania in June 2025 and one was confirmed in Kosovo in July.
Never detected in the Netherlands. A+D+E
Sheep pox and goat pox (SGP) Never detected in the Netherlands. From October 2023 onwards, multiple outbreaks have been confirmed in Greece. Several outbreaks have recently been reported in Bulgaria, Romania and Greece.
Disease/disorder/health characteristic
Articles 2.1.a and 2.1.b of the Designation of Animal Diseases in the ‘Rules for Animal Health’/Implementing Regulation (EU) 2018/1882 of the Animal Health Law (EU) 2016/429 (Categories B to E)
Infection with Brucella abortus, B. melitensis
Infection with the rabies virus
Infection with the bluetongue virus (serogroups 1-24)
The required numbers of random samples for 2024 have been achieved. All results were negative and the Netherlands therefore retains its disease-free status. GD is paying a great deal of extra attention to obtaining the necessary number of samples for this monitoring.
Detected very rarely in bats.
An outbreak of BTV-3 has been ongoing since September 2023. The virus causes severe problems on sheep farms and to a lesser extent on cattle and goat farms. Since 2023, BTV-3 has become widespread throughout Europe. In 2024, BTV-12 was detected at a limited number of farms in the Netherlands. Later in the same year, the United Kingdom reported a positive finding for BTV-12. In July and August 2025, infections of BTV-3 and BTV-8 were detected in several European countries. No clinical suspicions of BTV have been confirmed in the Netherlands to date.
Epididymitis in sheep (Brucella ovis)
Infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (M. bovis, M. caprae, M. tuberculosis)
Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)
Paratuberculosis (Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis)
Examination of rams for export purposes. Not previously confirmed in the Netherlands.
The Netherlands has been officially free of bovine tuberculosis since 1999.
Last registered outbreak in cattle in 1993. No infections detected since then.
Regular cases, largely in goats (incl. dairy) and occasionally in sheep.
Disease/disorder/health characteristic
Q fever (Coxiella burnetii )
Echinococcosis
Trichinellosis
The final dairy goat farm with C. burnetii was certified free from infection in 2016. Q fever was diagnosed in 2024 at a dairy sheep farm in Bakel and in the spring of 2025 in the placenta of an imported sheep at a backyard farm. Recently, abortion due to Coxiella burnetii was diagnosed in a herd of forest reindeer at a zoo. Based on this case, the reporting requirement for camelids and cervids has been amended.
Not detected in the necropsy room since 2023.
No known cases of trichinellosis in sheep or goats.
Article 2.1.c Designation of animal diseases in the ‘Rules for Animal Health’ of the Dutch Animals Act
Transferable TSEs (scrapie, BSE)
No more cases among sheep in recent years. In goats, the first case of scrapie was in 2000 and the last in 2001. Classical scrapie has recently been confirmed on a sheep farm in the United Kingdom. Just a single animal was infected.
Article 3a.1 Notification of zoonoses under the ‘Rules for Animal Husbandry’ of the Dutch Animals Act
Campylobacteriosis (Campylobacter spp.)
Leptospirosis (Leptospira Hardjo)
Listeriosis (Listeria spp.)
A few cases per year. Particularly known as a cause of abortion in sheep in particular.
No cases in sheep or goats for several years. In 2024, this was suspected in aborted sheep foetuses, but the finding could not be confirmed because the sheep farmer in question refused to cooperate.
Encephalitis caused by Listeria monocytogenes is regularly found in sheep and especially in dairy goats. Problems caused by listeriosis are reported at a few dairy goat farms each year. How long listeria bacteria are excreted into the milk for is not known. Both L. monocytogenes and L. ivanovii can cause abortion in sheep and goats.
* * Further investigation is desirable into the types found in humans and animals. >>
Disease/disorder/health characteristic
Salmonellosis (Salmonella spp .)
Yersiniosis (Yersinia spp.)
Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii)
Other OIE list diseases
Enzootic abortion (Chlamydia abortus)
Caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE)
Since 2016, there have been recurrent and large-scale losses of kids at dairy goat farms, caused by a multiresistant S. Typhimurium. In 2025, Salmonella Typhimurium was detected in dairy goat kids at two related farms. Salmonella serotype C was also detected in kids at a dairy goat farm.
A few cases per year. Identified as a cause of diarrhoea, mortality and abortion.
Only a few confirmed cases per year but probably one of the most commonly occurring causes of abortion. High seroprevalence has previously been demonstrated in sheep and goats.
One of the main causes of abortion in goats and sheep for many years. Distribution from farm to farm is through contaminated female breeding stock. Very difficult to tackle once introduced to a flock. Enzootic abortion is a zoonosis and therefore one of the key reasons why pregnant women should not work with small ruminants at lambing time.
A commonly occurring disease in which the pathogenic virus sometimes behaves differently depending on the size of the farm. Source of introduction not always clear.
Maedi-visna virus (MVV)
Tularaemia (Francisella tularensis)
A significant infectious disease (or indeed the most significant) at sheep farms, larger ones in particular.
Since 2011, infected hares have regularly been found in the Netherlands, as well as a small number of human tularaemia patients.
Mycoplasma agalactiae Never detected in the Netherlands.
Nairobi sheep disease Never detected in the Netherlands.
Heartwater (Ehrlichia ruminantium)
Never detected in the Netherlands.
* * pilot study in 2025 into Chlamydia spp. in small ruminants associated with abortion
Disease/disorder/health characteristic
Infections with Schmallenberg virus (SBV)
From monitoring
Coxiella burnetii in abortion material from forest reindeer
There have been infections with SBV every year since 2011, resulting in congenital abnormalities in lambs. Excluding other possible causes of such congenital abnormalities in lambs remains important for early detection of the introduction of other viruses from the Bunyaviridae group.
Weak and stillborn calves in a herd of forest reindeer tested positive for C. burnetii. Earlier this year, C. burnetii was detected in a stillborn lamb and the placenta of a sheep imported from Ireland.
Coughing lambs in the summer months
Outbreak of Salmonella serotype C in young dairy goat kids
Haemonchosis in sheep and goats
Wide variation in liver copper concentrations in goat kids
Several flocks with lambs coughing without any apparent cause.
An outbreak of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica Bovismorbificans (type C) has been detected at a location also housing young cattle. S. Bovismorbivicans has not previously been detected in goats in the Netherlands.
Several cases of haemonchosis were reported from mid-July onwards.
Additional investigations of copper liver values in kids sent in for pathological examination regularly show a deficiency or excess of stored copper. Liver copper levels that are too low or too high can compromise immunity.
1 Quiet: no action required or action is not expected to result in a clear improvement.
2 Increased attention: alert to an anomaly.
3 Further investigation: further investigation is ongoing or required.
Continuation of table
