(~
,-
/ /', ,I
PENGUIN BOOKS
DOWNFALL Richard B. Frank was born in Kansas in 1947. Upon graduation from the University of Missouri in 1969, he was commissioned in the United States Army, in which he served for almost four years, including a tour of duty in the Republic of Vietnam as an aerorifle platoon leader with the 101st Airborne Division. In 1976, he completed studies at Georgetown University Law Center in Washington, D.C. The following year he began research on his fIrst book, Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Campaign, which was published in 1990. He lives in Annandale, Virginia.
FllIPIN S
AR'l
\
The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire
RICHARD B. FRANK
PENGUIN BOOKS
To the memory of my brother Lawrence Victor Frank
1957-1994
o 1?,1,<
F:J:> Jt7Iq.:;
PENGUIN BOOKS
Published by the Penguin Group Penguin Putnam Inc., 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014, U.S.A. Penguin Books Ltd, 27 Wrights Lane, London W8 51'2, England Penguin Books Australia Ltd, Ringwood, Victoria, Australia Penguin Books Canada Ltd, 10 Alcorn Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4V 3B2 Penguin Books (N.Z.) Ltd, 182-190 Wairau Road, Auckland 10, New Zealand Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices: Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England First published in the United States of America by Random House, Inc. 1999 Published in Penguin Books 200 I
5 7 9 10 8 6 Copyright © Richard B. Frank, 1999 Maps copyright © David Lindroth Inc. , 1999 All rights reserved Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following for permission to use both published and unpublished material: Clemson University: Quotes from the James F. Byrnes papers housed in special collections, Clemson University Libraries. Used by permission. William Morrow & Company: Excerpts from Prisoners of the Japanese, by Gavan Daws. Copyright © 1994 by Gavan Daws. Reprinted by permission of William Morrow & Company. Princeton University: excerpts from the James V. Forrestal Diaries covering the period of March through August 1945, housed at the Seely G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University Library. Published with the permission of the Princet9n University Library. Yale University: Diary entries dated I May 1944 through 21 September 1944 by Henry Lewis Stimson, housed in the Henry Lewis Stimson Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library. Used by permission. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS HAS CATALOGED THE HARDCOVER EDITION AS FOLLOWS:
Downfall: the end of the Imperial Japanese Empire I Richard B. Frank. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index . ISBN 0-679-41424-X (hc.) ISBN 014 10.0146 I (pbk.) 1. World War, 1939-1945-Campaigns-Iapan. 2. World War, 1939-1945Aerial operations, American. 3. Iapan-History-Bombardment, 1945. 4.Iapan-History-I926-1945. 5 B-29 bomber. 1. Title. D767 .2.F73 1999 940.54'25--<1c21 99-11838 Printed in the United States of America Set in Times Roman· Designed by Victoria Wong Except in the United States of America, this book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
Acknowledgments
My deep thanks must commence with my agent, Robert Gottlieb, and my editor, Robert Loomis, who wisely counseled me that this subject offered the most promise of any I was considering in 1991. How right they were. The core of this work comes from the various archives that house collections of American military and naval records. Cheerful and skilled assistance was tendered by a huge number of staff members at these facilities, but I wish to particularly single out the following. At the National Archives, it was my privilege to again receive the attention and wise advice of one of America's great living treasures, John Taylor. Will Mahoney, Larry MacDonald, and Sandy Smith also provided invaluable assistance on record safaris. I send a salute to Dr. Richard J. Sommers at the United States Army Military History Institute at Carlisle, Dennis Bilger at the Harry S. Truman Library, Lynn Gama at the Air Force Center at Maxwell, and Brigadier General Edwin Simmons (USMC Ret.), who was the director at the Marine Corps History Center when I did my research there. At the MacArthur Archive, I was both precisely guided and provided an exceptional welcome by Colonel William Davis (USMC Ret.), the director, and James Zobel, Beth Carter, and Jeff Acosta of his staff. Very special thanks are also due to the Naval Historical Center, the place where I feel most at home. There, at one time or another over this long gestation period, I was aided by the former director, Dr. Dean Allard, as well as the current director, Dr. William Dudley, and his wonderful staff, including
vi
Acknowledgments
particularly Bernard Cavalcante, Kathy Lloyd, Mike Walker, and Edwin Finney. A special acknowledgment is due to Robert Cressman and Charles Haberlein, who are both members of the staff of the Naval Historical Center and old friends. Barton Bernstein, Edward J. Drea, and Sadao Asada brought their deep knowledge of this area to bear in reviewing and critiquing earlier versions of this manuscript, to my enormous profit. A further word is also due Barton Bernstein, who provided assistance in research and served over a long period as a most stimulating sounding board. His command of sources and rigor is unexcelled in this area. In important respects, this narrative is built upon the pioneering work of Edward J. Drea and John Ray Skates, who brought to the fore important issues and made vital discoveries. With one penetrating question at a McCormick Foundation and Naval Institute Seminar, Gerhard Weinberg shaped the analysis presented here to a significant degree. Greg Embree, Dennis Fontana, Mary Gallagher, John Lundstrom, James Sawruk, and Robert Sullivan reviewed the manuscript and made shrewd contributions to its narrative pace and emphasis, as well as saving me from many grammatical crimes. All of them are good friends who also offered strong moral support over these many years. Likewise, Jerome Gough professed that he was never bored with the story of my travails on this project. I cannot repay the debt lowe to Bunichi Ohtsuka, my translator and friend. His contribution was indispensable to presenting a more complete and accurate picture of the Japanese side of the story. At Random House, Robert Loomis patiently nurtured this project as it metamorphosed radically from the initial concept. He provided both sound advice and sustained moral support. My debt to him is beyond calculation. My gratitude also is extended to Benjamin Dreyer for his patient oversight of the publication process, Timothy Mennel for his highly skilled copyediting, and the always cheerful Barbe Hammer for her multiple contributions. Last, but by no means least, my unbounded thanks are due to my wife, Janet, and children, Rachel and Mitchell, for their unfailing love, understanding, and support over these many years.
Contents
Acknowledgments Maps Introduction 1. Tokyo Bums: Raid of March 9-10
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
12. 13. 14.
Strategies Old, Strategies New From Zeppelins to B-29s LeMay Takes Command Fire and Mud The "Fundamental Policy" Magic Insights Downfall and Olympic Plans The Invasion and the President Pummeling and Strangling: Bombardment and Blockade, June to August Ketsu Operation on Kyushu Kamikazes, Civilians, and Assessments The Eclipse of Olympic Unconditional Surrender and Magic
v viii ix 3 20 38 57 68 83 103 117 131 149 164 178 197 214
Conttnts
viii
15. Magic and Diplomacy with the Soviets 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
Hiroshima Manchuria and Nagasaki The Decisive Day Surrender Assessing Realities Alternatives and Conclusions
240 252 273 288 308
331 349
361 363 365
Appendix A Appendix B Notes Bibliographic Note Index:
445 461
Maps Japan and Operation Downfall: The Invasion of Japan, November 1, 1945-March 1,1946
25
Plan for Operation Olympic and Estimated Japanese Dispositions u~M~19~
1W
Plan for Operation Olympic and Actual Japanese Dispositions as of August 1945
205
August Storm: Soviet Offensive in Manchuria, August 1945
279
Introduction
How World War II ended in the Pacific remains one of the great controversies in American-and Japanese-history. At the center of this controversy is the atomic bomb. Indeed, ahnost all accounts of this period position atomic weaponry as the hub around which all other considerations orbit. This approach, however, profoundly fails to re-create history as it originally unfolded. For Americans and Japanese of all stations, the events of that time involved a great deal more than the advent of atomic weapons. This narrative is a work of restoration that strives to permit us to see that period through contemporary American and Japanese eyes. It starts from the fundamental premise that military and naval realities, and how they were perceived on both sides, dominated the relationship between the United States and Japan between January and August 1945. These critical realities encompass strategic plans and operations directed at the preservation or extinction of Imperial Japan. They include air and sea operations aimed at the Japanese Homeland, plans to invade Japan, preparations to resist such an invasion, and the operations arising from Soviet entry into this theater of the war. It does not include a detailed examination of American or Allied campaigns in the Philippines, at Iwo Jima or Okinawa, or elsewhere in Asia or the Pacific. Neither side neglected diplomacy during these months. Both, however, viewed it as subordinate to military calculations, and that relationship is
x
Introduction
maintained here. Diplomatic questions, however, were vitally connected with Allied, mainly American, success at code breaking, and this account illuminates the importance of the decryption of not only Japanese diplomatic messages but also military messages on American strategy and diplomacy. Likewise, the space allocated here to the use of atomic weapons reflects how much their employment fit into a broader military and political strategy. This narrative also differs in method from most prior treatments of the period. To the maximum extent possible, events are presented here as they were perceived and recorded by American and Japanese participants in 1945-not years or decades thereafter. Where it proved impossible to avoid resorting to recollections, as is particularly the case with Japanese political developments, their reliability has been approached from a critical stance and tested as much as possible against contemporary evidence. This approach reveals a very new story about a dramatic transformation of American calculations in the last two months of hostilities. These changes go to the very heart of the contentious issues concerning invasion plans and the program of air bombardment. Among the other vital issues thus set in fresh light are the stance of senior American naval leaders on the prospective invasion of Japan, casualty estimates for an invasion, and the procurement, interpretation, and dissemination of Ultra and Magic intelligence information. Particular effort also has been made to maintain a balanced perspective, with extensive coverage of developments in. Japan. This is intended expressly to prevent the distortions that inevitably stem from a failure to respect the autonomy that Japanese decision makers exercised in choosing military and diplomatic strategies. The exploration of the Japanese viewpoint also breaks new ground in using more comprehensive and authoritative Japanese sources, particularly the volumes in the massive official Japanese War History Series that have been prepared over the last three decades. These cover planning and operations for the defense of the Homeland and, of paramount importance, the development of strategic policy within Imperial General Headquarters. Of special note is that the account of Imperial General Headquarters branches into the political arena and sheds new light on core Japanese positions on invasion and blockade as well as on reaction to the use of atomic bombs, Soviet intervention, and the struggle to end the war. In the center of these events in Japan stood Emperor Hirohito. After his passing in 1989, new and important evidence about his role in the war came to light. The most significant piece of this fresh evidence was a lengthy statement he dictated in early 1946. Reading this document criti-
Introduction
xi
cally with other evidence is essential to assessing correctly his views and role. And this, in turn, goes to the heart of understanding how near or far Japan stood from peace before Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Finally, much attention has been given---quite properly-to the indiscriminate effects of the atomic bombs that seared, blasted, and irradiated tens of thousands of noncombatants. But central to understanding this period is the basic fact that atomic bombs were not the sole agents of mass death. Thus, this account begins with the graphic reality of conventional air bombardment as practiced in the final six months of the war.
Index
Page ~umbers in italics refer to maps.
abolitionist-retentionist debate, 215-17 see also Imperial system, Japanese; surrender, unconditional Acheson, Dean, 216-17 Adjusted Service Rating (ASR), 124-25 aerial reconnaissance, see reconnaissance, aerial agriculture, Japanese, 96, 164-65 air bases, Allied, 31, 49-52,153,155,158,261, 272,298,305 air bases, Japanese, 72, 84, 158, 165, 167-68, 185-86,207-10,212-13,274 airborne assault, 122, 168-69, 176n, 203 airborne radar pickets, 186 air commando units, 119 Air Corps Tactical School, 50, 53 aircraft: bomber, 3-4, 8, 31,129 concealmentof,206-8 disarming of, 321-22 fighter, 49, 60, 63, 73, 129, 184,208-10 jet, 73, 129,209 pathfinder, 69 trainer, 183, 184, 186,207-11 transport,49,50, 129, 158 see also kamikaze aircraft and tactics; specific aircraft aircraft carriers, 60-61, 118, 157-59,298 bombing raids from, 36, 60-61, 157-58,272, 298,334 kamikaze attacks on, 179-83
aircraft industry, Japanese, 48, 53-55, 58--61, 73,82,150-51,154,158,184,208-10, 263n,295,304-5,335-36 aircraft industry, U.S ., 129 Air Force, U.S ., creation of, 355-56 Air General Army, Japanese, 84, 317 airpower, Japanese, 51, 54, 58-59, 61, 66, 74, 83,178-84,191 in Ho.neland defense, 84,118,167,184-87, 197-98,205, 206-11,274-75 intelligence estimates of, 185-86, 197-99, 206-11,274-75 see also kamikaze aircraft and tactics airpower, Soviet, 281 airpower, U.S., see strategic bombing air-raid alert system, Japanese, 3-5, 61, 264 air-raid drills,S air-raid shelters, 4-5, 9, 269, 270 Akashi, bombing of, 58, 151 Akihito, Crown Prince, 346 Alabama, 157 Alamogordo, N.Mex., atomic test at, 260-61 alcohol fuels, 208 Aleutians campaign, 28-29 Alperovitz, Gar, 247n aluminous shale, 154 Amagasaki, bombing of, 76 Amagi, sinking of, 158 Amakusa Islands, 176n Amano, Masakazu, 195-96
Index
462 Arnaterasu (sun goddess), 346 Americal Division, U.S., 121, 122 American Academy of Political Science, 127 ammunition shortage, Japanese, 173, 174, 176--77,203 amphibious operations, 37, 60--61, 70-71, 117-22,167,181,192,203,276,322-23 casualties in, 28-29, 61, 71, 122, 136, 139, 140-41,358-59 Anami, Korechika, 92-95, 99, \02, 196,227, 288,291-99,308-11,314-20,337-38, 344-45 in coup plot, 318-20 surrender conditions proposed by, 291-96, 309,345 AN/APN-3 Shoran radar, 306 AN/APQ-7 Eagle radar, 152,306 AN/APQ-13 radar, 150, 152, 263n, 306 antiaircraft defenses, 4, 40-41, 51, 54, 61-{i6, 74,151,156,180-82,186,271 anticommunism, 23-24 antifascism, 26--27, 337 antitank defenses, 171-73, 177, 188, 199,280, 322 Antwerp, Allied bombardment of, 43 Aoba, sinking of, 158 Arao, Okikatsu, 318-20 Arashi, Operation, 159 see also suicide tactics architecture and urban planning, Japanese, 6, 7, 9-10,12,48,55,74-75,267,336 Ardennes offensive, German, 33, 44, 45, 47, 128 Area Special Policing Units, Japanese, 188,204 Argentina, 105 Ariake Bay, Kyushu, 121, 165, 167-71, 173-74,
192-93,205,206 Arisue, Seizo, 196,270 armament industry, Japanese, 82 Armstrong, Frank, 152 Army, Japanese, see Imperial Army Army, U.S., 20-23, 33, 122-29, 192-94 battle deaths in, 28-29, 71,122,134-41 invasion favored by, 27-28, 34, 36--37, 141-42,273-77,357 morale in, 125-27, 195-96,358 personnel policies in, 123-29,339,358 Army Aeronautic Technology Research Institute, Japanese, 253 Army Air Forces, U.S., 33, 40-56,126--27,194, 364 independence sought for, 52, 64, 355-56 precision bombing doctrine of, 40-42, 44, 46, 304,335-36
Army Day, Japan, 3, 18 Army Ground Forces, U.S., 126--29 Army Ministry, Japanese, 93, 317-19 see also Anami, Korechika Arnold, Henry H., 45, 48, 57, 60, 64,79, 139, 244,304,332n,341 strategic air force built by, 49-50, 52, 153 terror bombing endorsed by, 47, 53-55, 67, 258,336--37 arsenals, bombing raids on, 73, 313 Arshaan,Manchuria,282,322,326 artillery, 70-71,157-58,169-76,182, 192-93 antiaircraft, 4, 40-41, 51, 54, 61-{i6, 74, 151, 156, 181, 186 antitank, 171-73, 177,280 self-propelled,277-78 Asahi Shimbun, 234 Asakusa ward, Tokyo, 7, 9,12,16--17 Ashworth, Frederick, 284 assassination, political, 87, 91, 93, 296--97, 310-11,318-19 Atlantic Charter, 217, 220, 231, 235 atomic bombs, ix, 19,64, 132, 143, 158,213, 249-72,283-87 Axis research on, 252-53, 270 casualties from, 254-58, 265-{i9, 271, 285-87,302,329,334,356,360 casualties prevented by, 195-96, 242-46, 260--61,339-43,350,359-{i0 espionage and, 251 historical debate over, xvii-xix, 104, 144, 196,223-24, 230, 238-39,243,246-47n,
248n,331-32,339n,355-56 international control of, 258-{i0 Japanese government reaction to, 268-72,
348n power of, 253, 255, 256, 261, 264, 285 proposed demonstration of, 258, 260, 332 proposed warning about, 218, 245, 257 psychological effects of, 255, 257, 269, 303 radiological effects of, 254-56, 261, 267-{i8, 313 in surrender decision, ix, 104, 195-96, 216--18,223,238-39, 242-48n, 249-50, 260,269-72,283-84,290-93,296,298, 300-303,310,314,320-21,344-48, 355-56 tactical use of, 312-13 targeting of, 149-50,245,247,254-58, 262-{i4,284-85,290,292,303,312-13, 327
Index testing of, 158,242, 246n, 249-51, 26<H51, 283 in United States foreign policy, 243, 244, 246n,249-52,255,258-60,302,332,339n witnesses' descriptions of, 261, 264-68 atomic energy, 255-56, 259-60 atrocities, 26, 110, 115, 16<H53,324-25 Attlee, Clement, 231 Attu, Battle of, 28-29, 136 August Storm, see invasion strategy, Soviet Australia, 24, 163 B-17 Flying Fortress, 45, 48, 65,126,186 B-24 Liberator, 126 B-29 Superfortress, 3-4, 8, 49-54, 57-60, 63, 73-77,126,129,149-50,261-62,275, 284,303-5,358 bomb load carried by, 63, 65, 68, 261, 306 mechanical problems of, 50, 51, 53, 58, 74 modifications of, 64, 152,261 radar of, 150, 152,305-6 baka ("stupid") bomb, 179, 209 Balfour, John, 327 Ballale, prisoners murdered at, 161 Bard, Ralph A., 256, 260 Base X (Manila), 130 Battle of the Bulge, 33, 44, 45, 47,128 bayonet training, 188 bazookas, 172 Belgium, 105 Bengal famine, 163 beriberi,16<H51,351 Berlin, 45,110-11,204 Bernstein, Barton, 252, 257-58 Big Blue Blanket tactics, 180 see also kamikaze aircraft and tactics Big Six, see Supreme Council for the Direction of the War, Japanese Bikini, atomic test on, 158 biological warfare, 324-25 Bird, Kai, 247n Bissell, Clayton, 312 Bitter, Bruno Maria, 6-8, 61 Bix, Herbert, 26-27, 294 black market, Japanese, 350 Black Snow, Day of, 61 blockade and bombardment strategy, U.S., 28, 33-37,84,139-40,149-59,293,303 economic effects of, 21, 82,154-57,333-34, 350-54 invasion plan vs., 20-22, 28, 37, 64, 132, 146, 147,260,307,333,339 moral debate over, 41, 44-46,133,332-37
463 Navy advocates of, 33-34, 37, 146-47,260 see also mines and minelaying; strategic bombing Bock's Car (B-29), 284 Bohlen, Charles, 250 Bohr, Niels, 258-59 bokugo (air-raid shelters), 4, 9 Bolivia, 105 Bomber Command, RAF,41-44, 133,364 bombs,7-8,48,54-56,62,306 see also atomic bombs; incendiary bombs; ordnance Bonaparte, Napoleon, 135 Bonefish, 155 Bonin Islands, see Iwo Jima Bowles, Edward L., 340 Britain, Battle of, 22-23, 41 Brooke, Alan, 219 Brown, Walter, 246 "B-san," 4, 61 see also B-29 Superfortress Bulgaria, 42-43, 46, 105 bulldozers, 126 Bungo Strait, l76n bureaucracy, Japanese, 5-6, 17, 95-96 Burma,24,99,163,324,326 Burma-Siam railroad, 16<H51, 163 bums, atomic, 265-67, 270 Bush, Vannevar, 256, 258, 259 Butow, Robert, 102, 233, 295-96 Byrnes, James F., 218, 220n, 246, 247-48, 250, 256-57,259 ultimatum drafted by, 301-2, 308-11, 314-15 C-54 transport plane, 129 cabinet, Japanese, 6, 87, 90-96,107, 109, 112, 188-89,233-35,292,296,311,316 see also Koiso Cabinet; Suzuki Cabinet Cabinet Advisory Council, Japanese, 235 Cabinet Information Bureau, Japanese, 235 Callaghan, 211 caloric intake, Japanese, 350-51 Cannon, M. Hamlin, 141n Caproni di Taliedo, Count, 38 Casablanca Conference (1943), 26-27, 214 casualties, civilian, 14-19, 26, 39-46, 71-72, 76-77,108-9,151-54,258,271,313,325, 334-37,359 in atomic bomb raids, 254-58, 265-69, 271, 285-87,302,329,334,350,356,360 by disease, 268, 324-25, 329, 351, 360 estimation of, 43, 71-72,162-63,188, 309-10,334-35
fndex
464 casualties, civilian (cont'd): in Homeland defense, 89,188,190,194,356 by starvation, 21,162--63,309, 329, 35~56,
360 by suicide, 29-30, 35, 311 in Tokyo raids, 14-18,26,77,108-9,256,
258 as war aim, 39,41,44-47,67,69 casualties, military, 28-30, 34, 61, 7~72,
133-48,194-96,240 in air war, 4, 40-41, 51, 54, 58--60, 66--69,
73-76,151-54,194,277,363--64 in atomic bomb raids, 254-55, 266--67, 285 calculation of, xviii, 134-38, 140-42,
144-45,162--63,184-87,194,301,330, 339-40 in captivity, 160--62, 194, 268n, 328, 360 fatality rates among, 28-29,140-41, 187, 194 from "friendly" fire, 181-82 in kamikaze attacks, 179-82, 187, 195,211, 311,358 in Manchuria, 325-26, 356 naval, 134-37, 141, 143, 146, 182, 187, 194, 211 non-battle, 71,134, 138, 141n, 160--63 in proposed invasions, xviii, 30,121, 126-30, 132-48, 184-87,192-96,243-45,260, 301,338-43,356-59 psychoneurotic, 71, 127 casualty ratios, 30n, 136n, 140-41, 180, 182, 187 cave fortifications, Japanese, 60, 70, 184 cease-fire orders, 327-30 censors, 299 census, 149-50, 164, 194 Central Europe, Soviet domination of, 217, 246, 250 Central Pacific campaign, 20, 26 Changchun, Manchuria, 278, 282, 310 chemical industry, Japanese, 95, 304-5 Chengtu, air base at, 50 Chennault, Claire L. , 49, 51-52 Chiang Kai-shek, 31, 32, 39, 49,105 Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory, 259--60 Chihfeng, Manchuria, 282 Chile, 105 China, 5,21,22,24,32, 78,84,105,156, 162--64,176,232,245,278,302,349,359 air bases in, 49-52, 57-58 Japanese bombardment of, 39-40 Japanese peace overtures to, 91, 94 Japanese surrender in, 312 medical experiments in, 324-25
proposed Allied invasion of, 33-34, 140,301,
342 proposed Japanese offensive in (1945),
99-100,108,345 strategic value of, 26, 27, 31, 36, 108 China Expeditionary Army, Japanese, 328-29 Chinese laborers, 109 Chi Nu tanks, Japanese, 1731/ Chistyakov, 1. M., 322 cholera, 161,325 Choshi, bombing of, 153 Chungking, bombardment of, 39-40, 41 Churchill, Winston S., 23-24, 27, 31-32,180,
217,231,234,241 atomic policy of, 258-59 on invasion prospects, 243 on Japanese surrender, 27, 214, 219, 242 on strategic bombing, 41, 43, 44 ClNCPAC (Commander-in-Chief U.S. Pacific Fleet), 118, 138,206,207-13 civil-defense system, Japanese, 3--6, 8-9, 16,
269 civilians, Japanese, mobilization of, 86, 89, 108,
110,117-18,143,168,176,188-90, 298-99,339 material shortages in, 198, 203-4 Clarion (Allied bombing doctrine), 45-48 Clayton, William L., 256 COA (Committee of Operations Analysts),
48-50,55 coal, 78, 82,157,304 coastal defense, Japanese, 85, 100, 166-77, 199 code breaking, xviii, 80, 103--6, III, 202, 221 see also diplomatic messages, Japanese; intelligence, U.S.; Magic Diplomatic Summary code names, 163,278 codes, military and diplomatic, 202, 299, 313 Cold War, 94-95, 111,215,252, 349n Collins, Janles F., 119 colonies, European, 97-98 colonies, Japanese, 34-35, 109-10, 222,
311-12,322 Combined Chiefs of Staff, Allied, 30, 219 Committee of Operations Analysts (COA),
48-50,55 communications, 3, 49, 78, 142,167,249,280 "eyes only," 147,246,276 interception of, 80, 103--6, 148, 159,
198-205,221-22,312 see also Magic Diplomatic Summary; radio intercepts; Ultra messages communism, 90 Compton, Arthur H., 256
Index Compton, Karl T., 256, 335 Conant, James, 256-59 Congress, U.S., 103, 124, 143,215,217 atomic oversight of, 255-56, 259 conjunctivitis, 16 convoys, 158, 166,316 Cooke, Charles M. "Savvy," 27 Coox, Alvin D., 75 Coronet, Operation, 25,117-18,130, 136, 139, 274,333,358 see also invasion strategy, U.S. counterattack divisions, Japanese, 85, 169-76, 192-93 couriers, 241 Coventry, bombardment of, 41 cremation, 161,325 Damocles, Operation, 158 Daniels, Gordon, 7 Davies, John H., 59 Davis, Elmer, 217 Davis, Richard, 47-48 Daws, Gavan, 160-62,288n, 285n dead, disposal of,S, 17- 18,109,135, 161,325 deception, strategic, 191,274-76 decisive battle concept, Japanese, 83-86, 164, 177,185,188-96,309,344,359 see also Homeland defense plan, Japanese Decisive Battle Educational Measures Guidelines, 188 declassification, 105, 197 Defense Department, U.S., creation of, 355-56 "Defensive Preparations in Japan" (Joint Intelligence Committee), 212-13 "de-housing," 47 demobilization, Japanese, 272, 295-97, 301, 303,308-10,312,314-23,326,328-30 demobilization, U.S., 122-27, 194,358 depot divisions, Japanese, 200, 202-3, 212-13 Diabolic (code name), 164 diaries, Japanese, 88, 99, 227-28, 271-72, 289-93,308,345-46 diaries, U.S., 132, 224n, 242-47, 250, 258, 307, 313,332n Diet, Japanese, 6, 18, 98 diplomacy, Japanese, xv-xviii, 22, 91, 94-102, 109,214,221-32,329 neutral nations in, 94,100-101,113-14,246, 296,309,315,327 unconditional surrender rejected in, 224, 227-31,246-48,327-28 unofficial, 113-16,221,232,247 see also peace initiatives, Japanese
465 diplomatic messages, Japanese, 103-16, 221-32,327 fighting spirit revealed in, 106-8, 113-15, 204,222-23,227,230,328-29 interception of, xviii, 103-6, 113,221-22 Soviet overtures revealed in, 110-15,221-27, 229-32,241,246-48,359 .of surrender, 296, 299, 308, 315 disarmament, 291, 295, 296-97, 315, 321-22, 328 discharge, 123-26, 127 disease, 16, 160-61,268,324-25,351-52 dive-bombing, 181, 182 "Division Fighting Training Guidelines," Japanese, 166-67 documents, destruction of, 328-29 Doihara, Inspector of Training, 316-17 Domei News Agency, 269, 299, 315 Doolittle, James,S, 153, 161 Douhet, Giulio, 38-39 Dower, John, 29, 287n, 346 Downfall, Operation, 25,117-23,130,135,206, 333 see also invasion strategy, U.S.; Operation Olympic draft, military, 127-29,339-40 "Draft Plan for Controlling the Crisis Situation" (policy paper), 97-98,100,291 Drea, Edward, 89,101,275-76,309,343-44 Dresden, bombing of, 45-46, 133, 256 Dugway Proving Grounds, Utah, 55-56 Dulles, Allen, 247 Dutch East Indies, see Indonesia Eaker, Ira c., 139, 143,341 East China Sea, Japanese withdrawal from, 154, 156 Eastern District Army, U.S., 318 economy, German, 304 economy, Japanese, 77-82, 95-97, 154-57, 333-34,350-56 factory system in, 7,11-12,49,67,152-53, 258,335 economy, U.S., 123, 124,214,300 effective sorties ratio, 187 Eighth Air Force, U.S., 40-48, 50-51, 54,153, 304-5,364 Eighth Army, U.S., 25, 118,358 8th Wantry Division, U.S., 125 80th Independent Mixed Brigade, Japanese, 282 81stAirborne Division, U.S., 122 86th Division, Japanese, 171n, 173-74, 192-93, 201
466 86th Infantry Division, U.S., 125 87th Infantry Division, U.S., 125 804th Tank Destroyer Battalion, U.S., 125 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 43, 47,125,300, 332n 11th Airborne Division, U.S., 122, 193 XI Corps, U.S., 121, 122, 193,205 Ennis, R. E, 341n Enola Gay, 263-64 espionage, atomic, 251 Essex-class carriers, 157 "Estimate of the World Situation" (policy paper),95 Ethiopian campaign, Italian, 39 European Theater, 22-24, 31, 40-48, 63, 110-11,146,336 casualty rates in, 127, 136, 280, 364 redeployment from, 33,112,117-18,122-27, 153,166,358 evacuation, 6, 13, 17, 189-90 EvacUiltion (movie), 6 Evatt, Herbert, 233 evidence, questions of, xviii-xix, 87-88, 115-16,190-91,221,224,238-39, 241-44,246n,260,288,332n, 335,338, 345-46 see also diaries, Japanese; diaries, U.S. extreme conservation strategy, Japanese, 207, 209-10 F7F Tigercat, 129 F8F Bearcat, 129 factory system, Japanese, 7, 11-12,49,67, 152-53,258,335 fanaticism, 28, 47,117-18,188-90,204,245, 312 Far Eastern Air Forces (FEAF), U.S., 119,298 Far East Summary, 198,201-2,204,353-54 Farrell, Thomas E, 261, 284, 303 fascism, annihilation of, 26-27, 337 Fat Man (atomic bomb), 255, 283-87 Fellers, Bonner, 71n Fermi, Enrico, 256 Fernandes, Minister, 108, 109 Fifth Air Fleet, Japanese, 84 Fifth Air Force, U.S., 189 V Amphibious Corps, U.S., 119, 121, 122, 109-91,193,205 Fifth Area Army, Japanese, 84, 323 Fifth Army, Japanese, 277, 281 Fifth Division, Japanese, 262 Fifth Fleet, U.S., 118 5th Infantry Division, U.S., 125 5th Marine Division, U.S., 121, 122
Index Fifth Red Banner Army, Soviet, 281 5th Tank Brigade, Japanese, 171n, 173 Fifteenth Air Force, U.S., 364 Fifteenth Area Army, Japanese, 165, 167 Fifteenth Army, Soviet, 283 15th Fighter Group, U.S., 73, 76 Fifty-sixth Army, Japanese, 171, 176 Fifty-seventh Army, Japanese, 169, 171, 173-74,176,177,189,191,201 57th Division, Japanese, 171n, 191-93,201 58th Bomb Wing, XXI Bomber Command, U.S., 73-74,150-52,154,313 506th Fighter Group, U.S., 76 509th Composite Group, U.S., 261--{)2, 269 fighter aircraft, 49, 60, 63, 73, 129, 184,208-10 fighter tactics, 46, 51, 54, 58-59, 61, 66, 74 against kamikazes, 180, 186 firefighting, 8-9, 55, 64, 73, 75 firestorms, 9-13, 41, 45-46, 74, 265--{)6, 285 First Advanced Tank Corps, U.S., 174 First Air Army, Japanese, 208 First Area Army, Japanese, 283, 322 First Army, U.S., 25,118,358 1st Cavalry Division, U.S., 121 I Corps, U.S., 121, 122, 193,205 First Far East Front, Soviet, 277, 279, 281, 323 First General Army, Japanese, 84, 166, 167, 199,208 1st Marine Division, U.S., 70-71 First Red Banner Army, Soviet, 281 flak, see antiaircraft defenses flamethrowers, 126 Fleet Air Wing One, U.S., 156 FM sonar, 155 FM-2 Wildcat, 129 food,4,21, 77,80-81,95-96,177,189,312 as military target, 304, 350, 354 food substitutes, 351 Foreign Ministry, Japanese, 113,231,289,292, 296,299,313n,315,327-28 see also diplomacy, Japanese; Togo, Shigenori foreign policy, U.S., 23-24, 103 atomic bombs in, 243, 244, 246n, 249-52, 255,258--{)O,302,332,339n goals of, 26-27, 34-35, 97,115,146,336-37 Foreign Relations o/the United States (series), 105,242 Formidable, 182 Formosa,50,69,84, 114-15, 161, 174-75 Forrestal, James, 142,216, 224n, 248, 250, 300-302,313
Tndex fortifications, Japanese, 126, 168, 172-75, 192, 295 four-condition offer, Japanese, 291-96, 309, 345 see also militarists, Japanese; surrender, unconditional Fourth Antiaircraft Division, Japanese, 171 4th Infantry Division, U.S., 125 Fourth Separate Army, Japanese, 282 4th Tank Brigade, Japanese, 191, 193 Fourteenth Air Force, U.S., 51-52 Fortieth Army, Japanese, 173, 174-77, 190-91, 202 40th Infantry Division, U.S., 119,122,193 41st Infantry Division, U.S., 121, 122 43rd Infantry Division, U.S., 121, 122 44th Independent Mixed Brigade, Japanese, 171n, 174
45th Infantry Division, U.S., 125 479th Bomb Group, XXI Bomber Command, 59 FR-1 Fireball, 129 Franck, James, 259 Franck Report, 259-60 see also atomic bombs Franco, Francisco, 39 Frankfurter, Felix, 259 Franklin, 182 "friendly fire," 63-64, 181-82, 268n fuel, aircraft, 183, 185,208 fuel shortage, Japanese, 95, 150, 152, 173, 185, 206,208,333 fuel shortage, Soviet, 310 Fujii, Yoji, 267 Fujimura, Yoshiro, 114 Fujita, Hisanori, 290 Fukiage Beach, projected defense of, 175, 193 Fukuoka, kamikaze planning at, 184-85,208 "Fundamental Policy to Be Followed Henceforth in the Conduct of the War," 95-96, 100, 101 see also decisive battle concept, Japanese; Homeland defense plan, Japanese Fushirni, Prince Hiroyasu, 179 Futami, Asisaburo, 173 "G-2 Estimate of the Enemy Situation with Respect to Kyushu" (Willoughby), 211 garnmarays, 268,313 gangrene, 268, 325 Garner, John N., 132 General Order Number One (MacArthur), 323-24 Germany, Imperial, 21, 26, 38, 257
467 Germany, Nazi, 21-23, 26-27, 89, 98,103-4, 162,218,325,337 air defense system of, 63 airpower doctrine of, 39-40 atomic research in, 252-53 collapse of, 33, 93, 110-11, 122, 124,204, 217-18,304 prisoners of war in, 160 strategic bombing of, 40-48, 257, 304, 336 surrender terms for, 35, 97, 214-15, 233, 235, 337 Germany, Occupied, 123 Giangreco, D. M., 30n Gilbert Islands, 26, 29, 161 Gilmore, Allison B., 71n Glantz, David, 322, 326 Gorge, Camille, 107-8, 109 Goto Islands, 176 Gould, King, 63 Grand Khingan mountains, Manchuria, 282-83, 298 Grand Slam bombs, 306 Great Britain, 22-23, 31, 130,232,302 Greater East Asia Ministry, Japanese, 109, 110, 329 grenade training, 188 Grew, Joseph C., 115-16, 143,214-18,224-25, 247-50,294,359 see also peace initiatives, Japanese; Weckerling-Grew assessment Griggs, David T., 305-6 Groves, Leslie, 252-54, 257, 261, 262, 302-3, 313 Guadakanal, 24,27,28, 110, 136 Guam, air base at, 57-58, 65, 67 Guemica, bombardment of, 39 guerrilla warfare, 86,188-90,204,339,342 Guillain, Robert, 4, 9 gunners, aircraft, 63-64 gun sights, 181 Hachinohe, bombing of, 150 Hachioji, bombing of, 154 Hachiya,Nlichilllko,264,266-68,320-21 Hailar, Manchuria, 282, 322, 326 Hakodate, 157,303 Hall, Charles P., 121 Halsey, William, 157-59,206 Halung, Manchuria, 282, 326 Hamamatsu, attacks on, 150-51, 158 Hamburg, bombing of, 41, 46, 256 Hamby, Alonzo, 131 Hanaoka, Dr., 267
Index
468 Handagai, Manchuria, 282 Hando, Kazutoshi, 319 Handy, Thomas T., 133, 223-24 Hankow, bombing of, 51, 62 Hansell, Haywood, Jr., 50, 53-59, 62, 263n Harada, Ken, 114 haragei ("stomach game"), 91, 98 Harbin, Manchuria, 110, 278, 283 medical experiments at, 324-25 Harino, Masuko, 10-11, 14 Harris, Arthur, 41, 133 Harris, Sheldon H., 324-25 Harrison, George, 256, 260, 300 Haruna, sinking of, 158 harvest, Japanese, 350-53 Hasegawa, Kiyoshi, 100, 101 Hashimoto, Mochitasura, 159 Hastings, Max, 47 Hata, Shunroku, 165-67, 173-74, 195, 199, 263,267,314,316-17 Hatanaka, Kenji, 318-19 Havens, Thomas, 81 Hayashi, Saburo, 196, 197,316,318 hibakushka ("atomic bomb victim"), 286-
87n Higashikuni, Prince Moriatsu, 100 highways, Japanese, 353 Higuchi, Keishichiro, 171 Hikari Naval Arsenal, bombing of, 313 Himalayas, 50 Himeji, 151 Hiranuma, Kiichiro, 293-95 Hirohito, Emperor, xviii-xix, 18-19,75,87-88, 95-102,126,165,179,342,351 coup attempt against, 308, 314, 317-20 in Homeland defense planning, 84, 98, 295-97,345 militarists abandoned by, 295-97, 309-11, 314,345-46,354 peace plans considered by, 90-91, 96-97, 99-102,222-28,239,242-44,247-48,
249n,271-72,292-98,309-11,343-46 postwar status of, 214-21, 302 surrender announced by, 299, 315, 319-21 surrender order of, 314-17, 328 war responsibility of, 87-88, 215 Hiroshima,52,84,199,263n,320-21 atomic bombing of, 149-50,255,262-72,
274,277,285-87,314,333,348n Hirota, Koki, 95, 101, 113,221-22,225 Hitachi, shelling of, 157 Hitler, Adolf, 22-23, 26, 110-11 Hojo, Tokimasa, 299
Hokkrudo, 17,33, 155,157-58,191,199,274 food distribution from, 350, 353 Soviet assault on, 278, 279, 323-24, 356-57 Holloway, David, 349n Holocaust, 162 home-feeder system, see factory system, Japanese Home Islands, planned invasion of, see invasion strategy, U.S. Homeland defense (Ketsu-Go) plan, Japanese, ix, xvii, 83-86, 91-102,107-8, 148, 164-213,271,337-43,347 IDrpower in, 84, 118, 167, 191, 197-98,
206-11,274-75,323n Allied awareness of, 106-7, 115-16, 148, 199-213,240,241,244,273-79,312 artillery in, 169-75, 192-93 China assault in, 99-100, 345 civilian mobilization in, 86, 89,108,110, 117-18,143,168,176,188-90,298-99, 339,358 coastal defense in, 85, 100, 166-74, 199 command structure in, 84,166-67, 170-71, 174-76,199,201,208,314 counterattack doctrine in, 85, 169-70, 173-76,192-93,204-5 in diplomatic maneuvers, 92, 96, 96, 99,107, 222-23,227,326-27 Emperor's response to, 84, 96-102, 295-97, 345 fortifications built for, 168,172-75,192,295 geographical advantages of, 142-43, 164-65, 168, 169, 185-86, 193, 196 German models for, 110-11,204 naval operations in, 183-85,204-6, 323n night operations in, 169, 172, 173,207-8 political objectives of, 84, 89-102, 185, 194-96,337-38 postwar assessments of, 190-96, 211, 341 suicide tactics in, 35, 83-84, 86, 89, 101, 166, 169,172,184-87,199,204,206-13,311 supplies for, 95-96,100,173-77, 185,189, 191-92,203-6,312,361 tanks in, 85,169,171-74,176,199,201-3 training for, 166-67, 173, 188-89, 192,204, 207-9 troop deployment for, 84-86, 148, 167-77,
191-93,200-204,205,211-13,240, 358-59 Honjo district, Japan, 15-16 Honshu,33,34, 77-78,84,155,164-66,184, 199,202,273-74,356-59 ill bases in, 158,207,274 bombing attacks on, 151-52, 157-58
Index food distribution in, 350, 353-54 forces deployed from, 167, 169, 191,201, 207,274--75 see also invasion strategy, U.S.; Homeland defense plan, Japanese Hoover, Herbert, 133, 257n, 352 Hopkins, Harry, 217, 250 horses, 177, 283 hospitals, 14,34, 130, 138,266--68 Huber, Thomas M., 141n Hull, Cordell, 216, 218 Hull, John, 139-40,312-13,341,357 human torpedoes, 159, 179 Hump, the, 50, 51 Hutou Fortified Region, Manchuria, 322 Hyuga, sinking of, 158
1-13 (submarine), 159 I-58 (submarine), 159 1-/22 (submarine), 155 Ichinomiya, bombing of, 152 Ickes, Harold L., 131-32 Ikeda, SumilUsa, 288 Imabari, bombing of, 154 Imperial Anny, 22, 24, 83, 92, 99-100, 112, 158,184,198,253 air units of, 178-79, 182-85,207-9,317, 321-22,329 Allied assessments of, 23, 24, 28, 30, 35, 125-26,132-33,139,186-87,231-32 atomic blast investigated by, 264, 267, 269-71,314 civilian mobilization debated within, 189-90 codes used by, 202 coup plotters in, 316-22 culture of, 91,161,164,216,219,296-97 demobilization of, 272, 295-97,301,303, 308-10,312,314--23,326,328-30 Emperor's rejection of, 295-97, 309 fighting spirit of, 28, 69-70, 71n, 106-7, 125, 141,195-96,232,264,289,293,298-99, 308-11,321-22,326,328-29,356 hard-liners in, see militarists, Japanese in Homeland defense strategy, 84--86, 101, 107,117-18,165-77,337-38 moderate elements in, 93-94, 113-14,224, 247 political authority of, 86-87, 91-94,104, 106, 165,220,227,231-32,234,237-39,247, 272,296-99,309-12,354 supply system of, 176-77,312,361 surrender concessions demanded by, 291-96, 309
469 Imperial Conference (June 1945),93-96,226, 239,288-89 Imperial General Headquarters, xviii, 3, 83-92, 101,159,183,271,289,309,312,346 atomic casualties estimated by, 285-86 Emperor influenced by, 88-89 in Homeland defense planning, 83-86, 164, 166--67, 170-71, 174--75, 177, 188-91, 195-96, 199 Imperial Guards Division, 318-19 Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, 75 Imperial infallibility, doctrine of, 296-97 Imperial Navy, 18,80,83,84,86, 104, 109, 112, 158-59,198,253,302,330 air units of, 178-79, 182-85,207-8 allied assessments of, 23, 24, 28, 35,186-87, 204--6,220 fighting spirit of, 186-87,204--6,321-22, 327 grand strategy of, 89, 94 political alignments of, 92, 100, 106-7, 114, 204,220,224,227,228,234,239,247, 289-91,293,295,311-12,314,354 post-surrender, 321, 327-28 Imperial Palace, Tokyo, 74--75, 101,255,270, 291,310 coup attempt on, 318-20, 346 demonstration at, 351 Imperial Rescript (June 9, 1945),98 Imperial Rescript (August 15, 1945),320,346 Imperial system, Japanese, xvii, 87-90, 97-98, 235,354 loyalty to, 317-18, 320 in surrender terms, 90, 101,214--19,229-32, 238-39,247,248n,289-90,296-98, 301-2,308-9,331-32 Inaba, Masao, 299 Inada, General, 189-90 "Incendiary Attacks on Japanese Cities" (report), 59 incendiary bombs, 7-8, 48, 54--56, 62, 129,270, 306 effects of, 9-12, 45-46, 59, 64 Indefatigable, 182 indemnities, Japanese surrender and, 328 Independence-class carriers, 157 independent mixed brigades, Japanese, 70, 85, 171,176,203 India,24,50,66,163 Indiana, 157-58 Indianapolis, 159,284 individual replacement policy, 123-24, 127-29, 135,339
470 Indonesia , 81,163, 163,301, 326,342 induction, 127-29,3 39-40 industry, Japanese, 6, 7, 67, 68, 77-78 concentration of, 49-50, 52, 82, 150 productivity of, 30, 81, 82, 86, 95, 206, 208-10,2 95 industry, U.S., 30,42,47 ,128,129 , 173n Inland Sea, 77-81, 150, 155, 166,353 Inner~ongolia,280
intelligence, Japanese, 280-81, 289 intelligence, U.S., 35,48-49 ,53,63,8 0, 103-6, 133n, 197-213, 219,240- 46 economic, 78,81,15 5,157,33 5-36 on effect of air-raids, 108-9, 152, 155-56, 165,208 on friendly nations, 105 on Japanese airpower, 185--86, 197-99,206--11 misjudgments of, 199,200, 202,353 -54 navru, 115, 198,213, 223,231- 32,238 radio, 148,159, 198-205, 221-22,2 40-42, 268--69, 312-13 see also ~agic Diplomatic Summary; Ultra messages Interim Committee (on atomic policy), U.S., 255-56,2 60,339-4 0 interservice tensions, U.S., 33, 275-76,3 00, 356--57 Inukai, Tsuyoshi, 87 invasion strategy, Soviet, xvii, 31-32, 34, 140-42,2 13,217,2 42-44,24 9-50,278 --83 anticipated casualties in, 356 home island assault in, 19,278,2 79,322-2 4, 356--57,359 in Korea, 140,322- 23 politicru problems of, 36, 217, 323-24, 359 supply lines in, 158,277, 281,310 timetable for, 31, 36, 141-42,2 42, 246n, 250, 280-81 invasion strategy, U.S., xvii-xviii, 19,20-22 , 25,27-37 ,117-48, 337-43,3 49 airborne operations in, 122, 168--69, 174, 176n airpower in, 35, 85, 117-19, 167, 170, 172, 186,206--11 amphibious operations in, 37,117-2 2,181, 192,276, 358-59 anticipated casuruties in, xviii, 30,121, 126--30, 132-48,1 84-87,19 2-96,243 -45, 260,301, 338-43,3 56--59 atomic strikes in, 312-13 British role in, 31-32, 118, 198,358- 59 impetus for, 27-31,13 9-40,303 ,342-43 intelligence reports in, xviii, 133n, 197-213
Index Japanese anticipation of, 84,165-7 1,175, 201,206, 212 Japanese "fanaticism" considered in, 28, 117-18, 188-90,2 04,339 leaders' debates over, 144-48, 197-99, 210-13,2 15-21, 257n, 260,273- 76, 307, 337-43,356--57 logistics in, 34, 37,117-1 9,129-30 ,172 morale in, 125-27, 195-96,3 43,358,3 59 navru bombardment in, 85,192,1 99 Okinawa experience and, 70, 72, 133, 139-45,1 47,166,1 85-87,19 3,211,22 4, 342 Soviet role in, xvii, 31-32, 34, 36,140-4 2, 158,213, 242-44,2 49 tank operations in, 171-72, 192-93, 199 timing of, 35-37, 139-40, 142, 146, 165--66, 192-93,3 57-58 training for, 126, 127-29 troop redeployment for, 33, 117-18, 122-27, 166,358 troop strength for, 118-22,1 20,145,1 65, 192-93,2 11-12,34 0,358 see also blockade and bombardment strategy, U.S. Iowa , 157 "Irish Lassie" (B-29), 59 Irokawa, Daikichi, 351 Iron and Blood volunteer units, Japanese, 61 /se, sinking of, 158 Ise Bay, projected landing at, 346 Isesaki, bombing of, 313 Ishii, Shiro, 324 Ishiwata, Imperiru Household ~inister, 299 Itruian campaign, 125, 127 Italy, fascist, 27, 39,42,89 Iwakuni, bombing of, 313 lwo Jima, xvii, 26, 60--61, 62, 73, 84, 301 casuruty rates on, 61, 126--27, 133, 140-41, 342 staging base on, 150, 155, 157,358 Japan: Allies received in, 328, 330 atomic research in, 253 civilian mobilization in, 86, 89, 108, 110, 117-18,1 43,168,1 76,188-9 0,203-4, 358 civil unrest in, 95-98, 107-9, 143, 153,228, 237-38,2 93-95,31 0,314,32 1-22,328 , 345,351- 52,354-5 5 daily life in, 3, 82 demilitarization of, 26--27, 34-35, 97-98, 146,190, 232,296
Index economic devastation of, 77-82, 95-97, 154-57,333-34 foreign nationals in, 4-9,61,109,158 home defense of, see Homeland defense plan, Japanese martial law in, 289, 344, 356 media in, 18,234,298 occupation of, 88, 98, 216-17, 232, 245, 291, 301,304,315,331,351 peace advocates in, 87-102, 143,214-15, 218, 225-30, 235,247-48,249n political violence in, 89, 91, 93, 218, 296-97, 310-11,318-19 population of, 52, 69, 89n, 164-65, 194,262, 284,320 as postwar ally, 215, 360 reconstruction of, 233 ruling elite of, 86-94, 98, 101-2, 109, 190, 218,227-28,232-39,296-97,343-44 topography of, 22, 74, 83, 142-43, 164-65, 168,169,185,352-53 wartior ethic in, 91,161,216, 21( 296-97, 299,317-18 Japan Economic Stabilization Board, 286 Japanese language, 164,202,320 Japanese War History Series, xvii, 295 Java, 163 jet aircraft, 73, 129, 209 jet stream, 53, 62 nc, see Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S., Joint Intelligence Committee (nC) of likyoku Shushu No Taisaku Shian, see "Draft Plan for Controlling the Crisis Situation" Joint Anny-Navy Air Agreement, Japanese (1945),84 Joint Anny-Navy Committee on the Japanese Air Forces, U.S., 209 Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S., 30, 33-37,126-27, 201,203,212,273-74,277,333 casualty estimates prepared for, 135-37, 139-48,194,339-40,342 demobilization overseen by, 123-24 invasion authorized by, 117, 132, 200, 276, 333 in Japanese surrender, 214, 219, 220, 338-39 Joint Intelligence Committee (TIC) of, 203, 212-13,358 Joint Strategic Survey Committee of, casualty study by, 30, 135-42, 144, 145,342 Joint War Plans Committee of, 273-75, 357-58 Soviet cooperation assessed by, 31-32, 36 strategic air force overseen by, 50-52, 77, 263n
471 Joint Staff Planners, U.S., 30, 135-42, 144, 145, 273-74 Joint Target Group, U.S., 304 jushin (strategic council), 89-92, 298 Kagamigahara, bombing of, 151 Kagoshima, 121-22, 164, 193 KagoshimaBay,168,170,173,175,205,206 Kaigan, bombing of, 76 Kaimon-Dake, proposed capture of, 122 Kairyu (midget submarine), 183, 184,206 Kaisenbun ("Division Battle") supply system, 176-77,361 Kaiten ("Heaven Shaker") suicide torpedoes, 159,179,183,206 Kaiyo (carrier), 158 Kamaishi, shelling of, 157, 158 Kamchatka, 32 kamikaze aircraft and tactics, 71, 72, 83-84, 178-88,198,207-10,314,321-22 casualties from, 179-82, 187, 195,211,311, 358 countenneasures against, 180-81, 185-86, 207-8 Kanmon tunnel, blocking of, 353 Kanoya, projected defense of, 168, 170, 174 Kanto Plain, see Tokyo Plain, projected invasion of Karafuto, 223 Kasai, Yukiko, 189 Kase, Shunichi, 11 0, 329 Katsutani, Mr., 267 Kawabe, Masakazu, 84, 317 Kawabe, Torashiro, 92, 271, 288-89, 297, 308, 316-17,346-47 Kawanishi Aircraft Company, 151, 152 Kawasaki, bombing of, 55, 73, 77 Kaya, Prince, 99 Kazuyo, Funato, 10, 14 Kazuyo, Hiroko, 10, 14 Kearney, 134 Kennan, George E, 23 Kennedy, John E, 58 kesshi ("dare-to-die decisions"), 178 see also kamikaze aircraft and tactics Ketsu-Go (Decisive Operation) plan, see Homeland defense plan, Japanese Khalkhin-Gol, Manchuria, 282 Kido, Koichi, 87, 88, 90-91, 94, 235, 271-72, 343,345,354,359 peace plan of, 96-102 surrender supported by, 289-90, 299, 309-10, 313-14
472 Kimura, Susumu, 264 King, Ernest J., 126, 142, 144--48, 197,212-13, 241,276,240 China invasion favored by, 26, 31, 33-34, 36
King George V. 158 Kirin,11anchuria, 278 Kiska,28
Kitkun Bay, 180 Knox, Forrest, 160 Kobe,52,55,59,62,69, 76, 77,352 Koiso, Kuniaki, 6, 90-91,165,298 Koiso Cabinet, 91,107,109-11 Kokura, 150, 255,262,263n, 284 kokutai ("national polity"), 101,235,289,294, 296-98,309,316,317,346 see also Imperial system, Japanese Konoe, Prince Fumimaro, 90, 99,109,291, 345-46 proposed peace mission of, 223, 225-26, 228-30,232,236-37,242 Korea, 33,36,49, 110, 163,202 in Homeland defense plan, 84, 271, 280 Japanese surrender in, 312 shipping from, 78-79, 154, 156,350 Soviet involvement in, 140,322-23 Korean War, 117 Koryu (midget submarine), 183,206 Koshiba, 11iwa,13 Kosono, Ammyo, 321-22 Koyagi, prison camp at, 285n Krueger, Walter, 119, 193,211-12 Kubota, Shigenori, 14-16 Kujukuri-hama, projected assault on, 295-96, 358 Kumagaya, bombing of, 313 Kumamoto, bombing of, 298 Kumamoto Division District, 176 Kumamoto prefecture, Kyushu, 189 Kure, 151, 158,269 Kuribayashi, Tadarnichi, 60-61 Kuril Islands, 32, 199,223,278--80,279,323 Kurume Division District, 176 Kushikino, projected landing at, 121, 165,205 Kusunoki, 11asashige, 299 Kuwana, bombing of, 152 K wajalein, Battle of, 29 Kwantung Army, Japanese, 31, 36, 249, 278-83,
288-89,310-11,322,347n see also 11anchuria; 11anchurian offensive, Soviet Kyoto, 76, 149-50, 164,247,255,262,263n, 290,351,352
Index Kyushu,49,50, 77-78,147,164-77,184,199, 274,350,357 bombing of, 72,150,154,167, 182,208, 284 civilian mobilization on, 86,168,189 command structure on, 166-67, 170-71, 174-76,201,314 force buildup on, 86,148, 167-70, 191-93, 197-98,201-3,205,207,210-13,240,
244,250,260n,273-76,303,338,340-41, 343,358-59 fortifications on, 168, 172-75, 192 strategic importance of, 84-86, 164-67, 177, 185,187,191-92,194-96,201,212-13 terrain of, 33, 142-43, 164-65, 168, 169, 185-86, 193, 196 see also Homeland defense plan, Japanese; invasion strategy, U.S.; Operation Olympic Kyushu Imperial University, 162 Lancaster bombers, 31, 153 landmines, 172 see also mines and minelaying La Perouse Strait, 155 Lawrence, Ernest, 256 leaflets, dropping of, 153-54,233,313-14,321, 350 Leahy, William, 132, 142-43, 145,219-20,241, 244--46, 274,301-2,332n atomic weapons denounced by, 333-34 Learned, Edmund P., 128 Learned-Smith Report, 128 Leipzig, bombing of, 45 Le11ay, Curtis E., 50-52, 57-68, 72-74, 151-53,263n, 304,335-36 leadership style of, 51, 59, 62, 64,108 low-altitude bombing championed by, 6268 minelaying operations championed by, 77, 79 Leyte, 83,90, 139, 140, 159, 188, 136 naval base at, 157 Leyte Gulf, suicide attacks at, 179-80 Lifschultz, Lawrence, 24711 Lilienthal, David E., 131 Lincoln, Abraham, 131 Lincoln, George, 37 Lingayen Gulf, suicide attacks at, 180 Linhsi, 11anchuria, 282 Little Boy (atomic bomb), 255, 263-68, 28311, 285--87 Lloyd, Hugh, 153 Lockwood, Charles, 155
Index London, bombing of, 41 Louise (typhoon), 357-58 Lovett, Robert, 307 Lozovsky, Alexander, 230 Luchinsky, Alexsandr A., 282 Luftwaffe, 39-41, 51, 54 Lumsden, Herbert, 180 Luzon campaign, 26, 33, 72n, 83, 90-91, 140-42,145-46,180,275-76,341 Lyudnikov, I. I., 282 M4 Sherman tank, 129, 171-72, 173n M26 Pershing tank, 129, 172 M-69 incendiary, 7-8, 55-56, 62, 336 MacArthur, Douglas, 24-26, 33-34, 52, 60, 90, 244,321,355 in interservice disputes, 33, 275-76, 300 in invasion planning, 117-20, 136-42, 146, 195,197-99,206,213,273-77,323,341, 358 Japan ruled by, 330-31, 351-52 McCarthy, Frank, 24, 244 McCloy, John J., 133n, 139, 143,214 McCullough, David, 131 McDilda, Marcus, 290 McKelway, St. Clair, 65-{)6 MacLeish, Archibald, 216--17 McNamara, Robert S., 57-58 Maebashi, bombing of, 154 Magic Diplomatic Summary, xviii, 103-16, 132, 198,213,357 commentary in, 106--7,223-26,228-30, 237-39,242,243 distribution of, 240-49, 333n food shortage indicated in, 353-54 Japanese intentions inferred from, 104-10, 114-15, 222-27, 230-32, 238-39, 249n, 311-13,327-30,344 Magic Far East Summary, see Far East Summary Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 22 Majestic, Operation, 277 Makin Island, Battle of, 29 Malaya, 24,163 Malik, Jacob A., 95,101-2,113,221-22 Malinovsky, Rodion Y., 278, 282-83 Mamonov, Stepan K. , 283 Manchukuoan Army, Japanese, 280 Manchuria, 85,94, 133n, 156,201,221,223, 271,322-25 civil unrest in, 110 Japanese industry in, 49, 108,208 surrender in, 312, 324
473
Manchurian offensive, Soviet, 19,249,272, 276--83,288-90,298-99,308-11,322-26, 349 casualties in, 325-26, 356 in Japanese surrender decision, 31-32,112, 217-21,230,236--37,242,246,249-50, 288-89,293,310,345-48,356 terrain in, 277, 280-83 in U.S. invasion plan, xvii, 31-32, 34, 36, 140,142,158,213,242-44,249 Manhattan Engineering Division, atomic casualty figures of, 286 Manhattan Project, 242, 252-{)1, 312-13, 332 Manila, 26,115, 130 Marianas, 26, 29-30, 49,89-90, 136, 159,336 air bases in , 49, 50, 62, 77, 150, 158,305 Marine Advanced Units, Japanese, 184 Marine Corps, U.S., 28-29, 60-{)1, 70-71, 118-23,126,187,193,358 battle deaths in, 29, 71, 122, 134, 137 combined arms tactics of, 121 Marpi Point, Saipan, suicides at, 29-30, 188 Marshall, George C., 33-34,125-27,223-24, 241,244-45 in atomic bomb planning, 254, 256, 262, 284, 302-3,312-13 casualty estimates suppressed by, 144-46, 195,340-42 invasion considered by, 27, 30, 34, 139-48, 274-75,340-42,357 on peace terms, 216--17, 219, 300-303 terror bombing endorsed by, 47, 48 troop strength estimates of, 197, 20 I, 203 Truman briefed by, 139-44,243-46,338, 342, 355n, 357 Marshall Islands campaign, 26, 29 martial law, 289, 344, 356 Massachusetts, 157-58 Master of Ceremonies (airborne command), 69 Masters, John, 28 Matsudaira, Yasumasa, 91 Matsumoto, Sunichi, 308-10 Matsumura, Hidetoshi, 3 Matsushiro, proposed government seat at, 101 "Matter Concerning the Thorough Understanding of the Concept of Decisive Engagement in the Homeland, A" (Imperial edict), 166 Matterhorn Project, 49-52 medical experiments, Japanese, 162,324-25 medicine, 16, 265-{)8 Meiji restoration, 296 memoirs, 248n, 290 "Memorial to the Throne" (Konoe), 90
Indtx
474 Merchant Marine, U.S., 134 merchant shipping, Japanese, 77-83, 95, 154-57,298,312,333,352-53 Allied prisoners on, 161 Meretskov, Kirill A., 278, 281 Messer, Robert L., 247 n Mid-Japan Veterans Association, 287 Midway, Battle of, 89 Mikasa, Prince, 309 Mikio, Uemura, 282 militarists, Japanese, 91-93, 96,106,113-14, 204,224,228,264,288-89,291-99, 308-12 coup attempts by, 101,308,314,317-22,346 Emperor's abandonment of, 295-97, 309-11, 314 intimidation tactics of, 87, 91, 93, 296-97, 310-11,344 peace terms rejected by, 87, 91-93, 96,101, 106-7,227,231-32,237-39,247,293, 308-9,321-22,328-29,344-45 suicide by, 319-20 warrior values of, 91, 161,216,219,296-97, 299,317-18 Military Intelligence Service (MIS), U.S., 198, 200-203,209-10,223-24,353-54 Miller, Dwight M., 133n Miller, Edward S., 20-22, 27 Mindoro, recapture of, 180 mines and minelaying, 77-82, 150, 154-56, 172,182,184,187,206,212 Ministry of Communications Hospital, Hiroshirna,266-67,320-21 MIS, see Military Intelligence Service (MIS), U.S. missing in action, 135-38, 194,301,326 Missouri, 157,330 Mitchell, William "Billy," 38-39, 48,62 Mito, bombing of, 154 Mitsubishi aircraft plant, Nagoya, 58 Mitsubishi aircraft plant, Tamashirna 151 Mitsubishi torpedo factory, Nagasaki, 284 Miyakonojo Plain, projected operations on, 165, 168, 174 Miyazaki, projected operations at, 121, 165,
167-71,174,193,202,205,206 Miyazaki, Suichi, 316 mokusatsu ("kill with silence"), 234-35, 239, 345 see also Potsdam Declaration; surrender, unconditional Molotov, Vyacheslav, 111-13,221-23,225-26, 231,237
Montgomery, J. B., 307 morale, 69-70, 71n, 106-7, 125-29, 135, 195-96,309,343,358 of Japanese civilians, 39-41, 44-47, 77, 97, 100,108-9,204,228,237-38,264,265, 269,271,292-94,318,321,329,345 after surrender, 321-22, 327, 351 morale bombing, see terror bombing Mori, Takeshi, 172-73,318-19 Morse code, 299 Mountbatten, Louis, 243-44 movies, Japanese evacuation and, 6 Mukden, Manchuria, 49, 278, 282, 298 murata ("logs"), 324-25 Muroran, shelling of, 157 Musashino plant, see Nakajima Musashino plant, attacks on Mussolini, Benito, 42 Mutanchiang,Manchuria,281,311,322 Nagano,Osarni,314 Nagaoka, bombing of, 154 Nagasaki, 155, 176n,205,262 atomic bombing of, 274, 276, 290, 333,348 Nagata (battleship), 158 Nagoya, 201,210, 303,352 attacks on, 52,54-55,58,60,68-69,73-74,
77,151-52,263n Nakajima Musashino plant, attacks on, 53-54, 58-62, 73 Nakazawa, Mitsuo, 174-75 napaJrn,55~56, 170 Naples, Allied bombardment of, 42 Nashi, sinking of, 158 National Civilian Air Defense Law, Japanese (1937),5 national defense sphere, Japanese, 84 National Guard, U.S., 125
National Resistance Manual, 86 National Resistance Program, Japanese, 86, 188-90 Navy, Japanese, see Imperial Navy Navy, U.S., xviii, 20-22, 33-37, 77-78,117-19, 126,129,220 airpower of, 36, 60-61, 118, 149, 156-58, 180,186,272,298,334 casualty figures for, 134-37, 141, 143, 146, 182, 187, 194,211 invasion plan opposed by, 146-48,356-57 strategies of, 20-23, 33 neighborhood associations, Japanese, 8-9, 11 neutrality, Soviet-Japanese, 93-95, 111-12,232, 280-81,288-89
475
Index neutral nations, 94,100-101,113-14, 246, 296, 309 New Georgia, 28, 136 New Guinea, 24, 27, 28 Newman, Robert, 162-63 newspapers: Japanese, 18, 234, 298 U.S. , 39, 132,234,303 New York Times, 39, 234 New Zealand, 24, 163 Niigata, 52, 150, 255, 262, 263n Nimitz, Chester w., 24--26, 52, 60, 77, 126, 153, 158,198,262, 300, 303,330 in invasion planning, 33- 34, 117-18, 137- 38, 144,147,158, 186,212-13,273,276-77, 340, 356-57 Ninth Air Army, Soviet, 278 IX Corps, 122, 193,205 91st Infantry Division, U.S ., 125 95th Infantry Division, U.S., 125 96th Infantry Division, U.S ., 70 97th Infantry Division, U.S., 125 98th Division, U.S. , 122 98th Independent Mixed Brigade, Japanese, 171n, 173-74, 192 Nishihara, Captain, 114 Nishihara, Kanji, 171 Nishina, Yoshio, 253, 270 Nishina Laboratories, atomic research at, 253 Nishinomiya-Mikage, bombing of, 154 nitrogen plants, 304--5 Nomonhan, Manchuria, 282 Normandy, Allied invasion of, 43, 139, 140, 163 Norstad, Lauris, 57, 64, 65 North Carolina , 157 nursing units, Japanese, 72 Obata, Masatake, 11-12, 14 Obunko (Emperor 's shelter), 75, 270 Occupation, postwar: of Europe, 123, 125, 126 of Japan, 88, 98,216-17,245, 291 , 301-2, 304,323 O'Donnell, Emmett "Rosey," 53 Office of Strategic Services (OSS), U.S ., 105-6, 114,247 Office of War Information (OWl), U.S ., 71n, 126-27,153,217 Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, U.S. , 124 Oikawa, Admiral, 93-94 oil industry, Japanese, 48, 53, 78, 95,150,152, 303,304--5,333
Oil Plan, Allied, 43-44, 45 Okamoto, Seigo, 114 Okamoto, Suemasa, 113 Okamura, Yasuji" 328-29 Oka ("Cherry Blossom") rocket bomb, 179,
209 O 'Keefe, Bernard J. , 283-84 Okinawa, xvii, 26, 32, 69-73, 79, 86, 97, 99, 147,149, 157, 165, 216,357 air bases on, 31 , 50,142-43, 153, 155, 284, 298, 305 civilian casualties on , 70-71 , 188 as invasion lesson, 70, 72,133, 147,166, 171, 185-87,193,211,301 , 342 suicide attacks at, 71-72, 182, 184--87,204, 211 tank operations on , 171-72 U.S. casualties on, 34, 71-72, 133, 139, 140-45, 182, 187,211,301,342 Olympic, Operation, see Operation Olympic Ominato, troop buildup at, 274 Ommaney Bay, 181 Om uta, bombing of, 150-51 one-condition offer, Japanese, 291-96 see also four-condition offer, Japanese; surrender, unconditional One Helluva Day (January 6, 1945), 180 100th Infantry Division, U.S., 125 107th Division, Japanese, 282 107th Independent Mixed Brigade, Japanese, 176 109th Independent Mixed Brigade, Japanese, 171 112th Cavalry Regiment, U.S., 121 118th Independent Mixed Brigade, Japanese, 176n 119th Infantry Division, Japanese, 282 122nd Independent Mixed Brigade, Japanese, 176n 122nd Signal Radio Intelligence Company, U.S., 125 124th Division, Japanese, 281 124th Independent Mixed Brigade, Japanese, 171n 125th Independent Mixed Brigade, Japanese, 175, 192, 193 126th Division, Japanese, 322 126th Independent Mixed Brigade, Japanese, 176n 145th Division, Japanese, 171n 146th Division, Japanese, 175, 193 154th Division, Japanese, 171-74 156th Division, Japanese, 171-73
Index
476 158th Regimental Combat Team, U.S. , 119-20, 192-93 Onishi, Takijiro, 179, 3Jl Ono, Kirnie, 11 Onodera, General, Jl3-14 Operational Instruction No.1 (MacArthur), 118-19, 136, 206 see also invasion strategy, U.S. Operation Arashi, 159 see also suicide tactics Operation Coronet, 25, 117-18,130,136, 139, 274, 333 , 358 see also invasion strategy, U.S. Operation Damocles, 158 Operation Downfall, 25, 117-23, 130, 135, 206, 333 see also invasion strategy, U.S.; Operation Olympic Operation Majestic, 277 Operation Olympic, 25, 117-22,130, 172, 181 ,
197- 213 , 205 , 273-77 , 333 , 357 casualty estimates for, 136-48, 184-87, 188, 190, 194-96, 245,340-43 postwar assessments of, 186-87, 190-96, 211 , 340 see also invasion strategy, U.S. Operation Starvation, 77-81 Operation Zipper, 358-59 opinion polls, 331- 32 Oppenheimer, J. Robert, ix, 252, 254-56 ordnance, 7-8, 39, 45,47, 59, 79, 129, 157, 186, 211,336 for suicide attacks, 172, 179-80, 183-84, 207 see also atomic bombs; bombs; incendiary bombs Osaka, 202, 210, 303, 352 bombing of, 55, 68-69, 76, 77, 149, 152, 313 Oshima, Hiroshi, 103-4, 108-9 Osumi Peninsula, projected defense of, 173 Ola, bombing of, 59 Outer Islands (Dutch Indies), 163 Outer Mongolia, 32 "Outline for Encouraging the Evacuation of Schoolchildren," 6 Overy, Richard,.46 OWl, see Office of War Information (OWl) , U.S. Oyabu, 303 Oyodo, sinking of, 158 Ozawa, Jisaburo, 204 P-47 Thunderbolt, 129, 277,305 P-51 Mustang, 73, 75-76, 129, 152,305, 358
P-80 Shooting Star, 129 Pacific Fleet, British, 118, 157, 182 Pacific Order of Battle Conference, Washington, D.C., 203-4 Palau, Battle of, 136 Palawan, prisoners murdered at, 161 Pantelleria, bombardment of, 42 Parsons, William S., 264, 303 Pastel plan, 191 pathfinder aircraft, 69 Patriotic Citizens Fighting Corps, 189, 204 Patterson, Robert, 300 PB-l W aircraft, 186 PB4Y Privateer, 156, 186 peace entrepreneurs, 113- 16,221,232,247 peace initiatives, Japanese, 87-116, 221-32 Emperor's role in, 87- 89, 97- 102, 222-28, 235,238,242-44, 249n, 271-72,328, 343-46, 359-60 militarists' opposition to, 87, 91-93, 96, 101 , 106-7,227,231-32,237-39,247 Soviet response to, 110-13, 221-26, 229, 232,236-37, 242 territorial concessions in, 112, 222-25 unconditional surrender rejected in, 94, 98-101 , 114-15, 222-31 , 246-48,269 unofficial, 113-16, 221 , 232, 247 U.S. analysis of, 106-7, 223-26, 228-30, 237-39,242-43,277 Pearl Harbor, attack on, 47, 93,103,115, 158, 178 , 2~9
Pforzheim, bombing of, 46 Philippines, xvii, 20, 24, 33, 83, 90, 134, 159, 163,275-76,326,358 civilian combatants in, 188 Japanese atrocities in, 26, 115, 161 kamikaze attacks in, 179, 181 , 185 liberation of, 26, 34, 81 , 90-91 U.S. bases in, 50, 130, 153 Picasso, Pablo, 39 pika-don ("flash-boom") , 264-66, 321 see also atomic bombs pilots, Japanese, 178-79, 183, 185, 207-9 pine-root oil fuels , 208 Ping Fan, medical experiments at, 324-25 plague, 325 plutonium, 253-55, 283n poetry, 19,261 , 319 poison gas, 5, 39, 44, 47,143 Pokotu, Manchuria, 282, 326 Poland,217 political assassination, 87, 91, 93, 296-97, 310-11 , 318-19
Index Port Arthur, 32, 250 Port Darren, 32,250, 310 Portsmouth Treaty, 223 Potsdam Conference (1945),105,217-21, 222-23,227,230-32,240-50,323-24,338 Potsdam Declaration, 213, 220-21, 246-48, 250,301-2,331,338 Japanese acceptance of, 290-300, 309-11, 314-15,318,320,327-28 Japanese rejection of, 232-39, 246, 269, 271-72,309-11,344-45 Potsdam diary (Truman), 242-46, 258 Power, Thomas S., 61, 62, 67 precision bombing, 40-42, 53, 69, 149,304-6 U.S. abandonmentof,43-48, 53-56,258, 335-36 "Present State of National Power, The" (policy paper), 95-96 prisoners of war: AlIied,74, 134,160-62, 194,258, 268n,
285n,290,300-30I,328,360 Japanese, 28-29, 71,153,325-26 procurement, military, 7,11-12,49,67, 152-53, 258,300 propaganda,43,87,153-54,224n,321,341 "Proposed Program for Japan" (Stimson), 218, 220 psychological warfare, 71n, 153-54,271, 313-14 see also terror bombing Psychological Warfare Branch, Pacific Fleet, 153-54 Public Law Number 30, Japanese, 188 see also civilians, Japanese, mobilization of public opinion: Allied, 41, 301 Japanese, 39-41,44-47, 77,97,100,108-9, 204,228,237-38,264,265,269,271, 292-94,318,321,330 public opinion, U.S., 22-24, 26, 71, 132-33, 331,343 defeat timetable influenced by, 27, 127, 301 Japanese estimation of, 89, 194-96, 224n, 338 redeployment influenced by, 123-24, 12627 on surrender terms, 27,89, 115, 126-27, 143, 215,217-18 Purkayev, Maksim A., 278, 283 Pusan, mining of, 156 Quebec Conference (1943), 27-28 Quebec Conference (1944), 30
477 race, questions of, 336 radar, 3, 60-61, 179, 181, 185 accuracy of, 42, 44, 46, 54-55, 63, 76, 150, 152,211, 254,263n,277,284,305-6,336 in arr-warning net, 186 improvements in, 41,150, 152, 263n, 306 radiation, 254-56, 261, 313 radiation sickness, 267-68 radio, 3-4, 41, 61, 220, 233, 241 Allied demands broadcast by, 269-70, 308 surrender broadcast by, 299,315,319-21 radio intercepts, 148, 159, 198-205,221-22, 268-69,311-12 see also Magic Diplomatic Summary; Ultra messages railroads, 32, 40, 46, 74, 78-81, 277-82, 310, 312 attacks on, 43-44, 45, 68, 150, 154-56, 293, 298,304-5,312,350,352-55 slave-built, 160-61, 163 ramming tactics, Japanese, 54, 59 Rashin, mining of, 156 rationing, 350-51 Rayburn, Sam, 132 reconnaissance, aerial, 6, 63, 75-76, 157,207, 209-10,298,306 bomb damage observed in, 16,58-59,66-67, 76,152,305 RedAuTny,23-24,249,272,276-83,288-90, 298-99,308-11,322-24 see also Manchurian offensive, Soviet Red Cross, 15 redeployment: Japanese, 85-86, 169-70, 174-75, 191-92, 201 Soviet, 112 U.S., 33, 117-18, 122-27, 153, 166,358 refugees, 162 regalia, imperial, 235, 346 Reichsbahn, attacks on, 43-44 replacement drafts, 121,339-40 rescripts, Imperial, 98, 315, 320, 346 rest and recuperation, 127 retentionist-abolitionist debate, 215-16 see also Imperial system, Japanese; surrender, unconditional Reuben James, 134 rice, as military target, 304, 350, 354 riflemen, U.S., 128-29, 192 see also individual replacement policy RKO Studios, 55 "Road to Certain Victory" (pamphlet), 70 rockets, 179, 192, 209
478 Romania, bombardment of, 42--43, 46 Rome, bombardment of, 42 romusha (slave laborers) , 109, 160--63 Roosevelt, Franklin D. , 23-24, 31-32, 132, 240, 241 , 244--45 on airpower, 42, 43 , 45 , 49, 336-37 antifascist and antimilitarist goal of, 26-27, 337 in atomic bomb genesis, 250-52, 257- 59 death of, 33,131 , 217, 259 Rotterdam, bombardment of, 40, 41 Royal Air Force (RAF), 31, 41--44, 69 tonnage dropped by, 45--46 Russo-Japanese War, 32, 89, 176, 223n Ryder, Charles W , 122 Ryukyus, 164 Sacred Decision (Seidan) , 87-88 see also surrender, unconditional sacred regalia, imperial, 235, 346 Saga, bombing of, 154 Saiko Senso Shido Kaigi, see Supreme Council for the Direction of the War, Japanese St. Lb, 180 Srupan, 5-6, 29- 30, 53, 179, 188 "Srupan ratio," 30n, 136n Sakhalin Island, 32, 278-80, 279, 283 , 310-11 , 323,326 Sakomizu, Hisatsune, 91 , 95-96, 288- 89, 308- 9,348 Sakonji, Seizo, 92 samurru tradition, 91 , 161 , 216, 219, 299 Sanada, Joichiro, 167, 195 San Francisco, United Nations Conference at (1945), 112 Santee, 180 Sapporo, 303 Sasebo, 155 Sato, Naotake, 111- 13,221-27, 229-30, 235- 39, 247--48, 288, 344 Satsuma clan, 164 Satsuma Peninsula, 165, 167- 71 , 174-75, 193 sayings, 92, 309 Schmidt, Harry, 121 science, political role of, 259, 329, 346--47 Seabees, U.S. Navy, 119 seafood, 350 Sea ofJapan, 78- 81 , 154-55, 158-59 seaplanes, 159, 211 searchlights, 4, 208 Second Far East Front, Soviet, 278, 279, 283 , 322
Index Second General Army, Japanese, 84, 165-67, 195, 199,208, 263,267,287 2nd Infantry Division, U.S., 124-25 2nd Marine Division, U.S. , 121 , 122 Seeman, L. E., 312-13 Seidan, see Sacred Decision Seisen, mining of, 156 seishin ("spirit in combat"), 309 "Selected Urban Industrial Concentrations" (target list), 149-50 Selective Service System, U.S ., 127- 29,339 Self Defense Agency, Japanese, official history of, 231 Sendai, proposed operations at, 121, 175, 193,
201 , 205 , 273-75 Service Command " 0 ," 119 7th Infantry Division, U.S. , 70 Seventeenth Army, Soviet, 282-83 Seventy-second Air Flotilla, Japanese, 207 73rd Wing, XXI Bomber Command, U.S ., 59-61,64-67, 73,151-52,313 77th Division, Japanese, 175, 192-93,201 77th Division, U.S., 70, 122 765th Independent Infantry Battalion, Japanese, 173 766th Independent Infantry Battalion, Japanese, 173 767th Independent Infantry Battalion, Japanese, 173 shale, aluminous, 154 Shanghru, 77 shells, artillery, 157-58, 173, 181 , 211 shelters , air-rrud, 4-5, 9, 269, 270 Sherman, Forrest, 212 Sherry, Michael S. , 335 Shigemitsu, Mamoru , 108- 9, 111,291 Sh~oku , 77, 84,154,165-66, 191,358 pre-invasion build-up on, 199, 207-8, 212- 13 Shimizu, Noritsume, 281 Shimomura, Krunan, 235 , 315 Shimonoseki, 352-53 Shimonoseki Strrut, 78-81 , 155, 170 Shimonoseki Thnnel, 306 Shimushu, Soviet landing on, 323 Shinto religion, 294, 346 Shinyo (suicide boats) , 184,206 shipbuilding industry: Japanese, 75, 263 U.S ., 129 Shockley, W B., 340, 342 shoguns, 299, 302 Shoran radar, 306
479
Index shortages, 95-96, 100, 173-77, 179, 189, 280, 329, 333 ammunition, 173-74, 176-77, 203 food, 19, 21,95-96, 161, 163, 189,293-94, 304,350-56 fuel, 95, 150, 152, 173, 185, 206,208, 310, 333 transport,81 , 177, 293,304,333 Showa Tenno Dokuhakuroku (Showa Emperor's Monologue) (Terasaki), 88, 99, 100--101 , 227-28, 235,239 , 314, 318-19, 343-46 Sicily landings (1943), 125 Sigal, Leon, 94 Singapore, 324, 358-59 Siomes, P., 264--65 Sixth Air Army, Japanese, 184,208 Sixth Army, U.S., 25, 118-22,172,192-93, 211-12 Sixth Guards Tank Army, Soviet, 278, 282-83, 298 6th Marine Division, U.S., 70-71 6th Tank Brigade, Japanese, 171n, 173 Sixteenth Area Army, Japanese, 165-71, 174-77, 184, 189-90, 192 Sixteenth Army, Soviet, 283 62nd Division, Japanese, 70 Skates, John Ray, 191 slave laborers (romusha), 109, 160--63 Sledge, Eugene, 70-71 smertniks (suicide attackers), 322 Smith, Dan T., 128 Smith, Robert Ross, 141 Smuts, Jan Christian, 38 Solomon Islands campaign, 24 Solun, Manchuria, 282 Somervell, Brehon B., 129 sonar, 155 Sophia University, Tokyo, 6-7 , 61 South Dakota, 157-58 Southeast Asia Command, Allied, 243 Southern Army, Japanese, 326-27 South Pacific, 24-25, 89, 178, 326 Soviet-Japanese neutrality, 93-95 , 111-12, 114, 232,280-81,288-89 see also invasion strategy, Soviet Soviet Maritime Territories, 32, 283 Soviet-Mongolian Cavalry-Mechanized Group, 278 Soviet Union, xvii, 23-24,45, 93-95, 302 Far East offensive of, xvii, 19,34, 158, 277-83,279,288-90, 298-99, 309-11 , 322-24, 346-47, 356-59 invasion commitment of, 31-32, 95, 140-42, 213 , 217 , 242-44
Japanese overtures to, 91, 94-95,101-2, 105, 109, 110-15, 217,221-37, 241,246-48, 344, 359 Nazi invasion of, 23 occupation role of, 217, 245, 246, 250, 323-24,359 Soviet-U.S. relations, 23-24, 111 , 217 , 302, 323-24,359 atomic weapons in, 243, 244, 246n, 249-51, 258-60, 332 in postwar world order, 94-95 , 215 , 240-41 , 249-50, 252,349n see also invasion strategy, Soviet Spaatz, Carl A. "Tooey," 42, 44, 53, 153, 210-11 , 262, 277 , 303,303-4,307 special guard (policing) units, Japanese, 188, 204 Speer, Albert, 43 "stab in the back" theory, Nazi, 26 Stahmer, Ambassador, 107 Sta1in,Jose~31-32,217 , 226 , 231 , 322-24
atomic planning shared with, 242, 250-52, 258-59 Japanese peace overtures revealed by, 242-43 unconditional surrender endorsed by, 250 starvation, 19,21,95-96,161,163, 194,304, 350-56 Starvation, Operation, 77-81 State Department, U.S. , 198, 218-21 , 238 steel industry, Japanese, 48-50, 53, 78 , 81,95, 277 Stilwell, Joseph, 49, 51 Stimson, Henry L. , 23, 45, 47 , 103, 132,214, 337 in atomic planning, 249-51, 254, 256-58, 260,262,332n, 338, 341n in invasion planning, 126-28, 133, 142, 144, 243 , 249, 338-43 on peace terms, 216-18, 220, 234, 246-47 , 248n, 294,300--303 Strategic Air Forces of the Pacific, U.S . (proposed), 52, 64 strategic bombing, xviii-xix, 5, 38-69, 82, 90, 218,240, 262,293,298,303 accuracy in, 41, 42, 44, 46, 53-55, 58-63, 65 , 69, 73, 76,150, 152,254, 263n , 277 , 284, 305-6,336 as alternative to invasion, 20-22, 37, 64, 132, 146, 147, 307 atomic bombing as, 253 , 257-58 , 336, 356 daylight,40-42, 47-48, 75- 76, 278,305-6 destruction caused by, 13-17,41-43,46-48, 51 , 58,67-69, 73-77,97,108-9, 151-52, 154-57,208,253
Index
480 strategic bombing (cont'd): early proponents of, 38--40, 257 logistics of, 49-52, 57 low-altitude, 62-68, 74, 151 moral debate over, 41, 44--46,133,333-37,
355-56 morale effects of, 39--41, 44--47, 77, 97, 100,
108-9,153-54,294,345 ordnance used in, 7-8, 39, 45, 47, 59, 79,
129,307 as prelude to invasion, 30, 33-37, 335 redirection of, 42--47, 53-55, 62-65, 303-7,
313-14,350,352-55 tonnage dropped in, 42, 45--46, 51, 58, 60-62,
64-66,150,152-53,240,306-7,313 as warning to Soviets, 45 weather factors in, 40, 42, 44, 45, 53-54,
58-62,75-76,149-52,277,303,306,312 see also targeting; terror bombing Strategic Bombing Survey, U.S., 17-18,45,53, 80-82,304,352~53,355
atomic casualty estimate of, 286-87 kamikaze preparation assessed by, 182-83,
186-87 SU,Akiko, 266 Su, Shin Bok, 266-67 Su, Takeo, 266 Submarine Flotilla One, Japanese, 159 submarines, 77-78,81,83,155-56, 159,
183-84, 187,206 Sugiyama, Hajime, 199,314,316 suicide, national, 317-18 suicide tactics, 28-30, 71, 72, 178-87, 321-22 in Homeland defense, 35, 83-84, 86, 101, 166,
169,172,184-87,199,204,206-13,311 naval, 159, 179, 182-84,206,212 see also kamikaze aircraft and tactics Sumida River, 7,13,15,16,18,61 Sungari River, Manchuria, 283, 322 supply system, Japanese, 95-96,100,173-77,
185,189,191-92,203-6,312,361 Supreme Council for the Direction of the War, Japanese, ix, 87, 90, 93-99, 101-2,
227-28,233-34,239,290-93,311,328, 343--47 Surgeon General, U.S. Army, 135-36 surrender, individual and unit, 28-29, 35,71, 153,219,321-25,346--47 surrender, unconditional, 30, 133, 143,213, 214-38,288-330 announcement of, 298-99, 320-21 atomic bombs and, ix, 104, 195-96,216-18, 223,238-39,242-50,260,269-72,
283-84,290-93,296,298,300-303,310, 314, 320-21,344--48,355-56 compliance with, 272, 295, 297, 301, 303, 308-10,312,314-23,326-30,339,342, 346--48 coup attempts sparked by, 308, 317-22, 346 "decisive battle" vs., 83-84, 89-94, 98-102, 106-10,194,196,222-23,227,235, 238-39,292-93,295-97,309-11,314, 337-38,344,347,359-60 defmition of, 35,106,112-13,214-21, 229-32,238,294 disarmament under, 291, 295-97, 310, 315 Emperor's order for, 314-17, 328, 345--46, 359-60 Emperor's views on, 19,87-89, 97-102,
222-23,228,235,239,249n,289-98, 309-11,314-15,317,345--46 of Germany, 35, 93, 97, 214-15, 233, 235,
237 goals of, 26-27, 34-35, 97, 216, 218, 232-33 historians' debates over, xvii-xix, 104-5,
220n, 224,230-32,238-39,243,246--47n, 248n,331-32,339n,355-56 Imperial system under, 90, 101,214-19,
229-32,238-39,247, 248n, 289-91, 294-98,301-2,308-9,331-32 as invasion goal, 30, 35-37, 139--40,219, 237,303 Japanese cabinet's rejection of, 94, 98-101, 114-15,222-31,246--48,269,291-92, 309-10 legends about, 87-88, 234, 291, 354 negotiated peace vs., 27, 35, 83, 84, 93-102, 106,109,113-15,143,217,221-37,241, 247,250,290,343--45 occupation terms of, 232, 245, 291,301,304, 315,323-24 prisoners ' status under, 300-301 proposed modifications of, 214-21, 247, 291-92,296,344 Soviet entry and, 31-32,112,217-21,230, 236-37,242,246,249-50,288-89,293, 310,345--48,356 territorial provisions of, 34-35, 97-98, 112, 232 timing of, 300-302, 355-56 transportation bombing and, 349-56 U.S. public opinion on, 27, 89, 115, 126-27, 143,215,217-18,224n, 301,343 war-crimes provisions of, 233, 237, 291, 296, 315 surrender broadcast, 299, 315, 319-21
Index surrender ceremony, 321, 330 Suzuki, Kantaro, 91-96, 98, 101-2, 109,227, 249n,272,288-90,292-97,308-11 pro-war stance of, 91-92, 96, 234-35, 296, 309-10,345,347 surrender accepted by, ix, 310, 314 Suzuki Cabinet, 92-96, 101-2, 109,230,329 Soviet mission of, 94-95, 102, 111-15,227, 233-38,344,359 in surrender decision, 288-97, 311, 314-15, 328,344-45 surrender rejected by, 229-30, 233-35, 238-39,246-48,269,344-45 Sweden,94,113-14,246,296,309,315 Sweeney, Charles w., 284 Swift, Innis P., 121 swimmers, suicide, 184, 206 Swing, Joseph M., 122 Switzerland, 94,114-15,296,315,327 synthetic fuels, 43-44, 108, 150 Szilard, Leo, 259, 260n Tachibana Bay, mining of, 206 tactical air strikes, 36, 60--61, 157-58,272,298, 334 Tailioku, Formosa, 161 Taiwan, see Formosa Takagi, Admiral, 234 Takamatsu, Prince, 101,289,291,309,321 Takeshita, Masahiko, 316, 319 Tall Boy bombs, 306 Tamashima, bombing of, 151 Tanaka, Shizuichi, 318-19 Tanegashima, projected assault on, 121, 171, 192-93 tanks,85,129,277-78,280-83,322 in projected invasion, 169,171-74,192-93, 201-3 Tarawa, Battle of, 29 targeting, 40-54, 59, 62, 68-69, 73-74,149-54, 277, 304-7 of atomic bombs, 149-50,245,247,254-58, 262-64,290,292,303,312-13,327 census used in, 149-50 doctrinal shifts in, 42-47, 53-55, 62-65, 42-47,53-55,62-65,303-7,313-14,350, 352-55 of kamikaze attacks, 185-86, 207 see also strategic bombing; terror bombing target location and marking, 41, 42, 44, 46, 54-55,60,62,65,69 Task Force 37, U.S., 157-58 Task Force 38, U.S., 157-59
481 Task Force 58, U.S., 192 latami mats, 55 Tedder, Arthur, 43 Teheran Conference (1943), 31 Tennozan, Battle of (1582), 90 Tenth Air Flotilla, Japanese, 207 Tenth Army, U.S., 25,118 tenyu ("heaven-sent blessings"), 310 Terasaki, Hidenari, 88 Terauchi, Hisaichi, 326-27 Terraine, John, 41 terror bombing, 39, 41, 44-48, 67, 77, 254 debate over, 41, 44-46,54-55,257-58, 333-37 Thailand,324 Third Air Fleet, Japanese, 84 Third Area Army, Japanese, 298, 322 Third Fleet, U.S., 118, 155,275 3rd Marine Division, U.S., 121, 122 Thirteenth Air Flotilla, Japanese, 207 13th Armored Division, U.S ., 125, 126 Thirty-second Army, Japanese, 69-72, 166 33rd Infantry Division, U.S., 121, 122 Thirty-fifth Army, Soviet, 281 35th Infantry Division, U.S., 125 Thirty-sixth Army, Japanese, 167 Thirty-sixth Army, Soviet, 282 37th Regiment, Japanese, 173, 174, 175n Thirty-eighth parallel, 322-23 Thirty-ninth Army, Soviet, 282 303rd Division, Japanese, 175, 190, 193 312th Division, Japanese, 171n 313th Wing, XXI Bomber Command, U.S., 59-61,64-67,73,79,151,154,313 314th Wing, XXI Bomber Command, U.S., 59-60,62-67,73,76,150-51,277,303, 313 315th Wing, XXI Bomber Command, U.S., 152, 303,306 330th Ordnance Depot Company, U.S., 125 35 1st Division, Japanese, 171n 364th Infantry Regiment, Japanese, 173 Thunderclap (Allied bombing doctrine), 44-45 Tibbets, Paul w., Jr., 261, 263-64 Tillitse, Lars, 4-7, 9 Time, 71,180 Tinian, air base at, 59, 159,261,272,303 Tinosa, 155 TN-8 (herbicide), 304 Togo,Shigenori,5,93-96,233-35,239, 271-72 Soviet aid courted by, 94-95, 101-2, 112-13, 221-27,229-31,234-38,246,248,344 surrender supported by, 288-94, 308-11
482
Index
Tojo, flideki, 90-91 , 93, 253,298 tokko ("special attack") tactics, see suicide tactics Tokoyama, bombing of, 313 Tokyo, 84, 101 , 140-41 , 164,176,199, 210, 351,357 earthquake of (1923), 7,10, 16, 75 projected assault on, 117, 118, 167, 185, 274-75,340,358 Tokyo, air raids on, 3- 19, 52-54, 55, 60-62 ,
64-67,73-75,113,155,253 , 255,263n, 298 atomic (proposed), 255 , 290, 303, 327 casualties of, 14-18, 26,77,108-9,256,258,
294n,298,335 Emperor's reaction to, 18-19, 75 Japanese preparation for, 5-<l morale during and after, 11-12, 17-19,73, 108-9 survivors' descriptions of, 6-14 targets in, 7, 9, 16,53-54, 65,255,277,303 Tokyo Bay, surrender ceremony at, 321, 330 Tokyo Fire Department, 8 Tokyo Military Prison, 74 Tokyo Plain, projected invasion of, 118, 141-42, 145,147-48, 165,201-2, 212-13 , 273-74, 333,341 Tokyo University, 97 Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal, 292 Tone , sinking of, 158 Tosa Plain, 165 totalitarianism, 23-24 Toyama, bombing of, 46, 154 Toyama Bay, 155 Toyoda, Soemu, 93-94, 96, 204-6, 227 , 270-71 , 290-91 , 293 , 295,311,314,344 Toyokawa, bombing of, 271 trainer aircraft, 183, 184, 186, 207-11 training, 51,57, 59, 63, 126, 127-29, 183,339 for Homeland defense, 166-<l7 , 173, 189, 192,204,207- 9 Trans-Baikal Front, 278,279, 282-83,298 , 322 transport aircraft, 49, 50, 129, 158 transportation, 81 , 177, 193 attacks on, 43-44, 45 , 150, 154-56, 293 , 298, 304-5, 312,336,349-56 Transportation Plan, Allied, 43-44, 45 , 304 transport ships, 180, 181, 184-85,207,211 Trans-Siberian Railroad, 281 Treaty of Versailles, 98, 102, 345 Trenchard, H. M., 38 trench warfare, 38-39, 70 Trinity (atomic test) , 260-61 , 283, 303
troop lists, 118-19, 121, 137 troop strength: Japanese, 99-100, 171 , 173, 175-76, 191-94,
197,200-204,205, 211-13,279-80,340, 358 Soviet, 279-82 U.S., 118-22,120, 145, 165-<l6, 192-93,
205 , 211-12, 340,358 trucks, 177,353 Truman, Bess, Truman's letters to, 243, 246n Truman, Harry S., 131-48, 197-98, 203 , 211 , 215,249-51,300,335,355 atomic bomb decisions of, 144, 242-45, 257-60,262,269-70,302-3,338-40 casualty estimates considered by, 132-33,
139-48,194-95,243-45,257n,338-40, 357 casualty estimates withheld from , 144-46, 195,340,341 diary of, 242-46, 258 intelligence reported to, 240-46, 302, 303,
339n invasion plan approved by, 143-44,201,340 Japanese surrender observed by, 326-27, 330 peace terms considered by, 214, 216-17, 219-21 , 301 Soviet policy of, 249-51 , 323-24 strategic bombing directives of, 303, 313 Tsitsihar, Manchuria, 278 Tsuchikura,flidezo, 12-13 Tsushima, Battle of (1905), 89 Tsushima fortress, 176 Tsushima Straits, 155, 166 tuberculosis, 325, 351 Tunghua, Manchuria, 280 tunnels, defensive, 60, 174, 175, 192 Turner, Richmond, 192 1\velfth Air Army, Soviet, 279 1\velfth Air Division, Japanese, 268-<l9 1\velfth Air Flotilla, Japanese, 207 1\ventieth Air Force, U.S. , 50-53, 60, 153, 277, 304-7,313 20th Armored Division, U.S., 125, 126 XX Bomber Command, U.S., 50-52, 58, 62, 73, 363-<l4 XXI Bomber Command, U.S ., 50, 52-54, 57-<l9,73-76,263,363-<l4 incendiary raids by, 51 , 62-<l9, 73-77, 79, 149-54 minelaying operations of, 79-80 in Okinawa campaign, 69, 72, 73 21st Fighter Group, U.S., 73, 76 XXll Bomber Command, U.S ., 50
483
Index
xxm Bomber Command, U.S., 50 24th Division, Japanese, 70 Twenty-fifthAnny, Soviet, 281, 322 25th Division, Japanese, 171n, 174, 192-93, 201 25th Infantry Division, U.S., 121, 122 27th Infantry Division, U.S., 70 28th Infantry Division, U.S., 125 206th Division, Japanese, 175, 193, 201 212th Division, Japanese, 171, 174 216th Division, Japanese, 171, 174, 191, 193 Twining, Nathan, 153,303 typhoons, 341n, 350, 357-58
Ushiroku, General, 298 USSBS, see Strategic Bombing Survey, U.S. Uwajima, bombing of, 152
Ugaki, Matome, 186-87 Ulithi, Philippines, 130, 159 ultimatums, language of, 217-20, 232-33 Ultra messages, xviii, 104-6, 132, 155, 158, 185-86,231-32,238,302,353,357 deception suspected in, 274-76 distribution of, 240-49, 333n, 339n Japanese buildup revealed in, 197::...98, 200-203,208,210,212-13,240,244,250,
Victorious, 182
Vagnozzi, Monsignor, 114 Vandegrift, Alexander Archer, 28 Vandenberg, Arthur H., 132 Variable Time (VT-fused) projectiles, 211 Vasilevsky, Aleksandr Mikhailovich, 277-78, 324 Vatican,94,114 V-EDay, 93, 110, 122, 124 Versailles, Treaty of, 98, 102,345 veterans' organizations, Japanese, 188 Vietnam, 163 Vietnam War, 127 Vinson, Fred, 124 vivisection, 162, 325 Volunteer Enlistment Law, Japanese, 189 Volunteer Fighting Units, Japanese, 189-90 VT-fused (Variable Time) projectiles, 211 "V" weapons, 44
260n,273-76,303,338,340-41,359 surrender orders in, 326-30 Umezu, Yoshijiro, 91-94, 99-102,114,227,
291,293,295,308,311,344,347n in coup attempt, 316-18 unconditional surrender, see surrender, unconditional Underhill. 159,206 undertakers, 5 uniforms, 189 Unit 732, Japanese, 324-25 United Nations, 162,220,260 United Nations Conference, San Francisco (1945), 112 United States: draft in, 127-29,339-40 economy of, 123, 124,214,300 food imported from, 352 industrial output of, 30, 47,128,129, 173n war aims of, 34-35, 115 war support in, 22-24, 26, 332 war weariness in, 27, 71, 89,123-24,126-27, 132-33,338 United States Anny Strategic Air Forces (USASTAF), 153,210-11,304-7 Urakami Catholic Cathedral, 284-85 uranium, 252-54, 283n urban planning and architecture, Japanese, 6, 7, 9-10,12,48,55,74-75,267,336 Ushijima, Mitsuru, 69-70
Wakabayashi,Kinosuke,13 Wakamatsu, Tadaichi, 316-17 Wake Island, 115, 161 Walch, Timothy, 133n Wallace, Henry A., 302 war-crimes trials, 72, 88, 215, 228, 291-92, 343 in surrender terms, 233, 237, 291, 296, 315 War Department, U.S., 27-28, 123-24, 128, 198,300,339,354 War Journals, Imperial General Headquarters, 89 War Plan Orange, U.S., 20-26, 36 War Production Board (WPB), U.S., 129 Warsaw, bombardment of, 40 Washington Naval Conference (1920),103
Washington Post, 220-21 Water's Edge Surprise Attack Force, 184,206 weather, 3, 40, 42, 44, 45, 53-54, 58-62, 75-76, 141,149-52,158,186,278,303,306,312, 341n, 350,357-58 in atomic bombings, 254, 262-64, 284 Weckerling, John,223-24,248 Weckerling-Grew assessment, 225, 228,
243-44,247-48,249n see also peace initiatives, Japanese Wedemeyer, Albert C., 51-52, 133n White House Map Room, 211, 240-41 Wild, German Air Attach .. 110
Index
484 Willoughby, Charles A., 198-202,206-12,276,
340-41 Windsor, Duke of, 327 Wisconsin, 157 Wolfe, Kenneth B., 50 workers, Japanese, 81, 82, 95, 153 impressed, 109 World War I, 5, 21, 38-39, 70, 98, 123-24, 145, 257 wounded, care of, 14-16, 135, 138,265-68 WPB, see War Production Board (WPB), U.S. Wright, Frank Lloyd, 75 Wuchakou, Manchuria, 282 "X-Day," 117-22, 135, 137, 193, 197,206,212 see also invasion strategy, U.S. Yahara, Hiromichi, 70 Yakoshih, Manchuria, 282 Yalta Conference (1945), 32, 95, 214, 250 Yamada, Otozo, 278-80, 298 Yamaoka, Michiko, 265 Yamashita, Tomoyuki, 91
Yamato, destruction of, 204 Yamazaki, proposed landing at, 121 Yardley, Herbert 0., 103 Yawata, 50, 52, 277, 284 "Y-Day," 117-22 see also invasion strategy, U.S. Yellow Sea, Japanese withdrawal from, 154, 156 Yokkaichi, bombing of, 151 Yokohama, 52,55, 75-77,118,255,351 Yokosuka, 158,303 Yonai, Mitsumasa, 92, 93, 98, 227, 234, 289-91, 296,310,322,345 Yoshinaka, Wataro, 173 Yoshitake, Yasumasa, 171 Yoshizumi, Masao, 196,321-22 Yunnan China war plan, Japanese, 99-100, 345 Zacharias, Ellis M., 220-21, 231-32 zeppelins, 38, 257 Zero fighter planes, 179-80 Zipper, Operation, 358-59 Zuckerman, Solly, 43
FlllPIMAS HERITAGE IJBtAaY
Downfall : D 767.2 . F73 1999 RHC
11111111111111111111111111111111111 ::L. "7 "7 .a, .a,
Downfall: End of Imperial Japanese Empire
918 -0 -14 -100146-3
'l~70,)
.I~~ali