Encyclopedia of the Philippines [Volume 7 : Science - Part 2 of 2]

LEPROSY WORK IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS By

JACOBO

F AJ ARDO

Director of Health

Leprosy in the Philippines was not unknown in the early days. When the Spaniards arrived for the first time in the Philippines in 1521 and subsequent to the permanent settlement of the Islands in 1565 by Legaspi, the friars and other members of the religious orders were, since and subsequently, the recorders of events of any importance in the Colony. Leprosy was not present in any considerable number in the Islands, otherwise a disease so well known to them in Europe from early times would hardly have escaped their searching notice. That the disease was present here at an early date, there can probably be no doubt, especially when we take into consideration that the Philippines lie in a belt between the tro~ics of Capricorn and of Cancer where it has been endemic and still is relatively prevalent. The first mention of the disease, however, appears to have been made by Father Francisco Colin of the Society of Jesus, who, in speaking of their missionary endeavors on the island of Leyte in 1601, related, in his Labor Evangelica, the following case: FAITH OF A PAGAN LEPER

"Notable was the conversion of an old man who came alone by sea in great haste, and although he hardly had any fingers, because of leprosy of which he was suffering, nevertheless, he succeeded in paddling a small boat in which he came, and upon arriving at our residence (Carigara, Leyte) , the first thing that he said was, that we baptize him for the love of God and have mercy on him; that he was sick and very old. The toes were likewise gone as the disease had eaten them away. He said that he had desired to be a Christian for a long time, because one Spaniard had told him that those who were not Christians would go to infernal fires, but because of

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES his inability to do so he could not come earlier. The Padre had retained him for two days, teaching him the dogma of the new faith and when he had learned of them sufficiently, was baptized and given alms and recommended to the town authorities that that old man be taken care of. It was rather fortunate that a man so sick, without neither hands nor feet, could have directed his steps to the town, and no doubt he was. aided especially by our Lord and that his Guardian Angel navigated his small craft so that it was not capsized nor was he eaten by crocodiles."

In a brief review 1 made of the leprosy work done in the Islands by charitable and religious organizations with special attention to the one undertaken by the government from 1902 to 1930, it can be said that full attention was given in the care and treatment of lepers. This resulted in the enlightenment of the public in the importance of the isolation and medical treatment of the bacteriologically positive lepers to minimize as much as possible physical and moral suffering, and to prevent deformities, natural sequelae of the malady, if treated at the very advanced stage of the disease. By reviewing the appendixed leprosy literature from the above-mentioned paper, it may be noted that most of the work done by the eminent and distinguished men of science in the islands during that period deals mostly on the study of the treatment and care of lepers. Little attention, however, was paid to scientific studies on the transmission, evolution and pathology of the disease with the view of applying it in epidemiological investigations so that control measure may be effectively carried.

The aim of the present paper is to present briefly any progress accomplished in our studies of leprosy during the last five years (1931-1935). The Leonard Wood Memo1 Fajardo, J., A ResufM of Leprosy Work in the Philippine Islands, Revista F-ilipina de Medicina y Farmacia, Vol. XXII, February, 1931, No.2. .

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SCIENCE rial Conference on Leprosy was held in Manila, from January ninth to the twenty-third in 1931. 1 Since then the already existing world interest was more aroused in observing the leprosy work done in the Philippines as evidenced by the fact that many distinguished and eminent scholars of leprosy have visited the islands during the past five years. Then followed the establishment of a permanent research laboratory of the Leonard Wood Memorial, the publication of the International Journal of Leprosy, and, most significant of all, is the epioemiological and bacteriological studies of the disease conducted by the Leonard Wood Memorial in Cebu and started by Professor DoulI, of the Department of Public Health of Western Reserved University. Professor Soule of Michigan and Professor Gay of Columbia stayed in the country and studied the subject for a certain period of time.

The Leprosy Advisory Board created by Executive Order No. 44, dated January, 1927, to advise the Honorable, the Secretary of Public Instruction, in matters pertaining to leprosy control in the Philippine Islands, has decided to hold a special open meeting on October 26th and 27th, 1932, for the purpose of securing opinions from physicians actively engaged in the study of leprosy, directors and superintendents of hospitals and others interested in the control of the di.sease as provided for in the Bill No. 146, entitled "Ley que regula el tratamiento y segregacion de Leprosos," sponsored by Representatives M. Ramirez, S. Cabahug, V. T. Lazo and P. Ybanez. There seems to be a common belief, even among physicians not actually engaged in the study and control of the disease, that the present provisions of our statutes are too specific and stringent, so that they cannot be interpreted in a more liberal sense than is commonly thought to be the case at 1

The Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. 44, April, 1931, No.4.

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the present time. The scientific papers read at the meetings were positive contributions to the study and control of the disease; they were published on November 14, 1932.1 By the middle of 1935, the Philippine Legislature passed Senate Bill No. 101 which provided for radical changes in controlling leprosy in the Philippine Islands.

The bill when submitted to His Excellency, Governor-General Frank Murphy for approval, was vetoed on July 23, 1935, and he appointed a Commission to study and report upon the problem of leprosy control in the Philippines.

The instructions to the Commission were as follows: "The Commission will conduct its investigations in the light of the scientific knowledge regarding the control and treatment of leprosy acquired during recent years and make a thorough study of the scientific, public health, social and economic aspects of the', problem. The Commission will include in its report recommend~tions with the purpose of improving the present methods of controlling leprosy in the Philippines."

The Commission after serious consideration of the treatment of leprosy, arrived at the conclusion that the methods followed in the Philippines are in accord with the latest development in that field and are the most effective known at the present time. A report was submitted to the Governor-General on September 18, 1935,2 with the following summary and conclusions: "The present method of controlling leprosy by segregation of the bacteriologically positive lepers is the one best adapted to the conditions prevailing in the Philippine Islands. The basic principle of segregation is that the positive leper is isolated for the public good and not as a matter of charity for the individuals concerned. This 1 Transactions of the Open Meeting of the Leprosy Advisory Board on October 26 and 27, 1932, Bureau of Health, Manila, P. I. 2 Report of the Philippine Leprosy Commission, International Journal of Leprosy, Vol. 3, 1935, No.4, pp. 389-442.

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SCIENCE measure unavoidably involves the sacrifice of certain personal rights. In view of this, the restrictions upon the individuals affected should be made as lenient as is consistent with the purpose of control. The government should use all reasonable means to insure that the rights of segregated lepers are properly safeguarded. The methods of segregation employed should be such as to allow them to live in as nearly normal an environment as possible. The government should appropriate sufficient funds to provide segregated lepers with the ordinary necessities of life or the means for obtaining a livelihood.

"The foregoing discussion has brought out the following points: "(a) Leprosy is an infectious disease which is transmitted through more or less intimate contact. " (b) The source of the infection is the bacteriologically positive leper. " (c) Children are especially susceptible to infection.

For practical purposes in control work adults may be regarded as immune, although cases in which adults have acquired the disease have been reported. "(d) Under conditions as they exist in the Philippine Islands the segregation of bacteriologically positive lepers is and must continue to be the basic measure for the control of leprosy. The form of segregation employed should be that which will afford the necessary protection for the public and interfere as little as possible with the rights of the leper. "(e) The segregation of the individual lepers in his own home is impracticable as a control measure in the Philippines. Home segregation, theoretically, would permit the individual to remain with the adult members of his family, but this single advantage would be far outweighed and nullified by the many disadvantages. In practice it would not protect the family, especially the 287

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES children, or the community. The environment created by home segregation would not be for the best interests of the individual segregated, and it would tend to have an adverse effect on the progress of the disease under treatment. "(f) Group segregation is the method of choice for the control of leprosy in the Philippine Islands. When properly carried out it affords the best environment for the segregated persons. It facilitates treatment, which usually delays the progress of the disease in the individual cases and in many instances permits the patients to return to their homes. It protects the general public from exposure to leprosy infection to a degree which could never be attained by home segregation. "(g) Group segregation should be accomplished by means of regional colonies, regional treatment stations, and hospitals for advanced cases. "(h) Regional agricultural colonies should be provided for those patients who are capable of engaging in agricultural work, and so far as possible these colonies should be made self-supporting. "(i) The population of the Culion Leper Colony has grown too large to permit of efficient administration.

Culion is so far removed from the centers of population that the great majority of the inmates there cannot be visited by their relatives. The island is not well suited for extensive agricultural development and the water supply is not sufficient for a large population. The inmate population of the colony should not be allowed to exceed the present number, about 7,000, and eventually it should be reduced. "(j) The number of regional treatment stations should increase with a view to facilitating the early detection and treatment of leprosy cases. So far as possible 288

SCIENCE all treatment stations should include, or be connected with, regional agricultural colonies. "(k) The leper department of the San Lazaro Hospital in Manila should be discontinued, and a treatment station and regional agricultural colony for the care of all cases from northern and central Luzon should be developed in one of the provinces adjacent to Manila. "(1) Funds for the subsistence of lepers in segregation should be provided on a per capita per day basis. At the present time the amount appropriated should be twenty centavos per capita per day. "(m) The present method of following up paroled patients is entirely inadequate. These patients should be kept under reasonably close observation in order to insure that they receive 路 proper treatment, with a view to prolonging and making permanent the bacteriologically negative stage, and to facilitating the prompt detection of relapsed cases in order the better to permit giving them adequate treatment and to afford to the public protection from exposure to infection. "(n) The basic preparole observation period for patients who become bacteriologically negative in segregation should be six months, instead of twelve as at present" provided that adequate arrangements are made for their observation and treatment after parole. /( (0) The present policy of the Bureau of Health is to remove children oorn of leper parents in the leprosaria from the infected surroundings at the age of six months or less, though circumstances have not permitted doing this regularly. These births occur chiefly at Culion, where there is a nursery in the non-leper area. Since few of these' children can be placed with non-leper relatives, the majority are transferred in the course of time to the orphanage established for them in the Welfareville institution near Manila. Provisions should be made to permit 289

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES removal of all such children to the nursery at birth; as many as possible should then be placed with non-leper relatives, and special efforts to do this should be made; all those not so placed should be transferred as soon as practicable to the 'VelfareviIle orphanage, where adequate space and facilities should be provided for this purpose."

EXTENSION OF LEPROSY WORK

Unfortunately, due to the inability to obtain more funds, the plan of the Bureau of Health to increase the number of treatment stations as well as to increase the capacity of treatment stations already in operation as reported in a previous paper, could not be materialized.

The excess number of lepers in treatment stations and in the detention camps was transferred to the Culion Leper Colony. There is no question that the total number of lepers in segregation in the detention camps and other treatment stations, including Culion at the end of 1935 is greater than in any previous years, being 8,508. This increase however cannot be interpreted as an increase of the number of lepers, because the number of new declared lepers is grossly similar to the number of previous years.

Dr. Hernando, Chief of the Division of Epidemiology, subjected, the yearly figures of newly declared lepers to a biometrical measurement which shows that the trend of leprosy in the Philippines has a slight tendency of going down.

SKIN DISPENSARIES

Although the former activities of the skin dispensaries connected with the treatment stations for the early detection of bacteriologically negative lepers is being continued, the main task is to conduct epidemiological studies. Rodriguez and Plantilla at Cebu, independently working from the Leonard Wood Memorial, are carrying a series of con290

SCIENCE tinued observations on the different epidemiological aspects of the disease by studying the genealogical-trees of lepers.

Rodriguez after observing his 'leprosy work in Cebu 1 says: "The theory of Rogers to the effect that there is close relationship between the prevalence of leprosy and heavy rainfall is disproved in the Philippines, Cebu being one of the driest islands in the group." Manalang 2 also said that "Race, geography, climate, environment, occupation, diet and sex have been found to have no relation with the epidemiology of leprosy." Velasco of the San Lazaro Hospital and Carreon at the Bicol Station, have been carrying besides their studies on leper contacts, a continued and periodic observation of clinically but bacteriologically negative lepers to find out the evolution of the disease.

CHILDREN OF LEPERS

In spite of the ruling of the Bureau of Health that children of lepers should be removed at birth from leprous mothers, the policy could not be adopted due to lack of proper means. About the middle of 1935 there were about 150 children who had been left one year or more with their leprous mothers. Lately the transfer of 120 children from the Culion Leper Colony was effected. This number filled to capacity the newly constructed home at Welfareville.

The number of children born from lepers constitutes a serious problem, not only for their care which requires a great amount of money: but principally because those who are removed after contact of about 6 months with leprous mothers, face a future sadder than the lot of any other orphan. The stigma of their leprous parentage The Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. 45, No.3, July, 1931.

Monthly Bulletin of the Philippine Health Service, Vol. XII, No.9, September, 1932.

1

2

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES makes it practically impossible to get them adopted or placed in private homes. Cliiyuto who is following these children at Welfareville says that all of them are potential lepers, although the majority present only apparently innocent looking skin lesions which were histologically considered by Manalang to be leprotic in nature. In a continued observation of over 4 years, 46.3 per cent have advanced and in 7.3 per cent to be unequivocably leprotic.

Lara and de Vera at Culion studying the children of lepers from birtn up to their transfer to Manila partially confirm the findings of Chiyuto although their interpretation is different when they said,1 uThe above observations~ considered together with those previously reported by others, suggest that, while many of the early non-striking changes seen in children of lepers are probably of leprotic nature, not all such changes can be regarded as of the same nature."

Lara, in an unpublished report entitled "The P:roblem of the Follow-up of 'Negative' Lepers" 2 sent to the Leprosy Commission~ said the following: "The children of leprous parents, especially those that had been born in segregation institutions and reared by their parents may for follow-up purposes also be classed as "Negative" lepers. Most of such children who had been in contact with their parents for at least six months have been found to show evidences of the infection." He further says: "The practically unrestricted opportunities for marriage of lepers, inside or outside the segregation institutions, without any provision for effectively controlling the birth of children among them' is undoubtedly one of the most important factors, if not actually the most important, in perpetuating and propagating the disease in this country." Velasco, in his observation of the frequency of leprosy among parents and children, and its bearing in the 1 2

The Jour. P. 1. M. A., March, 1935, Vol. 15, No.3.

To be published in the Monthly Bulletin of the Bureau of Health.

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SCIENCE transmission and epidemiology of the disease,l says: "Of the 80 children, 61 or 76.3 per cent were leprous of whom 77.1 per cent were clinical lepers and 22.9 per cent were positive lepers." This finding does not only confirm the previous observations of Gomez, Avellana and Nicolas and later of Rodriguez, but also seems to modify to a certain extent the conception (1) "That the incidence of leprosy among those children of leper parents is increased with the length of the period of exposure," because recent observations on them show that six months contact of a newly born child with the leprous parent is more than sufficient for the disease to develop innocent looking leprotic lesions which advance to the unequivocal manifestations later in life: ANTI-LEPROSY TREATMENT

The anti-leprosy treatment by means of the hydnocarpus wightiana oil and its derivatives, either plain or with 0.5 per cent iodine applied intramuscularly or intradermally, is continued up to the present writing and is considered the best drug that renders the most effective results.

Its permanency, however, remains to be a problem subject to the most acrimonious debate. It is believed pertinent to quote Jose M. M. Fernandez from Argentina 2 commenting upon the efficacy of the chaulmoogra "Entre los Filipinos existe tres tendencias: escepticismo absoluto de parle de los leprologos de San Lazaro, eclectic os los de Cebu y partidarios del chaulmoogra los de Culion." (The writer believes that the leprologists of San Lazaro, refer to a group of Manila leprosy workers and not to the work1 Revista Filipina de Medicina y Farmacia, Vol. 25, No.9, September, 1934.

2 Fernandez, J. M. 路 M., Impresiones Ace1'ca del Estado Actual del Problema de La Lepra en Estados Unidos de Norte America, Hawaii, Filipinas, Japon, India y Brazil, Rosario, Editorial Medica Lagos, 1935.

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ers of the Leper Department of San Lazaro Hospital).

Manalang in his histological studies of skin sections from clinical lepers, bacteriologically positive lepers, negative lepers during and after treatment either under parole or discharged, neural lepers and relapse, and children of lepers, concluded that the his.tological structure is pathologically similar in all, with the only exception of the presence or absence of acid-fast globi. Therefore if the pathogenesis or the clinical and histo-pathological evolution of the leprotic lesion in a child is similar to that of a paroled adult, it is a logical expectation that a leper who becomes negative after the treatment will in due time if he lives long enough become active again following the natural course of the disease.

Lagrosa and Ignacio 1 in their observations on some effects of intradermal injection of certain esters of different degree of saturation commented as follows: "This study furnishes further evidence of the superiority of the chaulmoogra derivatives over other oil derivatives in the treatment of leprosy. While the test was not as definite as might be desired, the results may be taken to indicate that saturation is not an important factor in the improvement observed following treatment with the chaulmoogra derivatives." Others believe that although the treatment by chaulmoogra oil perhaps cannot per se "cure" leprosy, the elimination of myriads of bacilli and resolution of the lesions in which they lie immersed against the bodily defenses, certainly places the body in a much better position to overcome the infection, and that the infection is thus overcome in some cases. Nolasco of Culion has made a series of histo-pathologicaI studies of the effect of the local infiltration by means of chaulmoogra oil.

1

Jottrnal P. I. M. A., April, 1935, Vol. XV, No.4.

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SCIENCE FOLLOW-UP WORK AND CONTROL OF EX-LEPERS

The same problem and difficulty confronted in . the past by the "Bureau of Health in the follow-up work i)f the released negative lepers remain still unsolved in spite of the existing regulation (Administrative Order No. 72, dated July 28, 1930, as amended by Administrative Order No. 88, dated November 23, 1932). The attitude of the parole of negative toward the present regulations, as concluded by the Philippine Leprosy Commission in their report is quoted: "They may be grouped into three classes: (1) those who voluntarily submit to the requirements, (2) those who have to be sent for by the local health officers and who are supposed to observe and treat them, and (3) those who do not appear even when called."

The incidence of relapses after parole varies. Chiyuto and Velasco in their follow-up of cases that had been paroled between 1922 and 1930 in the City of Manila and neighboring provinces, found 46.4 per cent of them had relapsed. Rodriguez in Cehu found 33.18 per cent relapses among 657 paroled cases. Lara at Culion had found only 23.2 per cent of relapse cases, among 138 negatives readmitted to Culion that have been regularly observed for from 3 to 13 years. This relatively lower incidence of relapse is explained by Lara to be due possibly to the less arduous life and environment in Culion, the advantage of having regular treatment for the leprosy and other favorable conditions. Denney in Carville, has observed that with rigid parole requirements, the relapses over a ten-year period have been only 3 per cent. On the other hand, Wayson in Hawaii, where the parole requirements have presumably been rigid, has found 51.7 per cent relapses within 3 to 5 years after parole. More recently, Nolasco of Culion reports that smear examination in 42 "quiescent" and "arrested" cases, showed bacilli located in nerves, lymph nodes, or testes, in 27 instances. In the 295

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES other 15 where he failed to find bacilli by the smear method, he made a histological search and found typical bacilli in 12 more cases. Only in 3 out of 42 negatives did this worker find such minimal tissue reaction considered as "instances in which the infection had probably been almost or quite overcome."

LEONARD WOOD MEMORIAL

As have been mentioned elsewhere, this institution is still carrying an epidemiological study in Cebu. Wade the Medical Director in his pathological studies contributed exhaustive papers on tuberculoid changes in leprosy including its classification; the materials used in this study are those he obtained from about 23 cases from South Africa, a pertinent :portion is quoted from his summary and conclusion 1 which says: "'tuberculoid leprosy', signifying a distinct and clinically recognizable variety of the disease." This appears to be rather different from the contention of Manalang, when he says tuberculoid leprosy is an intermediate stage in the pathogenesis of the disease.

NEW ORIENTATIONS ON THE TRANSMISSION, SUSCEPTIBILITY, AND PATHOGENESIS OF THE DISEASE

This brief review will not be complete without mentioning the work done by Manalang and Chiyuto in Manila, though their opinions and conclusions are not accepted by the majority of leprologists. They contend mainly on (a) the susceptibility of children under 3 years old and the immunity of adults, and (b) the acid-fast organism (Mycobacterium Leprae) is a late microscopic development of the disease. They based such revolutionary conclusions against the rooted conception on the following studies quoted from the report of the Commission: 1

International Journal of Lep1路osy, Vol. 2, 1934, No. 1.

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SCIENCE "( 1) Continuous clinico-bactero-pathological observations on isolated children of lepers (supposedly untainted) who have remained with their parents for six months or more. "(2) Clinical and bactero-pathological studies (using serial skin sections) of bacteriologically negative and positive lesions of different stages of the disease in different ages; repeated biopsies (skin sections) from the same lesions at long intervals, and sections from bacteriologically positive and negative lesions before treatment, during treatment, and after apparent cure, and on relapse. "(3) Clinico-bactero-pathological study on the frequency of leprosy among parents and children. " (4) Bactero-pathological study of post-mortem material from San Lazaro Hospital and Culion. "(5) Resistance study (Leprolin Test) on bacteriologically positive and negative (neural) lepers, children of lepers (2 to 24 years old), childreJ.l of non-lepers (5 days to 14 years old), and healthy employees with or without direct contact with lepers.

"These studies led to the following conclusions.

"1. Nature of leprosy: Infectious.

"2. Etiological agent: A microscopically invisible (virus) stage in the life cycle of Mycobacterium Leprae.

The bacillus is a late manifestation of the disease.

"Basis: Identified leprotic lesions, clinically and patho. logically identical or similar to bacteriologically positive leprotic lesions in frank lepers, very frequently do not contain Mycobacterium Leprae. On the other hand clinically and histologically normal skins of lepers often contain numerous bacilli, contrary to the fundamental law of cause and effect.

"3. Transmission: Not hereditary; infection postnatal. Disease acquired by the susceptible through fre297

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES quent and prolonged skin-to-skin contact. Therefore, primary lesions are multiple, not single.

"Basis: Distribution of early lesions on the body of lepers on those regions (site of predilection) that have had frequent and prolonged skin-to-skin contact.

"4. Sources of infections: Both bacteriologically positive and negative lepers (open and closed cases, respectively), and also the cured or paroled cases, are capable of transmitting the disease to the susceptible.

"Basis: Since leprosy lesions are due to the microscopically invisible virus stage in the life cycle of Mycobacterium Leprae, therefore, the negative lepers, including paroled cases whose skin pathology is similar or identical to the skin pathology of the cllildrcn of lepers, should be capable of transmitting the disease to the susceptible.

This is confirmed by a study of frequency of leprosy among parents and their children, in which of 56 children examined from 23 bacteriologically negative lepers parents, 48 per cent are already clinical lepers (bacteriologically negative) and 14 per cent are already bacteriologically positive lepers.

"5. Susceptibility to infection: Adults are immuned; infection is acquired only in infancy or early childhood before reaching the age of three years, both sexes are equally susceptible.

"Basis: Failure to transmit or reproduce leprosy in 145 recorded human inoculations is due to the adult age of the subjects. Arning's famous experimental transmission of leprosy is not valid because the subject had a leper son and nephew. Nurse P. of the Eversley Childs Treatment Station, Cebu, supposedly contracted the disease in the leprosarium after a finger prick, but he had areas of anesthesia before he studied nursing and has many relatives at Culion. Healthy laborers and workers among lepers in Culion for the past 30 years have failed to ac298

SCIENCE quire the disease, except one laborer whose brother was a leper inmate, and recently an employee whose first cousin is also an inmate. Extreme rarity of leprosy among husbands and wives. In the well known cases of Father Damian and others no scientific proof is available that they did not have early unrecognized leprosy lesions before they worked among the lepers from whom they were supposed to have contracted the disease. High incidence of early leprosy among children of lepers, 100 per cent according to clinico-pathological study. Distribution and sites of predilection of leprosy lesions in adult lepers are the same as for the early lesions in children of lepers, showing that the lesions in the adult lepers were produced since childhood (though imperceptible to the untrained). Confirmed by the experience in Japan of high frequency of leprosy of the hairy scalp, the result of a religious practice of shaving the hair of the infant on reaching the age of 100 days, thus exposing the bare head to frequent and prolonged skin-to-skin contact; while scalp leprosy is rare in countries, including the Philippines, that do not indulge in this practice. Results of leprolin tests show that healthy children under 1 year are vvithout reaction in 100 per cent; under 2 years no reaction in 66 per cent; under 3 years no reaction in 33 per cent; over 3 years positive reaction in all. Confirmed in both India and Argentina. All healthy employees, with or without contact with leprosy, react positively to leprolin. Reactions on children of lepers are aberrant, the same as the reactions of adult lepers.

These observations support the theory of adult immunity and infantile susceptibility. Both sexes of children of lepers are equally affected.

"6. Incubation period: Relatively short; evolution long and very variable.

"Basis: Continuous clinico-pathological observations on children of lepers during the last 4 years show that the 299

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES pathology of the evolution of leprosy is perivascular round cell infiltrations, tuberculoid lesions and lepromata."

The work of Rodriguez, Mabalay and Tolentino 1 on Grain-positive forms of the M. Leprae from leprotic lesions bacteriologically negative for acid-fast organisms by the use of the Much's staining method seems to support the new theory of the life cycle of M. LeprOJe pointed out

by M:malang 2 when he says "A specific agent, probably a virus, precedes the appearance of the acid-fast M. Leprae."

Plantilla of the Cebu Skin Clinic, in his studies on the appearance and frequency of early leprotic lesions seems to agree with Manalang on the direct skin to skin contact mode of transmission, but he also believes that the infected floor of the house of a leper also plays an important role as evidenced by the high incidence of leprotic lesion on the knees.

GENERALLY ACCEPTED VIEW ON THE TRANSMISSION, SUSCEPTIBILITY, AND PATHOGENESIS OF THE DISEASE

The generally accepted ideas on the transmission, susceptibility and pathogenesis of the disease in the Philippines are based on accumulated literature since the middle of the last century. It will be an arduous work to make abstracts from such materials and is also too voluminous for the purposes of this paper. In order, however, to give a fair account of these ideas, the following is quoted from the report of the Leprosy Commission: "(1) Leprosy is transmitted only by contagion, and not by heredity.

1 Monthly Bulletin of the B!treau of Health, November, 1933, Vol. XIII, No. 11.

2 Monthly Bulletin of the Philippine Health Service, December, 1931.

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SCIENCE "(2) The causal organism is the Mycobacterium LeP,rae. "(3) Infection usually follows prolonged and intimate contact, although instances of infection following a single brief contact having been recorded.

"The conditions under which leprosy is most frequently contracted have been studied by Rogers, who analysed 700 cases gathered from the literature on this subject. His findings are summarized in the following tabulation: Number

Mode of Infection

Conjugal and cohabitation ............

House, room and bed ...... . ..........

Attending on lepers ..................

Other close association .... . ..........

Miscellaneous ........... • ............

128 279 139 136 18

Percentage 18.3 39.8 19.9 19.4 2.6

" ( 4) There is evidence of special susceptibility of children to leprosy, although no age is exempt.

"Among the first authorities to present data bearing on this point were Lie, Ehlers and Verdier and Dohi. Reports of frequency of leprosy in children were published

by Theze (French Guiana), Kermorgant (Tahiti), Veendam (British Guiana), Dalziel (Sokoto), Mouritz (Hawaii), and Denny (P. 1.). "(5) The cutaneous type is much more infective than the neural (anesthetic) type.

"Rogers gives the following figures: Of 113 cases in which the type of the infecting case was recorded, this was nodular in 107, or 94.7 per cent and neural in only 5.3 per cent. " (6) The incubation period is usualIy longer than in most diseases.

"In the Culion children who had become leprous the incubation period was estimated by Rogers to average about 3.5 ¡years. Hopkins gives an incubation period of 6 to 8 years; Besnier 4 years; Keravel 3 to 4 years; Impey, 301

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES for nodular cases, 2 years. Cases .of prolonged incubation periods had been reported by Radcliff-Crocker, Bracken, Hansen, Cochrane and many others. It is generally agreed, however, that what is prolonged is not so much the incubation period as the period of latency."

ADULT SUSCEPTIBILITY

"The literature that might be cited in connection with this question is too voluminous to be covered in this report; submitted with it (but not reproduced here) is a comprehensive review of the most recent literature on the subject. 1 However, the evidence upon which most leprologists base their opinion that, though children are especially susceptible to leprosy, the disease is also transmissible to adults is exemplified by the following: "Talwik [Lepra 6 (1905-1906) 211], who surveyed the history of leprosy on the island of Oesel in Estonia during 1903-1904, found numerous cases of leprous maidservants causing the infection of the house-wife or the master of the household, or the opposite case of the servant becoming infected from a leprous individual fn the household. He also records several instances in which marriage or a love affair between a leper and a healthy person ended in infection of the healthy partner. In a recent report from Estonia, Spindler [Internat. Jour. Lep. 3 (1935) 265] states that, contrary to the findings in other countries that the maj ority of infections occur before the twentieth year, the opposite is the case in . his country; most of the infections there occur after the thirtieth year.

"BlaschKo (Deutsche Med. Wchschr. 35, 2276) and Kirschner [Lepra 10 (1909-1910) 77] thoroughly studied the spread of the disease in the Memel outbreak, which occurred in East Prussia and which was traced to five 1 Is Leprosy Transmis8ible from a Leper to a N on-leprou8 Adult? Compiled by M. W. Bennett.

302

SCIENCE Russian servant girls entering the province between 1848 and 1880. From their findings an especially interesting occurrence may be cited. A leprous servant girl infected the father of the family in which she was working, and also three of the children. From this family the infection next spread to another family, in which the mother, three children, a female servant, and the second husband of the infected mother were attacked.

"Another experience which may be cited is the introduction of leprosy into the island of New Caledonia. Grall [Lepra 10 (1909-1910) 104] recorded that it was brought by a Chinese who died about 1865 after sojourning for two years with a certain tribe. A woman of this tribe, an adult, was attacked one year after the death of the Chinese, or three years after the latter's arrival. From that time the spread was very rapid, and Ortholan [Am. Hyg. Med. Colon (1911) 229] reported that ten years later from onefourth to one-half of the population in certain districts had become leprous. From New Caledonia the disease invaded the neighboring Loyalty group.

"New Caledonia was later used as a penal colony for French Criminals. Jeanselme [Lepra 10 (1909-1910)] reported that, from 1888 to 1898, 132 cases had occurred among Europeans, chiefly among the prisoners and especially among those under parole who mixed freely with the natives.

"If we were to believe that the French convicts who happened to have been sent to New Caledonia had all been infe~ted during infancy in their native country, it would be necessary to assume that there must have existed much more leprosy in France at that time than was actually the case. Pertinent in this connection is the history of cases of leprosy in England, where the disease is not endemic.

These cases are in persons who as adults went abroad to leprous regions where they acquired the infection. Though 303

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES upon returning to England they are not subjected to any restrictions whatever, this has not resulted in the establishment of the disease in that country. It is true that four cases of autochthonous leprosy have been reported from England, but those were all in young children who lived with lepers who were infected elsewhere, and the infection stopped with these children and was not acquired by any other person in contact with them.

"On the other hand, a recent instance of the introduction of leprosy into a new territory occurred in the island of Nauru, in Oceania, as recorded by Bray [Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. 23 (1930) 1370]. It was apparently brought there by a Caroline Islander and a Gilbert Islander about 1912. In June, 1920, 8 years after the arrival of these possible sources of infection, four autochthonous cases of leprosy were under observation. By 1926 there were 377.

Of this number 50 per cent were over 20 years old, which indicates that at least one-half of the cases were probably over 14 years of age at the time they were infected, assuming that the first four autochthonous cases were the source of the subsequent rapid spread of the disease.

"Other indications of the contagiousness of leprosy among adults are the recorded cases of infection due to conjugal relationship.

"McCoy and Goodhue (United States Pub. Health Bull., No. 61, 1913, p. 7) reported that in Hawaii 5.1 per cent of healthy husbands and 4.8 per cent of healthy wives married to lepers developed the disease. Denny.[J our.

Amer. Med. Ass., 69 (1917) 2171] reported 1.8 per cent of conjugal infections among 2,220 cases admitted to the Culion Leper Colony. Rogers [Ann. Trop. Med., 18 (1924) 267], in his analysis of 700 cases from the literature in which the possible sources of infection were traced, found that 12.1. per cent were conjugal infections and that an 304

SCIENCE additional 6.1 per cent were due to cohabiting with lepers, making a total of 18.2 per cent.

"We also have data on the incidence of infection among adults who had been allowed to live with lepers in leprosaria. According to McCoy and Goodhue, no less than 16.4 per cent of the healthy persons living in the Molokai Leper Settlement of the Hawaiian Islands, chiefly in conjugal relationship with lepers, became infected. Previously, Mauritz, in 1886, had reported that of 178 healthy Molokai attendants, most of whom wel'e married to lepers, who were examined in February, 1885, and again in February 1886, no less than 1'Z (9.5 per cent) had developed leprosy during the year. But the conditions in the Settlement at that time were very 'pad, and subsequently, with improved care, such infections greatly decreased. (Rogers, L. and Muir, E. Leprosy, London, 1925.)

"There is still furthe evidence of the infectivity of leprosy among adults in the comparatively few cases of physicians and other adults who developed the disease following cuts, puncture, operations, etc., contaminated with presumably highly infectious leprous material. The most recent case of this sort, reported by Marchoux [Internat.

Jour. Lep., 2 (1934) 1j, is that of a physician who, while assisting at an operation on a leper in 1922, was pricked with the suturing needle; in 1932 he was found to have developed a bacteriologically positive lesion at the site of the puncture."

It may be pertinent after reading the foregoing quoted review of the most recent literature on the su;bject of adult susceptibility, to quote Hayashi when he said 1 "in the Palantoengan leprosarium there were 167 patients, including 10 full-blooded Europeans and 38 Eurasians. Except for a Russian who was born in Russia and brought l

180.

IntenLational Journal of Leprosy, Vol. 3, 1935, No.2, pp. 165305

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES to Singapore as a baby, it appeared that all were born in the East Indies. It is said that most cases of leprosy among Europeans are contracted 路in tropical colonies, and of course one hears of cases of adult contracting it, but the fact that the 48 persons referred to at Palantoengan were all born in the East is eloquent testimony for the susceptibility of infants." Velasco, of San Lazaro Hospital, in his studies in the transmission of the disease among the 13 families, in which both parents were examined and only one spouse in each family had been found suffering from leprosy., in spite of the fact that these families have lived in matrimony from 5 to over 20 years, and belong to the poorer class, insufficiently fed, poorly clothed and lived in crowded insanitany surroundings, where ignorance and filth are prevalent, feels justified in asserting that all the predisposing factors in the propagation of leprosy such as ignorance, nutrition, economic condition, habit, etc., have little or no role at all in the spread of leprosy, unless early infection has taken place."

It may not now be out of place to quote Thompson 1 when he said "The incidence of leprosy in particular areas or countries is described in general terms commonly enough, but critical examination of assertions made concerning it is almost wanting. Anecdotes of occurrences of lepra are related in so lively and striking a fashion that they are copied by writer after writer; yet rarely indeed are they supported by the evidential details which, tedious though they are can alone give them value, and there are many authors, well-known to be trustworthy in other fields, who entertain preconceived ideas concerning leprosy so strongly that they seem unable even to perceive facts which run counter to them. To dignify all this by calling it unscientific would be to break a butterfly on the wheel."

1

Lepra,e, 5, 1905, p. 114.

306

SCIENCE CLOSING REMARKS

The prevailing and generally accepted views on the studies of leprosy, especially on the transmission, susceptibility and pathogenesis as well as the new orientation put forth by some of the Manila workers were presented. The writer believes that it is not within the scope of this article to establish any conclusion.

The classical ideas of the behavior of the disease accepted by the majority although not sufficiently based upon real scientific test, as may be seen through its multiple scientific paradoxes, still deserve serious consideration due to the recognized scientific authority and responsibility of those supporting such views. On the other hand, the new theories, some of them startling, others radical and revolutionary, but nevertheless interesting, their supporters seem to base their opInions apparently on the same materials, although their interpretations are diametrically different.

It is beyond question that the new theories with regard to pathogenesis and transmission suggest new orientations in the prophylaxis of the disease, but to effect such changes now may be premature and without justification in the absence of confirmatory evidence.

In presenting plainly both sides of the question, the main aim of this paper is to invite all concerned to revise all our concepts of the disease by submitting each and every one of the old and new theories to a real and critical scientific test by using only scientific materials obtained from proven scientific sources that will stand the rigid, unbiased study and disregarding totally all unscrupUlous and hearsay evidences not supported by scientific materials. By carrying out the above suggestions many of our controversial knowledge and perhaps also unknown equations of this biblical disease may be brought to light for the sake of suffering humanity.

307

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES REFERENCES ARTICLES ON LEPROSY PUBLISHED IN THE P. I. BY FILIPINOS IN FOREIGN PUBLICATIONS, FROM 1930 TO JUNE 1935 Early symptoms, (J. Rodriguez) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 9:.447451, December, 1929.

Experimental, clinical skin lesions in Philippine monkeys resulting from experimental inocula.tion with human leprous material, (0. Schobl, E. V. Pineda and J. Miyao) Philippine J. Se., 41: 233-243, March, 1930.

At San Lazaro Hospital, Manila, (E. V. Pineda, E. R. Pineda and A. Dayrit) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 9 :443-446, December, 1929.

Progress at Cebu Treatment Station: Second progress report, (F. Eubanas) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 9 :452-457, December, 1929.

Preliminary survey on negative lepers in the First Sanitary Division, Cebu, (L. B. Gomez) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 1032210326, August, 1930.

Rate of growth of breast..fed and artificially fed infants born of leper parents at Culion Leper Colony, (B. de Vera) J. Philippine Islands M. A .. 10 :281-290, July, 1930.

Cultivation of acid-fast bacillus from leprosy (W. B. Wherry) Philippine J. Se., 43 :577-581, December, 1930.

Treatment of lepl'ous lesions of mucosa (J. G. Samson, C. B. Lara and M. C. Cruz) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 10 :291-299, July, 1930.

Eye, ear, nose, and throat manifestations, (E. Y. Dizon) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 10 :211-216, May, 1930.

Histopathology under local infiltration; nature of yellowish globules in treated lesions, (J. O. Nolasco) J. Philippine Islands, M. A., 10 :273-276, July, 1930.

Chemotherapy by use of chaulmoogra oil and its derivatives and other synthetic preparation, (F. Eubanas) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 10:203-210, May, 1930.

Modern treatment (G. Argos) Bol. del Hasp. Civ. de San Juan de Dios, 5:106-116, January-June, 1930.

Progress of chemotherapeutic investigations (F. Eubanas) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 10:300-308, July, 1930.

Plasma lipoids, (E. M. Paras) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 11:1-9, January, 1931.

308

SCIENCE Morbidity and mortality among non-leper children in Culion Leper Colony (B. de Vera) J. Philippine Islands M. A.) 10:457-469, November, 1930.

Progress at Culion Leper Colony, (C. B. Lara) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 10 :469-480, November, 1930.

(P. Gabriel), RMJ. Filipina. de Med. y Farm., 22 :49-57, February, 1931.

Resume of Leprosy work in the Philippine Islands, (J. Fajardo) Rev. Filipino, de Med. y Farm., 22 :23-42, February, 1931.

Symptoms leading to cachexia, (F. Eubanas) Rev. Filipino, de Med. y Farm., 22 :43-48, February, 1931.

Histamine test as aid in early diagnosis, (J. Rodriguez and E. F. C. Plantilla) Monthly Bull. Philippine Health Service, 11 :326-240, May, 31, also, Philippine J. Se., 46:123-127, September, 1931.

Campaign against Leprosy; International Conference in Manila, (R. G. Cochrane) Brit. M. J., 1 :680-681, April 18, 1931.

Problem in the Philippines, (M. Hassebnann-Kahlert) Deutsche Med. Wehnschr., 57:685, April 17, 1931, 724, April 24, 1931.

In Philippines, (H. C. de Souza-Araujo) Rev. Med. de Ha?nburgo, 8:113, May, 156, June, 1927.

Care and management of children of lepers, (J. Rodriguez) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 11 :484-486, December, 1931.

Early leprosy in children of lepers; re-examination of cases after 5 years, (J. Rodriguez) Philippine J. Se., 47 :245-258, February, 1932.

Observation of 758 quiescent or arrested cases released from isolation, (S. Chiyuto and F. Velasco) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 11 :457-468, December, 1931.

Report of Leonard Wood Memorial Conference on Leprosy held in Manila, P. I., January 9-23, 1931, Philippine J. Se., 44 :449-480, April, 1931.

Attempted cultivation, (W. W. Oliver, W. de Leon and A. Pio de Roda) Philippine J. Se., 46 :611-625, December, 1931.

Cocaine-adrenalin in leprous neuritis, (F. Eubanas) Monthly Bull.

Philippine Health Service, 11 :359-363, July, 1931.

Significance of pathologic findings in biopsy materials, (C. Manalang) Rev. Filipina de Med. y Farm., 23:43-47, February, 1932.

Lymphatic absorption of oily antileprotic drugs, given intradermally and subcutaneously; demonstration, (J. O. Nolasco) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 12 :147-159, April, 1932.

309

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Periarterial sympathectomy in trophic ulcers; preliminary report, (M. C. Cruz, J. I. Abuel and J. G. Samson) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 11 :474-476, December, 1931.

Transmission, (C. Manalang) Rev. Filipina de Med. y Farm., 23 :4849, February, 1932.

Parole and follow-up of quiescent cases and associated problems, (C. B. Lara) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 12:476-485, October, 1932.

Neosalvarsan (neovarsphenamine) in Wassermann and Kahn-positive lepers, (E. Roxas-Pineda) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 12: 264-272, June, 1932.

Role of iodine in iodized oil derivatives used as antileprotic drugs; trial of plain and iodized olive oil ethyl esters, (C. B. Lara and J. G. Samson) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 12:485-493, October, 1932.

In Philippine Islands, (G. F. Lull) Mil. Surgeon, 70:138-144, F€bruary, 1932.

International Conference in Manila, January 9-23, 1931 (Discussions et conclusions de la conference internationale de Manille sur la lepras, 9-23 Janvier, 1931) Ann. de Med. et de Pharm.

Colon, 29: 881-914, October-December, 1931.

In Philippine Islands (La lepra en las Islas Filipinas, Epidemiologia de la lepra), Arch de Lepra" 3 :207-214, 1931.

Leonard Wood Memorial Conference at Manila on fight against leprosy (Rapport de la Conference de Manille, Conference du Leonard Wood MemoriaI}, Rev. d'hug., 54 :455-480, June, 1932.

Readmitted cases with special reference to predisposing causes of relapse; factors already operating prior to parole, (C. B. Lara) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 12:537-551, November, 1932.

Readmitted cases with special reference to predisposing causes of relapse; factors operating subsequent to parole, (C. B. Lara) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 12: 552-558, November, 1932.

Changes in anesthesia following antileprotic injections of iodized hydnocarpus wightiana ethyl esters, (M. Lagrosa) J. Philippine Islands M. ,A., 12 :604-608, December, 1932.

New classification of leprosy proposed by Leonard Wood International Conference in Manila in 1931, (V. Cabrera) Rev. de JItled. y Ci?·. de la Ha,ba'Yw" 38:201-204, March 31, 1933.

Question of whether or not chaulmoogra group drugs have any special action; changes in leprotic skin lesions following intradermal injections of various oily preparations, (C. B. Lara and M. Lagrosa) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 12 :599-600, December, 1932.

310

SCIENCE Grain-positive forms of mycobacterium leprae from leprotic lesions bacteriologically negative for acid-fast organisms; preliminary report, (J. Rodriguez, E. Mabalay and J. C. Tolentino) Philippine J. Se., 51 :617-629, August, 1933.

Curability according to Dr. Jose Rizal, (F. S. Reyes) Rev. Filipina de Med. y Farm., 24:218-220, June, 33.

In Cebu, (J. Rodriguez and F. C. Plantilla) Philippine J. Se., 53: 1-46, January, 1934.

Lymphatic absorption of iodized ethyl esters of hydnocarpus wightiana oil by intramuscular injection, (J. O. Nolasco) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 13 :552-557, December, 1933.

Percutaneous treatment, (H. Reitz) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 13: 511-519, November, 1933.

Campaign in the Philippine Islands, (F. Hayashi) Rev. F:ilipina de Med. y Farm., 25:331-338, August, 1934.

Does chaulmoogra treatment influence shifting of serologic findings as obtained by Wassermann, Kahn and Vernes reactions? (C. Monserrat), Philippine J. Se., 54 :343-363, July, 1934.

Fate of children born of leprous parents in Goot-Chatillon Leprosy Asylum, (P. H. J. Lampe) Internat. J. Leprosy, 1 :5-15, January, 1933.

In Canada, (J. J. Heagerty) Inte1'nat. J. Leprosy, 1 :463-468, October, 1933.

In Estonia and Latvia, (A. Paldroch) Internat. J. Leprosy, 1 :201204, April, 1933.

Superinfection, (C. D. de Langen) Inte1-nat. J. Lep1'osy, 1 :220-225, April, 1933.

Thickened nerves in relations to skin lesions, (S. N. Chatterji) Internat. J. LerYrosy, 1 :283-292, July, 1933.

Bacteriological diagnosis by means of blood culture, (E. Loewenstein) Inte1'nat. J. Lep1'osy, 1: 39-44, January, 1933.

Granular forms, (W. H. Hoffmann) Internat. J. Leprosy, 1 :149-158, April, 1933.

Mitsuda skin reaction, (F. Hayashi) Internat. J. Lep?'oey, 1 :31-38, January, 1933.

In Finland, (A. Cederoreutz) Inte1'nat, J. Leprosy, 1 :195-199, April, 1933.

In French West Africa, (M. Robineau) Internat. J. Leprosy, 1 :459462, October, 1933.

In St. Croiz; study of inmates of leper asylum, (H. Fox) Internat.

J. Lep1'osy, 1 :321-328, July, 1933, 311

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Incidence in British Guiana and British West Indies, (F. G. Rose) Internat. J. Leprosy, 1 :337-340, July, 1933.

Influence of natural selection on incidenee, (E. H. Malesworth) Inte'rnat. J. Leprosy, 1 :265-282, July, 1933.

Statistics from Drutyje Rulsehji Leprosarium, Leningrad, (A. A. Stein and A. Karpichina) Internat. J. Leprosy, 1 :309-320, July, 1933.

Summary of first leprosy census in Republic of Mexico, (J. Gonzales-U ruefia) Internat. J. Leprosy, 1: 329-336, July, 1933.

Infectivity of M. Leprae from reacting leprous nodule and non-reacting leprous nodule, (G. R. Roa) Internat. J. Leprosy, 1 :217219, April, 1933.

Nerve lesions of cutis and subcutis, (E. Muir and S. N. Chatterji) Internat. J. Leprosy, 1 :129-148, April, 1933.

Chemistry of leprosy drugs, (H. I. Cole) Internat. J. Leprosy, 1 :159194, April, 1933.

Review, (E. Muir) Internat. J. Leprosy, 1 :407-458, October, 1933.

At Nauru since 1928, (A. M. B. Gr ant) Inte1路nat. J. Leprosy, 2: 305-310, August-October, 1934. .

In Malaya, (G. A. Ryrie) Internat. J. Leprosy 2:77-80, JanuaryMarch, 1934.

C'l1ltivatioD of bacilli from leprosy tissues, (M. Ota and S. Sato) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2:175-192, April-July, 1934.

Microscopic study, (0. E. Denney) Internat. J. Lep'rosy, 2:275-278, August-October, 1934.

Kiulungkiang married lepers' settlement, (C. M. Galt and N. Yawt) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2:315-317, August-October, 1934.

Stomach ulcers; case, (A. Paldroch) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2 :73-74, January-March, 1934.

Frequency in Sudan in relation to climate and dietary regime, (0.

F. H. Atkey) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2:193-200, April-July, 1934.

Sex incidence, (J. Lowe) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2:57-72, JanuaryMarch, 1934.

Nerve abscess; further note, (J. Lowe) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2:301304, August-October, 1934.

Tuberculoid leprosy in South Africa, (H. W. Wade) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2 :7-38, January-March, 1934.

Tuberculoid changes; lepra reaction, (H. W. Wade) Intel-nat. J. Leprosy, 2 :279-292, August-October, 1934.

Tuberculoid changes; pathology of nerve abscess, (H. W. Wade) Interna.t. J. Leprosy, 2 :293-300, August-October, 1934.

312

SCIENCE Fight in French colonies, (E. Marchoux) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2: 311-314, August-October, 1934.

Wheal reaction with trypan blue, (E. Paldrock and A. Porman) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2:271-274, August-October, 1934.

Gomez complement-fixation reaction, (J. M. Gomez) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2 :265-269, August-October, 1934.

Evaluation of results in incipient leprosy, (J. Rodriguez) Leprosy Rev., 5 :163-166, October, 1934.

Fluorescein and phthallic acid, (G. A. Ryrie) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2 :139-147, April-July, 1934.

Histologic studies on plancha or infiltration method (Administering hydnocarpus preparations), (J. O. Nolasco) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2: 159-174, April-July, 1934.

Irritant constituent of antileprotic oils, (H. Paget, J. W. Trevan and A. M. P. Atwood) Internat. J. LeproBY, 2: 149-158, AprilJuly, 1934.

Pharmacological evaluation of certain antileprotic drugs (4 chaulmoogra derivatives and antepol hydnocarpus preparation), (H. H. Anderson, G. Emerson and C. D. Leake) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2: 39-55, January-March, 1934.

Results of chaulmoogra treatment in very early cases, (J. Rodriguez) Leprosy Rev., 5 :102-107, July, 1934.

Toxicity of certain proposed antileprosy dyes, fluorescein, eosin, erythrosin and others, (G. A. Emerson and H. H. Anderson) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2 :257-263, August-October, 1934.

Accidental transmission to research assistant, (E. Marchoux) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2: 1-6, January-March, 1934.

Application of human sterilization, (L. S. Huizenga) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 14 :469-476, December, 1931.

Clinical observations with reference to leprosy in children of lepers, (C. B. Lara and B. de Vera) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 15: 115-129, March, 1935.

Tl'eatment of acute neuritis with iodized wightiana (hydnocarpus) ethyl esters, with report of cases, (M. Lagrosa, J. M. Alonza, J. O. Tiong and A. Paras) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 15 :8794, February, 1935.

Frequency of leprosy among parents and children; its bearing on epidemiology, (F. Velasco) Rev. Filipina de M ed. y Farm., 25: 423-433, September, 1934.

Effects of intradermal injection of certain esters of different degrees of saturation; (M. Lagrosa and J. Ignacio) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 15 :220-222, April, 1935.

313

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES High fat diet and fixation abscess; trial in lepra reaction, (M. C. Cruz) J. Philippine Islands M. A., 15 :214-220, April, 1935.

Age of danger, (S. N. Chatterji) Internat. J. Leprosy, 3 :82-83, January-March, 1935.

Allergic erythematous eruptions, (W. H. Hoffmann and P. Ramos Baez) Internat. J. Leprosy, 3 :23-32, January-March, 1935.

N'eutritis of lateral femoral nerve differentiation from leprosy; case, (It W. Wade) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2:451-454, October-December, 1934.

Analysis of 722 cases, (B. Moiser) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2:428-429, October-December, 1934.

In Basutoland, (P. D. Strachan) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2 :431-439, October-December, 1934.

Investigation in Miyagi Prefecture, (M. Ota, S. Asami and T. Truchida), Internat. J. Leprosy, 2:459-464. October-December, 1934.

Statistical data of 709 Corean cases, (T. I. Kang and R. M. Wilson) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2:447-451, October-December, 1934.

Leprosy in Great Britain; St. Giles Home of British lepers, (J. M. H. Macleod) Internat. J. Lcp"os21, 3 :67-70, January-March, 1935.

Prevention, (R. G. Cochrane) Int拢路rnat. J. Lep,'osy, 2 :385-394, October-December, 1934.

Complement-fixation reaction with bacillary antigens, (M. Ota and T. Ishibushi) b~ternat. J. Lep,'osy, 2 :413-422, October-December, 1934.

Curability of leprosy, (H. P. Lie) Inte)'nat. J. Leprosy, 3 :1-22, January-March, 1935.

Nodules of male genitalia, (H, Fox and J. Knott) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2:445-446, October-December, 1934.

Skin temperature, (A. A. Stein) Internat. J. Leprosy, 2 :403-411, October-December, 1934.

314

SUMMARY OF SEROLOGIC STUDIES IN EXPERIMENTAL YAWS *

By OTTO SCHOBL Chief, Division of Biology and Serum Laboratory, Bureau of Science, Manila

It appears from experiments that the reagin of the Wassermann reaction is a true antibody of its kind. It occurs in the blood not only as a result of infection with treponemas but also as a result of subcutaneous injections of killed treponemas. It is therefore a direct serologic response to the antigen contained in the treponemas and not merely a consequence of intereaction between the viable treponemas and the tissues. The "in vivo antigen" of the Wassermann reagin is a substance which can be liberated from the treponemas and which shows a high degree of thermostability and is specific. The same "in vivo antigen" that produces positive Wassermann reaction is responsible for the appearance of other serologic reactions which are based on the phenomenon of precipitation of the "in vitro antigen" by the serum of the tested subject (Kahn). The strength of the Wassermann reaction stands in direct proportion, but the pre-Wassermann period in inverse propo:r;tion, to the amount of the treponema antigen injected.

The serologic response to repeated vaccination with killed treponemas is the same as the response to repeated infections interrupted by cures.

Following subcutaneous vaccination, the skin proper and not the lymphatic tissues or the muscles are responsible for the production of the antibody detectable by the

* Philippine

Journal of Science, v. 40:89-90 (1929).

Owing to the importance of the work undertaken by Dr. Otto Schobl and his collaborators on experimental yaws, this summary is reprinted herewith.

315

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES usual serologic reactions. Intraperitoneal and intramuscular vaccination failed to produce positive serologic reactions. The serologic reactions and the antitreponematous immunity are not directly dependent on each other but are dependent on a co~mon factor that is the "in vivo antigen." Consequently, these two phenomena show a certain parallelism. The strength of the Wassermann reaction in the early stage of th~ disease indicates the severity of the infection at that time, and therefore, it indirectly prognosticates the early development of the subsequent immunity. But the immunity continues to exist after the serologic reactions have vanished. However, the infection may be so mild that no appreciable serologic change will take place and yet immunity may set in even though delayed. If a persistent positive serologic reaction establish itself in the resistant stage of yaws following infection it may last for a long time without any apparent lesion or latent infection.

316

.

i

GYNECOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

By HONORIA ACOSTA-SISON Of the University of the Philippines Aasociate Member, Section 0,1 Surgery, Gynecology, Obstetrics, a.nd Ophthalmology and Otorhinolaryngology, National Research Council of the Philippines Gynecology is one of the youngest branches of medical science in the Philippines. It began only under the American administration and as a subdivision of surgery.

Those who first practiced it, as for instance Drs. Singian, Miciano, Guazon, McDill, Gilman, and Lopez, were general surgeons. Others, like Drs. Perez, Zamora, B. Roxas and F. Calderon, were primarily obstetricians. A few wellknown medical practitioners, among them Drs. Luna and Barcelona, practiced medical gynecology.

The College of Medicine and Surgery had no separate chair of gynecology until 1922 when, on the motion of the then Regent Calderon, a department of gynecology was created by the Board of Regents, which appointed Dr. Calderon as its head. The personnel of the department consists of Drs. Calderon, Tolentino, and Acosta-Sison from the obstetrical staff and Drs. C. Reyes, A. Mandanas, and C. Franco from the surgical division. Of these, only Drs. Calderon and Tolentino give their full time to gynecology.

The rest keep up their dual role as obstetrician and gynecologist or as surgeon and gynecologist.

The gynecologic department gives medical students didactic lectures and clinical instruction in the dispensary, at the bedside and in the operating room. It conducts a daily clinic in the dispensary for diagnosis and medical treatments, and a weekly operative clinic for those needing surgical intervention. Its ward of 14 beds is too small to accommodate its increasing number of operative cases. On 317

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES account of lack of space it has no beds for gynecologic patients who need medical treatment.

Endometritis, perineal repairs, and prolapsus uteriall obstetrical complications, and adnexal inflammations due to gonococcus form a great bulk of the cases treated.

These point the way of preventive gynecology. The early treatment of cancer from the viewpoint of its radical cure has a wide field of activity. But either the patients come too late or the diagnosis is not made in the incipient or early stage.

The use of the quartz lamp, radium and X-Ray, the Wertheim technique of operable cases of uterine cancer, the interposition operation for procidentia uteri, the Alfieri method of righting a retroverted uterus, the Rubin and lipiodal test for determining the patency of the Fallopian tubes and the use of artificial impregnation are known to the modern Filipino gynecologist. .

The following is a list of gynecologic articles published

by Filipinos: ACOSTA-SISON, HONORIA. 1921. Hymen atresia with report of one case. Philippine Islands Medical Association. Journal, v. 1: 112-114.

ACOSTA-SISON, HONORIA. 1929. Coexisting cyst and pregnancy: a study of twenty-four cases. Philippine Islands Medical Association. Journal, v. 9 :284-288.

ACOSTA-SISON, HONORIA. 1930. A case of ovarian hemorrhage simulating ectopic pregnancy. Philippine Islands Medical Assoc'iation. Journal, v. 10 :248-251.

BAENS, AI.FREDO. 1932. Report on one hundred seventy-four cases of ectopic gestation. Philippine Islands Medical Association.

JI)1~rnal. v. 12:497-502.

BALTAZAR, MARTIN. 1927. Chronic gonorrhea. Philippine Islands Medical Association. J(lurrtal, v. 7 :286-292.

CABRERA, C. 1928. The incidence of gonorrhea in minor delinquents of the Girls' Training School. Phil'ippine Islands Medical Association. Journal, v. 8 :479-480.

CALDERON, FERNANDO. 1925. Errors of diagnosis in gynecology.

Ph'ilipl'ine Islands .1\Iledical Association. Journal, v. 5 :107-110.

318

SCIENCE CAIJ)ERON, FERNANDO. 1925. Internal Alexander operation in uterine retroversion. Philippine Islands Medical Association. Journal., v. 5 :319-321.

CAIJ)ERON, F. and C. FRA..."fco. 1930. Presidentia uteri and its surgical treatment. Philippine Islands Medical Association. Journal, v. 10 :149-152.

CALDERON, FERNANDO. 1933. When and how should a woman be sterilized? Philippine Islands Medical Association. Journal, v.

13:65-68.

ESQUIVEL, F ACUNDO. 1933. Analysis of sixty-two cases of ectopic pregnancy among Filipinos. Philippine Islands Medical Associat-ion. Journal, v. 13 :154-158.

FERNANDEZ, RICARDO. 1921. Radium in uterine conditions. Philippine Islands Medical Association. JoU'rnaZ, v. 1:157-160.

FRANCISCO, S. A., V. ASCALON and R. A. RAYMUNDO. 1932. Extrauterine pregnancy: lithpedion o~ fifteen years duration successfully removed by surgical operation. Philippine Islands Medical Association. Jo~!rna,17 v. 12 :113-121.

FRANCO, CECILIO D. 1927. Urethl'olithiasis. Philippine Islands Medical Association. Journal. v. 7: 1-3.

FRANCO, C. D. 1932. Spinelli's operation in chronic uterine -inversion. Philippine Islands Medical Association. JoU'rnal, v. 12: 577-578.

NOLASCO, JOSE O. 1927. Chorionepithelioma without primary tumor in the uterus. Philippine Islands Medical Association.

Journal, v. 7:323-330.

OROSA, SIXTO Y. 1930. A case of complete absence of vagina. Philippine Islands Medical Association. Journal, v. 10 :521-522.

REYEs, CARMELO. 1924. An analysis of clinico-pathological findings in 1065 surgical and gynecological cases. Philippine [slands Medical Association. Journal, v. 4:327-334.

RUSTIA, GUILLERMO. 1932. Abdominal pregnancy at twenty months, with a report of a case. Philippine Islands Medical Association.

Journal, v. 12 :74-76.

TOLENTINO, MARIANO. 1927. A study of menstruation in young girls. Philippine Islands Medical Association. Journal, v. 7: 372-378.

319

BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED

BY THE GOVERNMENT

By

MARCOS TUBANGUI of the Bm'eau of SC'icnce Secl'ptary, Section of Biological Products, National Research Cot/,neil of the Philippines

The preparation of sera and vaccines for the use of the Government health service in its campaigns against infectious diseases was, at the beginning of Filipino-American relations, entrusted to the Serum Laboratory, one of the principal divisions of the then Bureau of Government Laboratories which was created in 1901 by the Philippine Commission under Act No. 156. In 1905 the name of this Bureau was changed to the Bureau of Science, which explains why the latter is now engaged in the manufacture of biological products. The Serum Laboratory was formerly located on the grounds of the San Lazaro Hospital, but was transferred in 1906 to the grounds of the Bureau of Science. Due to lack of adequate space in Manila, especially for the housing of large animals that are employed in the preparation of certain kinds of sera and vaccines, it was moved in 1921 to its present location in Alabang, Rizal. Compared with the modest laboratory of 1901, it is now a well-equipped institution that is capable of putting out large quantities of products sufficient even during times of emergency.

When the Serum Laboratory was first established the prevailing diseases which took a heavy toll in human lives and caused heavy losses among work animals were smallpox and bubonic plague and rinderpest, respectively. For this reason, the first biologics that were prepared on a large scale were smallpox vaccine, plague vaccine, anti320

I

SCIENCE plague serum and anti rinderpest serum. Mallein and tetanus antitoxin were also handled in small quantities and a few years later tuberculin, antidiphtheric and other immune sera, rabies vaccine, cholera, typhoid, dysentery and other bacterial vaccines and antivenom serum were added to the list. The manufacture of a number of these products has been discontinued, due either to a very limited demand or to the fact that equally reliable imported preparations are available at much cheaper prices. The kinds of sera and vaccines that are now being prepared are shown in the table below, in which the quantities given are those pertaining to the year 1933. As heretofore the large volume of t.hese products is supplied to the various branches of the Government, bu~ mostly to the Bureau of Health.

After its more than thirt-"J years of existence, it may now be asked if the Serum Laboratory has been fulfilling its mission in the safeguarding of the public health. This question is best answered by inquiring into the occurrence of those diseases which before and during the early days of American occupation harassed the medical authorities and decimated the popul~tion. According to the most recent reports of the Bureau of Health, smallpox is now practically unknown in the Islands and the incidence of cholera, dysentery and typhoid fever has been very much reduced. Formerly the bite of a mad dog used to throw the- people into a panic due to a helpless despondency over the dread of contracting hydrophobia. N ow every person has the consolation of knowing that the Government has always on hand a supply of rabies vaccine, which, as a prophylactic agent against one of the most dreadful of diseases, has proved its worth. To tIie attainment of these and other health improvements, the biological products manufactured by the Government have contributed not a 321

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES little and for this reason the Vaccine and Serum Laboratory of the Bureau of Science deserves the confidence and continued support of the public.

BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS PREPARED BY THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE DURING THE YEAR

Sera: Antidysenteric serum ............ .

Normal horse serum ............ .

Anticholera serum .............. .

Antityphoid serum .•.............

1933

Amount 121,310 cc 8,680 cc 181 cc 93 cc

Vaccines: 3,480,453 cc Cholera Dysentery (polyvalent, sensitized) .

158,500 cc 434,160 cc Typhoid ....•.•............•.....

Cholera and dysentery ....... . .. . 7,112,870 cc Cholera and typhoid ............. . 1,086,480 cc Cholera, typhoid and paratyphoid A 1,172,850 cc 219,750 cc Typhoid and paratyphoid A ..•.••.

744 cc Gonococcus .......... . ........... .

118 cc Gonococcus (combined) .•.........

465 cc Staphylococcus aureus ....•.......

350 cc Staphylococcus aureus and albus ..

298 cc Streptococcus ................... .

Streptococcus, Staphylococcus albus 190 cc and aureus ................. .

838 (1-2 cc ampules) Autogenous bacterial vaccines ... .

Rabies vaccine (human) ......... .

292,695 cc 20,270 cc Rabies vaccine ( veterinary) ...... .

Smallpox vaccine (dried) ........ . 1,318,550 units Smallpox vaccine (glycerinated) .. 1,864,981 doses

322

DEVELOPMENT OF SURGERY IN THE PHILIPPINES

By

CARMELO REYES

Of the University of the Philippines Secretary, Section of Pathology. National Research Council of the Philippines While Science, true enough, knows neither frontier nor breed, which is generous, Science excuses no breed or frontier that fails to contribute to her progress, * * *, which is but fair.-Lightening the White Man's Burden.

Presidential Address, P. I. M. A. 1926.

OLD ERA

As might be expected, the Philippines participated in the development of ~urgery in the world, if not as an active contributor, and alw.ays abreast of its progress, at least as more than a blind, Wlquestioning follower, in the effort of her men to modify certain phases of its practice and adapt it to local conditions.

It being true, to a great extent, that hospitals and their facilities and the practices followed in them furnish an index to the development of surgery in a given community, it is but natural to make repeated references to them in the course of this brief historical statement. Good surgical work is difficult to accomplish in the absence of proper equipment and surroundings, and this only a good hospital can offer.

The first hospital in the Philippines after Spain came, of which there is notice, was founded late in the year 1575, and had a very short-lived existence. Its name did not come down to us. San Juan de Dios Hospital, by far the oldest general hospital in the country since, was founded, 323

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES according to some, as early as March 22, 1565, and according to others, in 1596. Incidentally, the first local medical school under Spanish auspices was authorized in 1681, but was not definitely established until February 5, 1872. In the words of Don Jose de Arrieta: "It was the officials of the Government who would rise up against the idea, fearing insurgents who would graduate from the University."

ANESTHESIA

News of the benefits from the independent discoveries of inhalation of ether anesthesia, March 30, 1842, and October 16, 1846, and of chloroform anesthesia about a year later, November 4, 1847, were not long in reaching the Philippines, but their routine aqministration was never and is not now entrusted to professional medical anesthetists, much as this is to he desiJ:ed. Before that time, of course, operations everywhere had to be performed largely with patients writhing in pain and restrained by force during the ordeal. During Spanish times, chloroform was the anesthetic of choice in the only hospital in the Islands where any considerable operative work after the manner of the day was being done. There was so much dread of its depressing effect, however, that complete anesthesia was hardly ever aimed at, and surgical shock was always laid at its door.

Almost every conceivable form and method of annihilating pain during operation is resorted to at present, to suit the indications, namely, local, regional, splanchnic, spinal and sacral anesthesia. But rectal and intravenous anesthesia have found no wide acceptance locally.

ANTISEPSIS AND ASEPSIS

The life-saving legacies of Pasteur and Lister-antisepsis and asepsis-which saw their crystallization and practical application in the later seventies, could not but 324

SCIENCE shed their blessings on the Philippines also, and by the late eighties, or about a decade later, the principles of antisepsis were introduced into the Islands, first by the use of boiled water during operations and dressings, and of the alcohol flame in the sterilization of surgical instruments. Queerly enough, gauze, sponges and bandages were to remain unsterilized or undisinfected for some time yet, the facilities for that purpose being acquired later. The fallacy of such practice is apparent, but it can be excused on the ground that everything possible was being done.

Previous to that time, antisepsis and asepsis were completely unknown in the Islands, as elsewhere for that matter.

The antiseptics of today were unheard of things. A local chronicler tells us that it was the usual thing in the operating room of those (fays to see the man in charge of the surgical instruments-usually some important-looking person-Hdisinfecting" the blood-st'ained or otherwise soiled instruments by wiping them with a piece of rag ad hoc, or with the tail of his own apron, the cleanliness of which can be imagined, and nonchalantly placing them back o,n the operating table, in readiness for the surgeon's use.

Later on a little forward step in disinfection was made by dipping the instruments in diverse antiseptic solutions; later on still they were subjected to the intense heat of the alcohol flame, until now we have come to the modern boiling apparatuses, and autoclaves, and sterilization against bacteria and spores is under rigorous scientific control.

Dressings and tampons and drainage materials were made out of old blankets or rags. The sorting of the materials for the latter two was done with the patient's own combs, many of the former being inveterately long-queued Chinamen of pre-republican days, all of which materials thus prepared were used in dressing wounds, without any sterilization or disinfection or semblance of it. What a contrast between these questionable dressing sources, and 325

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the modern manufactured gauze from which dressings are now prepared, to say nothing of the rigid sterilization which they must go through before they are allowed to be used!

BIZARRE CONCEPTS AND PRACTICES

After all, such flagrant departures from sound surgical principles as we conceive them today were not at all out of tune with some of the bizarre concepts and practices of the times. There prevailed then the "good, laudable pus" idea of the fathers, who hailed or actually provoked its appearance in a healing wound as a very favorable sign. In all of this, the Philippines could not be an exception. Thus we read, not without astonishment, that free pus formation was often encouraged, for which purpose a formidable assortment of ointments of more or less proved pus-forming value was always on hand, ready to be dubbed on a healing wound. Of these, an ointment with yolk of eggs was a favorite, sure to reward the surgeon with abundant free pus. Just why healing by second intention seemed to be a desideratum among the old surgeons is a mystery to the writer, unless it were that between hospital gangrene, the nightmare of pre-Listerian surgeons, and free pus, the latter was the lesser evil. What modern surgeon would not now bitterly reproach himself if he failed to bring about the healing of a surgical wound by first intention, and with an almost invisible scar?

No less bizarre than these practices, which read as if out of some sorceress' tale, were some of the operating room rituals of those days. We are not told how things went locally, but Cullen tells us in 1916, that as recently as only fifty years ago (1866), in America: Some surgeons would think nothing of putting their hands into the wound and then, after handling the sheets or blankets around the patient, of placidly continuing the operation. What need of worry? They were totally ignorant of the possibility 326

SCIENCE of contamination * * * I have heard another surgeon specifically warn his students against the danger of contaminating the clean wound. He would then wash up carefully and, while admonishing his students, would walk around the amphitheater with his hands in his pockets. The next minute these hands went directly from his pockets into the wound. * * * I have seen another surgeon of excellent repute place the handle of his knife in his mouth for safe keeping, while he was busy tying ligatures.

As to the operating room apparel, he tells us further that: Some operators would appear in full dress suits or full black coats. The sleeves of these coats have been ingeniously split up at the sides so that the surgeon could readily hold them back until his arms were freed to the elbows.

The operating table in those days held a motley assortment of paraphernalia. There were, in addition to the instruments themselves, the dressings, tampons, drains, bandages, and the indispensable assortment of ointments which formed part of the armamentarium in order to provoke pus and everything else that might be needed for the operation.

Flies seemed to feel at home and were chased away only with an imprecation from the instrument man, but no more.

The screen idea had not yet dawned upon the minds of surgeons or assistants.

The quiet yet impressive atmosphere and spotless appearance of the modern operating room, its elaborate ritunl, approaching a liturgy in some ways, with the surgeon and his assistants moving noiselessly about in their immaculately white gowns, caps, masks and impermeable gloves, whom one dares not touch or come too close to for the time being, the orderly separation of instruments, dressings and other paraphernalia, and the solicitude with which the operating room is guarded, lest it be desecrated by some winged intruder or ungowned mortal, all with a view to establishing and maintaining the most strict asepsis, are too well known to require mention.

327

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES IMPROVISED OPERATING ROOMS

Conditions in hospitals in those days were generally such as to make their atmosphere a most uninviting one, and their reputation generally bad, so that only poor patients went to them, and reluctantly.

Most well-to-do patients preferred to be cared for and operated upon in their private homes, some suitable nooks in them heing improvised into miniature surgical amphitheaters.

This was true here as elsewhere. The old dread of hospitals for which the hospital-shy Filipinos were sharply criticized in the early days, was not confined to them.

We have gone long wa from the old operating room lighting "system" with its vacillating, flickering wax candles through more or less ilependable petroleum lamps to the present incandescent electric light which floods the whole operating room with light, to say nothing of the wealth of powerful and shadowless reflectors which every modern, self-respecting operating room is equipped with.

SCOPE OF OPERATIONS

While many operations were performed even before the advent of antisepsis or asepsis, or even of anesthesia, for tumors in the neck, mouth, throat (sic), breast and testis, amputations and resections, perineal cystotomies or lithotrities, and a little later suprapublic lithotomies, hardly any laparotomy appears to have been attempted locally until the year 1885. So dire were the results of entering the peritoneal cavity in those preantiseptic days, that the boldest stood in mortal dread of it and no one ventured to risk his reputation. For a long time the abdomen remained a forbidden land. In America a much similar condition prevailed a little before that same period. At pres328

SCIENCE ent, there is hardly any part of the human body which is not laid open.to the surgeon's inquiry, either for relief or for cure.

FILIPINO OR REVOLUTIONARY ERA

During this short and trying period, from 1896 to 1900, such surgical work as had to be performed was necessarily confined for the most part of the repair of war injuries, such as amputations, reductions of fractures and dislocations, care of gunshot and other wounds, most of which at emergency military hospitals, and under most difficult circumstances.

The year 1898 marked he beginning of the new era of medicine in the Philippines, largely influenced by American thought and methods. The opening of an American military hospital in Manila in 1899, now the Sternberg General Hospital, gave an opportunity to the older group of Filipino surgeons, who were really the pioneers, to have an insight into more modern surgical methods, practices, organization and equipment. Credit must go to this small group, perhaps not so much for their surgical skill, as for their inspiring and yeoman determination to qualify themselves, which they did splendidly, improvising animal operating rooms wherein to make themselves proficient, applying themselves diligently to the work and sparing no expense to equip themselves with the necessary armamentarium, which their then impecunious hospital could not offer them. They had the zeal and the searching inquisitiveness of the true scientist in them, and probably realized that thenceforth they were to cease to be passive spectators and become actors in the surgical drama. They were to come into their own as they never could before. The late Dr. Juan Miciano was one of them.

329

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES These men and their predecessors, in common with surgeons elsewhere at the time, often had to operate at the private homes of patients, and personally attend to the hundred and one details attendant upon a major surgical operation.

To us moderns who have been brought up in comfort, safety and freedom from irksome personal attention to operating room details, such frequent extramural undertakings must appear as an ordeal, which far from reflecting on our surgical forebears, cannot but excite our admiration for their courage and patience. How many of us moderns would venture to perform a major operation in the best appointed private home todaST, unless it were absolutely necessary and as a last resort?

Competent work is being done now by an able group of younger Filipino surgeons, most of whom have received tlieir medical education in the two excellent local medical colleges, in the United States, and in European clinics as graduate students, and had thâ‚Źir surgical training chiefly in the Philippine General Hospital and in the old but splendidly remodeled San Juan de Dios Hospital, in Manila.

Brilliant work was done by the late lamented P. C. Guazon, one of this younger group, and first Filipino Professor of Surgery and Head of the Department of Surgery in the University of the Philippines. A tireless worker, he brought about his untimely death by his unsparing industry, dying at the early age of 42, like a loved one of the gods.

While these men lay no claim to any outstanding originality or contribution, either in the fundamentals or in the technique of surgery, yet in the fields they have had opportunity to cover so far, it is felt that, on the whole, their work need not suffer much by comparison with that of others. Work on the neck, including the thyroid; on the abdominal viscera, notably the stomach, intestines, colon and rectum, liver and gall-bladder; on the genito-urinary organs, notably the 330

SCIENCE kidneys, ureters and prostate, on bones and joints, that is, for fractures, dislocations, ankylosis, deformities and the like, is being done right along. The field of local anesthesia, chiefly with novocaine, has been considerably extended, and its technique carried to a point that in appendectomies, herniotomies, thyroidectomjes and a few other major procedures, the use of a general anesthetic has become exceptional. In certain fields, there is assuredly more operative work done locally under local anesthesia than was the writer's privilege to see in many European clinics on his second visit not so long ago. Blood transfusion has been so simplified that in proper cases its use has become a life-saving routine, and nothing but the question of cost prevents its wider employment. A local fiber, abaca (Musa textilis), has been introduced as a suitable suture substitute for horse hair and silkworm gut and metal clips.

Needless to say, in their work, the lat est contributions and most reliable tests from the laboratory, particularly pathology, bacteriology, and biochemistry, and the X-rays, are made use of, either for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes, or for bringing poor surgical risks within safe operative margin. Perhaps in no other domain of surgery has the X-ray proved its positive diagnostic value more than in genito-urinary work. The invention of the cystoscope, the revelations of the X-ray in connection with opaque solutions which may now be introduced either ureterally, in itself a beautiful little procedure, or intravenously, and the discovery of the various efficient functional kidney tests, give the work a precision that is unsurpassed anywhere.

The discovery of radiuIIlt has, of course, given a new impetus and a new hope in the treatment of cancer, which is turning out to be as frequent in the Philippines as in other countries. Considerable immediate improvement and even apparent cures are of record.

331

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES WHERE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT LIES

Aside from work in connection with injuries, however, or for diagnostic purposes, there has been little opportunity as yet in surgery of the other ductless glands, and in cerebrospinal, cardiovascular and pulmonary surgery. Plastic, reconstructive, and industrial surgery, including systematic bone grafting, also need to be developed. The treatment of septic conditions still leaves much to be desired.

There should be more facilities for building up good surgical museums, follow-up, medical photography and microphotography, and research work. A surgical guild and an exclusive publication would go a long way towards stimulating sustained original work on a high plane, and what is not less important by any means, the cultivation of the ideal of service and the preser vation of those intangible qualities which make one's life work so much more worth doing.

It is a far cry from those days of restraint "anesthesia" when the poor patient writhed hopelessly in pain during the excruciating ordeal, through the days of shaky chloroform! narcosis to the present mastery of all forms and methods of noninhalation anesthesia; from the days of crude attempts at asepsis, or if no asepsis at all, to its present refinement, scientific precision and control; from the days of flickering candle or petroleum lamp operating room illumination to the present flood of incandescent light and dazzling deflectors; from the days when flies felt at home in the dingy operating room to the present scrupulously guarded and immaculately clean surgical amphitheater, where the presence of a stray fly is sure to bring a calling down for somebody; it is a far cry from those days of incongruous full dress suits or full black coats to the spotlessly white surgeon's garb of today, with its equally white cap and mask and rubber glove appurtenances; we have emerged from the days of "good, laudable pus" of the 332

SCIENCE fathers to the present ideal of healing wounds by first intention; and gone are the days when the abdominal and other cavities were terrOJ incognita vel p1"ohibita and too sacred for the knife, to the present day when, in the words of Deaver, uttered without levity, the abdomen and pelvis have become almost the "playgrouna" of surgeons.

The Filipinos have been beneficiaries of all these advances, whose detailed account would read like a saga. It would be a sad reflection on their capabilities and self-respect if, in the years to come, Filipino surgeons should fail to return something of the gift they have received and will continue to receive from medicine from across the seas, given to them without measure and without stint.

Progress does not necessarily mean a supine willingness and an infinite capacity for absorbing others' ideas; a more positive and aggressive form of it is by having ideas of one's own and, in the commercialized language of the day, selling them to others. Borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. Light must come from within as well; it bespeaks a pathetic intellectual penury and a dismal sense of defeatism always to expect it to creep in from without.

The flow of the current must not be suffered always to be centripetal; it must veer centrifugally once in a great while, for is it not true that it is better to give than receive?

LITERATURE CITED ANSELMO, ARTEMIO S. 1934. The Medical and Pharmaceutical Service During the Philippine Revolution. Bull. San Juan de Dios Hosp., v. 8:21-24.

CRILE, GEORGE W. 1915. The Progress of Surgery During the Last Quarter of a Century. Internat. Clim. 25, S., iv, 249-255.

CRUZ, MARIANO R. 1933. A History of the College of Medicine of the University of Santo Tomas. Bull. San Juan de Dios Hosp., v. 7:141-143.

CULLEN, THOMAS S. 1917. America's Place in the Surgery of the World. Surg. Gyn. Ob8t., v. 25 :376-390.

333

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES DE LEON, ESTEBAN B. 1933. Hospitals in the Islands During the Spanish Regime. Bull. San Juan de Dios HOBp., v. 7:377-380.

DEAVER, JOHN B. 1926. The Romance of Surgery. Jour. Iowa Moo. Soc. v. 16 :357-361.

REYES, CARMELO. 1927. Lightening the White Man's Burden.

Presidential Address, P.I.M.A. 1926. Philip. Islands Med. ABsoc., Journal, v. 7: 27-41.

REYES, CARMELO. 1928. Medical Impressions from Abroad. Philip. M ed. Assoc. Journal, v. 8 :98-116.

VALDES, B. 1928. Episodios del Pasado Quirurgico del Hospital de San Juan de Dios de Manila. Bull. San Juan de Dios Hosp., v. 2:61-70.

334

EARLY HISTORY OF VETERINARY SCIENCE IN THE PHILIP~INE ISLANDS

By VICENTE FERRIOLS Of the Bureau of Animal Industry Associate Member, Section of H1Jgiene and Preventive Medicine, N. R. C. The early history of the veterinary profession in the Philippine Islands is discussed in this 'paper from the time this profession was first mentioned in Government records to the ~stablishment of the College of Veterinary Science of the University of the Philippines.

It appears in official records that a position for a veterinarian was for the first time provided for in the Philippines during the Spanish domination by the Royal Decree of May 31, 1828, upon the organization of a regiment of cavalry known as the dragoons of Luzon. This one position was by a subsequent decree increased to two in 1843. The incumbents were known as 1'IU1ll'iscales.

They were not college graduates but qualified before an examining board created about the year 1492 in Spain.

The first veterinary college was opened in Spain in 1792 and by the Royal Decree of August 19, 1847, the veterinary course was revised and the practice of veterinary medicine prohibited to non-graduates. Those who were already practising the profession were given three years, up to 1850, within which to qualify. As a consequence of this reorganization of veterinary education in Spain, by the year 1854 veterinarians in the Army were no longer called mariscales but profesores de veterinaria or veterinarios. The employment of this class of professionals in the Spanish Army in the Philippines in the cavalry and mountain artillery continued until the end of the Spanish domination.

335

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES In order to give an idea of the preparation of these early veterinarians here the subjects studied in the course, as revised in 1847, are listed.

First year. Anatomy-General, description of all domestic animals-Exterior.

Second year. Physiology. Hygiene.

Third year. Pathology, General and Special, Pharmacology, Prescription Writing, Therapeutics, Sanitary Police and Medical Clinics.

Fourth year. Pathological, Surgery, Operations, Veterinary Law, ComtnE'l"cial and legal. Art of forging and shoeing. Surgical clinics. Critical history of these subjects.

Fifth year. Physics, Chemist ry, such Natural History as may be applicable to veterinary science, Zootecnics and applied agriculture.

The fifth-year course, which was given only in the veterinary school established in Madrid, was optional for those who aspired to the title of profesor de veterilnalt'ia de primera clase. Those that took the four-year course received the title of ']YY'ofesor de veteri'YULria de segunda clase. The profesores de primera clase were preferred in dealing with contagious diseases, sanitary police, examination of pastures, and in appointments to Government positions-civil and military. It is interesting to note that veterinarians in the Spanish Army had rank even during those early days, when we consider that in the U. S. Army, , veterinarians were given rank only in 1916.

Laboratory or practical exercises were provided for throughout the course and consisted of dissections, vivisections, clinics, forging, and shoeing.

Besides their regular duties in the Army in the Philippines some of them were detailed to meat inspection in the matadero 1 of the City of Manila. By the Royal Order of May 14, 1882, the salary of the veterinary inspector of the matadero of Manila was raised from twenty-five 1

Abattoir.

336

SCIENCE pesos to fifty pesos per month on account of the increase in the amount of work and closer personal supervision of the ante-mortem and post-mortem examination of slaughtered animals which became necessary because of the discovery of trichina in pork offered for sale in the market.

The Royal Order mentions trichina but whether or not the case was really trichina or Cysticercu.s cellulosae, we have not been able, so far, to verify from any records.

Up to the last day of the Spanish regime the meat inspection work in the Manila matadero was done by an Army veterinarian.

Because of the lack of qualified veterinarians in the colonies overseas, Army veterinarians were allowed to engage in private practice (Royal Decree of October 13, 1885) .

The duties of the veterinary corps were to preserve the health of the animals in the service of the Army, cure their ailments, do meat inspection and serve as sanitary police where there were no private practitioners. Those assigned to equitation instruction looked after the training of cavalry mounts.

In 1886, rinderpest was introduced into the Philippine Islands from China. The great loss of cattle and carabaos from it in that year and the subsequent ones, undoubtedly aroused such a country-wide concern that the Government deemed it necessary to take extraordinary measures. A commission was appointed to study the disease with a view to finding means of stopping its ravages.

Here again we find Army veterinarians appointed members of the commission, the most prominent of whom appears to have been Don Gines Geiss Gotzens. We are indebted to hi~ for the first account of the contagious animal diseases then prevailing in the Philippine Islands.

This was the report of the veterinarian members of the commission.

337

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES In his dedicatory remarks on this monograph, he gives us an inkling of the inadequate training of the members of the profession in Spain at that time in biological science, which is essential in dealing with contagious diseases.

It ran as follows: EI desamparo en que se encuentra la clase veterinaria espanola imp ide que a las ciencias biologicas aparte el respetable contingente de conocimientos conque sus analogos de Francia, Alemania, y otras naciones las han enriquecido y es de esperar, que mientras una mana generosa no despierte sus dormidas energias, resulte deficiente y ester~1 el concurso que pueda prestar Ii la Economia rural, orgine de toda prosperidad y manantial inagotable de solida riqueza de los estados: uno de sus individuos, el ultimo oolicita respectuoso su asentimiento para dedicarle su primera producci6n.

When we consider that biological science as applied to veterinary medicine was then in its infancy, we can imagine the state of that science in Spain at that time. This being the case we could then expect no adequately trained men to meet the big problem that had just commenced in the Philippines, and which continuously drained our Government of its resources and handicapped agriculture for nearly thirty years before it could be put under complete control.

The last number of the Guia Official de Filipina;s, issued in 1898, contains a list of professionals practising in Manila and among these five veterinarians are listed, and that of 1890 gives the same list and the same veterinarians with the exception of one. Whether or not these were graduate veterinarians has not yet been determined.

One of those so listed is Gines Geiss, who may have been the Army veterinarian afore mentioned. Upon the creation of the veterinary examining board in 1913, none of the names listed in this directory appeared in the records of the board, nor in that of the Bureau of Internal Revenue.

338

SCIENCE At the inauguration of the new regIme a veterinary department was organized on April 22, 1899, in the Board of Health of the provisional government under the provostmarshal general. Its duties were to inspect all cattle arriving in Manila, do the meat inspection of the City Matadero, attend to the care and treatment of Government animals and the inspection of public and private stables as to their sanitary condition and the health of the animals.

There were also veterinarians in the American Army with their cavalry and quartermaster. During this time there were one or two American veterinary practitioners in Manila. In July, 1903, the Philippine Commission authorized a veterinary division in tlie Board of Health for the purpose of investigating and suppressing diseases of carabaos, cattle, horses and otlier animals in the Archipelago, such as rinderpest, surra, glanders and other contagious diseases. This work was not actually started until another resolution was passed increasing the number of the personnel on January 27, 1904, to take effect April 1, 1904.

During the latter part of 1902 the control of rinderpest by the prophylactic methods that were then being used in countries where rinderpest was prevalent was attempted. This consisted of using glycerinated bile and anti-rinderpest serum, simultaneously at first, and then both simultaneously and by the serum alone method, and lastly serum alone combined with quarantines. The period from 1902 to 1910 saw these methods of immunization being tried here under different modifications, and their true value in the control of rinderpest being ascertained where the aim was complete eradication. It was soon realized that these various methods were inadequate, and continued efforts led to the discovery of a more adequate biologic method such as the one we now have, the rinderpest vaccine. The control and eradication of rinderpest was pursued energetically, and upon it all the efforts of the 339

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES veterinary force of the Government were concentrated.

Because of rinderpest the profession in this country has acquired an importance that it never before enjoyed here.

On October 19, 1905, the Veterinary Division was transferred from the Bureau of Health to the Bureau of Agriculture, where for a time it was united with the Animal Industry Division.

In order that the Philippine Government might adequately cope with the animal disease situation at that time it was found necessary to have men trained in accordance with modern requirements, and to get these, it was felt that local talent had to be developed, for outside help proved expensive and not always available. A school of veterinary science was therefore established in the University of the Philippines. It was authorized by an Act of the Philippine Legislature on June 18, 1908, and the first session was opened in June, 1910. It will be recalled that the first veterinary school in Europe was founded in France in 1761, precisely for the same reason that prompted the Philippine Government to establish the local veterinary college, namely: the control and possible eradication of rinderpest.

LITERATURE CITED GoTZENS, GINES GEISS. 1888. Una Epizootia en Filipinas. Memoria Public ada de orden de la di'reccion de administracion militar. Tipo-Litografia de Chofre y Compania. Escolta No. 33, Manila.

Guia Official de Filipinas. 1890. P. 433. Tipo-Litografia de Chofre y Compania, Escolta No. 33, Manila.

Guia Official de las Islas Filipinas. 1898. P. 1144. Publicada por la Secretaria del Gobierno, Manila.

MARTINEZ, MARCELO Y ALCUBILLA. 1886. Diccionario de la Administracion Espanola Compilacion de la Novisima Legislacion de ' Espana peninsular y ultra marina en todos los Ramos de la Administracion publica. Cuarta Edicion, Torno I. Pp. 376-391.

Adrninistracion, arco de Santa Maria, 41 Triplicado, principal, Madrid.

340

SCIENCE McmTANER y SIM6N, Editores. 1879. Diccionario-Enciclopedico Hispano-Americano de Literatura, Ciencias y Artes, Tomo XXXIII, Pp. 438-440. Calle de Aragon, Nos. 309 y 311. Barcelona.

PALMER, D. B. and V. BUENCAMINO. 1913. The College of Veterinary Science, University of the Philippines. Philippine Agricultu?'al Review, v. 6 :368-370.

RODRIGUEZ, MIGUEL Y BERRIS. 1888. Diccionario de la Administracion de Filipinas. Primera Edici6n, Torno XV, Pp. 546-547. Imprenta Amigos del Pals, Real No. 34, Manila.

SALINAS, IGNACIO Y ANGULO. 1879. Legislaci6n Militar aplicado al Ejercito de Filipinas. Recopilada y concordada de Orden del Excm. Sr. Capitan General D. Domingo Moriones, Marquez de Oroquieta. Tratado I, Pp. 166, 379 y 475. Tratado IV, p. 237.

Establecimiento Tipografico de Plana y Compania, Escolta, No. 29 Duplicado, Manila.

The Haver-G1over Monthly Messenger, August, 1934. The Father of the Veterinary Profession. Author--Anonymous. Vol. IX, No.6, P. 3. Published by Haver-G1over Laboratories 1817-19 Holmes Street, Kansas City, Mo., U. S. A. Yearly Report of the Philippine Commission to the Secretary of War fl'om 1900 to 1905. Published by the Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

341

I

ANIMAL PESTS AND DISEASES IN THE PHILIPPIN .h;S

By

TEODULO TOPACIO

Of the Bureau of Animal Industry Sec?"etary, Division of Medical Sciences, N. R. C.

In a limited space it is impossible to present a complete list of animal pests and diseases prevalent in this country. Only those diseases which are important economically and in relation to public health have been assembled in this paper. They are being presented in the order in which they were first observed and described during the Spanish regime and the American occupation. An abridged路 synopsis of this kind would serve not only as general historical information on the subject, but also as a basis on which to gage the progress attained in the prevention and control of animal diseases and epizootics from year to year.

RINDERPEST, HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA AND ANTHRAX

In a popular publication entitled, "La Epizootia, Cartilla para precaver a la ganaderia de algunas enfermedades comunes/' Gotzens (1888) in his conclusion reminded the livestock owners that besides rinderpest there were other epizootics equally devastating, such as "Garotillo" or hemorrhagic septicemia and "Carbunco" or anthrax.

His symptoll楼1tic descriptions of the last two diseases were typical of septicemia and anthrax and the preventive measures which he advocated to the livestock owners during an epidemic were convincingly indicative of these conditions.

Gotzens (1888) was also the first to describe an epizootic of rinderpest in carabao which occurred in 1887. His report was published in 1888 entitled "Una Epizootia en Filipinas" in which he complained of not having enough materials on which to base his observations. Evidently, 342

SCIENCE the epizootic ' wave was fast waning at the time he made his report. His description of the symptoms, course, pathological anatomy, prognosis, etc., were remarkably accurate for rinderpest as we recognize it today. He. ascribed the disease to forage poisoning, miasm,s, worms or a typhoid-like infection of some kind. The true causati ve . agent, however, was found to be a filterable virus.

For the past half year there has been no report of this disease in this country, thanks to quarantine measures and the application of rinderpest vaccine. Indications are that it will soon be eradicated, while anthrax and septicemia will probably remain because both are soil-born infections.

Further outbreaks of septicemia were later reported by Wolley and Jobling (1903) and by Boynton (1901).

PORK MEASLES (LEPR

0 VIRUELA DEL CERDO)

Pork measles or cysticercosis (lepra 6 viruela del cerdo) in the Philippines was first described by Dr. A. A. Maseras in 1894. His studies 'on the histo-pathology of the disease as found in Philippine pigs were complete.

Even the structural description of the larva ( Cysticercus cellulosae) was accurate. He also described the pathogenesis in man and the development of the larva into the adult tapeworm in the human intestines. Gotzens as m,ember of the meat inspection commission prescribed regulations governing the condemnation of measly pork at the City abattoir. The consumption of infect~d meat was strictly forbidden. This disease is quite prevalent in hogB of certain provinces and its eradication depends on proper waste disposal.

RABIES

This dreadful disease of dogs was probably introduced into this country since the early Spanish expeditions and was known to army veterinarians. The first laboratory 343

i

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES diagnosis, however, was conducted by Mr. Anacleto del Rosario only in 1894, as borne out by his biography written by Maseras. The studies of del Rosario would indicate that he was dealing with specimens from fresh cases in Manila. Destruction of stray dogs, muzzling and compulsory vaccination of all licensed dogs and several m,onths quarantine of imported animals if put into practice would eradicate the disease in this country. Its communicability to man makes it an important public health problem.

TETANUS

No record is available of any description of actual cases in animals although it would seem logical to assume that heing a soil-born infection it must have been recognized during the early Spanish regime. A series of articles by R. Moreno Rey appeared in the Boletin de Medicina de Manila in 1886 dealing with a description of various forms and methods of treatment. The method of handling tetanus in man and animals is too well known to merit further discussion.

SURRA

In 1901 Smith and Kinyoun published the first paper on trypanosomiasis in horses in the Islands but they were unable to identify the trypanosomes. In the same year an outbreak of a disease which killed 300 American horses in four months at the place of the Quarter Ma'ster in Manila offered an opportunity for Curry (1902) to study the disease. He found the same trypanosome previously described by Smith and Kinyoun and classified it as TrlJpanosoma evansi. The prevailing opinion at that time was that surra was brought to the Philippines by carabaos imported from Indo-China. Since there is no curative treatment, the identification of the intermediate host is the key to its control. In view of the economic importance 344

SCIENCE of this disease to the Philippine horse industry, there is pressing need for investigating this problem more extensively.

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE

J obling identified and described an outbreak of this

disease among cattle imported from China in 1901 for the manufacture of anti-rinderpest serum and smallpox vaccine. On account of its being transmissible to man the preparation of smallpox vaccine from infected calves had to be temporarily abandoned. Since then, it has become enzootic in the Islands. There is crying need for research work on this disease, concerning its biology, control and eradication.

HOG CHOLERA, LYMPHANGITIS AND GLANDERS

In 1902, the City Veterinarian reported to the Biological Laboratory of the Government Laboratories certain skin diseases of horses which turned out to be epizootic lymphangitis (Pseudo-farcy) and glanders (farcy). Several cases of certain infection of pigs were also submitted to the laboratory for identification which were found to be hog cholera. Though probably known during the Spanish time, printed accounts of equine glanders are not available. Several fatal cases in men have been recorded at the Philippine General Hospital. Being transmissible to man glanders should be eradicated wherever found. Hog cholera is the most important plague of swine in the Philippines at present. Better methods of prevention and control are necessary if its eradication is contemplated.

TUBERCULOSIS

This disease was probably not recognized in domestic animals during the Spanish regime. It was only in 1907 when the first organized meat inspectipn service was es345

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES tabIished in Manila that lesions of tuberculosis were identified in cattle and hogs. Eleven strains of tuberculosis isolated from pig lesions by Topacio (1933) were apparently from human origin. Tuberculosis organisms were also isolated by him from lesions of native cattle at the City abattoir. The infection is negligible in native cattle. The heavy incidence in swine has become a public health problem and the solution lies in the proper disposal of human excreta.

AVIAN DISEASES

Fowl cholera and avian pest (Newcastle Disease) are the most important pests of chickens in this country. The first was reported by Gomez in 1925 and the latter was reported by Rodier (1928) and Farinas (1930) some years later. Avian pest is caused by a deadly virus which kills 98 to 100 per cent of the birds attacked. It is the most important problem of the poultry industry in the infected countries today. All over the world workers are engaged in trying to find an efficient and economic method of control.

PARASITIC DISEASES

External and internal animal parasites of various kincb are prevalent in this country. Among them, the nodular disease of ruminants, coccidiosis, ticks, kidney worms, liver flukes, are the most important. It is safe to say that parasitism contributes a large share in pests and diseases of our livestock. Each parasitic disease calls for a specific method of prevention and control.

LIT ERA TURE CITED W. T. 1911. A note upon anthrax in the Philippine IsPhilip. JOWl'. of Science, v. 6B :793.

CURRY, JOSEPH J. 1902. Surra or nagana. American Medicine, v.

4:95.

BOYNTON,

lands.

346

SCIENCE FARINAS, E. C. 1930. Avian pest, a disease of birds hitherto unknown in the Philippine Islands, Philippine Journal of Agriculture, v. 1 :311-364.

GOMEZ, A. K. 1925. An outbreak of fowl cholera. Philippine Ag1'iCUltUriBt, v. 14: 413-420.

GOTZENS, GINES GEISS. 1888. La Epizootia (Cartilla para precaver a la ganaderia de algunas enfermedades comunes). Tipo-Litografia de Chofre y Ca. Colleccion de Retana, No. 2621.

GOTZENS, GINES GEISS. 1888. Una Epizootia en Filipinas. TipoLitografico de Chofre y Ca. pp. 1-34. Colleccion de Retana, No. 1125.

GOTZENS, GINES GEISS. 1894. La carne del cerdo con lepra. La Correspondencia Medica de Filipinas, v. 2:1.

MASERAS, A. A. 1894. Estudio del Cisticerco (Ladreri~). La Correspondencw Medica de Filipinas, v. 2:131.

MAE!ERAS, A. A. 1896. Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas, v. 2:334.

- - - - - - - - - . 1901. Reports of the Philippine Commission.

- - - - - - - , - - - . 1902. Report of the Biological Laboratory, Philippine Islands Bureau of Government Laboratories, Manila.

REY, R. M. 1886. Del tetano traumatico en los climas calidos.

Boletin de Ciencia Medica de Manila.

RODIER, E. A. 1928. Philippine fowl disease. Proceedings of the Society Experimental Biology and Medicine, v. 15:781.

SMITH, A. and KINYOUN, .J. J. 1901. Parasitic diseases of horses.

U. S. Army Marine Hospital Service. .

TOPACIO T. 1933. Tuberculosis of swine in the Philippine Islands.

Philippine Journal of Science, v. 52:349.

WOLLEY, P. G. and .JOBLING, J. W. 1903. Report of the Bureau of Government Laboratories.

347

PART

V

Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences CHEMISTRY IN THE PRE-AMERICAN REGIME

By M. V.

DEL ROSARIO

Of the Univer6ity of the Philippines Chairman, Section of PharmaceuticaJ Chemistry, N. R. C.

Chemistry in the Philippines during the pre-American epoch had a very limited field of activities. The University of Sto. Tomas was the only scientific institution of learning then in existence where chemistry was taught. In the later years of the previous century however, two Government offices, the Municipal Laboratory in 1888 and the Medico-Legal Laboratory in 1894, were established.

It may be stated that the sluggishness of the progress of science in the Philippines, chiefly of experimental science, was due: Firstly, to the general condition of the whole world wherein experimental science was just developing; secondly, to the preference given formerly to speculative science; and thirdly, to the enormous distance which separates this portion of Oceania from the rest of the world, mainly from the Occident.

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1868, had certainly an enormous influence on the development of this country in every respect. Shortly after this event, the establishment of the Faculties (Colleges) of Medicine and Pharmacy by the University of Sto. Tomas, in 1871, marked a step forward in the field of applied science.

Even before this event, however, it is of interest to note that "La Real Sociedad Economica de Amigos del Pais" was created far back in 1780 with the aim of pro348

SCIENCE moting and protecting sciences, arts, industry and commerce and whose "Junta Directiva" was officially composed of the Governor-Generar and other high officials.

This Society began publishing in 1883 a "Boletin" wherein the following articles appeared: "Introduccion al Estudio de la Quimica," by Salvador Draper, on March 1st, 1884; "Teoria Fisico-racional de la vida organica y estructura especialmente de los vegetales," by Manuel Herrera, on May 1st, 1884.

There are some data which show that as early as 1830 there existed some drug stores in Manila and that certain remedies of native character were applied in the towns for the treatment of many ailments. In the Philippines and in most European countries most of the chemical work was performed by pharmacists.

Rev. Felix de Huerta in his book, "Estado Geografico, Topografico, Estadistico, Historico Religioso de la Santa y Apostolica Provincia de S. Gregorio Magno," published in 1865, cited that in the preceding century (1787) a French chemist made the analysis of the water of one river, San Juan del Monte, and one Spring, Bom;bofigan in Pagsanjan, which was supposed to be medicinal. Also an analysis of the thermal spring at Los Banos, Laguna, was mentioned but without date.

On June 7, 1886, appeared the first professional monthly "Boletin de Medicina de Manila." Almost simultaneously a similar paper "Medicina y Farmacia" was published though only for a very short while. In the latter was published the article "Estudios acerca del Areca"

by Tomas Torres y Perona who later on became Dean of the Faculty of Pharmacy. No copy of this publication is now available.

Rev. Dr. Marcos Laynes of the University of Sto. Tomas in his inaugural address spoke on "Combinaci6n y compuesto quimico" (1886). This was a discussion of 349

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES laws and facts which may be considered as one of the early dissertations read in the Philippines of physical chemistry.

In 1888 Anacleto del Rosario became, by competitive examination, Director of the Municipal Laboratory, a newly created position, and this meant a marked advance in Chemistry in the Philippines. In this Laboratory many analytical works were done by him such as the analysis of foods, drugs, etc.

On January 3, 1893, the "Revista Farmaceutica de FilipimOls" was published by Messrs. Tomas Torres Perona, Anacleto del Rosario y Sales, Ulpiano Rodriguez, Leon Ma. Guerrero and Joaquin Garrido. Worthy contributions were made by A. del Rosario such as his "Contribucion al estudio de nang-ilang," "Guano de Filipinas," "Inconvenientes del empleo del reactivo de Esbach," and several others. One of the most important among his works, because of its economic value, was the improvement of the industrial preparation of alcohol and its pasteurization.

This discovery, however, was never patented.

Anacleto del Rosario, who was later made professor of the University of Sto. Tomas, published his most remarkable work in the report of the "Comision cientifica para el estudio de las aguas de la Isla de Luzon," created by the Spanish Government in 1885 in two books "Manantiales minero-medicinales de la Isla de Luzon" (1885) and "Estudio descriptivo de algunas Manantiales Minerales de Filipinas" (1890). The Spanish authorities at that time appreciated the value of the study of these natural sources, which required from five to eight years.

Some works found in the "Cronica de Ciencias Medicas" (1895-1898) are: "Perfumes" by Hugo Salazar, a "Case of poisoning produced by potassium cyanide," and "Importance of the ptomaines in toxicology" both by Sr. Ulpiano Rodriguez. Joaquin Garrido also wrote an article 350

SCIENCE entitled "El alimento de los convalescientes" and of A. del Rosario's (posthumous) "Analysis de la leche de caravalla, la orina en el beriberi," etc.

Rev. Dr. Felix Oses, Professor of the University of Sto. Tomas in 1897, spoke at the opening exercises about his works on the "Metodo de Kdeldhal Modificado." It may be said that Oses was the first worker on the Kj eldhal method in the Philippines, and the result of his experiments was undoubtedly an improvement in its many applications to the different branches of chemistry.

"Ptomainas del cadaver humano" published in "Revista Farmaceutica de FiHpinas" (1893) was a work of M. V. del Rosario.

In January, 1894, the "Laboratorio Medico-Legal" was created and Ulpfano Rodriguez was appointed chemist.

Mention has been made of his work.

In the same year Antonio Luna arrived and established a clinical laboratory where some original chemical works were done but not published; the majority of them were routinary.

In the University of Sto. Tomas, the Faculty (College) of Science in its three branches, natural, chemical, and mathematical, was opened about 1894 or 1895; unfortunately the wave of modernism abolished it and owing to the outbreak of the revolution the scientific activities were virtually paralyzed until the establishm,ent of the Civil Government under the United States.

LITERATURE CITED

1886. Boletin de Medicina de Manila. Imprenta de "EI Comercio."

HUERTA, REV. FELIX DE. 1865. Estado grafico, topografico, estadistico, historico-religioso de la santa y apostolica de S. Gregorio Magno. Binondo, Imprenta de M. Sanchez y Ca. LAYNES, REv. MARCOS. 1887-1888. Discurso inaugural 1886. 1m.: prenta de Sto. Tomas. Gaceta de Manila.

351

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES 1886. Revista de Medicina 11 F',armacia. Imprenta de "EI Comercio."

- - - - - - + - I-,. 1893. Revista Farmaceutica de Filipinas.

OSES, REV. FELIX. 1896. Discurso inaugural. Imprenta de Sto. Tomas.

1897-1898. Revista de Ciencias Medicas.

ROSARIO Y SALES, ANACLETO DEL. 1890. Memoria descriptiva de los manantiales minero-medicinales de la Isla de Luzon. Madrid.

Imprenta y Fundicion de Manuel Tello, Impresor de Camara de S. M. Don Evaristo.

ROSARIO Y SALES, ANACLETO DEL. 1893. Estudio descriptivo de algunos manantiales minero-medicinales de la Isla de Luzon. Manila. Imprenta Chofre y Compafiia. Escolta, Num. 33.

SANCHEZ, JUAN P. 1928. Discurso leido en la apertura 1928. Imprenta de Sto. Tomas. Manila,

• 352

COLEGIO MEDICO-FARMACEUTICO DE FILIPINAS

Founded in 1899, this is the first Filipino medical association established in the Philippines

GENERAL AND PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY IN THE PHILIPPINES

By AMANDO CLEMENTE Of the Uni1)e?'s-ity of the Philippines Secreta?"'y, Division of Chemical and Pha1'maceutical Sciences, N. R. C. Historical records show that by the Royal decree of January 28, 1867, the rule which required the teaching of elementary physics and chemistry in the secondary schools in the Islands was approved (Artigas, 1911). By virtue of the same decree the Royal College of Sto. Tomas was required to have a chemistry laboratory with the equipment and apparatus necessa,r y for efficient instruction in chemistry. These steps marKed the beginning of the development of general chemistry in the Philippines. The study of chemistry received further jmpetus when in 1871 the University of Sto. Tomas offered among others the Pharmacy Curriculum (ÂŁrtigas, 1911) in which general chemistry was a required subject.

However, the first public recognition in the Islands of the practical application of chemistry was made on December 15, 1884, when Governor-General Joaquin J ovellar created a committee to study the mineral waters of Luzon and appointed Anacleto del Rosario as chemist (Vinzons, 1932). In his capacity as chemist del Rosario made some micro-chemical s~udies of the odors emanating from the Pasig River and published his results in 1886. Realizing, perhaps, the importance of the work done by this committee, the government established in 1887 the Municipal . Laboratory of Manila. Anacleto del Rosario was appointed director of this Laboratory on June 17, 1888, as the result of a competitive examination (Vinzons, 1932). The investigations undertaken by del Rosario are recorded in his "Memoria descriptiva de los manantiales minero-medici353

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES nales de la Isla de Luzon" (1890) ; "El guano de Filipinas"; "Estudio descriptivo de algunos manantiales minerales de Filipinas" (1893); and "Analisis de las aguas ferruginosas de la Isla de N egros"; "Analisis de las aguas minero-medicinales de Filipinas" (1895).

It may be mentioned in passing that Antonio Luna also won in 1895 by competitive examination an appointment as Professor of Chemistry in the Municipal Laboratory of Manila (Zaide, 1932). Here he was assigned to analyze the waters of Sibul Springs in Bulacan.

Another important step 路 towards the development of general chemistry in the Philippines was made in 1895 when a Royal decree authorized the University of Sto. Tomas to establish the Faculty of Physico-Chemical sciences. Unfortunately however, all prospects towards the advancement' of scientific activities in the Islands were paralyzed during the Philippine Revolution which started in 1896.

After the Revolution those in charge of implanting the American form of government in the country did not fail to recognize the importance of chemistry. Hence in the organization of the civil government in the Islands they saw to it that a chemical laboratory was maintained in conjunction with various lines of government scientific work.

An idea of the first chemistry laboratory in the Philippines under the American regime may be obtained from the following excerpt from the First Annual Report of the Superintendent of Government Laboratories, Dr. Paul C. Freer: The present laboratory is a makeshift, allowing only of the simpler kind of chemical work, and the lack of apparatus has materially increased the time necessary to reach results; the ingenuity and patience of the working force has been taxed to accomplish at all what under other circumstances would have been done with facility and rapidity. The hope of a new and 354

I

SCIENCE suitable building in the near future has, however, made it easier to undertake work, and the entire laboratory force has endeavored to do what it could with the materials on hand.

In the same report Dr. Freer also recommended that the laboratory should have among its personnel a physical chemist, a chemist and investigator, an analytical chemist for mineral analysis and an analytical chemist, (19021903). According to the Second Annual Report (19031905) of the Superintendent of Laboratories: The chemical laboratory has been compelled to meet a continual call for work from other bureaus, many of the analyses being complex and taking a considerable amount of time.

Its force has been limited chiMly because of the lack of room, and also for the reason that it has been difficult to obtain chemical workers from America.

The range of work was varied. A number of analyses of suspected counterfeited sU'rer coins for the custom-house and treasury were, made; examinations for poisons, some of which were for chemico-legal purposes, and involved testimony in court, were undertaken, and investigations of stains, in cases of suspected murder, for the purpose of determining the presence or absence of blood have been asked in two instances.

Analyses of mineral and other waters have been asked, and requests for reports on soils, coals, paints, alloys, etc., have been made.

Unfortunately during the past year the limitation has been such that no one chemical worker has been able to devote his time to research work, and such investigations as have been accomplished have been undertaken at odd moments when for the time being no large pressure of analytical work was felt.

It is of interest to note that as early as 1903 the Su-

perintendent of Government Laboratories pointed out that the advant,!,ges to the government of the chemical laboratory would consist in the systematic investigartions of the resources of the archipelago, in the stuAly of methods for improving manUfacturing conditions then existing, and in demonstratinq the value of products neglected at the time.

355

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Those were the ideals of a true scientist, of a chemist!

With those ideals to guide him he spared no efforts in the organization of the Bureau of Science to provide the chemical laboratories with all the equipment and library facilities needed not only for conducting routine analytical work, but also for undertaking chemical research. Much of the progress of general and physical chemistry in the country has been contributed by the personnel of the Bureau of Science as may be seen from the appended list of articles which appeared in the P.hilippine Journal of Science since 1906.

It must be kept in mind that the first members of the staff of the Department of Chemistry of the University of the Philippines were drafted from the personnel of the Bureau of Science. This fact explains why there has always been close cooperation between the two institutions as far as development of chemistry is concerned.

However, progress in the Department of Chemistry of the University of the Philippines was slow during the first decade after its estahlishment. There are two obvious reasons for this slowness: (a) lack of research facilities and laboratory space; and (b) limited scope of the activities of the Department, for then the Department was giving only elementary chemical instructions to students of preparatory medicine, pharmacy and engineering.

The establishment of the Chemistry curriculum in 1913 gave an incentive for some students to take the course.

The enrollment of students in this course compelled the Department of Chemistry to offer advanced courses such as physical chemistry and technical analysis and gradually to reinforce its Faculty with additional members until it finally reached its present size. It then became possible to offer the more advanced courses of undergraduate and 356

SCIENCE graduate nature required in the present chemistry curriculum and in the course leading to the degree of Master of Science major in Chemistry.

When in 1920 or thereabout, facilities for research work became available in both the Department of Chemistry in Manila and the Department of Agricultural Chemistry at Los Banos, studies which contributed to the progress of General and Physical chemistry were begun. The works done in the Department of Agricultural Chemistry are cited by Santos (1934) in his article "Agricultural Chemistry in the Service of the State." While the contributions of the Department of Chemistry of the University of the Philippines in Manila are listed below.

I. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PROGRESS OF GENERAL AND PRY SICAL CHEMISTRY IN THE PHILIPPINES FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES CLEMENTE, A. and A. G. SANTOS. 1930. The absorptive power of Philippine wood charcoals. University of the Philippines. Natw'ul and A.pplied Science Bulletin, v. 1 :21-40.

CI,EMENTE, A. and H. P. TSAI. 1931. The E. M. F. of coagulation of colloidal solutions. University of the Philippines. Natural and Applied Science Bulletin, v. 1 :319-332.

CLEMENTE, A. and M. VILLACORTE. 1933. The colloidal properties of coconut milk. University of the Philippines. Natural and Applied Science Bulletin, v. 3:7.

CLEMENTE, A. and E. CABALFIN. 1933. The relation between dispersibility, viscosity and surface tension of some oils. Univ ersity of the Philippines. Natural and Applied Science Bulletin, v. 3:365.

HEISE, G. W. and A. CLEMENTE. 1916. The stripping and analysis of galvanized iron. Philippine JOU1"/W,l of Science, v. 11:135-146.

HEISE, G. W. and A. CLEMENTE. 1916. Detening and Analysis of Tin Plate. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 11 :191-199.

HEISE, G. W. and A. CLEMENTE. 1921. Corrosion of iron in Sulfuric Acid. Effect of chromium compounds. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 16 :439-446.

357

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES MEDINA, Ii'. A. and A. CLEMENTE. 1934. Physical propel"ties of some Philippine vegetable oils. University of the Philippines.

Natural and Applied Science Bulletin, v. 4:61.

WEST, A. P. and LUIS GoNZAGA. 1923. Effect of composition on the complete hydrogenation of some Philippine oils with nickel catalyst. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 23 :277.

II. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PROGRESS OF GENERAL AND PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY IN THE PHILIPPINES PUBLISHED IN THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE BACON, R. F. 1906. The waters of the crater lakes of Tanl Volcano, with a note on some phenomena of radioactivity. Philippine- Journal of Science, v. 1 :433.

BACON, R. F. and P. C. FREER. 1907. The action of sodium on acetone. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 2:67.

BACON, R. F. 1907. Caralysis by means of uranium salts in the sunlight. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 2:129.

BACON, R. F. 1910. A solution of oxalic acid and uranium salts as a chemical photometer. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 5 :281.

BACON, R. F. 1910. A preliminary study of the effects of tropical sunlight on the atmosphere, with some notes on radioactive phenomena in the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science, v.

5:267.

BEHRMAN, A. S. 1918. Two field methods for the determination of the total hardness of water. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 13 :21.

BLACKWOOD, O. H. 1915. A determination of the Diurnal variation of the radioactivity of the atmosphere at Manila by the active deposit method. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 10 :37.

BRILL, HARVEY C. 1916. Diethylsuccinosuccinate: II. A study of the absorption spectl"a of some derivatives. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 11 :59.

COLE, HOWARD IRVING. 1923. Potassium Ferrocyanide as a reagent in the microscopic qualitative chemical analysis of the common alkaloids. Philippine JOU1'nal of Science, v. 23 :97.

Cox, A. J. 1907. The occurrence, composition, and radioactivity of the clays fl"om Luzon, Philippine Islands. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 2 :413.

Cox, A. J. 1909. Calorimetry, and the determination of the calorific value of Philippine and other coals from the results of proximate analysis. Pkilippin~ Journal of Science, v. 4:171.

358

SCIENCE Cox, A. J. and T. DAR JUAN. 1915. Salt industry and resources of the Philippine Islands. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 10 :375.

FANNING, P. R. and F. T. EDDlNGFIELD. 1912. The black sands of Paracale. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 7:213.

FREER, P. C. 1910. The tropical sunlight. PhiliplJine JmÂŁrnal of Science, v. 5:1.

GIBBS, H. D. 1912. The action of sunlight upon methyl alcohol.

Philippine Journal of Science, v. 7 :57.

GIBBS, H. D. and D. S. PRATT. 1912. The absorption spectra of ortho- and para-nitrophenol and para-nitroso-phenol. New evidence of the quinoid structure of these compounds in alkaline solution. Philippine Jm{rnal of Science, v. 7 :371.

GIBBS, H. D. and D. S. PRATT. 1913. The mutual influence of hydroxyl and carboxyl and some related groups in the ortho position. A study of the absorpt ion spectra of phenol, o-cresol, o-hydroxybenzyl alcohol, salicylic acid, and its methyl ester, methyl ether of salicylic aci'd and its methyl ester, benzyl alcohol, benzyl chloride, and methy~ benzoate. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 8 :33.

GIBBS, H. D. and H. C. BRILL. 1915. Diethylsuccinosuccinate (ethyldioxydihydroteraphthalate): A study of its constitution, some derivatives, and absorption spectra. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 10 :51.

HEISE, GEORGE W. and AMANDO CLEMENTE. 1916. The stripping and the analysis of galvanized iron. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 11 :135.

I-lEISE, GEORGE W. and R. H. AGUILAR. 1916. The chemical purification of swimming pools. Philippirte Jou,rnal of Science, v. 11: 105.

HEISE, GEORGE W. and R. H. AGUILAR. 1916. The oxygen consuming power of natural waters. Philippine Journal of Science, v.

11:37.

HEISE, GEORGE W. 1917. The interaction of chloride of lime with the normal constituents of natural waters and sewage. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 12: 17.

HEISE, GEORGEW. 1911. The constancy in the radioactivity of certain Philippine waters. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 12 :309.

HEISE, GEORGE W. 1917. The radioactivity of the waters of the mountainous region of northern Luzon. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 12:293.

HEISE, GEORGE W. and A. S. BEHRMAN. 1918. Water analysis in the field. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 13:1.

359

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Hl!llSE, GEORGE W. and AMANDO CLEMENTE. 1920. Corrosion of iron in sulphuric acid. Effects of chromium compounds. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 16 :439.

KING, ALBERT E. W. 1921. Physical properties of Philippine concrete and concrete aggregates. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 18:105.

PERKINS, GRANVILLE A. 1921. The structure of chlorine dioxide and related compounds. Philippine Jou1'nal of Science, v. 19 :729.

PERKINS, GRANVILLE A. 1921. The expression of the Octet theory of valence in structural formulas. Philippine Journal of Soience, v. 19:1.

PRATT, D. S. 1913. The absorption spectra of various phthalides and related compounds. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 8:399.

PRATT, D. S. and H. D. GIBBS. 1913. The absorption spectra of phenoquinone, 2,5-dianilioquinone, 2,5-dianilinoquinoneanil, and 2,5-dianilinoquinonedianil (azophenine). Philippine Journal of Science, v. 8 :51.

PRATT, D. S. and H. D. GIBBS. 1913. The two phthalaloximes: A study of their absorption spectra and constitution. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 8:165.

PRATT, D. S. 1914. The absorption spectra of various phthalides and related compounds. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 9 :105.

REIBLING, W. C. and L. A. SALINGER. 1908. Portland cement testing. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 3 :137.

REIBLING, W. C. and F. D. REYES. 1910. Physical and chemical properties of Portland cement, parts I and II. Philippine JOU1'nal of Science, v. 5 :367.

REIBLING, W. C. and F\ D. REYEs. 1911. Physical and chemical properties of Portland cement, part III. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 6:207.

REIBLING, W. C. and F. D. ~s. 1912. Physical and chemical properties of Portland cement, parts IV and V. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 7:135.

ROSARIO, MARIANO V. DEL and JOAQUIN MARANON. 1919. The physico-chemical evaluation of tikitiki extract. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 15 :221.

THURLOW, L. W. 1916. Manufacture of lime in the PI1ilippine Islands. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 11:129.

VALENZUELA, P. and F. DANIELS. 1927. Thermal and photochemical decomposition of caryophyllene nib路osite. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 34 :187-197.

360

SCIENCE WEST, A. P. and A. J. Cox. 1914. Burning tests of Philippine Portland cement raw materials. Philippine Journal of Science, v.

9:79.

WEST, A. P. and LUIS GONZAGA. 1923. Effect of composition on the complete hydrogenation of some Philippine oils with nickel catalyst. Philippine Jottrnal of Science, v. 23 :277.

WITT, J. C. 1916. The effects of sulphide on cement. Philippine Jou1-nal of Science, v. 11 :273.

WITT, J. C. and F. D. REYES. 1918. The solubility of Portland cement and its relation to theories of hydration. Philippine Journal ()j Science, v. 13 :147.

WITT, J. C. 1918. Some generalizations on the influence of substances on cement and concrete. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 13 :29.

WITT, J. C. 1919. The effects of calcium sulphate on cement: Second paper. Philippine Jou?'nal of SC'ience, v. 14 :221.

WITT, J. C. 1919. The analysis of Portland cement raw mixture.

Philippine Journal of Science, v. 15:107.

WITT, J. C. 1922. Some generalizations on the influence of substances. Philippine .T01i?-na,l of Science, v. 21 :365.

WRIGHT, J. R. and O. F. SMITH. 1914. A quantitative determination of the radium emanation in the atmosphere and its variation with altitude and meteorological conditions. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 9 :51.

WRIGHT, J. R. and GEORGE W. HEISE. 1917. The radioactivity of Philippine waters. Philippine Jottrnal of Science, v. 12 :145.

WRIGHT, J. R., and G. W. HEISE. 1918. The radium content of water from the China Sea. Philippine Jou?'nal of Science, v.

13:49.

LITERATURE CITED 1902-1903. Annual Report, Bureau of Government Laboratories.

1903-1905. Annual Report, Bureau of Government Laboratories.

ARTIGAS y CUERVA, MANUEL. 1911. Resefia Historia de la Real y Pontifice Universidad de Santo Tomas de Manila, pp. 82 and 84.

SANTOS, F. O. 1934. Agricultural chemistry in the service of the state. Philippine Ag".iculturist, v. 23 :337.

VINZONS, WENCESLAO. 1932. "Anacleto del Rosario y Sa1es." Philippine Pharmaceutical Association. Journal, v. 4 :54.

ZAIDE, GREGORIO. 1932. "Antonio Luna y Novicio, the Pharmacist."

Philippine Pharmaceutical Association. Journal, v. 4 :54.

361

PHYTOCHEMICAL RESEARCH IN THE PHILIPPINES

By

JOAQUIN MARANON Of tke BureatÂŁ 01 Science Ckai1'man, Section 01 Pkytockemtistry, N. R. C.

From the time when Wohler in 1828 synthesized urea, thus showing that no "vital force" is necessary for the formation of organic compounds (Moore, 1918), the interpretation of the complex life processes in terms of the principles of physics and chemistry has been given considerable attention. Wohler's discovery together with the brilliant researches of Scheele on the isolation and purification of organic plant acids (Rosenthaler, 1930), and the system of organic analysis perfected by von Liebig (Moore, 1918), have been greatly responsible for the hirth of a new science known as the chemistry of plant life or phytochemistry.

The historical development of the phytochemical investigation in the Philippines may be conveniently divided into two periods. The first period covers the Spanish regime in the Islands, which lasted for more than three centuries. The second period represents the United States administration, commencing in 1898 and extending up to the present time.

THE SPANISH PERIOD

Of direct concern with the early phase of the phytochemical research in the Philippines is the account given

by Father Ignacio de Mercado. In his work entitled "Libro de Medicinas de Esta Tierra" (Blanco, 1880) written before the close of the 17th century, he described a method followed by the Filipinos for the preparation of native wine from the ripe fruits of "guava" (Psi4ium g~ULjaba).

He also related the preparation of a thick oil, used for 362

SCIENCE dyeing gray hair, from coconut shells by destructive distillation.

On April 24, 1827, experimental results for extracting the coloring matter from certain species of Inlligofera (Blair and Robertson, 1907) were reported. In the following year, the analysis of the coloring matter was effected.

The ever-increasing demand for a government-owned scientific laboratory found its expression in the estahlishment of the "Laboratorio Municipal de la Ciudad de Ma路路 nila" in 1887. Its first director, Anacleto del Rosario, had contributed a great deal on the problems concerning the purification of the native alcohol "nipa" palm and on the development of the distillery industry in the Islands. Besides, he had also worked on the alkaloid of St. Ignatius beans from the Philippines, and on the castor oil from "Palma ChristL" Other prominent phytochemical investigations he had undertaken are the studies on the essential oil of "nang-ilang" and on the biochemical aspect of the nauseating odor in the Pasig river, originating from the decaying blue green Algae (Vinzons, 1932). This last problem is of historical interest as the present recurring algal nuisance in Manila and its vicinity is due to the same organism studied by del Rosario as early as 1886.

Of particular interest with regard to the biochemical aspects of the indigenous drugs is the work of Par9-o de Tavera published in 1892 and entitled "Plantas Medicinales de Filipinas." This is an exposition of the therapeutic properties, methods of administration, chemical composition, and botanical description of Philippine medicinal plants.

THE. AMERICAN PERIOD

As the technique of, and facilities for, research have developed and improved, many important chemical inves3G3

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES tigations on Philippine plants and their products have been undertaken during the present American administration.

In this connection, the government Bureaus of Forestry, and Science, and the University of the Philippines have contributed their share for the advancement of phytochemical research in the Philippines.

As a whole, the varied phytochemical activities in this period can be more or less resolved into the following topics: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Medicinal and poisonous plants Essential oils, gums, and resins Food plants and animal feeds Seeds yielding fixed oils Fibers and fibrous substances Tanbarks Natural dyes

The physiologically active constituents of a number of the local medicinal and poisonous plants have been isolated and their chemical properties studied. Some of these plants contain alkaloids, glucosides, volatile oils, and resins.

Thus, "dita" (Alstonia scholaris), well known as a remedy for fevers and for chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, was found to contain the alkaloids, ditamine and echitamine.

The saponin from the "gogo" bark (Entada seandens) was isolated as early as 1906 (Bacon, 1906).

A number of plants yielding essential oils, resins, and gums were reported (Brown, 1920; Tanchico-Santiago and West, 1933). Among these plants are the lemon grass (.(!ndropogon eitratus), "Moras" or vetiver (Andropogon zizanioides), "champaka" (Miehelia ehampaca) , "ilangilang" (Cananaium odoratum) , cinnampn (Cinnamomum mereadoi) , "Colobot" (Citrus hystrix Dc. var. torosOJ).

The chemical properties of almaciga or Manila copal, from Agathis alba, were studied. The resin is now exported in considerable quantities for the manufacture of high-grade varnish.

364

SCIENCE Due to the economic importance of seed-yielding fixed oils, extensive chemical studies on such seeds as the coconut, lumbang, kalumpang, and tuba were made (Brown and West, 1920). The results of these studies are now being applied in the utilization of these oils in industry.

Notable contributions have been made in the investigation of the Philippine food plants. Studies along this line include the proximate chemical composition, inorganic constituents and the vitamin contents of these plants.

Of importance to the leather industry in the Islands are extensive analyses of available tanning materials (Brown, 1920) . This is of particular interest as the species of mangrove trees which are used commercially for tanning materials are found in the Philippines in large number. The Philippines can, therefore, well afford to compete with other tropical countries in the exportation of mangrove tanbarks, and of the bark extracts known as cutch.

The feasibility of using some Philippine forest products for paper making has been investigated and reported in a series of articles in the Philippine Journal of Science (Richmond, 1906-1910). Among the forest products examined which are found to be promising material for paper pulp are a bamboo (ScMz()stachyum lumampao), "Kogon" (lmperata. exaltata) and "talahib" (Saccharum spontaneum).

In spite of the continually decreasing demand for natural dyes since the introduction of synthetic dyes in commerce, three Philippine plants were investigated with reference to their coloring matter. These are: "Dilau" (Curcuma longa) , "sibukan" (Caesalpinia sappan), and the two species of indigo, (lndigofer(J) tinctoria and I. suffruticosa (Brooks, 1910).

Such a brief historical sketch as is here presented would be all too fragmentary were we to fail to pay a 365

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES tribute to all th~ pioneers who have contributed their best in the furtherance of phytochemical research in the Islands and thus have led the way for others.

LITERATURE CITED BACON, R. F. 1906. The physiologically active constituents of certain Philippine medicinal plants. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 1 :10071036.

BLAIR, E. H. and J. A. ROBERTSON. 1907. The Philippine Islands 1493-1898. The Arthur H. Clark Company, Cleveland, Ohio, vol. 52, p. -316.

BLANCO, M. 1880. Flora de Filipinas, v. 4 :33.

BROOKS, B. T. 1910. The natural dyes and coloring matters of the Philippines. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 5A :439-452.

BROWN, W. H. 1920. Minor products of Philippine forests. In three volumes. Bu. of Printing, Manila.

MOORE, F. J. 1918. History of Chemistry. First edition. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., pp. 127 and 128.

RICHMOND, G. F. 1906. Philippine ;fibers and fibrous substances: Their suitability for paper making. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 1A: 433-462.

RICHMOND, G. F. 1906. Philippine fibers and fibrous substances.

Their suitability for paper making. Part II. ;Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 1 :1075-1084.

- - - - - - . 1907. Philippine fibers and fibrous substances: Their suitability for paper making. Part III. (Conclusion).

Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 2A:81-112. . 1910. Philippine fibers and fibrous substances: Their suitability for paper making. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 5A: 233-255.

ROSENTHALER, L. 1930. The chemical investigation of plants. Authorized translation of the third improved and enlarged German Edition. London, Bell and Sons, Ltd. viii, 197 p. illus.

T ANCHICO-SANTIAGO, S. and A. P. WEST. 1933. Colobot essential oil from Citru8 hystrix Dc. var. torosa. Philip. Jour. Sci., v.

52 :263-267.

VINZONS, WENCESLAO. 1932. "Anacleto del Rosario y Sales." Jour.

Philip. Pharo Assoc., v. 4:12-26.

366

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY IN THE PHILIPPINES

By F. T. ADRIANO Technical Director, San Miguel Brewery Chairman, Section of Plant Products, N. R. C.

Agricultural chemistry has been defined by Browne as that branch of science which treats of the chemical composition and mutual chemical relations of soils, crops and farm animals, in so far as they concern the production of the means of human subsistence and welfare. From. this definition it can be seen at' once that the field is almost limitless. The opportunities which are open to the agricultural chemists in the development of Philippine agriculture and in the utilization of products and by-products are unlimited.

In the Philippines, a notable achievement due to the science of agricultural chemistry is to be found in the present state of development of the sugar industry. The production of sugar cane varieties of high sucrose content, high yielding power and great adaptability to varying climatic conditions, by means of chemical selection, improved practices of fertilization and the replacem~nt of old and obsolete methods of manufacture with the more modern and up-to-date processes and efficient equipment, are in a large measure the results of agricultural chemical researches.

Greater production of raw agricultural products both for local consumption and for export and the complete and most economic utilization of agricultural products and byproducts is a fertile field for research for agricultural chemists here. It has been sufficiently demonstrated here and elsewhere that greater returns are obtained from the sale of finished products than from raw products alone.

367

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The heavy annual importations of manufactured goods and other agricultural products into the Philippines, can be replaced by local manufactures or through the cultivation of imported plant materials and turning them into locally required finished products. The introduction and propagation of new economic plants in places of the archipelago that are most suitable for these crops are temptingly great and for this reason agricultural government institutions are already sponsoring the campaigns for the cultivation of various economic crops in the different parts of the Islands.

FOOD INDUSTRIES

_ The average annual importation of food and food products into the Philippines reaches nearly P48,OOO,OOO. As we have and can grow a large variety of food plants which can be utilized for the manufacture of products that can in part or wholly take the place of most imported materials, it is possible that by proper development we may in time be able to materially decrease the importation of many food commodities. Possibly later, we may be able to export some of them.

Numerous kinds of imported products are manufactured from raw materials which have originated either here or from neighboring Oriental countries. If some of the needed materials are not yet grown here, the possihilities of cultivating and propagating them in many places of the archipelago most suitable for their culture are temptingly great.

It is therefore necessary that proper methods of utilizing and manufacturing plant products be studied in order to convert them into various forms of finished products which can be kept or shipped to distant places like imported kinds, thus making them available at all times, salable at 368

[4]

[5] PHILIPPINE BIRDS

1. Beautiful Roughtemple 2. and 3. Yellow-Rumped Flowerpecker, top, and Everett's Weaver, below 4. Intermediate Guaiabero 5. Steere's Broadbill

SCIENCE moderate prices, and easily and readily transported to different places where they are not usually to be had. . Many of our fruits and vegetables are highly seasonal so that prices fluctuate very greatly. At the beginning and towards the end of the seasons, prices are too high and oftentimes prohibitive, but during the height of the season in which there is usually a large excess production, they are obtainahle cheap if not practically thrown away as waste. It is during this period when they can be economically converted into finished products that canning or other forms of commercial utilization should be undertaken.

It is surprising that such a rich agricultural country as the Philippines must import millions of pesos of canned and other kinds of preserved fruits, especially canned pineapples, tomatoes, and other fruits and vegetables that can be grown and preserved right here. There is therefore need of showing the possihilities of utilizing our raw products profitably.

Mention of utilization will naturally bring us to a discussion of the different methods of preservation now in commercial use in many countries.

Man, since the earliest times, has sought ways of making available his needs for foods both in and out of season.

He found, for instance, the value of drying and salting for preserving foods for a longer time than was otherwise possible.

Later on, in 1765, an Italian priest named Spallazani astounded his epoch by making the discovery of how to preserve foods by the application of heat.

CANNING

In 1795, after 14 years of experimentation, Nicholas Appert, a Frenchman, popularly known as the "Father of 369

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Canning" was awarded by the French Government a prize of 12,000 francs for his method of preserving food for army and navy stores.

In 1874, A. K. Shriver of Baltimore invented and patented the pressure cooker, which made it possible to increase the temperature in the sterilizing process.

The tin can, being light and non-breakable, very early hecame the container for commercial canning. The first tin cans were made by soldering the bodies and ends. The modern or sanitary can was developed by Charles M. Ams in the early nineties. He also invented the sealing compound that is applied on the covers to give the hermetic seal. With the invention of modern machinery for hermetically sealing the covers to the body, the sanitary or open can came into general use.

The present canning industry is now so well developed that where before a master workman could make only about 60 cans daily and the pack of what was then considered a well equipped cannery did not exceed 2,500 cans a day, now with the help of modern machinery, 300 cans a minute can be easily made and machines which can seal 120 cans a minute are used in large canneries. With the invention of other labor saving machinery the output was greatly increased and the cost of the products thereby reduced.

The Philippines can grow an unlimited supply of raw materials for canning different fruits and vegetables.

Pineapples and mangoes can be canned commercially.

The Philippine Packing Corporation in Mindanao has up to recently been canning pineapples on a large scale.

While home and farm canning is recommended to utilize local surplus raw materials, there is need of erecting large canning plants which can economically utilize some 370

SCIENCE of our fruits like the mango, pineapple and others. If canned properly and in large quantities, mangoes should have good local and foreign markets.

In commercial canning plants the supply of very cheap tin containers is most important. Cheap tin containers is a very important consideration and this applies to other industries which demand good and cheap containers such as glass, procelains, paraffined papers, etc. An investigation into this problem is going to solve many problems of the food industries.

Government laboratories have demonstrated the variety of fruits and vegetables which give promise of being utilized commercially for canning purposes.

FRUIT TREATMENTS

The yearly importation of California and other foreign oranges, lemons, and other citrus fruits, not to mention other varieties of fruits, is a considerable import item.

It has been shown that most of these fruits or their appropriate substitutes can be grown satisfactorily in many places especially adapted to their culture. Besides these imported fruits, we have a large variety of our own which if subjected to the same treatments as the imported ones will be equally valuable.

PICKLING

Pickling is the preservation of food in brine or in vinegar either with or without bacterial fermentation.

We have a large variety of fruits and vegetables suitable for pickling purposes. The possibility of commercially pickling many Philippine fruits and vegetables has already been shown.

371

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES FERMENT ATION

In the preparation of fermented and unfermented beverages, we have many kinds of fruits which can be used to produce nutritious, appetizing and specially flavored drinks. Fruits like the calamunding, duhat or lomboy, bignay, santol, pineapple, strawberry and different varieties of citrus fruits have been found to furnish excellent raw materials.

Studies have been conducted on the preparation of fruit juices and fruit wines and these have turned out just as good as the imported kinds.

When properly prepared many Philippine fruit juices that can supply the necessary vitamins and minerals and other health promoting accessories can be sold cheaper than imported kinds.

Basi, an alcoholic beverage from sugar cane juice, if scientifically prepared will be an important commercial product. There is need for improving the antiquated methods at present used if the industry is to be conducted on a sound commercial and competitive basis.

The preparation of vinegars from waste and otherwise unsalable fruits and the improvement of present methods of making palm sap vinegars are timely and important studies.

The preparation of nata, a mucilaginous fermentation product usually obtained from pineapples, when scientifically controlled, can be developed into an important industry which can very well take care of the surplus production of pineapples.

The method of fermentation of soybeans for the production of toyo or soy sauce, which is consumed in large quantities, is not well known. The soy sauce of commerce is either an imported product or manufactured by certain Chinese firms of the city. It is possible to develop industries for toyo making which will give products, if not bet372

SCIENCE ter, at least comparable with the best in the market. The soy sauce prepared locally by Chinese is not usually of good or desirable quality.

FREEZING AND REFRIGERATION

Freezing and refrigeration storage takes care of about 80 per cent of the food supply of the United States which is in excess of P22,000,000,000, thus showing the importance of these two methods of preservation.

Commercial refrigeration, using varying degrees of coldness, has been used for storing many kinds of food products for a long time, but it has not given very satisfactory results for certain types of products. Many of these objectionable features of ordinary refrigeration storages were finally solved with the invention of quick freezing in 1930 by Mr. Clarence Birdseye of Boston who sold his patent to the Postum Company, now the General Foods Corporation, for P44,000,000.

Taking advantage of this invention and the work of investigations on the subject of freezing, studies have satisfactorily demonstrated the possibilities of preserving both the texture and flavor of mangoes, pineapples and many other Philippine fruits by processes that if commercially undertaken will open up proIrljising industries.

If managed on a large scale, freezing preservation is bound to solve our fresh fruit and vegetable problems and the marketing of excess production. A large export business in Philippine perishable materials is bound to be developed by the use of the quick freezing method.

FLOUR AND STARCH

The Philippines up to a few years ago were importing nearly P10,000,000 worth of flour and starch yearly. This value, on account of lower prices of recent years, dropped to more than P6,OOO,000 annually-still a big sum indeed.

373

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Rice forms a very important part of the diet of our race.

The preparation of native and other rice recipes is not so widely practiced on account of the inconvenience and time required to prepare the wet rice flour (commonly called in the Tagalog region "galapong").

The results of investigation on rice flour and its possibilities is now public knowledge.

But there are other important problems connected with rice flour, one of which is to find other kinds of flour of Philippine origin that are high in the protein of wheat flour, which when added to rice flour will produce a product similar in nutritional and baking qualities to wheat flour.

The annual importation .of corn and cassava starch into the Philippines amounts to more than P600,OOO. Cassava, scientifically known as Manihot utilissirrw- Pohl., is called by different names. In the Philippines, it is commonly known as "balangay" or "kamoteng kahoy" in the Visayas, "bangala" in Lanao, "pangina" or "bingala" in Bukidnol1, "kamote Moro" in the Ilocos, "pangina-kahoy" or "kamoteng-kahoy" in Sulu, "balinhoy" or "kamoteng kahoy" in the Tagalog provinces, "kamunte-kayo" in Zamboanga, "malaboanga" in Palawan, "padpadi" in Mountain Province.

In Malaya and in the Dutch East Indies, it is commonly known as tapioca, cassava, mandioca, and manioc.

However, the term "tapioca" usually refers to different forms of cassava products. In Cuba it is lrnown as "yuca," a name of Brazilian origin.

While cassava has been grown in the Philippines for a long time, the plant having been introduced by early Spanish colonists, its cultivation has not been as extensively carried on as in other tropical countries.

Cassava starch is commonly known in the Philippines as "gao-gao" and is used for laundering purposes. It is 374

SCIENCE also used in sizing yarns and cloths, in the preparation of the so-called British gums, dextrins, and pastes, and in the manufacture of confectioner's glucose, of which increasing quantities are being used here. Of the last item alone more than 100,000 pesos worth is imported annually.

In the manufacture of food products, it is used in the preparation of custards, blanc mange, puddings, powder, macaroni, simolinas, and sauces, as a thickening agent in ice cream, and as fillers for various kinds of food products. It is also mixed with breakfast cereals. In the Philippines the cultivation of cassava as a raw material for the production of starch should prove a profitable enterprise.

While cassava has been grown in the Philippines for a long time, so far there are no plantations sufficiently large to supply the raw m,aterials for a starch factory.

There is need for star.ting plantations by using the varieties which are best adapted to the localities and at the same time of high yielding power, if the production of starch is ever to compete with the foreign manufacture.

Herein lies a great field for agricultural chemists to solve some of the problems in starch manufacture.

While a number of starch factories have been started, for some reason or another, they have not yet given satisfactory results.

Probably following the example of Cuba, which passed a law making it obligatory for bakery establishments to mix cassava flour with wheat flour to the extent of not less than 10 per cent but not more than 40 per cent in the preparation of bakery products, might encourage the early development of the cassava industry. Some similar Government protection or encouragement has been adopted in Brazil and it seems that a similar procedure would be desirable to follow here.

375

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES INSECTICIDES

The annual destruction caused by insect pests in the United .States to farm crops alone is estimated at 2,000,000,000 dollars, U. S. currency. In the Philippines, though no exad- figures are available, the value of agricultural products annually destroyed by insect pests undoubtedly also amounts to a very large sum. In fighting locusts and coconut leaf miners alone the annual expenditures of the Philippine Government, not counting those of individual planters and centrals, for the last few years, have exceeded 150,000 pesos a year. The fight to exterminate locusts and other major insect pests is one of the most serious agricultural problems in the Islands.

The insecticides in general use at present are chemicals; such as arsenates, nicotine, sulphate, hydrocyanic acid, and others more or less toxic to both man and animals. The use of 'arsenicals and powderred soap has been developed by the Bureau of Plant Industry and has proved quite satisfactory in its campaign to exterminate locusts.

These, however, have encountered opposition on account of the arsenicals used. There is need therefore, of insecticides that will give maximum toxicity to insects but at the same time are harmless to man and beast. Of the latter species, scientists have found certain plants such as pyrethrum flowers from Japan and Yugoslavia. The derris roots, the active constituent of which is known as rotenone, for the manufacture of insecticides is pregnant with commercial possibilities.

Derris is the generic name of numerous leguminous climbing shrubs; some species are said to be trees. The plants are native to the tropics, and 12 of the 40 or more species are known in the Philippines, where these plants, which possess fish- and arrow-poisoning properties, have various dialect names. Some of these names are Hmal a siag," "tibalan," "tibangalan," '"'tubU," "tuble," Htugli," 376

SCIENCE "tugling pula" in Tagalog, "tubli" in Visayan and Bagobo, "upei" in Bontoc, "baot" in La Union, "lono" in Albay, "lagtang" in Samar, "tublitibauon" in Cebu, "baoet" in Zambales, and "toblelono" in Camarines Sur. In the Dutch East Indies, where it has been cultivated for a long time, derris is also known as "tuba root." The average annual exportation of derris root from Malaya is more than 60,000 kilos.

Although many species of derris ' are known, Derris elliptiea and Derris malaeeensis seem to be the commercial species that are commonly grown in many tropical countries, particularly in the Federated Malay States and Borneo.

The detennination of derris species of high rotenone content has been the subject of investigations hy government chemists. The results of these studies will decide the best species to propagate for commercial planting.

At the present time the market demand for derris roots is very big and herein lies a big field for commercial undertaking.

AGRICULTURAL ANALYSES

As a prerequisite to nutrition studies, a handy reference on the composition of food materials has long been felt. Many physicians, particularly due to lack of local references, are using data of analyses of foreign materials obtained in the American and European laboratories. For the convenience of nutrition workers in the Philippines, therefore, a compilation of proximate analyses of Philippine food materials is necessary. Several analytical laboratories of the Government have cooperated in these analyses so that we now find rather voluminous compilations of this kind of work.

In addition to food materials, agricultural analyses of feeds, soils, fertilizers and many other kinds of agricul3'77

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES tural products have been performed. Consideration of chemical analyses has been very important not only in the analyses of food and feed values but in the manufacturing industries, where it has been of special service in controlling the different processes.

SOILS AND FERTILIZERS

The determination of soil fertility, or the detection of mineral soil deficiencies, has been the subject of numerous investigations since very early times. As a result of these researches, several methods of determining soil fertility such as soil chemJcal analysis and the Neubauer and field plot tests, which are already well known, have been devised. A chemical soil analysis by using methods of extracting the mineral constituents of the soil that are far from duplicating the plant requirements, besides being laborious, and reqq,iring a long time to perform, is expensive and is only valuable in determining excesses or deficiencies of certain mineral soil constituents. The prevalent notion among farmers that a soil analysis can determine the kind of crops that will grow best in a particular soil as well as the kind and amount of fertilizers to add is fallacious.

The Neubauer test is also expensive and time-consuming and is therefore impractical for the analysis of many field samples.

The soil plot test, which has been extensively used, is also not dependable. because results obtained thereby are not directly applicable to other fields. Besides, it requires a large tract of land and from 3 to 5 years to obtain useful information. There is therefore need of a method of determining soil fertility which will eliminate some if not all of the above mentioned objections.

Using the result of the researches of 'Winogradsky and Ziemiecka of the Pasteur Institute of Paris as a basis, 378

SCIENCE Sackett and his collaborators of the Colorado Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado, have perfected a bacteriological method of determining mineral soil deficiency by what they called the "soil plaque test." The principle involved in this method is based on the findings of Winogradskyand Ziemiecka, that the mineral food requirements of azotobacter (a group of nitrogen fixing organisms found in soils) and of farm crops are identical. Soils therefore that are particularly lacking in certain mineral constituents, such as phosphates, potash and calcium, will not produce notable growths of azotobacter colonies, while the beneficial effect of the addition of these so-called limited mineral constituents to those same soils will be indicated by the accelerated growth of azotobacter colonies.

They have found the soil plaque test to be a rapid and dependable method for determining phosphate and lime deficiencies and believe it may also prove equally .valuable for potash.

Besides giving a very rapid qualitative test requiring only 72 hours for the detection of some mineral soil deficiencies as against about a month in the case of soil chemical analysis and the Neubauer test, or from 3 to 5 years for the field plot test, they also found the method to be sufficiently quantitative to serve as a practical guide for determining the amount of fertilizers to apply.

The amount of commercial fertilizers that has been used in the Philippines during the last few years has been considerable. It amply demonstrates the increasing realization of the value of conserving, or maintaining and restoring soil fertility. Not infrequently there are farmr ers who use too large amounts of fertilizers when this is not necessary while many should use commercial fertilizers to increase production but are unaware of this fact.

If a simple, rapid and inexpensive method of determining mineral soil deficiencies can be given Philippine 379

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES farmers, a more judicious application of, and an economical way of using commercial fertilizers can be effected.

An extensive survey of the value of this soil plaque method is now being conducted on Philippine soils.

LITERATURE CITED ADRIANO, F. T. 1925. The proximate chemical analysis of Philippine foods and feeding stuffs. Philip. Agric., v. 14:57-91.

ADRIANO, F. T. and E. TAVANLAR. 1927. The calcium oxide content of some Philippine foods. Philip. Agric., V. 14 :337-357.

ADRIANO, F. T. 1929. The proximate chemical analysis of Philippine foods and feeding stuffs, II. Philip. Agric., v. 18: 119-125.

ADRIANO, F. T., V. VILLEGAS and M. MANAHAN. 1931. ThE.' fertilizing constituents of fresh solid excreta voided by Philippine horses. Philip. Agric., v. 20 :19-26.

ADRIANO, F. T. and M. DE GUZMAN. 1931. The phosphorus and calcium contents of some Philippine food products. Philip.

Agric., v. 20 :43-48.

ADRIANO, F. T. and M. MANAHAN. 1931. The nutritive value of green, mature and sport coconuts (buko, niyog and makapuno).

Philip. AUric., v. 20 :195-198.

ADRIANO, F. T. 1931. The food value of Philippine mushrooms.

Phil路ip. Magazine, v. 28 :330-362.

ADRIANo, F. T., H. RAMOS and L. YNALVES. 1932. The proximate chemical analysis of Philippine foods and feeding stuffs. Philip.

Agric., v. 20: 530-534.

ADRIANO, F. T. and M. S. DE GUZMAN. 1932. The proximate chemical analysis of Philippine food products, IV. Philip. Ag1路ic., v. 20: 580-592.

ADRIANO, F. T. 1932. The development of some of our promising industries. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular.

ADRIANO, F. T. 1932. The composition and mixing of commercial fertilizers. The Phibippine Journal of Agriculture, v. ::I :289-309.

ADRIANO, F. T., A VALENZUELA, E. C. YONZON and R. A. ISIDRO. 1932. Farm and home canning of Philippine fruits and vegetables. The Philippine Journal of Agdculiure, v. 3 :231-249.

ADRIANO, F. T., E. VILLANUEVA and H. YLIZARDE. 1932. The pectin content of some Philippine fruits. The Philippine Journal of Agriculture, v. 3 :273-279.

380

SCIENCE ADRIANO, F. T. 1932. The proximate chemical composition of Philippine foods. The Philippine Journal of Agricultw'e, v. 32:211216.

ADRIANo, F. T. and R. A. CRUZ. 1933. The nutritive value of pinipig. Philippine Maga.zine, v. 30:192-211.

ADRIANO, F. T. and D. SANTOS. 1933. The preparation of fermented pickles. Farm and Home Journal, v. 2 :241-255.

ADRIANo, F. T. 1933. The chemical analysis of some Philippine poultry and other feeds. Philip. Poultry Journal, v. 3 :4.

ADRIANO, F. T. 1933. Basi or sugar cane wine. The Philippine Magazine, v. 30 :229-256.

ADRIANO, F. T. 1933. Contributions to some Philippine food industries. The Stockman and Farmer, v. 1 :5-27.

ADRIANO, F. T. and R. A. CRUZ. 1933. The chemical analysis of Philippine and imported mushrooms. The Philippine Journal of Agriculture, v. 4:1-11.

ADRIANO, F. T., C. G. RAMOS and R. A. ISIDRO. 1933. The chemical composition of cigarettes and cigarette tobacco leaves of the aromatic and non-aromatic types. Philip. Jour. of Agric., v.

4:87-97.

ADRIANO, F. T., A. VALENZUELA and D. SANTOS. 1933. The value of Philippine fruits and vegetables for the preparation of fermented and unfermented pickles. The Philippine Jou'rnal of Agri. cult'ure, v. 4.

ADRIANO, F. T., L. MIRANDA and A. VALENZUELA. 1933. Some studies on the quick freezing of Philippine fruits and the utilization of the frozen packed products. The Philippine Journal of Agriculture, v. 4 :41-71.

ADRIANO, F. T. and S. B. OLIVEROS. 1933. Some studies on the refining of Philippine honey. The Philippine Journal of Agriculture, v. 4 :201-214.

ADRIANO, F. T. and H. YLIZARDE. 1933. The preparation of vinegar from Philippine fruits and other saccharine materials. The Philippine Journal of Ag1'iculture, v. 4 :215-228.

ADRIANO, F. T. and T. RIGOR. 1933. A preliminary study of the chemical changes occurring during the salting of chicken and duck eggs under different treatments. The Philippine Journal of Agriculture, v. 4: 151-163.

ADRIANO, F. T. and J. BANZON. 1933. The characteristics of Philippine vinegar. The Philippine Jottrnal of Agricultw'e, v. 4: 229-237.

381

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ADRIANO, F. T. 1933. Possibilities of dE."veloping the cassava industry in the Philippines. The Philippine Journal of Audculture, v. 4 :271-285.

ADRIANO, F. T., S. B. OLIVEROS and E. R. VILLANUEVA. 1934. Baking powders or leavening agents. The Stockman and Farmer, v. 1 :20-21.

ADRIANO, F. T., S. B. OLIVEROS, and E. R. VILLANUEVA. 1934. The preparation of nata de Piiia. The Philip. Journal of Education, v. 16 :373-379.

AGCAOILI, F. 1916. Some vegetables grown in the Philippine Islands. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 11 :91-100.

ASUNCION, SILVESTRE. 1914. The influence of fertilizer on the growth and production of sugar cane. Philip. Auric., v. 3:69-74.

BALAGTAS, AMADO. 1928. The chemical composition of Philippine fishes. Philip. AUric.. v. 17: 253-261.

CARAN'DANG, A. 1925. Commercial fertilizer tests. Sugar News, v.

6 :519-523.

COLLADO, E. G. 1926. Studies on the nutritive properties of seaweeds. Philip. Agrio., v. 15:129-148.

COWISSIANO, G. 1924. Nitrate of soda in sugar cane. StÂŁuar News, v. 5 :276-279.

Cox, A. J. and A. S. ARGUELLES. 1914. The soils of Luzon. Philip.

Jour. Sci., v. 9 :1-50.

DAMIANO, F. 1931. A study of the chemical composition of four sugar cane varieties of the same age and grown under similar conditions. Philip. Aurio., v. 20: 139-145.

GALVES, N., R. MORENO and V. G. LAVA. 1928. Chemical studies on coconut products. Philip. Ag?"ic., v. 17: 163-168.

GIBBS, H. D. and F. AGCAOILI. 1912. Some Filipino foods. Philip.

Jour. Sci., v. 7 :383-400.

GIBBS, H. D. and F. AGCAOILI. 1912. Philippine citrus fruits. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 7 :403-414.

Goco, A. 1923. Insecticides for locust extermination. Philip.

Agric. Review, v. 16 :49-54.

GONZALEZ, B. M. 1914. The changes occurring in the ripening coconut. Philip. Auric. and For., v. 3 :31-32.

GUANZON, G. 1927. The possibilities of cassava production in the Philippines. Philip. Auric., v. 16 :433-440.

GUANZON, G. 1927. Industrial products from filter press cake.

Sugar News, v. 8 :877-882.

HERMANO, A. J. 1934. Food values. Philip. Bureau of Sci. Bull., No. 16:39.

382

SCIENCE LABAYEN, S. D. 1914. The chemical composition of Philippine sweet potatoes. Philip. Agric. and For., v. 3: 78-80.

LAVA, V. G. 1928. Chemical studies on coconut products. Phili p.

Agric., v. 16:461-469.

LAVA, V. G. and S. B. ETOMA. 1929. Comparative analysis of American and Philippine cigarettes. Philip. Agric., v. 17 :565577.

MmASOL, JOSE J. 1915. Chemical changes during the ripening of sugar cane. Philip. Agric. and For., v. 4: 101-108.

PANGANffiAN, E. H. 1915. A study of the nitrification in Philippine soils. Philip. Ag'ric. and For., v. 4:81-91.

PANGANffiAN, E. H. 1923. Rate of decomposition of organic nitrogen in rice paddy soils. Philip. Agric., v. 12 :63-76.

PANGANffiAN, E. H. 1915. Soil acidity tests. Sugar News, v. 6: 398-400.

PENDLETON, R. L. 1925. Nitrogenous fertilizer for sugar cane and the residual effects on the soil of sodium nitrate and ammonium sulphate. Suga1' News, v. 6:81-86.

PENDLETON, R. L. and V. G. LAVA. 1928. An interpretation of the results of fertilizer experiments oarried out in N. W. Occidental Negros, Philippine Islands. Sugar News, v. 9 :652-657.

PEPA, MAXIMO E. 1927. A comparative study of the palatability of some common Philippine forages. Philip. Agric., v. 15:547555.

QUISUMBING, F. A. 1914. The cultivated root producing aroids.

Philip. Ag?路ic. and For., v. 3 :85-89.

QUISUMBJNG, F. A. 1921. Philippine contribution on agricultural, biological and industrial chemistry. Philip. Agric., v. 10: 113123.

ROXAS, M. L. 1919. Sugar cane investigations at the College of Agriculture. Philip. A.g1路ic., v. 8: 179-190.

ROXAS, M. L. 1920. A comprehensive plan of investigation in sugar cane agronomy and chemistry. Philip. Agric., v. 9: 35-40.

ROXAS, M. L. and R. V. MAURO. 1921. Starch from cassava. Philip. Agric., v. 10 :73-74.

RoXAs, M. L. 1921. The Philippine sugar industry and the College of Agriculture. Sugar News, v. 2:491-497.

RoXAs, M. L. 1928. Increasing sugar yields per hectare by application of ammonium SUlphate at Laguna-Batangas district. Sugar News, v. 9 :450-459.

ROXAS, M. L. 1928. 1927-1928 fertilizer constituent test at the Laguna-Batangas district. Sugar NewB, v. 9 :439-547.

383

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES SANTOS, F. O. and F. T. ADRIANO. 1928. The chemical composition of Philippine food materials. Public Welfare Commission Circular, Bureau of Printing, Manila.

SANTOS, F. O. and N. PIDLAOAN. 1931. The nutritive value of balut.

Philip. Agric., v. 19 :659-664.

SARAO, F. B. 1918. Value of Philippine composts. Philip. Agric. and For., v. 6: 128-134.

SERRANO, C. B. 1923. Prussic acid in Phaseolus lunatu8 and other beans. Philip. Agric., v. 11:163-176.

SILAYAN, H. S. 1917. Culture and fertilization affecting the oil content of peanuts. Philip. Agric., v. 6 :84-127.

SOLIVEN, F. 1929. The effect of tapping coconut palms for toddy on the production of copra and oil. Philip. Agric., v. 18:225-231.

VALENZUELA, A. and J. P. WESTER. 1930. Composition of some Philippine fruits, vegetables and forage plants. Philip. Jour.

Sci., v. 41 :85-102.

WELLS, A. R., F. AGCAOILI and R. FELICIANO. 1922. Philippine rice. Philip. J OUT. Sci., V. 20: 353-361.

SALVADOR, W. 1922. The food value of Philippine bananas. Philip. Jo~~1" Sci., V. 20 :363-366.

384

PHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH IN THE PHILIPPINES

By PATROCINIO VALENZUELA Of the University of the Philippines Secretal路y, Sections of Pharmacopmia and Phytochemistry, N. R. C. .

A review of the world history of pharmacy and chemistry unveils the wealth of research works undertaken by pharmacists, many of which have been the bases of fundamental discoveries in science. Although the beginnings of pharmacy in the Philippines date much later than in those countries that enjoyed the blessings of earlier civilization, the history of Philippine pharmacy reveals that a number of pioneer.ing researches in pharmacy contributed to the development and progress of science in the Philippines, both during the Spanish period and during the American era.

RESEARCH WORKERS IN EARLY DRUG STORES IN THE PHILIPPINES

Insofar as written records are concerned, some of the foreign scientists, especially the German pharmacists who came to the Philippines to work in the first drug stores in Manila were among the first research workers in science in the Philippines whose studies led to the development of some of the Philippine industries. Friederick Steck, a German pharmacist who later became the owner of Botica Boie in 1835 and Botica de Sta. Cruz in 1865, was the first to work, in 1868, on the distillation of the oil of ilang-ilang (Canangi't拢m odoratum) on a commercial basis. He worked with his nephew, Pablo Sartorius, under whose name the Hang-ilang oil was marketed. The Sartorius ilang-Hang oil became commercially known throughout the world when 385

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES it won the gold medal and highest awards at the expositions in Madrid in 1887 and St. Louis in 1904. 1 Undoubtedly, the establishment of the Faculty of Pharmacy of the University of Sto. Tomas in 1871, offering a course comprising one preparatory year and a fiveyear curriculum of pharmacy leading to the degree of Licentiate in Pharmacy which ran parallel with the requirements for graduation in medicine, laid the foundation of Philippine pharmacy and chemistry and produced research workers such as Anacleto del Rosario, Leon Ma. Guerrero, Victoriano Luciano, Manuel Zamora, Mariano V. del Rosario, Primo Hizon, and a number of others. Many of the scientific investigations of these pioneer Filipino pharmacists were made in the laboratories of drug stores.

Victoriano Luoiano y Simeona, one of the thirteen martyrs of Cavite who graduated from the University of Sto. Tomas on March. 20, 1888, was among the first to experiment on the distillation of ilang-Hang and other volatile oils in the laboratory of his drug store. For his scientific works, Luciano was elected "miembro fundador con diploma de honor de la Academia Universal de Ciencias y Artes Industriales de Bruselas," in 1894.

In experimental work, however, the contributions of Anacleto del Rosario y Sales were unequalled by any pharmacist or chemist of the Philippines in his time.

PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY

The first works in botany undertaken in the Philippines dealt largely with medicinal plants. A brief review of this subject is given by Merrill in his "Historical Sketch of Philippine Botany." 2 In the same volume there is a bibliography of Philippine botany with approximately 1,700 1 Centennial Memorial of Botica Boie, Philippine American Drug Company, 1930, 104 p. Manila.

2 Merrill, E. D. 1926. Historical Sketch of Philippine Botany.

In "Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants," v. 4:43-56.

386

SCIENCE titles. This bibliography covers all available works from 1601 to 1925, and includes a large number of publications dealing with Philippine medicinal plants. Some works on medicinal plants remained unpublished. Of special interest in pharmacy is the work of Pardo de Tavera on "Plantas Medicinales de Filipinas" and Guerrero on "Medicinal Uses of Philippine Plants" and "Notas sobre Plantas Medicinales de Filipinas."

PHARMACOGNOSY

This branch of science was taught under the title of "materia farmaceutica vegetal y animal," in the Faculty of Pharmacy of the University of Sto. Tomas, when the latter was the only existing pharmaceutical institution.

Dr. Leon Ma. Guerrero, who graduated from the tricentenarian university in 1877 as the first Filipino to receive the degree of Licentiate in Pharmacy, is the first Filipino research worker in pharmacognosy. He undertook at the request of the Court of First Instance an investigation of over one thousand Chinese drugs of mineral, vegetable and animal origin imported into these Islands without any restriction, many of them admittedly poisonous. Considering the facilities then at his command, one cannot but wonder at the manner in which he carried out his investigation "for even fossil mollusks of the first geological ages utilized in the Chinese materia medica have been classified."

Unfortunately for scientists, the results of many of the early original scientific works of Dr. Guerrero have not been published, except those already cited, and numerous fragmentary contributions that were mostly printed anonymously in the Cronieas de Cieneias M edieas de Filipinas, the Revista Farmaeeutiea de Filipinas, the Aetas, Memorias y Comunicac-iones de la Asamblea Regional de Medicos y Farmaeeutieos de Filipinas, the Revista Filipina de Medicina y Farmacia and the Journal of the Philippine Phar387

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

maceutical Association. During the American era, the original works of Santos (J. K.) on Chenopodium ambrosioides, Alstonia scholaris R. Brown, Dp,tura alba Nees and D. fastuosa Linnaeus, Tinospora rumphii Boerlage and T. reticulatq, Miers, Artabotrys suaveolens Blume, Philippine cinnamon enriched greatly the field of pharmacognostical investigations and constitute the outstanding contributions in Philippine pharmacognosy.

PHARMACY

The early practitioners of pharmacy in the Philippines during the first decades of the eighteenth century were the pioneers who investigated ttle problems on compounding of prescriptions; but the literature of Philippine pharmacy is silent on this matter owing to the lack of published reports. Zamora studied various galenical preparations, such as extracts, ampules, aromatic vinegars, granular products, household remedies and others. The most important, however, of all his works was the manufacture of extract of tiki tiki which he successfully developed on a commercial scale, a work that earned for him the well-deserved name of "savior of children," because this extract cured effectively the young patients suffering from the dreaded diseases of beriberi. Again, the intensive research on rice grains and bran, the preparation and preservation of tikitiki extract, and related subj ects, undertaken mainly in the laboratories of the Bureau of Science by a host of investigators, solved many perplexing problems that confronted those whose lives have been dedicated to the study of reducing infant mortality in the Philippines.

It may not be amiss to mention at this juncture, that the value of the amazing results of the pharmaceutical, chemical, and biochemical investigations on tikitiki might have been overlooked, if they had not been enhanced by 388

SCIENCE the work of Manuel L. Guerrero, Joaquin Quintos, Jose Albert and other Filipino physicians whose keen observation and spirit of research while in the clinics or at the bedside decidedly demonstrated the therapeutic effects of tikitiki extract.

The early study on the manufacture of parenteral solutions of various kinds in the Philippines had been made by Hizon and Rodriguez and continued by Hizon (P.) and Hizon (R.). Studies on the widely used ampul preparations made by Feliciano (R.), Santos (A. C.), and Castro, are contributions in galenical pharmacy in the Philippines worth recording. The work of Du Mez on the compounds of emetine and his studies on galenical oleoresins were among the early experimental works in scientific pharmacy in the Philippines during the first two decades of the American era. Works on the preparation of oleoresins, resins, tinctures, fluid extracts, medicinal cigarettes from Philippine drugs, and other galenical products, were also contributed by Feliciano, Valenzuela and collaborators and Faustino Garcia.

One of the important branches of pharmaceutical knowledge is the subject of assaying, which is indispensable in the control of the therapeutic potency of pharmaceutical products. In this line, contributions were made by del Rosario, Mara:fion, Faustino Garcia, Guevara, Jimenez, B:l rcelon, Oliveros and others.

The assay of extract of tikitiki as a pharmaceutical problem which is badly needed owing to the existence in the Philippine market of several brands of extract of tikitiki is now approaching its solution. The work of Hermano on the biological assay of extract of tiki tiki and the cytological studies of Jose K. Santos on rice, will undoubtedly be the basis of solution of this problem in Philippine pharmacy.

Researches on phytochemistry and pharmacology will not be considered in detail in this writing, firstly, because the 389

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINE:::> space is limited and secondly because the work on the two subjects have been reviewed by Marafion and de la Paz. PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY

The aims of "iatrochemistry" as propounded by Paracelsus, who believed that the object of alchemy was not the conversion of the base metals into gold but the discovery of medicinal agents for the alleviation of suffering humanity, portray vividly the objects of pharmaceutical chemistry. It may deal with the preparation of inorganic and organic chemicals used in medicine, their properties, purity rubric, and methods of assay, or it may treat of the synthesis of medicinal agents or the isolation and purification of physiologically active constit.uents of plants or animals.

However, all pharmaceutico-chemical investigations aim primarily to obtain the best chemical compounds for the treatment of human ailments. Research works along these lines were undertaken in the Philippines by Perkins and Cruz, who studied the compounds related to the constituents of the oil of chaulmoogra with the object of obtaining a derivative that may prove more valuable than the compounds already known and used. Similar studies were made by Herrera, Santiago and West and de Santos. As to the efforts in isolating and characterizing plant constituents, Bacon, Brill, Wells, Marafion, A. C. Santos, Uichanco (V. B.) and others are the investigators who made valuable additions to the knowledge of the constituents of Philippine plants. The work of A. C. Santos on the isolation of alkaloid and the study of their chemical constitution are the first of its kind ever accomplished in Philippine phytochemistry.

The following are some of the works in Philippine pharmacy and related subjects: ARON, HANS and FELIX HOCSON. 1911. Reis als Nahrungsmittel.

Untersuchungenuber des Nund P205-Stoffwechsel bei Ernahrung

390

SCIENCE mit Reis and anderer hauptsachlich vegetabilischer Nahrung.

Biochem. Ztschr., v. 32, pp. 189-206, May 8, 1911. Through Chemisches Zentralblatt, v. 83, 1911, p. 153.

BACON, R. F. 1906. The physiologically active constituents of certain Philippine medicinal plants. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 1:1007.

BARCELON, TRINIDAD. 1932. Further study Qf Quisqttalisindica Linnaeus. Philippine Pharmaceutical Association. Journal, v.

4:419-447.

BRILL, H. C. and A. G. WELLS. 1917. The physiologically active constituents of certain Philippine medicinal plants: II. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 12A :167.

CASTRO, E. R., A. C. SANTOS and P. VALENZUELA. 1932. Alkaloids of Mahonia philippinensis Takeda. University of the Philippines, Natural and Applied Science Bulletin, v. 2 :401.

FELICIANO, JOSE M. 1927. Mineral waters. Mineral resources of the Philippine Islands for the years 1924 and 1925, pp. 112-115.

FELICIANO, JOSE M. 1931. "Makabuhay" Tinosp01'a reticulata, Menispermaceae. Philippine Pharmaceutical Association. First Proceedings, pp. 60-71.

FELICIANO, RAMON T. 1919. Extraccion y estudio quimico del jugo concreto extraido oel tronco de la Acacia farnesiana, Wild.

(Aroroma, Esp.-Fil.) Revista Filipino, de Medicina y Parmacia, v. 10 :464-471.

GARCIA, F. and JOSE E. JIMENEZ. 1927. Standardization of digitalis. Philippine Islarr-ds Medical Association. Journal, v. 7 :41.

GARCIA, F. and A. C. SANTOS. 1931. Chemical and pharmacological studies of plumieride. Revista Filipina de Medicina y Fa1'macia, v. 22:254-265.

GARCIA, F., R. GUEVARA and JOSE E. JIMENEZ. 1927. Standardization of digitalis. Philippine Islands Medical Association. Journal, v. 7 :41.

GARCIA, FAUSTINO. 1918. On the application in the Philippine Islands of biologic standardization of digitalis and its allies. Revista Filipino, de Medicina y Farmacia, v. 9:393-397.

GARCIA, FAUSTINO. 1921. Biological assay of and preservation of fluid-extract of ergot. Philippine Pharmaceutical Association.

First Proceedings, pp. 129-134.

GUERRERO, LEON MA. 1910. Discurso leido el dia 2 de Julio en la apertura anual de los estudios de la Universidad Pontifica de Sto. Tomas de Manila.

GUERRERO, LEON MA. 1918. Medicinal plants of the Philippine Islands. Census of the Philippine Islands, v. 3:747-787. ~!)1

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES GUERRERO, LEON MA. 1921. Medicinal uses of Philippine plants.

(In Brown's Minor products of the Philippine Forests, v. 3:163246) Philippine Islands Bureau of Forestry. Bulletin, No. 22.

GUERRERO, LEON MA. 1930. Drogas vegetales de Filipinas. Philippine Pharmaceutical Association. Journal, v. 2, No.5, pp.

205-208; No.6, pp. 241-244; No.7, pp. 277-287.

GUERRERO, LEON MA. 1903. Medicinal plants of the Philippines.

Official Handbook of the Philippines. Part I: 359-403.

GUERRERO, LEON MA. 1931. Notas sobre plantas medicinales.

Translated into English by Josefina Ramos. Manila. Mimeo.

165 p.

HERMANO, A. H. 1931. Two ideal sources of assimilable calcium for the prevention of tuberculosis. Philippine Pha1'maceutical Association. Journal, v. 3 :221-223.

HERMANO, 路 A. H. 1931. Tiki-tik' extract in the treatment of adult beri-beri. San Juan de Dios Hospital Bulletin, v. 5 :192-197.

HERRERA, PILAR P. 1927. A.nilides and toluides of chaulmoogric acid. (Capryl, Allyl, Phenyl, Ortho cresol, Meta cresol, Para cresol). Philippine Journal of Science, v. 31 :161-168.

HOCSON, FELIX. 1916. Estudio de los alimentos comunmente usados en las Islas Filipinas. Revista Filipina de Medicina y Farmacia, v. 7 :487-499.

JIMENEZ, JOSE E. 1928. A note on the oil of Philippine chenopodium. Philippine Pha?'maceutical Association. Journal, v. 1: 59-62.

JIMENEZ, JOSE E. 1929. The isolation of the active principles and the pharmacodynamics of Ettrycles amboinensis (L.) Lind!.

Philippine Pharmaceu.tical Association. Journal, v. 1 :185-192.

LUNA, ANTONIO Y NOVICIO. 1894. Notas bacteriologicas y experimentales sobre la gripe. Revista Farmaceutica de Filipinas, v.

1, No. 11, pp. 130-132.

MARAN-ON, JOAQUIN. 1927. The bitter principle of "makabuhay," Tinospora rumphii Boerlage. Philippine Journal of Science, v.

33 :357-361.

MARANON, JOAQUIN. 1928. Total alkaloids of Datura fastuosa Linnaeus and Datura alba Nees from the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 37 :251-260.

MARA."10N, JOAQUIN. 1929. An alkaloidal constituent of Artabotrus 81 1.aveolens Blume.

Phil路ippine Journal of Science, v. 38 :259-267.

OLIVEROS, L. and P. VALENZUELA. 1929. Papain and the dried juice of Carica papaya Linnaeus from Silang, Cavite. Philippine Pharmaceutical Association. JOU1"nal, v. 1 :307-315.

392

SCIENCE OLIVEROS, L. and A. C. SANTOS. 1934. The alkaloids of Eurycles arnboinerzsis. University of the Philippines, Natural and Appl'ied Science Bulletin, v. 4 :41.

PARDO DE TAVERA, T. H. 1892. Plantas medicinales de Filipinas.

Translated into English by J. B. Thomas. The Medicinal Plants of the Philippines. 1901. xvi, 269 p.

PERKINS, G. A. and AURELIO O. CRUZ. 1923. A comparative analytical study of various oils in the chaulmoogra group. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 23:543-569.

PERKINS, A. G., AURELIO O. CRUZ and M. C. REYEs. 1927. Studies of chaulmoogra group oils, II-with special reference to refining and the isolation of hydnocarpic acid. Indust?'ial and Engineering Chemistry, v. 19 :939-942.

PERKINS, A. G. and A. O. CRUZ. 1927. Synthesis of compounds similar to chaulmoogric acid. I. American Chemical Society.

Journal, v. 49 :517-522.

PERKINS, A. G. and A. O. CRUZ. 1927. Synthesis of compounds similar to chaulmoogric acid. II. dl. Chaulmoogric acid. American Chemical Society, JOU1'nal, v. 49: 1070-1077.

QUIBILAN, GUILLERMO Q. 1930. Poisoning with potassium cyanide.

Report of a case with toxicological analysis. Philippine Pha1"maceutical Associa,tion. Journal, v. 2:7-17.

QUIBILAN, GUILLERMO Q. and FELICIANA REYEs. 1931. Arsenic poisoning with toxicological analysis. Philippine Pharmaceutical Association. Journal, v. 3 :257-265.

QUIBILAN, GUILLERMO, Q. 1932. Forensic Analysis. r. A note on salicylic acid poisoning. Report of two cases. Philippine Pha1'maceutical Association. Journal, v. 4: 153-156.

RAMOS, JOSEFINA. 1931. Botanical, chemical and pharmaceutical study of Luffa cylindric a (L.) Roemer. Philippine Pharmaceutical Association. Journal, v. 1 :378-388.

RAMOS, JOSEFINA, P. VALENZUELA and A. C. SANTOS. 1933. A crystalline toxic constituent of the wild form of Luffa cylindrica.

(L.) Roemer. Abstract in National Research Council of the Philippine Islands. Bulletin, 9 :26.

REYEs, FELICIANA and A. C. SANTOS. 1931. On the isolation of Anonaine from Anona squamosa Linnaeus. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 44 :409-410.

RICHMOND, G. F. and MARIANO V. DEL ROSARIO. 1907. A commercial utilization of some Philippine oil-bearing seeds. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 2:439-449.

393

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ROSARIO, ANACLETO DEL. 1890. Memoria descriptiva de los man antiales minero-medicinales de la Isla de Luzon, por Anacleto del Rosario y Sales, Jose Centeno y Garcia, y Jose Vera y Gomez.

ROSARIO Y SALES, ANACLETO DEL. 1893. Contribucion al estudio de la esencia del Hang-Hang. (Vide. El diario de Manila del 14 de Febrero de 1893). Revista Farmaceutica de Filipinas, v. 1, No.1, pp. 4-5; No.3, pp. 33-34; No.4, pp. 45-48.

ROSARIO Y SALES, ANACLETO DEL, ENRIQUE ABELLA Y CASARRIEGO Y JOSE DE VERA Y GoMEZ. 1895. Estudio descriptivo de algunos manantiales de Filipinas; precedido de un pro10go escrito por el Excmo. Sr. D. Angel de Aviles. La Correspondencia Medica de Filipinas, v. 2 :91-93, 109-110, 124-125, 143, 158, 173-174, 19019l.

ROSARIO Y SALES, ANACLETO DEL. 1895. Analisis de las aguas ferruginosas de 1a Isla de N egros.

ROSARIO Y SALES, ANACLETO DEL. 1895. Analisis de la orin a en e1 beri-beri. Oronico de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas, v. 1 :112-115.

ROSARIO Y SALES, ANACLETO DEt. 1895. Analisis de las aguas minero-medicina1es de Filipinas (edicion oficial).

ROSARIO, MARIANO V. DEIl. 1893. Ptomainas del cadaver humano.

Revista Farm.aceutica de FilipinCls, v. 1, Nos. 6-7, pp. 83-88.

ROSARIO, MARIANO V. DEL. 1910. On the determination of the aldehydes in distilled liquors. Philippine Journal of Science, v.

5 :29-32.

ROSARIO, MARIANO V. DEL and J. MARANON. 1919. The physicochemical valoration of tiki-tiki extract. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 15 :221-232.

RQSARIO, MARIANO V. DEL and P. VALENZUELA. 1922. Commercial acetyl-salicylic acid. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 20:15-20.

ROSARIO, -MARIANO V. DEL and S. GARCIA. 1928. Some adulterants of aspirin. Revista Filipina de Medicina y FarmaciCl, v. 19: 188-192'. Also in Philippine PhClrmaceutical A8sociation. Journal, v. 1:143-146.

SANTIAGO, SIMEONA and A. P. WEST. 1927. Chaulmoogric amino benzoic acids and chaulmoogra anilides. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 33 :265-269.

SANTIAGO, SIMEONA and A. P. WEST. 1928. Chaulmoogry1 derivatives of lactates and salicylates. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 35 :405-409.

SANTILLAN, PURA and A. P. WEST. 1929. Chaulmoogryl brom and chlor phenols. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 40 :493-497.

SANTOS, ALFREDO C. 1930. Alkaloid from Anona reticulata. Philippine Jou?'nal of Science, v. 43:561.

394

SCIENCE SANTOS, ALFREDO C. 1931. On the Alkaloids of Archangelisia flava L. University of the Philippines, Natural and Applied Science Bulletin, v. 1: 153-161.

SANTOS, ALFREDO C. 1931. Alkaloids of Phaenthus ebracteolatus (Presl) Merrill. On Phaeanthine. Revista Filipina de Medicina y Farmac'L'a, v. 22:243-253.

SANTOS, ALFREDO C. 1931. Uber die Alkaloide von Phaenthus ebracteolatus (Presl) Merrill. II. Mittel: Zur Kenntnis des Phaeanthine. Berichte de?' Deutschen chemisches gesellschaft, Jahrg.

65 Meft, 3, Seite 472.

SANTOS, ALFREDO C. and FELICIANA REYES. 1932. Ueber Artabotrys alkaloide, 1. Mittell. Unive?'sity of the Philippines, Natu?'al and Applied Science Bulletin, v. 2 :407.

SANTOS, ALFREDO C. and PACIFICA ADKILEN. 1932. The alkaloids of A?'gemone mexicana. American Chemical Society. Journal, v.

54:2923.

SANTOS, ALFREDO C. and GUILLERMO Q. QUIBILAN. 1933. Ambaline, a new alkaloid from Pychnarrhena manillensis Vidal. University of the Philippines, Natural and Applied Science Bulletin, v.

3:353.

SANTOS, ALFRF.DO C. and AURORA SAMSON. 1934. The mercuriation of nipasol, A propyl ester of p-hydroxy benzoic acid. University of the Phil'ippincs, Natural and AppUed Science Bulletin, v. 4: 149-154.

SANTOS, IRENE DE and A. P. WEST. 1929, Chaulmoogryl amino phenols and chaulmoogryl benzylamine. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 39 :445.

SANTOS, IRENE DE and A. P. WEST, 1929. Chaulmoogryl substituted phenols and chaulmoogryl hydroxy ethyl benzoate. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 38:293-298.

SANTOS, JOSE K. 1925, A pharmacognostical study of Chenopodium amb?'osioides Linnaeus from the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 28: 529-547.

SANTOS, JOSE K. 1926, Histological study of the bark of Alstonia scholaris R. Brown from the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 31 :415-429.

SANTOS, JOSE K. 1927. A pharmacognostical study of Datura alba N ees and Datura fastuosa Linnaeus from the Philippines. P hilippine Journal of Science, v. 32 :275-296.

SANTOS, JOSE K. 1928, Stem and leaf structure of Tinosporra rrumphii Boerlage and Tinospora reticulata Miers. Philippine JOU?'nal of Science, v. 35: 187-208.

395

i

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES SANTOS, JOSE K. 1929. Histological and microchemical studies of the bark and leaf of Artabot?路ys suaveolens Blume from the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science, v. 38:269-282.

SANTOS, .lOSE K. 1930. The leaf and bark structure of some Cinnamon trees with special reference to the Philippine species. Philippine Journa,l of Science, v. 43 :305-365.

UICHANCO, VIRGINIA and P. VALENZUELA. 1933. Rotenone and other constituents of Philippine species of Denis. Abstract in National Research Council of the Philippine Islands. Bulletin, 9 :26.

UICHANCO, VIRGINIA B. 1933. A study of three species of Philippine derris. University of the Philippines, Natu1'al and Applied Science Bulletin, v. 3 :129-239.

VALENZUELA, P ATROCINIO. 1921. Isolation of the active principles of Talampunay (Datura alba, Nees, Solanaceae) and its fluidextract. Proceedings of the First Philippine Pharmaceutical Convention, pp. 56-64.

VALENZUELA, PATROCINIO. 1926. Philippine ginger. .A'Iwcricwn Pharmacet~tical Association. JOltrnal, v. 15 :652-661; 734-744.

VALENZUELA, P ATROCINIO and EDWARD KREMERS. 1928. Phytochemical notes. Jamaica ginger. Revista Filipino, de Medicina y Farrnacia, v. 19:310-314.

VALENZUELA, P., R. GUEVARA and S. GARCIA. 1929. Lansium domcsticum Correa: I, a study of the chemistry of the rind and the pharmacodynamics of the resin obtained therefrom. University of the Philippines, Natural and Applied Science BulleUn, v. 1 :71-91.

ZAlIlORA, MANUEL. 1921. Estudio comparativo de los distintos vinagl'es aromaticos de vadas farmacopoeas y formularios reconocidos. Read in the scientific section of galenical preparations of the First Philippine Pharmaceutical Association Convention, Feb. 2, 1921.

ZAMOltA, MANlTEL. 1921. Estudios preliminares sobre los compuestos nitrogenados del patis y sus similares. Read in the scientific meeting, section of applied chemistry of the Philippine Pharmaceutical Convention (inedito) Enero 31, 1931.

396

PART

VI

Biological Sciences PHILIPPINE MARINE INVERTEBRATA

By HILARIO A. ROXAS Of the Bureau of Science Chai,'man, Section of Biological Survey, N. R. C. "On a yellow carpet of calcareous polyps and sponges, groups of leatherlike stalks, finger-thick, lift themselves up like stems of vegetable growth; their upper ends thtckly covered with polyps (Sarcophyton pulmo Esp.), which display their roses of tentacula wide open, and resplendent with the most beautifully varying colours, looking, in fact, like flowers in full bloom. Very large serpulites extend from their calcareous tubes, elegant red, blue, and yellow crowns of feelers, and, while little fishes of marvelously gorgeous colour dart about in this fairy garden, in their midst luxuriantly grow delicate, feathered plumulariae."

These words of F. Jagor in his Trave'ls in the Philippines (1875, p. 245), give a true and vivid picture of our rich marine fauna that can be seen by anyone who takes the trouble to visit the waters of our shores.

Although many early naturalists have visited the Philippines and have made collections of land mammals, birds, reptiles, insects and terrestrial shells, study on our marine invertebrates did not start till towards the end of the 19th century. Hugh Cuming, for example, the eminent English naturalist who lived in the Philippines from October, 1836, to November, 1839, gathered all kinds of animaJs, excepting fishes and marine invertebrates.

Our marine and terrestrial shells have been the object of numerous trips and investigations of many early 397

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES writers. A brief review of the work done in marine invertebrata outside the mollusks and the stony corals is made here to show how much has been done and how much is yet to be done on Philippine marine life.

In the year 1871, the British Government organized the Challenger expedition to make scientific explorations of the physical, chemical, geological and biological conditions of the great ocean basins. The Challenger worked in the Philippines from October 20, 1874, to January 26, 1875, working at sixteen different stations. Besides obtaining numerous forms of diatoms, protozoa invertebrate and fishes on the surface and from shallow waters, the Challenger obtained over 860 deep-sea invertebrates and fishes belonging to 385 species in the Philippines. Of these 177 species and 42 genera are new to science and 127 species and 8 genera are not obtainable outside the Philippines. The collection of the Challenger was worked on by a number of famous European zoologists, all authorities in their respective lines. (See appendix A). The Challenger collection, now in the British Museum is probably the largest collection of Philippine deep-sea forms.

Its collection of littoral forms, however, is far from being complete.

An extensive collection of Philippine animals was made by Dr. C. Semper, Prof. of Zoology in Wtirsburg, from 1859 to 1864 in ManiJa, Bohol and Mindanao. The greatest bulk of this, however, was composed of marine and terrestrial shells. Sipunculoids and nudibranchs were also obtained and these were worked on by Emil Selenka (1883), and Rudolf Bergh (1897), respectively.

D. Jose Montero y Vidal in his El Archpielago Filipino (1886, pp. 120-136) listed a number of marine crustacea, annelids, tunicates, bryozoa, echinoderms, coelen398

SCIENCE terates, sponges and infusorians in addition to numerous mollusks. His classification, however, was carried only up to genera and not always reliable.

In 1887, D. Augusto G. de Linares wrote two articles on Philippine marine fauna in connection with the Exposicion de Filipinas in Madrid, the articles appearing in El Globo. Good descriptions and illustrations of Euplectella a'spergillum, Farrea balaguerii, Semperella schultzei and Hyalonema lusitanicum were given in one article and a detailed description of the arrangement of the spicules of Hexactinellida was given in the other.

The few alcyonarians brought back to Europe by Miiller, Jagor and Sanderson were deposited in the Berlin Museum and formed a part of the materials worked on

by Walter May (1898, pp. 44, 101, 169) in his revision of the Alcyonacea.

Under the aus~ces of the Smithsonian Institution, the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries Steamer Albatross made extensive collections of littoral, pelagic and bathypelagic marine forms in Philippine waters in 1907 to 1910. The Albatross expedition was very thorough and its collection forms the bulk of Philippine marine animals in the U. S. National Museum. The materials were assigned to various authorities for study and the results are published from time to time in the various volumes of Bulletin 100 of the U. S. National Museum as contributions to the biology of the Philippine Archipelago and adjacent regions.

(See appendix B) In 1912, Dr. Murray Bartlett, then President of the University of the Philippines, entered into an agreement with the then Acting Director of the Bureau of Science, Dr. R. P. Strong, to send a joint expedition which would undertake a marine biological survey of the Philippine waters. The University of the Philippines sent Dr. L. E. Griffin and Dr. R. P. Cowles, while the Bureau of Science 399

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES sent Mr. Alvin Seale. The party collected shore and reef animals in such places as the Tawi-Tawi group and Taytay, Palawan, Albay, Calapan and Port Galera, Mindoro.

The members of this expedition settled at the latter place and established there a temporary station for four months, from March 11 to June 18, 1912. The fish collection was given to the division of fisheries of the Bureau of Science while the invertebrates were housed with the Department of Zoology of the University of the Philippines. The aleyonarians and jellyfishes of this collection were worked on by Light (1913-1915), and the crustacea by Cowles (1915) .

The greatest bulk of the alcyonarian collection was sent to Prof. Ktikenthal, then at the University of Breslau.

Small portions were worked on by J. Moser (1919), H. Luttschwager (1914-1922), and K. Kolonko (1926). After the death of Prof. Ktikenthal, the part of the collection belonging to the family Nephthyidae was sent to the Zoologisches Museum of Berlin and was entrusted to Prof. J. Moser. When the writer was sent to Europe for alcyonarian study he had the opportunity to examine all these specimens, the types of previously described Philippine species and types from other parts of the world. The 1912 collection together with the materials gathered in recent years formed the basis of his two papers (Roxas, 1933) on Philippine Alcyonaria.

The establishment of the Puerto Galera (Mindoro) Marine Biological Station of the University of the Philippines jn 1924 gave impetus to local workers to study our marine invertebrate fauna.

To work on our marine invertebrata here in the Philippines is of course difficult because of the fact that most of the types, if not all, are in foreign museums and institutions, mainly in the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, D. C., British Museum, London, and Zoologisches Mu-

.

400

SCIENCE seum, Berlin. In spite of the handicap, however, a number of contributions on marine invertebrates were made by Roxas (1928) on Echinoidea, by Roxas and Estampador (1930) on Stomatopoda, by Sivickis and Dom,antay (1928) and by Domantay (1931, 1933, 1934) on Holothurians.

Some Philippine marine polychaetes recently sent to the Naturhistoriches Museum at Vienna were worked on

by Holly (1934).

With this good start, more attention should now be given to the more practical aspect of marine zoology. The works of Seale (1908-1917) on the sponges and other marine products and those of Talavera (1930) and Talavera and Faustino (1931) should serve as good starting points for the" exploitation of our marine invertebrate resources.

APPENDIX A

Contributions to the "Challenger Reports" in which Philippine Marine Invertebrate8 are Described Vol. I, ZOOLOGY (1880) Part 1.-Brachiopoda. By THOMAS DAVIDSON. Part 2.-Pennatulida. By Professor ALBERT V. KOLLIKER. Part 3.-0stracoda. By G. STEWARDSON BRADY. Vol. II, (1881) Part 7.-Certain Hydroid, Alcyonarian, and Madreporarian Corals. By Professor H. N. MOSELEY. Vol. III, (1881) Part 9.-Echinoidea. By ALEXANDER AGASSIZ. Part 10.-Pycnogonida. By P. P. C. HOEK, Assist. Zoot Lab. (Leyden).

Vol. IV, (1882) Part 12.--'Deep-Sea Medusae. By Professor ERNST HAECKEL. Part 13.-Holothurioidea. First Part.-The Elasipoda. By HJALMAR THEEL. Vol. V, (1882) Part 14.-0phiuroidea. By THEODORE LYMAN. Vol. VI, (1882) Part 15.-Actiniaria. By Professor RICHARD HERTWIG. 401

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE ,PHILIPPINES Part 17.-Tunicata. First Part.-Ascidiae Simplices. By Professor WILLIAM A. HERDMAN. Vol. VII, (1883) Part 19.-Pelag-ic Hemiptera. By F. BUCHANAN WHITE. Part 20.-Hydroida. First Part.-Plumularidae. By Professor G. J. ALLMAN. Vol. VIII, (1884) Part 23.-Copepoda. By G. STEWARDSON BRADY. Part 24.-Calcarea. By N. POLEJAEFF of the University of Odessa.

Vol. IX, (1884) Part 22.-Foraminifera. By HENRY BOWMAN BRADY. Vol. X, (1884) Part 26.-Nudibranchiata. By Dr. RUDOLF BERGH. Part 28.-Cil'ripedia. Anatomical Part. By P. P. C. HOEK, Memb. Roy. Acad. Sci. (Netherlands).

Vol. XI, (1884) Part 31.-Keratosa. By N. POLEJAEFF. Part 32.-Crinoidea. First Part.-Stalked Crinoids. By P. H. CARPENTER. Part 33.-Isopoda. First Part.-Genus SeroUs. By FRANK EVERS BEDDARD. Vol. XII, (1885) Part 34.-Annelida Polychaeta. By Professor W. C. M'INTOSH. Vol. XIII, (1885) Part 35.-Lamellibranchiata. By EDGAR A. SMITH. Part 36.-Gephyrea. By Professor EMIL SELENKA. (Erlangen).

Part 37.-Schizopoda. By Professor G. O. SARS. Vol. XIV, (1886) Part 38.-Tunicata. Second Part.-Ascidiae Compositatae. By WILLIAM A. HERDMAN Part 39.-Holothurioidea. Second Part.-By HJAMAR THEEL. Vol. XVI, (1886) Part 45.-Stomatopoda. By Professor W. K. BROOKS. Vol. XVII, (1886) Part 48.-'Isopoda. Second Part.-By FRANK EVERS BEDDARD. Part 49.-Brachyura. By EDWARD J. MIERS. Part 50.-Polyzoa. Second Part. Cyclostomata, Ctenostomata, and Pedicellinea. By GEORGE BUSK. Vol. XVIII, (1887) Part 40.-Radiolaria. By Professor ERNST HAECKEL. 402

'.

SCIENCE Vol. XIX, (1887) Part 54.-Nemertea. By Professor A. A. W. HUBRECHT. Part 55.-Cumacea. By Professor G. O. SARS. Part 58.-Pteropoda. First Part. G~nosomata. By PAUL PELSENEER. (Brussels) .

Vol. XX, (1887) Part 59.-Monaxonida. By STUART O. RIDLEY and ARTHUR DENDY. Part 61.-Myzostomida (Supplement). By Professor L. von GRAFF. Part 62.-Cephalodiscus Dodecalophus. By Professor WILLIAM C. M'INTOSH. Cephalodiscus Dodecalophus. By SIDNEY F. HARMER. Appendix to Part LXII. Vol. XXIII, (1888) Part 72.-Heteropoda. By EDGAR A. SMITH. Vol. XXIV, (1888) Part 52.-Crusta'Cea Macrura. By C. SPENCE BATE. (One Vol. text and one Vol. plates).

Vol. XXV, (1888) Part 63.~Tetractinellida. By Professor W. J. SOLLAS. Vol. XXVI, (1888) Part 60.-Crinoidea. Second Part. Comatulae. By P. HERBERT CARPENTER. Part 73.-Actiniaria (Supplement). By Professor RICHARD HERTWIG. Vol. XXVII, (1888) Part 69.-Anomura. By Professor J. R. HENDERSON. Part 76.-Tunicata. Third Part. Pelagic Tunicates. By Professor WILLIAM A. HERDMAN. Vol. XXIX, (1888) Part 67.-Amphipoda. By Rev. THOMAS R. R. STEBBING. (Two V ols. text and one Vol. plates).

Vol. XXX, (1889) Part 51.-Asteroidea. By W. PERCY SLADEN. (One Vol. text and one Vol. plates.)

Vol. XXXI, (1889) Part 64.-Alcyonaria. By Professor E. PERCEVAL WRIGHT and Professor TH. STUDER. 403

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Vol. XXXII, (1889) Part 80.-Antipatharia. By GEORGE BROOK. Part 81.-Alcyonaria (Supplement). By Professor TH. STUDER. APPENDIX B

Contributions to Bulletin 100, of the U. S. National Museum in which Philippine Invertebrates are Described (Excluding mollusks and corals) Vol. I. Part Part Part

3.-Scyphomedusae. By A. G. MAYER. 4.-Chaetognatha. By E. L. MICHAEL. 5.-Hydromedusae, siphonophores and ctenophores. By H. B. BIGELOW. Part 6.-The relationships of the general calcarina, Tinoporus, and baculogypsina as indicated by recent Philippine material. By J. A. CUSHMAN. Part 8.-Polychaetous annelids. By A. L. TREADWELL. Part 10.-Polyclad turbellarians. By T. KABURAKI. Vol. II. Part l.-The Salpidae. By MAYNARD M. METCAEF. Part 2.-The Salpidae. By MAYNARD M. METCAEF. Part 3.-Pyrosoma. By MAYNARD M. METCAEF and HOYT S. HOPKINS. Part 4.-Silicious and Horny Sponges. By H. V. WILSON. Vol. III. Starfishes. By W. K. FISHER. Vol. IV. Foraminifera. By J. A. CUSHMAN. Vol. V. Ophiurans. By R. KOEHLER. Vol. VI. Part 2.-Additions to the Polychaetous annelids. By A. L. TREADWELL. Part 3.-Hydroida. By C. C. NUTTING. Part 4.-Echinoidea, Part 1. The Cidaridae. By TH. MORTENSEN. Part 5.-Four new species of polychaetous annelids. By A. L. TREADWELL. Vol. IX. Bryozoa. By F. CANU and It. S. BASSLER. 404

SCIENCE APPENDIX C

List of Works on Philippine Marine Invertebrates (Excluding mollusks and corals) BERGH, RUD. 1870. Semper Reisen Philippinen. Die Nudibranchien.

COWLES, R. P. 1913. The Habits of Some Tropical Crustacea.

Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 8D :119-124.

COWLES, R. P. 1915. The Habits of Some Tropical Crustacea, II. Philip. JoU?路. Sci., v. 10D :11-18.

COWLES, R. P. 1915. Are Atya spinipes Newport and Atya armata Milne Edwards synonyms for Atya molluccensis de Haan?

Philip. Jour. ScL, v. 10D :147-153.

DOMANTAY, J. S. 1931. Autotomy in Holothurians. U. P. Nat. AppUed Sci. Bul., v. 1 :389-404.

DOMANTAY, J. S. 1933. Littoral Holothurioidea of Port Galera Bay and Adjacent Waters. U. P. Nat. Applied Sci. Bull., v. 3 :41-101.

DOMANTAY, J. S. 1933. Development of the Anchor and Anchorplate types of Spicules of the Synaptid Polyplectana kefersteinii (Selenka) and Allied Species. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 52:371-377.

DOMANTAY, J. S. 1934. Four Additional Species of Littoral Holothurioidea of Port Galera Bay and Adjacent Waters. U. P. Nat. Applied Sci. Bul., v. 4:109-118.

FELICIANO, A. T. 1933. Studies on the Early Development of Arachnoides placenta (Linn.) U. P. Nat. Applied Sci. Bull., v. 3: 405-440.

GRIFFIN, L. E. 1910. A Method of Using Magnesium Sulphate for the anesthetization of marine animals. Philip. JoU?路. Sci., v. 5D: 86-100.

GRIFFIN, L. E. 1910. The Pearl Fishery of Bantayan. Philip.

Jour. Sci., v. 5D :149-151.

GRIFFIN, L. E. 1911. The Structure of the pallial tentacles of Lima species. Philip. JOU?", Sci., v. 6D :327-329.

GRIFFIN, L. E. 1912. The Anatomy of Aclesia freeri New Species.

Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 7D :65-90.

HOLLY, MAXIMILIAN. 1934. Polychaeten von dem Philippinen 1.

Erste Mitth. Uber Polychaeten. Zool. Auz., v. 105 :147-150.

KOLONKO, K. 1926. Beitrage zu einer Revision der Alcyonarien.

Die Gattung Sinularia, Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, v. 12 :293-334.

405

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES KUKENTHAL, W. 1906. Die Stammesgeschichte und die geographische Verbreitung der Alcyonaceen. Verhandl. d. deutsche Zool.

Ges., 138.

LIGHT, S. F. 1913. Notes on Philippine Alcyonaria. Part. I: The Philippine species of the genus Capnella. Philip. Jour Sci., v.

8D :435-452.

LIGHT, S. F. 1914. Some Philippine Scyphomedusae, including two new genera, five new species, and one new variety. Philip. Jour.

Sci., v. 9D :195-231.

LIGHT, S. F. 1914. Notes on Philippine Alcyonaria. Part II: Lemnalioides kiikenthali, a new genus and species of Alcyonaria from the Philippines and a discussion of the systematic position of the new genus. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 9D:233-245.

LIGHT, S. F. 1914. Another Dangerous Jellyfish in Philippine Waters. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 9B :291-295.

LIGHT, S. F. 1915. Notes on Philippine Alcyonaria. Part III: Two new species of Lithophytum Forskal from the Philippines. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 10D:1-10.

LIGHT, S. F. 1915. Notes on Philippine Alcyonaria. Part IV: Notes on Philippine Stolonifera and Xeniidae. Philip. JOU? .. Sci., v. 10D: 155-167.

LIGHT, S. F. 1921. Further Notes on Philippine Scyphomedusan Jellyfishes. Philip. Jow路. Sci., v. 18:25-45.

LINARES, AUGUSTO G. 1887. Fauna Marina. Esponjas. La Regad era y sus afines. Exposicion de Filipinas. El Globo, pp.

49-53.

LINARES, AUGUSTO G. 1887. Fauna Marina. Desarrollo de las Esponjas y estructura del esqueleto de las hexactinilidos. Exposici6n de Filipinas. El Globo, pp. 55-64.

LUTTSCHWAGER, J. 1914. Revision der Familie Alcyoniidae. Archiv Naturg. fur Aht. A. Heft.

LUTTSCHWAGER, J. 1922. Alcyonarien von den Philippinen. I Die Gattung Alcyonium Linnaeus. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 20:519-540.

LUTTSCHWAGER, J. 1926. Die Gattung Alcyonium. Linnaeus. Mitt.

Zool. Mus. Berlin 12 Heft 2, 279-289.

MAY, W. 1899. Systematik und Chorologie der Alcyonaceen. Jena.

Zeitschr. f. Naturw., v. 33 :1-180.

MAYm, A. G. 1910. Medusae of the World, v. 3: Pub. No. 119 Carnegie, Wash.

406

SCIENCE MAYER, A. G. 1915. Medusae of the Philippines and Torres Straits.

Pub. No. 212 Carnegie Institution, Wash., pp. 157-202.

MONTERO Y VIDAL, JOSE. 1886. EI Archipielago Filipino y las isias Marianas, Carolinas y Palaos, su historia, geografia y estadistica. Madrid. pp. 120-136.

MOSER, J. 1919. Beitrage zu einer Revision der Alcyonarien. 1 Die Gattugen Sarcaphyton Lesson und Lobophytum Marenzeller.

Mi.tt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, v. 9:219-293.

RoXAs, H. A. 1928. Philippine Littoral Echinoida. Philip. Jour.

Sci., v. 36 :243-270.

ROXAS, H. A. 1930. The Puerto Galera Marine Biological Laboratory of the University of the Philippines. Manila.

RoXAS, H. A. 1932. Two New Species of Sarcophyton Less from the Philippines. U. P. Nat. A pplied Sci. Bull., v. 2: 73-81.

ROXAS, H. A. 1933. Philippine Alcyonaria, The Families Cornularidae and Xeniidae. Philtp. Jour. Sci., v. 50:49-109.

RoXAs, H. A. 1933. Philippine Alcyonaria, II. The Families AIcyonidae and Nephthyidae. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 50 :345-470.

RoXAs, H. A. and ESTAMPADOR. 1930. Stomatopoda of the Philippines. U. P. Nat. Applied Sci. Bltll., v. 1 :93-131.

RoXAs, H. A. and NEMENZO, F. 1931. Regeneration Experiments on Cassiopea. U. P. Nat. Applied Sci. Bull., v. 1 :265-280.

SEALE, ALVIN. 1909. The Fishery Resources of the Philippine Islands, II. Sponges and Sponge Fisheries. Philip. Jour. Sci., v.- 4A:57-64.

SEALE, ALVIN. 1910. The Fishery Resources of the Philippine Islands, Part III. Pearls and Pearl Fisheries. Philip. JOU1路. Sci., v. 5D :87-100.

SEALE, ALVIN. 1911. The Fishery Resources of the Philippine Islands, Part . IV. Miscellaneous Marine Products. Philip. Jou,r.

Sci., v. 6D :283-320.

SEALE, ALVIN. 1912. Notes on Philippine Edible Mollusks. Philip.

Jour. Sci., v. 7D :273-281.

SEALE, ALVIN. 1916. Sea Products of Mindanao and SuIu, II: Pearls, Pearl Shell and Button Shells. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. UD: 245-264.

SEALE, ALVIN. 1917. Sea Products of Mindanao and SuIu, III: Sponges, Tortoise shell, corals and Trepang. Philip. Jour. Sci_, v. 12D :191-210.

407

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES SELENKA, EMIL.-Semper Reisen Philippinen. Die Sipunculiden (1883).

SIVICKIS, P. B. 1928. New Philippine Shipworms. Philip. Jour.

Sci., v. 37 :285-298.

SIVICKIS, P. B. and DOMANTAY, J. S. 1928. The Morphology of a Holothurian, Stichopu8 chloronotu8 Brandt. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 37:299-332.

TALAVERA, FLORENCIO. 1930. Pearl Fisheries of Sulu. Philip.

Jour. Sci., v. 43 :483-498.

TALAVERA, F. and L. A. FAUSTINO. 1931. Industrial Shells of the Philippines. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 45 :321-350.

408

ACTIVITIES ALONG ZOOLOGICAL SCIENCE IN THE PHILIPPINES

By CANUTO G. MANUEL Fish and Game Administration, Bureau of Science Associate Member, Section of Biological Swrvey, N. R. C. Zoology, one of the branches of the great science of Biology, deals with the study of animals. All that can be learned about animals-from the simplest single-celled to the most complicated multi-cellular-including their structures and the functions of these, their development, their habits, their origin and distribution, their relationships, are embraced in the science of zoology.

Activities in the Philippines along this branch of science may convenientlY' be grouped into two epochs, thus; Spanish and American.

ACTIVITIES DURING THE SPANISH EPOCH

(1521-1898)

As in other countries, zoology in the Philippines started with the fancies of travellers that brought home to Europe tales about attractive animal objects. Consequently, the beautiful and the peculiarly conspicuous Philippine animals were first heard in Europe through the members of the clergy and other persons who were in the Archipelago for duty.

Lack of interest in this branch of science by the Spaniards was manifest by the fact that although the country was under the sovereignty of Spain, she did not do much to cultivate this line of studies here. When the port of Manila was opened to the world's commerce in about 1830, German, English and French naturalists started to gather materials here and published the results in their respective countries. Indeed the novelties of Philippine animals as related by those who had been here caused European museums to send naturalists here to observe and to collect land and aquatic animals. The assemblage of Philippine 409

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES animals in European museums and the information obtained about their haunts and habits led to studies along other sub-branches of zoology, such as; taxonomy or systematic classification, zoogeography or geographical di8tribution, ecology or their relationships to their environment. Information on ecology was, however, very fragmentary. Later, fossils of animals that have existed here millions of years ago were also studied, thus covering paleontology. In the second half of the last century the fame of these islands as a veritable collecting grounds for naturalists crossed the Atlantic to the western hemisphere.

Americans then began to collect animals in this country.

Enhanced by those in Europe, natural history museums where preserved Philippine animals were on exhibit, were thus maintained both in the Ateneo de Manila and in the University of Santo Tomas.

Before the close of the nineteenth century, anatomy or the study of structure and physiology or that which deals with the study of functions were offered in lecture courses in the medical school of the University of Santo Tomas.

ACTIVITIES DURING THE AMERICAN REGIME (1898-

)

With the advent of American occupation, scientific studies Wlere given a greater impetus, and zoology received its just share.

A somewhat different aspect of zoology has taken place with the opening of the Government Laboratories (now the Bureau of Science) in 1901 and the University of the Philippines in 1908. Trained men along the lines of general zoology; anatomy, physiology, embryology (study of early developmental stages) : and applied zoology; parasitology (study of an organism living at the expense of another organism), entomology (study of insects), herpetology (study of reptiles), ichthyology (study of 410

MOUSE DEER

Rare Philippine Animals

SCIENCE fishes), ornithology (study of birds), etc., were imported by the Government to train Filipinos along their respective lines. Through these pioneer Americans, there has been developed a line of Filipino zoologists engaged in subj ects other than those named, including genetics (study of heredity, variation and related phenomena), psychology (study of the mind), pathology (study of diseases; nature, causes and symptoms), etc. These trained men .and women are now working in different institutions, both pub1ic and private.

Zoological literature. Important events connected with the development of each of the following zoological studies are given in Report No.1 of the National Research Council of the Philippine Islands, Feb-ruary, 1935: anatomy, physiology, marine invertebrates, ichthyology, herpetology, ornithology, mammalogy, entomology, paleontology and parasitology. Adequate pertinent literatures are supplemented to each of the branches treated.

Results of recent studies along the different branches of zoology are published in the following: PhililJpine Journal of Soienoe, Bureau of Science, Manila.

Philippine Journal of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Manila.

Philippine Journal of Animal Indust1"Y, Bureau of Animal Industry, Manila.

Philippine Agriculturists, College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines, Los Banos, Laguna.

U. P. Natural and Applied Science, Bull. University of the Philippines, Manila.

Unitas, University of Santo Tomas, Manila. Also in Medical and Health Bulletins published by several institutions in Manila.

411

PHILIPPINE MEDICINAL PLANTS

By

LE6N

MA.

GUERRERO

The prodigious fertility of the soil of the Philippine Archipelago is a matter of common knowledge. Its geographical situation and consequent climatological conditions fully justify the eulogistic surname which has been applied to it. In fact, owing to their coming under the influence of the tropical monsoons, these Islands have a luxuriant flora characterized by an exceptionally large number of species of certain genera, which could, without undue exaggeration, be considered as endowed with unlimited plasticity-and further, by the enormous number of ligneous plants, many of them of gigantic dimensions and with exquisite wood adaptable to all the necessities of modern life and very acceptable to the industries, the development of which keeps pace with the requirements of a progressive cultured life that constantly creates new wants.

Owing to the great variety of elements which they contain, the forests of the Philippines present a somber aspect during the greater part of the year, and if they afford a pleasant sight to the eye of the observer, this is rather due to the different hues of the foliage than to the unsightly inflorescences ordinarily so peculiar to countries of the temperate zones. And inas~uch as the seasons succeed each other without very perceptible changes, there is nothing of an accentuated phenological character, as in the countries where the plants pass through a winter and then appear in their greatest splendor throughout the rest of the year.

In the Philippines, where the plant life manifest itself without interruption and with but slight declines in energy during certain periods of the year, florescence may be said to be continuous, with the exception, of course, of certain species which still seem to manifest something in412

SCIENCE herited from the past when the consequence of the abrupt changes of season were still perceptible. This being a fact, it must be confessed that for the tourist who is not a student of botany, our forests are unattractive on account of the monotony of their foliage, interrupted only here and there by a few small, generally white or citrine blossoms, because the brilliant-hued blossoms on the tops of the lofty trees are too far distant to be appreciated by the observer.

Notwithstanding this peculiarity of the dense forests of the middle levels of our loftiest mountains, we have there the phanerogamous epiphytes, many of which have magnificent flowers resembling multi-colored butterflies and are much sought after by orchid-fanciers all the world over. This showy vegetation alternates with pteridophytes, with fronds either long and ensiform or delicately cut out and feathery. Then we have the begonias, with asymmetric, alternately lobulate and laciniate leaves, more ornamental than the exotic specimens imported for our gardens, which cheer and com,fort the weary wanderer in the primeval forests of the higher mountains. The successive vegetation levels are distinguished only by the prevalence of certain groups of plants which allow of a proper oecological classification based on the quasi-uniformity, peculiar to countries with a hot and damp climate, of the various vegetation groups sufficiently well defined for a prompt appreciation of their typical character.

In a vegetation as exuberant as that of our forests it is not astonishing that there should be an abundance of species of high economic value, and among these of species of medicinal value and of efficacious or poisonous properties, which it will be possihle to utilize as remedies of prompt and safe action, if a complete pharmacological study is made of them for their proper application in cases requiring concentration of the therapeutic effect upon a 413

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES concrete point of a system or one or several organs of an injured apparatus, with relative immunity to the rest.

Without any other purpose than that of conveying an approximate idea of the treasures of our medical flora, we give hereinafter a brief enumeration or concise catalogue of the species most frequently used in this country as rem.edies by the herb-doctors. These still retain here their pristine importance as hierophants, exorcisers and health dispensers among the people, who, in the absence of anything more positive and real, resort to extravagant with still greater faith, if possible, if the application of the concoction is accompanied by a prayer which the quack generally mumbles as if he were insufflating it into the ailing part of the patient.

This catalogu~ of the plants most commonly used in this country seems rather voluminous, but this notwithstanding, we can affirm that it does not even contain one thjrd of the species on the ethno-botanical repertoire of the Filipino quack, who seldom looks for his remedies in regions other than his own, but generally uses the flora of his locality. . If he ever makes use of plants growing in more distant places, it is either because their properties have been favorably known since of old, or because they are used by the hill people who have the reputation of knowing infallible secret remedies for certain ailments.

If we included in this list all the information acquired from various-not all-parts of the Archipelago, the number of medicinal plants would be enormous, as it would comprise families which have, so far as known, been hitherto of no interest whatever to rational therapeutics. It is to be presumed, of course, that a goodly portion of plants of doubtful utility would have to be discarded from this farrago of popular remedies.

It is to be remarked that many of the indigenous species the geographical area of distribution of which ex414

SCIENCE tends over practically the entire Indo-Malayan region are looked upon by the Filipinos as being possessed of the same properties and good for the same uses as are attributed to them and made of them by the inhabitants of other, distant lands. Thus, for example, Aerua lana;ta, Achyranthes aspera, Ama1'anth1UJ spinosus, and other plants of the same family are known in the countries where they grow as diuretics and lithontriptics. Talking of these herbs, we also speak of many others belonging to families exuberant in endemic species and frequently found only locally, which are used here for the same curative purposes and in the same manner as -in other parts.

It may be affirmed that with very few exceptions, the other species are of uncertain properties, because although many of them ar~ pointed out as efficacious remedies for the treatment of cerlain diseases, as they belong to families or genera acknowledged to abound in individuals used medicinally, it is difficult to. ascertain whether the assertions of the common masses concerning their curative virtues are based on actual observation or whether the use of these remedies is simply the result of the tendency, at times little justified, to perpetuate that which the old people consider useful and beneficial.

Until chemical and pharmacodynamic investigation shall be made of the plants said to be medicinal, for the purpose of ascertaining their real action upon the human economy, there will always be the uncertainty whether the cures claimed in order to prove the efficacy of the remedy were not merely casual, or whether the relief afforded or complete recovery following its use, instead of being due to the drug administered to the patients was the result of the mild nature of his cOInlPlaint, or that he got the rest or change of diet which he needed, together with his good and solid constitution.

415

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES I believe, however, that we should think twice before we declare indiscriminately that all vegetable drugs the analysis of which does not show the presence of one of the immediate principles reducible to any of the complex combinations to which it is customary to attribute the curative or toxic action of the drugs of organic origin, should be eliminated from the list as useless. It would be unwise to declare them. of no use without having first exhausted all the resources of our present-day chemistry, because although it is making numerous discoveries all the time, it has not yet been successful in isolating from the plants the various principles of which they are constituted. It is not sufficient to separate from any material a few of its immediate components, in order to be able to affirm that the special action of the drug is due to anyone of the same, because the manner in which it acts upon the organism does on many occasions not explain the reason for its curative virtue. As a case in point we want to mention the "makabuhay" (Tinospora rumphii Boer!., closely related to the T. cordifolia Miers, which is found in India), famous as a febrifuge parasiticide, cardiac, tonic, etc., although its immediate elements seem to comprise nothing more than traces of an alcaloid, perhaps berberine which is found quite often in the menispermaceace, and a bitter principle of still poorly defined composition, notwithstanding the fact that here as elsewhere, it has on more than one occasion been the object of painstaking analytical research work. What we relate of this Philippine plant refers in reality to the plant growing in India, of which the same use is made there as in Java and in the Philippine Islands. Although its immediate components al'e so little known, this occupies a place in the pharmacopoeia of the British colonial empire mentioned.

We could cite a number of drugs like the makabuhay, apparently inert, judging by the chemical analysis, but 416

SCIENCE evidently containing something which the analyst has been unable to isolate by the methods at present in use, or which he has not isolated because he does not consider the drug of sufficient importance to make a tiresome and excessively long investigation. In this connection we must invite attention to the fact that in view of the recent discovery of the vitamines and other heretofore insufficiently explained substances, many of the drugs of organic origin prescribed from medical use as having no curative value, have now very V\lisely been rehabilitated.

The information regarding the applications of the Philippine plants reputed as medicinal plants among the common mass of the people has been obtained direct from the herb-doctors or cura'1Uleros (quacks) and from a number of works written by the missionaries of the past, who probably owed their herbalist knowledge to the mediquillos. To the information obtained from this source, contaminated with all the prejudices, fables, and superstitions adorning old-style therapeutics, those ministers of the gospel added on their own account something of the European vegetable pharmacology with regard to certain Philippine species which are analogous or which they fancied were identical with plants found on the Spanish peninsula or in other parts. Thus they attributed to the blossoms of Premna odorata Blanco, the same virtue as sudorific and pectoral as to the elder-flower, because the inflorescences of both are in the form of corymhs, for which reason they called both "elder-flowers." The densely pubescent leaves of Blumea balsamfifera DC. they called "sage," attributing to them the properties of the true European sage, all because there is an apparent similarity between the relatively small leaves of this aromatic labiate, and the big, camphorscented leaves of that synantherea proper of the Indo-Malayan flora. In the same manner the quacks are now using other plants and have added to 417

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the uses known of old those indicated by the old-time missionaries, who were most diligent and self-sacrificing in attending to the spiritual and material needs of the native, but little expert in discerning the unmistakable differences that exist between the tropical species and those of the temperate or cold countries besides being ignorant of the geographica] distribution of the same. They went rather by the general aspect of the species, which they judged in a superficial manner, than by the peculiar characteristics of each.

In order to facilitate the identification of the plants mentioned in this list, the various names by which they are eommonly known in the several localities of the Archipelago and in the respective native dialects have been put down. Considerable confusion would arise, however, if one were to treat these names as specific names, as in some cases the same denomination is used for two or more individuals of different families with entirely different properties. This is, for instance, the case with the socalled dita, by which name the Tagalogs in general designate Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br., and some of them Lophopetalum toxicum Loher, while to the Tagbanuas the dita is the species Strophanthus cumingii A. DC., and Dichatpetal!um timoriense Decne., as can be inferred from a rather defective specimen from Palawan. The first of these four drugs is a first-class antiperiodic and muchused tonic, while the other three are used for poisoning arrows and similar weapons. It is perhaps owing to this that Brother Camel, in describing quite accurately the Alstonia. above referred to, states that its latex is used for poisoning weapons, and that the eastern root of the same tree is used as an antidote for this poison. Unless this is due to some confusion, we shall have to admit the strange fact that the natives, and with them Brother Camel, were acquainted with the toxicity of the dita before the phar418

SCIENCE macologists, who have only recently discovered in this drug insignificant quantities of various alcaloids, amongst them a poisonous one which acts as a paralyzant. All this notwithstanding, this popular remedy is considered as so inoffensive that it has never occurred to anyone to designate a fixed dosis for its use against all sorts of fevers, or to warn against the milky sap of this plant, Which is dangerous when introduced directly into the blood through a wound. As is the case with many other drugs, the quantity of the lethal substance in the dita of which we are now speaking is so negligible that its dangerous effects can not in any case be recognized in the sound or diseased organism. Most probably there has been a confusion of names on the part of the author mentioned and it was by inadvertence that he included among the widely recognized salutiferous properties of this species the lethal properties of the other dita, represented by the Strophanthus above referred to. rt also occurs that the same plant is known by several different names, which are often identical with or similar to those already specifically applied to several others of different botanical origin.

This difficulty in dealing with the vulgar names can not be easily obviated, except by the admittedly correct phytographic diagnosis of the plant which it is desired to identify.

Thanks to the constant and painstaking work of Mr. Elmer D. Merrill, the learned, perspicacious botanist of the Bureau of Science, it can be affirmed that at present comparatively few remain to be described of the astoundingly large number of pteridophytes and spermatophytes which characterize the exuberant flora of the Philippines, a flora the endemism of which is something remarkable, as is to be expected of a vegetation for a considerable time 419

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES segregated from that of the surrounding countries in which it probably in part originated.

Great care should be exercised in accepting as reliable the information inserted by various authors in their works with respect to the medicinal or poisonous properties of species of a systematic denomination equal to ours, as is the case in many works, because occasionally the plant to which these virtues are attributed has been erroneously determined'. I t is, therefore, reckless to assign similar qualities to a Philippine species, in the belief that it is identical with a species cited by one or more authors who have had occasion to reproduce, undoubtedly without wanting to do so, either on account of the scarcity of available data or because of the lack of r;neans for personal verification, the inaccuracies of others who have shown little scruples in m,aking transfers from genus to genus or species to species, or who hav.e not been perspicacious enough to divine the value of a description expressed in too concentrated terms, so as to be able to hit upon the right thing though not thoroughly familiar with the whole of a local or regional flora. Neither is it prudent to blindly accept as correct the identifications made by botanists of renown, unless one is absolutely sure that the specimens of our flora have been compared conscientiously with the others preserved as original types in the herbaria of this and other countries. In this connection, I might mention what happened with the oogonoy, one of our most popular household remedies, which the persons who, in this country interested themselves in it, identified until recently with the species known botanically as Spilanthes acmella Murr., an imported herb scarcely known to the natives.

Many other similar errors have been committed by persons who, trusting to the knowledge of an author, attributed to our insular vegetation species of the continent of Asia and of the Dutch East Indies. This can be seen by 420

SCIENCE perusing Las Plantas Medicinales de Filipinas, a work published in 1892, which shows a considerable number of drugs of curative properties as of local origin. Among others it mentions Tetracera m(J)c1'ophylla Wall., which is not found in these Islands; Tinospora crispa Miers, Garcinia morella Desv., M esua ferrea Linn., SterC'Ulia; urens Roxb., Helicteres isora Linn., Feronia elephantum Correa, Garuga pinnata Roxb., etc., etc. Naturally this deprives the work mentioned of part of its merit because, if there had been accuracy in everything, it would be considered as very valuable, inasmuch as it is the first work written with scientific criterion on the medicinal plants of this Archipelago.

Errors of greater importance from the point of view of systematization can be pointed out with regard to the general flora of the Philippines. Melicope triphylla (Lam.) Merrill, for instance, an endemic species, has so far as we know, been for nearly ninety years considered by all botanists as Evodia triphylla De Candolle, accepting as good the reduction made by this author of Fagara triphylla Lamarck, who saw only a specimen without flowers, gathered by Sonnerat in the Philippines, when he described the species in 1788.

The racially pure Filipino hardly preserves any of the knowledge of the use of his congeners made of the poisonous plants, by smearing their weapons with the juices extracted from them, in order to make them more mortiferous, or by using them for other criminal purposes, administering them internally.

They know a considerable number of lethal species used for poisoning the water of rivers, lagoons, and ponds, a primitive method of catching a large quantity of fish without great exertion, and are not unacquainted with the use of many other vegetable substances employed to facilitate hunting or exterminate certain mammals and birds harmful to agriculture. Thus they are not unfamiliar 421

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES with the toxic properties of the many plants specifically fatal to fowls, dogs, boars, etc. But despite the greatness of nis toxicological wealth, the native uses for his misdeeds almost exclusively the "nami" (-Dioscorea hispida Dennst.) and the "talamponay" or "katsubung" (-Datura jastuosa Linn. var. alba, [Nees] C. B. Clarke), and is not familiar with the deadly effects of the "kansasaga" (-Abrus precatorius Linn.) and the ecbolic action of the two species of Plumbago introduced in this country long time ago. In lieu of these they use for this abominable purpose a large number of simples the composition of which shows nothing that might justify their use, and if the desired result is ever obtained, this is perhaps more due to intensive autosuggestion than to the drug. Philters, love potions, amulets, etc., also form part of the lore of the priests officiating at the shrine of superstition, who still exist in all castes of men, as if to remind us that the fear of the unknown is inher路e nt in the human species.

This fear is carefully concealed by the civilized, who pretend to be high above it, but comes to the surface in certain eventualities of life when false pretense is no longer of any use.

The pharmaceutical form adopted by the quacks in their peculiar practice are confined to macerations in cold water or alcohol, infusions or decoctions, as made in the pharmacies, decoctions or macerations in oil, poultices, resinous plasters, salves with a virgin wax basis, aqueous inhalations and fumigations, syrups, and a few empyreumatic products obtained by dry distillation by the very simple process of condensing the vapors of the combustion in an open vessel on a cold surface.

The Filipino quacks, who manufacture their own remedies, have little inclination towards polypharmacy; at the most they content themselves with mixing two or three drugs, in which resped they show very little judgment, as 422

SCIENCE they often use simultaneously drugs which are incompatible with or even entirely antagonistic to each other.

However, although it is a well-known fact that they prefer remedies that are little or not at all complicated, they cling tenaciously to the haplas which, considering its composition and countless applications, is an equivalent of the theriaca which enjoyed such fame among the physicians of old. In reality, neither the quality nor the number of the vegetable or animal substances entering into its composition are known, because every quack considers himself sufficient authority to add to the mixture anything that he may consider to have a great curative effect or to eliminate from it what he fancies to be of little importance.

This cure-all is, in brief, an oleolate obtained by the infusion in coconut oil of a goodly quantity of herbs, a large portion of which are inert or yield nothing to the oleous vehicle, or which decompose at a high temperature if the haplas is obtained 1r>y the heating process. 1 The old-time missionaries, who followed their ministry in the remote corners of the Archipelago, propagated the excellencies of this wonderful remedy, which is still commonly used in a few small provincial places far distant from the centers of population. It is not a remedy for internal use, but is ordinarily used externally as a liniment, generally with massage.

Plants with deleterious properties are on very rare occasions used for curative purposes. However, as the toxic principles are not always present in large proportions in plants of this nature, a few of them are used with very good success, as for instance, the "igasud" or Saint Ig1 To confirm what we have said, we transcribe herewith one of the simplest haplas formulas of which we know: Take Igasud, Tambal (medicinal root) of gariga, Tambal of Sangil, Tambal of Bornei, Salagsalag, Camaesa, Manungal, Salibutbut, Tambalisay, Marbar, Molavin, Borogtongon, Palayaccan, Panambuc, Pancoro, Nola lasson, Batagapon, Oringun, and others.

All infused in oil.

423

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES natius's bean (-St1'ychnQs ignatii Berg.) for the treatment of cholera and certain forms of paralysis;' the "tubli" (-Derris elliptica [Roxb.] Benth.), an ichthyotheric poison of great virulence, for. curing certain skin diseases caused by parasites. The decoction or infusion of the roots of the "kamagsa" (-Santaloides erectum [Blanco] Schellnb.) enjoys among the natives the reputation of a fowl-killer, but is nevertheless used by the women of the Islands as a uterine tonic during puerpery.. However, the deadly effect of this drug upon the fowls still remains to be proved in an indubitable manner.

As the persons interested in studying the medicinal and poisonous plants of the Archipelago may wish to unearth the large amount of useful information contained in the old writings already published or still unpublished and at present in the possession of the religious corporations which continue in the performance of their evangelic mission in this country, we give hereinafter a few bibliographic notes in order to facilitate the search for data wherewith to complete the information, always reluctantly given by the quacks, concerning the use made in the past of the native drugs.

With the exception of the works of Fathers Delgado, Mercado, and Blanco, and Pardo de Tavera, in which the species are more or less correctly classified in a systematic manner, those cited in the works of Camel, Clain, Santa Maria and Alcina (copy of an unpublished manuscript) continue to be enigmas of no easy solution, because in addition to giving only the vulgar names, which vary in the several localities where the plants grow and are used, they do not describe the plants, and if they describe them, the specific characteristics are expressed in such form that a forced interpretation is always necessary. This, to be sure, is a laborious and risky task for any person not familiar with the organographic details. A person desiring to find out 424

SCIENCE something curious or interesting with regard to a plant mentioned in one or several of the works of the authors mentioned, must therefore, as a point of departure for a botanical determination, in the first place make use of the vulgar vernacular name used by the author who described the species the first time, and in the second place he must avail himself of the information gathered from the quacks regarding the virtues assigned to the drug, in -order to see whether they coincide with those attributed to the drug known and used elsewhere under the same vernacular name or a similar name, from a philological point of view. The tedious feature of any investigation of this kind would be largely avoided by always being careful to gather and preserve a specimen of the plant under investigation, in order to compare the same with the authentic specimens of a duly accredited her.barium. Without this precaution, any attempt of this kind would be liable to be attended by considerable errors or would be totally fruitless.

Already in the first years of the conquest, when the dominion of Spain scarcely had a firm foothold in these Islands, many persons began to take an active interest in the general flora of the Philippines and especially in the medical flora of the Islands, owing to their exuberance and peculiarity, because the efficacy of many of the Philippine plants for the treatment of the ailments of this tropical region was quickly noticed. The first, however, to write anything about the indigenous medicinal plants was the Franciscan Fr. BIas de la Madre de Dios, whose work, like the majority of the manuscripts of this nature, was never honored by being printed, and it is even doubtful whether the original is still preserved in the archives or in the library of his Order.

In 1668, a zealous Jesuit missionary wrote a work entitled: Natural history of the place, fertility, and quality of the islands and Indians of the Visayas: c011tposed by Fa425

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

ther Francisco Ignacio Alcina of the Company of Jesus, after over 33 years of ministry in the same and among them. Year 1669. Of this manuscript only a copy of the first part is known to exist; it is on file in the Ateneo de Manila, and bears a note reading as follows: "1802 A uso de Fr. Agn. Ob. e1. de N. Sega.," which may be reconstructed in the following manner: "For the use of Fr. Agustin, Bishop elect of Nueva Segovia." On the opposite page there is another note, reading as follows: "This 1st part of the work of Father Alcina (the 2nd is not to be found) belong to the Prelate D. Fr. Agustin Pedro Blaquier, who assumed the bishopric of Nueva Segovia in 1779, and was bought at an auction in Paris this year 1875 for 25 francs."

A year after Father Alcina, a Franciscan lay brother called Fr. Jose de Valencia also wrote a \ book, entitled: Philippine FlorO): in which are minutely described the roots and herbs, their aspect., the places where they grow, and their medicinal virtrues.

As appelldix to the Historia plantarum of Juan Ray, published in 1704, there appears in volume III a piece written by Brother Camel, entitled Herbarum aliarumque stirpium in insulO) Luzone Pkilippinarum primaria nascentium, a Rdo. Patre Georgio Joseph Camello, S. J. observatarwn et descrrirptarum Syllabus: ad Joanem Raium transmissus; . . . .. It also contains other isolated information, likewise to be found in the volume referred to, relative to the "Cayutana" (-Fagara sp.), which he erroneously considers as identical with the formerly very celebrated root of "Joao L6pez," the "Dawag manok" {-Toddalia asiatica [Linn.] Kurz) , the uses of which are unknown to the Filipinos; to two species of "Tugus" (-Amomum?), difficult to determine now; to the "Igasud" or "Igasur" (-Strychnos Ignatii Berg.), to the "Manungal" (-Samadera indica Gaertn.), and to the "Mananantang" {-Dysoxylum decan426

I

I

SCIENCE d"U1n [Blanco] Merrill), the latter of which is described

with considerable accuracy as one of the most efficacious emetics of the Philippine materia medica, etc., etc. There are also a few description of Philippine plants of purely botanical importance.

Another Jesuit, Father Pablo Claiu, had printed in 1712 an interesting book which curiously portrays the mentality of the author and is entitled Easy remedies for vOJrious diseases.

The Dominican Fr. Fernando de Santa Maria published in 1768. his Man'Ulil of Household Remedies, which has contributed not little towards spreading the .belief that there are to be found in this country either the exotic species of the pharmacopoeias then known, or at least their real succedanea.

Aside from these books of which we have certain information, there are, according to what many persons affirm, a few unpublished manuscripts in the libraries of several religious corporations in Manila.

More useful, because more thorough, is the General Sacred, Profane, Political, and N(J)tural History of the Islands of the West called the Philippines, written by Father Juan Delgado, S. J., during the years from 1751 to 1754, and published after 138 years of seclusion. Book IV of this work is from every point of view interesting, not only on account of the abundant material contained in it, but also because of the minuteness and accuracy with which certain industrially or medicinally used plants are described.

It is a succinct compilation of the economic botany of the Islands, in concordance with the knowledge of the time when the work was written.

Next in importance follows the work of R. P. Fr. Ignacio Mercado, a Filipino Shod Austin monk, compiled during the last .third of the 17th century and published in 1880 as part of volume IV of the monumental edition of 427

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the Flora de Filipinas of Father Fr. Manuel Blanco, published under the scientific and literary direction of the Austin priests Andres Naves and Celestino Fernandez Villar.

Father Mercado is rather parsimonious in giving the morphological characteristics of the medicinal species described by him, but is, on the other hand, profuse in the description of their curative properties practically verified by himself. It may, perhaps, be necessary to rectify a few of the botanical identifications made by Fr. Celestino Fernandez Villar, which seem to be based on nothing but the doubtful native names aIld the very brief description of a few of the species.

Father Fr. Manuel Blanco also studied the curative properties of several of the plants included in his above mentioned Flora, rejecting with very good judgment the information regarding the same which is nothing but folklore, but was, nevertheless, candidly accepted 'by his predecessors in the work. The first edition of the work of this author left the press in 1837 and the second eight years later.

Not m.entioning the isolated studies on medicinal plants published in the few scientific reviews that have struggled through a certain period of precarious existence in these Islands, the only work worth speaking of is the "Medicinal Plant of the Philippine Islands" of Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera, to which we have already made reference.

In this work the indigenous species are mixed with exotic species the presence of which in this country has never been established, notwithstanding the careful explorations made in nearly all the parts of the Archipelago. Outside of this, it is a good compilation, conscientiously prepared and worth being consulted in fhe absence of a more perfect work.

428

SCIENCE LIST OF THE MEDICINAL PLANTS OF RECOGNIZED IMPORTANCE AND MOST COMMONLY USED

BY THE FILIPINOS The Family of ALGAE GRACILARIA LICHENOIDES Grev.

Common name: Gulaman (Tagalog).

The gelatine made from this alga is used as a pectoral; it is also taken, in the shape of a refreshing drink, against amoobic dysentery.

The POLYPOD Family OLEANDRA NERTlFORMIS Cav. C. n.: Kaliskis ahas, lunas (Tagalog).

The decoction of the stipes is an efficacious emmenagogue much recommended by the Balugas of Bulacan and Nueva Ecija. Perhaps on account of the scaly surface of the stipes, the natives believed that this fern is a good remedy against snakebite.

ADIANTUM PHILIPPENSE Linn.

C. n.: Culantrillo (Spanish); kaykay (Tagalog).

The decoction or syrup of the fronds is used in the same manner as the capillaire or maidenhair fern preparations of the European pharmacopoeias. It is a medicine much used by the women during puerpery and is also employed as a pectoral. nRYNARIA QUERClFOLIA (Lam.) J. Sm. C. n.: Baga-baga (Pangasinan); ganatibatib (Pampango); kabkab, kabkabin, kabkabon (Visaya); kappa-kappa (Ilocano); pako, pakpak lauin, paypay amo (Tagalog); saga (Benguet Igorot) • The decoction of the rootstock is used against haemoptysis. It is said that in a more concentrated form, this decoction is antihelminthic.

ASPLENIUM MACROPHYLLUM Sw. C. n.: Buntot kapon (Tagalog) ; colantrilla (Bukidnon); pako (in Palawan, Bukidnon, Isabela); pakong gubat (in Manila and vicinity) .

The decoction of its frond is a powerful diuretic administered to beriberi patients.

429

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The CYCAD Family CYCAS CIRCINALIS Linn.

C. n.: Bait (in Tawi-Tawi); bayit (in Basilan); oliva (Zambales, Laguna, Tayabas, Cavite, Mindoro); olivo (Cagayan); pitugo (Batangas); pitogo (Tayabas, Occidental Negros); sawang (Cagayan).

The seeds of this plant, toasted, crushed and macerated in oil, are a good vulnerary and are also used for curing boils and other skin diseases.

The SCREW-PINE Family PANDANUS TECTORIUS Sol. C. n.: Baroy (Sorsogon); pandan (Pampanga, Tarlac, Rizal, Batangas, Mindoro, Iloilo, Antique, Oriental N egros, Leyte, Cebu, Surigao, Davao, Zamboanga); pang dan (Abra, Pangasinan, Island of Camiguin); panglan (Zambales, Ilocano); sabutan (Rizal); uhango (Batanes Islands).

The decoction of the adventitious roots, taken in the form of an ordinary drink, is an antiblennorhagic, the action of which is accelerated by urethral injections of juice of the rootstock of the banana plant.

The GRASS Family ORYZA SATIVA Linn.

C. n.: Palay (Tagalog).

A decoction of the roots and rootstock is prescribed against anury.

The lye made out of the straw is an abortive, according to the 110can os of Tarlac. Rice is an emollient.

CYNODON DACTYLON (Linn.) Pers.

C. n.: Galot-galot (Pangasinan); grama (Spanish-Filipino).

The decoction of the entire plant is a diuretic; it is also considered as a pectoral and taken as a drink against cough. ~AMBUSA

SPINOSA Roxb.

C. n.: Aon-o, batakan, pawa, kawayan-gid (Visaya); bayog (Zambales) ; baugin (Pampanga); cana-espina (Spanish); dugian, kabugawan, ma'rurugi rugian (Bicol); kawayan si-itan (Ilocano); kawayan tinik, kawayang totoo (Tagalog); pasingan (Cagayan).

The rootstock and roots are diuretic.

430

SCIENCE ANDROPOGON ZIZANIOIDES (Linn.) Urban.

C. n.: A.mo?路a (Cebu); amoras (llocos Norte); amias or antas de moras (Pampanga); ants de moro (llocos Sur, Abra); geron (Iloilo); mora or moras (Pampanga, Rizal, Manila, Laguna', Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon, Antique, Cebu, Occidental Negros) ; raiz de moras (Spanish-Filipino); rimodas (Capiz). rhe decoction of the roots is used in tonic and antirheumatic baths and, taken internally, as lithontriptic.

ZEA MAYS Linn.

C. n.: M aiz or mats (Spanish-Filipino).

The stalk, both fresh and dry, and the stigma (tassel) are reputed among the natives to be a strong diuretic.

The SEDGE Family KYLLINGA MONOCEPHALA Rottboell.

C. n.: Anuang, mutha (Tagalog); bagu,e-bague, pungos (Samar); basikad, botoncillo (Laguna); borsa nga dadakk el (Union); bosbotonea, boskad (Visaya); katutu (Cotabato); malaapulit (Pampanga); 1nu,stra (Tayabas).

The rootstocks, bruised and mixed with oil, are used against certain skin-diseases.

The PALM F.amily COCOS NUCIFERA Linn.

C. n.: Coco (Spanish-Filipino); niyog CI'agalog); lobi (Visaya).

Aside from the various medicinal products furnished by this palm, an empyreumatic substance is obtained from it by an archaic process, which is much used against toothache and in skin diseases where a disinfectant or parasiticide is required.

ARENGA PINNATA (Wurmb.) Merrill C. n.: Anibung (Bicol and Pampango); bagotbat, batbat, ibiok, idiok, igok, hibiok, onao (Visaya); cabo negro (Spanish-Filipino) ; idiok (Bicol); kauon, kaoang, wok (Tagalog); kawing (Bataan).

According to many people, the ripe fruit of this plant is a strong poison for dogs. The woolly pubescence of the petioles is a good hemostatic and cicatrizant.

431

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Linn.

C. n.: Boa (Ilocano); bua (Cagayan); buiiga, maiigipot, saksik (Tagalog) ; dapiao (Bataan); lugos (Zambales); luyos (PamPanga); pasa (Basilan); kakobtob (Bicol).

Its nuts, besides being used as a masticatory, are used externally as an efficacious astringent. It is affirmed that the tender nut has a purgative effect, and the pulverized matqre nut is a vermifuge of positive action. Inasmuch as the nut contains various principles which are not at all inoffensive, some prudence is to be recommended in its administration. The ibay or vertigo which the betel nut sometimes produces is due to the presence of arecoline, which is apparently more abundant in some varieties of this cultivated palm than in others.

ARECA CATECHU

The CYRTOSPERMA MERKUSII

ARUM

Family

Schott.

C. n.: Galiang (Visaya); palawan (M indoro, Samar, Leyte).

A decoction of the spadices is :used as an emmenagogue and abortive. ,ACORUS CALAMUS

Linn.

C. n.: Acoro (Spanish); bueng (Pampanga); dalau (Ilocos Sur, Abra, Union); darau, deiigau (Bontoc); lubigan (Tagalog).

The medicinal properties of the rootstock have been recognized since of old; it is used internally as stimulant and carminative. It is also used in the form of an embrocation against rheumatism.

HOMALOMENA PHILIPPINENSIS

Eng!.

C. n.: Alupayi (Polillo); alipayo (Visaya); gabing oak (Tagalog); salet (Pangasinan); salet iiga nalabaga (Union).

The cauliform rootstocks of this species, boiled in oil, are used as a very efficient antirheumatic.

RHAPHIDOPHORA MERRILLII

Eng!.

C. n.: Amlong (Camarines); amulong (llocano); balamay, rnalapakpalc, tampimb ana I, tibatib (Tagalog); balikukup, bisamo, dibatib daila, garMn korag, takoline, tirbatib (Visaya); dukup (Bontoc) .

The juice of this epiphytal climber belonging to the Arum family is said to be a famous remedy against snakebite. There is an 432

SCIENCE abundance of these alleged alexiterics in this country, but they are not to be recommended, as it has been demonstrated that none of these antidotes, the praises of which the people have sung since time immemorial, will counteract the fatal effects of the bite of a venomous serpent.

The phalliform spadix of this plant is administered as an emmenagogue.

The SPIDERWORT Family COM MELINA BENGHALENSIS Linn.

C. n.: Kuhasi, nubasi (Batanes Islands); kulkulasi (Union); alikbangon (Tagalog); sabilao (Visaya).

A decoction of this plant is used as an emollient eye-wash and against strangury.

The LILY Family SMILAX LEUCOPHYLLA Blume C. n.: Banal (Benguet); hctmP&'8 tigMlang, kamot kabag, sipit ulang (Rizal); ronas (Visaya); sarsaparilyang puti, zarzaparilla (Spanish-Filipino) .

Like the other indigenous and exotic species of sarsaparilla, this species is considered as a blood-cleanser and antisyphilitic and antirheumatic in general for all cases in which an alternative is required. A decoction is made of the rootstock and roots and taken as a beverage in the usual manner.

SMILAX CHINA Linn.

C. n.: Buanal (Benguet); ubiubihan (Tagalog).

This is the most famous of the species of this genus. A decoction of the rootstock is used as a depurant against syphilis, herpes and similar complaints. This drug was known in Europe as early as the year 1535. It is reported that Emperor Charles V was cured from the gout by using this medicinal root, which is now completely discredited.

The AMARYLLIS Family POLYANTHES TUBEROSA Linn.

C. n.: Azucena (on all the islands of the Archipelago).

A decoction of the bulbs is administered against gonorrhoea, and in cataplasms it serves as a maturant.

433

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES CURCULIGO ORCHIOIDES Gaertn.

C. n.: EstTella, talangi, tataluangi (Bukidnon) ; kogon-kogon (Rizal); sulsulitik (Bontoc).

This plant is used as a remedy for certain skin-diseases and to relieve headache. The root is tonic, pectoral, diuretic, and aph,'odisiac when administered alone or mixed with other carminative and tonic substances.

CRINUM ASIATICUM Linn.

C. n.: Agubahan (Visaya); bakong (Polillo, Mindoro, Bataan, Pangasinan, Rizal); sabila (Bataan).

With the bulbs and their cauliform prolongations an emollient ointment is prepared. These parts of the plant have a strong emetic effect.

The YAM Family DIOSCOREA HISPIDA Dennst.

C. n.: Kalut, kulot (Zamboanga); karot (Ilocano, Visaya); ka?'ote (Zamboanga); kayos (Tayabas); kOJ'ot (Samar, Leyte) ; nami (Rizal, Mindoro) ; namo (Camarines); name (Tagalog).

The tubers are used raw or cooked as an anodyne and maturant for tumors and buboes and against rheumatic pains and gout.

The BANANA Family MUSA ERRANS (Blanco) var. botoan Teodoro.

C. n.: Butuhan (Tagalog) i.. buy (TIocano); pakol (Visaya).

The astringent juice of this plant is a cicatrizant; and the juice flowing from the rootstock (sakuci in Tagalog) when tapped is used in urethral injections as an efficacious remedy against gonorrhrea.

The GINGER Family ZINGlBER ZERUMBET (Linn.) Rosc.

C. n.: Banglay (Tagalog); barak (Tayabas); kalawa.g (Albay); langkuas (Polillo); tamokilang (Bukidnon) ; tumbong aso (Manila).

The pulverized rootstock is used as a remedy for dianhoea.

KAEMPFERIA GALANGA Linn.

C. n.: Di80l (Bontoc); dU80, dU80l (Tagalog); kisol (Bnkidnon).

434

SCIENCE The decoction of the rootstock is a carminative; masticated, it relieves cough; bruised and applied externally, it cures the urtication caused by hairy caterpillars.

The ARROWROOT Family J)ONAX CANNAEFORMIS (Forst. f.) K. Sch. C. n.: A'I1atan (Gaddans of Nueva Vizcaya); bamban (Cagayan, Pampanga, Bataan, Laguna, Tayabas, Sorsogon, Cebu); barasbarasan (llocano, in Tarlac) ; darumaka (La _Union, Ilocos, Zambales, etc.); lCLnguas (Ilocano) ; mamban (Tayabas, Leyte) ; matalbak (Bataan, Bulacan); matapal (Isinay in Nueva Vizcaya); mini (Benguet).

The decoction of the rootstock is reputed to be an antidote against snakebite and certain infections.

The ORCHID Family GEODORUM NU'l'ANS (Pres!.) Ames C. n.: Cebollas del monte (Cavite); kolang bundok (Tagalog); kula (Manila) ;lubilubi (Negros).

The tuberous roots ar used for making emollient cataplasm.

The BEEFWOOD Family CASUARINA EQUISETIFOLIA Linn.

C. n.: Agoho (Tagalog, Visaya, Pampango); ago (island of Palaui); agok (Cagayan); aro (Ilocano); arobo, aroho (Abl'a); agoso (Zambales); ak-Q (Cagayan); karo (Ilocano); malabohok (Visaya); maribuhok (Leyte, Surigao).

A decoction of the bark, administered in big doses, is used as an infallible emmenagogue and abortive.

The PEPPER Family PIPER BETEL Linn.

C. n.: Buyobuyo (Camarines); gaued (Lepanto); ikmong iloko (Bulacan); letlet, litlit (Bulacan, Tayabas, Rizal, Bataan); samat ~(Pampanga).

The betel leaf, areca nut, and a pinch of slaked lime are the masticatory of the Filipino, who claims that it conserves his teeth -and prevents certain stomach complaints. The leaf mentioned contains a bactericidal essential oil. It is also applied, anointed with 435

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES coconut oil, as a carminative remedy to the abdomen of children suffering from gastric trouble.

PIPER RETROFRACTUM Vahl.

C. n.: Amaras (Pangasinan); buyobuyo (Visaya); kamana (Abra, Union); kayungo (Manila); litlit (Cavite, Pangasinan); sabia (Cavite, Rizal, Laguna); saog matsing (Rizal); sub on manok (Bataan).

The root, chewed or in decoction, is a good remedy for gastralgia, colic and flatulence.

The MULBERRY Family FICUS PAYAPA (Blanco) Miq. C. n.: Balete or balite (Zamoales, 'Bataan, Rizal, Mindoro, Laguna, Batangas); dalaguita (Visaya); dalakit (Oriental Negros); lafigai>an (Cotabato); payapa (Tagalog, Pampango).

The crushed root is reported to lie a very efficacious vulnerary.

ARTOCARPUS INTEGRA (Thunb.) Merr.

C. n.: Langka (Bontoc, Bataan, Mindoro, Iloilo, Leyte) ; nangka (Cagayan, Bontoc, Laguna, Pampanga, Tayabas, Mindoro, Surigao).

The charred leaves are used for the treatment of certain inveterate ulcers and as a cicatrizant specific for the surgical wound made in operations for congenital phymosis.

STREBLUS ASPER Lour.

C. n.: Alasiis (Mindoro); aludig (Ilocos Sur, La Union, Pangasinan) ; ampus (Pampanga); bugtal (Negros); buntatay (Iloilo); kagasaka (Isabela); kalios (9agayan, Abra, Batangas, Manila, Rizal, Laguna, Mindoro) j kamuning, lasiis (Bataan); malakadios (Zambales).

The decoction of the bark of this small tree is used for disinfecting wounds j it is also administered internally as a depurant in certain skin diseases. This same bark, ground between the teeth, is used as an alexiteric. An infusion of its leaves is taken as tea.

A plant with as many curative virtues as this does not inspire much confidence.

436

SCIENCE MALAISIA SCANDENS (Lour.) Planch.

C. n.: Hingi (Mindoro); malaisis (Tagalog); sadak (Abra); siguit (Occidental N egros) .

The decoction of the leaves of this plant is used as a beverage by the women during puerpery.

The NETTLE Family LAPOR1'EA MEYENIANA (Walp.) Warb.

C. n.: Apariagua (Visaya); lifigatong, lipay (Tagalog); lipang d6ton (Pampanga).

The infusion of the root or the leaves is used against retention of the urine. It is claimed that the urticating leaves of this species cure anthrax if applied to the seat of the affection.

FLEURYA INTERRUPTA Gaudich.

C. n.: Dalamo (Visaya); lafigala, lipang aso, lipang kastila (Tagalog); lopa (Pampango).

Like the preceding species, it also cures anthrax and is, besides, a good diuretic.

The BIRTHWORT Family ARISTOLOCHIA SERICEA Blanco.

C. n.: Pang-guisi (llocano).

The entire plant is used as a carminative, emmenagogue, and febrifuge. The masticated root relieves gastralgia; macerated in wine or spirits, it is administered as an uterine tonic. The Ilocano quacks affirm that this drug is a violent abortive.

ARISTOLOCHIA TAGALA Cham.

C. n.: Malaubi, timba1"igan, timbangtimbangan (Tagalog); kamkamanlao (Benguet); nag-erus (La Union); parolparolan (Polillo); taointaoin (Ilocano).

The roots are a tonic, carminative, and emmenagogue. Pulverized and applied to the abdomen, they cure tympanitis in children.

The GOOSEFOOT Family CHENOPODIUM AMBROSIO IDES Linn.

C. n.: Alpasotes (Spanish-Filipino); alpasoti (Bontoc); apasotes (La Union); pasotes (Mindoro).

437

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The leaves; crushed and mixed with boiled rice, are applied as a cataplasm to the abdOomen of children suffering from dyspepsia.

This plant is also used as an emmenagogue.

The essential oil of this species is known to be a very efficacious anthelminthic.

The AMARANTH Family CELOSIA ARGENTEA Linn.

C. n.: Kadayohan (Tagalog); sansandok (Ilocos Norte); tagughug (Occidental N egros) .

The pulverized seeds are believed to be a remedy for diarrhoea and an aphrodisiac. The leaves are edible; but the women do not eat them while menstruating.

AERUA LANATA (Linn.) Juss.

C. n.: Karlatem (La Union); pamaynap (Mindoro).

A good diuretic, used particularly against catarrn of the bladder and to stop blennorrhagic discha,rges.

The MOONSEED Family CISSAMPELOS PAREIRA Linn.

C. n.: Kala-ad (Ilocano in Cagayan); kalkala-ad (La Union); malarutto (Apayao); parepare (Laguna); sinsawsinsawan (Tagalog).

The decoction of this root is a diuretic, lithontriptic, pectoral, and febrifuge. This root has since of old been known as an antidote against poison. The bruished leaves are a popular remedy for the itch.

PYCNARRHENA MANILENSIS Vid. C. n.: Bago (Negros); halikot, haluot, halot (Visaya); mamongol (Tayabas).

The root is used as a tonic and its infusion is given to parturients. It is a cicatrizant and alexiteric, according to the Vi sayans.

The Tagalogs of Luzon are unaware of the properties of this plant, which is not rare in the vicinity of Manila.

ARCANGELISIA FLAVA (Linn.) Merr.

C. n.: A busta, abuta, ligtang (Tagalog, Visaya, Ilocano); abu8tra (Ilocos Sur); abutra (Babuyanes); albutra, lag tal (Mas438

SCIENCE bate); lagtang. (Tayabas, Mindoro); BUma (Pampanga).

The decoction of this root is a febrifuge, a tonic, and an emmenagogue or abortive, according to the dose administered. The people of Zambales also use it as an expectorant in bronchial troubles.

ANAMlRTA COCCULUS (Linn.) W. et A. C. n.: Bay-yating (Abra); labtang (Abra, lilocos Sur) ; lagtalng Masbate); bayati (Tagalog).

The very poisonous seeds of this species are used to kill lice and also for fishing.

TlNOSPORA RUMPHII Boerl.

C. n.: Makabuhay (in nearly all the dialects of the country).

The juice of the fresh stalks is a very efficacious medicine for malaria which does not cede to quinine and other remedies. In decoction it is a tonic, cicatrizant, parasiticide, and, according to some persons, even a cardiac.

This is one of the Philippine drugs which deserve being studied carefully by the pharmaco19gists, with a view to establishing their real therapeutic importance. 'fhe CUSTARD-ApPLE Family ALPHONSEA ARBOREA (Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Bolon (Cama.rines); kalay (Zambales, Laguna); lanotan (Leyte, Mindoro, Tayabas); lanutan-itum (Island of Ticao); sapiro (Cebu).

The fruit is reputed to be a sure remedy against amenorrhoea.

It is administered in decoction.

GONIOTHALAMUS AMUYON (Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Amuyong (Bataan); bantana (Mindanao); saguiat (110cos).

The oil in which the seeds have been boiled is a good embrocation against rheumatic paius. The decoction of the seeds is a remedy for tympanitis.

The LAUREL Family CINNAMMOMUM MERCADOI Vid. C. n.: Kalingad (Pampanga); kalingag (Rizal, Bataan, Lanao, 439

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Laguna, Samar, Tayabas, Camarines, Polillo, Pampanga); kalinan (Cagayan); kandarona (Benguet); kasilao (Camarines); kasik (Island of Cagayan); makalingag (Tagalog); samiling (Bataan).

The powdered bark, mixed with a little vinegar, is frequently used as a rubefacient against cephalalgia and rheumatic pains. It is also utilized for certain disorders of the digestive system. It is used as a substitute for cinnamon in the kitchen, notwithstanding its odor being very similar to that of sassafras.

L1TSEA GLUTINOSA (Lour.) C. B. Rob. C. n.: Pusupuso (Tagalog); balanganan (Mindoro); butus (Bataan); dalawan (Isabela); dingal (Cagayan); lauat (Masbate) ; lokblut (Amburayan); marang (Polillo) ; mipipi (Island of Ticao); tagatugan (Camarines); tayapok (Agusan); tubhus (Batanes Islands).

The decoction of the bark is used as a remedy for intestinal catarrh.

The CAPER Family CRATAEVA RELIGIOSA Forst.

C. n.: Balay lamok (Ilocos Sur, Pangasinan); banttgan (Masbate); dulingatok (Pampanga); letting paco (Nueva Ecija).

The leaves are said to be good for irregular menstruation.

CAPPARIS MICRACANTHA DC. C. n.: Balituk (Bukidnon) ; bayabas uak, tinikan (Bataan) ; halubagat kahoy (Rizal); kasuit (Pampanga); tasabtab (Ilocos Sur, La Union, Pangasinan).

A plant recommended for asthma and pains in the chest.

GYNANDROPSIS PENTAPHYLLA (Linn.) Merr.

C. n.: Manabo (Abra); tantandok, tantandok nga dadakkel (La Union); apoyapoyan (Tagalog); cinco-cinco (in Manila).

The leaves are used as an epispastic instead of mustard; a decoction of the same is given internally against biliousness. Some quacks pretend to cure tuberculosis with the leaves of this herb.

The MORINGAD Family MORINGA OLEIFERA Lam. C. n.: Kamkampilan (Amburayan); malagay (Culion); malungay (Laguna, Bataan, Rizal, Manila).

440

SCIENCE The root of this small tree is believed to prevent the diffusion of the poison through the system in cases of snakebite.

The crushed root is a good epispastic.

The PITTOSPORAD Family PITTOSPORUM PENTANDRUM (Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Balongkoyan (Island of Guimaras); balungkawayan (Antique) ; basuit (Abra) ; dili (Nueva Vizcaya) ; dinalupihan (Bataan); lasuit, pasguik (Benguet); mamalis (Pampanga).

A decoction of the leaves of this plant and other aromatics is used for bathing parturients. The pulverized root - is a febrifuge and an antidote, taken in big doses. They say it is also useful in cases of bronchitis.

The BEAN Family ENTADA PHASEOLOlDES (Linn.) Merr.

C. n.: Bayogo (Surigao); gogo (Cavite, Negros); lipay (Ilocos Norte, Cagayan).

The macerated stalk is an emetic; burned, it is used for fumigation to cure glanders.

CASSIA MIMOSOIDES Linn.

C. n.: Kalanda (Bukidnon).

The root is used against diarrhoea.

CASSIA ALATA Linn.

C. n.: Akapulko, kapurko (Zamboanga); andadasi nga bu..gbugtong (La Union); andadasi ya ancacabalog (Pangasinan); pakayongkong (Bataan); palo china (Negros, Busuanga); anuling (Surigao); sunting (Visaya).

The juice of the leaves is an efficacious antiherpetic, especially in furfurous cases.

CASSIA OCCIDENT ALIS Linn.

C. n.: Andadasi (La Union); balrUong aso (Tagalog); sunting (Samar); tambalisa (Zamboanga).

The seeds are reputed to be a febrifuge and the leaves a purgatiVE?> and antiherpetic, though not so efficacious as those of Cassia alata.

ADENANTHERA INTERMEDIA Merr.

C. n.: Baguiroro (Albay); bahay (Antique, Zamboanga); buga-

441

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES yong china (llocos Sur) ; hahop (Samar); 路ipil, pamissin (Zambales); malasaga (Rizal); matang-ulang (Laguna, Tayabas) ; sagun-sagun (Masbate); tanglin (Zambales, Bataan, Laguna).

The bark is used as an antidote against poison.

Benth.

C. n.: Bulanini, kannak (Cagayan); hamurawon (Samar); kawilan (Camarines); tahid labuyo (Tayabas).

The stalks are used against gastralgia in cases of children of tender age.

DALBERGIA CUMINGIANA

Roxb.

C. n.: M anaon (Tagalog).

The decoction of the woody part or the root is an emmenagogue or abortive, according to the dosis of reconcentration of the preparation.

DALBERGIA FERRUGINEA

Roxb.

C. n.: Balatong (La Union, Pangasinan); mongo, mungo, balatong (Tagalog) .

The decoction of the seeds is an efficacious diuretic used in beriberi. It is also used in cataplasms as a maturant.

PHASEOLUS AUREUS

Merr.

C. n.: Apalit (Pampanga); asana (Bulacan); naT'ra (La Union, Bulacan).

The resin of this species is used as an astringent in thrush.

PTEROCARPUS BLANCOI

Linn.

C. n.: Ban.gil, ta1nbalaguisa (Visaya); cip6n (Batanes Islands); sandalaitan (Tayabas, Palawan) ; tabagisa (Negros, Zamboanga); tambalisa (Mindoro, Masbate, Negros); tambiligtlisa (Negros).

The decoction of the root, stalk or seeds is considered as a good anticholeric. The seeds have a purgative effect (?).

SOPHORA TOMENTOSA

(Linn.) Merr.

C. n.: Balobalo (Zamboanga, Basilan); balikbalik (Tagalog); balukbaluk, babutbabt~t, magit (Cotabato); baobao (Agusan); bani (Pangasinan, Zambales, Pampanga, Bataan); marokbarok (Bicol); salingkugi (Zamboanga).

PONGAMIA PINNATA

442

I

SCIENCE The bark is used as an abortive by the natives of the Island of Guimaras.

The SORREL Family BIOPHYTUM SENSITIVUM DC. C. n.: Damong bunkalat (Batangas); damong hiya (Tagalog); mahihiin (Ilocano); makahiyang lalake (Laguna).

There is a belief that the leaves, placed under the pillow, act as a soporific. The seeds are a vulnerary and the decoction of the roots is used against gonorrhrea and is also considered as a lithontriptic.

The RUE Family ATALANTJA DISTICHA (Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Kaldeuron (Iloilo); kirikimit (Tayabas).

The roots are used for elieving certain stomach troubles.

CHAETOSPERMUM GLUTINOSUM (Blaneo) Swingle.

C. n.: J(abuyao aSQ, tabog (Bataan); kalatan (Isabela); tabllyok (Pangasinan) .

The juice of the fruit of this species is used to cure the mange in dogs.

CITRUS DECUMANA Linn.

C. n.: Lukban, suha (Tagalog).

The leaves, flowers, and pericarp of this plant are given in infusion as an antispasmodic.

CL.AUSENA ANISUM OLENS (Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Kaya1nanes (Tagalog).

The aromatic leaves of this species are used for stuffing the pillows of persons suffering from insomnia; they are also used in decoction for antirheumatic baths.

LUNASIA AMARA Blanco C. n.: Abdong ktthoy (Laguna, Batangas) ; labao (Masbate); labilubi (Cebu); lunan (Pampanga) ; lunas (Bulacan, Batangas, Rizal, Mindoro, Palawan); lunas bondok (Bataan); 'maramanga (Cagayan); paitan (Ilocos Sur); papa it (Camarines); saltiki (Rizal, Laguna); santiki (Laguna).

The leaves and bark are frequently used to cure gastralgia.

443

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Lam. C. n.: Bagatambal, marba (Visaya); buiigay (Palawan); itiigan (Benguet); kayutana (Batangas).

The bark of stem or root is considered as a good tonic; some quacks also use it against snakebite.

PAGARA AVICENNAE

(Linn.) Kurz.

C. n.: A tangen, bugkao, subit (Benguet); dawag (Rizal); dawag manok, kayutanang baging (Tagalog).

The decoction of the root is a good remedy against diarrhrea and dysentery apd a reconstituent tonic for convalescents. The bark of the stem is given in infusion as a febrifuge. The leaves are chewed ,t o cure certain stomach troubles.

TODDALIA ASIATICA

(F. Blancoi Merr.) DC. C. n.: Kasabang (TIocos Sur, Nueva Ecija, Zambales); katana, kayetana (Bataan, Batangas, Negros); kaytana (Rizal); kayutana (Laguna); palo-kaytana (Zambales, Zamboanga); saray (Mas bate).

The pulverized bark, mixed w ith oil, is used as a liniment against stomach-ache. The decoction is taken internally for anremia.

The chewed bark is used as a medicine against snakebite.

FAGARA RHETSA

The

QUASSIA

Family

(Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Asimao (Tagalog); baguet, bakuit (Pangasinan); bokit (TIocos Sur); mamikil (Batangas, Rizal); sa.psapang (TIocos Sur).

The decoction of the bark of the root is an excellent remedy against amcebic dysentery and diarrhrea. It has been used with very satisfactory results against cholera, in the absence of other more energetic medicines.

HARRISONIA PERFORATA

Gaertn.

C. n.: Malungal (Mindoro); manunggal (Cagayan, Lanao).

The bark and wood are a febrifuge, tonic, stomachic, and emmenagogue when administered macerated in alcohol, oil or water or as a decoction.

SAMADERA INDICA

(Lour.) Merr.

C. n.: Bago-bago (Negros).

The fresh fruit is said to be a good remedy for stomach-ache.

BRUCEA AMARISSIMA

444

SCIENCE It is a specific for the treatment of dysentery, the efficacy of which is recognized by the Europeans and Chinese.

The MYRRH Family CANARIUM LUZONICUM (Bl.) A. Gray.

C. n.: Alangki (La Union); anteng (Cagayan, Isabela); anton, pilarii (Ilocano); bacoog (Ilocos Sur); bulao (Pangasinan); malapili (Camarines); pagsiiigin (Rizal); pulsaiiigin (Laguna, Bataan) ; pili (Tayabas, Masbate, Laguna, Mindoro, Rizal, Marinduque); pisa (Cavite); sa,ling (Bat8:an); tugtuiigin (Tay~bas).

The oleoresin is a stimulant used externally in cataplasms.

GARUGA ABlLO (Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Abilo (Tagalog); b'io (Ilocos Sur); bugo (Mindoro, Masbate, Occidental Negros, Cebu, Misamis, Zamboanga, Cotabato); bunus (TIocos Norte); la,mio (Rizal); libas (Tayabas); talinganan (Zamboanga).

Padre Blanco says that a decoction of the root is given to consumptives.

The DEAD-TREE

~amily

XYLOCARPUS GRANATUM Koen.

C. n.: Kalumpang sa laN, ta,bigui (Lanao, Cebu, Tayabas, Guimaras, Zamboanga, Negros, etc.); pulit (Island of Basilan) ; kulimbaning (Island of Oulion); tambotambo (Zamboanga); nigi (Mindoro, Camarines, Palawan, Zambales, Tayabas) ; pia,ga'Lt (Masbate).

The bark is astringent. The pulverized seeds as a decoction of the seeds are used as an efficacious remedy against diarrhoea.

DYSOXYLUM DECANDRUM (Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Aga,ru (Pangasinan); ba,ntigan (Camarines); pama,ta,guin (Cagayan); kugyug (Mindoro); ma,la,dua,s, pa,lua,han (Occidental Negros); ta,dia,ng ka,labao (Laguna); aguiw, ta,liktan (Tagalog); ma,na,ngtang ba,kugan (Visaya); la,banga,o (Pampanga) .

The finely pulverized bark is administered as a sure emetic; it is said to cause diarrhoea.

445

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES CHISOCHETON PENTANDRUS (Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Igiw (Tayabas); katong, bakulao, malatumbaga, (Bataan); pamalatangen (Cagayan).

The oil extracted from the seeds is used for the hair.

The SPURGE Family EUPHORBIA HIRTA Linn.

C. n.: Botobotonis, sayikan (Tagalog); bugayao (Samar); gatas-gatas (Tagalog, Visaya); golondrina (Spanish-Filipino); magatas sisiohan (Pampanga); sursuro (Camarines); taira8 (Batanes Islands).

The whole plant is used as an antidote against poison, a hemostatic, sedative, and soporific. The decoction of the leaves calms the dyspnooa in asthma.

EUPHORBIA THYMIFOLIA Linn.

C. n.: Goland1'ina (corruption of the Spanish) ; makikitot (Bontoc).

The leaves are used as a cataplasm against snakebite and as a cicatrizant. The late.lC is used against thickening of the cornea.

MALLOTUS PHILIPPINENSIS (Lam.) Muell.-Arg. C. n.: Apuoot (Zamboanga); banato (Benguet, Bataan, Rizal, Cavite, Laguna, Cotabato); buas (Ilocano): malatuba (Occidental Negros); panaguisien (Isabela, Apayao); sala (Tagalog); salab na pula (Batangas).

The microscopic glands of the fruit have been used as an antiherpetic, but are more useful as an anthelminthic.

JATROPHA CURCAS Linn.

C. n.: Tubang bakod (Tagalog); galumbang (Pampanga); kasLa (Visaya); kirisol (Bulacan); tagumbao (Ilocos Sur, Pang~ sinan, Bontoc); tawatawa (Abra); tuba (Rizal, Manila, Camarines, Mindoro).

The seeds are a dangerous, drastic purgative. The decoction of the leaves or the roots is a good remedy against diarrhoea. The latex is used like collodion to protect surface wounds from infection.

HOMO NOlA RIPARIA Lour.

C. n.: Agooy (-Bulacan); agoyoy, kagoy-oy (Rizal); l'Umanay (Tagalog): balanti (Bataan); hangaray (Samar); malobago, 446

SCIENCE miagook (Occidental N egros); mQnagos (Mindoro).

In the southern Islands this herb is used instead of sarsaparilla as a depurant for the treatment of certain venereal diseases.

Linn.

C. n.: BaZanti, kamandag, makasZa, tuba so, bukid, gasi (Zambales); kamaisa (Rizal, Mindoro); malapi (Basilan); ma?"achuite (Ilocos Sur); saligao (La Union, Benguet, Cagayan); tuba (Negros, Camarines, Marinduque, Rizal, Mindoro, etc.); tubli (Lanao).

The oil extracted from the seeds is a dangerou,s, drastic purgative and excemogene; it is also used as revulsive for the external treatment of cough and rheumatism. The seeds are used for fishing.

CROTON TIGLIUM

Blanco.

C. n.': Baguilumbang, balukanad (Laguna); banukalag, lumbang gubat (Cavit~); lumbang (Oriental Negros, Oamarines).

The oil extracted from the seeds is a recognized insecticide.

The sap of the bark is used to remove dandruff.

ALEURITES TRISPERMA

Muell.-Arg. C. n.: Alipata (Negros); batano (Pangasinan, Cagayan); buta (Bataan, Palawan) ; kulasi (Tayabas, Lanao) ; lipatta (Camarines, Palawan, Agusan): lipatang buhay (Palawan).

The latex is caustic, but is nevertheless used for the treatment of malignant ulcers.

EXCOECARIA AGALLOCHA

Muell.-Arg. C. n.: Matang hipon (Bulacan, Manila and surroundings) ; matang ulang (Tayabas); matang saga (Island of Cuyo); sintug (Zamboanga) • The bark is astringent and is used as an antihemorrhagic.

BREYNIA RHAMNOIDES

(Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Biluak (Bataan); bifigabing (Tagalog); bintMiga (Batangas).

The resin is astringent and is used in gargles for ulcers of the mouth.

MACARANGA GRANDIFOLIA

Linn.

C. n.: BugGS (Tagalog).

The sap of the root and leaves is given to children as an emetic

ACALYPHA INDICA

447

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES and expectorant in bronchitis. plant is also administered.

A decoction of these parts of the

PHYLLANTHUS NffiURI Linn.

C. n.: Malakirumkirum (Samar); San Pedro (Occidental Negros); sarusampalok (Camarines); talikod (llocos Norte); taltal-heud (La Union); sampaloksampalokan (Tagalog).

The entire plant is used in decoction. tonic, and emmenagogue.

It is a reliable febrifuge

The CASHEW Family SEMECARPUS CUNEIFORMIS Blanco.

C. n.: Agas (Island of Guimaras); alagas, langas (Visaya); kaming (Zambales, Pampanga, Bataan); kamiring (Cagayan, La Union, Pangasinan); Ligas (Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Manila, Rizal, Mindoro); pakan (Bontoc).

The oil of the pericarp is used as a caustic or escharotic; it is sometimes employed in the treatment of certain indolent ulcers.

SPONDIAS PURPUREA Linn.

C. n.: Sarguelas (Abra, Pangasinan) ; 8iniguelas (Tagalog, from the Spanish ciruelas); 8irhuelas (Manila and vicinity).

The decoction of the bark is a good remedy for dysentery, it is also used to cure tympanitis in children.

The STAFF-TREE Family CELASTRUS PANICULATA Willd.

C. n.: Laguete, langitlangit (Tagalog).

The powdered seeds are administered as a remedy against rheumatism; they are also used for certain forms of paralysis. It is said that the sap of the leaves is a good antidote for opium.

LOPHOPETALUM TOXICUM Loher.

C. n.: Abuad, bantigui (Tagalog); dayandang (Mindoro); dita (Tagalog, Bicol); kalibangbangan (Davao); puti-i babaye y lalaque (Lanao); tando (Zamboanga).

The thickened sap of the bark is used by the Negritos and hill people to poison their arrows.

It is not known that any medical use is being made of this plant.

448

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LOS, OLORES DEL PASlb

SCIENCE The HIPPOCRATEACEAE Family SALACIA PRINOIDES (Willd.) DC. C. n.: Matang ula'ng, makapit6 (Tagalog).

The roots are used in decoction against amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea; they are said to be abortive.

The SOAPBERRY Family GUIOA KOELREUTERIA (Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Alasan, mamalis, nisinisi (Bataan); malasaiigi (Rizal); angset (Il'ocos Sur); banguil, guisiguisi, malahabi (Zambales); basay (Island of Guimaras); imalis, kaningning (Mindoro); malawas (Nueva Ecija); 8alab (Laguna, 'Tayabas, Polillo); uas (nocos Norte).

The oil extracted from the seeds is used for certain skin diseases.

DODONAEA VISCOSA (Linn.) Jacq.

C. n.: Dumanay (Benguet); kctlapinay (Tagalog); tabao (Tayabas).

The decoction of the bark is a good astringent for moist tetter and simple ulcers. It is also said to be an efficacious febrifuge.

HARPULLIA ARBOREA Radlk.

C. n.: Ambuyuan (Ilocos Sur); bayag kalabao (Tayabas); bun8alak (Mindoro); ua,s (Rizal); uas riga purao (Ilocos Norte); poas, ioas (Tagalog).

The bark and the crushed fruit are used to keep off the leeches.

The bark contains a principle which stupefies the fish; it is also used as a substitute for gogo for washing the hair. The oil extracted from the seeds is used as a remedy against rheumatism.

The BUCKTHORN Family VENTILAGO DICHOTOMA (Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Sala.pao, silipao (Tagalog); pakpak tutube (Rizal).

The powdered bark mixed with coconut oil is good for the treatment of certain skin-diseases.

ZIZYPHUS JUJUBA (Linn.) Lam.

C. n.: Manzanas (Spanish-Filipino) in all the Philippine Islands.

The decoction of the bark or leaves is used against dysentery, diarrhrea, and any other intestinal disorder.

449

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES COLUBRINA ASIATICA (Linn.) Brongn.

C. n.: Kabatiti (Tagalog, Palawan, Polillo); kayaskas (La Union).

The decoction of the leaves relieves the itching in certain skin diseases. The fruits are used for poisoning pigs, goats, sheep, etc.

The VINE Family TETRASTIGMA HARMANDIT Planch.

C. n.: Ayo (Bataan, Bulacan); ariuat (La Union); kalit (Tayabas); iY'i (Bataan).

The decoction of this plant is an efficacious diuretic; it is also used externally as a cure for the itch.

CISSUS QUADRANGULARIS Linn.

C; n.: Sugpongsugpong (Visaya).

The sap is dropped into the ear for otorrhoea; is also used against epistaxis. It is administ ered as an alterative in case of irregular menstruation.

COLUMELLA TRIFOLIA (Linn.) Merr.

C. n.: Ariuat (La Union); kalit-kalit (Tagalog); kagundi, lagini, lupo (Visaya); kulut prumo (Pampanga).

An antiscorbutic decoction is made out of the leaves.

The LINDEN Family CORCHORUS OLITORIUS Linn.

C. n.: Pasao (Zambales, Tagalog); saluyot (Ilocos Sur, La Union, Pangasinan); tagabang (Manila, Visaya); yaca (Cotabato).

The seeds are said to be a purgative.

CORCHORUS CAPSULARIS Linn.

C. n.: Hute, j~tte (Manila); lambay (Visaya); paningbin (Samar); pasao na bilog (Tagalog); saguyot (Bontoc); sumpa (Samar).

The seeds, either pulverized or in decoction, are used as a tonic, carminative, and febrifuge.

MUNTINGIA CALABURA Linn.

C. n.: Datiles, ratiles, manzanitas (Manila, Cagayan, La Union) ; seresa (Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, Pampanga).

The flowers are used in infusion the same as linden flowers.

450

SCIENCE The MALLOW Family MALVASTRUM COROMANDELINUM (Linn.) Garcke.

C. n.: Babara (Pangasinan); gaga but en (La Union); sal-saluyut (La Union) ; tacking kabayo (Batanes).

The leaves are used to cure anthrax.

ABUTILON INDICUM Sweet.

C. n.: Dulupang, malvas de Castilla, malvis (Visaya); guilingguilifigan, kuakokuakokan (Tagalog) ; sub-Iup-paao (La Union); malvas (Manila, Mindoro).

The leaves, roots, flowers, and fruits of this species are emollients.

THESPESIA POPULNEA (Linn.) Corr.

C. n.: Banago; malibago, tubatuba (Tayabas); banalo (Cavite); bubuy gubat (Tagalog); marabago ( Ilocos Norte).

The decoction of the bark is an alterative administered internally; that of the leaves is emollient and antiscabious. The juice of the fruit is sometimes used in the treatment of scabies.

SIDA JAVENSIS Cav. C. n.: Hapunang niknik (Rizal); igatugat, padda-paddak pusa, mcwrnara-ipus (La Union).

Many claim that the decoction of the entire plant is a specific against gonorrhoea.

SInA ACUTA Burm.

C. n.: Basbasot (Bontoc); eskobang kaba (Tagalog); kastuli (Bulacan); salike (Basilan); takimbaka (Abra, Pangasinan).

A decoction of the roots and leaves gives an emollient which, taken internally, is said to be a good remedy for hemorroids, fever, and impotence (?). As a demulcent and diuretic it is used against gonorrhoea and rheumatism.

ABELMOSCHUS MOSCHATUS Medic.

C. n.: Dalupang, kastiokastiogan, kastuli (Tagalog); dukum, marikum, moropoto, sapinit (Visaya); kalupi (Tayabas, Laguna); kastokastolian (Pampanga).

The seeds are crushed and boiled and administered as a diuretic, tonic, and carminative. The mucilaginous decoction of the root and the leaves is used against gonorrhoea.

451

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES HIBISCUS MUT ABILIS Linn.

C. n.: Amapola (in Manila).

The infu&;ion of the flowers is a pectoral and takes the place of that of the real European poppy in this country.

HIBISCUS TILIACEUS Linn.

C. n.: Alum (Zamhales) : bago (Ilocos Norte); balibago (Bontoc, Zamhales, Tarlac, Bulacan, Tayabas); dangliw (Bulacan); hanot (Batanes Islands); -mapola (Batangas); mayambago (Camarines, Surigao).

The quacks claim that the bark has emetic properties. The flowers boiled in milk are used ' as a remedy against earache.

The SILK-COTTON Family BOMBAX CEIBA Linn.

C. n.: Bobo?', taroktok (Ilocano); bubuy gubat (Rizal, Mindoro); salay, talutu (Visaya ) .

The roots are astringent, alterative, aphrodisiac, and used as a reconstituent for consumptives.

CEIBA PENTANDRA Gaertn.

C. n.: Basanglai (Ilocos Sur, Abra); boboy (Bulacan, Bataan, Cavite, Batangas, Laguna, etc.); doldol (Visaya); bulak (Bulacan, Rizal, Bohol) ; kapok (Tarlac, Sorsogon, Masbate) ; kayo (Camarines) .

The young fruit is emollient. The bark is a vomitive and is preferred to that of Bombaa; ceiba as an aphrodisiac. The decoction is considered especially efficacious for catarrhal fever.

The STERCULIA Family PTEROSPERMUM DIVERSIFOLIUM Blume.

C. n.: Baloi (Ilocos Sur, Abra) ; bayok (Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Rizal); hcÂŁ'n gal-liiigaen (Ilocos Sur); lwlokatifigan (Bontoc, Rizal, Mindoro); malibayo (Rizal).

The bark and the flowers, charred and mixed with the glands of Mallotus philippinensis, are used to make smallpox suppurate.

KLEINHOVIA HOSPITA Linn.

C. n.: Biknong (La Union, Zambales); bitanag (Agusan, Surigao); tanak (Ilocano, Tagalog, Visaya, Bicol); tanag (Tayabas).

452

SCIENCE The bark and leaves are poisonous. In Marinduque they are used for fishing eels. The decoction of the leaves is antiscabious.

ABROMA FASTUOSA

J acq.

C. n.: an-abo, anabo (Ilocos Norte and Sur, Abra, La Union, Zambales, Manila); neg egan (Batanes Islands); pakalkal (Pampanga); sayapu (Moro).

The root is considered as an efficacious emmenagogue; it is used a great deal among the women of the Islands.

Linn.

C. n.: Barulad (La Union); kanding-kanding (Occidental Negros) .

This species is believed to have febrifuge and antisyphilitic properties.

WALTHERIA AMERICANA

The

DILLENIAD

Family

Rolfe.

C. n.: Balobayawak (Negros); biskan (Benguet); dingin (Zambales) ; katmOn (Cagayan, Zambales, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Rizal, Cavite, Batangas, etc.); palaU (Island of Camiguin).

The sweetened juice of the fruit is used as a cough medicine.

DILI,ENJA PHILIPPINENSIS

The CALOPHYLLUM INOPHYLLUM

GAMBOGE

Family

Linn.

C. n.: Batarao (Cagayan, Batanes); bitaog (Abra, La Union, Ilocos Norte, Zambales, etc.); bitong (Bataan); butalao (Batangas); dankalan (Tayabas, etc.); paloma1'ia (Mindoro, Tayabas, Manila, etc.); pamittaogen (Palawan); tambo-tambo (Jolo).

The leaves, crushed and macerated in water, are good eyewash for the treatment of ophthalmia; they are also used for itching piles. The oil of the seeds and the oleoresin of the bark are an energetic cicatrizant. This oleoresin is a balsamic used in pulmonary affections.

PI. et Tr. C. n.: Basanghal (Ilocos Norte); bitaog (Laguna); bitanhol (Nueva Ecija, Sorsogon, Laguna, Camarines, Capiz, Leyte); dalitan (Tayabas); paloma ria (Benguet); pamilaten (Ilocos Sur, Cagayan); tadak, tak~t (Cagayan).

CALOPHYLLUM BLANCOI

453

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The oleoresin of the bark, mixed with sulphur, is ,much used for curing furuncles and wounds. A cloth soaked in this oleoresin and applied to the chest cures asthma.

CRATOXYLON BLANCOI Blume.

C. n.: Bansilay (Surigao); ba?路inkokoron (Ilocos Sur, Nueva Ecija, Camarines); goyong-goyong (Pangasinan, Cavite, Rizal); kansilan (Visaya); oriiigon (Masbate); paguliiigin (Rizal).

The decoction of the bark is a galactogogue.

GARCINIA MANGOSTANA Linn.

C. n.: Mang-gis (Moro); mangostan (in all-- the provinces of the Archipelago).

The leaves and bark are ast ringents used for curing thrush.

They have the reputation of being a febrifuge. The pericarps are very efficacious for the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery.

The INDIAN PLUM Family BIXA ORELLANA Linn.

C. n.: Ackuete (Spanish-Filipino); achote (Pangasinan); apatut (Nueva Vizcaya); ckanang (Basilan); satis (Negros).

The decoction of the bark is used for bathing catarrhal fever patients. The red resin of the seeds is considered as an efficacious medicine for certain skin-diseases.

The PASSION-FLOWER Family CARICA PAPAYA Linn.

C. n.: Papaya (Spanish); papyas (Subano).

The decoction of the bark of the root is a digl'stive and tonic much used for the treatment of dyspepsia.

The SPURGE LAUREL Family GYRINOPSIS CUMINGIANA Decn.

C. n.: Alakan (Tayabas); binuko (Capiz); dalakit (Samar); lanutan (Sibuyan); maga-an (Tayabas); malagapas (Samar).

The root and bark are used to stop hemorrhage from wounds.

The bark, wood, and fruit are used as a substitute for quinine (?).

WIKSTROEMIA OVATA C. A. Mey. C. n.: Dapnit (Ilocos, Bontoc); salago (Bulacan, Laguna).

454

SCIENCE The bark or tender shoots of this plant are worn around the neck to cure bronchial catarrh. The leaves, administered in small doses, are an emetocathartic the use of which is attended by danger.

The LOOSESTRIFE Family AMMANNIA BACCIFERA Linn.

C. n.: Apoy-apoyan (Pangasinan, Rizal); parapit anguit (Pampanga); bias puga (Tagalog).

The entire herb, simply bruised, is a vesicatory which serves as a good substitute for cantharides.

LAWSONIA INERMIS Linn.

C. n.: Cinamomo de China (Spanish).

The leaves are said to be a good antiherpetic.

The LECYTH Family BARRINGTONIA ASIATICA (Linn.) Kurz.

C. n.: Balubitoon (Island of Guimaras) ; bitoon (Surigao); booto, botong (Tayabas); lugo (Cagayan); palaupalau (Negros); capili (Manila).

The fruit is thrown into the rivers to stupefy the fish. The fl'esh leaves, anointed with oil, are used in the treatment of rheumatism. The seeds are said to, be a vermifuge. If this is so, they will probably have to be used in small doses, as accidents are known to have occurred when these seeds were used for the treatment of cholera.

The MYROBALAN Family TERMINALIA COMINTANA Merr.

C. n.: Banglis (Nueva Ecija); hinab~wy (Mindoro); batitinan (Zamboanga); bunglas, dinglas (Tagalog).

The fruit is astringent and a decoction of it is used for the treatment of thrush and diarrhoea of long standing.

TERMINALIA EDULIS Blanco.

C. n.: Alupi, kalusit (Cagayan); anagen (Ilocos Sur); balisayin (Mindoro); basi (Nueva Ecija); bisal (Bulacan); disi (Nueva Vizcaya) kalamansanay (Rizal); kotmok (Camarines); talisay (Iloilo).

The fruit is used for an eye-wash the same as the fruit of the 455

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Aroma (Acacia fa1'nesiana): it is also used in the form of a lotion for the treatment of moist tetters or eczema.

LUMNITZERA RACEMOSA Willd.

C. n.: Kulasi (Bataan); sulasi (Rizal, Manila); tabau (Doilo, Tayabas).

The liquid flowing from incisions made in the trunk, mixed with coconut oil, is used for the treatment of herpes and scabies.

QUISQUALIS INDICA Linn.

C. n.: Balitathan (Visaya); niogniogan, tangolon (Tagalog).

The seeds are a vermifuge, but their action is variable. Eaten in excessive quantities, they produce hiccough in certain persons.

The MYRTLE Family EUGENIA CUMINI (Linn.) Merr. (-E. jambolana Lam.) C. n.:' Duhat (in nearly all the dialects); longoboi (Cagayan, Abra, Docos Sur, La Union); lumboi (Docos Norte, Bataan, Manila, Rizal, etc., etc.).

The bark is astringent. The leaves or seeds, macerated in alcohol, make a good tincturElj for diabetes; the pulverized seeds are administered in pills or powders for the same complaint.

PSIDIUM GUAJAVA Linn.

C. n.: Bayabas (in nearly all the provinces of the Archipelago) ; guava (Cagayan); guyabas (Manila, Laguna, Bataan, Bontoe).

The bark and leaves are an astringent and vulnerary; a decoction of them is also used for the treatment of diarrhoea. The unripe fruit, dried and pulverized, cures amoebic dysentery.

The MELASTOMAD Family MEMECYLON OVATUM Smith.

C. n.: Kandon (Docano); kolis (Tagalog); malabangi (Island of Cuyo); sagunsing (Visaya).

The decoction of the root is used to correct certain irregularities of menstruation. An infusion of the leaves is a good remedy for ophthalmy.

The GINSENG Family SCHEFFLERA ODORATA (Blanco) M. et R. C. n.: Gala'may amo (Rizal, Laguna); tagima (Cebu, Basilan); tarang kan (Island of Ticao).

456

SCIENCE The leaves are used for an antiscorbutic decoction. is a vulnerary.

The resin

SCHEFFLERA PIPEROIDEA Elm. C. n.: Himaynat (Tayabas).

This species is used as a tonic for women after childbirth.

The PARSLEY Family APIUM GRAVEOLENS Linn.

C. n.: Apio (Spanish); kintsay (Chinese-Tagalog). 'l'he decoction of the whole plant is sometimes given as a diuretic, antirheumatic, and emmenagogue.

CORIANDRUM SATIVUM Linn.

C. n.: Cnlantro (Spanish); ongsoy (Chinese-Tagalog).

The infusion of the fruit is given to dyspeptics. In powdered form it is inhaled to cure sea sickness.

OARUM COPTICUM Benth.

C. n.: Damoro (Tagalog); Zamudio (Batangas).

The fruits are chewed with the betel-nut when a carminative effect is desired.

CENTELLA ASIATICA (Linn.) Urban ( - Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn.)

C. n.: Botbotonis (Bontoc); tagaditak (Batanes Islands); takip kuhol (Tagalog); yabong-yabong (Samar).

The sap of the leaves is a cicatrizant used for treating lesions of the sclerotica. The decoction is a diuretic and useful in gonorrhoea. This herb has been advertised as a cure for leprosy.

The HEATH Family RHODODENDRON VlDALII Rolfe.

U sed against scabies.

The LEADWORT Family PLUMBAGO ZEYLANICA Linn.

C. n.: Bangbang, talankao (Ilocano); sampaga (Laguna); sancHkit (Tagalog).

The crushed fresh root is used as a vesicatory. The decoction is said to be a remedy for scabies.

457

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES PLUMBAGO INDICA Linn.

C. n.: Hangat na babae (Bataan); laurel (Manila); pantingpanting (Cotabato); pamparapit (Tagalog).

The grated root is used in cataplasms as a remedy against headache. The bark is a vesicatory used in certain fevers. It is also a remedy for dyspepsia (1).

The SAPODILIA Family BASSIA BETIS (Blanco) Merr.

C. n.: Banitis (Camarines); betis (Rizal, Tayabas, Camarines); betis lalake (Tayabas); pasak (Manila); piaiiga (Cagayan).

The bark and leaves of this tree are said to be good for stomachache in children. The quacks claim that the latex, applied to the abdomen, expels worms. The powdered bark is a sternutatory.

DIOSPYROS MULTIFLORA Blanco C. n.: Dupingan, kanomi (Nueva Ecija); kanumay (Ilocos Sur) ; kanomoy (Rizal, .

The bark is caustic and is used to cure certain herpetic troubles.

It is used extensively by the fishermen for stupefying the fish.

The OLIVE Family JASMINUM SAMBAC (Linn.) Ait. C. n.: /{ampupot (Manila); lttmabo (Cotabato); sampaga (Tagalog); sampaguita (Spanish-Filipino).

The flowers are applied in cataplasms to the breast of women who have lost their infants, in order to check the se~retion of milk.

The LOGANIA Family FAGRAEA RACEMOSA Jack.

C. n.: Bago sala (Samar); bulubuaya (Negros); libakan (Laguna); makatibuha (Moro).

The bark and flowers are used as an antidote against snakebite.

BUDDLEIA ASIATICA Lour.

C. n.: Ammuguin (Benguet); laguica te sttbsub (Union); sambong kala (Rizal, Tayabas); tokman (Abra).

It is affirmed that this plant is an abortive; it is also used to cure certain skin diseases.

458

SCIENCE Berg.

C. n.: I ga8ud or igasU'r (Samar, Leyte, Surigao); kabalongan (Leyte); pepita de San Jgnacio (Spanish).

STRYCHNOS IGNATII

The bark and seeds, given in small doses, are a febrifuge, anticholeric, and tonic. They are also good for certain forms of paralysis. They are exceedingly toxic.

The CANSCORA DIFFUSA

GENTIAN

Family

(Willd.) R. Br.

C. n.: Kobamba, tsang batO (Tagalog); malengal (Rizal).

The decoction of the entire plant is tonic and antigastralgic.

The LOCHNERA ROSEA

DOGBANE

Family

(Linn.) Reichb.

C. n.: Chichirica (Spanish); kumintang (Visaya); atay biya (Rizal); ganda, (Albay, Leyte).

The decoction of the roots is an emmenagogue and acts as an abortive if the potion is concentrated.

PARAMERIA BARBATA

(Blume) K. Schum.

C. n.: Dugtong ahas (Rizal); kumi na put?, (Pampanga); lupi-it (Ilocos Sur); pulang-pulang (Zambales); itiban (Rizal); tagulaoay (Visaya).

The bark macerated in oil is a very efficacious cicatrizant. It is also used intel'nally against tuberculosis, with good results, according to a Recollect friar.

ALSTONIA SCHOLARIS

R. Br.

C.n.: Alipauin (Ilocos Norte); andarayan (Cagayan); bita (Iloilo) ; dalipawen (TIocos Sur); diM (Tagalog).

The decoction of the bark is a tonic, febrifuge, emmenagogue, anticholeric, and vulnerary.

PLUMIERA ACUTIFOLIA

Poir.

C. n.: Kalachuche (Manila, Bataan); kamamoche (Abra); kalatsutse (Tagalog, Visaya).

The decoction of the bark is a purgative, emmenagogue, and febrifuge. The latex is used for the same purposes.

459

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The MILKWEED Family :rYLOPHORA BREVIPES (Tcz.) F. Villar.

C. n.: Bugney (Cagayan); sarunkad, sarungkar (Ilocos Norte) ; pasuka (Tagalog in Zambales); dail, sayonkal (Pangasinan).

This root is a substitute for ipecac in all its medicinal applications. It is also considered as an efficacious emmenagogue.

CALOTROPIS GlGANTEA Dryand.

C. n.: Kapal-kapal (Tagalog).

The bark and the inspissated latex are used as an alterative in certain skin-diseases. This drug is said to be a vermifuge.

The BINDWEED Family' OPERCULINA TURPETHUM S. Manso.

C. n.: Burakan (Ticao); kamokamotehan, bulalakao (Rizal).

The pulverized root or its alcoholic tincture is a well-known drastic purgative.

IPOMOEA PES-CAPRAE Linn.

C. n.: Arodayday (Visaya); kabay-kabay (Tayabas); kamotekamote han (Bataan); katangkatang, lagaray, lampayong (Rizal); lanbayong (Ilocano); palanpalang (Iloilo).

The leaves are used as an escharotic for consuming the spongy growths of ulcers. They also cure rheumatism.

460

PHILIPPINE ORCHIDS*

By OAKES AMES Professor of Botany, Harvard University and EDUARDO QUISUMBING Botanist, Bureau of Science, Manila

With the increasing interest that is being taken in the orchids of the Philippines by owners of gardens in the vicinity of Manila, there has developed a pressing need for critical studies of the horticultural forms which are commanding attention. The time has come when the study of living material should be undertaken more and more intensively, not only to solve horticultural problr:;ms, but to verify and amplify the results of the investigations through which our present knowledge of the Philippine orchid flora has been gained.

The types of the new species and varieties herein described have been deposited in the herbarium of the Bureau of Science and are represented by isotypes in the herbarium of Oakes Ames. Available isotype will be distributed to American and European herbaria. All of our descriptions in the following pages have been prepared from living material with the exception of the one devoted to Bulbophyllum ornatissimum.

The present paper contains the descriptions of four species and one variety that appear to be new to science.

Several previously described species are also included, together with notes and descriptions. Haemari(J; is included as a genus new to the Philippines.

The authors are under obligation to Dr. William H. Brown, one time director of the Bureau of Science, who "'Ames, Oakes and Eduardo Quisumbing, New or Notewo?路thy Philippine Orchids, I, Bur. Sci., vol. 44, No.4, April, 1931, Manila.

461

~NCYCLOPEDIA

OF THE PHILIPPINES

has given enthusiastic support and encouragement to the study of Philippine orchids.

Genus ADENOSTYLIS Blume ADENOSTYLIS MERRILLII

sp. nov.

Affinis Adenostylis luzonensis Ames. Caules teretes, erecti, 10 ad 14 cm alti, 3 ad mm in diametro, succulenti, supra folia longe villosi, pilis albidis. Folia prope medium caulium conferta, basibus petiolorum vaginantibus; lamina ovata ad ovato-Ianceolata, acuta, plus minusve obliqua, 2.5 ad 4.5 cm longa, 1.4 ad 2.7 cm lata, membranacea. Bracteae inflorescentiae membranaceae, anguste lanceolatae, longe acute acuminatae, 8 ad 18 mm longae, sparsim pubescentes. Racemi 7.5 ad 8 cm longi, villosi. Flores in racemo laxo dispositi, albi, pedicello cum ovario dense villoso, cylindrico, anguste ohovoideo, circiter 10 mm longo.

Sepalum dorsale concavurn, ovatum, circiter 9 mm longum, 5 mm latum, 5-nervium, extus. villosum, petalis adhaerens.

Sepala lateralia extus pubescentia, oblongo-Ianceolata, obtusa, circiter 9 mm ]onga, 3 mm lata, 3-nervia. Petala obliquissime oblanceolata, glabra, alba, obtusa, 3-nervia.

Labellum cuneato-oblanceolatum, circiter 9.5 mm longum, 5 mm latum, concavum, prope apicem leviter trilobatum.

Columna brevis, circiter 6 mm longa; rostellum erectum, bipartitum. Pollinia globosa, caudicula gracili affixa; glandula oblonga, alba.

Terrestrial, succulent herb. Stems terete, erect, sometimes with decumbent base, 10 to 14 cm high, 3 to 4 mm in diameter, long villose above the leaves, the hairs white.

Leaves crowded above the middle of the stem with bases vaginate, the lamina ovate to ovate-Ianceolate, acute, somewhat asymmetrical, 2.5 to 4.5 cm long, 1.4 to 2.7 cm wide, membranaceous, light green, reticulations distinct dark green. Bracts membranaceous, narrowly lanceolate, long and acutely acuminate, 8 to 18 mm long, sparsely pubes562

SCIENCE cent. Racemes 7.5 to 8 cm long, villose. Flowers laxly arranged, white; the pedicel and ovary villose, cylindric; narrowly obovoid, about 10 mm long, grass green to kildare green. Dorsal sepal concave, ovate, buff-pink, about 9 mm long, 5 mm wide, villose on the outside, 5-nerved, the petals adhering. Lateral sepals white, buff-pink at the apex, the central nerve greenish, villose outside, oblonglanceolate, obtuse, about 9 mm long, 3 mm wide, 3-nerved.

Petals white, glabrous, obtuse, 3-nerved. Labellum white with a coral red line at the center and greenish at the base, cuneate-oblanceolate, about 9.5 mm long, 5 mm wide, concave, slightly trilobed near the apex. Column short, about 6 mm long; the rostellum erect, bipartite. Pollinia globose, the glands oblong, white.

LUZON, Manila, Bureau of Science orchid house, Bur. Sci. 78918 Quisumbing, March 10, 1930. The living plants from Baguio, Mountain Province, were collected by Mrs. K. B. Day, who found them growing on moss-covered decayed logs and in mossy ground, at about 1,600 meters altitude.

This species is closely allied to Adenostylis luzonensis Ames, from which species it differs conspicuously in its subentire labellum and lower stature.

Genus HAEMARIA Lindley Lindl.

Haema1'ia discolor Lindl., Gen. and Spec. Orch. (1840) 490; Schlechter, Die Orchideen (1927) 118, fig. 22.

Goodyera discolor Ker in Bot. Reg. (1818) t. 271; Lodd. Bot. Cab. (1817?) 148, Bot. Mag. (1819) t. 2055.

Ludisia discolor A. Rich. in Blume Fl. Jav. Orch. (1858) 95, t.

42, fig. D. Ludisia furetii Blume, Fl. Jav. Orch. (1858) 96, t. 34, fig. 3, Ludisia odorata Blume, Fl. Jav. Orch. (1858) 95, t. 34, fig. 2.

HAEMARIA DISCOLOR

Stems succulent, naked, procumbent, glabrous below the leaves, brownish purple, ascending, 7 to 10 mm in dia463

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES meter. Leaves alternate, approximate, ovate to elliptic, acute or apiculate, 3.5 to 7.5 cm long, 2 to 3.5 cm wide, the petioled base vaginate, upper surface velvety green to nearly black, with five prominent coral red lateral nerves (sometimes the venation reticulated; reticulations when present coral red), lower surface 3-nerved, the nerves vernonia-purple. Scape erect, terete, pale green, pubescent, 15 to 20 cm long; the inflorescence few-flowered; the bracts broadly lanceolate, shorter than the ovary. Flowers sessile, white except the sulphur yellow gynostemium, loosely arranged, odorless, 17 to 19 mm across. Ovary somewhat spirally twisted, white-pubescent, striped with green, about 15 mm long. Dorsal sepal cucullate, broadly ovate, obtuse, about 9 mm long, 7 mm wide. Lateral sepals slightly twisted, similar to the dorsal sepal. Petals lanceolate-linear, obtuse, adherent to the dorsal sepal. Labellum unguiculate, twisted, abruptly 2-lobed at the apex, lobes oblong, spreading. Gynostemium clavate, twisted. Anther horizontal, ovoid, acuminate, point slightly twisted; loeules 2, parallel. Pollinia 2, clavate.

LUZON, Manila, Bureau of Science orchid house, Bur. Sci. 78902 Quis'wrnbing, February 20, 1930. Cultivated in Mrs. George Fairchild's gardens at Pasay, Rizal Province.

Of Philippine origin, but the locality and province unknown. This orchid is often classified among the "jewel orchids," and is easily cultivated in pots, and reproduced by cuttings of the stem. It needs plenty of water. The plants flower during January and February.

This species has not heretofore been recorded from the Philippines, although it is known to be a native of the Malay Peninsula and China. According to the shape and color of the leaves several varieties were recognized.

Genus DENDROBIUM Swartz Ames. var. OVATILABIUM var. nov.

DENDROEIUM CHAMELEON

A specie labelli lamina ovata solum differt.

464

SCIENCE LUZON, Manila Bureau of Science orchid house, Bur. Sci. 77227 Quisumbing, August 12, 1929. The living specimens collected in Floridablanca, Pampanga Province, hanging on trees, at medium altitudes. The leaves appear about December.

This variety differs conspicuously from Dendrobium chameleon Ames in its ovate labellum and in the color of its flowers.

Forma

ALBA

forma nov.

Species similis differt floribus colorem.

LUZON, Manila, Bureau of Science orchid house, Bur. Sci. 77227'a Quisumbing, August 16, 1929. Living plants from Floridablanca, Pampanga Province, hanging on trees, at medium altitudes.

This form is identical with the species in every respect except that the flowers are pure white with a cream-colored spur.

DENDROBIUM MIYASAKII

sp. nov.

Species D. victoriae-reginGJe Loher affinis, floribus multo majoribus differt. Caules sulcati, pauci et gracile, superne pauciramosi, usque ad 75 cm alti, 4 mm in diametro, internodia plerumque 1 ad 4.5 cm longa. Folia lineari-Ianceolata, acuta, 6 ad 8.5 cm longa, 0.5 ad 1.1 cm lata, subcoriacea, in basi amplectentia. Pedunculus circiter 5 mm longus. Flores singuli, 4 ad 5.5 cm longi, 4 ad 5.5 cm lati; ovarium cum pedicello tenue, 2.5 ad 3 cm longum. Sepalum dorsale oblongo-Ianceolatum, obtusum, 2.3 ad 2.5 cm longum, 0.9 ad 1.1 cm latum. Sepala lateralia triangulari-Ianceolata, obtusa, in mentum obtusum producta, 4.2 ad 4.5 cm longa, 1.3 ad 1.4 cm lata; mentum 2.1 ad 2.4 cm longum. Petal a elliptica vel elliptico-ovata, obtusa vel rotundata vel leviter retusa, 2.1 ad 3 cm longa, 1.4 ad 1.8 cm lata, margine anteriore minutissimi crenulato. Labellum simplex, breviter unguiculatum, e basi cu465

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES neata, obovatum vel oblanceolatum, 3.5 ad 4.3 cm longum, antice dilatatum, 1.6 ad 2.5 cm latum, in apice retusum.

Gynostemium lobulatum.

Stems erect, sulcate, few and slender, up to 75 cm high, 4 mm in diameter, dark purple; branches few, rooting at the nodes, greenish, about 2 mm in diameter. Leaves linear-Ianeeolate, acute, 6 to 8.5 cm long, 0.5 to 1.1 em wide, the uppermost ones about 2.5 cm long, subcoriaceous when dry, clasping at base. Peduncles about 5 mm long.

Flowers solitary at the end of the branches, pendulous, not fragrant, 4 to 5.5 cm long, 4 to 5.5 cm across; pedicellate ovary slender, 2.5 to 3 cm long. Sepals white, suffused with mallow pink half way to the apex. Dorsal sepal oblong-Ianceolate, obtuse, 2.3 to 2.5 cm long, 0.9 to 1.1 em wide. Lateral sepals triangular-Ianeeolate, obtuse, with the spur 4.2 to 4.5 em long, 1.3 to 1.4 em wide; spur 2.1 to 2.4 em long, white with obtuse grass green tip. Petals elliptic to elliptic-ovate, obtuse, rounded or somewhat retuse, 2.1 to 3 em long, 1.4 to 1.8 em wide, the anterior margins minutely crenulate, mallow pink to light mallow purple, white at the base. Labellum simple. obovate to oblanceolate, somewhat unguiculate, narrowed at the cuneate base, 3.5 to 4.3 cm long, 1.6 to 2.5 cm wide, the apex retuse, the expanded portion minutely crenulate, mallow purple, with three true purple lines extending on the narrowed portion to the base. Gynostemium lobulate, white, with purple markings on the margins. .

LUZON, Manila, Bureau of Science orchid house, Bur. Sci. 78823 Quisumbing, December 29, 1929. The living specimens collected from Pampanga Province, on rocks on the hills back of Floridablanca. Flowers during December to March. 1 A previous collection referable to this species, was made in Zambales Province, on rocks of Mount Tapolao at 2,000 feet altitude, November-December, 1924, Bur Sci. 466

SCIENCE The flowers were described by the collectors as being pink and white.

A species closely allied to Dendrobium victoriae-reginae Loher but differing radically in its habit and in its much larger flowers. The species is dedicated to Mr. S. Miyasaki, enthusiastic orchid grower in Manila, in who_s~ garden the junior author has enjoyed every facility for the study of orchids and to whom he is under many obligations.

1,.1,.715 Ramos atnd Edafio.

Genus ERIA Lindley Lindl.

Dend1'obium aporoides (Lindl.) Merr. Merr., Sp. Blancoanae (1918) 113, Enum. Philip. Fl. PI. 1 (1924) 345.

ERIA APOROIDES

Upon critical examination of numerous living Philippine plants of this species it has been found that the pollen masses are eight in number. The species is therefore indubitably a membet of the genus Eri(J) as J. J. Smith has indicated, as a result of additional research, in Bull. J ard.

Bot. Buit. Ser. 3, 8. Liv. 1 (1926) 49.

ERIA LONGISSlMA

sp. nov.

*

Cylindrolobus.

Habitu E. perspicabili Ames similis. Caulis simplex, ad basi teres, superne leviter complanatus, folios us, 50 ad 100 cm longus, 0.8 ad 1.3 cm in diametro, internodii 2 ad 3.5 cm longis. Folia lineari-Ianceolata, glabra, in sicco subcoriacea, nervosa, attenuata, 9.5 ad 20 cm longa, 2 ad 4 cm lata, in apice inaequaliter bilobulata, basi vaginanti.

Inflorescentiae oppositifoliae, 2- ad 4-florae, cum pedunculo circiter 4.5 cm longae; pedunculus usque ad racemum brevis, circiter 1.5 cm longus. Bractae 5 vel 6, conspicuae, glabrae, oblongo-lanceolatae vel lanceolatae, subacutae, 19 ad 21 mm longae, 5 ad 7 mm latae, in basi cordatis. Flores circiter 1.5 cm longi; pedicellus glaber, cum ovario, 1.3 ad 2 cm longus. Sepalum dorsale oblongum, obtusum, circiter 15 mm longum, 6 mm latum. Sepala lateralia trian467

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES gulari-Ianceolata, obtusa, circiter 15 mm longa, 6.5 mm lata, subfalcata, mentum brevem formantia; mentum circiter 6 mm longum. Petala leviter oblique-oblonga, valde obtusa, circiter 13 mm longa, 5 mm lata, membranacea, marginibus aliquando inaequaliter et leviter irregularibus. Labellum in circuitu suborbiculare, prope apicem 3-lobatum, circiter 9 mm longum, in basi breviter unguiculatum; lobi laterales breves, obtusi, circiter 1.5 mm longi; lobus medius late ovatus, obtusus, incrassatus, circiter 3 mm longus, margine subcrispato. Discus per medium carinis 3 humilibus percursus quae in lobo medio confluunt, carinis in basi utrinque dilatatis. Gynostemium circiter 8 mm longum, crassum, apice bilooatum, in pedem 3 mm longum productum.

An epiphyte with much the habit of Eria perspicabilis Ames. Stems simple, terete at the base, somewhat complanate above, ;foliose, 50 to 100 c~ long, 0.8 to 1.3 cm in diameter; the internodes 2 to 3.5 cm long. Leaves linear-Ianceolate, glabrous, somewhat firm in living condition, subcoriaceous when dry, nervose, light green, 9.5 to 20 cm long, 2 to 4 cm wide, narrowed to the unequally bilobed apex, the base clasping and sheathed. Racemes opposite the leaves, 2- to 4-flowered, with the peduncle about 4.5 cm long; the peduncles up to the raceme about 1.5 cm long. Bracts citron yellow, 5 or 6, conspicuous, glabrous, oblong-Ianceolate to lanceolate, obtuse, 19 to 21 mm long, 5 to 7 mm wide, the apex minutely apiculate, the base cordate. Flowers fragrant, recalling the odor of J asminum sambac, conspicuous, white, about 1.5 cm long; the pedicels with the ovary glabrous, citron yellow, 1.3 to 2 cm long. Sepals and petals pure white with bases naphthalene yellow, the spur naphthalene yellow. Dorsal sepal oblong, obtuse, about 15 mm long, 6 mm wide. Lateral sepals triangular-Ianceolate, obtuse, about 15 mm long, 6.5 mm wide, subfalcate, forming a rather short spur, which 468

SCIENCE is about 6 mm long. Petals obliquely oblong or ellipticoblong, broadly obtuse, about 13 mm long, 5 mm wide, membranaceous, margins sometimes slightly irregular.

Labellum white without, cream-buff within, suborbicular in outline, 3-lobed near the apex, about 9 mm long, shortly unguiculate at base; lateral lobes short, obtuse, about 1.5 mm long; middle lobe broadly ovate, obtuse, about 3 mm long, rather thickened, margin sUbcrispate. Disc traversed through the middle by 3 low keels which come together on the middle lobe, keels at base on each side dilated.

Gynostemium about 8 mm long, rather thick, the apex bilobed, the foot about 3 mm long.

LUZON, Manila, Bureau of Science orchid house, Bur. Sci. 77242 Quisumbing, June 1, 1929. The living plants were collected from the mossy forests of Mount Maquiling, Laguna Province" Luzon.

This species has the appearance of Erio, perspicabilis Ames but is most closely allied to E. brachystachya Reichb. f. and to E. albolutea Rolfe. It is larger throughout than E. brachystachya with a rather different lip. It has much larger leaves, fewer-flowered racemes, and apparently wider perianth parts than E. albolutea Rolfe.

BULBOPHYLLUM

Genus BULBOPHYLLUM Thouars BIFLORUM Teijsm. and Binn.

Bulbophyllum biflorum Teijsm. and Binn., Nat. Tijdsehr. Ned. Ind. 3 (1855) 397; J. J. Sm., FI. Buitenz. 6 (Orch. Jav.) (1905) 469, Fig.-Atlas (1911) fig. 359; Miq., FI. Ind. Bat. 3 (1859) 647; Reiehb. f., Walp. Ann. Bot. Syst. 6 (1861) 262; Naves, Novis. App. (1882) 234; Ames in Merr. Enum. Philip. Fl. PI. 1 (1925) 390.

Cir1'hopetalum biflorum J. J. Sm., Ie. Bog. 2 (1903) 104, t. 120 B; Sehltr., Die Orehideen (1927) 329; Sanders' Orchid Guide (1927) 113.

Phyllorchis biflora OK., Rev. Gen. PI. 2 (1891) 677.

Epiphyte. Pseudobulbs 4-angled, one-leafed, ovoid, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, 1.3 to 2 cm wide. Leaves at the top of 469

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the pseudobulbs, oblong-elliptic, 7 to 11 em long, 2.5 to 3.5 em wide. Inflorescence arising from the base of the pseudobulb, two-flowered; the peduncle slender, about 8 em long; bracts membranaceous. Flowers about 9.5 cm long, emit a peculiar odor, pedicel and ovary slender, about 1.5 cm long. Dorsal sepal elliptic with a filament, about 2.5 cm long, very pale pink to almost white striped and spotted with pomegranate purple, 5-nerved. Lateral sepals joined or free, greatly elongated into very slender filaments, 7.5 to 8 em long, 0.6 to 0.65 mm wide, very pale pink to almost white, spotted and striped with pomegranate purple, the tips tawny purple, 5-nerved. Petals much smaller, about 6 mm long, 3.5 mm wide, with a minute apicule about 1 mm in length, 3-nerved. Labellum oblong-ovate, fleshy, recurved, yellowish brown, spotted with dark purple, about 5 mm long. Column somewhat fleshy, about 4 mm long, with the foot about 7 mm long.

LUZON, Manila, Bureau of Science orchid house, Bur. Sci. 78844 Quisumbing, May 28, 1929. Living plants collected from Mount Banahao, Tayabas Province, growing on tree trunks at medium altitudes. A native of Java.

A very interesting species characterized by its twoflowered inflorescences. Originally known from Java, now for the first time authentically reported from the Philippines.

BULBOPHYLLUM EMILIORUM

sp. nov.

Affine B. copelandii Ames. Rhizoma repens, circiter 5 mm in diametro, radicibus numerosis simplicibus vel ramosis. Pseudobulbi 1.8 ad 2 em longi, 1.2 ad 1.3 em in diametro, monophylli, 8 ad 10 em distantes. Folia elliptico-oblonga, obtusa, coriacea, rigida, 19 ad 21 cm longa, 6 ad 6.5 em lata. Pedunculus gracilis, circiter 1 cm longus, florem singulum speciosum gerens, pedicello cum ovario 4.5 ad 5.5 cm longo, bracteis membranaceis. Sepalum dorsale oblongo-lanceolatum, tenuiter acute acuminatum, 470

SCIENCE circiter 3.5 cm longum, 1.2 cm latum. Sepala lateralia sigmoideo-Ianceolata, tenuiter acuminata, circiter 3.2 cm longa, prope basim 1.3 cm lata. Petala anguste lanceolata, acuminata apice recurvata, fastigiata, circiter 3 cm longa, 0.8 cm lata. Labellum cum pede elongato columnae articulatum, recurvatum, carnosum; lobi laterales breves, rotundati, obtusi, circiter 2 mm longi; lobus medius lineari-Ianceolatus, acutus, circiter 8 mm longus, 3.5 mm latus, recurvatus, carnosus, rigidus. Columna crassa, brevissima, erecta, circiter 4 mm longa et lata, basis lata in pedem 9 mm Ion gum transiens.

Rhizomes creeping, about 5 mm in diameter; roots numerous, simple or branching. Pseudobulbs 1.8 to 2 cm long, 1.2 to 1.3 cm in diameter, monophyllous, 8 to 10 cm distant. Leaves elliptic-oblong, obtuse, coriaceous when dry, rather thick when fresh, rigid, 19 to 21 cm long, 6 to 6.5 cm wide. Inflorescen.ce one-flowered; the peduncles slender, rather short, about 1 cm long; pedicel and ovary 4.5 to 5.5 cm long; bracts membranaceous. Dorsal sepal oblong-Ianceolate, slenderly and acutely acuminate, about 3.5 cm long, 1.2 cm wide. Lateral sepals sigmoid-Ianceolate, slenderly acuminate, about 3.2 cm long, 1.3 cm wide near the base. Petals narrowly lanceolate, acuminate with recurved apex, fastigiate, about 3 em long, 0.8 cm wide.

Lip hanging on a very slender foot; lateral lobes short, rounded, spreading, obtuse, about 2 mm long; middle lobe linear-Ianceolate, acute, about 8 mm long, 3.5 mm wide, recurved, fleshy, rigid. Column thickened, very short, erect, about 4 mm long and broad, the foot about 9 mm long. Pollinia triangular.

MINDANAO, Agusan Province, Butuan, Barrio Guadalupe, Emilio Quisumbing, s. n., July, 1929, on tree trunks in thick forests at low altitudes. Flowers fragrant, recalling the odor of Dendrobium anosnuum LindI. Peduncles pinard yellow; lateral sepals and dorsal sepal wax 471

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES yellow on the back, mottled with amaranth purple, the apices suffused with bordeaux; the bases of the dorsal sepal and petals suffused with amaranth purple within; the petals white on the back; lip bordeaux half-way to the apex and pinard yellow at the base; column and foot pinard yellow.

A species closely allied to Bulbophyllum copelandii Ames, differing in its much larger leaves and flowers and in its differently shaped dorsal and lateral sepals, petals and labellum. The species is dedicated to Mr. Emilio Quisumhing, civil engineer, who collected the living specimens.

BULBOPHYLLUM ANTENNIFERUM

(Lindl.) Reichb. f.

Bulbophyllum antenniferum (Lindl.) Reichb. f. in (Ames) Merr.

Enum. Philip. Fl. PI. 1 (1925) 379.

Rhizome creeping, 4 to 5 mm in diameter. Pseudobulbs one-leafed, 4-angled, ovoid, 1.5 to 2.5 cm long, 1.3 to 1.6 cm in diameter, 1 to 2 cm distant. Leaves rather thick, oblanceolate, elliptic-Ianceolate or oblong-oblanceolate, rounded at the apex, subretuse, 8 to 15 em long, 3 to 4.8 cm wide. Inflorescences usually one-flowered, very seldom two-flowered, conspicuous; peduncles 9 to 13.5 cm long, green. Bracts sheathing, about 1.5 cm long.

Pedicel and OV2.ry 4 to 5 cm long. Dorsal sepal large, ovate-Ianceolate to lanceolate, somewhat fleshy, 9-nerved, carinate, 4 to 6.5 cm long, 1.2 to 1.5 cm wide, corinthian purple on the back, reed yellow in front, suffused with some corinthian purple and spotted with transparent white.

Lateral sepals connate, smaller than the dorsal sepal, individually 6- or 7-nerved, narrowly lanceolate, falcate, 3.5 to 5 cm long, 0.7 to 0.8 cm wide, citron green and corinthian purple at the base. Petals very much smaller than the sepals, ovate-Ianceolate, with prolonged filiform apex, terminating in a pyriform tip, pale grass green, striped with light purple, 3-nerved, 12 to 13 mm long, 2.5 to 3.5 mm wide. Lip recurved, fleshy, pilose above, corinthian 472

SCIENCE purple at the apex, 4 to 5 mm long. Gynostemium 3toothed, about 3 mm long. Pollinia yellow, somewhat ovoid.

LUZON, Manila, Bureau of Science orchid house, Bur. Sci. 78847 Quisumbing, September 24, 1929, living plants collected in Paete, Laguna Province; Bur. Sci 78845 Quisumbi-ng, December 11, 1929, living plants collected on Mount Mariveles, Bataan Province, creeping on tree trunks at low and medium altitudes.

Kranzl.

Bulbophyllum ebracteolatum Kranz!' in Ann. k. k. Nat. Hofmus. Wien 30 (1916) 58; Ames in Merr. Enum. Philip. F1.

PI. 1 (1925) 382.

BULBOPHYLLUM EBRACTEOLATUM

Rhizomes creeping, 3.5 to .7 mm in diameter. Pseudobulbs one-leafed, remote, 4- or 5-angled, ovoid to ovoidlanceolate, 3 to 4.5 cm long, 1.4 to 2 cm in diameter, 1.4 to 2 cm distant; the base of the pseudobulbs covered by two brown, membranaceous sheaths, 1.5 to 3.2 cm long, the lower one smaller. Leaves linearr 10 to 17 cm long, 1.7 to 2.5 cm wide, narrowed at both ends, the apex acute; petioles very short. Scape arising at the base of the pseudobulb, 5 to 8.5 cm long including the peduncles; the peduncles white flushed with some purple, pubescent with minute white hairs, 2 to 2.5 cm long, fleshy; the rachis fleshy, white, flushed with some purple, pubescent with minute white hairs, 5 to 6 mm in diameter. Basal sheaths two, brown, membranaceous, 8 to 10 mm long. Flowers odorless, minutely pubescent, 4.5 to 5 mm long, spirally arranged on the rachis, rather remote, the side view giving the appearance of a snake's head. Floral bracts covering the pedicels and ovaries cucullate, greenish or light purple, ovate, obtuse, 3 to 4 mm long. Pedicel and ovary very short, 1 to 2 mm long, purple, pubescent. Dorsal sepal cucullate, ovate, obtuse, 4 to 5 mm long, 2.5 to 3 mm wide, marguerite yellow to almost white, 3-nerved, the nerves 473

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES pansy purple. Lateral sepals cucullate, connate, oblong, broadly obtuse to rounded, 4.5 to 5.5 mm long, 3 to 4 mm wide, marguerite yellow to almost white, 7-nerved, the nerves pansy purple. Petals very much smaller than the sepals, lanceolate, acutely acuminate, about 2 mm long, 1 mm wide, marguerite yellow to almost white, 1-nerved, the central nerve and smooth margins pansy purple. Lip fleshy, 3-lobed, about 3.5 mm long; the lateral lobes rather inconspicuous, minute, obtuse, up to 0.5 mm long, madder brown; the middle lobe oblong, rounded, lime green, pompeian red at the base. Foot slender, somewhat flattened, flesh color, aoout 1 mm long. Column white, fleshy, about 2 mm long, the apex pubescent, the arms two, bicuspidate. Pollinia ivory yellow, suborbicular.

LUZON, Manila, Bureau of Science orchid house, Bur. Sci. 78924 Quisumbing, February 27, 1930. Living plants collected from Mount Banahao, Laguna Province, as an epiphyte, at medium altitudes.

A species manifestly belonging in the group with Bulbophyllum crassifolium (Blume) J. J. Sm. and strongly characterized by its fleshy rachis, subsessile flowers, smooth-margined petals and by the bicuspidate wings or arms of the apex of the column.

(Reichb. f.) J. J. Sm. Bulbophyllum o1"natissimum (Reichb. f.) J. J. Sm. in Bull. Jard.

Bot. Buit. 8 (1912) 26.

Cirrhopetalum ornatissimum Reichb. f. in Gard. Chron. 2 (1882) 424; King and Prantl, Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8 (1898) 95, t. 133; Warner, Orch. Album 8 (1889) t. 369; Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 5 (1890) 773; Sanders' Orch.

G-qide (1927) 116; Schlecht., Die Orchideen (1927) 331.

BULBOPHYLLUM ORNATISSIMUM

Creeping, the rhizome 2 to 2.5 mm in diameter. Pseudobulbs ellipsoid, 1.5 to 2 em long, 2 to 3 cm distant, olivegreen, bearing a single leathery leaf. Leaves oblong or elliptic-oblong, sessile, apex obtuse and slightly notched, 6 to 8 cm long, 1.3 to 1.7 em wide. Scape one-flowered, 474

SCIENCE arising from the base of the pseudobulb; peduncle about 10.5 em long, bearing 2 or 3 sheathing bracts. Flower about 14 cm long. Pedicel and ovary about 13 mm long.

Floral bract membranaceous, lanceolate, about 8.5 mm long. Dorsal sepal ovate, about 2 cm long, erect, 3-nerved, the apex extended into a long drooping filiform appendage bearing hairs on its edges in its lower part and palere in its apical portion. Lateral sepals lanceolate with filiform tails, about 12 cm long, the tips twisted, free at the base and apex, otherwise coherent. Petals lanceolate, falcate, about 1.5 cm long, I-nerved, with filiform paleabearing apices like the dorsal sepal. Lip oblong, obtuse, recurved from a very con ave base, with three raised lines. Column broad with hooked decurved apical teeth which are dentate at their bases; foot curved, tapering.

Anther pubescent in bone. Pollinia attached to a viscous, oblong, compressed disc.

LUZON, Zambales Province, Mount Marayap, Bur. Sci. 44806 Ramos and Edana, December 12, 1924, on tree trunks in the mossy forests, altitude about 400 meters. The flowers pale yellowish green with purple-brown markings, the palere and lip are crimson purple.

A unique species characterized by its greatly elongated lateral sepals and palere on the dorsal sepal and petals. A species otherwise known only from Assam and Sikkim.

W ALING-WALING VANDA SANDERIANA,

Reichb. f.

One of the most appreciated orchids of the Philippines and sometimes known as the "Queen of Philippine Orchids," this rare native flower is found in Davao, Mindanao, not far away from Mt. Apo, famous in folklores and legends.

475

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF PHILIPPINE BOT ANY By

ELMER

D.

*

MERRILL

Botanist and former Director, BU1'eau of Science

The history of Philippine botany may be conveniently divided into two periods; namely, pre-Linnaean, previous to the publication of the Species Plantarum by Linnaeus in 1753, and post-Linnaean. The latter period may be considered under three more or less distinct heads.

THE PRE-LINNAEAN PERIOD

The first period is characterized by the preparation of various manuscripts by local authors, chiefly of a more or less economic nature, and largely works on medicinal plants. These works, some of which were published during the period under discussion, some not published until late in the second period, and still others as yet unpublished, were largely the work of Spanish priests and from a strictly botanical standpoint are of comparatively little value.

The first reference to Philippine botany that I have observed is a description of Anisum philippinarum insularum (-Illicium sp.) by Clusius. 1 Descriptions of about ten Philippine species, including the first description of the abaca plant, were published by Nieremberg 2 in 1635, under their local names. In 1611 Father BIas, a Franciscan priest, wrote a treatise on indigenous medicinal plants, which was apparently never published. In 1669 Father Jose de Valencia' completed a manuscript entitled, Flora Filipino,; en la que con minuciosidad se describen l(})S raices

* Merrill, Elmer D., A.n Enumeration of Pkilippi'ne Flowering Plants, 1926, Bureau of Printing, Manila, vol. 4, pp. 43-56.

1 Clusius, C., Rariorum pla'ntarum historia, 160l.

2 Nieremberg, J. E., Hist01'ia naturae maxime peregrinae lib路ris XVI distincta, 1635, pp. 1-502.

476

SCIENCE y hierbas, sus figuras, sitios donde se erian, y sus virtudes

medieinales; this was never published. In 1668 Father Alcina, a Jesuit priest, wrote an extensive manuscript entitled, Historia natural del sitio, fertilidad y ealidaJd de las is las e indios de Visayas. This work was never published, but a manuscript copy of one of the two volumes of it, prepared in 1802, is in the library of the Ateneo de Manila. In 1712 Father Clain, a Jesuit priest, published his work entitled Remedios faciles p{}lf'a diferentes enfermedades. In 1768 Father Fernando de Santa Maria published his work, Manual de medieinas easeras, which has passed through several editions; the latest is that of 1885.

Between 1751 and 1754 Father J. Delgado, a Jesuit priest, wrote his general history of the Philippines which was, however, not published until 1892.1 Book five, pages 405 to 807, deals with the vegetable kingdom, and the technical names were added by Father Fernandez-Villar; the identifications indicated by Fernandez-Villar are very untrustworthy, and many of them are wholly erroneous.

During the last half of the sixteenth century Father Mercado prepared his work, Libro de medieinas de esta tierra y declaraeiones de las virtudes de los arboles y p,zamtas que estan en estas Islas Filipinas. This was published in the fourth volume of the third edition of Blanco's Flora de Filipinas in 1880. The technical names added by Fernandez-Villar must be used with caution.

The only purely technical work prepared and published during this period was that of Kamel. 2 The manuscript, drawings, and specimens were sent to James Petiver in London in 1701, and the specimens are still pre1 Delgado, J., Historia general sac1'o-profana, politica y natura,l de las is las del poniente llamadas Filipinas, Manila, 1892, XVI, 1-1009.

2 Kamel (Camel, Carnell us ), J. G., Herbarium aliarumque stirpium in insula luzone Philippinar~tm primaria nascentium * * * in Ray, J., Historia Plantarum, Vol. 3, 1704, Suppl.' 1-96.

477

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES served in the herbarium of the British Museum, in volumes 153, 163, 165, 231, and 233 of the Sloane herbarium. The drawings submitted by Kamel were not reproduced, which probably explains why the work was not considered by Linnaeus. At about the same time Petiver published figures of a number of Philippine plants based either on drawings or on specimens sent to him by Father Kamel. 1 There are about twenty references to Philippine plants in Rumphius's.Herbarium Amboinense, published in 1741 to 1755, but written in the last part of the previous century.2 In general, the pre-Linnaean publications on Philippine botany are few and for the most part unimportant.

Very few binomials were based on Philippine references

by Linnaeus, his contemporaries, or successors, and hence the importance of these early works is practically nil in reference to questions of nomenclature and the history of individual species. The most that can be claimed for them is a slight historic value, chiefly in reference to the approximate time of introduction of various economic plants.

THE POST-LINNAEAN PERIOD

The post-Linnaean period, dating from the establishment of the binomial system of nomenclature in 1753, may be roughly divided into three sections; the first from 1753 to about 1870, the second from about 1870 to 1898, and the third from 1898 to 1923.

The first section is characterized by the dominance of the Linnaean system of classification, which, in the history of Philippine botany, extends into the second section in the publication of the third edition of Blanco's Flora de Filipinas (1877-1883). The second section commencing in about 1870 covers the modernization of Philippine botPetiver, J., Gazophylacii naturae & artis * * * 1702-1709.

Merrill, E. D., An Interpretation of Rumpkius's Herbarium Amboinense, Bur. Sci. Publ., vol. 9, 1917, pp. 1-595.

1

2

478

SCIENCE any, the abandonment of the long-obsolete Linnaean system of classification, and the adoption of modern herbarium methods, due largely to the influence of Sebastian Vidal.

The period of local productive work practically closed in 1886, little of value being produced after that date up to the end of the Spanish rule in 1898. The third section covers the time of the American administration, actual botanical work having been initiated in 1902 and vigorously prosecuted up to the present date (1924).

THE PERIOD FROM 1753 TO 1870

Linnaeus included a very few references to the earlier Philippihe literature in the first edition of his Species Plantarum, chiefly citations of a few figures of Philippine plants from Petiver's works with still fewer references to Kamel's work. He had no Philippine botanical material.

Thus, although but slightly, the Philippines figures in the first published work on the binomial system and, consequently, in the later editions of this basic Linnaean publication, both those issued by Linnaeus and those issued by his successors. No considerable amount of botanical ; material of Philippine origin reached Europe until about , the close of the eighteenth century. From the publication of the Willdenow edition of the Species Plantarum, 17971830, references to Philippine species became increasingly numerous in the general botanical works of a systematic nature published in Europe, such as those of Persoon, Roemer and Schultes, Sprengel, Dietrich, Kunth, Don, etc., as well as in the series of monographs commenced by A. P. de Candolle in the Prodromus in 1824.

There was no local activity in the botanical field until 1837 when the first edition of Blanco's Flora de Filipinas 479

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES was published,l which was followed by a second edition in 1845, issued a few months after the author's death. The third edition of Blanco's Flora belongs to the next period.

Blanco's pioneer work was continued, although not very successfully, by Father A. Llanos, who published a series of papers, for the most part short and unimportant, in the period 1851 to 1875, the most important of which was his Fragmentos. 2 The work of Blanco and of Llanos has been rather exhaustively considered in another publication,s so that it is unnecessary to enter into details here.

In 1858 a botanical garden was established in Manila; while maintained until the end of the Spanish regime, it never attained prominence and was a botanical garden chiefly in name. It is now a small city park.

During the period under discussion various exploring expeditions sent out by different nations visited the Philippines and some extensive botanical collections were made.

Several collectors also visited the Archipelago for the express purpose of securing botanical and other natural-history material.

The first visitor to the Philippi,nes for the specific purpose of conducting natural-history work was Pierre Sonnerat who arrived in Cavite in September, 1771, and sailed from Zamboanga in February, 1772. Sonnerat made fairly extensive collections of botanical material, chiefly in central Luzon, and a large part of his published 1 Blanco, M., Flora de Filipinas segun el sistema sexual de Linneo t 1837, LXXVIII, pp. 1-887; ed. 2, 1845, LIX, pp. 1-619; ed. 3, vol.

1, 1877, XXX, pp. 1-350; vol. 2, 1878-79, pp. 1-419; vol. 3, 1879, pp.

1-271; vol. 4,1 1880, XVIII, pp. 1-808; vol. 4,2 1880, VI, pp. 1-63; vol. 4,S 1880-83, IX, p. 375, t. 1-473.

2 Llanos, A., Frag'lnentos de algunas plantas de Filipinas, no tnclttidas en laoFlora de las Islas de Ia l.a ni 2.a ediciOn, 1851, pp. 1-125.

3 Merrill, E. D., Species Blancoanaoe.

A critical revision of the Philippine species of plants described by Blanco and by Llanos, Bur. Sci. Publ., vol. 12, 1918, pp. 1-423, map.

480

SCIENCE report is in reference to Philippine matters.1 His botanical collections are preserved in the Lamarck herbarium now in the Paris Museum of Natural History.

The first large scientific exploring expedition to reach the Philippines was the Malaspina Expedition 2 sent out by the Spanish government. Two active and energetic botanists accompanied this expedition; namely, Thaddeus Haenke and Luis Nee, and both made extensive collections.

The Malaspina Expedition was in the Philippines from March to December, 1792; most of the field work was done in Luzon, and the island was traversed throughout its length. While the botanical collections exceeded in amount and value those of any other similar expedition visiting the Philippines, much of it still remains unidentified, this being especiaUy the case with Nee's collections at Madrid. A few species were described from Nee's Philippine material by CavaniHes,3 and still fewer by Lagasca and by Nee himself. Much of Haenke's material was studied by Presl, and numerous species were described by him.4 At the time the Malaspina Expedition was in the Philippines it is evident that considerable local interest in botany developed, but this interest was only temporary.5 1 Sonnerat, P., Voyage a La Nouvelle Guinee, 1776, XVI, pp. 1-202, t. 1-120.

2 Novo y Colson, P., Viaje politico-cientifico aLrededor del mundo por las corbatas Descubierta y A trevida al mando de los capitanes de navio D. Alejand1'0 Malaspina y Don Jose de Bustamante y Guerra desde 1789 a 1794, 1885, XXXI, pp. 1-681, t. 1-7, map.

S Cavanilles, A. J., leones et descriptiones pLantarum, quae aut 8ponte in Hispania crescent, aut in hortis hospitantu1', vols. 1-6, 17911801, t. 1-600. There are a few Philippine references in other works

by Cavanilles.

4 Presl, C. B., Reliquiae Haenkeanae, seu descriptiones et icones plantarum, quas in America meridionale et boreali, in insuLis Philippinis et Marianis collegit Thaddeus Haenki, vol. 1, 1825-1830, XV, pp. 1-356, t. 1-48; vol. 2, 1831-1835, pp. 1-152, t. 49-72.

6 Merrill, E. D., The Pineda monument and the probable site of the first Botanic Garden in the Philippines, Philip. Journ. Sci., vol. 7, 1912, Bot., pp. 363-371, t. 22.

481

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The Romanzoff Expedition was the next to reach the Archipelago; its botanist was A. von Chamisso. 1 Considerable botanical material was collected in Luzon, chiefly in Cavite and Batangas Provinces, from December 17, 1817, to January 29, 1818, and i:;; now preserved in the Berlin Herbarium.

In the latter part of 1818 S. Perrottet visited the Philippines on Le Rhone; he made extensive observations on Philippine economic plants and collected considerable botanical material. His results were published in 1824.2 Gaudichaud S collected in the Philippines in 1836 and 1837 as botanist on La Bonite; his material is preserved in the herbarium of the Paris Museum.

In 1831 F. J. F. Meyen, botanist on the voyage of the P'russian expedition of the Prinzess Louise, under Captain Wendt, visited the Philippines and collected botanical material in Rizal (at San Mateo and Montalban) and Laguna Provinces (at Jala Jala), Luzon, from September 14 to October' 15. Philippine species to a considerable num1 Chamisso, A. von, Reise um die Welt mit der Romanzoffischen Entdeckungs-Expedition in den Jahren 1815-1818 auf der Brigg Rurilc, vol. 1, 1836, pp. 1-436; vol. 2, 1836, pp. 1-396; Chamisso, A. von, and D. von Schlechtendal, De plantis in expeditione speculatoria Romanzoffiana observatis rationem dicunt, Linnaea, vol. 1, 1826, pp.

1-73, through all volumes to vol. 10, 1836, pp. 582-603; Kotzebue, O. von, Entdeckungs Reise in die Sud-See und nach der Berings-Strasse * * * Unternommen in :I< * * 1815-1818, * * * auf dem Schiffe Rurik. vola. 1-3, (1821).

2 Perrottet, S., Catalogue raissone des plantes introduites dans les colonies francaises de Mascareigne et de Cayenne, et de celles rapportees vivantes des mers d' Asie et de la Guyane, au Jardin des Plantes de Paris, Mem. Soc. Linn. Paris, vol. 3, 1824, pp. 89-151; see also C. B. Robinson, Perrottet and the Philippines, Philip. Journ. Sci., vol. 3, 1909, Bot., pp. 303-306.

3 Gaudichaud-Beaupre, C., Voyage autour du monde execute pendent les annees 1836 et 1897 sur la Corvette la Bonite comandee par M. Vaillant--Historie naturelle. Botanique, vol. 1, 1844-1846, t. 1150, text, 1851, pp. 1-355; vol. 2, 1851, pp. 1-444; explanation of the plates by C. d'Alizette, 1866, pp. 1-187.

482

SCIENCE ber based on Meyen's material, have been described by various botanists. 1 In 1843 the Archipelago was visited by the Wilkes United States Exploring Expedition, and a considerable collection ot plants was made by Rich, Pickering, and Brackenridge, chiefly in Luzon. This material was studied by A. Gray,2 Brackenridge, and others, and the specimens are preserved in various American and European herbaria, notably the United States National Herbarium, the Gray Herbarium, and the Kew Herbarium. The Wilkes Expedition was in Philippine waters from January 13 to February 12, 1842.

The last of the great exploring expeditions to visit the Philippines was the Challenger Expedition,3 which was in Philippine waters from October 13 to November 11, 1874 (Zamboanga, Iloilo, Manila), and from January 11 to February 5, 1875 (Manila, Cebu, Camiguin de Misamis, Zamboanga, Malanipa, Malamaui, Basilan, and Santa Cruz).

The botanical collections made were few and relatively unimportant.

During this entire period no local residents, other than the Spanish priests Blanco and Llanos, developed any particular interest in botany, and no botanical collections other 1 Meyen, F. J. F., Reise um die Erde ausgefurt auf dem Koniglich Preussischen Seehandlungs-Schiffe Prinzes8 Louise, commandirt von Capitan W. Wendt in den Jahren 1830, 1831, und 1832, vol. 1, 1834, pp. 1-493; vol. 2, 1835, pp. 1-413; see also Meyen, F. J. F., Observationes botanicas in itinere circum terram institutas, Nov. Act. Acad. Leop.-Carol. Nat. Cur., vol. 19, 1843, Suppl. vol. 1: XXXII, pp.

1-512, t. 1-13.

2 Gray, A., Botany of the United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838-1842 under the command of Captain Wilkes, U. S. N., 1854, pp. 1-777, t. 1-100; Brackenridge, W. D., Cryptogamia, Filices, 1854, VIII, pp. 1-357, t. 1-46; see also Merrill, E. D., The Philippine plants collected by the Wilkes United States Exploring Expedition, Philip. Journ. Sci., vol. 3, 1908, Bot., pp. 73-84 t.

1-4.

3 Report on the scientific results of the voyage of H. M. S. Challenger during the years 1873-1876. Narrative, vol. 1,2 (1885), pp.

604-669.

483

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES than small ones made by Callery were prepared and sent to Europe by local residents.

The one great collection of botanical material made in the Philippines during this period was that of Hugh Cuming (1836 to 1840), who came to the Archipelago for the specific purpose of collecting natural-history material, especially shells. He collected in the Provinces of Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan, Pampanga, Bulacan, Rizal, Zambales, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines Sur, and Albay, Luzon. and on the Islands of Corregidor, Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Cebu, Negros, Panay, Bohol, and Mindanao (Misamis Province). Somewhat over 250 numbers were collected by him on his return trip to Europe in Malacca, Singapore, Sumatra, and St. Helena, which were unfortunately distributed with Philippine labels. 1 Cuming prepared an enormous number of duplicate specimens, which on his return to London he disposed of to various private collectors and public institutions.

His numbered collections approximated 2,464, of which about 2,200 were from the Philippines. Until near the end of the nineteenth century the greater part of the knowledge of the Philippine flora available to European botanists was based on the ' Cuming Philippine collections, his specimens being generally available in most of the larger European herbaria. No single collection made in the Philippines up to the end of the nineteenth century can be compared to the Cuming collection in value. This collection was made tne subject of a special enumeration by Vidal in 1 Merrill, E. D., Genera and species erroneously credited to tke Philippine flora, Philip. Journ. ScL, vol. 10, 1915, Bot., pp. 171-19,1.

On page 183 is given a list of Cuming's localities by inclusive numbers.

484

SCIENCE 1885,1 and on it Turczaninow 2 largely based an extensive series of special papers. The specimens are generally cited in practically all monographic taxonomic works issued since about 1842.

During the same period smaller and less important botanical collections were made by Jagor, Lobb, Porte, Barthe, Callery, and others, which found their way into various European herbaria, notably Kew, Paris, and Berlin.

THE PERIOD FROM 1870 TO 1898

In the period from 1870 to the close of the Spanish regime in 1898 there was a distinct renaissance in local botany due largely to the influence, energy, and botanical ability of Sebastian Vidal who came to the Philippines in 1871 as inspector general in the forestry bureau, and who in 1876 was appointed chief of the commission for the forest flora of the Philippines. His first extensive publication was his Sinopsis,3 the work on which was done largely in Manila, and this was followed by two important volumes, the result of a work in vario s European herbaria in 1883, notably at Kew. 4 Vidal was the first of the local botanists to recognize the necessity of a local botanical library and herbarium and, further, the absolute necessity of comparing current collections of Philippine material with extant types in various European herbaria. With 1 Vidal, S., Phanerogamae Cumingianae Philippina?'um, 1885, ~V, pp. 1-217, t. 1.

2 Turczaninow, N., in Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscow, vol. 19,2 1'846, pp.

489-496, 497-510; vol. 20,2 1847, pp. 148-174; vol. 21,1 1848, pp. 250262, 570-591; vol. 24,1 1851, pp. 166-214; vol. 25,1 1852, pp. 310-325; vol.路 27,2 1854, pp. 271-372; vol. 31,1 1858, pp. 185-250, 379-476; vol. 36,2 1863, pp. 193-227, 228-235, 545-615.

3 Vidal, S., Sinopsis de familias y geneTOS de plantas leiiosas de Filipinas, 1883, XVIII, pp. 1-411, t. 1-100.

4 Vidal, S., Phanerogamae Cumingianae Philippinarum, 6 indice

n.umhico y catalogo sistematico de las plantas faner6gamas colecciona.clas en FilirJinas por Hugh Cuming, con caracteristicas de algunas especies no descritas y del genero Cumingia (Malvaceas), 1885, XV, pp. 1-217, t. 1. Revision de las plantas vasculares Filipinas, 1886, XV, pp. 1-454, t. 2.

485

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Vidal's death in 1889 local productive work in botany ceased, and on September 27, 1897, the botanical library and the herbarium established by him were destroyed by an accidental fire in the burning of the forestry bureau building.

Working in collaboration with Vidal at Kew on the latter's Philippine collections, R. A. Rolfe, then an assistant in the Kew Herbarium, prepared and published several papers on the Philippine flora, the most important of which was his general paper on the origin of the Philippine flora. t During this period the sumptuous third edition of Blanco's Flora de Filipinas was published by the Augustinian Order in Manila, 1877 to 1883. The first three volumes of this are merely a lieprint of the second edition of 1845 with a Latin translation, thus following the obsolete Linnaean system of classification. The fourth volume consists of reprints of the various papers published by Llanos, the first publication of Mercado's old manuscript on medicinal plants, and the N ovissim,a Appendix by Fathers C. Fernandez-Villar and A. Naves, which was an attempt to enumerate all the plants known from the Philippines together with reductions of the species described by Blanco and by Llanos. The untrustworthiness of this work is indicated by the fact that of the 4,479 species admitted as Philippine, approximately 1,948, or about 44 per cent, are not known to occur in the Archipelago. As a corollary many of the proposed reductions of species described by Blanco and by Llanos are erroneous.

During this period very extensive botanical collections were made in Luzon by Mr. A. Loher, who has resided in the Philippines since 1889. His material is available in various herbaria, notably Kew, Munich, and Washington; 1 Rolfe, R. A., On the flora of the Philippine Islands and its probable derivation, Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot., vol. 21, 1884, pp. 283-316,

t. 10.

486

SCIENCE there are many duplicates of his later collections in the herbarium of the Bureau of Science. Extensive collections made by Mr. Loher subsequent to 1906 have recently been very generously presented by him to the Bureau of Science.

In 1888 Dr. O. Warhurg 1 botanized extensively in various parts of the Archipelago, from northern Luzon to Mindanao. His Philippine collections approximate 3,500 numbers; the original set is in the herbarium of the botanic garden, Berlin, and a fairly representative duplicate set is in the herbarium of the Bureau of Science. Smaller collections were made by Prof. J. B. Steere of the University of Michigan in 1874 and 1875 (ferns only), by F. W. Burbidge in 1877, and by John 'Whitehead in 1896.

A general summary of the botanical work accomplished on the Philippine flora from the earliest date to the close of the nineteenth century, including the work of the Spanish botanists, that of European and American botanists, the hotanical garden, local herbaria, libraries, and the Philippine botanical material in European and American botanical institutions, was published by me in 1903. 2 The last few years of the nineteenth century were disastrous for Philippine botany. Naturally during the insurrection against Spain in 1896, followed by the Spanish-American War in 1898 and by the insurrection against the American domination, conditions were entirely unfavorable for productive work, even had there been trained botanists in the local service. As already noted, the herbarium and the botanical library established by Sebastian Vidal in the forestry bureau were entirely destroyed by fire on September 27, 1897, in the burning of the forestry bureau building. On February 19, 1899, the much small1 Warburg, 0., Monsunia.

Beitrage zur Kenntnis8 der Vegetation des SUd und Ostasiatischen Monsungebietes, 1900, VIII p .... 1-207 t. 1-11. ,.... , 2 Merrill, E. D., Botanical work in the Philippines, Philip. Bur. Agri. Bull., vol. 4, 1903, pp. 1-53, t. 1.

487

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES er and less important botanical collections assembled by Naves and Fernandez-Villar, the authors of the Novissima Appendix, were also destroyed by fire in the burning of the Guadalupe convent, near Manila, this building having been destroyed by American troops. The botanical collections, a duplicate set of Vidal's plants, the botanical literature in the defunct Museo Biblioteca, and all other collections of this institution and the small but important botanical library in the botanical garden disappeared during the unsettled state of affairs in 1898. Thus, at the beginning of the American administration the assembled equipment for botanical work in Manila, both literature and specimens, had been destroyed, lost, or rendered inaccessible.

THE PERIOD I\ROM 1898 TO 1923

With the organization of the ForestrY Bureau under the American regime in May, 1900, an attempt was made to rehabilitate the botanical work. Some. botanical collections were made by various employees of the bureau, approximating 850 specimens, up to the early part of 1902, and some botanical literature was secured, chiefly from local sources; there was, however, no trained botanist available. In 1902 I was appointed botanist in the Philippine Bureau of Agriculture, and arrived in Manila in April, 1902, with the nucleus of the force selected to organize the Bureau of Agriculture. Work was immediately commenced in an unfurnished room, with neither botanical literature nor botanical specimens. Within a short time the small botanical collections and scanty literature in the Forestry Bureau was made available to me,. and in July, 1903, all botanical work was transferred to the Bureau of Government Laboratories, in accord with the general policy adopted of centralizing the scientific work of the Philippine Government in one institution. This bureau became a part of the Bureau of Science in 1906.

488

i

I

!

SCIENCE Botanical progress has been rather remarkable since 1902. Through collections and exchanges a general herbarium, chiefly of Philippine, Indo-Malaysian, Australian, and Polynesian material, has been built up; it now contains over 250,000 mounted specimens and some representation of practically all species known from the Philippines, and is one of the few large herbaria in Asia and Malaysia.

During this time over 400,000 duplicate specimens have been distributed on general exchange account with over eighty institutions and individuals. The library has been developed into a remarkably efficient working unit, its resources scarcely being surpassed by those of any institution in all of Asia and Malaysia. Botanical exploration has been extended into most parts of the Archipelago, as well as into Borneo, the Moluccas, the Marianne Islands, China, and Indo-China. By means of close cooperation an enormous amount of valuable material has been secured through other Government units, notably the Bureau of Forestry, which alone has supplied over 29,000 numbered collections and many duplicates.

Various employees of the Bureau of Science and of the Bureau of Forestry have made extensive botanical collections; for the Bureau of Science, Messrs. Copeland, EImer, Whitford, Robinson, Foxworthy, Mearns, McGregor, Ramos, and Edano; and for the Bureau of Forestry, Messrs.

Curran, Merritt, Everett, Clark, Darling, Hutchinson, Klemme, Meyer, Barnes, Borden, and numâ&#x201A;Źrous Filipino foresters and rangers. The largest single collection made by anyone individual is that made by Mr. A. D. E. Elmer, working as a private collector-a collection that has been given wide distribution to botanical institutions all over the world. Mr. R. S. Williams, representing the New York Botanical Garden, made extensive collections in Luzon and in Mindanao from October, 1903, to August, 1905. Private collectors, among them Messrs. Vanoverbergh, Wen489

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES zel, C. F. Baker, Loher, Weber, Topping, Lete, and Mrs. Clemens, have supplied abundant material.

The taxonomic work has covered practically all the larger groups of plants, very much having been done locally on the phanerogams and vascular cryptogams, with specialist in certain families in Europe and America handling certain groups. In the cellular cryptogams European and American specialists have identified and described duplicate material supplied by the Bureau of Science.

Thus, most of the work on the current collections of mosses has been done by Dr. V. F. Brotherus; on the hepatics by the late Mr. F. Stephani; on the lichens by Dr. E. A. Wainio; on the fungi by Dr. H. Sydow, Dr. W. A. Murrill, Mr. C. G. Lloyd, and the late Dr. P. Hennings; on the algae by the late Mr. F. S. Collins; and on the ferns and fern allies by Dr. H. Christ, Dr. E . B. Copeland, the late Dr. G. Hieronymus, and Dr. W. Herter. Specialists have handled much or all of our material in certain families of flowering plants; among them, Mr. Oakes Ames in Orchidaceae; the late Dr. O. Beccari in Palmae; Dr. U. Martelli in Pandanaceae; Dr. L. Radlkofer in Sapindaceae; Rev. G. Kiikenthal and the late Mr. C. B. Clarke in Cyperaceae, and the latter in Acanthaceae; Dr. E. Hackel in Gramineae; Dr. R. Schlechter in Asclepiadaceae; the late Mr. C. de Candolle in Piperaceae; Dr. A. Engler in Araceae; and Dr. A. Brand in Symplocaceae.

Locally, taxonomic work has been largely done by Dr. C. B. Robinson, Dr. F. W. Foxworthy, Dr. E. B. Copeland, Mr. A. D. E. Elmer, and myself. Plant pathology and the fungi have been the subjects of extensive studies

by Mr. P. W. Graff, Mr. O. A. Reinking, Dr. H. S. Yates, Mr. C. F. Baker, and Mr. H. A. Lee; and in the algae Dr. W. R. Shaw has published a notable series of papers on the Volvocaceae. Drs. F. C. Gates, W. H. Brown, E. B. 490

SCIENCE .

Copeland, H. N. Whitford, and others have produced valuable papers on physiology and ecology.

Publication of results has kept pace With exploration and taxonomic work. This, to a large extent, has been in the bulletins of the Bureau of Forestry; the publications of the old Bureau of Government Laboratories; the Philippine Journal of Science, official organ of the Bureau of Science; special monographic publications of the Bureau of Science; and in Mr. Elmer's private publication, Leaflets of Philippine Botany. Many papers by foreign authors, based wholly or in part on our material, have been published in Manila and in the scientific periodical literature of Europe and America.

Generally speaking, the history of Philippine botanical endeavor in the period of 1902 to 1923 may be summarized by stating that Manila has been made a center of botanical research for the Philippines, and one of the few productive centers of research in Asia and Malaysia, and that the field covered by the various local botanists has extended to most lin€s of modern botanical research. During this time knowledge of the Philippine flora, which to the end of the last century was very incomplete, has been greatly ext€nded, so that at the present time this rich flora is better known than is that of any other part of the entire Malaysian region, except Java and parts of the Malay Peninsula. This advance has been made possible only by the wis€ policy of centralization of scientific work adopted by the Philippine Government, cooperation between existing units, and the granting of the necessary financial support by the Government-a support not always fully adequate to m€et the situation, but always enough to permit of some progress and expansion.

The list of known Philippine species has been extended from not more than 2,500 described forms in all groups, definitely known from the Archipelago at the close of the 491

I

~NCYCLOPEDIA

OF THE PHILIP:::'INES

last century, to 8,120 species of flowering plants alone, to which must be added approximately 1,000 species of ferns and fern allies and nearly 3,000 species of algae, lichens, mosses, and hepatics. A very high percentage of these additions in . all groups has been in the form of previously undescribed species. How much remains to be accomplished before the very rich and varied flora of the Archipelago becomes adequately known is appreciated only by the few botanists who have been closely associated with the work in the Philippines during the past two decades.

Some idea of the magnitude of the task awaiting future botanists may be gained from the statement that, of the species included in this enumeration, 1,842 are known only from the single collection on which the original description or Philippine recor:d waS' based, and 939 additional ones are known from two collections only. Since the first three volumes of this enumeration were published, I have described approximately, 100 additional new species of Philippine plants, and current collections ( especially those made in previously unexplored or slightly explored regions) constantly yield additions to the large list already known.

492

A HISTORICAL RESUME OF PHILIPPINE ENTOMOLOGY

By

LEOPOLDO

B. UrcHANco

Of the Upive1'sity of the Philippines Chairman, Section of Entomology, N. R. C.

On the island of P.alawan, writes Antonio Pigafetta in The First Voyage Around the World by Magellan (Hakluyt Society), there "are found certain trees the leaves of which, when they are free, are animated and walk. They are like the leaves of the mulberry tree, but not so long; they have the leaf-stalk short and pointed, and near the leaf-stalk they have on each side two feet. If they are touched, they escape; but, if crushed, they do not give out blood. I kept one for nine days in a box. When I opened it, the leaf went around the box. I believe those leaves live on nothing but air." Pigafetta'gI account of Palawan leaf-insects as he saw them in 1521 is apparently the first recognizable written record of Philippine insects. Aside, however, from this and perhaps similar random accounts by casual travellers, no entomological work was undertaken in the Philippines until the nineteenth century.

The first entomological investigator in the Philippines appears to have been Johann Friedrich Eschscholtz, who, as physician and naturalist on the Russian ship Rurik, visiteu the Islands in 1816 (Essig, 1931, 617-622). More entomological collectors followed later, especially after 1830, the year of the opening of the port of Manila to the world's commerce, as then foreigners other than Spaniards became less subject to annoying restrictions. The results of the activities of these hitherto unwelcome aliens marked the opening and, in many cases, important fundamental chapters in Philippine entomology.

493

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES One of these pioneer foreign explorers was Hugh Cuming, the famous English conchologist. He visited the Islands, first in 1831 and again in 1840, and collected in the interior, not only of Luzon, but also of Mindanao and many of the smaller islands, which were then extremely difficult of access (Melvill, 1895). Although interested primarily in shells, Cuming amassed in addition a large quantity of Philippine insects. Some of the earliest known species of Philippine Hemiptera, reported on by Dallas (1851) were described from Cuming's material that found its way to the British Museum. Likewise, his specimens, together with those obtained in later years by Carl Semper, formed a large part of the basis for the first catalogue of Philippine Coleoptera by Baer (1886). One of Cuming's beetles which Baly (1858) named Promecotheca cumingi, in his honor, was to obtrude insistently on public attention a century after its discovery, as the notorious coconut-leaf miner.

Hemiptera Insularum Philippinarum (1870), by Carl Stal, the famous Swedish entomologist, who is generally considered as the father of modern hemipterology, and Die Schmetterlinge der philippineschen Inseln: Rhopalocera (1886-1892) ; Heterocera (1896-1902), by Georg Semper, a German zoologist, are both milestones in Philippine entomology for all future work on Hemiptera, Homoptera, and Lepidoptera. The material used in the preparation of these publications was collected by Carl Semper, a brother of Georg, during his travels in different Philippine localities from 1859 to 1865. Carl Semper was unquestionably the most successful of all entomological explorers in nineteenth-century Philippines; he must have gone into the work with exceptional vigor, combing for insect forms the least frequented wilderness even in the high mountains of Luzon, Palawan, Bohol, and Mindanao. His Hemiptera and Homoptera alone numbered 52() species, or nearly 4ÂŁ)4

SCIENCE one-third of the total in this group that is known at the present date. Most of these species were then new to science.

In the Philippines at present, Lepidoptera is the best known order, with about 1,825 recorded species, according to Schultze's (1928) estimate. When we consider that in Carl Semper's collection his brother recognized 1,519 species (612 butterflies; 907 moths), we can appreciate the characteristic German thoroughness with which this collector worked. A considerable number of these had, of course, been previously recorded from the Philippines as a result of activities of other collectors, notably the German savant Hans Herman Behr in 1848, the adventurous French lawyer-naturalist Pierre Joseph Michael Lorquin in 1856 and in 1862, and the German lepidopterist Otto Staudinger. The last named sent collectors to the Philippines and on the material gathered, published, in 1899, his Lepidoptera van Palawan.

Other groups of insects, likewise, received attention, as, for instance, on the part of the French Baron Edmond de Selys-Longchamps, leading world authority of his time on dragonflies and damselflies, who published a paper on Odonates des Philippines (1891). The same Stal who studied Semper's Hemiptera also worked up his orthopteran material and published a paper, Orthoptera nova ex Insulis Philippinis (1877).

The number of foreign collectors and the scientific reports that ensued gradually increased markedly. The Philippines was becoming better known entomologically in Europe and, to some extent, also in America. Resident workers during this period, however, appear to have been few and far between. Along faunistic lines, two publications of local production may be noted, namely, Ramon Jordana's Bosquejo geografico e historico-natural del Archipielago Filipino (1885), which was published in Madrid, I

495

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES and the Dominican Father Casto de Elera's Catalogo sistematico de toda la fauna de Filipinas conocida hasta el presente, 3 volumes (1895-1896), University of Santo Tomas Press, Manila. The latter work in particular represents an enormous undertaking. Volume 2, "Articulados," lists over four thousand species, most of them being supported by specimens then extant in the Santo Tomas Museum. Bibliographical citations are conveniently complete.

In this volume, insects occupy the first 525 pages; Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Arachnida, Crustacea, Rotifera, Annelida, etc., the remaining 71 pages of the text; while 72 additional pages are devoted to index. Unfortunately, in spite of the book's limiting title, a number of extra-Philippine forms were included, so that, although the localities are specified in each case, a somewhat confused idea of the Philippine fauna results. This work was awarded a diploma of merit in the Philippine regional exposition, which was held at that time in Manila. Both Jordana and Elera were general zoologists, and not entomologists.

Toward the closing decades of the nineteenth century, resident collectors were beginning to appear, especially in the persons of Alexander Schadenberg, who was one of the German founders of Botica Boie, Regino Garcia and Father Francisco Sanchez, S. J., science professor at the Ateneo de Manila, and his illustrious former pupils, Dr. Jose Rizal (during his exile at Dapitan), and the Guerrero brothers (Doctors Leon and Luis). None of them published their materials~ but they placed these in the hands of European specialists.

Biological studies of insects, which are admittedly so essential in formulating control of inj urious species and utilization of beneficial forms, were conspicuous by their almost total absence. Domingo Sanchez y Sanchez, an assistant zoologist in the Government Forestry Service, published a paper on a coffee longhorned borer, entitled M e496

SCIENCE

moria sobre un insecto enemigo del cofeto (1890). In the Boletin Oficial Agricola de Filitpinas, issued monthly by the Agronomical Service during the years 1894, 1895, and 1896 is a general article on insects that are injurious and insects that are beneficial to the farmer, another on the cultivation of the mulberry and silk culture, two articles on white grubs, three on locust control, one on possibility of commercial utilization of locust fat, one on peanuts and one on Ilocos cotton, in which incidental mention is made of insect pests. The writers, with one or two exceptions, showed only an amateurish acquaintance with insects. They all were obviously field agronomists who had to take in insect control as a very minor incident in their work. One exception was Francisco Alcarraz (1895), who, although not an entomologist, proved himself a careful and accurate observer of insects, His report on migratory locusts, their natural control by heavy rains. and wind, preference for the plains rather than higher mountain altitudes for oviposition, rate of march of migratory hoppers, relation of activity to sunshine, and similar characteristics, which, by the way, represented -the earliest observation of this kind in the Philippines, has been confirmed by later workers.

It might be pointed out at this juncture that locusts, above all other agricultural pests, have seriously engaged the attention of the Government since very early times. One cannot help but see, indeed, a striking revelation of the innate conservatism of human nature when he reads the startlingly modern note of the following paragraph in the "Ordinances of Good Government," which were originally promulgated by Governor-General Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera in 1642 and revised by Governor-General Don Fausto Cruzat y GOngora in 1696 (Blair and Robertson, 5: 211) : "The Indians, both men and women, must be made to destroy the locusts that do so great harm to the crops 497

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES throughout the Islands, especially the young, called locton, which are so destructive and can be killed easily, as they have no wings. Each person shall be charged during' certain days or weeks to kill so many gantas of this destructive pest, under penalties that shall be imposed for neglect. Neglect by the alcaldes-mayor and corregidors in this law shall mean deposition from office, and a change in their residencia."

Another writer in the Boletin, Jose Sanchez (1894), noted the preference of the cockchafer Leucopholis irrorata Chevrolat, which he misidentified with an European species as Melolontha vulgaris, for soil rich in humus for oviposition. Incidentally, not a single insect species in the Boletin bears a correct determination, despite all the taxonomic work previously done on Philippine insects by renowned European specialistS', so that the pests referred to can be recognized only by the native names given in the articles.

The successful introduction of a starling, locally known as "martinez," Aetheopsar cristatellus Linnaeus, from southern China between the years 1849 and 1852, "in order to control the locusts" (Blair and Robertson, 51: 127) proved of value in later years, inasmuch as this bird immigrant has been effectively utilized in controlling army worm infestation. This introduction represents the earliest attempt at biological control of insects in the Philippines.

The cochineal insect (introduced first in 1826 and again in 1861), mulberry, and silkworm were among other nineteenth-century importations of beneficial insects, which, however, met with failure. An illuminating account is given by Zuniga in his Estadismo, Vol. 1, pp. 29-30 (Blair and Robertson, 50: 48-51, footnotes) of an attempt at silk culture, through the impetus given by the Sociedad Economica de los Amigos del Paris in 1781: "N> this 498

SCIENCE tree grows as easily as a weed in this country, in a short time were seen around the [estate] house [in San Pedro Tunasan, Laguna] extensive and beautiful plantations of these trees which could produce an abundant harvest of excellent silk. Silkworms were imported from China and it was seen that they multiplied readily. Not only on this estate, but in all directions, the promotion of this industry was taken up with ardor. A considerable quantity of silk was made; but on selling it the owners found that they lost money in cultivating this article. When a calculation was made of what the land which the mulberry tree occupied could produce, it was found that even when it was planted with nothing more than camote it yielded them more than the silk djd; add to this the care of the worms and the cost of manufacture and it will be found that those who devote themselves to its culture must inevitably lose.

The rector of San Jose [College, owner of the estate] alone continued to manufacture the silk that was yielded from the mulberry trees which he had planted, although at last he had to abandon the project."

Scientific work in economic entomology in the Philippines, as a major activity, was in reality an aftermath of American occupation. The earlier varied projects of the United States army research staff included entomology, of which one of the most important results was the discovery that the malaria mosquito can breed only in clear running water, and not in ponds and marshes, as in Europe or America. This valuable finding, however, remained unnoticed in army files until after its rediscovery by researchers of the Rockefeller Foundation stationed in the Philippines.

Through military efforts, likewise, the common species of American bumblebee, Bremus americanorum (Febricius), was introduced into the Mountain Province, Luzon, for the purpose of fertilizing the clover, which was raised for the army horses and mules. However, this species appar499

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ently did not becom.e permanently established, although at least two indigenous forms of bumblebees are commonly caught on flowers in that locality.

To Charles S. Banks belongs the distinction of being the first Government entomologist in the Philippines, with his appointment in 1902 to organize an entomological section in the Bureau of Government Laboratories (later the Bureau of Science). At about the same time, two other very enthusiastic workers were engaged, as a sideline to their regular duties in the Manila Observatory, in carrying out observations on various plant pests, largely Lepidoptera and parasitic Hymenoptera. These were Father William A. Stanton, S. J ., assistant director of the Weather Bureau, and Father Robert E. Brown, S. J. Their interesting notes were included in the monthly bulletins of the Weather Bureau in the years 1903, 1904, and 1905.

With the opening of the College of Agriculture at Los Banos, in 1909, and the organization of an entomological section in the Bureau of Agriculture, Manila, in 1910, entomological work in the Philippines received its much needed reenforcement. More prohlems relative to insects received their proportionate share of attention, including life histories and other biological peculiari.ties of various major insect pests as a basis for control, host relationships, insecticide tests, relation of environmental factors to insect outbreaks, plant quarantine, and scores of others.

Some lucky breaks led to the discovery of new facts or new methods in economic entom.ology, such, for instance, as Mitzmain's (1913) proving that surra is transmitted by the common horsefly, Tabanus striatus Febricius, Mackie's (1917) development of a process for fumigating cigars in partial vacuum to destroy beetles, and Ocfemia's (1934) results on the sugar cane leaf-hopper, Perkinsiella vastatrix Breddin, as a specific vector of the Fiji disease 500

SCIENCE in the Philippines. A review of the large number of entomological articles, mainly in The Philippine Journal of Science, The Philippine Agriculturist, and The Philippine Agricultural Review (since 1930 The Philippine Journal of Agriculture), from the pens of local workers cannot be undertaken with justice in a brief article of this nature.

However, those interested may turn to the partial summaries given in the papers by Otanes (1925), by Merino, Teodoro, and Otanes (1925), by Teodoro and Otanes (1925), by Uichanco (1929, 1934), and by Lopez (19291932), and to the general indices of the Philippine Journal of Science.

Perhaps too much stress has been laid in the present paper on the systematic results of various investigators.

However, it is plainly the first problem of an entomologist, in whichever branch he may be engaged, to acquire a fairly adequate knowledge of tha local insect fauna as a setting for his work. To this end, Philippine economic entomologists have much to be grateful for in the fruitful results of the activities of collectors, who, by the way, did not pass out with the nineteenth century. Although there have been scores of recent collectors, Charles Fuller Baker, who was professor of agronomy and subsequently dean of the College of Agriculture from 1912 until his death in 1927, with his Cuban collector, Julian Valdez, whom he paid out of personal funds, did more than any other individual to augment our knowledge of Philippine insect fauna. With a total of 115 world authorities on various insect groups working on his material, whose reports were embodied in over 400 papers, the known number of insect species of the Philippines was increased to a hitherto unprecedented extent. But of paramount importance is the fact that his inspiration as a teacher and example as a tireless worker have exerted a profound influence on the 501

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES training of the present corps of entomologists in the various government branches, nearly all of whom were his intellectual foster children.

LITERATURE CITED ALCARRAZ, FRANCISCO. 1895. Invasion de las varias provmClas de la isla de Luzon por la langosta del presente ano. Boletin Oficial Agricola, de Filipinas, v. 2: 232-238.

BAER, G. A. 1896. Catalogue des Coleopteres des Philippines. Ann. Soc. b'nt. France, 1886: 97-200.

BALY, JOSEPH S. 1858. Catalogue of the Hispidae in the collection of the British Museum, pt. I. x. 172 p. Pl. 1-9. London.

BLAIR, EMMA HELEN and JAMES AI,EXANDER ROBERTSON, editors and translators. 1903-1909. The Philippine Islands 1493-1898. Cleveland, Ohio: The Arthur H. Clark Company. 55 vol.

DALLAS, W. S. 1851. List of the specimens of hemipterous insects in the collection of the British Museum, pt. 1; ditto, pt. 2 (1852).

London.

ELERA, CASTO DE. 1895-1896. Catalogo sistematico de toda la fauna de l<-'ilipinas conocida hasta el presente y a la vez el de la colleccion zoologica del museo de PP. Dominicos del ColegioUniversidad de Santo Tomas de Manila. Manila:. Imprenta del Colegio de Santo Tomas. 3 vol.

ESSIG, E. O. 1931. A History of Entomology. vii. 1029 p., 263 fig. New. York: The MacMillan Company.

LoPEZ, A. W. 1929-1932. Philippine Sugar Association, Research Bureau, Annual Reports for 1929-1932. Manila.

MACKIE, D. B. 1917. Some causes of failure of the Manila cigar on the United States market and a remedy. Philippine Agricultural Review, v. 10: 223-252, Fig. 1-15.

MELVILL, J. C. 1895. An epitome of the life of the late Hugh Cuming. Jonrnal of Conchology, v. 8: 59-68.

MERINO, GONZALO, NICANOR G. TEODORO and FAUSTINO Q. OTANES. 1925. The Philippine Plant Quarantine Service. Philippine Agricult1tTal Review, v. 18: 411-461.

MITZMAIN, M. B. 1913. The mechanical transmission of surra by Tabanus striatus Fabricius. Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. B, v. 8 :223-229.

OCFEMIA, G. O. 1934. An insect vector of the Fiji disease of sugar cane. American Jou'rnal of Botany, v. 21: 113-120. Pl. 1, 2 fig.

502

SCIENCE OTANES, FAUSTINO Q. 1925. Insects: their relation to man and their control. Philippine Agricultural Review, v. 18: 373-410.

Pl. 70-78.

Philippirne Agriculturist, vol. 1 (1911) to vol. 23 (1935).

Philippine Agricultural Review, vol. 1 (1908) to vol. 22 (1929). Manila.

Philippine Journal of Ag'riculture, vol. 1 (1930) to vol. 5 (1934).

Philippine Journal of Science, vol. 1 (1906) to vol. 55, No.2 (October, 1934).

SANCHEZ, JosE. 1894. EI bucan en las plantaciones de cana-dulce.

Bolet1:n. Oficial Agricola de Filipinas, v. 1: 129-132.

SCHULTZE, W. 1928. Insects of the Philippines. In Dickerson, Roy E. Distribution of Life in the Philippines, pp. 248-266. Monograph 21, Bureau of Science.

SELYS-LONGCHAMPS, EDMUND DE. 1891. Odonates des Philippines.

An. Hist. Nat. Madrid, v. 20.

SEMPER, GEORG. 1886-1892. Die Schmetterlinge der philippinischen Inseln, v. 1: Rhopalocera. 380 p. Plates, A, and 1-49; text figs.

Wiesbaden: C. W. Kreidel's Verlag.

STAL, CARL. 1870. Hemiptera insularum Philippinarum. Ofversigt af kongl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Fohandlingar, Stockholm, 1870: 607-776. Pl. 7-9.

STAL, CARL. 1877. Hemiptera nova ex insulis Philippinis. Ofversigt af kongl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Fohandlingar, Stockholm.

TEODORO, NICANOR G. and F. Q. OTANES. 1925, Philippine literature index of plant pests and diseases, I. Philippine Agricultural Review, v. 18: 592-602.

UICHANCO, LEOPOLDO B. 1929. Department of Entomology. Philippine A [J'ricuZtu'l"ist, v. 18: 333-339.

UICHANCO, LEOPOLDO B. 1934. A twenty-five year balance sheet for economic entomology. Philippine Agriculturist, v. 23 :419-429.

2 fig.

503

PHILIPPINE PALEONTOLOGY By

LEOPOLDO

A.

FAUSTINO

Assistant Director, Bureau of Science Chairman, Section of Mining' and Metallurgical Engineering, N. R. C.

Philippine paleontology is essentially a study of invertebrate paleontology as up to this time very few vertebrate fossil remains have ever been encountered. As a matter of fact outside of lone specimens of Stegodon teeth from Mindanao, Elephas teeth from Pangasinan, shark's tooth from Mindoro, and some Mammalian teeth, probably of antelopes, from Pasig, Rizal, Philippine formations have so far yielded only invertebrate fossils.

The first mention of Philippine fossils was made by Baron Richthofen (1862) when he reported the finding of specimens of Foraminifera in Binangonan Peninsula, Rizal Province. Later Felix l<:arrer (1880) described some Foraminifera from the Zambales mountains. Still later Philippine fossil Foraminifera were described by Douville (1911) and by Yabe (1919, 1925, 1929).

Radiolarians, corals, echinoderms, and mollusca have been described by Smith (1906, 1913), Dickerson, (1921, 1922), and others in a few publications, but the most important work and the one which may be considered the foundation of Philippine paleontology was made by Karl Martin (1896) who on account of his work in the Dutch East Indies was able to recognize certain horizons in the Philippines by the presence of Vicarya callosa Jenkins and its associated fauna.

On account of the fact that in the Tropics during the tertiary period the climatic changes were slight, the evolution that has taken place has proceeded much more slowly and the changes have not been as well marked as compared with those in the Temperate regions. Philippine geologic 504

SCIENCE and paleontologic history must be read with this difficulty and much comparative material both recent and fossil must be accumulated in order that sub-specific differences may be recognized. Thorough familiarity with recent fauna is, therefore, absolutely necessary and students of Philippine stratigraphy, paleontology, and geologic history must begin with the study of the existing marine fauna in and about the archipelago. Attention at this point may be called to Cushman's "Foraminifera of the Philippine and Adjacent Seas," Bartsch's studies on Philippine Mollusca, the writer's "Recent Madreporaria of the Philippine Islands" and his "Summary of l?hilippine Marine and Freshwater Mollusks."

Attention must be called to the fact that guide fossils are extremely rare and reference of Philippine Tertiary formations to standard divisions will have to be made after a careful notation of the percentage of living species present and this percentage will be very different from those recognized in Europe or America but will approximate the figures set by Karl Martin in Java and the other islands of the Dutch East Indies.

UTERATURE CITED TI\~Y' lf' II"~

â&#x20AC;˘

DICKERSON, Roy E. 1921. A fauna of the Vigo group; its bearing on the evolution of marine molluscan faunas. Philip. Jou,". Sci., v. 18: 1-23, 2 pIs. - - - - - - , . 1922. Review of the Philippine Paleontology. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 20 :195-230, 16 pIs. DOUVILLE, H. 1911. Les foraminiferes dans Ie Tertiare des Philippines. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 6D: 53-80, 4 pIs. KARRER, FELIX. 1880. Foraminiferos de las margas terciarias de la isla de Luzon (Filipinas). Bol. de lo, Com. del Mapa geol. de Espana, v. 7: 257-282, 2 pIs. MARTIN, KARL. 1896. Ueber Tertiare Fossilien von den Philippinen.

Sa'YfLm. des geol. Reich-Museums in Leiden, v. 5, 89 :52-69, 2 cuts.

Translation, Becker, Geology of the Philippine Islands, Annual 505

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Rep. U. S. Geol. Survey 21 (1901) 492-644. See also Orbitoides von den Philippinen. Centralbl. f. Mineral Geol. u. Pale on.

1901 No. 11.

RICHTHOFEN, FERDINAND VON. 1862. Vorkommen der Nummulitenformation in den Philippinen. Zeitschr. d. deutschen neol. Ge8. v. 14, 89 : 357-360.

SMITH; W. D. 1906. Preliminary geological reconnaissance of the Loboo Mountains of Batangas Province. Philip. Joum. Sci., v. 1: 617-633, 4 pIs. ------~---,.

1913. Contributions to the stratigraphy and fossil invertebrate fauna of the Philippine Islands. Philip.

Journ. Sci., v. 8A:235-300, 20 pIs. YABE, H. 1919. Notes on Lepidocyc1ina limestone from Cebu.

Science report8 of the Tohoku Imperial University, Second series (Geology) v. 37-51, 2 pIs. YABE, H., and HANZAWA, S. 1925. Note on some Tertiary Foraminiferous Rocks from the Philippines. Ibid., v. 7: 97-109, 3 pIs. YABE, H., and HANZAWA, S. 1929. Tertiary Foraminiferous Rocks of the Philippines, Sci. Report, Tohoku Imperial Univer8ity, Second series (Geology) v. 11: 141-152.

606

ANTHROPOLOGICAL WORK IN THE PHILIPPINES By

RICARDO

E.

GALANG

Of tke Bureau of Science Associate Member, Section of Biological Survey, N. R. C.

HISTORICAL REVIEW

Anthropological work in the Philippines was connected with the establishment of an Insular Museum of Ethnology, Natural History and Commerce, under the Department of Public Instruction in 1901. The Museum was temporarily placed under the Chief of the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes. In July 1903, the Secretary of the Interior took control of the administration of the Non-Christian peoples, and the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes was changed to Bureau of Ethnological Survey, with Dr. Albert Ernest Jenks as Chief of the Survey and Director of the Museum.

One of the activities of the Bureau was the collection of specimens for the Museum which was housed in the Oriente Building on Plaza Calderon de la Barca.

Shortly after the creatio'n of the Bureau of Ethnological Survey, the Museum was transferred to the Philippine exhibit in the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, at St. Louis, U. S. A. (1904). After said exposition, the Museum was reorganized under the name "Philippine Museum" and placed definitely under the control of the Bureau of "Ethnological Survey." On August 3, 1905, shortly after the reorganization, Dr. Merton L. Miller was appointed Chief of the Survey.

On October 26, 1905, the Bureau of Ethnological Survey was abolished by Act No. 1407 as a separate bureau, and constituted the "Division of Ethnology" under the Bureau of Education. The Commercial Section was eliminated; loaned exhibits were returned to the owners, and all natural history exhibits, except those in the Ethnographical 507

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES section, were transferred to the Bureau of Science. The collections of the Museum were, therefore, confined to objects of ethnographical or historical interest and were stored in the Bureau of Education in the Walled City. On October 6, 1906, by Act No. 1541 of the Philippine Commission, the Division of Enthnology was again transferred from the Bureau of Education to the Bureau of Science.

Extensive collection of specimens was made for the Museum from 1909 to 1913. By the Appropriation Act for 1913, the Division of Ethnology was abolished, but the Museum was retained in the Bureau of Science. Dr. Miller and Mr. Emerson B. Christie were appointed Superintendent and Assistant Superintendent, respectively. During this year about one half of the specimens were transferred to the Philippine Board of the Panama-Pacific Exposition, and all the employees were temporarily detailed to work in this board. The year 1913 and the first half of the year 1914 were devoted to the collection of specimens for the Panama Exposition.

In 1914 the Secretary of the Interior Winfred T. Dennison, by Administrative order, definitely eliminated the ethnological work of the Bureau of Science and transferred the Museum specimens to the University of the Philippines.

However, due to lack of funds, the University of the Philippines only stored the collections.

But as the University of the Philippines could not provide funds for the maintenance of the Museum, it was again retransferred to the Bureau of Science in 1915, and the latter re-established the Museum upon the return of the collections from the Panama-Pacific Exposition. The Museum was designated, "Bureau of Science Museum", and was housed in the Sales Agency Building at 25th St., Port Area, which was given to the Bureau of Science by authority of the Governor General. Professor H. Otley Beyer 508

SCIENCE was appointed Curator, and shortly after he assumed his post he organized the Museum.

By virtue of Act No. 2572, creating the "Philippine Library and Museum", the "Bureau of Science Museum" became the "Division of Philippine Museum" of the new institution on March 28, 1916. The transfer of specimens was finally effected on September 1, 1917, from the Bureau of Science to the Philippine Library and Museum. By authority of the same Act, the museum collections from the Bureau of Science and other specimens worthwhile preserving from other bureaus were transferred to the "Division of Philippine Museum".

When Act No. 3477 of the Philippine Legislature was passed in 1928, the Museum became a separate and distinct bureau, under the jurisdiction of the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. The new institution is designated "National Museum of the Philippine Islands."

It started to function as such with its personnel and funds on February 1, 1929, under the direction Of Mr. Manuel Y riarte, Director.

The functions of the National Museum, according to the said Act, are to "acquire, organize, preserve, administer, and increase a museum containing pictures, paintings, sculptures, portraits, photographs, maps, geographical charts, and all objects which by reason of their archaeological, artistic, scientific, or commemorative value should be permanently preserved as a memento of, and out of veneration for, the great men of the country, as a testimony of the National history and culture, or for the benefit of culture in general."

By authority of said Act No. 3477, the Division of Philippine Museum of the Philippine Library and Museum, with its personnel, equipment and museum specimens of every description, was transferred to the National Museum, and was made the Museum Division of the latter institution.

509

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES In accordance with the Memorandum Order No. 6 of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, issued on January 26, 1933, and made effective on February 1, 1933, the division of Anthropology, the division of natural history, and the division of industries of the former National Museum, which were transferred to the Bureau of Science under section 30 of Act No. 4007 known as the Reorganization Law of 1932, were abolished. Their functions and activities together with other museums and activities relating to museum work and performed by other bureaus and offices under the Department of Agriculture and Commerce were put under one division ~ This was named the National Museum Division and placed under the administrative supervision of the Director of the Bureau of Science. On September 1, 1933, by virtue of General Memorandum Order No. 8 the entomological collection and the man in charge were transferred from the Fish and Game Administration to the National Museum Division, and on November 1, 1933, Science Memorandum Order No. 3-1 abolished the botany division and transferred all its personnel and equipment to the National Museum Division. As at present constituted, the National Museum Division has the following departments or sections: Anthropology, Botany, Geology and Paleontology, Industries, and Zoology.

It may also be mentioned that the establishment of the Department of Anthropology of the University of the Philippines has aided a great deal the anthropological work in the islands. Prof. H. Otley Beyer was made head of the department at its establishment. Courses pertaining to the different branches of Anthropology are offered by the department with a view to study and be familiar with the different phases of the work. Research, investigation and field work in Archaeology and Ethnography are some of its principal activities. Investigation and study in Physical Anthropology has recently been offered.

510

SCIENCE ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

The study of the races of man is always of great interest. This is especially true in the Philippines where the most distinct people live representing the greater part of the races of the globe, in some instances pure, in others mixed, since very remote times. Here man presents himself with the greatest variety of characteristics conceivable, as has been noted by eminent ethnologists. Beginning with the N egrito and ending with the Chinese la nd European mestizos, all the races are represented in these islands.

Our task is to impart a knowledge of the Philippine groups as we find them to-day throughout the Philippines.

Formerly, owing to long established practice, no Philippine groups were considered with any attention, except those that were already Christianized or civilized. It is true that some foreigners have already made some casual observations on some of the ethnic groups in the Philippines, yet their opinions are far from complete and many times conflicting. It should be the duty of ethnography to apply itself more faithfully to the neglected or uncivilized ethnic groups of the Philippines. Its aim must be to take up this conception of humanity not in a merely superficial way but to trace actually among the lower ethnic groups the processes which have rendered possible the transition of the higher developments of to-day. We shall therefore bestow a thorough consideration upon the external surroundings of the various Philippine groups and endeavor to trace the historical developments of circumstances in which we find them to-:day. The geographical conception of their surroundings and the historical consideration of their development will thus go hand in hand. It is only from the combination of the two that a just estimate can be formed.

Collections in Ethnography which are devoted to purely descriptive treatments of Philippine ethnographic groups 511

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES are divided into two distinct groups based according to religious beliefs namely: Christian and Non-Christian. The Christian group is further divided into Major Christian Group and Minor Christian Group. The Major Christian Group comprises the following: Bisayan, Tagalog, Iloko (Ilocano), Bikol, Pangasinan, Pampangan, Ibanag (Cagayan) and Sambal; aI)d the Minor Christian Group: Gaddang, Kalamian, Ivatan, Isinai, Yogad and Dumagat. On the whole, the ethnographic collections constitute probably one of the largest 'a nd the best collections of Philippine ethnographic materials in the world.

The term archaeology, ~s applied to material remains has reference primarily to the less perishable objects which were used by the ancient FIlipinos prior to and during the dis~overy and settlement of the islands. These objects occur over the greater portion of the islands and are principally of stone implements, burial jars and fragments of Chinese, Siamese and local pottery. In some parts of the islands, particularly in dry caves and cliffs and in certain other protected places, wooden objects and like material have been recovered, usually in connection with burials.

The three principal sources furnishing archaeological remains are burial places, sites of ancient villages of greater or less extent, and quarry sites where the natives obtained flints, soapstone and other materials for implements and ornaments. Some of the so-called surface finds were probably articles lost by the natives, but the great majority of the finer objects found in cultivated fields were undoubtedly plowed from shallow graves in which the skeletons had wholly disintegrated.

Real archaeological investigation and collection of archaeological objects have just been recently undertaken in the Philippines. In the beginning there was hardly any real archaeological investigation. Since the beginning of the seventeenth century foreign travellers have casually 512

FLOR~

I', I

'! \

, I .•• ,

FLORA DE FILIPINAS, 1880 Father Blanco's monumental work on Philippine Botany. He was assisted by .'l Filipino priest, Father Igna ~io Mercado

SCIENCE found some archaeological objects in some parts of the islands, particularly in Luzon, Bisayas and Mindanao. These objects were collected and used as their private collection.

It was Professor H. Otley Beyer, Head of the Department of Anthropology, University路 of the Philippines, and a few other American scientists who really made an investigation and a collection of archaeological objects. He undertook the Rizal archaeological survey from 1926 to 1930.

He has collected many stone implements and fragments of Chinese and Siamese porcelain and stonewares dating from the Sung, Yuan, Ming and Ch'ing dynasties of China. Recently the National Museum of the Philippine Islands, with its limited funds, has made some archaeological investigations and collections of archaeological objects from the provinces of Sorsogon and Batangas.

The collections in Archaeology which deal with the study of material remains of ancient people contain a fair representative collection of Cliinese and Siamese ceramic wares found in the Philippines chiefly in ancient villages and burial sites dating from pre-Spanish days. A great majority of the specimens so far collected have been from the Bisayan Islands especially from Cebu, Bohol, Negrqs, Panay, Samar, and Leyte. A considerable number of heirloom specimens were also obtained among the pagan peoples of Mindanao and the Mountain Province. Small collections of burial pottery, etc., from Batanes Islands, Mindoro, Sorsogon, and Zamboanga should also be mentioned.

Physical Anthropology deals with the study of man from a biological point of view. The collections in Physical Anthropology consist mostly of human skulls and other bones, representing a variety of Philippine racial types.

These will be used in statistical treatment of bodily measurements and in comparative description of those traits which distinguish races and peoples. This collection will give facilities to students of physical and criminal anthropology in their research work and study.

513

THE DEVELOPMENT OF NUTRITION WORK IN THE PHILIPPINES

By ISABELO CONCEPCION Of the University of the Philippines Chairman, Section of Nutrition, N.R.C. Although food plays a very important part in the orderly conduct of our daily life and intimately affects human welfare, nutrition studies in the Philippines are still in a period of infancy.

Nutritional work in the Philippine Islands may be divided into six categories:..1. General surveys on the state of nutrition and metabolism of the people.

2. General composition of Philippine foods and foodstuffs.

3. Relation of vitamins to beriberi.

4. Vitamin and mineral contents of common foodstuffs.

5. Food preparation and preservation.

I.

GENERAL SURVEYS ON THE STATE OF NUTRITION AND METABOLISM OF THE PEOPLE

In 1909, Professor Hans Aron of the Philippine Medical School computed the general composition and caloric values of the daily ration of the inmates of Bilibid Prison (Aron, 1909). In the same year he made a similar computation for the people of the town of Taytay, with additional data on the cost of their daily diets (Aron, 1909).

These works may be considered the pioneer investigations on Filipino nutrition.

Concepcion (1919) made the first study of urinary nitrogen by systematic chemical analysis of the urines of Filipino students and of the food intake of inmates of Bilibid Prison. Roxas and Collado (1922) a few years later made 514

SCIENCE a study of the dietaries of students in the College of Agriculture at Los Banos, and compared it with the diets of three families of Los Banos laborers.

An interesting phase of nutrition work was contributed by Santos (1923) in his metabolism studies on Filipino students in the United States, giving indications that residence in a cold climate does not materially alter the metabolism of persons accustomed to tropical life.

The investigations mentioned above have been extended and enlarged in recent times by contributions from the Colleges of Medicine and of Agriculture of the University of the Philippines.

Standards of basal metabolism have been established for Filipinos by Fleming (1923) and by Sison and Ignacio (1927) on "hospital normals," and by Ocampo, Cordero, and Concepcion (1930) on presumably healthy Filipinos.

Fleming's work is unique in that it includes a pioneer work . on Filipino blood chemistry.

Concepcion's paper entitled "Nutritional Requirements of the Filipinos" 째(1933) summarizes and correlates the existing knowledge on food requirements of Filipinos up to 1933.

II.

GENERAL COMPOSITION OF PHILIPPINE FOODS AND FOODSTUFFS

All the work on foods mentioned above are only computations of constituents and calorific values of daily rations based on percentage composition of similar foods made abroad. Actual analytical work on Philippine foodstuffs have been made by Agcaoili, Brill, Gibbs, Hocson, and del Rosario. The work was extended and later compiled by Adriano and Santos (Adriano, 1925; Adriano and Santos, 1928). This compilation was revised by Hermano in 1932 in which form it is available in a special bulletin of the Bureau of Science.

515

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES III.

RELATION OF VITAMINS TO BERIBERI

Although the field for vitamin studies is a wide one, most of the vitamin studies in this country have been concentrated on Vitamin B, due to the prevalence here of beriberi. The work of Chamberlain (1911) of the United States Army Medical Corps may be cited as the first important contribution on the subject. This work marked the beginning of a series of investigations intended to elucidate the etiology of beriberi. Notable among these contributions are those of M. Guerrero (1910) and J. Albert (1908), on the etiology of infantile beriberi; and of Vedder on the preparation of tikitiki extract and its application to the treatment of beriberi.

On the experimental side may be mentioned the work of Andrews (1912) on the transmission of human beriberi to animals; and of Strong and Crowell (1912) on the production of beriberi in man by feeding of polished rice.

IV.

VITAMIN AND MINERAL CONTENTS OF COMMON PHILIPPINE FOODSTUFFS

On the vitamin contents of Philippine foods, important contributions have been made by Embrey (1923), Gibson (1913), and in more recent times by Santos (1922), Hermano (1930), and Birosel (1932).

On mineral constituents, Marafion and Adriano have made contributions. But more extensive investigations along this line have been done and are still going on in the Biochemical laboratory of the College of Medicine, University of the Philippines under the direction of Dr. Concepcion.

V.

FOOD PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION

This line of work was 'begun in 1924 on a small scale in the Division of Organic Chemistry of the Bureau of 516

SCIENCE Science. Realization of the importance of this line of activity led to a special legislative appropriation in 1925, for the "continuance of the work of developing and encouraging home canning and food preservation as an industry in the Philippines." In 1926 a special Food Preservation Division was created under the direction of Miss Orosa, who intensified the work not only by giving classes in the Bureau of Science but by making demonstrations in the important provincial towns and giving valuable advice in dietetic matters to hospitals, puericulture centers, schools, etc.

It may be mentioned that along the line of food preservation and canning, a good deal of work is also being undertaken by the Bureau of Plant Industry. The Division of Food Preservation has recently been fused with the Bureau of Science and its name changed to the Division of Home Economics. With this change the scope of its activities has been enlarged to include not only food preparation and preservation but also, horne management, and improvement, and related arts. Pamphlets on food preservation, preparation of sea foods, rice bran, soy 'bean and other culinary matters have been issued as special bulletins of the Bureau of Science and have also appeared from time to time in the daily newspapers.

VL

DISSEMINATION OF KNOWLEDGE

This phase of the work is well taken care of for various sections of the population, by the Bureau of Education, Bureau of Health, Office of the Public Welfare Commissioner and by the Division of Home Economics. The only shortcoming of this extensive propaganda is that it is undertaken mostly in the English language and therefore can reach only a relatively small part of the population, because while a limited amount of knowledge of conversational English is quite widespread, an intelligent reading knowledge appears to be quite limited. Publication of 617

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES dietary and nutrition articles in dialect may help more in this great propaganda work. Nevertheless, on the whole, the country is now more nutrition-minded than it has ever been in the past.

It must be mentioned before closing that the bulk of scientific work on diets and nutrition in this country has been borne by the researchers working quietly under the following governmental agencies :-the Division of Organic Chemistry, Bureau of Science, the Department of Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines, and the Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines. Judging from the past accomplishments, the future of nutrition work may be considered bright. What is only needed is more encouragement to those who are devoting their time and energies to the subject. They should be given more generous support not only in the acquisition of more facilities and equipment but also in the maintenance of those already on hand. Furthermore, expectation of immediate utilitarian results should not be the main objective for which such support is to be given.

LITERATURE CITED F. T. 1925. The proximate chemical analysis of Philippine foods and feeding stuffs: I. Philip. Agriculturist, v. 14: 347. and F. O. SANTOS. 1928. The chemical composition of Philippine food materials. Public Welfare Commission Circular: Manila, Philippine Bureau of Printing.

ALBERT, J. 1908. A case of infantile beriberi with autopsy report.

Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 3: 345.

ANDREWS, V. L. 1912. Infantile beriberi. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 7: 67.

MON, HANS. 1909. Diet and nutrition of the Filipino people.

Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 4B: 195.

ARON, HANS. 1909. The food of the people of Taytay from a physiological standpoint. Ibid., v. 4B: 225.

ADRIANO,

618

SCIENCE BmOSEL, D. M. 1932. Vitamin A in body and liver oil of some Philippine fishes, Univ. Philip. Natural and Applied Science Bull., v. 2: 7.

CHAMBERLAIN, W. P. 1911. The eradication of beri-beri from the Philippine (native) Scouts by means of simple change in their dietary. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 6: 133. Reviewed in Revista Filipina de Medicina y Farmacia, v. 6: 498, 1915.

CONCEPCION, I. 1919. A ~tudy on the nutrition of the Filipinos.

Revista Filipina de Medicina y Farmacia, v. 10: 193.

CONCEPCION, I. 1933. Nutritional Requirements of Filipinos. Philip.

18. Med. Assoc. Jour., v. 13 :26.

EMBREY, H. 1923. The antiscorbutic vitamin in some oriental fruits and vegetables. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 22: 77.

FLEMING, W D. 1923. Blood Chemistry and Respiratory Metabolism, Jour. Metabolic Research. v. 4: 105.

GIBSON, R. B. 1913. The protective power of normal human milk against polyneuritis gallinarum (beriberi), Philip. Jour. Sci., v.

8: 469.

GUERRERO, M. S. 1910. Anatomia patologica del beri-beri de los ninos de pecho. Revista Filipina de Medicina y Farmacia, v.

1: 1.

- - - - - - - - and G. J. GAVIERES. 1911. Accion de la leche de mujeres beribericas sobre el corazon de la rana. Su valor diagnostico en el beri-beri infantil. Ibid., v. 2: 691.

HERMANO, A. J. 1930. Vitamin Content of Some Philippine Foods I. Philip. Jour. Sci. v. 41 :387.

OCAMPO, M., N. CORDERO and I. CONCEPCION. 1930. The basal metabolism of the Filipinos. Jour. of Nutrition, v. 23: 237.

ROXAS, M. L. and E. G. COLLADo. 1922. The modern conception ef nutrition and some of our food problems. Philip. Agriculturist, v. 10: 447.

SANTOS, F. O. 1922. Some plant sources of vitamin Band C. American Jour. Physiol., v. 59: 310.

SANTOS, F. O. 1923. Metabolism experiments with Filipino students in the U. S." Phllip. Jour. Sci., v. 23 :51.

SISON, A. B. M. and M. IGNACIO. 1927. Metabolism of Filipinos.

Philip. 18. Med. ABBOC. Jour., v. 7: 416.

STRONG, R. P. and B. C. CROWELL. 1912. The etiology of ben-beri.

Pkilip. Jour. Sci., v. 7: 271.

619

PART

VII

Agriculture and Forestry EARLY HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE

By JOSE S. CAMUS Director, Bureau of Plant Industry Secretary, Division of Agriculture and Forestry, N. R. C. ~

The Philippines, blessed with a benign climate and rich natural resources, has ever been pre-eminently agricultural. It may be said that agriculture, the primitive and. most important science of man and the most noble of occupations, antedates Philippine civilization. It has been the greatest asset in the building up of the material prosperity the country now enjoys.

AGRICULTURE DURING THE PRE-SPANISH REGIME

Since time immemorial the natives have depended upon the products of the soil for their livelihood. Rice, millet, coconuts, banana, sugar cane, and other minor crops had long been under cultivation before the Spaniards came into the Islands. These agricultural products furnished the wherewithal for the simple needs of the inhabitants.

The methods of soil tillage, planting, and cultivation then employed were naturally crude, the tools and implements used antiquated. The lands were parceled out among the people composing the barangay so that each of them had his own field to cultivate. The chief of the barangays practiced the tenantry system, the tillers of the soil being freemen and their families. The natives were, by custom and tradition, very devoted indeed to the cultivation of the Boil. When Spain came to rule the Islands, there was thus 520

!

SCIENCE a fair basis on which to build and further develop agriculture.

DURING THE EARLY YEARS OF THE SPANISH REGIME

Spain took great interest in, and did much to foster, the development of Philippine agriculture. To safeguard the interests of the natives, Spain decreed by a royal edict of April 6, 1588, that public lands were not to be parceled out to the prejudice of the natives路, and by a law of June 11, 1594, the right to possession of previous land grants was vested in the State to correct the abuses of some of the early settlers.

At various times, Spain, through her missionaries, introduced into the country some very important animals and plants such as tobacco, cacao, coffee, etc., from other countries. Many of her introductions now figure among the major products of the Islands.

Actual work on crop improvement was started as early as 1612 when a royal decree was proclaimed ordering the people to plant wheat in the lowlands. A century and a half later, that is, in October, 1759, another decree was issued making it obligatory upon all the natives to plant every year some coconuts, cacao, areca palm and pepper.

Again in February, 1768, a third decree was issued compelling all Filipinos to plant wheat, rice, corn, and vegetables in addition to useful trees, and to keep at least twelye hens, a rooster and a pig. And for good measure, in the way of encouraging agriculture, an edict was released at that time ordering that all rich natives should own 200 feet of land planted to coconut and another 200 feet of land planted to abaca. The poor were required to plant half this area. Then in 1777, the people were compelled by an order to cultivate and manufacture flax and cotton for exportation to Spain.

521

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES THE GOLDEN ERA UNDER GOVERNOR JOSE BASCO Y VARGAS

The golden age in the progress of Philippine agriculture during the Spanish regime can rightfully be placed in the last quarter of the 18th century when Jose Basco y Vargas became Governor of these Islands. To stimulate agriculture was the watch-word of his administration and his achievements along this line were unequalled, much less unexcelled, by any other colonial administrator. In a public pronouncement he made in 1779, a year after his arrival in the country, he said in part: "If agriculture and industry are the real basis of commerce, it behooves the leaders to ascertain if there exist in this country, the potential basis of its interior and foreign commerce." In line with his principles he fou:pded the "Sociedad Economica de los Amigos del Pais" for the purpose of studying and promoting agriculture, and rural economics, compiling information on Philippine soils and their adaptability to plants, and of the best seasons and methods of cultivation.

The proper control of plant pests and diseases was given particular attention so as to stimulate the production of agricultural crops-wheat, rice, cacao, coconut, tobacco, cinnamon, indigo, mulberry trees, pepper, clover, and other economic plants. Thus was ushered in the beginning of fundamental research work to improve the production of different crops under the Spanish regime. In 1780, a set of rules was promulgated governing the planting and manufacture of pepper. The famous Government tobacco monopoly which was established a year later (1781) to increase the revenue of the Archipelago, made the farmers proficient in the culture and curing of this important crop.

It was Governor Basco who in 1783 initiated the giving of cash prizes to those harvesting the largest crops of pepper, cotton, and indigo as a further inducement to agricultural development. From the year 1785 to the close of 522

SCIENCE the 18th century other laws and regulations, calculated to increase agricultural production, were promulgated, such as those giving instructions for the planting of mulberry trees and the breeding of silk worms, the cultivation of cotton, indigo, coffee, and tobacco, and the converting of cinnamon and nutmeg plants into commercial products.'

The rapid progress made in the development of Philippine agriculture at this period and the fame that had spread about the fertility of Philippine soil as well as the extent of her natural resources attracted foreign attention.

The splendid work of Governor Basco was carried on by his successors so that at the close of the 18th century the basis for the further progress of agricultural development in the years succeeding was well laid down.

PROGRESS MADE IN TIlE NINETEENTH CENTURY

With this foundation well established and the people's interest in agricultUre well manifested, progress followed a natural course. Despite political turmoil in the Spanish Cortes in 1801, a royal decree was issued relative to the development of agriculture and industry in the Islands.

And in 1804, the Government was asked to protect agriculture by declaring cotton, coffee,and indigo, the commercial value ()f which was very considerable, exempt from duties. Further instructions on the improved methods of culture and curing of tobacco were issued in 1813, and by a royal edict of 1814, greater freedom was conferred upon individual planters in the development of their holdings in the general interest of agriculture and cattle raising. An agricultural advisory board was created at Manila in 1821, and a royal decree authorizing the establishment of agricultural courses and of an acclimatization orchard was issued on April 10, 1822. In 1825, the reorganized "Sociedad Economica de Filipinas" rendered its first "memoria" on abaca-growing to stimu523

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES late the development of this valuable crop, which has remained, until very recently, a complete Philippine monopoly.

The second quarter of the century likewise witnessed a number of important steps taken in the interest of agricultural advancement. When in 1827, the interest in coffee growing was noted to be slackening someWhat, the "Sociedad Economica" reprinted and distributed the pamphlet entitled "Memoria Sobre el Cultivo del Cafe en la Isla de Cuba." This effort of the Society revived the declining interest in coffee growing. In 1828, a decree was issued for the first time providing for the importation of agricultural machinery in the Philippines. This step was significant in that the introduction of improved farm machinery contributed to the improvement of farm operations so essential in a speedy development of agriculture. Again, in an effort to stimulate the cultivation of cotton, a very important agricultural product, the culture of which antedates the Spanish era and on more than one occasion then considered to be the best in the world, the Government in 1836 tried to grow Pernambuco cotton seeds in Antique. Another step taken to give more impetus to the cotton industry was the opening of the port of Manila for the importation of foreign cotton on February 3, 1838. All kinds of inducements, as a matter of fact, were resorted to promote agriculture. The offering of prizes was revived. For instance, a prize of P8,OOO was given to the planter of a coffee orchard of at least 60,000 square feet, P6,000 to the owner of a large cacao plantation, and similar prizes to successful growers of cinnamon.

In addition, all laborers who had worked at least five years on an hacienda to the satisfaction of the owner were exempted from paying taxes. The first half of the century was climaxed by an important executive order issued on August 5, 1850, authorizing the establishment of Chinese 524

SCIENCE colonies to help in developing agriculture. All Chinese arriving in the Philippines for the first time were exempted from taxes for one year.

About this time, economic problems began to crop up, causing considerable contention between capital and labor and often leading to serious disturbances, especially in connection with the tobacco industry. To prevent troubles of this nature the Government issued an order in March, 1855, authorizing provincial chiefs to make cash advances to planters of tobacco. In the same year the free exportation of rice was authorized to augment the development of this industry.

May 29, 1861 marked the beginning of the official teaching of agriculture in the Philippines. On this date, the first agricultural school was established in Manila on the site of the old Philippine Normal School founded by the "Sociedad Economica." The Botanical Garden of Manila was started as an important part of this school.

In 1882, the Government tobacco monopoly was abolished because of scandalous abuses and graft perpetuated by many officials which created a wide-spread uprising on the part of the oppressed tobacco growers.

Near the close of the century, agricultural experiment stations were established in many places. One large station was established at La Carlota, Negros, where the work was begun in 1884, and another at Magalang, Pampanga.

Smaller stations were established in San Carlos, Cebu; Ilagan, Isabela; Vigan, Ilocos Sur; Daraga, Albay; and La Paz, Iloilo. In these stations interesting experiments were conducted, the most important of which were the introduction of new varieties of crops, the study of pests and diseases, useful and noxious insects, methods of combating locusts, the breeding of animals, improvements of plants, production of better varieties, soil fertility, irrigation and drainage. Sugar cane and tobacco were the two major crops studied extensively. An agricultural monthly known 525

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES as "Boletin Oficial Agricola de Filipinas" published, from 1894 to 1896, reports on pioneer agricultural research work carried on in the experiment stations, the condition of the crops, market quotations, and a summary of all work in agriculture. It is the authoritative source of valuable information on early agricultural research work in this country.

The work in the different experiment stations and all other activities for the promotion of agriculture were temporarily paralyzed during the trying days of the Philippine revolution which finally culminated in the change from the Spanish to the present American sovereignty over these Islands.

, THE

UNPARALLELED DEVELOPMENT OF PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE 'UNDER THE AMERICAN REGIME lS CURRENT HISTORY .

The rise of Philippine agriculture during the last three decades and more of American sovereignty, the general public is certainly conscious of. It is current history.

Many factors-have contributed towards this unparalleled development of Philippine agriculture. Foremost among these is the Government interest in the country's economic advancement; second, the adaptability of the vast natural resources of the Islands to agricultural industries and pursuits; and third, the readiness of the people to further the cause of agriculture owing to their inborn or traditional attachment to, and love of, the soil. The Government Bureau of Agriculture, established in 1901 and split in 1930 into the Bureaus of Plant Industry and Animal Industry, has contributed a great deal to the cause of agricultural improvement in this country. Among other things, it has conducted in its various experiment stations painstaking researches on fundamental agricultural subjects, and through effective publicity, demonstration and 626

SCIENCE extension work, has brought its findings to the people for practical utilization. The agricultural service has protected the country from the introduction and invasion of foreign plant pests and diseases, and has minimized and controlled the interminable depredations of insect enemies such as locusts and leaf miners and numerous other plant pests and diseases. It has introduced into the Islands from various sources a large number of economic plants and created new plant varieties through breeding, many of which have proved to be material successes and now figure among our important major crops. It has successfully fought the most dangerous animal diseases such as rinderpest, anthrax, hog cholera, etc., introduced improved breeds of animals into the country and improved native stock through breeding.

Agricultural education in the country was given due emphasis by the establishment in 1909 of the College of Agriculture at Los Banos, Laguna, and in later years, of farm schools and agricultural high schools in many places in the country. Many other entities of the Government have had some share in the development of Philippine agriculture.

While the production of those staple crops for home consumption has kept pace with the increasing local demand, the last three decades of the development of Philippine agriculture has really been an epic drama of tropical crop production for export in which sugar cane, coconut, abaca and tobacco, figured the most prominently. The prosperity brought to the country by these products of export, coupled with the ceaseless efforts of the Government to intensify public interest in agriculture and economics, has made the people more farm-conscious and agricultural-minded. N ow there is an ever growing tendency not only on the part of the unlettered but also of the in527

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES telligentsia to go to the farm and come close to nature, which augurs well for the further development of Philippine agriculture.

REFERENCES 1. ARTIGAS Y CUERVA, MANUEL. 1922. Bibliographical Notes on Philippine Agriculture, Prefaced by a Historical Sketch. The Philippine Agricultural Review, xv:3-27.

2. CAMUS, JOSE S. 1931. Government Agricultural Development Work in the Philippines. Bureau of Plant Industry Contribution to Knowledge of Philippine Agriculture, pp. 172-195.

3. Annual Report of the Director of Agriculture. 1929. Unpublished.

528

DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY IN THE PHILIPPINES

By FLORENCIO TAMESIS Assistant Director, Bureau of Forestry Member, Section of Forestry, N. R. C. Forestry as a science is a subj ect new to this country and consequently a brief history of its striving against odds will not be out of place.

As early as 1865 during the Spanish regime an organization known as the "Inspeccion General de Montes" was created to take care of the administration of the public lands, forests, and mines of these Islands. Handicapped by lack of information, the ser.vice was not able to proceed as fast as desired. However, great efforts were made by the early officers in gathering and systematizing scientific information on the natural resources of the country.

Among the outstanding men were M. Blanco, FernandezVillar, and Vidal-Soler who, with limited facilities, were able to gather valuable information and publish valuable works, particularly on systematic botany. Unfortunately, the big fire in Intramuros on September 27, 1897, destroyed the valuable natural collection, leaving nothing to guide the future but the fragmental ' information ,gathered later on and the basic laws and regulations.

In 1900, shortly after the Military Government was established in the Islands, an office known as the "Forestry Bureau" was created, which later on was organized into the present Bureau of Forestry. The service started on a general principle of the old Spanish laws with adaptation of American forestry practice primarily to meet the native necessities and customs.

Lack of knowledge of the forest wealth made it necessary to organize the service along two distinct lines, namely, administrative and investigative. These two general 529

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES lines of work were carried on, the administrative attending to the various problems affecting revenue, land disposition, land reclamation, and utilization of forest products; while the investigative looked into the various technical and scientific forestry problems which presented themselves in the course of the development of the forest industry. The principal aim was and still is the perpetuation of the forest resources and finding the best uses possible for the products.

The preliminary research work carried out was mainly for the purpose of guiding the administration, exploitation and utilization of forest products and the land segregation for agricultural and industrial development.

Among the first studies made were the reconnaissance of bodies of timber of economic importance primarily to determine the character of the forests for the exploitation of their products and the delimitation of public lands for disposition under the Public Land Act. These were and still are the practical researches or studies . carried on by the Bureau since its organization; and the table on the following page gives the figures obtained from the compilation of the 'Work accomplished up to the end of the year 1933.

The outstanding contribution of the Bureau of Forestry to the world has been the result of scientific reconna~ssance studies sho)Ving that the Dipterocarp forests of the Philippines were the predominant family type and that if a large basic lumber industry was to be developed, the woods of this family had to be used.

Technological and practical studies were concentrated on this family and the use of these woods was not only demonstrated locally for construction and other purposes, but the woods have been made known throughout the world and an export trade developed.

530

~

fJ 4,759,040 1,610,880 1,298,560 6,235,520 73,600

2,029 9,743 115

1,514,880

2,367 7,436 2,517

973,440 (792,683)

973,440

26,519,040

Acres

1,521 .

(1,239)1

1,521

41,436

,

Sq. Miles/

I

I

"

"

26,270,150 11,138,543,600 Protection Forest

"

"

3,508,870,512 816,087,2113

3,341,781,440

I 445,934,194,160

Board Feet

Protection F'orest

8,275,638 1,924,734

7,881,560

1,051,731,590

Cubic Meters \

Estimated Volume of Standing Timber **

18.71 5,543,899 21,405 13,699,200 21.25 6,296,178 24,310 15,558,400 1 100.00 1 29,629,600 1 114,400 1 73,216,000 1 1,096,083,672 1 464,739,476,928

525,403 2,523,515 29,630

613,062

2.07

1.77 8.52 .10

394,078 (320,789)

1.33

1,925,944 651,858

394,078

1.33

6.50 2.20

10,731,955

36.22

Per Cent I Hectares

* Area revised as of December 31, 1932 . .... Volume revised as of December 31, 1933.

Virgin or Original Lowland Dipterocarp ......... .

Seasonal Molave .............. .

Seasonal Without Molave ..... .

Marshes (Mangrove) Fresh Marsh, Nipa and Mangrove ......... .

Mountain Mid-Mountain ....... .

Mossy .............. .

Second Growth Vegetation Forest Pine ................ .

Broad leaved ........ .

Bamboo ............. .

Grass Grass or Parang ... .

Cultivated .............. .

Types of Forest

Estimated Area as of the Year 1932 *

tJ:.j

Z o

tJ:.j

o H

UJ

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Aside from the purely survey work done, studies were made on various specific forestry problems, which were published in bulletins of the Bureau, and scientific articles on forestry were published in forestry and other scientific journals. Among the most important of these are the following: The Forests of the Philippines, Parts I and II, by H. N. Whitford.

Commercial Woods of the Philippines: Their Preparation and Uses, by E. E. Schneider.

Philippine Dipterocarpaceae, I and II, by F. W. Foxworthy.

Minor Products of Philippine Forests-Bulletin No. 22 (in three volumes). This bulletin contains the materials in Bulletins 15 to 21 and also condderable additional material. Edited by William H. Brown.

On the collection of botanical materials and the building ,up of a botanical herbarium as well as in the preparation of Mer~ill's "Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants", the Bureau of Forestry personnel helped a great deal. Merrill credits the Islands with 191 families, 1,527 genera, and 8,359 species excluding ferns and fern allies.

This work is a distinct contribution to the knowledge of flowering plants. In this work, particular mention was made of Mr. Hugh M. Curran, Professor of Tropical Forestry, University of the Philippines, and one of the charter members of the National Research Council of the Philippine Islands, for an exploratory survey of the whole archipelago. His immense collection of botanical material, and information about it, are of great value. Besides the work on botanical collection, there were collected and identified about 16,000 specimens of woody plants, representing one of the biggest collections of tropical woods in the world. Numerous specimens of minor forest products have been assembled in the Forest Products Museum.

532

SCIENCE The researches in the various phases of forestry played no small part in the development of the lumber and the subsidiary industries of the Philippines, which started from a million and attained in eighty-million peso trade within the short space of thirty-three years. Among the most important studies which brought about this industrial development are the following: 1. Studies of important timber species(a) Anatomical study of structures which made possible correct determination of species for the industries. (b) Mechanical and other physical tests on timber which made possible their safe and economical use. (c) Tests on resistancÂŁl to decay, insects, and marine wood borers which made possible the selection of the right kind of wood for various uses requiring durability under various conditions.

2. Studies on mangrove swamps and tannin manufacture which led to the establishment of a cutch factory in Zambo anga, capitalized at about P600,000.00.

3. Study on the anatomical structure of woods and on timber impregnation which resulted in the establishment of a commercial treating plant---creosoting and zinc-meta-arsenite treating plant.

4. Studies on other minor forest products, such as, rattan, almaciga, Benguet pine, and other products, which opened up new industrial possibilities.

5. The quest for suitable reforestation crops which resulted in the discovery of the possibility of growing Cinchona (quinine tree), wattle, mahogany and balsa and other exotic trees of economic importance in the Philippines.

In spite, however, of the progress made in the forest industries, there are still many possibilities for their development which would result in a much greater trade. Forestry research, therefore, still remains one of the most important problems which deserves attention and serious consideration, and there are numerous other problems still un. solved, particularly of silviculture, management and utili633

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES zation. Since 1907 when this work was started, over 266 projects have been developed and 165 papers published on various phases of forestry problems. At the present time, there are a number of projects in progress. With financial help, more work could be accomplished, which would greatly redound to the improvement of the forest industries of the Islands, to the benefit of the government and the people.

APPENDIX A PHILIPPINE LUMBER

Classification of trees in the first, second, third, and fourth groups for the purpose of collecting forest charges, which took effect February 1, 1919.

First Group-P2.50 per cubic meter (forest charges) Akle (A lbizzia acle).

Aranga (Homalium, all species).

Bakan (Litsea philippinensis).

Bansalagin (Mimusops parvifolia).

Batikuling (Litsea sp.; L. fulva; Machilus sp.; and all other species of Lauraceae not listed by name and having soft yellow wood of similar type).

Batitinan (Lagerstroemia pirifo1路mis).

Betis (Madhuca betis).

Camagon (DiospytroS discolor and all other species having characteristic reddish sapwood and black or streaky heartwood.

Duyokduyok (Mimusops calophylloides).

Ebony (Diospyros ferrea).

Gisok (Shorea astylosa, S. balangeran, S. ciliata, S. falciferoides, S. malibato, S. scrobiculata and any other species of Shorea with wood of Yakal type).

Gisok-takpang (l8optera borneensis).

Ipil (lntsia, all species).

Kaburo (Phoebe sterculioides).

Kalantas (Toona, all species).

Malabunga (Nothopoebe malabonga).

Mancono (Xanthostemon ve1路dugonianu8).

Margapali (Dehaasia triandra and other species).

Matang-usa (Litsea euphlebia).

534

SCIENCE Molave (Vitex celebica, V. 'parviflora, V. pubescens, and any other sp~cies with wood of same type).

Narra (Pterocarpu8, all species).

Sasalit (Vitex aherniana).

Supa (Sindora supa).

Tambulian (Eusideroxylon zwageri).

Teak (Tectona grandis).

Tindalo (Pahudia rhomboidea).

U rung (Fagraea cochinchinensis).

Yakal (Hopea basilanica, H. foxworthyi, H. malibato, H. mindanensis, H. odorata, H. ovalifolia, H. Philippinensis, H. plagata, and any other species of Hopea with wood of same type).

Second Group-P1.50 per cubic meter (forest charges) Akleng-parang (Albizzia procera and other species with wood of same type).

Alintatau (Neonauclea sp.).

A1upag (Euphoria, all species).

A1upag-amo (Litchi philippinensis).

Anubing (.1rtocarpus cum{ngicma, A.â&#x20AC;˘ lanccolata, A. rubrovenia, A. subro tundifolia, A. superba, and any other species with wood of same type and small entire leaves, except Nangka, A. integ?'a) .

Banaba (Lagerstroemia speciosa).

Banuyo (Wallaceodendron celebicnn).

Bitanhol or Pa10maria del Monte (Calophyllum blancoi and other species not listed by name).

Bitaog or Palomaria de 1a Playa (Calophyllu?n inophyllum).

Bolong-eta (Diospyros pilosanthera and other species with characteristic reddish sapwood and little or no black heartwood).

Cana-fistula (Cassia ja't'anica and other species with wood of same type).

Dirigkalin (Xanthostemon bracteatus).

Dungon (Tarrietia sylvatica).

Dungon-Iate (H e'ritiera littoral¡i s).

Guijo (Shorea guiso).

Hambabalud (Neonauclea reticulata).

Kalamansanai (N eonauclca calycina, and all other species not listed by name, except N. bernardoi).

Katmon (Dillenia philippinenBis and all other species not listed by name).

535

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Katmon-kalabau (Dillenia 1路eifferscheidia).

Kayu-galu (Sindora inermis).

Kubi (Artocarpus lamellosa).

Lanete (Wrightia, all species of this genus or of other genera of Apocynaceae with wood of same type and large enough to furnish saw-timber).

Lisak (N eona,uclea bartlingii).

Makaasim (E14-genia, all species large enough to furnish saw-timber).

Malabayabas (Tristania decorticata).

Malakadios (Beilschmiedia cairo can and other species).

Malakatmon (Dillenia luzoniensis).

Malugai (Pometia pinnata and other species).

Manggachapui (Hopea acuminata, H. glutinosa, H. maquilingensis, H. pierrei, and other species with wood of same type.

Manggis (Koompassia excelsa).

Mapihg (Xanthostemon sp.).

Marabitaog (Calophyllu.m citmingii).

Maranggo (Azaclirachta intcgrifoliola).

Narek (Balanocarpus cagayanensis, B. brachyptera).

N arig (V atica, all species).

Pamitaogen (Calophyllum whitfordii).

Sudiang (Ctenolophon philippinense).

Taba (Tristania littoralis).

Tabau (Lumnitzera Uttorea).

Tamayuan (StroYttbosia philippinensis).

Tanglin (Adenanthera intermedia).

Tiga (Tristania sp.).'

Tikim (N eOr1auclea vidalii).

Tiroron (Neonauclea gracilis).

Tukang-kalau (Aglaia clarkii).

Third Group-P1.00 per cubic meter (forest charges) Afu (Anisoptera brunnea).

Agaru (Dysoxylum decandrum and other species with wood of same type).

Agoho (Ca81Larinaequisetifolia).

Agoho del Monte (Casuarina, all species except above).

Alakaak (Palaquium gigantifolium).

Almaciga (Agathis alb.a).

Amamanit (Eucalyptus deglupta).

Amugis 路(Koordersiodendron pinnatum).

Anislag (Securinega flexuosa).

536

SCIENCE Antipolo (Ariocarpu8 communis, A. ovatifolia, A. treculiana, and all other species with large incised leaves and wood of same type).

Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus and all other species not listed by name).

Batino (Alstonia macrophylla and other species, except Dita, A. sClholaris) .

Bayanti (Aglaia bicolor, and all other species not listed by name).

Binggas (Terminalia comintana).

Bulala (N ephelium muta.bile).

Bulog (Aglaia everettii).

Dagang (Anisoptera curtisii).

Dalinsi (Terminalia pellucida).

Dao (Dracontomeh,m dao).

Dulitan (Palaquium merrillii).

Gisihan (Aglaia laevigata).

Hagakhak (Dipterocarpus lasiopodus).

Kaliiigag (Cinnamomum mercadov).

Kalipaya (Palaqu~'um ahernianum).

Kalumpit (Te1'minalia edulis).

Kamatog (Erythrophloeum densiflorum).

Kansulud (Aglaia multifoUola).

Kato (Amoora aherniana) K ayatau (Dysoxylum turcza.ninowii) Kuling-manuk (Aglaia: 11tzoniensis?)

Lamio (D1'acontomelum edule).

Lanipau (Terminalia CraSS11'amea).

Lanutan (Bombycidendron, all species) Lumbayau (Tarrietia iavanica).

Lumbaya u-batu (Tarrietia spo) Malabatino (Paralstonia clusiacea and other species with wood of same type).

Malakayan (Shorea plagata) Malkmalak (Palaquium philippense).

Malasaging (Aglaia diffusa)o Malasantol (Sandoricum vidalii) Malatumbaga (Aglaia harmsiana).

Malikmik (Palaquium cuneifolium) Maniknik (Palaquium tenuipetiolatum).

Matamata (Aglaia elaeagnoides).

Mayapis (Shorea palosapis).

Miao (Dysoxylum euphlebium).

Nangka (Artoca1'pus integra) 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

537

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Nato (Palaqllium luzoniense and all other species not listed by name).

Oak (Quercus, all species large enough to furnish saw-timber).

Pagatpat (Sonneratia caseolaris).

Palakpalak (Palaquium lancolatum).

Palosapis (Anisoptera thurifera and all other species not listed by name).

Panau (Dipterocarpus vernicifluus).

Piagau (XylocarpuB mobuccensis).

Pine (Pinus insularis, P. merku8ii).

Red Lauan (Shorea negrosensis and any other species with wood of same type).

Sakat (Terminalia nitens).

Salamufigi (Aglaia llanosiana).

Salingkugi (Albizzia saponaria).

Santol (Sandoricum koetjape).

Tabigi (Xylocarpu8 granatum).

Tagatoi (Palaquium foxworthyi).

Talisai (Terminalia catappa).

Talisai-gubat (Terminalia oocarpa).

Tangile (Shorea polysperma and other species with wood of same type) .

Tiaong (Shorea teysmanniana).

Toog (Peter8ianthu8 quadrialata).

Unik (Albizzia chin~n8is).

Fourth Group-PO.50 per cubic meter (forest charges) Almon (Shorea eximia).

Anahau (Livistonia rotundifolia and other species).

Api-api (Avicennia officinalis).

Arangin (Ganophyllum fa.lcatum).

Ata-ata (Dio8pyros mindanaensis).

Bagtikan (Para8horea malaanonan).

Bahai (Ormoma calavensis).

Bai-bai (Per'fottetia alpestris) Bakauan (Rhizophora candelaria and other species).

Balakat (Zizyphus talanai).

Balinghasai (Buchanania arborescens).

Balu (Cordia 8ubcordata).

Banai-banai (Radermachera pinnata).

538

SCIENCE Banaui (Drypetes grandi/olius and other species with wood of the same type), Bankal (N auclea orientalis).

Baniti (Diploknema rami/lora).

Batete (Kingiodend:ron alterni/olium) , Bayok (Pterospermum diversifolium and other sllecies), Binuang (Octomeles sumatrana) , Bogo (Garuga /loribunda) , Dalinas (Cyathocalyx globoSU8) , Dita (Alstonia 8cholaris) , Dugkatan (Cryptocarya bicolor) , Duguan (Myristica philippensis and other species with wood of same type), Ga tasan (Garcinia venulosa and other species not listed by name), Gubas (Endospermum peltatum), Harras (Garcinia sp.) , Kalunti (Shorea mindanensis), Karuksan (Linociera rami/lora), Kamingi (Dacryodes incurvata) , Kamuning (Murraya paniculata), Kupang (Parkia javanica) , Lago (Pygeum vulgare).

Lamog (Planchonia spectabilis).

Langarai (Bruguiera parvi/lora).

Liusin (Parinarium corymbosum).

Loktob (Duabanga moluccana) , Malabog (Parishia malabog.).

Malaikmo (Celtis philippensis and other species).

Malakalumpit (Terminalia calamansanai).

Malambingan (Allaeanthus luzonicus yare glaber).

Malapaho (Mangifera monandra).

Malapapaya (Polyscias nodosa).

Malapinggan (T1'ichadenia philippinensis).

Malatapai (Alangium longi/lorum) , Manggasinoro (Shorea philippinensis).

Malatadiang (Xanthophyllum sp.).

Pahutan (Mangi/era altissima) , Pagsahingin (Canarium asperum and other species), 539

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Pototan (Bruguiera sexangula and other species).

Salakin (AphanamixiB cumingiana).

Taluto (Pterocymbium tinctorium).

TangaI (Ce'riops tagal).

Tuai (Bischofia ja'Vanica).

Tui (Dolichandrone spcLthacea).

White Lanutan (species of Polyalthia, Alphonsea, Goniothalamus, Mitrephora, Orophea).

White Lauan (Pentacme contorta).

White Nato (Sideroxylon macranthum and other species).

Other species not listed herein are also in the Fourth Group.

540

PHILIPPINE HORTICULTURE, PAST AND PRESENT

By L. G.

GoNZALEZ

Of the Unive1路sity of the Philippines Associate Member, Sections of Horticulture and Plant Products, N. R. C.

Four phases may be recognized in the developm~mt of horticulture in the Philippines: the period of plant introduction before the Spanish occupation; tbe period of plant introduction during the Spanish regime; the period of plant introduction and experimentation during the early part of the American occupation; and the improvement work through experiment and controlled or technical growing as at the 路present time.

Of the earliest period, very little is known, although it is certain that when the Spaniards came, there was already a fair supply of fruits and vegetables in the Philippines (Buzeta, 1850; Blair and Robertson, 1907; Craig and Benitez, 1916). According to Merrill (1912) most of these plants had been introduced, perhaps some during the early colonial days and others at a much earlier date.

During the Spanish regime, officials of the government, but chiefly the priests, introduced a large number of valuable horticultural plants, especially fruits and vegetables. Much was done to encourage the growing and multiplication of these plants. In addition to the issuance of royal decrees (Blair and Robertson, 1907) making it obligatory for farmers to plant their quota of these valuable crops, prizes were offered to farmers with the largest plantations, especially of coffee, 路cacao and spices (Artigas, 1922) .

But there was no fixed system of planting and there was no studied plan of plant introduction. It was quite haphazard, each interested priest or government official 541

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES following his own ideas. And often they were the result of circumstances. Moreover, the plants introduced were not followed through. A hindering condition was the atmosphere prevailing, which was not conducive to cooperation by the Filipinos with either government or church.

Consequently, though much was done in adding to fruit and vegetable production, nothing systematic was accomplished.

With the advent of American occupation, work along plant introduction and search for superior strains grown locally were emphasized. These endeavors were carried on principally by the Bureau of Agriculture (now divided into bureaus of Plant Industry and Animal Industry) and by the College of Agriculture and in a lesser degree, by the bureaus of Education, Science and Forestry.

The Bureau of Education was first in encouraging vegetable gardening among school children (Foreman, 1908). Superior strains of seeds were obtained from reliable seed houses in the United States for planting. The establishment of home gardens was encouraged and prizes were offered for the best garden. The influence of this work which attracted a large number of contestants Boon extended to parents and is noW a permanent contribution by the Bureau of Education in the field of horticulture.

Among the earliest projects of the Bureau of Agriculture was the gathering from various regions within and outside the Philippines of horticultural plants and introducing these selected materials in different parts of the Philippines. . At first these materials were distributed free of charge or responsibility; later, the recipients were required to make certain observations which were turned over to the interested bureau for record. As the demand increased a nominal charge was made for the planting materials. This was done to conserve the materials, as only 542

SCIENCE the interested would buy, and to supplement the funds for the purchase of more materials.

The Bureau of Agriculture was very fortunate in securing in 1911 the services of Mr. P. J. Wester, horticulturist of fame and possessing a great deal of experience, thus making him: the right man for developing the then almost virgin field of regulated, systematic Philippine horticulture. He proved equal to the situation. His success in the task assigned to him was marked, indeed, wonderful. For some time he had almost complete monopoly of reports on horticultural subjects in the Philippines. These reports were comprehensive and proved very useful to farmers and others interested particularly in the practical side of horticulture. 1 With the establishment of the College of Agriculture in 1909, courses were offered in fruit growing, vegetable raising, and in floriculture and landscape gardening. Important principles involved in the successful culture of horticultural plants were emphasized and the work was attacked more from ' the scientific standpoint, supplementing this with actual field observation. Most of the early planting materials came from the collection of the Bureau of Agriculture although a large number of valuable propagating materials were obtained by the College directly from various parts of the Philippines and from other countries.

The developing of the horticultural projects was considerably strengthened by the arrival in 1920 of Prof. J. E. Higgins, well trained in tropical horticulture, an experienced teacher, :a nd a technician of high repute. Advances in horticultural studies were considerably accelerated and 1 For detailed information on the work of Bureau of Plant Industry see special bulletin "Bureau of Plant Industry Contributions to Knowledge of Philippine Agriculture" by Manuel L. Roxas, Jose S. Camus, and Eduardo R. Alvarado. 1931. 238 p. Bureau of Printing, Manila.

543

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES with the help of students majoring in the subject more researches along horticultural lines were performed and offered by students as theses for graduation from the College (Gonzalez, 1934).

The work in the Bureau of Science in horticulture was confined for the most part to chemical and botanical studies of certain fruits and vegetables. The Bureau of Forestry was instrumental in making some introductions principally along lines of shade plants and ornarrumtal trees and planting materials used for reforestation work.

Much advancement in horticulture as has been made during the past thirty-five years, the foundation is barely laid. In fact it is only of late that the importance of the subject has begun to be appreciated by Filipinos. In countries earlier developed than the Philippines, fruits, vegetables, and flowers are considered major crops and until such a conception becomes more widespread in the Philippines, Philippine horticulture will not hold its proper place.

To reach this stage a great deal of work and very painstaking studies will have to be made. The present problem is no longer the lack of propagating materials but rather the proper selection of strains and varieties for perpetuation of desirable, heritable characters and proper care of these plants from planting to disposal of the products. This would include miscellaneous orchard operations including tillage and soil management, propagation, fertilization, pruning, pollination problem, control of diseases and pests, proper presentation of the fruits and other produc~s and even the difficult subject of marketing. Such subjects as storage, pr:eservation, manufacture and utilization of byproducts should be included.

It has not been found possible to incorporate all the literature in this necessarily brief article. A more complete bibliography on Philippine horticulture is in preparation.

544

SCIENCE

Literature on Philippine horticulture may be found largely in these journals: Boletin Oficial Agricola de Filipinas, 1894-1896, published by the Servicio Agricola de Filipinas; The Philippine Journal of Science, 1906-, the Bureau of Science, Manila; The Philippine Agricultural Review, 1908-1929, the Bureau of Agriculture, Manila; The Philippine Journal of Agriculture, 1930-, the Bureau of Plant Industry; the Philippine Agriculturist and Forester, later, The Philippine Agriculturist, 1909-, College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Natural and Applied Science Bulletin, 1930-, U. P., Manila; The Makiling Echo, 1919-, School of Forestry, University of the , Philippines, Los Banos, Laguna; Philippine Public Schools, 1928-, the Bureau of Education, Manila; The Philippine Farmer, 1915-1918, the Bureau of Agriculture, Manila; The Fortnightly News, 1930-, the Bureau of Plant Industry, Manila; College of Agriculture Biweekly Bulletin, 1932-, U. P., Los Banos, Laguna.

I

LITERATURE CITED ARTIGAS, M. C. 1922. Bibliographical notes on Philippine Agriculture, prefaced by a historical sketch. The Philippine Agricultttra,l Review, v. 15: 3-27.

BLAIR, EMMA H., and JAMES A. ROBERTSON. 1907. The Philippine Islands. 55 vol. The Arthur H. Clark Co., Cleveland, Ohio.

BUZETA, MANUEL y FELIPE BRAVO. 1850. Diccionario Geografico Estadistico Historico de las Islas Filipinas. Vol. 1. 567 p.

Madrid.

CRAIG, A. and C. BENITEZ. 1916. The Ph'ilippine progress prior to 1898. 136 p. Philippine Education Co. Inc., Manila.

FORF.MAN, N. H. 1908. School gardening in the province of La Union. The Philippine Agricultural Review, v. 1: 95-99.

GONZALEZ, L. G. 1934. Outstanding results of agronomic and horticultural research. The Philippine Agricult1.tr1st, v. 23: 380-399.

MERRILL, E. D. 1912. Notes on the Flora of Manila with special reference to the introduced element. The Philippine Journal of Science, v. 7C: 145-208.

545

PLANT PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL IN THE PHILIPPINES By

GONZALO MERINO

Of the BU1'eau of Plant Industry Chairman, Plant Pest and Disease Control Section, N.R.C.

Perhaps the first governmental move toward controlling plant pests was made In the year 1909 when Mr. D. B. Mackie, then Agricultural Inspector, was ordered by the Director of Agriculture to investigate and report the damage done by the rats which were, at the time, damaging rice in various parts of Luzon. Mr. Mackie submitted his reports of his trips in the provinces of Laguna, Albay and Sorsogon in June of 1909 (1910). It was in 1912 when the first locust Act, requiring obligatory labor in the control of locusts was enacted. From that time on, the newly created Pest Control Section of the Bureau of Agriculture was engaged in the campaign against the locust. About the same year, 1912, Mr. Jones, then entomologist of the Bureau of Science, was !transferred to the Bureau of Agriculture. Mr. Jones became the Chief of the Section and Mr. Mackie the Assistant Chief. Investigations on the life histories and control measures of important pests were made. However, in view of the continuous locust infestations and the lack of personnel of the section, the activities were mostly confined to locust inspection and extermination work.

In 1916, when the locust infestations abated, the investigations on the control of other plant pests and some diseases were given more impetus. Some time was devoted to the control of coconut bud-rot in the province of Laguna and the work was later extended to other coconut regions of the Philippines. The eradication of the abaca bunchytop in the provinces of Cavite and Laguna was also tackled.

546

SCIENCE Not long after, Mr. D. B. Mackie became the chief of the Plant Pest Section because of the resignation of Mr. Jones.

Mr. Mackie left the service in 1918.

The former Bureau of Agriculture started its work in Plant Inspection about 1912. (Merino, Teodoro and Otanes). But this activity was confined to certifying plant materials exported to the United States. It was not until 1920 that the regular plant quarantine work was organized and functioned. Great care was taken to guard against the introduction of certain injurious pests and diseases.

Fruits from Mediterranean fruit fly infested countries were excluded. Administrative Orders regarding the importation of seeds and other plant materials were promiUlgated.

With the increased commercial intercourse with other countries, plant quarantine work has become more complicated. Plant quarantine does not deal with plant pests alone. It also includes within its scope any organism that may disturb a given biota. Plants or animals which are not proved to be hundred per cent beneficial should be looked upon with suspicion. Every means of conveyance must be suspected as a possible carrier of pests or diseases.

As the prohibition of the bringing of animals (other than insects) that might produce negative benefit could not very well be included in the Plant Quarantine Act, it later became necessary to recommend the enactment of other laws to stop the importation of birds which might prove injurious to agriculture should they become established. Certain concerns were very insistent about importing mongoose for the purpose of "controlling" field rats. We have invariably disapproved such requests. The experience of some countries with this animal has been very disastrous.

To insure greater protection, the Bureau of Plant Industry maintains plant inspection service in all ports of entry in the Philippines. Our examination of parcels in these ports, both in the Custom Houses and Post Offices, total more 547

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES than one million parcels a year. Our interceptions of insects and plant diseases included some of the most injurious.

Among them were the sugar cane borer from Hawaii, (Rhabdocnemis obscurus) the coffee berry borer from Java and Sumatra, (Stephanoderes hampei), the San Jose scale from the United States, the powdery mildew of sugar cane from Formosa (Sclerospora sacchari) , the grain spot from America, (H erminthosporium oryzae) the Phoma citricarpa on citrus from China and many other dangerous pests and diseases. The notorious Mediterranean fruit fly in other countries demanded our utmost vigilance. To prevent the introduction of exotic pests and diseases, importations of plant materials are either quarantined, disinfected, or fumigated. Plant materials exported are inspected, disinfected or fumigated, if necessary, before being certified. For these services, nominal charges are made and these fees make our plant qu~r,antine unit almost self-supporting.

I

PLANT PEST CONTROL DONE BY THE PEST CONTROL DIVISION (PLANT SANITATION) LOCUST EXTERMINATION CAMPAIGNS

Perhaps no country in the world can claim as much resourcefulness as to the ways of controlling the locust than the Philippines. We have adopted, and are employing, m~ans that are considered primitive and wasteful by some people, but other people disagree. They believe that such methods are the best and most effective. These methods consist in driving the hoppers into the pits, digging the locust eggs out, plowing the ground in which the eggs are found, etc., and catching the flyers by means of nets. Pathogenic fungus has been tried without success; trials with poisonous gases were made without results; the bounty system was tried with disastrous effect. An array of different insecticides were used as spray. The soap-kerosene548

SCIENCE emulsion, the resin-kerosene, the sodium arsenite, and the different kinds, grades and textures .of soaps were used in experiments with more or less satisfactory results. We have found the powdered, common laundry soft soap to be the most economical and satisfactory. Gasoline blow torches were used with fair results. Aeroplane scouting and dusting was resorted to, hopper-dozers in the form of nets were tried, and wood rollers to kill hoppers were also tried. Arsenical poisons in the form of dust, solution, and baits of different carriers were, and are now, adopted.

These are considered the best and most practical means of controlling locusts. The bagasse as carrier, and molasses as attractant, proved to be the best bait and most practical single remedy for hoppers (F. Vargas, 1933).

LOCUST ACTS

Act 2472 evolved from Act 2121 and Executive Order No. 72. This Act, among other things provides for the cooperation of the different bureaus, duties of provincial and municipal officials and obligatory labor from male inhabitants from 16 to 60 years of age.

Act No. 3146.-This law provides for taxation of male inhabitants in lieu of the above Acts. Taxation may be extended for several years regardless of the absence of infestations, until enough reserve funds to meet the exigencies of future locust invasions are had, if the Provincial Locust Board so decides.

Act No. 3163.-This Act provided P100,000 for scouting and fighting locusts in the isolated and remote places.

Later, to make the appropriation yearly, Act 3271 was enacted. Act 3223 was enacted to supplement the preceding one, making the unexpended balance of the sum provided not revertible.

The effect of the activities due to the enforcement of the Act providing funds was gratifying. The results were 549

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the finding of permanent breeding grounds on the islands of Luzon, Mindoro and Bohol. The locusts found in the isolated areas were destroyed. The yearly ravages of locusts in Luzon, Mindoro and Visayas were controlled.

From 1924 to 1928 the infestations were greatly minimized (Camus, 1931). In 1929 there were no known infestations. In the years 1930 and 1931 the infestations were sporadic and were easily put down. The scouting work was not extended to Mindanao because the appropriation was suspended. The island of Mindanao was suspected as a potential locust breeding ground. The present wide infestations in Mindanao, Visayas and Bicol regions, as a matter of fact, originated from some foci between Lanao and Bukidnon.

From the time the annual appropriations were abolished, the locust campaigns have been fairly successful because of special appropriations. The results are proportionate to the moral and financial support given us. However, to be clear, permanent control must not be expected from appropriations given us. Permanent control is tied up with the pppulation problem. Uncultivated areas must be reforested and agricultural lands must be settled and cultivated.

COCONUT-LEAFMINER

(Promecotheca Cumingi)

The leafminer outbreak of 1929 at San Pablo was the greatest and most extensive so far known. The infestation spreaa rapidly; within a year's time it spread to the provinces of Laguna, Tayabas and Batangas and over seven million trees were infested. Every conceivable means of control known here and abroad was resorted to by the Bureau personnel. Many more millions of trees were saved from attack. Because of our experience here suc660

SCIENCE cessive infestations in other coconut regions were controlled in short order.

Because of the leafminer infestation pest control Was provided with more inspectors. From then on insect pests were controlled on a greater scale. The leafminer control has shown the value of pest control work both by the use of mechanical and biological methods, the extensive use of parasites, in particular. (Roxas, 1930-1932).

Control of (Jane Grubs particulatrly those of Leucopholis irrorata. Not only has the division contributed to a considerable extent on the life history and habits of the grubs but it has also led in the actual control of the pests, particularly in Negros and in Batangas. It has been instrumental in properly emphasizing the use of parasites on the grubs, and also on other pests. This has helped induce the Philippine Sugar Association to introduce wasp parasites from Australia which were liberated in Negros.

Control of Rice Insects, particularly the Grass Arm.yworm (Spodoptera rruJ,uritia) Rice bug (Leptocorisa acuta) and rice borers, particularly Schoenobius incertellus and Scirpophaga innotata. The Division has popularized the use of calcium arsenate as a control for the armyworms.

It has also evolved a field method by which the egg parasites of the rice borers and rice bugs may be liberated and continue their beneficial work. This is also employed for other insects.

Tobacco In8ects. The Division has popularized the use of calcium arsenate as a remedy against tobacco leaf eating insects, particularly Prodenia litura and Chloridea assulta. Satisfactory remedies have also been found for the cigarette beetle Lasioderma serricorne. One of these is the use of vacuum fumigation with hydrocyanic acid and other gases. (Mackie, 1917). The early work accomplished here has, as a matter of fact, contributed to the development of the method in the United States and other 551

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES countries, which is extensively used not only for the cigarette beetle but also for other insects affecting stored and other plant products.

Insects of Fruit Trees. The Division has also given due attention to the control of insects affecting fruit trees, particularly those on mango, as the mango hoppers I diocerus clypealis and Chunra niveosparsa and the twig borer Euclea capito. As to Citrus, the scale insects particularly Parlatoria ziziphus the bark borer, Agrilus occipitalis, and the green bug Rhynchochoris serrata, have received particular attention. Extensive work on the control of Citrus insects has been done, especially in Batangas.

Insects Affecting Truck Crops. Vegetable gardeners and truck crop growers have been benefited by the work of the Division, particularly as to the control of various caterpillars, especially Crocidolomia binotalis, Pieris Sp., Plutella maculipennis which are very destructive to cabbage and other cruciferous plants. Spraying has become a part of the operation of many vegetable growers as a result of the work, particularly in Pampanga, Trinidad (Benguet) and Nueva Vizcaya.

Coconut Insects. Aside from the coconut leaf miner, the Division has also attended to the control of the black or rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) , red beetle (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus), slug caterpillars (Thosea spp.), red scale (Ghrysomphalus OJonidum) , etc. Administrative orders have been promulgated in connection with the control of the black beetle and the red scale, based on the data that have been obtained on the biology of the insects.

Abaca Insect's. The banana root weevil (Cosmopolites sOlrdidus) and plant lice, bagworms and slug caterpillars, particularly Thosea sinensis, have received especial attention. The life history and habits and control of Thosea sinensis have been studied in Davao where it caused havoc 552

SCIENCE to abaca and the actual control of this as well as other pests and diseases was done under the direction of the personnel of the Division.

Indeed, there is no phase of economic entomological work, there is no crop, no plant product, etc., attacked by insect or other pests, in which the services of the Division have not been sought. In the control of insects affecting ornamental plants and shade trees and stored products the Division has rendered useful service. Complaints are often received about these. So also in the control of household insects, such as cockroaches, termites and ants, about which inquiries are often received and the information and help as to the control of these furnished.

CONTROL OF OTHER PESTS

Rats. In the control of rats, the Division is often consulted and it has given or gives not only verbal or written information but its personnel have personally directed actual field campaigns, particularly in Camarines Sur, Tayabas, Negros and in Central Luzon. The use of white arsenic has become a well known control measure practised by farmers in almost all sections of the Islands. Calcium cyanide has also been employed and planters, especially those in N egros, have become familiar with its use against rats.

Miscellaneous Pests. Under this, wild hogs, sparrows ("mayas"), porcupines, squirrels, bats, snails, slugs, earthworms, crickets, Loranthus ("dapo") should be especially mentioned on the control of which, information and actual help have been furnished to the parties concerned. Even in connection with insects and other allied creatures that affect man and domestic animals, directly and indirectly, our help has been solicited. In addition to cockroaches, inquiries about houseflies, mosquitos, ticks, poisonous spiders, etc., have been received and the information furnished.

553

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES WORK ON BENEFICIAL INSEC'rS

It is necessary also to call attention to what has been accomplished in connection with beneficial insects. In the study and actual control of the many insects that are harmful to man, directly and indirectly, valuable information has also been obtained as to their natural enemies, particularly the parasites and predators, that keep such harmful insects in check. A considerable number of these beneficial insects have been identified as a result. The information thus acquired has helped serve as a basis for the introduction of parasites from other countries to control local pests. The extensive utilization of parasites as a method of control has already been alluded to in connection with the control of the coconut leaf miner. This method has also been applied in connection with other pests, such as the slug caterpillars in Davao and more recently the caterpillars which have caused havoc to the pine trees at Baguio.

INTRODUCTION OF PARASITES FROM OTHER COUNTRIES

The Division has attempted to introduce certain parasites from other countries to control local pests. Some of the early introductions are Opius fletcheri, a hymenopterous parasite of the Melon fly, and Opius humiUs, a parasite of the Mediterranean fruit fly, introduced here to control the mango fruit fly and other fruit flies. These introductions were made early in 1923. Subsequently, the Division has cooperated with the College of Agriculture and the Philippine Sugar Association in connection with the introduction of other beneficial insects. Among these are Encarsia flavoscutellum, to control the woolley aphis (Oregma lanigera) on sugar cane, two species of Cam,psomeris (C. tas'l'fl,(Jlniaensis and C. radula) for the purpose of controllirig cane root grubs. Other introductions are the following: 554

SCIENCE Tachinid parasites (Ceromasia sphenophori) from Hawaii for controlling the sugar cane weevil borer here; Euplectrus platyhypenae, also from Hawaii to control arrnwworms; the lady bird beetles (Cryptol(J)emus montrouzieri) from Hawaii and the Hemerobids (Sympherobius barberi) from California to control mealy bugs; and the parasite (Comperiella bifasciata) from Japan to control the red scale destructive to coconut and other plants.

Recently (March, 1934) living specimens of the following were introduced:

1. Trichogramma. minutum: an egg parasite of particularly of lepidopterous insects.

2. Apante.les glomeratus, a parasite of cabbage caterpillar.

3. Chaetogaedia monticola, a parasite of cutworms and armyworms.

4. Frontina arch:ippivora, a parasite of cutworms and armyworms.

5. Archytis cirphis, also a parasite of cutworms and armyworms.

6. Litomastix floridana parasitizing Plusia larva.

7. H yposoter (cocoons).

8. Telenomus nawwi, a parasite of the eggs of armyworms.

Along 'with these live specimens of toads (Bufo marinrus) were brought from Hawaii into the Islands for the purpose of controlling injurious insects, such as root grubs and their adults, crickets, injurious moths, etc. Lately (August, 1934) at our request Mr. D. T. Fullaway, Entomologist of the Hawaiian Board of Agriculture and Forestry, sent us specimens of Trichogramma; japonicum, a parasite of rice borers, particularly Chilo simplex. The Philippine 555

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Fruit Packing Corporation has also introduced the following from the Hawaiian Islands:

Silvestrina koebeli Felt, a coccidomyid predator on mealy bugs.

Diomus margipallus, a small coccinellid predator on the pineapple mealy bug.

Hyperaspis silvestri, another Coccinelid predator on mealy bugs.

Cooperation is being established with workers of other countries, so this parasite introduction work may be continued. We have also extended all available facilities at our disposal to investigators from other countries, who have come here for the purpose of getting local parasites.

BEEKEEPING

Several importations o:e Italian bees, each consisting of a few colonies, were made. We were able to maintain the colonies for a few years, but due to lack of funds, and to the pressure of pest control work the project was given up. However, the experience gained has served as a basis for future work and for furnishing information to other institutions, as well as to individuals, interested in raising Italian bees in the Philippines. In this connection some data have also been obtained on some of our local honey bees, particularly Apis indica. Colonies of these bees can be hived and raised for profit where nectar-bearing flowers are plentiful.

SOME HIGHLIGHTS OF THE ACTIVITIES ON PLANT DISEASE CONTROL BY THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

The control of plant diseases as a definite organized activity of the Bureau was not established until 1920, when the training of four graduates of the College of Agricul556

SCIENCE ture by Mr. H. A. Lee, with the cooperation of the Bureau of Science, was first started.

Among the early important diseases of plants that brought forth the great need for plant disease investigations and their control are the destructive coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix, the coconut bud-rot, (Phytophthora faberi), bunchy-top (virus) (Calinisan, 1931) of abaca and the black-rot or black pod (Phytophthora faberi) of cacao.

The control of bud-rot was conducted as early as 1908 on account of its menace, threatening to wipe out the coconut industry. Then the bunchy-top disease totally destroyed some of the abaca plantations but at present the prospect of restoring them is very promising since the control of the disease by eradication is well in hand and more recently some varieties, Sinibuyas, Kinalabao and Putian, seem to withstand the disease in Cavite.

ABACA DISEASE

Since the destruction of the abaca plantations in Cavite and Laguna by bunchy-top, a general survey of this most important disease was done in all principal abaca growing districts. Administrative Orders were issued to preclude the distribution of the disease to other non-infected regions.

Destruction of the infected stools in Cavite and Laguna was resorted to as a preventive measure.

After a lapse of several years of investigation it was confirmed that the disease is ~aused by a virus and is transmitted by a black aphid, (Pentalonia nigronervosa). The disease practically wiped out the abaca industry in Laguna and Cavite. The prospect of restoring the industry by the finding of resistant varieties is very promising. The budrot disease is now well under control by eradication while the control measure studies of the diseases on cacao are still under investigation.

557

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Immediately upon the establishment of the pathology cooperative work between the Bureaus of Agriculture and Science the control of a number of important diseases threatening the sugar industry had to be undertaken. The discovery of the introduction of powdery mildew (Sclerospora sacchari) of sugar cane from Formosa, Japan, and its eradication in Payatas; Fiji disease on the Calamba Sugar Estate; (Lee, 1921) mosaic disease (virus), (Reyes, 1927) pineapple disease, (Thielaviopsis paradoxa), red-rot, (Colletotrichum falcatum) (Serrano, and Marquez, 1926) of sugar cane; the control of tobacco diseases, Pythium debarya.num, Phytomonas polycolor, Sclerotium sp. etc.,) (Clara, 1930) in the seed beds by seed disinfection and soil sterilization, and banana wilt, (Fusarium cubense) were among the most important diseases that confronted the Plant Pathology staff of the Pest Control Division.

On other crops, the control of fruit r ots of pineapple, (Erwinia ananas, ThieZamiopsis paradoxa), control of citrus canker, (Phytomonas citri) by eradication, "dapo" on citrus, (Loranthus philippensis) gummosis and bark rot diseases, regulation of the distribution of seedlings and spraying with fungicides, control of stem-rot, (Sclerotium oryzae) (Reyes, 1929) of rice and important field diseases of tobacco such as Fusarium wilt, (Fusarium oxysporum) and wild fire (Phytomonas anguatla, (Clara, 1925) have constantly taken the attention of the personnel. Various disease problems on truck crops, field crops, including ornamental plants, and numero\1s diseases on orchard trees are being encountered. Control measure services in the form of demonstration and advice have now become an important established function of the Bureau of Plant Industry. For the improvement and development of this service the Bureau established its plant pathology laboratory with essential facilities and research staff. Some of the most recent important studies are on control of black-pod dis558

SCIENCE ease of cacao caused by Phytophthora faberi, die-back of cacao caused by Gloeosporium sp., the stem-rot of rice caused by Sclerotium oryzeae, control of citrus blight (Phytophthora faberi) , the blossom blight of mango, and the control of the objectionable green spot of tobacco leaf wrappers particularly on Sumatra wrappers. A considerable number of control measure studies are also being conducted on truck crop diseases found on potatoes, potato blight (Phytophthora infestans, scab, Actitnomyces scabies), various diseases on peanuts, legumes, cabbages, celery cauliflower and other vegetable crops.

The bacterial fruitlet brouxn rot. It was found at a certain altitude that this disease was not as serious as in warm regions. Timely spraying of the fruits with Bordeaux mixture before the flowers opened has been found to be a very effective control (Serrano, 1928). With these findings about this pineapple disease, we helped a new industry capitalized by many millions of pesos.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Plant pest and disease control work in the Philippines is still in its infancy. A considerable amount of work no doubt has already been accomplished, even exceeding expectations, considering the facilities at our command.

However, more support--moral as well as financial-is needed so as to improve the work and thus obtain more results in protecting our agricultural interests from the menace of plant pests and diseases.

L~TERA TURE

CITED

CALINISAN, M. R. 1931.

Attempts to Re-establish Abaca plantations in Cavite previously wiped out by bunchy-top. Philip.

Jour. Agric., v. 2:209-220.

CAMUS, J. S. 1931. Government Agricultural Development Work in the Philippines. Bureau of Plant Industry Contributions to Knowledge of Philippine Agriculture, pp. 173-195.

559

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES CLARA, F. M.

1925.

Diseases of Tobacco in the Philippines.

Phil-

ip. Agric. Review, v. 18:564.

CLARA, F. M. 1930. A new Bacterial Disease of Tobacco in the Philippines. Phytopath, v. 20 :691-707.

LEE, ATHERTON H. 1921. The Seasons' Experiments on Fiji Disease, Mosaic Disease and Smut of Sugar Cane. Philip. Agric. Review, v. 14:402.

MACKIE, D. B. 1910. Report on the control of rats. Philippine Agricultural Review, v. 3 :44-48.

MACKIE, D. B. 1917. Some causes of the failUl'e of the Manila cigar in the United States. Philip. Ag1路ic. Review, v. 10:223-252.

MERINO, G., N. G. TEODORO and F. Q. OTANES. 1925. The Philippine Quarantine Service. Philip. Agric. Review, v. 18 :411-461.

REYES, GAUDENCIO M. 1927. The Mosaic Disease of Sugar Cane.

Philip. Agric. Review, v. 20:187.

REYES, GAUDENCIO M. 1929. A Preliminary Report on the stemrot of Rice. Philip. Agric. Review, v. 22 :313.

ROXAS, M. L. Annual Reports of the Director of Plant Industry for 1930, 1931 and 1932.

SERRANO, F. B. and SEVERO L. MARQUEZ. 1926. The Red-rot disease of Sugar cane and its control. Philip. Agric. Review, v. 19 :203.

SERRANO, F. B. 1928. B~cterial Fruitlet Brown-rot of Pineapple in the Philippines. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 36:271-305.

VARGAS, J. B. Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce for 1933.

560

ENTRANCE GATE, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES, Los BANOS, LAGUNA

SOIL SURVEYS, CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING IN THE PHILIPPINES

By ROBERT L. PENDLETON Of the University of the Philippines Chairman, Seotion of Soils and Fertilizers, N. R. C. It was early in its history that the Philippine Bureau of Agriculture commenced making soil surveys. Loaned from the U. S. Bureau of Soils, Dorsey began a very important line of research for the Philippines when he surveyed and mapped the soils of the Batangas area, Luzon (1903). In addition to his Batangas survey, Dorsey spent some months travelling in the Philippines, and was able to record, although in the most general way, something of the character of the soils in the abaca regions, and in the neighborhood of a number of widely scattered parts in the Archipelago. Some little attention was also devoted to the soils and agricultural conditions in La Union Province.

But Dorsey's successor Sanchez, also loaned from the U. S. Bureau of Soils, was given neither encouragement nor facilities. From Manila after two years with the Bureau of Agriculture, Sanchez wrote in 1905 in part as follows: "It has been definitely decided by the Philippine Bureau of Agriculture not to make any soil surveys nor carry on any soil investigations along the lines conducted by the Bureau of Soils. I, therefore, have decided to return to the United States on the expiration of my two-year contract, January 1, 1906. I am sorry I failed to organize the soil survey work in this country, as I was expected to do on being sent out here; but I think you understand that I was not even given a chance to show what I could do.

On the day previous to my arrival in these Islands, Prof.

Scribner, the then Chief of this Bureau, had left for the United States, and a man unacquainted with the work of 561

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the, Bureau of Soils, took his place. I explained to the new chief the nature of our work and the advantages to be derived from it, but failed to persuade him to allow me to carryon the work in these Islands. * * *" The tragedy for soil science and for agricultural research asa whole is that the soil survey was not continued, even in a very modest way. If this had been done, we would today have an invaluable mass of data for many lines of soil research and for the very practical needs of soil fertility, maintenance and improvement. As it is, we are still completely ignorant of even the important soil characteristics of vast and important tracts of agricultural and forestry lands of the Islands.

While after this there was little real soil survey work to record for a long time, it is well here to mention briefly some of the more important studies of Philippine soils.

The Bureau of Science, with its generous support for scientific work, and its excellent laboratory equipment, made the next contribution to the knowledge of the soils of the Philippines, when Walker (1910) presented his study of the sugar cane soils of the Island of Negros. While representing much good work, as we realize now too much emphasis was placed upon conventional, mechanical, and chemical analyses, and the report did not give much assistance in solving the fertility problems nor materially aid in soil conservation in the most important sugar producing island of the Philippines.

Under the Bureau of Public Works G. A. Graham in 1909 and 1910 made soil surveys of certain irrigation district projects. These unpublished surveys have apparently been lost or destroyed by fire, although Cox and Arguelles (1914) have preserved a portion of one map and some of the data.

Desiring to determine the principal characteristics of the soils producing the main Philippine crops, Cox pre562

SCIENCE sented (1911) the results of the analyses, mostly chern· ical, by the Bureau of Science of 180 samples from widely scattered localities in the Islands. In Cox's study as a whole, he followed the very old but relatively fruitless method of attack upon soil classification and interpretation, namely, to attempt to characterize soils from the laboratory point of view, as contrasted with the modern and much more effective method of solving soil problems, by adequate. ly studying the soil profile in the field.

A subsequent paper by Cox and Arguelles (1914) pre· sents in a similar way the results of mechanical and chern· ical analyses of the soils of various regions of Luzon. As in the previous paper, the vast mass of data are presented in the hope that they will assist in the development of a soil classification based upon crops. The climatic factors are given and their controlling effect upon the crops is recognized, although there had not been appreciated the relationship which exists between the climate and the na· ture of the soils themselves.

In an endeavor to explain the variations in the flora on Mt. Makiling, Brown and Arguelles (1917) made a study of the soils of this mountain. After making many determinations of the chemical characteristics of the soil and of the water content of the soils, they concluded that it was the moisture content of the soil and not differences chemically that was the determining factor in the character of the flora.

To try to obtain a better understanding of the condi· tions surrounding the production of abaca fiber in the Philippines, Sherman (1928) working at the Bureau of Science, studied the chemical and physical characteristics of samples of abaca soils from Davao and the Bicol prov· inces. An innovation in his work is the attempt to rate the soils studied, as to the amount of each of the several 563

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES nutrients as compared with the amounts in what he terms "standard Philippine agricultural soils," although it is not clear what data were used in establishing the standards.

These studies, like all others on soils, reported from the Bureau of Science, were primarily from the laboratory point of view. Such a viewpoint, while of distinct value, can never give the broad comprehensive understanding of the soils of a region that a field survey and the making of a soil survey map can give. The most profitable and illuminating soil studies ,are those in which the soil survey field work, comprising the detailed study of profiles and the making of a soil map, are followed by adequate sampling and the study of these samples by suitable physical, chemical, and biological methods in the laboratory, in order to interpret the soil profile and other field observations.

In spite of the lack of interest in soil surveys and mapping on the part of the I nsular Government, the writer, with the support of the late Dean Baker, was able in 1925 to interest private parties in having soil surveys made and the results published. Thus it was that soil survey maps and reports were made and published of the Silay-Saravia and La Carlota districts, Occidental N egros. (Pendleton, 1927, 1931). For the Philippine Sugar Association a reconnaissance soil survey was made of most of the agricultural lanas of the province of Occidental N egros. For private parties other unpublished surveys have been made

by Pendleton of tracts in Iloilo, Mindoro, Laguna, La Union and Ilocos Sur provinces. The Bureau of Forestry made possible a study of the soils of the Bokakeng Forest Management Project, Baguio, (Pendleton and Aquino, 1932); while for the Bureau of Education soil studies were made of farm school lands at Munoz and Trinidad.

In connection with the instruction in soils at the College of Agriculture, thesis students under the supervision 564

SCIENCE of the writer have done a vast amount of soil survey and mapping on a very intensive scale of the campus and environs of the College. This material is still in manuscript, but hopes have been held out that it may be published.

Recently the University gave formal approval for a measure of cooperation between the College of Agriculture and the Bureau of Plant Industry, to enable the writer to devote part time to the development of a soil survey for the study of at least some strategic agricultural regions of the Islands. It remains to be seen whether or not sufficient interest and support will be forthcoming to inaugurate and maintain even a modest soil survey organization, the results of which are so desperately needed in connection with questions of diversification of crops, land classification into forest and agricultural use, soil erosion control, etc. The support of the National Research Council is solicited for the encouragement of the proposed soil survey.

LITERATURE CITED BROWN, WILLIAM H., and ANGEL S. ARGUELLES. 1917. The composition and moisture content of the soils in the types of vegetation at different elevation on Mt. Maquiling. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 12A :221-234. Plate 3.

Cox, ALVIN J. 1911. Philippine soils and some of the factors which influence them. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 6A:279-330. Plates 11.

Cox, ALVIN J., and A. S. ARGUELLES. 1914. The soils of the Island of Luzon. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 9A:1-50. Plates 7, 3, text figures, 1 map.

DORSEY, CLARENCE W. 1903. Soil conditions in the Philippines.

Bureau of Agriculture, Manila. Bulletin No.3, p. 57.

PENDLETON, ROBERT L. 1927. Soil survey of the Silay-Saravia area, Occidental Negros. Sugar News, v. 8:960-971. Colored map.

PENDLETON, ROBERT L. 1931. A soil survey of the La Carlota area, Occidental N egros, Philippine Islands. Soil Research, v. 2: 308343. Colored map.

PENDLETON, RoBERT L. and DIONISIO I. AQUINO. 1932. Soils of the Bokakeng Forest Management Project, Baguio, Mt. Province.

Philip. Agric., v. 20 :500-509.

565

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES SANCHEZ, A. M. 1905. Official letter to Prof. Milton Whitney, Chief, U. S. Bureau of Soils, Washington, D. C. SHERMAN, P. L. 1928. Abaca-soil conditions in two districts of the Philippine Islands and their relation to fiber production.

Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 37 :1-19. 2 plates.

WALKER, H. S. 1910. The sugar industry in the Island of Negros.

Bureau of Science, Manila.

566

PART

VIII

Engineering and Industrial Research PUBLIC WORKS IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

By A. D. WILLIAMS Consulting Engineer, Met't'opolitan Water District Former Director of Public Works and A. T. SYLVESTER Forme?" Designing Engineer, Bureau of Public W01"ks PUBLIC WORKS UNDER SPANISH REGIME

The early history of public works in the Philippines is a record of individual efforts of soldier and priest, architect and engineer, to erect fortifications and churches for the temporal and spiritual government of the people.

These were followed by t:1e construction of roads and bridges, irrigation works, lighthouses and port works.

The only native works which have survived are great communal terraced-irrigation systems of the Mountain Province.These are of special interest, since they are estimated to have required some 1200 to 1500 years to construct, and were already old when the authentic history of the Islands began. Shrouded in the haze of past ages, their origin offers a field for study and speculation comparable with the works of the Incas. The early Spaniard brought with him the most advanced knowledge of his day in matters of building and road and bridge construction, which he successfully adapted and applied to conditions in the Philippines. Many fine examples of his work are scattered about the Islands in the form of massive walls, churches, ponderous fortifications and heavy masonry arch bridges.

567

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES As the country developed, a centrally controlled system of administration of public works became necessary. A Bureau of Public Works was organized in 1867 to study, construct and maintain public works of all classes throughout the Islands, whether Insular, Provincial or Municipal.

This Bureau was in charge of an Inspector General of Public Works who was a Civil Engineer. His office force consisted of a secretary, three clerks, and three messengers.

It comprised a central office and a Consulting Board; an Architectural Section; a Lighthouse Commission, and seven engineering districts, known as the Manila, Pampanga, Batangas, Ilocos, Nueva Caceres, Iloilo and Cebu districts.

The Manila District comprised the provinces of Manila, Cavite, Bulacan and Corregidor Island.

The Second District, Pampanga, embraced the provinces of Pampanga, Tarlac, Pangasinan, Zambales, Bataan, Nueva Ecija and the District of Principe. In addition to his regular duties, the Chief of this district had supervision over the Manila-Dagupan railroad line and, later, the street cars in the City of Manila.

Batangas, the Third District, was composed of the provinces of Laguna, Tayabas and Mindoro and the districts of Infanta and Morong.

The Ilocos District comprised the provinces of Abra and La Union and the districts of Lepanto and Benguet.

Nueva Caceres, the Fifth District, was composed of the provinces of Ambos Camarines, Albay, and the politicalmilitary districts of Burias, Masbate and Ticao.

The Sixth District, Iloilo, comprised the provinces of IlOilo, Capiz, Antique, the entire island of N egros, and the islands of Paragua and Calamianes.

The Seventh District, Cebu, was composed of the provinces of Cebu, BohoI, Leyte, Samar and Romblon.

Each district was in charge of a Chief Engineer who was a Civil Engineer, and was provided with the neces568

SCIENCE sary assistants. The Lighthouse Commission was in charge of civil engineers, with the necessary personnel, and architects had charge of the architectural section. The Consulting Board was composed of the Inspector General of Public Works and the chief engineers residing in the Capital. The general budget of the Government provided annual appropriations for public works and for the personnel of the office of Public Works. Allotments for new projects were also made yearly.

EARLY ROAD AND BRIDGE WORK

During the 18th and 19th centuries, a very thorough and complete system on roads was laid out and constructed, at least in part. Throughout the Islands both road and bridge work appear to have been accomplished largely with compulsory labor; each able-bodied man was required to render some 15 to 40 days work per year. Provincial roads were only partially surfaced, and as a result, fell into a very bad state of repair during the period from 1896 to 1903, when the Government was in a disorganized state. Practically all that was left of these roads was the right-of-way and some 2,600 permanent Eridges and culverts, constructed of adobe stone, brick or rubble masonry.

The right-of-way, however, was in itself a most valuable asset, as it was possible to incorporate it into the law and make it a part of the public domain when the Government was reorganized under American Occupation.

Most of the road work was of a temporary character, based on modern standards, and heavy grades and sharp curves were not considered obj ectionable. In many cases a cobble pavement of unshaped pebbles was used, over which a light dressing of earth was thrown on the occasions when high Government officials visited the locality.

Bridge construction was confined largely to the use of the masonry arch. Local materials were utilized to the ut569

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES most to reduce cost and consequently some districts now abound in brick and mortar structures, others in adobe stone work, while in still other cases rubble masonry was resorted to in the absence of other materials. The early builders produced a very excellent quality of lime and thoroughly understood its use. In consequence many of the old structures have endured to this day with only slight repairs and are carrying loads far in excess of any that could have been contemplated by their builders. The greatest obstacle the engineer of those days encountered was in the construction of foundations involving subaqueous work.

Hence, the failures of old Spanish bridges may, in almost every case, be traced to inadequate foundations. They had little or no ~quipment and were compelled to rely almost wholly on massive spread footings laid in shallow excavations. In the later years of the Spanish Government, machinery came into more general use, and in the reconstruction of the Bridge of Spain at Manila, we find that heavy rubble masonry foundations were constructed for the piers in 8 meters of water, and that wooden piles were resorted to in order to increase the bearing power.

In a few isolated cases, steel spans were used in the later years of the Spanish Government, and a few instances of the use of suspension bridges still exist, the most notable of which is the old Colgante Bridge across the Pasig River Manila. .

at

EARLY PORT WORKS

ConsiQering the fact that the Philippine Archipelago comprises some 3,440 islands, extending through 20 degrees of latitude and 10 degrees of longitude, and that their products are almost entirely of an agricultural nature, it is surprising that so little was accomplished in the matter of port works, when maritime transportation was, and is to-day, the most important factor in the commerce and 570

SCIENCE economic advancement of the Philippines as a whole. Only at Manila can be said that any considerable port facilities were provided. There, shallow masonry walls were constructed along the lower Pasig River, and, of the rather ambitious harbor works which had been planned, only the so-called Inner Basin at Engineer Island and a portion of what is now the west breakwater were completed. Two small ladder dredges of French construction had been brought out for the maintenance of the lower Pasig River and Manila Harbor when steamers came into general use; other than that, no equipment seems to have been available for port maintenance and improvement. In the provinces, a few landings for small boats were constructed of rubble masonry, and at Iloilo, Cebu and other important ports customs houses were erected and pilot services established.

At Cavite, the Naval authorities had constructed shallow draft marginal wharves and suitable buildings for the arsenal and navy yard to which use it was confined.

Although the best records indicate that about 11,000,000 pesos had been spent on port works at Manila prior to American Occupation, it is strange that so little was accomplished in this essential branch of public need in all the years of Spanish domination.

PRE-AMERICAN BUILDING WORKS

In the art of building construction, the heritage of their long experience in the home-land stood the Spaniards in good stead. The massive walls of the old churches have in many cases endured the frequent earthquakes to which they have been subjected; the double walled, tile roofed, patio-enclosing type of house, made life endurable in the tropics and without doubt is the most suitable form of construction for the Islands. In the City of Manila, building construction was accomplished with paid labor and purchased materials, but in the provinces it appears 571

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES that most public building construction was accomplished with donated materials and compulsory labor. It is probable that little, if any, technical design was used in constructing the early buildings, and that in practically all cases reliance was placed on precedents and massive construction. It is common to find now a considerable waste of material, in so far as required strength is concerned, but the fact that so many of the old buildings have withstood the elements for so many years is sufficient justification for the builders. Most of the more important existing buildings of a permanent nature have been repaired, or remodeled, and are still in use to-day.

LIGHTHOUSE AND OTHER FIXED AIDS TO NAVIGATION

When navigation at night pecame necessary and generally practiced, lightliouS'es came into demand, and at the close of the Spanish regime, there were 33 of these structures, and 31 buoys, marking shoals and channels, in existence in the Islands. These lighthouses were located at what were then the most important points and have all been repaired or remodeled, and are still in serviceable condition. They are, as a rule, constructed of rubble masonry or brick.

IRRIGATION PROJECTS

Irrigation was already an old art in the Islands when the Spaniards arrived. They, however, brought with them the knowledge they had gained through their world-wide conquests .and were in a position to undertake extensive works of this nature. While the Government does not appear to have played a large part in this phase of development, the Friars, who were keenly interested in the increase of production of rice on the vast estates they pos~ sessed in the provinces of Rizal, Bulacan, Laguna and Cebu, constructed many important systems which compare favor572

SCIENCE ably with similar works in any part of the world, and have played an important part in the development of agriculture in the provinces where they are located. The friar land irrigation systems of the province of Cavite have been adjudged the equal of any in the world.

On the Friar estates purchased by the present Government, there are 28 separate irrigation systems. These were well constructed and serve a total area. of over 23,000 hectares. It has been estimated that it would cost at least 7,500,000 pesos to duplicate these systems at the present time.

Private irrigation systems, with temporary diversion works, were common, principally in central and northern Luzon, during Spanish times. They were usually built with forced labor under the supervision of municipal officials or Friars. It has been estimated that these systems served a total area of at least 100,000 hectares.

Mention has already been made of the wonderful prehistoric irrigation systems in the Mountain province which serve practically all the land cultivated in that region and still produce good crops of rice.

RIVER CONTROL, WATER SUPPLY, SANITATION, LIGHT AND POWER

Practically nothing had been done prior to American Occupation in the matter of river control, municipal water and sewerage systems, and public light and power plants.

In fact, the only instances of accomplishment under these headings were the old Carriedo Water Works and the electrical light and power plant in the City of Manila. Where surface wells or springs did not exist, it was generally the practice to take water from streams and rivers. In many eases, masonry reservoirs were built to store rain-water collected from the house-roofs. This method has had to be resorted to in rare cases even today.

573

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES PUBLIC WORKS UNDER AMERICAN SOVEREIGNTY ROADS AND BRIDGES

The establishment of civil government, following the cessation of general hostilities between the Filipino and American forces, was the primary aim. of the original "Commission" appointed by President McKinley and as rapidly as local civil authority could be set up, the Commission turned its attention to the pressing need of public improvements, principally, roads and schools. It is interesting to read in the first report of the Commission of the great concern they felt in regard to the need of immediate attention to road work and all other means of transportation. Theirs was truly a broad vision of the future progress of these Islands.

The military authorities had done a considerable amount of road re~air, but their effort&, had necessarily been directed toward military ends and when the civil authorities took over the government, they found little more than the right-of-way, in most cases, where the old Spanish roads had been, although there were about 2,600 bridges and culverts scattered about the Islands.

By 1903, a specific Bureau had been organized to handle public works matters, but it was not until 1905 that conditions permitted effective work and by 1908 only about 500 kilometers of highway had been improved. ExGovernor-General Forbes, while Secretary of Commerce and Police, established the present system of road construction and maintenance, by virtue of which the highways of the Islands have grown from the "mere rud trails" of the first "Commission" to comprise 9,272.2 kilometers of first class; 4,878.5 kilometers of second class; 1,966.1 kilometers of third class roads and 5,133.7 kilometers of trails at the present time. The records are not complete as to their cost, but it is safe to say that the total expendi574

SCIENCE tures for road work, including their maintenance, under American sovereignty amount to nearly P210,000,000 Naturally, some of the early road-work proved inadequate, either because of location, or design, to meet the demands of the motor-vehicle era. In the days of slow-moving, animal-drawn vehicles, traffic congestion was unknown; shortradius curves presented no obstacle to traffic; narrow metalled sections of relatively light construction were sufficient and the use of the main street of the towns as a part of the through route was quite proper.

The motor-vehicle, with its speed and weight, tearing the old-style macadam road to pieces and jamming the dust-beclouded centers of the "poblaciones" with potential danger to life and limb, compelled the adoption of more modern design and location of through roads. As a result, we now have about 62.4 kilometers of concrete road surfacing, and 1,381 kilometers of asphalt surfacing. A great deal of money has also been spent to build by-pass connections to avoid passing through the towns, or to eliminate dangerous, or unnecessary curves. These improvements more than pay for themselves in a short time through the savings effected in maintenance cost of the roads themselves and in the resulting economies in motor-vehicle operation and improved health conditions.

Bridge construction has necessarily followed in the wake of the highways. Many of the old Spanish structures, mostly of lime-mortar masonry, are still doing yeoman service under traffic their builders could never have dreamed of; some of them have succumbed to the ravages of the elements and the pounding of modern loads, while others have fallen into disuse through relocations of the old roads to meet modern conditions.

Naturally, the new bridges required were first built to span the smaller streams, leaving the larger and more 575

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE

PHILIPPINE~

costly ones until ferries would no longer take care of the traffic. Consequently, a great many reinforced concrete structures were built and steel bridges were rare in the early days. When long stretches of highways had been completed, however, with the smaller crossings bridged, the demand for elimination of the comparatively few, but extremely tedious ferries at the larger rivers, where all traffic halted whenever a flood occurred, became so pressing that the so-called "Arranz Act" was passed by the Legislature, creating a revolving fund of P5,000,000 for the constrhction of toll bridges. This measure has enabled the erection of a number of large bridges, mostly of steel, which otherwise could not have been built for sometime to come and for which the actual users directly benefited are paying the cost.

At the present time, we have a total of 8,113 permanent bridges of all classes. Of these, 5,257 with an aggregate span of 24,3'71.33 meters, are of concrete; 185, with a total span of 12,157.67 meters, are of steel and the rest, 2,671, built of masonry, etc., have a combined span of 6,456.5 meters. The concrete bridges have cost P13,282,766; the steel bridges, P10,853,572; and the rest about P2,275,883. These cost figures exclude the 2,600 old Spanish structures mentioned above. All of the concrete and steel bridges were built during the American regime (with the exception of a few small, Spanish steel structures) and although the records are incomplete, they indicate that during this period a total of about 26 millions of pesos have been expended for bridge work.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND PORT WORKS

During the early days of the present civil government, advantage had to be taken of the available existing public buildings, to the exclusion of new construction. However, 576

SCIENCE as the need for quarters for public offices, schools, etc., grew, old buildings had to be remodeled and many new ones erected.

The Insular government has financed most of the new work, but the provinces and municipalities have invested large amounts for that purpose.

Concrete has been the principal material for building work, although combinations of concrete and wood and structures entirely of wood (except for the roof, of course) are not uncommon.

Several imposing buildings have been erected, such as the Legislative Building and the Post Office, at Manila, as well as capitol buildings fn the larger provinces. Relatively, however, they represent no greater instruments of service and benefit to the people than the lowly little market building of some isolated community, or the one-room building housing f\ome little barrio school. Many more buildings are needed, by alL branches of the government and replacements, to adequately care for the increasing services demanded by a growing population, are inevitable.

The records prior to 1910 are incomplete, but subsequent to that time and up to the present, the government has erected a total of 6,344 buildings at Manila and in the provinces, for all of which a total of about 110 millions of pesos have been spent.

In the matter of port works, the first report of the Commission (referred to above) stated that "there are but few deep-water harbors in these islands. Those of the large cities need to be deepened and improved. We have confined our attention for the present, however, to the harbor of Manila, for the reason that this city is the chief port and metropolis of the islands, and to make necessary improvements will require all the funds which are at present available for work of that character. Large vessels, having a draft of more than 16 feet, are now compelled to lie 577

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES two or more offshore. Those of less draft than this find entrance into the Pasig River. The paramount need, therefore, for a thoroughly protected harbor, with sufficient depth 'of water to accommodate the largest ships, wherein they can lie not only in safety, but can load and discharge cargo in all weathers, is apparent.

The Spanish Government, more than twenty years ago, formulated an elaborate scheme for the construction of such a harbor. Operations were begun pursuant thereto shortly thereafter and continued in a slow and intermittent way up to 1896. Such other port works as existed were evidently deemed so insignificant as to require no mention.

The breakwater construction, reclamation of the port area, the new Luneta and the site of Dewey Boulevard, the construction of Piers Nos. 1, 3, and 5 and the filling in of the moat around the Walled City, wJiich were carried out by the Commission, are familiar to most.

A stretch of marginal wharf was also built at Cebu and the Iloilo River was dredged and a short section of river wall built at that port.

In later years, small appropriations permitted sporadic construction work at various ports, but concerted attention could not be given this important feature of public improvements until the period of prosperity following the World War, when freight movements reached their zenith.

The restored bond issue funds for the Port of Manila enabled the construction of Pier No.7; the improvement of Piers Nos. 3 and 5; the construction of the South Breakwater and the acquisition of an additional sea-going hopper dredge to deepen the harbor. At Cebu and Iloilo, important improvements were undertaken, financed by bond issue funds authorized for that purpose. At Cebu, the marginal wharf was extended; two covered piers and one 578

SCIENCE without shed were huilt; a large amount of work was done toward deepening the harbor and the water-front was greatly improved by utilizing the dredge spoil for reclamation and the construction of streets.

At Iloilo, the marginal wharf was extended; a riverwall was built on the La Paz side, to enable construction of a turning-basin; a tremendous amount of dredging has been done in the River, utilizing the -spoil for reclamation and a marginal wharf on the straits is now under construction.

With the passage of Act 3592, which created a "Port Works Fund" and provided the means for systematic maintenance of existing port works, this feature of public works was placed on a sound basis. Improvements of various kinds and magnitude have been undertaken at some 60 interisland ports and all of the "open" ports have received attention. The work done varies from the beginning of construction of a small landing, to the building of deepdraft berthing facilities, and from dredging a shallow channel to accommodate local traffic, to removal of coral shoals impeding over-seas shipping.

Definite plans are being prepared for future development of the more important ports as rapidly as the data can be secured and every effort is made to adhere to a fixed program to benefit the shipping of the Islands as a whole.

The total expenditures for port works, from the beginning made at the Port of Manila, with the first appropriation of Pl,OOO,OOO authorized by the Commission, to the present time, amount to about 68 millions of pesos.

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES AND SANITATION

All that had been done under this heading during the Spanish regime was the construction of the "Carriedo" system at Manila. There were no sewer systems.

579

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Today, we have 338 water supply systems, scattered all over the Islands. The largest is, of course, at Manila; but those at Cebu, Iloilo, Vigan, Lucena, Zamboanga, and various other places are also of considerable magnitude.

Many small systems, supplying small communities, have also been built, some taking their supply from springs, others from artesian wells. In addition to the water-system, over 2,331 artesian wells have been constructed, supplying good water to some three million people.

The marked improvement in health conditions throughout the Islands during the past thirty years, within which period all of this work had been done, is due in no small measure to the eradication and control of water-borne diseases made possible by these improvements. Roughly, it is probable that nearly one-half of the population are now served by some form of improved water supply, for the construction of which the government has spent approximately seventeen and a half millions of pesos, excluding the 'cost of Manila system.

Not much has been done in the way of sewer construction. Manila has the most extensive plant of this nature. Baguio has a sewer system with a small treatment plant and some work of this kind has been done at Vigan, Zamboanga, and Lucena.

IRRIGATION AND RIVER CONTROL

Properly speaking, the government itself probably did not undertake the construction of any irrigation works during Spanish times. Without doubt, the Friars were the real instigators of most of the work of that kind, aside, of course, from the splendid systems of the Igorotes. Certainly, the principal systems that s~rvived in the Christian provinces were those on the Friar Land estates, although it is known that communal systems, irrigating as much as 100,000 hectares, were once in existence.

580

SCIENCE The continued drain of some 12 million pesos for rice importation per annum, especially during the period of the World War, naturally led to the adoption of measures to obviate such needless loss and by 1922 a definite basis for financing irrigation works had been established and a definite program of construction laid down. Prior to that time, only one small system had been built under the American regime. It took water from the San Miguel River, in Tarlac, and serves only a limited area.

A twenty-mill ion-peso bond issue was authorized and plans prepared for placing some 160,000 hectares of land under irrigation.

Thus far, 18 systems, located in 14 different provinces, have been constructed, serving a total area of about 83,000 hectares. They have cost a total of approximately PI8,600,000.

While the present policy is to hold further governmental irrigation work in abeyance, it is certain that in the course of time the normal increase in population will make additional work of this nature imperative.

River control work has not been accorded the financial support it merits. The principal difficulty lies in the fact that, to be effefctive, a flood control scheme for such a problem, for example, as the great Central Luzon Valley, must be attacked as a whole and on a scale of construction which will not permit the work accomplished to be dissipated before further progress can be made. Sporadic dyke construction or bank revetment cannot be expected to remedy basic conditions which will eventually cause the ruin of large areas now under cultivation.

In some instances, rather extensive dykes have been built in connection with irrigation systems, for their protection and minor works, such as hurdles, walls and revetments have been built at various places for specific objectives, like bridge abutment protection and to prevent 581

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES encroachment on roads and other public property. The appropriations for this purpose have been so limited, however, that little real progress has been made in this line of work.

AIDS TO NAVIGATION

In 1898 there were only seventeen lighthouses in the Islands. There are now 220. In addition some 150 buoys and 63 beacons have been installed since the inception of American sovereignty. This work has been accomplished under various governmental agencies.

First, the military authorities administered them.

Then, with civil govel'nment, the Bureau of Coast Guard and Transportation took over the work. In 1905, the Bureau of Navigation was created and assumed jurisdiction over the lighthouse service. In 1913, with the abolition of the Bureau of Navigation, the lighthouse service passed over to the Bureau of Customs. In 1918, it passed to the newly created Bureau of Commerce and Industry, where it remained until it was again transferred, in 1932, to the Department of Agriculture and Commerce.

Since the Bureau of Navigation was abolished, all appropriations for the construction and repair of lighthouses and other aids to navigation have been carried in the Public Works Act. The total value of such public improvements is about P1,000,000.

One of the most valuable, yet least spectacular of all the services grouped under "Public Works" during the past 30 years is that of obtaining and analyzing the data necessary for the adjudication of water-rights. As valuable as titles to land, water-rights can be determined only by accurate data and the most scrupulous care in making field investigations. This work requir,es the making of nearly 2,000 discharge measurements annually and the keeping of gauge records at some 130 permanent gauging stations.

582

SCIENCE A vast amount of technical study has been given to problems connected with provincial and municipal lighting and pumping plants. Some of the designs have involved rather extensive plants, such as the hydro-electric systems at Baguio and Zamboanga. Others have concerned wiring systems, small hospital refrigeration sets and similar work.

Technical advice has been rendered and plans have been prepared for a multitude of mechanical and electrical installations of the most varied character, all as a part of the public works of the past 30 years.

A great deal remains to be done. More public improvements of every descriptions are, or will be, needed.

Mistakes and errors of judgment have been made in the past in connection with public works and are certain to occur in the futu~e, but the experience of the past three decades amply demonstrates the soundness of building well, in preference to much, and of maintaining and holding existing accomplishments, in preference to adding to them at the expense of their neglect.

583

CERAMICS IN THE PHILIPPINES AND ITS POSSIBILITIES

By S. DEL MUNDO Of the Bureau of Science Secretary, Di-oision of Engineering and Industrial Research, N. R. C.

In this article, an account of ceramics in the Philippines will be given and the possibilities of the industry discussed. Enamelling on metal and the manufacture of cement, gypsum, lime, and allied products will not be taken up as these industries do not really fall under the term ceramics, although they bear a close relationship to the true ceramic industries.

EARTH: AND CLAY PRODUCTS

The manufacture of clay products has been carried on for a long time in groups of small establishments in thirtysix of the forty-eight provinces of the Islands. The products consist chiefly of primitive unglazed pottery ware, brick, tile, and pipes. Very little, if any, has been produced along the line of fine ceramics, although some of the manufactured ware reveals considerable skill on the part of the artisan, especially when the limited equipment and the crude implements of manufacture are taken into account.

The manufacture of pottery is practiced as a household industry in much the same way as in the Aichi and Gifu Prefefctures in Japan, and in Westerwald and Bunzlau in Germany. The making of pots is done by women while the men attend to the obtaining of the raw material and the marketing of the product. The trade occupies the same place in the family economic system which hat making, embroidery, or hand weaving occupies in some towns, and 584

SCIENCE the work is taken up and dropped according to the family convenience or needs. Whereas in the foreign places mentioned, the art of pottery-making has been fostered and has advanced beyond the rudimentary stage, in the Philippines the industry has remained in the ~ame primitive state in which it was in the beginning. Pottery as a household industry has assumed respectable proportions in foreign countries and products of all kinds, from the finest porcelain to the crudest earthenware, are produced. In the Philippines the output is limited to unglazed red ware made from a mixture of alluvial ferruginous clay of high plasticity and river sand, the latter being necessary to counteract shrinkage. The methods of manufacture in vogue in the Philippines nowadays, interesting as they may be, will not be described as they would in no way be materially different from the several accounts which have appeared in the publications of the Bureau of Science. Several cuts reproduced in this article nave been obtained from the publications which are given below (Adams and Pratt, 1910; Crowe, 1912; Christie, 1914; Witt, 1918; Dar Juan and Reyes, 1924-1925).

Primitive and undeveloped as the pottery industry may be in the Philippines, and limited as the output of the individual manufacturer may be, the industry is not at all insignificant. Its extent as reported by the provincial treasurers to the Bureau of Science in 1925 (more recent data not available) amounted to P202,784. This figure is not complete as it does not show returns from several provinces. Neither does it include the production of potteries in the vicinity of Manila. 'In this region, the production is fairly large and consists of flower pots (paso), large jar (bafiga), round-bottomed pots (palayok) for cooking rice, containers for sugar, rice, vinegar (tinajas or tapayan), conical-shaped receptacles (pilones) used in the man585

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ufacture of sugar. These products are readily sold on account of the proximity of the places of manufacture to populated centers. The census report of 1918 shows that even 14 years ago the annual production in the vicinity of Manila amounted to r96,869. In spite of the use of imported household utensils such as aluminum, enamel, and metal-ware, which have to some extent displaced the products of local potteries in recent years, it would not be an exaggeration to place the annual production of pottery and clay products in the Philippines at about half a million pesos. Adams and Pratt estimated this at r400,000 for 1909, while the census report for 1918 placed it at 1>434,227.88. According to tIle 1918 Census, during the period from 1903 to 1918, the number of pottery establishments in the Philippines registered an increase of 60 per cent.

A half million pesos derived from an industry which has remained undeveloped, should provide an incentive to help it forge ahead. Modern methods of manufacture will certainly give the pottery industry a greater impetus and make it more efficient. In the opinion of the writer, gradual development which would not involve large investments should start with the production of more glazed articles to replace the red unglazed ware of the market, and the introduction of a suitable type of furnace to obtain better burning. Improvement in the quality of the products would create a better appreciation of the ware by the consumer and the pottery industry could then comamnd a better market.The manufacture of ceramic material for constructional work ~uch as common and sintered bricks, sand-lime brick, refractory silica ware, vitrified tiles, and sintered sewage pipes offers alluring incentives for exploitation.

Suitable raw materials in workable quantities have been 586

SCIENCE proven to exist. Experiments on these materials were undertaken by the Bureau of Science and the results have established their suitability for the purpose. (Cox, Reibling and Reyes, 1912; Witt, 1916). The table of imports given below was obtained from the annual report of the Insular Collector of Customs.

Impo'rts Fire-brick .................

Other brick ....................

Tiles .......................

Sewage pipes and conducts

1990 1'133,256 15,147 177,823 142,478

1991 1'187,213 37,482 159,359 37,621

1'165,910 7,130 6,409 157,511

.................

P340,478

1'421,675

1'336,960

Total

1932

These figures show that there is a market for the above mentioned products. The problem of fuel and means of transportation should be solved, in the opinion of the writer, before the class of goods described could be successfully exploited. The use of oil-fired furnaces and the development of a kiln suitable for firing with coconut shells shall receive due consideration. In several countries of South America, coconuts and coconut shells have been used as fuel with favorable results.

The prospect of manufacturing white ware and porcelain does not seem to be so attractive. In the past only two serious attempts to make porcelain have been registered in the Philippines. A Japanese merchant, M. Tagawa, built and operated a kiln in Bocaue, Bulacan. A more serious effort was made by Enrique Zobel who built a plant and installed some machinery on the Pasig River west of San Pedro Macati. Some fine specimens were produced in this factory. Both enterprises failed, and with their failure efforts to make porcelain and sintered ware of a better quality ceased.

There are many deposits of white burning or light colored earths in the Philippines. Quartz of a grade suitable 587

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES for the manufacture of fine ceramic ware is not wanting, but the known sources are located at a considerable distance from the clay deposits. What has been said of quartz applies equally well to feldspar and feldspathic materials. As far as the writer is aware, no promising source of feldspar has been reported so far. Nature does not seem to have been as kind to the Philippines as it has been to such places as Tokitsu, Tajimi, and Seto in Japan, Meissen in Germany, and Karlsbad in Czechoslovakia, where all raw materials are centralized in one spot and where the cost of transportation and fuel are reasonably low. Porcelain and vitrified ware could be made out of Philippine raw materials, but it is doubtful if under existing conditions the local product could be manufactured at a cost which would enable it to compete with ware imported from countries which have the advantages of priority in the industry, of a centralized source of raw materials, of a cheap source of fuel and skilled labor, and of excellent means of transportation.

GLASS

A glass factory operated in Santa Ana some time ago was the forerunner to the present plant in San Juan.

This plant turns out bottles for its chief product and operates mainly on "cullet" (broken glass). The operation of the factory is very intermittent and its production does not meet the demand. The total imports of glass and glassware for 1931 amounted to P1,376,391 of which P465,173 corresponds to imports of empty bottles, jars and demijohns, and P263,287 to tableware. The manufacture of these articles could well be undertaken in the Philippines.

Dar Juan and Elicafio conducted experiments which demonstrated the feasibility of Philippine raw materials for glass making. When the relatively high cost of fuel and transportation, and the lack of skilled labor in the Phil588

SCIENCE ippines are considered, it would seem as though it would be inadvisable to exploit the industry with small plants similar to' the one operating in San Juan. The cost of production of such a plant is too high to enable the product to compete successfully with the imported. A plant equipped with oil-fired day tanks of about two tons glass capacity in conjunction with semi-automatic blowers of a type similar to the Schiller machine would be more efficient and desirable. Such a plant would operate on fuel oil, which is cheap in the Philippines. It would be less dependent on skilled labor which is locally very expensive and scarcely available. The use of tanks instead of crucible pots for melting glass would lessen the hazard of breakage and the consequent outlay on crucible. A two ton day tank would cost' approximately P6,OOO. Blowing machines and molds to operate with such a tank would require a similar outlay of capital. Such a plant should meet the demand for bottles, flasks, tumblers, and small pressed ware.

With the development of the ceramic industries in the Philippines, nearly two and a half million pesos worth of imports could be retained in the Islands and an excellent source of employment for the masses would be provided.

At a time when all nations are striving to become self-sufficient, to give serious thought to the exploitation of the ceramic industries would not be amiss.

LITERATURE CITED ADAMS, G. T. and W. E. PRATT. 1910. Philippine pottery. Philip.

Jour. Sci., v. 5A: 143-151.

ANONYMOUS. 1918. Census of the Philippine Islands. v. 4:504.

CHRISTIE, E. B. 1914. Notes on the pottery industry in San Nicolas, Ilocos Norte. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. 9D: 117-120.

Cox, A. G., W. C. REmLING and F. D. REYES. 1912. Sand-lime brick and artificial sand stones in the Philippines. Philip. Jour.

Sci., v. 7A: 317-363.

589

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES CROWE, C. H. 1912. Philippine Pottery. Trans. Ame,\ Ger. Soc., v. 14: 723-730.

DAR JUAN, T. and F. D. REYEs. 1924-1925. Clay Products. The Jlliineml Resources of the Philippine Islands, pp. 91-98.

WITT, J. C. 1916. Philippine paving-brick materials: A preliminary report. Philip. Jour. Sci., v. llA: 203-219.

WITT, J. C. 1918. Methods of burning pottery in the vicinity of Manila and their influence on the quality of the product. Philip.

Jow路. Sci., v. 13A:59-63.

590

HISTORY OF MINING IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS *

By WARREN D. SMITH The history of mining in the Philippines, until within the last few years, has wen in the main a long record of failures, and at the present time there are only perhaps a half dozen mines that are earning sufficient profits to make the ventures worth while. One of these is the Philippine Dredges Company, an Australian and New Zealand company, with a fleet of four dredges on Paracale River, only one of which is active. Other successful mines and mining companies are the Syndicate and the Colorado, two quartz properties on Masbate; the Benguet Consolidated Mining Company, near Baguio; the Philippine Coal Mining Company, on Batan Island; and the group of crude iron furnaces owned and operated by Filipinos in Bulacan Province, Luzon. The Benguet Consolidated is the most successful of these. Mining in the Philippines has been more successful since 1898 than in all the centuries preceding.

GOLD

Probably the earliest operations 1 in these Islands, as elsewhere, were on placers; the work consisted of more or

* Smith, Warren D., Geology and Mine?路al Resources of the Philippine Islands, pp. 467-477, 1924, Bureau of Printing, Manila. lOf the many references in early reports, relations, and chronicles referring to this subject the following are cited: Expedition of Villalobos, 1521-69. "One, Alvarado, in 1544, was told 'at Mindanao' that there were three gold provinces-Mindanao, Butuan (which is now known to be in the northeast part of Mindanao) and Bisayas. Butuan hal' the richest mines of the whole Island."

Blair and Robertson, vol. 2, p. 72.

In 1565 Legaspi issued a proclamation regarding gold taken from Indian burial places, exacting a certain proportion as tribute to the crown. Blair and Robertson, vol. 2, p. 172.

Relations of Capt. Juan de la Isla (1576) mentions the mines of "Masbate." "There were found gold mines two to four estados (1 591

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES less haphazard and desultory washing of the sands and gravels in the various streams. There are numerous traditions relating to the early visits of the Chinese to the Islands, who came to seek gold treasure, and the raids of the Moros into the northern provinces where gold was known to exist.

In the Chronicles of the Franciscan Order in the Philippines Father San Antonio refers to the word mait as the Chinese name for Mindoro. It seems that mait in Chinese stands for "gold." It may also refer to Masbate where there are remains of old Chinese workings near Aroroy.

Whether these represent the activities of Chinese before the Spanish Conquest or are of a later period cannot be definitely ascertained; but it is claimed, in support of the theory of ancient workings, that pieces of Chinese pottery older than the Ming Dynasty have been found near the old tunnels and open cuts. There is very little definite information in regard to these remote times and operations, and the details are not essential now. Suffice it to say that gold has been and can be panned from streams from one end of the Archipelago to the other.

I am indebted to Prof. H. Otley Beyer for the following memorandum: Some years ago there was found in a tributary of the Agusan River near Esperanza, Mindanao, a massive golden image which for historians, archeologists, and miners is of est ado equal:;; 2 meters approx.) in depth." Blair and Robertson, vol. 3, p. 195.

The "Mines of Paracale" are mentioned in a letter from Andres de Mirandaola to Felipe II in 1576.

Memo:randum to the Council of Spain from the first General Junta of Manila (1586) "For almost the only wealth of these people has been in the mines and metals * * * there are no hereditaments, or cultivated farms or crops," etc. Blair and Robertson, vol. 6, p.

159.

Mining among the Igorots was mentioned by Capt. Alonso Martin Quirante in Relation of 1621-1624. Blair and Robertson, vol. 20, p. 276.

592

SCIENCE great interest. The image was of twenty-one carat gold and weighed about 1,790 grams, the color of the gold being very pure yellow. The figure of the statuette 8 to 9 inches was of a Buddhist deity and the style of art was vel'y like that of the Ngandjuk period in Javanese art.

The image, according to Professor Beyer, clearly was not made in Java since the workmanship is cruder than that of the Javanese and the gold is of a distinctly different color and quality from that employed in such work in Java. Professor Beyer's opinion is that Javanese miners worked the Mindanao gold deposits as early as 1350.

The most talked-of district for the last three centuries, perhaps, is the Paracale-Mambulao district in Camarines Norte. The history of placer mining in the Philippine Islands is in large part of the history of this district. The first operations here were those carried on by Filipinos with the ba,tea, a wooden pan. Then there came into use a small dipper dredge, with a treadmill device for raising the dipper, capable of handling only 2 or 3 cubic meters per day.

The third stage in the development of the industry came with the installation of three medium-sized but modern dredges on separate properties. Two of these were New Zealand types and one a California model. The fourth stage, which has already been entered, is the consolidation of properties and the utilization of large-capacity dredges, capable of handling from 2,000 to 3,000 cubic yards per day.

In the early days, long before American occupation, Mambulao, which is now a mere collection of shacks, was a city of much importance due to the flourishing gold mining and the fact that the Spanish galleons from Mexico sometimes stopped there. I recently saw some Spanish silver coins dredged up near this town, bearing the date 1739.

593

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Concurrently with the crude attempts at dredging in the days before American occupation over a score of arrastres of the Mexican type were in use in the hills surrounding Paracale and lVIambulao. Today only one of these can be seen, and it is no longer in use.

The year 1894 is an important one in the history of this district. It is known as the "prohibition," when the Spanish Government prohibited the Filipinos from engaging in the mining industry.

At the present time this district, which was again flourishing during the decade from 1905 to 1915, is almost dead. The banner year in this district was 1915 when there were nine dredges, all told, operating in Paracale, Gumaus, and Malaguit Rivers. '. In quartz mining the first step was marked by the use of the mortar and pestle, a universal device among primitive people. This was succeeded by the arrastre, which apparatus was introduced by the Spaniards from Mexico into the Mambulao district. Then came the stamp mill, erected by th~ Mineral Syndicate, which company came to grief, however, as a result of the insurrection of 1896, before producing anything. With American occupation came the floating of two quartz-mining companies, the Tumbaga and the San Mauricio, which used still more upto-date machinery. In 1910, however, both of these shut down, and there are practically no operations on quartz lodes worthy of mention in this district at the present time.

The history of operations in Masbate and Benguet has been similar in many respects, but with the difference that those two districts are better adapted to quartz mining.

All attempts at dredging in Masbate have so far proved futile, while the Benguet country never was adapted to this class of mining.

The chief events in the history of Benguet are the erection of Hartwell's 3-stamp mill in 1903; the beginning 594

SCIENCE of operations by the Benguet Consolidated Mining Company in 1907; the typhoon of October, 1909, which severely crippled the plants of the largest two mines; and the beginning of operations on the Headquarters property in June, 1911. In 1914 the Benguet Consolidated plant was rehabilitated, and today it is the greatest gold producer in the Philippines.

In Masbate there have been many ups and downs also, but at present there are two successful mines in operation on lodes, the Colorado and the Syndicate.

COAL

Coal in the Philippine Islands was discovered by Europeans, in 1827, on Cebu, and on Batan Island in Albay province in 1842. The first eoal entries were made on Batan Island in 1847, and the first concession on Cebu was given in 1853. Ve:cy little mining was done until after 1890. The two most-important properties were the Bilbao and Chifladura mines on Batan, operated by the Minas de Batan Company, and the Compostela and the Camansi mines, consolidated by Enrique Spitt, on Cebu. These failed and have done nothing since the insurrection. A very comprehensive plan for mining with Enrique Abella, chief of the mining bureau, in charge, was about to be consummated when the insurrection broke out in 1896. In 1904 the United States Army began exploring Batan Island, but never accomplished much, and in 1910 operations ceased by order of the Secretary of War. In 1907 the East Batan Coal Company began operation and did fairly well until 1911, when it went into the hands of a receiver and was bid in by the Government to satisfy its preferred indebtedness. With the coming of the World War and the need for coal at any price the Philippine Coal Mining Company began operations near the old site of the East Batan Company mine, and in 1921 this was the largest coal mine 595

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES in the Islands. In 1918 the National Coal Company was formed. Its career has been a checkered one, but now, at the end of 1922, it has reached the production stage.

IRON

The earliest record contained in the archives of the Bureau of Science with reference to iron mining bears the date December 12, 1781, and this is an order of instructions to the Governor of Angat, Bulacan, Luzon, through the Governor of Bulacan, from the Superior Government of Manila to render every possible assistance to Chaplain Juan Belli of the Armada in the working of his mine.

However, very little was accomplished in this undertaking owing to "the indolence and repugnance with which the natives assisted in the labor of the works."

The next that we learn in chronological order is that Santiago Hison, past captain of the Guild of Mestizos of Angat, makes a petition to the Governor of Angat asking that he be declared the discoverer of the mine Sapang Bacal. The entire history, dimensions, and production of this mine are not known. After passing from one owner to another, and ownership being contested several times, the mine at last carne into the possession of Mrs. Maria AItesa Fernando, .one of the most interesting personalities in the mining industry in the Archipelago. Several other "mines" in Bulacan have crude furnaces erected near the~ but Mrs. Fernando has perhaps made the greatest success of the business. There are now on her property several crude furnaces which turn out approximately 150 tons of iron a year; the iron is made into plowshares and sold in Bulacan and neighboring provinces.

In 1917 a Japanese company leased the property on Calambayanga Island in Mambulao Bay, Camarines Norte, and until the close of the World War mined and exported ore from that place.

596

SCIENCE Early in 1920 a furnace was erected at Limay, on Manila Bay, to treat briquetted magnetic sands, but this has not attained success.

Perhaps the most important event in the iron industry in the Philippine Islands was the discovery, about 1912, of a large deposit of lateritic iron ore by Mr. H. F. Cameron, a Government civil engineer, in Surigao, Mindanao.

The Government has since reserved this deposit. The National Iron Company was soon after organized to exploit it, but nothing has been done by this company in the field.

COPPER

The Spanish mining engineer Santos, in his report of 1862, says: Even in some of the most ancient history of these islands copper is cited among, Qther metals as one of the products which nature affords with considerable abundance, the natives of the mountains utilizing it for arms, ornaments, and in a profitable business, but the most noteworthy document which claims attention by its official character and in the exactness as later verified, is the communication to the Governor, His Excellen~y, the Captain Sr. Don Pascual Enrile of 1833, in which he states that the utensils that the Igorots of the rugged mountain ranges which separate the province of Cagayan from that of !locos, made of the copper from the mines, have been known for several centuries. With this communication were sent numerous spikes of the metal mentioned, which, assayed in the Direccion General de Minas, gave such good values that not only was it recommended that mines be opened for the exploitation of so much mineral, but it gave rise to the creation of the inspection of 1838 and the mining law of 1846.

In 1850 a military expedition was sent to this region (near Mankayan in Lepanto, Mountain Province, Luzon) to make an investigation. Antonio Hernandez, a Government engineer, went with the expedition and made maps, collected specimens, etc. He found that the Igorots had 597

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES made a number of small pits and shelves, dug out the nigh-grade ore, and afterward smelted it in a crude way which has been fully outlined in Santos's report. A translation of this report is included in a paper by Eveland.

The report of Hernandez awakened considerable interest, and the governor took steps to carryon mining and smelting on an improved basis. However, it was not until 1856 that an exploration for demarcation of the property was made. Finally an agreement was made with the Igorots of that section by which 500 pesos were paid to the Government for the concession. The Igorots were guaranteed employment in the mines, a stock company was formed under the leadership of Mr. Balbas, which laid out two pertenencias of 83,000 square meters each, and preliminary work was begun. The company operating here was called the Cantabro-Filipino Company.

The year 1860 marks th:e first actual production, and in 1861 about 25 pounds of copper were produced; in 1862, 1,800 tons of ore; and in 1866, about 234,807 pounds. Up to 1874, the total output was about 2,500,000 pounds of copper. In 1875, this company suspended work. The .cessation of work was probably due to the death of Santos, which occurred in that year. From that time the mines have remained idle, except for the crude operations of Igorots and Chinese, and the prospecting and development work done by Americans.

All attempts to float the property have been unsuccessful. This is the only part of the Philippines where a commercial deposit of copper has been discovered.

PETROLEUM

The first mention in geologic literature of gas or petroleum in the Philippines, so far as is known, is found in the description of Panay, by Abella, 1890.

598

SCIENCE In 1896 an oil well was being bored on the estate of Smith, Bell & Co. near Toledo on the west coast of Cebu.

In that year an insurrection broke out against Spanish rule and the drillers (Americans) were driven from the well, which has remained idle ever since. It is now choked with rubbish.

About 1910 a number of Americans became interested in petroleum seeps, long known to the Filipinos to occur on' Bondoc Peninsula in Tayabas Province, Luzon, but apparently unknown to the Spaniards. Two shallow wells were dug near those seeps and some oil was pumped, but nothing of any great importance has been done since then except to keep up assessment work on the properties.

However, several foreign petroleum companies have from time to time made surveys of this and other fields.

About the end of 1917 there was considerable excitement over the discovery of oil in the Cotabato region of Mindanao. In 1919 Act 2814 was passed, providing for the creation of the National Petroleum Company, but this company has done no active field work.

In August, 1920, the Philippine Legislature passed an act "to provide for the exploration, location, and lease of lands, containing petroleum and other mineral oils and gas in the Philippine Islands," and rules governing the same were made by the Secretary of Agriculture and Natural Resources. In November, 1920, ground on Bondoc Peninsula, Tayabas Province, Luzon, was leased to the Richmond Petroleum Company, a subsidiary of the Standard Oil Company of California, and in March, 1921, drilling was begun.

599

:

MINES AND MINERALS

By L. A. FAUSTINO, V. MILLS, H. ROXAS, F. TAMESIS, Phil. Ec. Assoc.

The Philippine Islands is rich in minerals. Among the more important minerals and mineral products which occur in greater or lesser quantities within the confines of the archipelago may be mentioned the following: gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron, manganese, chromium; coal, petroleum, asphalt and related bitumens; asbestos, gypsum, mineral waters, guano and phosphate rock, salt, sulphur; cement, clay products, lime, and building and ornamental stone.

At the present time, gold is by far the most important of the minerals produced as may be seen from the following statement of the annual output: Year 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 ........... . ... â&#x20AC;˘. ....... . ........... . ....

1934 (estimated) ............................ .

1935 " ............................ .

Value P 6,851,246 7,495,373 7,594,215 10,003,200 16,190,795 22,000,000 40,000,000

GENERAL SURVEY OF THE MINERAL RESOURCES

In the following brief paragraphs it is proposed to describe the nature, occurrence and extent of development of the more important mineral deposits.

Gold.-Gold has been found everywhere throughout the archipelago but the most important gold districts are the following: Mountain Province District: This district includes both the old Baguio and Suyoc mineral districts and the area between them. The typical veins in this district are fis-

.

600

SCIENCE sures in andesite and diorite and vary from 1 to 50 meters in width. Quartz is the principal gangue mineral but in some places is mixed with calcite and manganese. The ore is free-milling, and about 30 per cent of the gold can be amalgamated, but practically all of the companies are using the all-sliming and cyaniding method of extraction. Lately, they have employed flotation also.

The Camarines Norte District: This district comprises the area in the neighborhood of Paracale and Mambulao, Camarines Norte province and includes the placer deposits on the main streams. The veins are quartz-calcite in andesite and metamorphic rocks and vary in width from 1 meter to 10 meters. Gold has been recovered mainly by placer mining although lode mining has been boosted lately.

The Masbate District: The mineral district of Masbate is located only a few kilometers south of the town of Aroroy, Masbate province. The veins are of the fissure type in andesite, diorite and pyroclastics. The ore is hard and medium-hard quartz with manganese and calcite.

During the last twenty-five years the above districts furnished the greater bulk of the gold production of the Philippines, although Lianga, Surigao and lately Ipo, Bulacan, and Baay, Abra, have contributed in the production.

The other gold districts which are undergoing prospecting and development are the following: Ilocos district which includes IIocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and La Union; Cagayan and Isabela district; Nueva Vizcaya district; Zambales district; Pangasinan district; Nueva Ecij a district; Marinduque district; Northern Mindoro district; Cebu district; Leyte district, mainly on the island of Panaon; Northern Mindanao district; and Zamboanga district.

The rapid development of the gold mining industry in the Philippines during the last two years may be assigned to two main causes; namely, (1) the increased price of gold and (2) t.he decline of agricultural and other industries.

601

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES On account of the increased price of gold from $20.67 an ounce to $35 an ounce, it has become profitable to work low grade ores. Prospecting and development are being carried on in all the known districts and gold production is expected to increase very materially during the next three or four years. In fact the hope of the Philippines is not in the high grade ores but in the lower grade ores.

Most of the capital invested in the gold mining industry is American, and the management of most of the companies is in the hands of Americans and other foreigners. Filipino capital has only of late invaded the mining industry.

Apparently the hazards and the complex problems of the industry are not generally understood by the late comers and some of the new companies in the field have not quite appreciated the fact that mining needs thorough prospecting and development and the use of the best technical knowledge and direction to attain success, and that there must be a real mine fuefore any production is made or profits declared.

Practically all the gold bullion produced in the Philippines is sent to the United States for refining. It is believed that the Government can w~ll establish a gold refinery in Manila for the reason that in addition to the profits which may be made from the refinery the gold bullion may remain in the Philippines and may eventually become the gold reserve for currency of the Philippine Government.

Silver.-Silver is not mined separately but comes as a natural allqy with the gold so that all the silver produced in the Philippines comes as a by-product of gold mining.

Coppe1路.-The best known copper deposit in the Philippines and the one which was worked during the Spanish days is the Mankayan copper deposit in Mountain Province.

In general, the copper values in the ore run from 1 to 3 per cent but locally there are rich pockets running from 602

SCIENCE 10 to 20 per cent and sometimes as high as 40 per cent.

The ore minerals are enargite, chalcocite, luzonite, covellite, chalcopyrite, and pyrite in a quartz gangue with koalinite. Other known copper deposits are in Zambales, in Marinduque between Santa Cruz and Torrijos, in Benguet, in Pangasinan, and in Camarines Norte. The Marinduque copper ore has an average content of about 14 per cent, with some rich pockets running as high as 29 per cent.

It carries a little amount of gold and silver.

Lead and Zinc.-The best known lead and zinc deposits in the Philippines are in Marinduque between Santa Cruz and Torrijos. The deposits are in the form of dikes in andesite, varying from 1 to 3 meters wide. The ore minerals are galena and sphalerite in a quartz gangue. Some rich pockets run as high as 60 per cent lead, others carrying as much as 45 per cent zinc, and some portions carry 2 to 3 per cent copper. The average run of the ore is about 6 per cent lead and 5 per cent zinc. In addition, it carries between 2 to 3 pesos worth of gold per ton.

Iron.-There are three important deposits of iron ore in the Philippines; namely, the iron ore deposit near Angat, Bulacan, the Calambayungan and Larap iron ore deposit near Mambulao, Camarines Norte, and the iron ore deposit in Surigao. The Bulacan iron ore consists essentially of magnetite and hematite in intimate mixture but in varying proportions, the average ore carrying about 60 per cent iron. The deposit is estimated to contain between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 metric tons {)f ore. The Calambayungan and Larap iron ore consists of almost pure, massive or granular hematite with traces of magnetite, and carries an average of about 60 per cent iron. The estimated tonnage is between 1,000,000 and 3,000,000 metric tons. The Surigao iron ore is of a lateritic nature. The ore is principally ferruginous clay containing an abundance of small round pellets of hydrous iron oxides. The ore is soft, 603

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES spongy and mealy. The average ore contains about 52 per cent of iron and is free from objectionable impurities.

The deposit is estimated to contain about 500,000,000 metric tons of ore. At the present time iron is produced only in Angat district where native furnaces are in operation.

The Surigao iron ore deposit was reserved in 1915 by Executive Order No. 63 for the use of the Philippine Government. On March 12, 1919, Act No. 2862 creating the National Iron Company was passed by the Philippine Legislature. ['his company was supposed to exploit the Philippine iron ores in general and the Surigao iron ore in particular, but up to the present time nothing has been done by it. The greatest handicap in the development of iron smelting in the Philippines is the lack of good coking coal, which is used in the manufact~re of pig iron. However, the Surigao deposit is traversed with streams which may be harnessed for electrical power. The possibility of manufacturing iron and steel in Surigao with the electrical shaft furnace method which is used in Sweden, Northern Italy, and Japan, where coke and coal is scarce, is worth investigation and study by all agencies of the Government.

Manganese.-The deposits of manganese in the Philippines are largely secondary concentration deposits and can be conveniently divided into manganese and manganiferous ore deposits. Manganese ores occur in Ilocos Norte, Masbate, Pangasinan, Bulacan and Tarlac chiefly as nodules and grains of psilomelane and pyrolusite, lying upon the surface of the ground. The manganiferous ores occur in Benguet subprovince and Masbate. The deposit that is being extensively worked at the present time is the Ilocos Norte deposit.

Chromium.-Extensive deposits of chromite are known to occur in several parts of Zambales, Camarines Sur, Pangasinan and Antique. There has been reserved by 604

SCIENCE the Government for public use three parcels of land in Zambales containing chromium ore. These reservations are as follows: PARCEL 1:

From Lat. 15-34-15 N. to Lat. 15-35-45 N. From Long. 120-05-15 E. to Long. 120-06----'30 E. PARCEL 2:

From Lat. 15-36-15 N. to Lat. 15-37-45 N. From Long. 119-58-45 E. to Long. 120-00---<15 E. PARCEL 3:

From Lat. 15--44-30 N. to Lat. 15-46-30 N. From Long. 119-58-30 E. to Long. 120-00-03 E.

By Proclamation No. 148 of the Governor-General of the Philippine Islands, dated October 15, 1931, Parcel No.3 is declared a United States reservation while Parcels 1 and 2 remain insular reservations.

Some of the chormium ores are of very high grade, carrying more than 48 per cent chromic oxide. As the world supply of high grade ores is limited and its use both in times of peace and war is great, the importance of the deposits of the Philippine Islands can not be overestimated.

The wharfage tax of P2 was removed on iron and steel metals presumably so that the ores may be exported at a profit to centers of iron and steel production. It is believed, however, that the wharfage tax should not have been removed altogether but merely reduced. In the particular case of chromium ore the question may well be asked whether or not it is sound policy to hasten the exhaustion of a mineral supply, which is known to occur in limited quantities in other parts of the world.

Coal.-There is some coal in practically all of the larger islands of the archipelago but in commercial quantities it occurs only in the following districts: 605

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ESTIMATE OF AREAS AND TONNAGE OF PHILIPPINE COAL FIELDS

Area of coal bearing formations

Coal field and province

-

Probable production

I I I Sq. km. I Per cent

Tonnage

Metric tons

Batan Island, Albay .................

Cebu Island, Cebu: Cajumayjumayan ..............

Compostela-Danao ...............

Uling ................................

Sibuguey (Malangas), Zamboanga Sug ud Bay, Sorsogon ........... . ........

Polillo Island, Tayabas . . . ...........

Cataingan, Masbate .................

Bulalacao, Mindoro .... . ........ . ...

34

50

5,800,000

6 42 14 51 16 18 5 9

50 25 50 20 30 15 10 25

2,500,000 3,400,000 2,400,000 3,400,000 1,600,000 1,000,000 200,000 800,000

Total ......... . .. . ... . .....\

195

-

...........

21,100,000

The coal-bearing formations of the Philippine Islands are of Tertiary age and for the most part belong to the Oligocene period. The coal basins are comparatively small and discontinuous and of irregular outline. This is to be expected on account of the peninsular and archipelagic conditions which existed during the coal-forming period.

The seams are generally folded and faulted, sometimes intruded by igneous rocks or covered by flows. There are four minable seams in most of the fields, although as many as eight seams have been penetrated by some of the drill holes. The seams now being mined are from 0.3 to 2.5 meters in thickness, although seams having a thickness of 4.5 meters and even 8 meters are known. The dip varies from almost horizontal to nearly vertical. In general, the seams lie at more than 10Q. The coal fields contain lignite (brown), subbituminous (black) and bituminous coals. The so-called semi anthracite of the Sibuguey (Malangas) field is not really sem606

SCIENCE ianthracite, as generally understood; it is merely a highcarbon bituminous coal and approaches more the character of semibituminous coal. The lignites are found in areas which are least disturbed and at places away from the lines of uplift. The subbituminous and bituminous coals occur in the areas of diastrophism and vulcanism or where the latteral disturbances and pressure which folded the formation have produced changes in the .character of the coal. The lignites show a distinct woody structure.

The subbituminous coals weather very irregularly and, if the process were allowed to continue, the resultant heap would be composed of small fragments of irregular shapes, bounded by rough faces instead of by cleavage planes. The bituminous coals are black, with a shiny luster, hard, and 路 have a more or less cubical fracture. Considerable difficulty is experienced in storing the lower grade coals on account of spontaneous combustion. The coals are generally non-coking, although some soft coking coals have been found at Gotas in the Sibuguey field in Mindanao and at Guila-Guila, Mount Uling, and Toledo in Cebu.

For the purpose of partly supplying the nearly 500,000 metric tons of coal imported annually into the Philippines, the National Coal Company was established.

The Sibuguey Coal Field (Malangas), Zamooanga, and the Mount Licos area of the Compostela-Danao Coal District, Cebu, were the scenes of operations of the National Coal Company. Unfortunately, the enterprise was a miserable failure. The Government losses are placed at more than P5,000,000. Some of the reasons for the failure are here enumerated in the hope that they will be taken into consideration in future ventures.

It appears that there was not sufficient preliminary geological exploration and prospecting to determine the nature and extent of the coal deposit with a view to determining the nature of the coal, the amount available and 607

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the amount that can be profitably extracted. Too much money and work were expended on equipment and surface plant before any assurance of tonnage existed. As a matter of fact the 13-kilometer railroad was built and equipped, barges were brought to transport coal in the Sibuguey river, the 4-kilometer aerial cable tramway was installed without knowing whether or not there would be sufficient coal mined to make use of the transportation facilities.

This is considered one of the worst mistakes in mining, and one that may be attributed to ignorance of proper procedures in sound mine engineering practice.

Petroleum.-The Philippine Islands has so far not produced mineral oil in commercial quantities. The following are the localities known to contain oil and which are considered worthy of exploration and development: Bondoc Peninsula, Tayabas; northwestern part of Leyte; Toledo, Cebu; southern part o:t Mindoro; Pidatan district in central Mindanao; and Calatrava district in Negros.

Of these localities, the Bondoc Peninsula is the only one that was tested by drilling. From 1921 to July, 1924, the Richmond Petroleum Company, a subsidiary of the Standard Oil Company of California, drilled four wells in this district. These wells were the following given in the order of their depth: Yebaan No.1 ................................ .

Amuguis No.1 ............................... .

Sapa No.1 ................................... .

Pina No.1 .................................. .

617 1,320 3,757 5,117

feet feet feet feet

The company drilled a total of 10,814 feet. Slight indications of petroleum and natural gas were ' encountered, but of oil nothing t~at even nearly approach commercial quantities was found under the structures tested.

The company discontinued drilling activities in July, 1934, and all its field equipment was stored in Manila.

608

"THE FAROLA,"

Pasig River. E?'ected in 1846, it is the oldest Lighthouse in the Philippines

SCIENCE The Philippine petroleum is light brown to wine red to violet in color. It has a paraffine base and the parraffine content is usually high. It loses part of its lighter constituents readily upon exposure. The density of the oil ranges from 219 to 389 Baume.

Act 2814 of the Philippine Legislature creating the National Petroleum Company was approved on March . 4, 1919, but the company never functioned. The amount of money appropriated for the purpose was too small for drilling operations although sufficient for geological explorations. At any rate, there is at present an oversupply of petroleum and petroleum products in the United States and the operation of this eom"pan~7 may as well be postponed to a later date. . Asphalt anii"'-Related Bitrumens.-Natural asphalt and bitumens are foun.~ i the extreme northwestern peninsular portion of Leyt~rin th vicinity of the town of Villaba.

The asphaltic mate.lal occurs ~s impregnations of sandstones, limestones a~ clay! tuffs, which appear to have remained behind after the lighter organic constituent volatilized and migrated upward. It also occurs in distinct fissure veins in clay tuff. The fissures and cavities apparently were once filled with liquid petroleum which has subsequently underg~ne further distillation. The deposit has been variously estimated to contain between 2,000,000 and .10,000,000 metric tons. Tbi's deposit is now being worked by the Manila Rock Asphalt Company and its products used in some of 'the southern provinces.

A.b'68toB.-The best known deposit of asbestos in the Philippines and which was worked in 1918 and 1919 is near Bangui, nocos Norte. The asbestos in this deposit is classed as amphibole, containing the minerals tremolite and actinolite, and chrysotile commonly associated with serpentines. The asbestos occurs as cross fiber, usually veined; as parallel fiber, also veined and with the fiber 609

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES parallel to the vein; and as massive fiber, in pockets. The bulk of the deposit occurs as parallel fiber while the cross fiber and the massive fiber have hardly made their appearance up to the present time.

Gypsum.-The most important gypsum locality in the Philippine Islands is near the barrio of Talahib, Looo, Batangas. The deposits are in the form of vertical, somewhat irregular, fissure veins from a few centimeters to about a meter in width. The wall rock is andesite, which near the vein is altered ' and heavily permeated with gypsum. In 1924, this deposit was developed and the production was used by the Cebu Portland Cement Company in the manufacture of cement. Other deposits similar to those of Talahib are found in Mabini and Bauan of the same province.

Mineral Waters.-The Philippine Islands is a country rich in mineral springs and mineral waters, distributed from Luzon in the north to Mindanao in the south. Practically in all of the large islands there are springs known by the people to possess some curative value. The waters of some springs have not been analyzed to determine definitely the mineral substances present. In some cases, where analysis has already been made, the waters are found to be of no medicinal value. In the majority of cases, however, they are found to contain chemical substances that possess some therapeutic properties. Again there are a few natural springs in the Philippines that are radioactive and, therefore, of some medicinal value.

Guano and Phosphate Rock.-Guano is merely a heterogeneous mass of material, consisting largely of the excreta of bats and birds, mixed in varying proportions with the debris and earthy materials found in caves. In various parts of the islands rock phosphate is also found, generally in caves formed in limestone. The most important 610

SCIENCE locality of rock phosphate so far found is in Dumarao, Capiz.

SaU.-The source of most of the salt produced in the Philippines is by solar evaporation of sea water. The production is confined to those areas that have a welldefined dry and wet season. The raw material (sea water) has no value other than that incurred through the unskilled labor expended in reducing it to salt, and the cost of the tide land involved. Taking into account that common salt is an important raw material in the manufacture of chemicals such as soda ash and caustic soda, which the country needs so that her natural resources can be converted into useful products, the importance of increasing our salt production to encourage the manufacture of these chemicals cannot be over-emphasized.

Sulphur.-Sulphur occurs as a sublimate in the crevices around volcanoes (called solfataras), and also as an impregnation in tuffs. The better-known deposits are around volcanic vents at the orifices of hot springs that carry hydrogen sulphide, and extinct volcanic and fumarolic centers. The better known sulphur localities are the following: Camiguin Island, Cagayan; Biliran Island and Burauen, Leyte; Camiguin, Oriental Misamis; and Pocdol, Sorsogon.

Cement.-The following localities have been reported to contain Portland cement raw materials which are avail: able for local cement manufacture: Near Binafigonan, Rizal; Batan Island, Albay; Romblon Island; Masbate; Iloilo; Bohol; vicinity of Danao, Cebu, and vicinity of N aga, Cebu.

Two of the above localities are now being utilized for the manufacture of Portland cement; namely, the vicinity of Binafigonan, Rizal, and the vicinity of N aga, Cebu.

Portland cement is such a bulky material, compared with its price, that a factory should be ideally located with respect to markets to be served and should enjoy the best 611

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES transportation facilities for its product and for needed supplies. Coal, one of the largest items of cost, and gypsum, another expensive raw material, are being imported. While it is not possible to produce all the coal needed, a portion required in the production of Portland cement may be produced locally. Steps should be taken so that at least a portion of the coal supply would come from the Philippine coal mines.

In order to enable the local cement factories to meet the competition of foreign cements, the Legislature has increased the import duty on cement. A survey of the local demand for cement shows that the Philippines can well afford another cement plant as the present local production does not take care of the tota consumption.

Clay ProduCÂŁs.-Clays suitable for use in the manufacture of pottery, earthenwares, common bricks, etc., are found in practically all parts of the Philippines. Pottery making and the manufacture of clay products are carried on in practically all of the provinces. White clays are known to occur in several localities, but the most important deposit that has been found is the one at Siruma, Camarines Sur, which has heen reserved by the Government for public use. This deposit has been found to be useful in the manufacture of porcelain wares and other ceramic products.

Lime.-The two most important sources of lime in the Philippines are the limestone quarries and oyster and other marine shells. The making of lime from sea shells is notably developed in Malabon, Navotas and Parafiaque in Rizal on Manila Bay, due in large measure to the presence of oyster and other shell beds in that locality. Pure, hard limestones, argillaceous limestones, and marl are widely distributed throughout the archipelago. These are quarried and calcined in kilns, and a better grade of lime than that from sea shells is produced. The important uses of 612

SCIENCE lime in the Philippines are in the clarification process of sugar-cane manufacture, in the making of mortar for building operations and in tanning leather.

Stone, Building and Ornamental.-Stones for building and ornamental purposes are distributed throughout the archipelago. The principal building stones are andesites and basalts and other volcanic rocks, a waterlaid volcanic tuff, commonly called "dhobe" or "adobe" stone and limestones. Marble is the chief ornamental stones. The Romblon marble is a gray-blue mottled stone, capable of taking a high polish. The stone has been used principally for monuments and tombstones, and in the form of chips as ornaments in concrete facings. One objection to the use of Romblon marble for monuments and tombstones is the alleged difficulty of obtaining blocks of suitable size free from joints, but further investigation may show deposit of different character. At the present time the serious drawback in the development of the industry is the high freight rate from Romblon to Manila.

613

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

By M. L. RoxAs, A. S. ARGUELLES, V. C. ALDABA, F. T. ADRIANO, S. R. MENDINUETO, Phil. Ec. Assoc.

The Philippines is essentially an agricultural country and for a long time to come will have to depend principally on the soil for support. But the rapid growth of population and progress of the country have created other needs that cannot be supplied by agriculture alone. The industrial revolution which had dominated the economic life of Europe and America for a century, and more recently that of our neighbor, Japan, is beginning to influence our economic life. Our agriculture must be supplemented by industrial activities to supply our needs for manufactured goods.

Industrial Raw Materials.-The Philippine Islands is very rich in raw matepials folZ manufacturing industries.

To give an idea of these raw materials, the following list is submitted: AGRICULTURAL RAW MATERIALS

(1) Sugar and molasses (2) Abaca fiber and waste (~) Copra, coconut fiber and shell (4) Clean rice, bran and hulls (5) Cured tobacco leaves (6) Dressed meat, leather, animal fats, bones and hoofs, hair (7) Milk (8) Eggs (9) Fish, and sea weeds (10) Oil kernels (11) Raw cacao and coffee (12) Crepe rubber (13) Cotton fiber and seed (14) Maguey and other fibers (15) Wheat flour, hulls, gem, and bran (16) Reeled silk 614

SCIENCE FOREST RAW MATERIALS

(1) Lumber (2) Barks, tan bark, dyebarks (3) Bamboo (4) Nipa leaves, buri leaves, cabonegro (5) Resins, waxes, latex, other exudations (6) Nipa sap

(7) Gogo and rattan (8) Derris roots (9) Honey and beeswax [

.LJ. ..

-'

MINERAL ORES

(1) Ores (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

Cement rocks Salt rock Clays Limestone Silicious materials Shells Mineral wat ers Guano (10) Asphaltic materials

The foregoing list shows the wealth of raw products more or less obtainable in commercial quantities, and which, if properly exploited, will feed many local factories.

New Indust'J'ies.- The establishment of manufacturing industries here will necessarily be gradual. There are now certain infant industries established by private initiative and these must be given due protection. Certain new industries can be started immediately, because the essential elements for their manufacture are known, and also because the materials required are now available. These are the industries that must receive immediate attention from the Government.

The industries that can readily be established here are: (a) Textiles.-Cotton goods constitute the highest single item of importation into our country. The Philippine market is supplied with cotton textiles by American, 615

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Japanese and European cotton mills averaging P45,000,000 a year. There is one cotton mill in the country operating, but we will require many more mills to supply our needs.

Cotton grows well here. Cotton can give better returns than either corn or upland rice in Luzon. Areas not suitable for lowland rice in regions with long dry climate are also good cotton lands. Cotton can be grown as secondary crop in these regions. With improved varieties already in process of propagation, cotton growing will prove very profitable in many places. Some 300,000 hectares of land are suitable to cotton culture but 30,000 hectares are sufficient to supply the probable needs of local cotton mills.

However, it should be our policy to raise only what is necessary for the manufacture of cotton cloth needed for domestic consumption. Cotton yarn which we import in large quantities from China every year might as well be supplied locally. It is expected that in due time we will even be able to prod'uceraw cotton for export, although it may not be wise to encourage raising it for export in' view of world over-production. (b) Wheat.-Bread is now becoming an important part of our food. We import yearly over P8,000,000 of wheat flour. We have a wheat variety that grows well in certain belts and yields better returns than either corn or upland rice. (c) Derris.-The United States is on the market for this material, which is used as insecticide. It is preferred to calcium arsenate, because Derris is nonpoisonous to man, although it kills insects, while the calcium arsenate is poisonous both to man and insects. Insecticides worth many millions of pesos are being used in America, and Derris will find a ready market there . . We have several species of this plant growing wild here, and we have found one variety very rich in the active constituent. Its production will bring several millions of pesos to the Philip616

SCIENCE pin€s. We should establish factories to extract the active constituent and to prepare the finished hydrogenated rotenone for the market. (d) Cassava.-Sugar planters who have been forced by circumstances to reduce their sugar acreage are now planting these with cassava. We are importing cassava starch close to Pl,OOO,OOO a year. The local factories engaged in making this starch must be given due encouragement by the Government. (e) Ceramics.-The manufacture of vitrified clay products out of local clays from deposits found in different places of the Islands is now possible. Considerable experimental work has been carried on along this line, and our knowledge of th€ conditio s of manufacture has opened the way for the establishment of, at least, one factory to make fire bricks, glazed bricks, tiles and sanitary fixtures.

Our annual average importation of clay products from 1928 to 1932 has amounted close to one and one-half millions of pesos.

(I) Manila POIper.-Some low-grade paper and paper products can be made locally at a profit. We have the necessary raw materials and labor. As in th€ case of textiles, we can start with the low-grade paper, such as wrapping or Manila paper. This kind of paper can be made from agricultural wastes, such as rice straw, coconut husks, waste fiber, low-grade abaca and can bagasse. The Government has experimented with the use of these agricultural wastes for wrapping paper and has demonstrated the great feasibility of the industry. With the establishment of a Manila paper factory, more experiments on the production of finer grades of pap€r can be undertaken afterwards. Of wrapping paper of different kinds we are importing about one and one-half million pesos worth every year.

617

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES (g) Fish Canning.-Fish cannery is not a new thing

in the Philippines. As a matter of fact, the Philippine Packing Corporation established at Bogo, Oriental Misamis, has been canning tuna fish for export. However, our fish drying industry, which is still conducted along primitive methods, should be greatly improved. Fish preservation on modern lines may be established in Estancia, Iloilo, in Manila, in Samar and other great fishing centers. Our annual importation of fish products from 1928 to 1932 amounted to P3,534,OOO. . (h) Meat Packing.-The manufacture of hams, sausages and canned meat, canned milk, cheese and butter can be made a profitable industry here. We have the raw materials and we already have knowledge of the details of manufacture. Our five-year average annual importation of these articles is as follows: ANNUAL AVERAGE,

1928-1932

Dairy ....................................... .

Meat products .............................. .

Eggs, preserved and in natural form, yearly ... .

P 7,126,678 4,613,342 4,074,550 P15,814,570

(i)

Mining Industry.-The present gold rush and

great interest on the part of the public in the other mineral enterprises preclude the need for Government undertaking.

All that is necessary is to regulate the mining industry, protect investors and offer general encouragement.

Industrialization of Major Crops.-Certain other manufacturing industries should be established to save our maj or crops: (a) Abaca and Maguey.-The maguey industry is almost dead. Its revival may be found in the manufacture of bags as containers for rice and cement, for wrapping rubber, tobacco leaf and almaciga for export. Also sack 618

SCIENCE cloth for making small handbags for local use and for export can be manufactured. We can produce here some 20,000,000 meters of the cloth for local use, at a value of P3,000,000. Some 48,000 piculs of abaca and 64,000 pieuls of maguey could be used, representing about 2.5 and 65 per cent of the 1933 production, respectively. Reducing the oversupply of these products, particularly of maguey, will tend to increase their prices. Abaca, being the premier fiber of the world, is assured of permanent market abroad. But our cordage industry faces stern competition and for this reason it needs our attention. The establishment of the bag industry should help the abaca industry in the event cordage is dBiven out of competition. (b) Tobacco.-Any loss to the tobacco manufacturers in the American hlarket can be covered up by the production of aromatic cigarettes from locally grown Virginia and Turkish tobacco. Cagayan Valley while reducing its filler tobacco to grow subsistence crops shall continue to produce this kind for the manufacture of tobacco products.

Better regions for wrapper tobacco are being discovered and there is a known belt for the aromatic 路kind. Our tobacco crop is valued at P5,140,280, while the export of finished products is P10,500,000, as against P7,113,858 of imports. By growing aromatic cigarette tobacco we can reduce importation by about P5,000,000, just as we have substantially reduced importation of the aromatic tobacco leaf from China. (c) Coconut.-In spite of taxes or burdens we hope to continue selling our copra in the United States. Coconut oil is an indispensable constituent of hard soap, which is much in demand in the United States. We import over P1,600,000 worth of soap, P67,182 of vegetable lard, and P281,345 of oleomargarine. The manufacture of these products will absorb 6,000 tons, or roughly 4 per cent of our oil production. If we extract most of the coconut oil from 619

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES fresh dried meat, as is now done by one desiccating coconut company, it will need no refining and can be used directly in making high grade soap, lard and oleomargarine. With our lower wages, we shall be able to compete with products made from the refined oil and thus establish an export trade for soap, oleomargarine, and vegetable lard, in addition to clean coconut oil. Cheaper grades obtained as byproducts may be used as engine fuel. (d) S'ltgar.-Sugar limitation will make available present sugar-cane areas to the growing of cotton and other products. Whether or not we should find ways of utilizing the sugar factories for other industries after we have liquidated the sugar industry will depend to a large extent on the success Oli failure of the present movement for the continuation of free trade even after independence.

It seems, therefore, futile to attempt to lay down any plans for sugar at this time. We can, however, do something to increase our very low consumption by developing local candy and condensed milk manufactures and through a campaign of education relative to the high food value of sugar.

Home Industries.-The Government should encourage home industries, as they will be the means of warding off the danger of acute unemployment, such as exists in highly industrialized countries nowadays. As a first step to help the home weaving industry, the Government is installing an experimental spinning outfit that will make yarns to replace the one million and a half pesos we are sending to Shanghai for the Chinese yarns being extensively used in the Ilocos provinces. The next step should be to put up a factory of such proportion as will supply all the yarns needed in home weaving hi all the provinces where home weaving has become well established. Other home industries that may be encouraged are the hat and slipper making; pickling and vegetable canning on the farms, as a 620

SCIENCE way of disposing of surplus farm products; the manufacture of curious and products of handicraft for the tourist trade. The Government may foster these home occupations by manufacturing the raw materials so as to reduce the cost to the minimum, such raw materials to be distributed at cost to the different home workers.

Basic Chemical Industries.-If all the raw materials needed for soap making, except the coconut oil, were to be imported at present prices, the cost of the locally-made soap would be higher than the imported soap. It seems, therefore, desirable that the Government should establish certain basic chemical industries such as caustic soda, sulphuric acid, riitric acid, muriatic acid and solvents to supply the chemicals needed by the manufacturing industries. As the chemical industry as well as any other manufacturing industries under Philippine conditions, will have to be developed simultaneously with the development of our water power, it seems also desirable at the same time to consider developing the manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizer.

Water Power Development.-One of the most important characteristic features of the second industrial revolution is the rise of electricity. Electricity has given great significance to water power. Water power is increasingly assuming importance in furnishing mechanical energy. Industrial development depends to a large degree on mechanical power. Simultaneously with the consideration of the manufacturing industries, we should recommend the study of the possibilities of our water power development. The following are the well-known water power sites: Agno Talavera Pefiaranda Camiling Moriones Angat 621

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Bulate, Zambales Maldica, Bataan Abo-abo, Bataan Calriaga (Luisiana) Babo, Camarines Norte Salog, Camarines Sur Libonaran, Camarines Sur Barit, Camarines Sur Bato Lake, Camarines Sur Quinal, Albay San Francisco, A1bay Cawayan, Albay Aklan, Ca piz Loboc, Bohol Qubuces, Camiguin, Oriental Misamis Sagay, Camiguin, Oriental Misamis Agua (Maria Cristina), Lariao

New industries should be established in relation to proximity of water power, raw materials, adequate labor supply and accessibility to cheap transportation.

SUPPLEMENT ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE

*

The Bureau of Science, organized in 1901 as the Bureau of (rl)vernment Laboratories, and taking its present name in 1905, has been of inestimable assistance in the progress achieved here. At first concerned almost wholly in the protection against disease, it did magnificent work and for many years there has been no possibility of such major disasters as the outbreak of cholera that occurred in 1902, continuing for two years and taking the lives of nearly 100,000 people. In fact it can be said that cholera, bubonic plague, dysentery and malaria are under control.

The Bureau is tireless in its efforts to assist in improving the general health of the people, in its researches

* Excerpts from address of Governor-General Frank Murphy to last session of Philippine Legislature, November 15, 1935.

622

SCIENCE to develop natural resources, and in its cooperation with and helpfulness toward industry.

Thanks to the bureau, copra production has become doubly profitable through elimination of wasteful methods, and similar assistance to the sugar industry has produced additional millions. The bureau has assisted factories making paints, varnishes, cement and other industrial products from local raw materials; it has conducted experiments in the field of ceramics; aided materially in conservation of fish and game; in development of the mineral resources of the Islands; in improvement of crops, forestry and tropical plants, and in general has made a place for itself in the very heart and marrow of the economic life of the people.

- The bureau is a: research institute of extreme value.

Its international reputation is deserved and it is one of the greatest legacies tbat the new Philippine Commonwealth will inherit from the American regime.

623

UTILIZING SCIENCE FOR HUMAN NEEDS

By CAMILO OSIAS President, National University

The Philippines is just entering upon a new epoch in its history. Just as the epoch about to give way to the new may be said to have been dominated by political mindedness, so the new epoch should be distinctive for the dominance of a new economic spirit and increased scientific mindedness. If this diagnosis be correct, then it is highly important that science to a greater extent be utilized for human needs.

In the course of my modest participation in our national struggle for emancipation, one of the motivating forces that animated me to fight with all the ardor of a crusader was the belief that with independence the Filipinos iWould witness a renaissance of progress in culture and in other lines of activity. I have always viewed the problem of independence not merely as a political problem but one which affected all phases of Philippine life. Filipinos in my jugdment should continue to view the question in its integrity. If we mean to be free and independent, we must look upon the question of freedom and independence realistically and rationally. We must believe and live in the conviction that they make up the warp and woof of Philippine life. This demands that all men and women, all groups of men and women regardless of occupational or professional pursuits, must do their part to make freedom and independence real and enduring.

Under the new order, there is a special call to men and women of science. The demands upon them will be pressing, unceasing, and implacable. Science must be more consciously made an ally of progress. More men and 624

SCIENCE women need to be yoked for science. Science must be har~ nessed for human needs.

The Philippines must graduate from the "hit-andmiss" stage. It must enter upon an era of greater sanity and certainty. The new Philippines can not afford to be guided by leaders without vision or plan. The new ship of state must be manned by people who are schooled in the idea of planning, not guessing; in anticipating, not depending upon the inspiration of the moment, in short, by people who are scientifically-minded and who know and value expert service.

I have faith in men and women trained in and for science. The State must to a greater degree show increasing interest in and give encouragement and support to scientific research. There must be greater recognition of the worth and value of ~cientists and men and women 'Who in their respective fielCls show that they have the scientific attitude of impartial inquiry.

Coupled with scientific research, there must be greater activity shown in popularizing science. Science and the fruits of scientific research, especially in a country like the Philippines, must be made more practical and more popular.

I have no quarrel with those who pursue science for its own sake. But I am emphasizing the need of science for human sake, that is to say harnessing science for human needs.

In all walks of Philippine life there is need of better planning and planning long in advance. This is merely another way of saying that scientific planning is needed.

If we as a people are to surmount the difficulties ahead we must apply to our life the ways and methods of science.

We need to follow the careful laboratory method of fact finding, the scientific way of conducting research and sift625

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ing the facts, and the relentless procedure of science without partisanship or prejudice.

In line with the idea of utilizing science for practical ends, there is a great opportunity for the application of science to our industrial and economic needs. When the Philippines shall have become more industrialized, when economic mindedness will have greater sway among us, science must be made the handmaiden of industrial ventures, of economic enterprises. There are unlimited prospects in the chemical utilization of agricultural products and by-products. Our dwellings and play-houses, thanks to scientific devices, may now be made warm or cool as need requires. Trains and theaters may now be supplied with cool and clean air. Scientific methods aid the growing, preserving transportation, and preparation of foods.

Because science has conquered distance, it is noW possible for the fruits and vegetables of distant lands to be consumed here with little or no loss of flavor or food value and the meats coming from the Western Hemisphere may now be dispatched with relish to the Tropics.

It is essential that the mind of the nation, once turned wholeheartedly to political problems, be now directed toward the utilization Of science for human needs. In a country like ours where infant mortality is appallingly high, science must be harnessed to safeguard health.

Drinking water, milk supply, and other material in our dietary must undergo the treatment dictated by scientific methods. Sewage systems must be established to help control the spread of contagious diseases that decimate populations. Numerous diseases that formerly claimed great tolls of life must be further subdued by scientific diagnosis and treatment. In our whole industrial fabric, the pertinent discoveries of physical, chemical, and biological science must be utilized to place our country on the road of safe and sound economic progress.

626

SCIENCE It is self-evident that applied science is far from being completely exploited to promote human welfare. Mention has already been made of the aid of science to our dietary and housing problems, to personal and public hygiene, and to other phases of life. In this country we also need scientific methods for the conservation and improvement of our forestal resources, for the control and enrichment of the soil, for the development of our marine resources, for the exploitation of our mineral wealth, and even for the perfection of governmental procedure and practice.

As a pepople, we can not hope to solve our manifold problems or keep pace with the march of progress, if we are blind to the value of science and to the contribution of our scientists. There must be increased recognition of the importance of expert service and scientific practice.

On the other hand, the gap between the scientists and the masses must be b:l4idged. Scientists often are too aloof.

Their methods, their studies-, their investigations are almost a closed book to the people. There must be a more intimate relationship between the scientific men and women, on the one hand, and the people, on the other. The fruits of science must be brought to the people more. It must be realized that, in a nascent nation like ours, the value of science is largely measured in terms of its application to human needs, in terms of the good it does to the people at large. The degree of popular support given to scientific activities and to scientific men and women in our country, lWill be in proportion to the benefits conferred upon the mass of our population in their daily existence.

627