Encyclopedia of the Philippines [Volume 5 : Education and Religion - Part 2 of 2]

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Jimenez Academy School of St. John the Baptist Misamis Institute Immaculate Conception School Holy Rosary School Mindanao Academy

J asaan Catholic School St. Rita's School of Balingasag Ateneo de Cagayan Lourdes Academy Saint Augustine School St. Joseph School of Tagnipa \ Academy of Our Lady Camiguin Institute I St. Mary's School I Mount Carmel School

MISAMIS OCC.: Jimenez Jimenez Misamis Misamis Oroquieta Oroquieta

MISAMIS OR.: Balingasag Jasaan Balingasag Cagayan Cagayan Cagayan EI Salvador Mambajao Mambajao Tagoloan Talisayan

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5-7 5-7

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I I-IV \ I-IV Nt I-IV I-IV

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(X) Means Combined General Secondary and Home Economics Course.

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Stella Maris School

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Immaculate Conception Academy Malindig Institute

MINDORO: Lubang

MARINDUQUE: Boac Sta. Cruz

University of Manila Santa Cruz Branch University of Sto. Tomas

University of Manila Intramuros Branch

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Colegio de la Consolacion del Pueblo de Bacolod I 1-4 I 5-7

St. Theresa's School of Aritao St. Mary's School of Bayombong

NUEVA VIZCA YA: Aritao Bayombong

OCC. NEGROS: Bacolod

San Nicolas Catholic School Cuyapo Institute Nueva Ecija Institute Luzon Central Institute Northern Nueva Ecija Institute

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Easter School, Inc. St. Louis School St. Louis School (Girls' Section) Camp John Hay School St. James School r ~ St. Vincent's School ,""":/ / ./' ",/ Itogon Catholic School Ifugao Academy /~" St. Joseph's High School . ./ Kalinga Academy ..... 路 Santa Teresita's School ~~/ Sagada School, Incorporated ,.-- ~

N arne of School

NUEV A ECIJ A: Cabanatuan Cuyapo Guimba San Isidro San Jose

MT. PROVINCE: Baguio Baguio Baguio Baguio Besao Bontoc Itogon Kiafigan Kiafigan Lubuagan Lubuagan Sagada

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PAMPANGA: Angeles Angeles Arayat Bacolor Guagua Guagua Lubao Lubao Macabebe Angeles Margot Mexico San Fernando

PALAWAN: Cuyo

OR. NEGROS: Dumaguete Dumaguete

Cadiz Himamaylan Aguisan Hinigaran Ilog Kabankalan La Carlota La Carlota San Carlos San Carlos Silay Silay

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Stotsenburg Institute St. Joseph's Academy of Mexico Assumption Academy of Pampanga

Academy of the Holy Family of Angeles Holy Angel Academy Arayat Institute St. Mary's Academy Academy of the Sacred Heart of Jesus Guagua National Institute Lubao Institute St. Augustine's Academy Concepcion Academy

St. Joseph School of Cuyo, Palawan

Silliman University St. Paul's Academy of Dumaguete

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Cadiz Parochial Institute Himamaylan Catholic School Aguisan Catholic School Hinigaran Institute Ilog Private Academy Kabankalan Private Academy Academia de Ntra. Sra. de la Paz La Carlota Academy Colegio de Sta. Rita Branch Inc. N egros Institute Silay Institute / - ,; , / St. Teresita's Academy ./"

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PANGASINAN: Alaminos Alcala Asingan Asingan Bani Bayambang Binalonan Dagupan Dagupan Dagupan Lingayen Lingayen Mangatarem Rosales San Fabian San Manuel Sison

PAMPANGA: (Con't.)

Sta. Rita Sta. Rita

Location

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Alaminos Academy ",' _/" .-"1','" ...",'" ~' ttl' Alcala Institute r:" ,/ Asingan Institute Pangasinan Academy ,/ Western Pangasinan Lyceum Help of Christians' Institution ~ Our Institute ../" Blessed Imelda's Academy Colegio de San Alberto Magno Dagupan Institute, Inc. Colegio del Santisimo Rosario Lingayen Academy Mangatarem Institute Plaridel Memorial High School Pangasinan Standard Academy San Manuel Parochial School Northern Luzon Academy of Seventh Day Adventist I Luna Memorial Institute I Pangasinan Eastern Academy Umingan Academy U rdaneta Academy I Pangasinan Central Institute

Colegio de Jesus, Maria y Jose Sta. Rita's Catholic School

Name of School

5 5-7 5-7

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SAMAR: Calbayog Calbayog Catbalogan Guiuan

Parafiaque Pasay Pasay Pasig Pasig San Juan del Monte San Juan del Monte San Juan Heights Tanay Taytay Caloocan Grace Park

RIZAL: Antipolo Caloocan Baesa Caloocan Las Pifias Malabon Malabon Malabon Marikina Morong Navotas Parafiaque

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I, Academia de la Milagrosa Colegio de San Vicente de Paul I Guiuan Bishop Singzon Institute Academy

St. Domitilla's Vocational School

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I I I

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I-IV I-IV

5-7 5-7 5-7 5-7 5-7 5-7

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I-III

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I-IV I-IV G-HE I-IV I-IV I-IV

I-IV

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5-7 5-7 5-7 5-7

5-7

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Philippine Union College St. Joseph's Caloocan Catholic School I 1-4 St. Joseph's School i 1-4 Malabon Central Institute I 1-4 I Malabon Normal School I 1-4 I Malabon Standard High School I Marikina Academy Eastern Rizal Academy I I 1-4 Navotas Catholic School Escuela Catolica de Nifias del Noviciado de San Jose 1-4 I 1-4 St. Andrew's School .-/ 14 Escuela Catolica de Pasay 1 1-4 Rizal Memorial Academy I 1-4 Colegio de Ntra. Sra. del Buenconsejo I 1-4 Pasig Catholic School Corporation I 1-4 St. John's Academy I 1-4 St. Joseph's Academy of Manila I 1-4 St. Catherine's Academy Tanay Catholic School I 1-4 I 1-4 Taytay Catholic School

II Antipolo Parochial School

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Camiling Academy Camiling Secondary Institute Little Flower's Academy of Conception Gerona Institute Central Azucarera School, Inc. Plaridel Memorial Institute

Burgos Academy Eastern Luzon Academy Our Lady of the Angel's Academy

TAYABAS: Atimonan Atimonan Atimonan

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TARLAC: Camiling Camiling Concepcion Gerona San Miguel Victoria

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Parochial School of St. John St. Michael's School Sto. Nino School Saint Thomas School St. Augustine Institute St. Peter's Parochial School

Southern Luzon Institute, Inc. Catholic School of Gubat Sorsogon Catholic Academy

Name of School

SURIGAO: Bacuag Cantilan Dapa General Luna Gigaquit Claver Lianga Marihatag Surigao Tago Tandag

SORSOGON: Bulan Gubat Sorsogon

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UNION: Agoo Agoo Agoo Aringay Balaoan Bauang Pugo Ambangonan Cuenca Linapao Maoasoas San Fernando San Fernando

Calauag Candelaria Candelaria Catanauan Guinayangan Gumaca San Vicente Infanta Lopez Lucban Lucban Lucena Mauban Sariaya Tayabas Unisan ~~~,.

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' Ideal Institute La Union Academy ~ Luna Academy Aringay Catholic School Balaoan Academy I Southern Ilocos Academy Pugo School Corporation Ambangonan Catholic School Cuenca Catholic School Linapao Catholic School Maoasoas Catholic School Northern National Institute San Fernando Catholic School (Girls' Section)

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School Tayabas Western Academy I Southern Luzon Academy I Tayabas Southern Institute, The Gumaca Central Academy Harrison Academy Pacific Katipunan Institute Eastern Tayabas Institute ,,' Lucban Institute ,,/ ,/ St. Louis Academy --" ,/ Jesus' Sacred Heart Academy Central Tayabas Academy Inc. ..., / St. Joseph's Academy Holy Family Institute ;..--""' -~ Tayabas Coast Institute ~. --~_/

f St. Calauag Institute Peter's Elementary

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1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4

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Dipolog Parochial School Ateneo de Zamboanga Moro Settlement School Pilar Institution of Zambonga

St. Ignatius School of Tetuan

ZAMBOANGA: Dipolog Zamboanga Zamboanga Zamboanga

Tetuan

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1-4 1-4 1-4

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1-4 1-4

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Southern Institute, The

Name of School

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I Cebu

Location

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Commerce Engineefing Law Liberal Arts

College, School or Department

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(P~Law

& P-Med)

I.IV G-HE I-II N

I~IV I~IV

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Courses

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5-7

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A.C.S. I-Year I-III Years I~Yr. A.A.

COLLEGIATE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOL COURSES

Olongapo Academy St. Joseph's Olongapo School Corporation Zamb~les Academy, Inc. Western Luzon Academy

San Fernando Catholic School (Boy's Section) Tubao Catholic School Caoigui Catholic School

Name of School

ZAMBALES: Olongapo Olongapo San Narciso Sta. Cruz

Tubao Caoigui

UNION: (Con't.)

San Fernando

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Manila Manila

Colegio del Beaterio de la Compania de Jesus Colegio de San Juan de Letran

Jr. Normal Liberal Arts

Manila

Ateneo de Manila

Manila

Master Mechanics Ground Course 2-Years Airplane Mechanics Course 1-Year Airplane Engine Course 1-Year Liberal Arts ! A.A. (Gen., P-Law & P-Med.) A.B. & B.S. Commerce A.C.S. & B.S.C. Dentistry I D.D.M. Education I B.S.E., M.A. & Two-Yr. Jr. N ormal College Course Home Economics B.S. in H.E. Law LL.B. Liberal Arts ! A.A. (Gen., P-Law & P-Med.), A.B. & B.S. Graduate in Optometry (TwoOptometry Year Course) B.S.Phar.

Pharmacy

Manila

Centro Escolar University

Medicine

I

I

I

I-Year A.A. (Gen., P-Law & P-Med)

I I-II Years

A.A. in Ind. Chemistry

Manila

II

& P-Med) I-Yr. (P-Law & P-Med)

Manila

Iloilo

Commerce Liberal Arts Liberal Arts

Years A.A. (Pre-Law) I I-III II A.C.S. A.A. (Gen., P-Law

(Gen., P- Law & P-Med.) I A.A. I-Year A.C.S.

Ind. Chemistry

J aro, Iloilo

Central Philippine College, The

Liberal Arts Commerce Law Liberal Arts

Colegio de San Agustin de Iloilo Adamson School of Industrial Chemistry Afable Medical College and Hospital American Far Eastern School of Aeronautics

Cebu Cebu

Colegio de San Carlos Visayan Institute

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Manila Manila Manila Manila Manila

Instituto de Mujeres Jose Rizal College Manila College of Dentistry Manila College of Pharmacy Mapua Institute of Technology

D.D.M. A.C.S., B.S.C., & M.S. in Economics & M.S. in Business Administration B.S.E., M.A., & Two-Year Jr. Normal College Course B.S. in H.E. LL.B. A.A. (Gen., P-Law & P-Med) & A.B. A.C.S. & B.S.C. B.S.E. & Two-Year Jr. Normal College Course B.S. in H.E. A.A. (Gen., P-Law & P-Med) & A.B. B.S. in H.E. A.C.S. & B.S.C. D.D.M. B.S.Phar. & D.Phar.

B.S.Arch.

B.S.C.E. I-III Yrs. Mining I-III Yrs. Chemical I-III Yrs. Electrical

Dentistry Commerce

Manila Manila

Home Economics Commerce Dentistry Pharmacy Architecture Engineering

Home Economics Liberal Arts

Commerce Education

Home Economics Law Liberal Arts

Education

D.D.M. Day & Night A.C.S. & B.S.C.

Courses

Dentistry Commerce

College, School or Department

Manila Manila

Location

Holy Ghost College

College of Oral and Dental Surgery De La Salle College Educational Institute of the Philippine Islands Far Eastern University

N arne of School

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St. Theresa's College

Manila

Manila Manila

San Beda College St. Scholastica's College

Manila Manila

Manila

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I Manila

Polytechnic Institute

Philippine Dental College Philippine Women's University

National University

National Teachers College

Music Commerce Education

Home Economics Liberal Arts

Liberal Arts Commerce Education

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Home Economics Liberal Arts Music Pharmacy Engineering

Law Pharmacy Dentistry Commerce Chemistry Education

Engineering Home Economics Liberal Arts

Liberal Arts Commerce Dentistry Education

Education

B.S.E. & Two-Year Jr. Normal College Course A.A. (P-Law) A.C.S. & B.S.C. D.D.S. B.S.E., M.A., & Two-Year Jr. Normal College Course B.S.C.E. B.S. in H.E. A.A. (Gen., P-Law & P-Med), A.B. & B.S. LL.B. B.S.Phar.

D.D.M. Day &; Night A.C.S. & B.S.C. B.S. in Chemistry B.S.E., M.A. & Two-Year Jrâ&#x20AC;˘ Normal College CourSe B.S. in H.E. A.A. (Gen. & P-Law) B.M. B.S. Pharo I-Year Civil I-Year Electrical A.A. (Gen., P-Law & P-Med.) A.C.S. & B.S.C. B.S.E., M.A. & Two-Year Jr. Normal College Course B.S. in H.E. A.A. (Gen., P-Law & P-Med.) A.B. B.M. A.C.S. B.S.E. t.:tj

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Manila Manila

Manila

University of Sto. Tomas

Location

Union Theological Seminary University of Manila

St. Theresa's College (Con't.)

N arne of School

Fine Arts Bachelor of Literature in Journalism Medicine Pharmacy

Home Economics Law Liberal Arts

Architecture Commerce Chemistry Education Engineering

Law Liberal Arts

Courses

I-IV Years M.D. M.S.Phar. & D.Phar.

A.A. in H.E. & B.S. in H.E. A.A. (Gen. & P-Law), A.B. B.M. A.A. (Gen. & P-Law) & A.B. of Arts, Law & Commerce.

A.B.A. & B.B.A. B.S.E., M.A. & Two-Year Jr. I Normal College Course LL.B. A.A. (Gen., P-Law & P-Med.) & A.B. B.S. Arch.

A.C.S., B.S.C. & M.S.C. I-IV Yrs. B.S. in Chern.

B.S.E. & M.A. B.S.C.E., M.S.C.E., B.S. in M.E. I-II Yrs. & B.S. in Chern. E. I-III Yrs. B.S. in H.E. LL.B. A.A. (Gen., P-Law & P-Med.), A.B., B.S., Ph.B. & M.S. in Mathematics.

B.F.A. I-IV Years

Home Economics Liberal Arts Music Liberal Arts Combine 6-Yr. Course Commerce Education \

College, School or Department

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Malabon, IUzal

Baesa, Caloocan, Rizal

N ovaliches, Caloocan, Rizal

Malabon Normal School

Philippine Union College

Sacred Heart Novitiate Liberal Arts Post Graduate

Liberal Arts

Commerce Education

I Education

Engineering Home Economics Law Liberal Arts

Commerce Education

Training School for Nurses, Emmanuel Hospital Iloilo Mission Hospital Training School for Nurses Chinese General Hospital School of N1]rsing EscuE'la de Enfermeras del Hospital de San Juan de Dios Manila Sanitarium and Hospital School of Nursing Mary Johnston Hospital Training School for Nurses, The St. Luke's Hospital School of Nursing St. Paul's Hospital Training School for Nurses

Name of School

SCHOOLS OF NURSING

Dumaguete, Oriental Negros

Silliman University

A.B. M.A.

Capiz, Capiz Iloilo, Iloilo Manila Manila Manila Manila Manila Manila

Location

A.C.S. B.S.E. & Two-Year Jr. Normal College Course A.A. (General)

Two-Year Jr. Normal College Course

A.C.S. B.S.E., M.A. & Two-Year Jr. Normal College Course I-II Years Civil B.S. in H.E. I-Year A.A. (Gen., P-Law & P-Med.) A.B. & B.S.

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TOTAL

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1929-30 33161 13886 33688 2771 9528 584

93618

30285 12796 29818 3987 7500 427

84813

33950 14177 29419 2397 5461 1291

86695

1927-28

1928-29

90866 .

95342 97247

104185

102413

302

309 656 745

1065

33447 13637 26404 3215 11068 562 2231

34008 14304 29735 3229 10903 400 2454 34677 12911 30875 3086 11545 408 3089

35192 14255 34951 3309 12040 652 3041

34123 14145 35903 2941 11040 492 2704

1934-35

1932-33

1930-31

1931-32

1933-34

TOTAL ENROLMENT IN APPROVED PRtVATE SCHOOL COURSES

Primary ..............

Intermediate .............

Secondary ............

Collegiate CuI. .......

Technical Schools ....

Miscellaneous ...............

Collegiate Summer ....

Secondary Summer for Teachers ...........

I.

The following figures show the enrolment in approved private school courses from the 1927-28 school year to the 1934-35 school year, according to Memorandum No.4, s.

1934, issued by the Department of Public Instruction:

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11040

837 33

776 4 9528

870 16

441

475

7500

867 63

486

927 929 1609 655 1087 896 18

651 804 882 342 757 681 56

TOTAL

163 37 1647 1182 2667 1193 1503 968 27 234 489

1930-31

102 11 1226 1193 2506 860 1265 974 19

1929-30

68

1928-29

33

1927-28

12040

771 108

267 39 2234 992 2499 1486 1589 1037 33 456 529

1931-32

10903

11068

508 48 2103 648 782 1800 2060 1358 29 342 463 21 743 163 389 103 1970 736 1149 1521 1822 1219 33 587 466 11 777 120 340 43 2109 733 2004 1499 1682 1183 37 605 473 13 719 105 11545

1934-35

1933-34

1932-33

ENROLMENT IN PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL COURSES (included in the above totals)

Architecture ..........

B.S. in Home E. . .. . ..

Commerce ...........

Dentistry ............

Education ............

Engineering ..........

Law .................

Medicine . . ..... .. ....

Music (B.M.) ........

Normal ............ ..

Nursing .............

Optometry ...........

Pharmacy ... .. .......

Post Graduate ...... . .

II.

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The private institutions used to be inspected by the Department of Public Instruction through a Superintendent of Priv.ate Schools and Colleges and his assistants. In 1926, through a legislative appropriation for that purpose, the task of recognition, supervision, and inspection of private education devolved upon the Commissioner of Private Education and his assistants working under the Secretary and Undersecretary of Public Instruction.

This particular work of the Department of Public Instruction is in accordance with Act No. 2706, as amended

by Act 3075, and Act No. 1459, which we give below: ACT 2706, APPROVED MARCH 10, 1917, AS AMENDED BY ACT 3075, APPROVED MARCH 16, 1923 AN ACT MAKING THE INSPECTION AND RECOGNITION OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES OBLIGATORY FOR THE SECRETARY OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Legislature assembled and by authority of the same: SECTION 1. It shall be the duty of the Secretary of Public Instruction to maintain a general standard of efficiency in all private schools .and colleges of the Philippine Islands so that the same shall furnish adequate instruction to the public, in accordance with the cla'8s and grade of instruction given in them, and for this purpose said Secretary shall be authorized to inspect and watch said schools .and colleges in order to determine the efficiency of the instruction given in the same and to make the necessary regulations for carrying out the purposes of this Act. SEC. 2. For the purposes of this Act, a private school or college shall be any private institution for teaching, managed by private individuals or corpora298

EDUCATION AND RELIGION tions, which is not subject to the authority and regulations of the Bureau of Education, and which offers courses of primary, intermediate, or secondary instruction, or superior courses in technical, professional, or special schools, for which diplomas are to be granted or degrees conferred.

SEC. 3. Any person or group of persons desiring to open or establish a private school or .college in order to be recognized by the Government, shall incorporate under the provi-sions of Act Numbered Fourteen hundred and fifty-nine, known as the Corporation Law, and shall file with the Secretary of Public Instruction a petition setting forth: 1. The name and location of the college or school.

2. The names and addresses of all officers, directors, governing boards and faculties.

3. The date of the organization.

4. The date of the incorporation.

5. The total amount of money actually invested in the college 0'1' school, and such other information relative to the financial condition of the college or school, as the Secretary of Public Instruction may require . .

6. A description of the buildings occupied or to be occupied by the college or school, with full details regarding the number and dimensions of the rooms, plumbing, and sanitary arrangements, and facilities for the proper lighting and ventilation.

7. A list of the teachers and assistants, showing their academic degrees, profession, experience, and qualifications, and the subjects taught by each.

8. Complete information concerning the curriculum established or to be established, with full details regarding the amount of instruction to be given on each subject.

9. Full information relative to laboratories and laboratory equipment.

10. All other details and data which the Secretary of Public Instruction may request for the purpose of passing upon the application.

SEC. 4. Whenever the Secretary of Public Instruction is satisfied, in view of the data and informa299

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES tion furnished him, that the petitioning oSchool or college is sufficiently equipped to give adequate instruction to the public, he shall grant to the petitioning corporation the necessary authority for opening such school or college, but such authority shall be subject to revocation at any time when the Secretary of Public Instruction is satisfied that such school or college is not properly managed or does not carry out its curriculum, or that the teacher-s-and assistant instructors of said institution do not maintain the standards hereinafter provided for or are incompetent in their work, or that fraud has been committed in making the application.

It shall be the duty of the Secretary of Public Instruction from time to time to inspect, either himself or through his duly authorized agent, all schools or colleges to which he has granted permits to open, and to see that the same are properly maintained and kept to the standaJ,"ds hereinafter provided in this Act. (Section 1 of Act No. 3075) SEC. 5. One year after the date of the opening of the school or college, if the Secretary of Public Instruction is satisfied that the school or college is managed in a satisfactory manner and furnishes the public adequate instruction in any or all of its courses of instruction, he shall issue to such school or college a certificate granting it government recognition with respect of any or all of its courses, whi-c h shall entitle such school or college to give to students having completed the course for which government recognition has been granted, a certificate setting forth that they have completed the particular course of studies prescribed by the Government of the Philippine Islands, which certificate shall entitle students having graduated from the course or courses recognized by the Government in said school or college to all the benefits and privileges enjoyed by graduates in similar courses of studies in the public or government schools.

SEC. 6. The Secretary of Public Instruction shall from time to time prepare and publish in pamphlet form the minimum standards required of primary, 300

EDUCATION AND RELIGION intermediate, and high schools and colleges granting the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, or any other academic degrees. He shall also from time to time prepare and publish in pamphlet form the minimum standards required of law, medical, dental, pharmaceutical, engineering, and agricultural schools or colleges and other special schools giving instruction of a technical or professional character.

SEC. 7. Government recognition shall not be granted to any school or college failing to maintain approved courses of study, unless such school or college observe otherwise all the requisites and regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Public Instruction.

SEC. 8. Government recognition shall not be granted to any school or college unless the corporation managing the same has furnished bond in a penal sum to be fixed by the Secretary of Public Instruction, conditioned upon the adequate and efficient administration of said school or college and the observance of all regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Public Instruction and compliance with all other obligations required of such school or college by said Secretary.

SEC. 9. The Secretary of Public Instruction may at any time revoke the government recognition granted to any school if it can be shown to his satisfaction that such school or college has failed to keep up to the standards prescribed for it by the Secretary of Public Instruction.

Whenever it can be shown to the Secretary of Public Instruction that any school or college has granted diplomas or conferred degrees upon students who have not completed the necessary work prescribed for such diplomas, or degrees, the Secretary of Public Instruction shall revoke the government recognition and shall also deny to such school or college the right to continue to exist as an unrecognized school.

SEC. 10. Subject to the provisions of this Act, the graduates of any recognized cour8e in a private school shall be entitled to the same benefits and privileges as graduates from the same course in the gov301

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ernment schools and shall be free to enter, should they so desire, the next higher course in a government school, provided there be room for them in the school they wish to enter.

SEC. 11. The Secretary of Public Instruction shall be authorized to appoint a Commissioner of Private Education, who shall1. Inspect all schools applying for permission to open or for government recognition.

2. Propose standard courses of study for primary, intermediate and secondary and collegiate grades and for technical, professional, or special schools or colleges.

3. Report to the Secretary of Public Instruction on the organization, financial arrangements, buildings, faculty and teaching staff, curriculum, and general conditions of all schools applying for permission to open or for government recognition.

4. Report and make recommendations to the Secretary of Public Instruction concerning the fitness of any school or college for government recognition and, in case of schools already recognized, recommend the revocation of said recognition if the required standards are not maintained.

5. Under the direction of the Secretary of Public Instruction, cause to be published from time to time, for the information of the public, a list of the approved private schools or colleges, setting forth what courses have been recognized in each school or college.

6. Under the direction of the Secretary of Public Instruction, prescribe the rules under which the diplomas and school records and papers or any printed matter of the school or advertisements of the school or college may bear the legend "OFFICIALLY RECOGNIZED BY THE GOVERNMENT," or words to that effect.

The Commissioner of Private Education shall be under the direct authority of the Secretary of Public Instruction, and besides the powers and duties herein provided for shall be subj ect to such other regulations 302

EDUCATION AND RELIGION concerning his powers and rights as the Secretary of Public Instruction may prescribe.

The Commissioner of Private Education shall receive compensation at the rate fixed in the Appropriation Act and shall have the necessary personnel authorized by said Act. SEC. 12 Any person or group of persons who -s hall open, direct, maintain, or manage a private school or college as defined by this Act, ,a nd shall advertise, publish, or otherwise announce, verbally or by means of signs, cards, letterheads, or advertisements or through any other form of publicity, that such person or group of persons has applied for authority to open a private school or college, or for the recognition of such school or college, when he has not actually so applied, or that such school or college has been duly authorized, when in reality the same has not been so authorized, or such authority has been cancelled; or that it is recognized, when in reality it has not been recognized or such recognition has been withdrawn, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and shall, upon conviction, be punished by a fine of not exceeding five hundred pesos, or by imprisonment not exceeding six months, or both, in the discretion of the court: Provided, That in the case of corporations or partnership, the president, secretary, director, administrator, or manager shall be held responsible for the violation. (Section 2 of Act No. 3075).

ACT 1459 (KNOWN AS THE CORPORATION LAW) , ENACTED, MARCH 1, 1906 (The sections referring to the procedure necessary in incorporating stock corporations are found elsewhere in Act 1459).

COLLEGES AND INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING SEC. 165. Any number of persons not less than five who have established or who may desire to establish a college, school, or other institution of learning may incorporate themselves by filing with the Chief of the Division of Archives, Patents, Copyrights, and 303

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Trade-Marks of the Executive Bureau articles of incorporation setting forth the following facts: (1 ) The name of the corporation; (2) The purpose for which it is organized; (3) The place where the college, school, or institution of learning is to be conducted; (4) The qualifications of trustees and the number of trustees, which shall not be less than five nor more than fifteen: Provided, however, That the number of trustees shall be some multiple of five; (5) The term for which trustees shall serve and the names and residences of the trustees elected for the first term; (6) The amount of money and description of the property to be devoted to the maintenance and support of the college, school, or other institution of learning.

SEC. 166. Societies or organizations which have established colleges, schools, or other institutions of learning may, unless forbidtlen by their constitutions or by competent authority exercised over them, incorporate with the written consent of two-thirds of the membership, or by an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the mem.bership had at a regular or at a special meeting called for the purpose, by filing with the Chief of the Division of Archives, Patents, Copyrights, and Trade-Marks of the Executive Bureau articles of incorporation setting forth the facts prescribed for articles of incorporation in section one hundred and sixty-five.

SEC. 167. Societies or organizations so incorporated shall have the power to adopt by-laws, not inconsistent with law and may provide in such by-laws for the election of trustees and their terms of office.

SEC. 168. Whenever so empowered in writing by the Secretary of Public Instruction and under such terms and conditions as said Secretary may prescribe, universities, and colleges duly incorporated in accordance with this Act may grant diplomas and confer degrees.

SEC. 169. Unless otherwise provided in the bylaws the board of trustees of incorporated schools, col304

EDUCATION AND RELIGION leges, or other institutions of learning shall, as soon as organized, so classify themselves that the term of office of one-fifth of their number shall ex;pire every year. Trustees elected thereafter to fill vacancies occurring before the expiration of term shall hold office only for the unexpired term. Trustees elected thereafter to fill vacancies caused by expiration of term shall hold office for five years. A majority of the trustees shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. The office of the corporation shall be at the college, school, or other institution of learning. The powers and authority of trustees shall be defined in the by-laws.

SEC. 170. Any educational society or organization; by a two-thirds vote of its membership had at a regular or at a special meeting called for the purpose, or by the written consent of two-thirds of its members without a meeting, and any existing educational corporation or body claiming to be such may, by a unanimous vote of its trustees present at a regular or special meeting called for the purpose or by the written consent of such trustees without a meeting, convey all or any part of its property, rights, and franchises to a corporation organized for educational purposes in conformity with this Act. Any corporation organized for educational purposes in accordance with this Act shall have the right by and with the consent of a majority of its membership to purchase, hold, mortgage, or sell real estate for educational purposes.

(NOTE.-In section 168, the term "colleges" is interpreted to mean "schools," in view of the fact that the_Spanish version of the law, which then governed as to wording, used the term "colegio.") .

There is ample room for private education which should supplement and complement the work of tax-supported institutions. ?file field for private edu~ation is essentially that of secondary and higher education.

While friendly rivalry and wholesome competition should be encouraged among educational institutions of 305

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES every kind and grade, ruinous competition should be avoided. The tendency of some school administrators to lower tuition or matriculation fees merely to underbid others is unwholesome not to say unethical. "Cut-throat" competition should be stopped. Cheap education is in reality costly-costly to the students, to the parents, and to the people. No desire for mere bigness of institutions, no ambition for commercialized venture should be permitted to cheapen education or lower educational standards. Education is essentially a career of public duty and social service and not an enterprise for commercial gain or personal advantage.

Through the authority and activity exercised and displayed by the educational agents of the Department of Public Instruction, the curricula of private institutions are more or less like those of corresponding public institutions.

But it is not desirable that private school theories and practices be mere imitations of those in public or tax-supported schools. Private institutions should be permitted to enjoy freedom provided they comply with the minimum essentials. The individuality of a private institution should be respected.

Private institutions in turn should zealously guard themselves against falling below desirable standards.

There are certain constants in the curricula which should at all cost be upheld. Quality should be exalted above quantity.

Students and graduates of private institutions duly recognized or accredited by the government deserve every encouragement. They should not be made to suffer because of institutional jealousies or rivalries. By law, students and graduates from private schools, colleges, and universities officially recognized by the government are entitled to the same privileges enjoyed by like students or 306

EDUCATION AND RELIGION graduates of tax-supported institutions. under the pertinent provisions of law:

We quote here-

"SEC. 5. One year after the date of the opening of the school or college, if the Secretary of Public Instruction is satisfied that the school or college is managed in a satisfactory manner and furnishes the public adequate instruction in any or all of its courses of instruction, he shall issue to such school or college a certificate granting it Government recognition with respect to any or all of its courses, which shall entitle such school or college to give to students having completed the course for which Government recognition has been granted, a certificate setting forth that they have completed the particular course of studies prescribed by the Government of the Philippine Islands, which certificate shall entitle students having graduated from the course or courses recognized by the Government in said school or college to all the benefits and privileges enjoyed by graduates in similar courses of studies in the public or Government schools."

The following comment of the Joint Legislative Committee on the foregoing provision of law is enlightening: "This means clearly that graduates of colleges of education or normal schools in recognized private institutions holding diplomas or certificates "setting forth that they have completed the particular course of studies prescribed by the Government of the Philippine Islands' are entitled 'to all the benefits and privileges enjoyed by graduates in similar courses of studies in the public or Government schools' ."

Public education and private education serve the public interests of the people. They are both under the supervision of one governmental department, that of Public Instruction. All institutions of learning subject to the supervision of the State are entitled by right to the same rights and privileges. Under existing laws, private school 307

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES students and graduates land public school students and graduates are of the same status. No man or group of men should directly or indirectly be allowed to violate or circumvent the clear provisions of the law.

Those charged with the control and direction of private institutions have given evidence of a sincere desire to maintain high standards of educational work in the country. As fast as the resources of the institutions permitted, improvements have been introduced for the betterment of the physical plant and equipment. The curricula have been patterned after those in vogue in the corresponding public institutions. Even the textbooks are more or less similar if not identical.

In all the private schools, colleges, and universities English has become the basis of instruction. This is true, including those that formerly utilized Spanish as the medium of teaching. Together with the schools maintained by the government, they are helping to make English a common language of communication in the Philippines and with the outside world. This is in line with the governmental policy which has merited popular approval and official sanction.

It is interesting to note that in the Memorial presented to the government and people of the United States by the First Independence Mission, the following indorsement of English appears: "It can be asserted without dispute that the English language serves at the present time as a common medium of communication among the islanders who still speak their own dialects.

The progress of the English language has been the result of the splendid work done by the public schools, and to-day English is the language most widely spoken in the whole Archipelago. Business between the central government and most of the provinces and municipalities is trans308

EDUCATION AND RELIGION acted in English. True, the proceedings of the Philippine Legislature are still in Spanish, but the acts are translated into English. The English language prevails in the commercial transactions of the islands.

"We will not have to wait very long before the English langUlage is the official language even in Courts, and the language most generally used in private life. The present language and many of them read and write it fairly, if they do not speak it, with few difficulties in their official conversations. The younger generation has a thorough knowledge of the language and speaks and writes it in most cases.

"The spread of this language as the common language of the inhabitants of the Archipelago is assured, not only because it is the basis of instruction in the public schools, but also because it is essential to the interest and the future of the people. Once the plan is carried out of giving primary instruction to every child of school age there is no doubt that the generations to come will speak English, which will certainly obtain a firm foothold among the people.

"It is not only the public schools that teach English; the private schools do so likewise. The law requires the Department of Public Instruction to grant licenses for private schools and to exercise supervision over private schools and colleges of all kinds, with the power to approve their courses of study and to revoke their licenses if the conditions established by the Government are not fulfilled. For a long time now these colleges and schools have been ordered to make English one of the required subjects, and their instruction has steadily improved.

"It is inconceivable that the Filipino people, when they shall have become independent, would take any step other than that of continuing this policy. It would be unreasonable to undo what has been done without mentioning the great expense which such change of policy would involve. We therefore venture the assert that the predominance of English is assured."

309

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES It is, of course, impossible to enter into a detailed discussion or give the history of the different private institutions in view of their large number.

The history of old and venerable University of Santo Tomas, as a type of sectarian institution, is given in Part I. This university continued its record of progress under the American regime and at present it is housed in a P2,OOO,OOO.OO-building located on a large site in the City.

Its administration is under the leadership of Father Rector Serapio Tamayo.

The other private universities belong to the same group of non-sectarian institutions. The president of the University of Manila is Mr. Mariano de los Santos. The president of Far Eastern University is Dr. Nicanor Reyes.

The Philippine Women's University is headed by Mrs. Francisca Benitez, one of the founders of the institution.

The Centro Escolar University owes its growth to the genius of a Filipino woman educator, recently deceased, Miss Librada Avelino, and today, Miss Carmen de Luna, one of the early associates of the former president, Miss A velino, is now carrying on. The President of the N ational University is Dr. Camilo Osias.

It may not be amiss to give a brief history of the National University, presented as a type of a non-sectarian institution, offering higher education and administered by nationals. We reproduce hereunder a historical sketch taken from one of the publications of the National University:

"The whole history of the National University is inseparably linked with the life of the founder and builder of the institution, the late Comptroller Mariano F. Jhocson. Just after the establishment of the Civil Government in the Philippines, Comptroller Jhocson established and organized in the district of Santa Cruz, City of Manila, a small school, the Colegio Fi310

EDUCATION AND RELIGION

lipino. It began with barely a score of students who were enrolled in the elementary and secondary courses.

Five years later, the little school underwent a minor change in name. What was formerly called the Colegio Filipino became known as the Colegio M ercantil.

The change of name was made necessary because of the modification of the school curriculum. From the general elementary and secondary instruction, which it offered during the first five years of its existence, it was changed to the training of young men in commerce, bookkeeping, and accounting. After two years, however, the Colegio Mercantil gave again primary and secondary courses, besides bookkeeping, accounting, and commerce, the plan of which was based on the traditional system which prevailed during the Spanish regime. The subsequent liberal movement of thought among the Filipinos brought many changes in the curricula and discipline of the college. From 1911 to 1913, though the medium of instruction was Spanish, the course of study was similar to that given in the public schools in the Philippines.

"In 1913 this college again underwent a radical change both in instruction and method. The instruction which was given in Spanish was supplanted by English, and the method became more modern. Ever since then, the school has given its instruction in the English language. It was one of the first private schools in the Philippines organized and incorporated under Act 1459 (The Corporation Law) that was authorized to confer diplomas to its graduates.

"With the passing of the years. ca...me progressive evolution in the method of instruction in the schoolthe acquisition of qualified teachers, and the establishment of suitable buildings provided with up-to-date equipment and facilities. The College did not only undergo changes in its internal organization but also in name, as on August 1, 1916, the Board of Trustees, after due deliberations, changed the title Colegio M ercantil to National Academy. Then came more improvements and expansion.

"The Philippine Law School was founded, incorporated, and opened to students in June, 1915, by 311

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Comptroller Jhocson and the Lacson brothers, as an answer to the demand of the increasing number of high school graduates for an evening English law school. On February 7, 1916, nine months after its opening, the college was accredited by the Government and in 1921 became the College of Law of the University. Its early work was conducted with the advice and assistance of five members of the Manila Bar. As it was organized to meet the growing demand for a strictly technical school furnishing the highest grade of instruction in legal matters, it had outgrown its quarters after the first year in such a way that it had to be transferred to its present location, especially arranged and equipped to meet the requirements of a modern law school.

"Hardly a year had elapsed when a greater need for another expansion was felt, the establishment of a course in liberal arts and in education, and the Board of Trustees, always conscious of its, duty to meet a public demand, decided to establish the collegiate department of the National Academy on May 15, 1917.

This department was accredited by the Department of Public Instruction on February 15, 1918, and became the College of Liberal Arts of the University.

"The most important aims of this college are to prepare students for professional courses and to provide a place of instruction for general culture and higher liberal arts education essential to efficient citizenship and leadership in the community. The degree of Bachelor of Arts (A.B.) was conferred to students on the completion of two years of specified work, but in order to place this college upon the rank of United States universities, two courses are offered, one leading to the title Associate in Arts (A.A.) based on the completion of two years' work, and the other leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts (A.B.) based on the completion of four years' work.

"After the foundations had thus been laid, and the policy in including within it a group of more technical and professional colleges had been determined, the Board of Trustees, on January 17, 1921, reincorporated the Natioool Ac.ademy and had its name changed 312

EDUCATION AND RELIGION to National University. The new institution began work as such in June of the same year.

"With the first set of graduates from the collegiate departments of the National Academy came requests from more students for the college to offer a higher course of instruction, and the Trustees, consistent with their policy of expansion, organized the College of Education in July, 1921. It offers thorough courses in Education as well as in other subjects related to education. It has for its aims the training of more efficient teachers and to serve the needs of the Philippine schools for more professionally trained supervisory and administrative officers.

This college was accredited by the Government on January 3, 1923.

"Simultaneously with the opening of the College of Education, the College of Commerce and Business Administration was founded and accredited by the Government in the same year that its sister college was accredited. This college has for its purpose to help in the realization of the full development of the economic life of the country by helping equip an adequate body of Filipinos with the fundamentals of business and with a clear understanding of the laws and forces governing commercial activities and the prop'" er administration of mercantile organizations. . "Aside from the colleges and departments of the University above mentioned, the College of Pharmacy was established on July 8, 1922, and was accredited by the Government on March 19, 1924. Subsequently the College of Dentistry and the Conservatory of Music were organized. The former was recognized by the Secretary of Public Instruction on November 20, 1924. A branch of the High School and Liberal Arts was established in Intramuros. The College of Engineering was opened in June, 1925. To these may also be added the opening of a Commercial High School, a Four-Year Normal Course, and courses in surveying, bookkeeping, and stenography. These new courses have recently been authorized by the Department of Public Instruction.

"Perhaps one of the most important departments 313

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES of the University that may be specially mentioned in this sketch was the Department of Military Science and Tactics. The University authorities, realizing from their experience the value and importance of military training, applied to the United States government for the establishment of a military department in which systematic instruction for Reserve Officers Training Corps (R.O.T.C.) may be given. The request was granted on October 1, 1923, and immediately two regular army officers were detailed to organize and establish the department. Equipment, such as the United States Springfield rifles, bayonets, belts, etc., were accordingly supplied, and the Department began to give instruction along the same lines that lead to commission in the United States Reserve Corps. This privilege has placed the University on the same standard as those of modern State universities and won for this institution a distinction unique among private universities in the Islands.

"However, upon request of the President with the concurrence of the Cabinet of the National University, the government aid to this department was withdrawn on January 1, 1927, leading to the closing of the Department of Military Science and Tactics and the subsequent organization of the Department of Physical Education.

"A new addition to the University schools and . colleges is the Junior Normal College which has practically the same curriculum as that of the Philippine Normal School. It was opened under permit of the Department of Public Instruction on June 9, 1930, and was recognized by the government on February 3, 1932. It offers a collegiate course leading to the title of Elementary Teacher's Certificate (E.T.C.). Its objectives are (1) to train prospective teachers in the professional work of teaching; (2) to give teachers in the service such knowledge of principles and methods as will improve their efficiency, in the work of education; (3) to give the students the necessary information and training for intelligent participation in matters of private and public education; and (4) to provide the students with instruction and training in 314

EDUCATION AND RELIGION elementary education which will make them more fully prepared for teaching, administrative, and supervisory work after they finish their course in the Senior Normal College (College of Education).

"The schools and colleges of the University are housed in separate buildings, the group of five houses in Lipa and San Anton Streets, District of Sampaloc, composing the central or main buildings. Pupils and students of elementary and secondary schools, those or the Junior Normal College, College of Lib'eral Arts, Education, Pharmacy, Dentistry, Commerce and Business Administration, and Engineering are all housed in the main buildings on Lipa Street. The College of Law (Philippine Law School) holds its classes in two buildings located on Calle Anda and General Luna in the Walled City, and the Intramuros Branch of the College of Liberal Arts and the High School on General Luna Street.

"Thus came into existence this institution of learning in the Philippines which is unique in the sense that it is the first private highest educational institution and which is exclusively under the control and management of a purely Filipino Board of Trustees."

After the conversion of the institution into a university, the new President created what is known as the University Cabinet for the purpose of democratizing the administration. The following is a description of the Cabinet: "The University Cabinet was created as the directing body soon after the conversion of the institution into a University. It was organized as a means of establishing a democratic form of government in the organization, management, and administration of important university affairs.

"The University Cabinet has in its membership the President, the Comptroller, the Registrar, the Secretary of the University, the Deans and Heads of various colleges and schools, a representative of the 315

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Board of Trustees, the Secretary to the President, and the Director of the Physical Education Department.

"The Cabinet as a body acts in an advisory capacity on institutional policies and other important matters affecting the welfare of the National University as a whole and of the professorial and instructional staff, the alumni, and the student body. More concretely, it is the body which renders final decision on the faculty recommendations regarding the welfare, promotion, and graduation of students, the curricula, and other institutional questions which tend to make the National University serve its constituents and fulfill its mission of service more effectively."

The Department of Public Instruction, through the Division of Private Schools and Colleges, has charge of the recognition or accrediting of the private institutions by the government. It has issued a Manual of Informa-tion for Private Schools, w~ich gives a detailed account of the general and specific requirements to be complied with in order that a private institution may receive government approval. This publication also discusses such problems as the enrollment of students, school discipline and attendance, requirements for promotion and graduation, industrial w,o rk in elementary school courses, night school requirements (elementary and secondary), optional substitutions authorized in the general secondary course, regulations governing summer sessions for repeaters, college entrance requirements, the curricula for collegiate courses and the manner of certification of preliminary education of students desiring to pursue the law course or the medical course.

The country has great need of the services of both the public and private institutions of learnin'g, and should be given every encouragement to improve and to progress.

316

ApPENDIX A

LIST OF APPROVED TEXTBOOKS BY CURRICULAl ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS GRADE

Subjects

I

Texts

Language ............. Correct English, Grades I and II. Polley and Martinez. Revised edition (1932).

The Associated Publishers. (In hands of teachers only.)

Reading ............. . Philippine Beginner's Book. Blue, Reyes, Brown and Ayer. The Macmillan Co. Rosa at Home and School. (Primer) Polley and Batica. D. C. Heath and Co. Rosa and Her Friends.

(First Reader) Polley and Batica. D. C. Heath and Co. Teachers' Manual, the Philippine Beginner's Book. Reyes, Blue and Brown.

The Macmillan Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

Teacher's Manual for the Philippine Child lAle Readers (Rosa at Home and School, and Rosa and Her Friends).

Polley.

D. C. Heath and Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

Number work ........ . Manual lor Teachers in Arithmetic, Grades One and Two. Stone, Winkel and Trinidad. Benj. H. Sanborn and Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

Writing ............. . Correlated Handwriting, Teachers' Manual 1. Freeman. The Zaner-Bloser Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

The Progressive Music Series, Book One. Music Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

The Progressive Music Series, Teachers' lTextbooks adopted under Act No. 3772 for the six-year period beginning with the school year 1932-33. Acad. Bul. No.4, s. 1934.

317

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Manual. Vol. I. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. (In hands ot teachers only.)

II Correct English, Grades I and II. Polley and Martinez. Revised edition (1932).

The Associated Publishers. (In hands of teachers only.)

Philippine Readers, Book Two. Osias.

Ginn and Co. Teachers' Manual for Grades II, III and IV (to accompany the Philippine Readers). Osias. Ginn and Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

ManuClZ for Teachers in Arithmetic, Grades One and Two. Stone, Winkel and Trinidad. Benj. H. Sanborn and Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

Correlated Handwriting, Teachers' Manual 2. Freeman. The Zaner-Bloser Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

The P?'ogressive Music Series, Book One. Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

The Progressive Music Series, Teaphers' Vol. I. Parker and others.

Manual.

Silver, Burdett and Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

GRADE

Language .............

Reading ..............

Arithmetic ............

Writing ..............

Music ................

GRADE

III

Language ............. Correct English, Grade III. (Revised ed.

1932). Polley and Martinez. The Associated Publishers.

Reading .............. Philippine Readers, Book Three. Osias.

Ginn and Co. Teachers' Manual for Grades II, III, and IV (to accompany the Philippine Readers). Osias. Ginn and Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

318

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Philippine Arithmetics, Grade III. Poblador, Cayco and Osias. World Book Co. Writing .............. Correlated Handwriting, Teachers' Manual 3. Freeman. The Zaner-Bloser Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

Music ................ The Progressive Music Series, Book One. Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. The Progressive Music Series, Teachers' Manual. Vol. I. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

Arithmetic

GRADE

IV

Language ............. Correct English, Grade IV. (Revised ed.

1932). Polley and Martinez. The Associated Publishers.

Reading .............. Philippine Readers, Book Four. Osias.

Ginn and Co. Teachers' Manual for Grades II, III, and IV (to accompany the Philippine Readers). Osias. Ginn and Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

Arithmetic Philippine Arithmetics, Grade IV. Poblador, Cayco and Osias. World Book Co. Writing .............. Correlated Handwriting, Teachers' Manual 4. Freeman. The Zaner-Bloser Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

Music .â&#x20AC;˘.............. The Progressive Music Series, Book Two. Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. The Progressive Music Series, Teachers' Manual. Vol. II. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. Geography ............ Home Lands Geography. Miller, Ty and Balagot. Ginn and Co. GRADE

V

Reading .............. Elementary Civics, Grade V. Melencio and Reyes. The John C. Winston Co.

319

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ...,philippine Readers, Book Five. Osias. / 1932 edition. Ginn and Co. Language ............ :/Essentials of English, Fifth Grade. Pearson, Kirchwey and Reinoso. American Book Co. Good manners and right conduct ............ . ,flharacter and Conduct, Book One, Grade Five. De Veyra and Melencio. The John C. Winston Co. Arithmetic ............ ÂŁtone- Winkel Arithmetic, Intermediate, Book One. Stone and Winkel. Revised edition (1932). Benj. H. Sanborn and Co. <rl!ography ............ vintermediate Geography. Miller and Polley. New edition (1932). Ginn and Co. Writing .............. Correlated Handwriting, Teachers' Manual 5. Freeman. The Zaner-Bloser Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

Music ................ The Progressive Music Series, Book Two. Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. The Progressive Music Series, Teachers' Manual. Vol. II. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

Agriculture ........... Practical Lessons in Tropical Agriculture, Book One. Clute. World Book Co. School and Home Gardening. Bureau of Education.

Shopwork ............ . Woodworking for Beginners. Bureau of Education.

Home economics ...... . Elementary Home Economics. Bureau of Education.

GRADE VI

Reading ............. . Elementary Civics, Grade Six. Melencio and Reyes. The John C. Winston Co. The Philippine Readers, Book Six. Osias.

1932 edition. Ginn and Co. Language Essentials of English, Sixth and Seventh 320

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Grades. Pearson, Kirchwey and Reinoso. American Book Co. Good manners and right conduct ............. Character and Conduct, Book Two, Grade Six. De Veyra and Melencio. The- John C. Winston Co. Arithmetic ............ Stone-Winkel Arithmetic, Intermediate, Book Two. Stone and Winkel. Revised edition (1932).

Benj. H. Sanborn and Co. Geography ............ Intermediate Geography. Miller and Polley. New edition (1932). Ginn and Co. Writing ....... . ...... Correlated Handwriting, Teachers' Manual 6. Freeman. The Zaner-Bloser Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

Music ................ The Progressive Music Series, Book Three.

Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. The Progressive Music Series, Teachers' Manual. Vol. III. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. (In hands of teachers only.)

Pmctical Lessons in Tropical Agriculture, Agriculture Boole Two. Clute. World Book Co. School and Home Gardening. Bureau of Education.

Shopwork .... . .... . ... Woodworking for Beginners. Bureau of Education.

Home economics . . ..... Elementary Home Economics. Bureau of Education.

GRADE

VII

Reading ............. . New Pioneers. Wade. Little, Brown and Co. The Philippine Readers, Book Seven.

Osias. 1932 edition. Ginn and Co. Language ............ . Essentials of English, Sixth and Seventh Grades. Pearson, Kirchwey and Reinoso. The American Book Co. Good manners and right conduct ....... . ..... Character and Conduct, Book Three, G1'ade 321

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Seven. De Veyra and Melencio. The John C. Winston Co. Arithmetic ............ Stone-Win kel Arithmetic, Intermediate, Book Two. Stone and Winkel. 1932 edition. Benj. H. Sanborn and Co. Physiology, hygiene, Rnd sanitation ........... Health Th1'ough Knowledge and Habits.

Brown, Russell and Carino. Ginn and Co. Philippine history ..... A Brief History of the Philippines. Fernandez. Ginn and Co. Philippine government . Philippine Civics: How We Govern Ourselves. Benitez. Ginn and Co. Agriculture ........... Practical Lessons in Tr01Jical Agriculture, Book Three. Clute.

World Book Co. Shopwork ............. Woodworking for Beginners. Bureau of Education.

Home economics ....... Ele?rl.entary Home Economics. Bureau of Education.

SECONDARY SCHOOLS ACADEMIC CURRICULUM

FmsT

YEAR

Literature . . .......... Philippine High School Readers, Book One. Mendez, Mendez and Potts. Ginn and Co. Philippine Prose and Poetry. First Year.

Bureau of Education.

Composition ........... English Fundamentals for Philippine Schools. Jaranilla, Potts and Manalo.

Ginn and Co. United States history and government ......... Elementary Community Oivics. Hughes.

Allyn and Bacon.

History of the American People. Beard, Bagley and Kalaw. The Macmillan Co. Algebra .............. Elementary Algebra. Edgerton and Cal'penter. Allyn and Bacon.

322

EDUCATION AND RELIGION SECOND YEAR

Literature ............ Philippine High School Readers, Book Two. Mendez, Mendez and Potts. Ginn and Co. Philippine Prose and Poetry. Second year.

Bureau of Education.

Composition ........... English Fundamentals for Philippine Schools. J aranilla, Potts and Manalo.

Ginn and Co. General science ........ General Science for Philippine Schools.

Brown and Aldecoa. Ginn and Co. General history (ancient and medieval) ...... Modern Times and the Living Past. Elson. American Book Co. Geometry ............. Plane Geometry. Strader and Rhoads.

The John C. Winston Co. THIRD YEAR

Literature ............ Adventu?'es in Story Land. Allyn and Bacon.

The Book of Make-Believe. Allyn and Bacon.

Silas Marner. Eliot. New Pocket Classics. The Macmillan Co. Composition English in Action, Book Two. Tressler and Shannon. D. C. Heath and Co. Biology ............... Laboratory Manual in Biology. Hunter and Uichanco. American Book Co. New Civic Biology. Hunter and Uichanco. American Book Co. General history (modern) Modern Times and the Living Past. Elson. American Book Co. Oriental history ...... . A History of the Orient. Steiger, Beyer and Benitez. Ginn and Co. Advanced algebra ..... Second Course in Algebra, Book Two. Edgerton and Carpenter. Allyn and Bacon.

Review arithmetic ..... Applied Arithmetic for Philippine High Schools. Tan. D. C. Heath and Co.

323

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES FOURTH YEAR

Literature ............ English and American Writers. Cross, Smith and Stauffer. Ginn and Co. English in Action, Book Two. Tressler Composition and Shannon. D. C. Heath and Co. Economics ............ Principles of Economics Applied to the PhililJP'ilnes. Miller. Ginn anld Co. Philippine history, Philippine government ... A History of the Philippines. Benitez.

Ginn and Co. Philippine Government. Malcolm and Kalaw. The Associated Publishers.

Physics ............... New Laboratory Experiments in Practical Physics. Black. The Macmillan Co. New .Practical Physics. Black and Davis.

1932 edition. The Macmillan Co.

GENERAL CURRICULUM Type Al FIRST YEAR

Literature ............ Philippine High School Readers, Book One. Mendez, Mendez and Potts. Ginn and Co. Philippine Prose and Poetry. First Year.

Bureau of Education.

Composition ........... English Fundamentals for Philippine Schools. J:aranilla, Potts and Manalo.

Ginn and Co. World history ........ Modern Times and the Living Past. Elson.

American Book Co. General mathematics .. Mathematics for the . Junior High School, Book Three.

Brueckner, Forman and Wolsey.

SECOND YEAR

Literature ...........â&#x20AC;˘ PhiLippine High School Readers, Book Two. Mendez, Mendez and Potts. Ginn and Co. I

Offered in Capiz and Batangas.

324

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Philippine Prose and Poetry. Second Year.

Bureau of Education.

Composition ........... English Fundamentals for Philippine Schools. Jaranilla, Potts and Manalo.

Ginn and Co. General science ........ General Science for Philippine Schools.

Brown and Aldecoa. Ginn and Co. United States history and g 0 v ern men t 1 History of the American People. Beard, (First Semester) Bagley and Kalaw. The Macmillan Co. Art appreciation (Second Semester) ..... . No text Vocational survey subjects ........... .' ... . No text (Boys and girls. Six subjects of 6 weeks each.)

Home economics subjects No text (Three subjects of 6 weeks each.)

OPTIONAL

Geometry ............

Plan~

Geometry. Strader and Rhoads. The John C. Winston Co. The Progressive Mus,ic Series, Book Fowr.

Music Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. Typewriting ......... . New Rational Typewriting.

SoRelle.

Gregg Publishing Co. THffiO YEAR

Literature ............ Adventures in Story Land. Allyn and Bacon.

The Book of Make-Believe.

Allyn and Bacon.

Silas Marner. Eliot. New Pocket Classics.

The Macmillan Co. Tressler Composition ........... English in Action, Book Two. and Shannon. D. C. Heath and Co. Advanced arithmetic ... Applied A?'ithmetic for Philippine High Schools. Tan. D. C. Heath and Co. Oriental history ....... A History of the Orient. Steiger, Beyer and Benitez. Ginn and Co. lThe text in U. S. Government should be used as a reference.

325

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Vocational work ....... No text (Boys and girls.)

Food and health ...... No text Clothing and textiles .. No text OPTIONAL

Art appreciation II .... No text Music ............ .. .. The Progressive Music Series, Book Four.

Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. Typewriting .......... New Rational Typewriting.

SoRelle.

Gregg Publishing Co. Advanced algebra ..... Second Course in Algebra, Book Two. Edgerton and Carpenter. Allyn and Bacon.

Stenography .......... Gr-egg Shorthand Manual. Gregg. (Anniversary edition.) Gregg Publishing Co. Gregg Speed Studies. Gregg. (Anniversary edition.) Gregg Publishing Co. FOURTH YEAR

Literature ............ English and American Writers. Cross, Smith and Stauffer. Ginn and Co. Composition ........... English in Action, Book Two. Tressler and Shannon. D. C. Heath and Co. Philippine history, Philippine government ... A History of the Philippines. Benitez.

Ginn and Co. Philippine Government. Malcolm and Kalaw. The Associated Publishers.

Vocational work ..... No text (Boys and girls).

The home ............. No text Child care ............ No text OPTIONAL

Physics ............... New Laboratory Experiments in Practical Physics. Black. The Macmillan Co. New Practical Physics. Black and Davis.

1932 edition. The Macmillan Co. Typewriting .........â&#x20AC;˘ New Rational Typew1-iting.

SoRelle.

Gregg Publishing Co. 326

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Gregg Shorthand Manual. Gregg. (Anniversary edition). Gregg Publishing Co. Gregg Speed Studies. Gregg. (Anniversary edition). Gregg Publishing Co. Spanish II ............ Curso Practico de Espanol Para Principiantes. Cherubini-Condon. The John C. Winston Co. Flores de Espana. Fontaine. American Book Co. Music ................ The Progressive Music Series, Book Four.

Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. Stenography

GENERAL CURRICULUM TypeB See General Curriculum, Type A for texts by subjects. In this curriculum, geometry, advanced algebra, review arithmetic and physics may be substituted by elective subjects from the Type A, General Curriculum.

COMMERCIAL CURRICULUM SECOND YEARl

Business English spelling

and

Fundamentals of Business English. Holzinger. World Book Co. Vocabulary-Building Speller. Meyer. The Macmillan Co. Literature ........... . Philippine High School Readers, Book Two. Mendez, Mendez and Potts. Ginn and Co. Philippine Prose and Poetry. Second Year. Bureau of Education.

Composition ......... . English Fundamentals for Philippine Schools. Jaranilla, Potts and Manalo.

Ginn and Co. 1

First Year of the Curriculum eliminated in June, 1933.

327

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Stenography .......... Gregg Shorthand Manual. Gregg. (Anniversary edition). Gregg Publishing Co. G?'egg Speed Studies. Gregg. (Anniversary Edition. Gregg Publishing Co. Bookkeeping .......... Bookkeeping and Accounting. Complete Course. Elwell and Toner. Ginn and Co. (And six blank books).

Practical business arithmetic ............. .. Progressive Business Arithmetic. Schaaf.

D. C. Heath and Co. Typewriting ........... New Rational Typewriting.

SoRelle.

Gregg Publishing Co. THffiD YEAR

Literature ............ Adventures in Story Land. Allyn and Bacon.

The Book of Make-Believe. Allyn and Bacon.

Silas Marner. Eliot. New Pocket Classics. The Macmillan Co. Composition ........... The Business Man's English. B:niholome,v and Hurlbut. The Macmillan Co. Vocabulary-Building Spoller. Meyer. The Macmillan Co. Stenography .......... G7'egg Shorthand Manual. Gregg. (Anniversary edition). Gregg Publishing Co. Gregg Speed Studies. Gregg. (Anniversary edition). Gregg Publishing Co. Bookkeeping .......... Bookkeeping and Accounting. Complete Course. Elwell and Toner. Ginn and Co. (And 8:X blank books).

Commercial geography . Economic Geography for Secondary Schools.

Colby and Foster. Ginn and Co. Economics ............ P?'inciples of Economics Applied to th'3 Philippines. Miller. Ginn and Co. Spanish .............. Cue-ntos de Espana. Pittaro. Allyn and Bacon.

Curso Practico de Espanol Para Frincipiantes. Cherubini-Condon. The J"ohn C. Winston Co.

328

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Typewriting

New Rational Typewriting.

Gregg Publishing Co.

SoRelle.

FOURTH YEAR

Business English and spelling ............ The Business Man's English. Bartholomew and Hurlbut. The Macmillan Co. Vocab'ulary-Building Speller. Meyer. The Macmillan Co. Commercial law ....... Philippine Business Law. Perkins. . D. Appleton and Co. Philippine history, Philippine government ... A History of the Philippines. Benitez.

Ginn and Co. Philippine Government. Malcolm and Kalaw. The Associated Publishers.

Stenography .......... Gregg Shorthand Manual. Gregg. (Anniversary edition). Gregg Publishing Co. Gregg Speed Studies. Gregg. (Anniversary edition). Gregg Publishing Co. Bookkeeping C01'poration and Voucher Accounting.

Elwell and Toner. Ginn and Co. (And two blank books).

Spanish Commercial Spanish. McHale. D. C. Heath and Co. Curso Practico de Espanol Para Principiantes. Cherubini-Condon. The John C. Winston Co. Flores de Espana. Fontaine. Allyn .and Bacon.

Typewriting and office practice ............ New Rational Typewriting.

SoRelle.

Gregg Publishing Co. Applied Office Pmctice. Merrill, Bessey and Walsh. D. C. Heath and Co.

HOME ECONOMICS CURRICULUM FmST YEAR

Literature ............ Philippine High School Readers, Book Ona.

329

ENCY CLOP EDIA OF THE PHIL IPPIN ES Mendez, Mendez and Potts. Ginn and Co. Philipp ine Prose and Poetry . First Year.

Bureau of Educat ion. ine Composition ....... .... Englis h Funda mental s for Philipp .

Manalo and Potts la, Schools. Jaranil Ginn and Co. United States history Hughes . and govern ment ..... Elem entar y Commu nity Civics.

Allyn and Bacon.

Histor y of the Americ an People. Beard, Bagley and Kalaw. The Macmi llan Co. text No Food and health ....... text No . ideries Laces and embro text No .. textiles and g Clothin SECOND YEAR

Two. Literat ure ...... ...... Philippine High School R eaders, Book Co. and Ginn Potts. and Mendez, Mendez Year.

Second .

Poetry and Prose ine Philipp Bureau of Educat ion. h Funda mental s for Philipp ine Englis ..... ......

Compo sition Schools. Jaranil la, Potts and Manalo .

Ginn and Co. Schools.

Genera l science ....... . Genera l Science for Philipp ine Brown and Aldecoa. Ginn and Co. Genera l history (ancien t and mediev al) ...... Modern Times and the Living Past. Elson.

Americ an Book Co. text No ....... health Food and text No . ideries Laces and embro Clothin g and textiles .. No text Music (Optio nal) ..... No text THmD YEAR

BaLiterat ure ...... ...... Advent ures in Story Land. Allyn and con.

Allyn and The Book of Make-B elieve.

Bacon.

Silas Marner . Eliot. New Pocket Classics. The Macmi llan Co. 330

EDUCATION AND RELIGION English in Action, Book Two. Tressler and Shannon. D. C. Heath and Co. Biology ............... Laboratory Manual in Biology. Hunter and Uichanco. American Book Co. New Civic Biology. Hunter and Uichanco.

American Book Co. General history (modern) Modern Times and the Living Past. Elson. American Book Co. Oriental history ....... A Hist01'y of the Orient. Steiger, Beyer and Benitez. Ginn and Co. The home ............ No text Child care ............ No text Spanish (Optional) ... Cuentos de Espana. Pittaro. Allyn and Bacon.

Curso P1'actico de Espanol Para Principiantes. Cherubini-Condon. The John C. Winston Co. Music (Optional) ..... No text Composition

FOURTH YEAR

Literature ............ English and American Writers. Cross, Smith and Stauffer. Ginn and Co. Composition .......... English in Action, Book Two. Tressler and Shannon. D. C. Heath and Co. Economics ............ Principles of Economics Applied to the Philippines. Miller. Ginn and Co. Philippine history, Philippine government ... A History of the Philippines. Benitez.

Ginn and Co. Philippine Government. Malcolm and Kalaw. The Associated Publishers.

Personal, home and community hygiene ...... No text Spanish (Optional) .... Curso Practico de Espanol Para Principiantes. Cherubini-Condon. The John C. Winston Co. Flores de Espana. Fontaine. American Book Co. Music (Optional) â&#x20AC;˘..... No text

331

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES NORMAL CURRICULUM FIRST YEAR

Litel'ature ............ Philippine High School Readers, Book One. Mendez, Mendez and Potts. Ginn and Co. Philippine Prose and Poetry. First Year.

Bureau of Education.

Composition ......... . English FundcÂŁmentals for Philippine Schools. J aranilla, Potts and Manalo.

Ginn and Co. United States history and government ..... Elementa1'y Community Civics. Hughes.

Allyn and Bacon.

History of the American People. Beard, Bagley and Kalaw. The Macmillan Co. Arithmetic Applied Arithmeti~folf" Philippine High Schools. Tan. D. C. Heath and Co. Music .. " .......... ,. The Progressive Music Se'ries, Book Four.

Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. Writing ............. . Correlated Handwriting, Complete Teacher's Manu.al. Freeman. (Complete).

The Zaner-Bloser Co. SECOND YEAR

Literature , ........... Philippine High School Readers, Book Two. Mendez, Mendez and Potts. Ginn and Co. Philippine Prose and Poetlf"Y. Second Year. Bureau of Education.

Composition ........... English Fundamentals for Philippine Schools. Jaranilla, Potts and Manalo.

Ginn and Co. Reading .............. Literature in Junior High School, Book One. Bolenius. Houghton Mifflin Co. Literature in Junior High School. Book Two. Bolenius. Houghton Mifflin Co. G(;neral history (ancient and medieval) ...... Modern Times and the Livitng Past. Elson. American Book Co.

332

EDUCATION AND RELIGION General Science for Philippine Schools, Brown and Aldecoa. Ginn and Co. Drawing ", .... ", .. , No text Industrial education or home economics .,'., No text

General science

THIRD YEAR

Literature , .. , .. , ..... Adventu1'es in Story Land. Allyn and Bacon.

The Book of Make-Believe. Allyn and Bacon.

Silas Marner. Eliot. New Pocket Classics. The Macmillan Co. Composition .......... English in Action, Book Two. Tressler and Shannon. D. C. Heath and Co. (moGeneral history 111 odern Times and the Living Past. Eldern) son. American Book Co. Oriental history ...... A History of the Orient. Steiger, Beyer and Benitez. Ginn and Co. Elementary educational ~sychOlOgy ......... . Introduction to the Psychology of the Classroom. Holley. D. C. Heath and I),.

Co. Principles of teaching . An Introduction to Education. Fraiser and Armentrout. Scott, Foresman and Co. Geography ............ Changing Civilizations in the Mode1'n World. Rugg. Ginn and Co. Observation and participation ............. The Obser路uation of Teaching. Maxwell.

Houghton Mifflin Co.

"

FOURTH YEAR

Literature ............ English and American Writers. Cross, Smith and Stauffer. Ginn and Co. Composition .... ,..... English in Action, Book Two. Tressler and Shannon. D. C. Heath and Co. Economics ......... , .. Principles of Economics Applied to the Philippines. Miller. Ginn and Co. 333

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Philippine history, Philippine government ... A

History of the Philippines. Benitez.

Ginn and Co. Philippine Government. Malcolm and Kalaw. The Associated Publishers.

Language ............. No te}.-t Health education ...... No text

AGRICULTURAL CURRICULUM FIRST YEAR

Literature ............ Philippine High School Readers, Book One. Mendez, Mendez and Potts. Ginn and Co. Philippine Prose and Poetry. First Year.

Bureau of Education.

Composition ........... English Fundamentals for Philippine Schools. J aranilla, Potts and Manalo.

Ginn and Co. Practical farm arithmetic and farm accounting ................. No text Horticulture .......... No text SECOND YEAR

Literature ............ Philippine High School Reade?'s, Book Two. Mendez, Mendez and Potts. Ginn and Co. Philippine P?'ose and Poetry. Second Year. Bureau of Education.

Composition ......... . Engli.sh Fundamentals for Philippine Schools. Jaranilla, Potts, and Manalo.

Ginn and Co. Animal husbandry .... No text General farm science .. General Science for Philippine Schools.

Brown and Aldecoa. Ginn and Co. New Civic Biology. Hunter and UichanCivic biology co. American Book Co. Algebra (Optional) ... Elementa?'y Algebm. Edgerton and Carpenter. Allyn and Bacon.

334

EDUCATION AND RELIGION THIRD YEAR

Literature ............ Adventu7'es in Story Land. Allyn and Bacon.

The Book of JI!lfNke-Believe. Allyn and Bacon.

Silas Marner. Eliot. New Pocket Classics. The Macmillan Co. Composition .......... Englil'h 1'n Action, Book Two. 'fressler and Shannon. D. C. Heath and Co. Plant diseases and pests. No text Major farm crops of the Philippines ......... No text Geometry (Optional) .. Plane Geometry. Strader and Rhoads.

The John C. Winston Co. FOURTH YEAR

Literature ............ English and American W1路iters. Cross, Smith and Stauffer. Ginn and Co. Composition ... ......... English in Action, Book Two. Tressler and Shannon. D. C. Heath and Co. Farm economics, farm management and cooperative farm extension ................ No text Farm physics, farm engineering and mechanics ................. New Practical Physics. Black and Davis.

1932 edition. The Macmillan Co. Agricultural Engineering. D a v ids 0 n.

Webb Book Publishing Co. Advanced algebra (Optional) ............. Second Course in Algebra, Book Two. Edgerton and Carpenter. Allyn and Bacon.

Review arithmetic (Optional) ............. Applied Arithmetic for Philippine High Schools. Tan. D. C. Heath and Co. 335

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES TRADE CURRICULUM FIRST YEAR

Literature ............ Philippine High School Readers, Book One. Mendez, Mendez and Potts. Ginn and Co. Philippine Prose and Poetry. First Year.

Bureau of Education.

Composition .......... English Fundamentals for Philippine Schools. J aranilla, Potts and Manalo.

Ginn and Co. Algebra .............. Elementary Algebra. Edgerton and Carpenter. Allyn and Bacon.

Drawing ............. No teAi; Shopwork ............ No text

FOR PHILIP{ INE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADESl

Machine Shop Practice ELEMENTARY BENCHWORK, FIRST SEMESTER

International Correspondence School Pamphlets 2235A-Benchwork, Part 1 2235B-Benchwork, Part 2 2209 -Measuring Instruments 2219 -Drilling Machines 2220 -Drilling Practice 727 -Soldering and wiping BLACKSMITHING, SECOND SEMESTER

1686 -Blacksmith-Shop Equipment 1687 A-Hand Forging, Part 1 1687B-Hand Forging, Part 2 1688 -Tool Dressing SECOND YEAR

Literature ............ Philippine High School Readers, Book Two. lMay be used also in provincial trade schools.

336

EDUCATION AND RELIGION

Composition ...........

World history .........

Plane geometry .......

Drawing .............

Shopwork ............

Mendez, Mendez and Potts. Ginn and Co. Philippine Prose and Poetry. Second Year. Bureau of Education.

English Fundamentals for Philippine Schools. Jaranilla, Potts and Manalo.

Ginn and Co. Modern Times and the Living Past. Elson. American Book Co. Plane Geometry. Strader and Rhoads.

The John C. Winston Co. No text No text

FOR PHILIPPINE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES 1

Machine Shop Practice ADVANCED IRON BENCHWORK

International Correspondence School Pamphlets 202~

-Pipe-Fitting Tools Tools and Materials, Part 1 2025B-Plumbing Tools and Materials, Part 2 2453A-Pipe-Fitting Practice, Part 1 2453B-Pipe-Fitting Pl1actice, Part 2 2025A~Plumbing

THIRD YEAR

Literature ............ Adventures in Story Land.

Allyn and Bacon.

The Book of Make-Believe.

Allyn and Bacon.

Silas Marner. Eliot. New Pocket Classics. The Macmillan Co. Composition ........... English in Action, Book Two. Tressler and Shannon. D. C. Heath and Co. General science ........ General Science for Philippine Schools.

Brown and Aldecoa. Ginn and Co. Economics ............ Principles of Economics Applied to the Philippines. Miller. Ginn and Co. 1

May be used also in provincial trade schools.

337

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Mechanics ............ Strength of Materials.

Wiley and Sons.

Drawing .............. No text Shopwork ............. No text

Merriman.

FOR PHILIPPINE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES 1

Machine Shop Practice ELEMENTARY MACHINE SHOP

International Correspondence School Pamphlets 2200 2201 2206 2214 2222

-Engine Lathes -Engine Lathe Tools -Precision Measuring Instruments -Planer Work -Shaper and Slotter Work ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY COURSE

1862 -Elementary Principles of Electricity 27.o0A-Electricity and Magnetism, Part 1 2700B-Electricity and Magnetism, Part 2 1623 -Theory of D. C. Generators and Motors 1624 -Direct-Current Generators 2704A-Alternating Currents, Part 1 2704B-Alternating Currents, Part 2 ELEMENTARY AUTOMOBILE REPAIRING COURSE

3099 -Gasoline Automobile 3010A-Gasoline Automobile Engines, Part 1 3010B-Gasoline Automobile Engines, Part 2 2308 -Automobile-Engine Auxiliaries 1259A-Transmission and Control Mechanism, Part 1 1259B-Transmission and Control Mechanism, Part 2 3015 -Automobile-Engine Lubrication 4009 -Storage-Battery Troubles 2306 -Automobile Engine Troubles and Remedies 4017 -Care ana Repair of Battery Ignition Systems 4019 -Care and Repair of Magneto Ignition Systems 1

May. be used also in provincial trade schools.

338

John

EDUCATION AND RELIGION ELEMENTARY STATIONARY ENGINEERING COURSE

1859 -Gas-Engine Details 1853 -Principles of the Gas Engine 1905 -Steam and Steam Boilers 2162A-Boiler Details, Part 1 2162B-Boiler Details, Part 2 1860 -Gas-Engine Lubrication 2167 - -Boiler Management 2165 -Boiler Feeding and Feedwater Equipment FOURTH YEAR

Literature Composition .......... , Physics ..............

Industrial

mathematics

Drawing' .... -. . . . . . . ..

Shopwork ............

English and American Writers. Cross, Smith and Stauffer. Ginn and Co. Englisk in Action, Book Two. Tressler and Shannon. D. C. Heath and Co. New Laboratory Experiments in Practical Physics. Black. The Macmillan Co. New Practical Physics. Black and Davis.

1932 edition. The Macmillan Co. Mathematics for Technical and Vocational Schools. Slade and Margolis. John Wiley and Sons.

No text No text

FOR PHILIPPINE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES 1 ADVANCED ELECTRICITY COURSE

2362 2711 1634 2701 27.02 2361

-Wiring Finished Buildings -Transformers -Alternating-Current Measuring Instruments -Illumination Principles -Electric Illuminants -Wiring Unfinished Buildings ADVANCED AUTOMOBILE REPAIRING COURSE

3008 -Automobile Carburation and Fuels 3097 A-Forms of Carbureters, Part 1 4100 -Electric Lighting Devices 1861 -Carbureters 1

May be used also in provincial trade schools.

339

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES 3018 -Overhauling of Cylinders and Cylinders Blocks 3019 -Overhauling of Piston Assemblies 2666 -De Jon Starting and Lighting Equipment 2678 -Owen-Dyneto Starting and Lighting Equipment 3017D-Starting and Lighting System, Part 4 2679 -North-East Starting and Lighting Equipment 2676 -Leece-Neville Starting and Lighting Equipment 3017G-Starting and Lighting Systems 3093 -Care and Repair of Starting and Lighting Equipment ADVANCED STATIONARY ENGINEERING COURSE

1854 -Stationary Gas Engine, Part 1 1854B-Stationary Gas Engine, Part 2 2045A-Diesel and Other Oil Engines, Part 1 2045B-Diesel and Other Oil Engines, Part 2 2048 -Management of Stationary Gas Engines 2047 -Management of Diesel Engines 187.QA-Troubles and Remedies, Part 1 1870B-Troubles and Remedies, Part 2 2044 -Marine Gas Engines 2046 -Marine Diesel Engines ADVANCED MACHINE SHOP COURSE

2203A-Lathe Practice, Part 1 2203B-Lathe Practice, Part 2 2204 -Lathe Thread Cutting 2215A-Milling-Machine Work, Part 1 2216 -Milling-Machine Equipment 2216B-Milling-Machine Work, Part 2 2217C-Milling-Machine Work, Part 3 2236 -Boring-Mill Work PHILIPPINE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULA TWO-YEAR GENERAL CURRICULUM FIRST

YEAR

English V _........... Atlantic Book of Junior Plays.

Little, Brown and Co. Atlantic Narratives, Book Two. 340

Thomas.

Thomas.

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Little, Brown and Co. Composition for College Students. Thomas, Manchester and Scott. The Macmillan Co. Types of the Short StOt路y. Heydrick.

Scott, Foresman and Co. Educational psychology. Education as the Psychologist Sees It. Pillsbury. The Macmillan Co. Reading .............. Outwat'd Bound, Book Five, Atlantic Readers. Condon. Little, Brown and Co. Everyday Classics, Eighth Reader. Baker and Thorndike. The Macmillan Co. Reading and Lite?'ature, Book Three. Haggerty and Smith. World Book Co. Wings of Adventure, Book Eight. Row] and, Lewis and Marshall. The John C. Winston Co. Drawing .............. No text ArithmeticMethods ............ A Course in Arithmetic for Teachers and Teacher-training C las s e s. Overman.

Lyons and Carnahan.

Content ............. A Higher Arithmetic. Stone, Mallory and Grossnicke. Benj. H. Sanborn and Co. Principles of teaching . The Teacher's Technique. Holley. The Century Co. Music I .............. The Progressive Music Series, Book Four.

Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. Observation and participation ............. No text SECOND YEAR

English VI ........... Essays and Essay Writing. Tanner. Little, Brown and Co. Ivanhoe. Scott. D. Appleton and Co. Jane Eyre. Bronte. The Macmillan Co. Les Misembles. Hugo. The Macmillan Co. Richard Carvel. Churchill. The Macmillan Co. Successful Speaking. Sanford and Yeager.

341

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Thomas Nelson Co. Child study ........... Ftmdamentals of Child Study. Kirkpatrick. The Macmillan Co. Principles of education. Principles of Education. Chapman and Counts. Houghton Mifflin Co. Elective ............. .

Elective ............. .

Classroom tests ....... The Objective or New-Type Examination.

Ruch. Scott, Foresman and Co. Geography ............ The Earth and Its People, Book Three: Nations Beyond the Seas. Atwood and Thomas. Ginn and Co. Elective ............. .

Teaching ............. No text TWO-YEAR GENERAL CURRICULUM FOR PROVINCIAL NORMAL GRADUATES

YEAR English V ............ Atlantic Book of Junior Plays. Thomas.

Little, Brown and Co. Atlantic Narratives, Book Two. Thomas.

Little, Brown and Co. Composition for College Students. Thomas, Manchester and Scott. The Macmillan Co. Types. of the Short Story. Heydrick.

Scott, Foresman and Co. Child study ........... Fundamentals of Child Study. Kirkpatrick. The Macmillan Co. Geography III ........ High School Geography. Whitbeck. The Macmillan Co. Elective ............. .

Elective .............. .

Classroom tests ....... The Objective or New-Type Examination.

Ruch. Scott, Foresman and Ce. Nature study ......... No text Elective ............. .

Elective ............. .

FIRST

YEAR English VI ........... Essays and Essay Writing. tle, Brown and Co. SECOND

342

Tanner.

Lit-

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Ivanhoe. Scott. D. Appleton and Co. Jane Eyre. Bronte. The Macmillan Co. Les Miserables. Hugo. The Macmillan Co. Richard Carvel. Churchill. The Macmillan Co. Successful Speaking. Sanford and Yeager.

Thomas Nelson Co. Sociology P1'inciples of Sociology. Ross. The Century Co. Teaching ............ . No text Elective ............. .

Elective ............. .

Educational sociology .. Educational Sociology.

Snedden.

The Century Co. Principles of education. Principles of Education. Chapman and Counts. Houghton Mifflin Co. Elective Elective TWO·YEAR HOME ECONOMICS CURRICULUM

FmST

YEAR

English V ............ Atlantic Book of Junior Plays. Thomas.

Little, Brown and Co. Atlantic Narratives, Book Two. Thomas.

Little, Brown and Co. Composition for College Students. Thomas, Manchester and Scott. The Macmillan Co. Types of the Short Story. Heydrick.

Scott, Foresman and Co. Reading ....•......... Outward Bound, Book Five, Atlantic Readers. Condon. Little, Brown and Co. Everyday Classics, Eighth Reader. Baker and Thorndike. The Macmillan Co. Reading and Literature, Book Three. Haggerty and Smith. World Book Co. Wings of Adventure, Book Eight. Row343

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

Educational psychology.

Sewing II ............

Household science .....

Home-economics methods

land, Lewis and Marshall. The John C. Winston Co. Educo-tion o-s the Psychologist Sees It. Pillsbury. The Macmillan Co. No text Everyday Chemistry. Vivian. American Book Co. T eaching of Home Economics. Brown and Haley. Houghton Mifflin Co.

Observation and participation ............. No text SECOND YEAR

English VI ........... Esso-ys and Essay Writing, Tanner. Little, Brown and Co. Ivanhoe. Scott. D. Appleton and Co. Jane Ey're. Bronte. The Macmillan Co. Les Miserables. Hugo. The Macmillan Co. Richc6rd Car.vel. Churchill. The Macmillan Co. Successful Speaking. Sanford and Yeager.

Thomas Nelson Co. Commercial geography . Modern Business Geography. Huntington and Cushing. World Book Co. Cooking II ......... ,. No text Music I ........ ,..... The Progressive Music Series, Book Four.

Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. Industrial arithmetic .. A Highe?' Arithmetic. Stone, Mallory and Grossnicke. Benj. H. Sanborn and Co. Dietetics ............. Dietetics for High Schools. Willard and Gillett. The Macmillan Co. Drawing I .' .......... No text Teaching ............ , No text TWO-ANfl-ONE路YEAR HOME

ECONOMICS

CURRICULUM

FIRST YEAR

Eng'Ush V ......... ',. Atlantic Book of Junio?' Plays, Little, Brown and Co. 344

Thomas.

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Atlantic Narratives, Book Two. Thomas.

Little, Brown and Co. Composition for College Students. Thomas, Manchester and Scott. The Macmillan Co. Types of the Short Story. Heydrick.

Scott, Foresman and Co. Reading .............. Outward Bound, Book Five, Atlantic Readers. Condon. Little, Brown and Co. Everyday Classics, Eighth Reader. Baker and Thorndike. The Macmillan Co. Reading and Literature, Book Three.

Haggerty and Smith. World Book Co. Wings of Adventure, Book Eight. Rowland, Lewis and Marshall. The John C. Winston Co. Sewing I ............ No text Music I

Cooking I

.............. The Progressive Music Series, Book Four.

Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. ............ Foods, Preparation and Serving.

Bailey.

Webb Book Publishing Co. Needlework ........... No text SECOND YEAR

English VI ........... Essays and Essay Writing. Tanner. Little, Brown and Co. Ivanhoe. Scott. D. Appleton and Co. Jane Eyre. Bronte. The Macmillan Co. Les Miserables. Hugo. The Macmillan Co. Richard Carvel. Churchill. The Macmillan Co. Successful Speaking. Sanford and Yeager.

Thomas Nelson Co. Cooking II ........... No text Educational psychology . Education as the Psychologist Sees It. Pillsbury. The Macmillan Co. Sewing II ............ No text Household science ..... Everyday Chemist?'Y. Book Co. 345

Vivian.

American

.ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Home-economics methods Teaching and Home Eoonomios. Brown and Haley. Houghton Mifflin Co. Observation and participation ............. No text THIRD YEAR

First Semester Commercial geography. Modern Business Geography. Huntington and Cushing. World Book 00.

Dietetics .............. Dietetics for High Schools. Willard and Gillett. The Macmillan Co. Home nursing ........ Home Nursing and Child Care. Turner, Morgan and Collins. D. C. Heath and Co. Industrial arithmetic .. A Higher Arithmetio. Stone, Mallory and Grossnicke. Benj. H. Sanborn and Co. Teaching ............. No text Elective ............. .

THREE-YEAR COMBINED CURRICULUM FIRST YEAR

English V ........... Atlantio Book of J1lnior Plays. Thomas . .Little, Brown and Co. Atlantio Narratives, Book Two. Thomas.

Little, Brown and Co. Composition for College Students. Thomas, Manchester and Scott. The Macmillan Co. Types of the Short StO?路Y. Heydrick. Scott, Foresman and Co. Reading .............. Outward Bound, Book Five, Atlantio Readers. Condon. Little, Brown and Co. Everyday Classics, Eighth Reader. Baker and Thorndike. The Macmillan Co. Reading and Literature, Book Three. Haggerty and Smith. World Book Co. Wings of Adventure, Book Eight. Rowland, Lewis and Marshall. The John C. Winston Co.

346

EDUCATION AND RELIGION The Progressive Music Series, Book Four.

Philippine edition. Parker and others.

Silver, Burdett and Co. Cooking I ........... . Foods, Preparation and Serving. Bailey.

Webb Book Publishing Co. Educational psychology . Education as the Psychologist Sees It. Pillsbury. The Macmillan Co. No text Drawing I Child study Fundamentals of Child Study.

Kirkpatrick. The Macmillan Co.

Music I

SECOND YEAR

English VI ........... Essays and Essay Writing. Tanner. Little, Brown and Co. Ivanhoe. Scott. D. Appleton and Co. Jane Eyre. Bronte. The Macmillan Co. Les Miserables. Hugo. The Macmillan Co. Richard Ca1·vel. Churchill. The MaGmilIan Co. Successful Sipeaking. Sanford and Yeager.

Thomas Nelson Co. Needlework ........... No text Home-economics methods Te(J;ching of H01ne Economics. Brown and Haley. Houghton Mifflin Co. Se\ying II ............ No text Commercial geography . Modern Business Geography. Huntington an.d Cushing. World Book Co. Household science ..... Everyday Chemistry. Vivian. American Book Co. Chapman and Principles of education. Principles of Education.

Counts. Houghton Mifflin Co. Geography ............ The Earth and Its People, Book Three: Na,tions Beyond the Seas. Atwood and Thomas. Ginn and Co. Observation and participation ............. No text THIRD YEAR

Language ............. No text Dietetics .............. Dietetics for High Schools. Willard and Gill€tt. The Macmillan Co.

347

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Cooking II ............ No text Principles of education Principles of Education.

Chapman and Counts. Houghton Mifflin Co. ArithmeticMethods ............ A Course in Arithmetic for Teacher and Teacher-Training Classes.

Overman.

Lyons and Carnahan.

Content ............ A Highe?' Arithmetic. Stone, Mallory and Grossnicke. Benj. H. Sanborn and Co. Elective ............. .

Classroom tests ....... The Objective or New-Type Examination.

Ruch. Scott, Foresman and Co. Home nursing ........ Home Nursing and Child Care. Turner, Morgan and Collins. D. C. Heath and Co. Teaching .... . . . . . . . . .. No text Elective ............. .

Elective ............. .

ELECTIVE SUBJECTS

Health Supervision .......... .

General sociology .....

Music II

Statistics .............

Household science .....

Algebra .... .. ........

Geometry .............

Physics ...............

Personal Hygiene Applied. Williams. w.

B. Saunders Co. Supervision of Instruction.

Barr and Burton. D. Appleton and Co. Pt'inciples of Sociology. Ross. The Century Co. A Book of Choruses. Chadwick, McConathy, Birge, and Missner. Silver, Burdett and Co. An Approach to Harmony.

McConathy, Embs, Howes, and Fouser. Silver, Burdett and Co. . Primer of Graphics and Statistics. Rugg.

Houghton Mifflin Co. -r,;ve?'yday Chemistry. Vivian. American Book Co. Elementary Algebra. Edgerton and Carpenter. Allyn and Bacon.

Plane Geometry. Strader and Rhoads. The John C. Winston Co. New Laboratory Expe7'iments in Practical 348

EDUCATION AND RELIGION

English history .......

Dietetics .............

Commercial geography .

Language .............

Administration ........

Educational sociology . " Drawing II ...........

Library methods ......

Nature study .........

Expression ............

Geography III ........

Physics. Black. The Macmillan Co. New Practical Physics. Black and Davis.

1932 edition. The Macmillan Co. History of England. Thomas. D. C. Heath and Co. Dietetics for High Schools. Willard and Gillett. The Macmillan Co. Modern Business Geography. Huntington and Cushing. World Book Co. No text School Administration. Tabunar. Educational Supply.

7f:ducational Sociology. Snedden. The Century Co. No text No text No text A Handbook of Oral Expression. Bassett.

Houghton Mifflin Co. High School Geography. Whitbeck. The Macmillan Co.

Arithmetic II ........ .

Health education .... :. Principles of Health Education. Turner.

D. C. Heath and Co. History of education .. A Student's Textbook in the History of Education. Duggan. D. Appleton and Co. PHILIPPINE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES TEACHERS' COURSE OF STUDY FIRST YEAR

English V ............ Atlantic Narratives, Second Series. Thomas. Little, Brown and Co. Guidance in Composition.

Shepherd.

Bobbs-Merrill Co. Science in Literature. Law. Harper and Bros.

Types of the Short Story.

Heydrick.

Scott, Foresman and Co. Unit Studies in Grammar. Shepherd.

Bobbs-Merrill Co. 349

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Economic and civic probl'ems ................ No text Educational psychology . Education as the Psychologist Sees It. Pillsbury. The Macmillan Co. Commercial and industrial geography ..... Economic Geography for Secondary Schools.

Colby and Foster. Ginn and Co. Shopwork ............. No text SECOND YEAR

English VI ........... Essays of Our Day. Ward. D. Appleton and Co. Ivanhoe. Scott. The Macmillan Co. Jane Eyre. Bronte. The Macmillan Co. Les Miserables. Hugo. The Macmillan Co. Practical and Literary English. Jones and Yates. E. P. Dutton and Co. Vocations. Proctor. Houghton Mifflin Co. Vocational education .. Vocational Education in a Democracy.

Prosser and Allen. The Century Co. Shop administration and supervision ......... No text Drawing, freehand and methods ............ No text Industrial-arts methods. Methods and Teaching Problems in Industrial Education.

Struck. John Wiley and Sons.

Shopwork •............ No text

RADIO COURSE

Radio •............... Radio Manual.

Sterling. D. Van Nostrand Co. Practical electricity ... Lessons in Practical Electricity. Swoope.

D. Van Nostrand Co. Radio Mechanics ...... Radio Physics Course. Ghirardi, Alfred A.

350

PART THREE

Education Under the New Order CHAPTER

I

EDUCATION AND THE NEW ORDER

The prime purpose of this discussion is to invite and provoke serious and dispassionate thought on some of the fundamentals of education in our country under the new order brought about by the Independence Law enacted by the Seventy-Second Congress and which the Ninth Legislature declined to accept, later extended and revived by the Seventy-Third Congress and which the same Ninth Legislature unanimously accepted.

There are controversial phases of the Independence Act which political partisanship accentuated recently.

Passion and prejudice obscured the truth and the impartial and unerring verdict of history. We are not concerning ours:ely~s now with contentious questions.

What should be of concern to all is the incontrovertible fact that after years of labor and sacrifice on the part of the Filipino people an Independence Act was secured and tha~ this Act affects all important aspects of Philippine life, the educational aspect included.

On~ of the great values of the Congressional enactment is that it has removed the Philippine question from the field of conjecture and speculation. It placed American-Philippine relationship upon a definite and concrete basis. It compelled here and in the United States a rational and realistic view of the Philippine problem in its entirety and integrity.

351

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Another important utility of the Independence Act is that it has dissipated much of the uncertainty of the Philippine prlOblem !and clarified our country's future.

By virtue of the Independence Act, the Philippine Legislature enacted Act No. 4125, the Act which provided for the election on July 10, 1934, of delegates to the Constitutional Convention to formulate and draft a constitution for the new government of the Philippines contemplated by the Act of Congress. By virtue of the same enactment we know that we may enjoy a constitution republican in form, establish a semi-independent and \Semi-sovereign government of the Commonwealth of the Philippine Islands, and "on the 4th day of July immediately following the expiration of a period of ten years" at the latest the independence of the Philippines as a separate and self-governing nation shall be recognized.

This Congressional definition of the future of the Philippines makes it possible for us more clearly to orient our cultural progress. One of the insuperable stumbling blocks to educational administration in the past has been the uncertainty and the anomaly of the status of the Philippines. The commitment of America by the enactment of the law for our liberation and the subsequent approval of a constitution for the Commonwealth government and later for the independent Philippine government will the better enable us to adopt a philosophy of education which shall serve as a polestar for educational administration, management, and instruction.

The clarification of our political status does away with the confusion arising from a lack of a definite citizenship status of the Filipinos. One of the strongest arguments used to press the government and people of the United States to act on the legislation for our manumission was that the Filipino under the old order was neither 352

DE LA SALLE COLLEGE ATE:-IEO DE MANILA

EDUCATION AND RELIGION an alien nor a foreigner; neither a subject nor an American citizen; and is without a free country for whose citizenship he should be prepared. N ow this anomaly may be removed. Once the constitution is drafted, approved, and ratified and a government of the Commonwealth inaugurated our schools, colleges, and universities can definitely set to work to train and prepare Filipino boys and girls for adequate citizenship in a Philippine Commonwealth and later in a Philippine Republic.

It should be a cause for the Filipinos to be more deeply grateful to America that by the Independence Act we are the better enabled to define the aim of education in the Philippines. It should be a source of deep satisfaction on the part of all lovers of progress in our land that now we are in a better position to restate the purpose of educational endeavor which should serve as the chief basis for the determination of the content and method of Philippine education.

What then is the aim of education under the new order? If the people of the Philippines are really determined to establish and maintain an independent Republic, democratic and self-governing, then the aim of education is to secure for the nation as a whole and for every citizen the highest and fullest measure of efficiency, freedom, and happiness.

The Philippine educational system must be made a more effective 'agency for the development of Filipino boys and girls, young men and young women into efficient, free, and happy citizens in a self-governing Philippine state or commonwealth, progres'sive and democratic.

When on December 9, 1921, I was formally inaugurated as president of the National University, my address dealt with the Guiding Principles in Educational Adminis353

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES tration. I quote the concluding paragraph of that inaugural address: "Our very definition of education must be nationalized, democratized, and inter-nationalized. The aim, content, and method of education must likewise be humanized. Education to be all that it should be must make for the development of a national mind and a national spirit, a democratic mind and a democratic spirit, and an international mind and an international spirit. And my guiding principles: in educational 'admini's tration shall be the principle of nationalism, the principle of democracy, and the principle of internationalism-these three, but the first of these and the one of most immediate concern to the individual and ta the nation is the dynamic principle of nationalism."

Without subtracting a single word, I reiterate the foregoing statement of educational principles now. 'If anything they are apI!>licable with greater force and reality under the new order than under the old. They may well serve as guides in our future education, immediate or remote. They should become more meaningful with the march of the years:. Under the Commonwealth and under the Republic that is soon to be, our administrators, teachers, and students of education must be thinking of and planning for the best ways and means of nationalizing our education, democratizing our education, and internationalizing, or if you please, humanizing our education.

The present epoch of our national life has been distinctive for its political minded ness just a'Si the epoch preceding it has been characterized by religious mindedness.

Under the period of political dependence with the consequent agitation for political independence, there has been 354

EDUCATION AND RELIGION a tendency to emphasize the importance of political activity to demonstrate the people's fitness for self-government and their preparedness to direct their own governmental affairs. This: has militated somewhat against the husbanding of the best Filipino minds for scientific pursuits and economic enterprises. Under the new order especially after the approval of the constitution and the inauguration of the new government of the Commonwealth we should enter upon a new period in our national life distinctive for its increased scientific spirit and greater economic mindedness. Education in our country would be remiss in its mission to serve the dominant needs, demands, and interests of the times if it failed fully to contribute to the development of greater practical mindedness among the people of the Philippines.

The new situation that is to ensue from the altered relations between the United States and the Philippines necessitates reshaping of trends and tendencies among the youth of our land. More and more Filipinos: graduating from institutions of learning must learn to look for opportunities outside not inside the government. The necessary retrenchment of the next few years in government expenses and the continually enlarging field of private enterprise should not be overlooked by our young men and young women. The very activities along agricultural, industrial, and other vocational education should lead to the increase of the number of independent producers.

Technical and technological training should res:ult in a reduction of misfits in the world of business and in remunerative pursuits. Education along practical lines and in the professions must make for more citizens useful and productive. The entire scheme of education must function in such a way as to reduce the idle and unemployed 355

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES and augment the army of practical thinkersi, doers, and producers.

Besides the problem of education to lead the youth al~ng new avenues of activity and service, there is the problem of making them less individualistic and more sodally cooperative. Modern civilization with its flair for organization demands social mindedness. In the field of trade and commerce Filipinos must acquire a keener sense of group cons:ciousness. The new order should help usher in an era of partnership and corporation in business. Business activities undertaken by individuals as separate units will not prosper except in rare cases in the face of the onset of business carried on by organized grouns or corporations. The task of education in creating this type of mentality which conduces to social cooperation is a part of the larger problem of training for national discipline.

It is to be assumed that tile Filipino people mean to found an independent nation upon the basis of a democracy. The delegates to the Constitutional Conven,t ion have a mandate to frame a constitution for a new go vernp1ent republican in form and democratic to the core.

Only a constitution thus: conceived shall be accepted by and acceptable to the authorities in Washington and the rank and file of our citizenship. It is clearly the duty of education to breed a more genuine respect for democracy and a deeper devotion to the democratic ideal. The schools, colleges, and universities must be made institutional agencies of democracy. They must be utilized to reduce and, as soon as pos's,ible, wipe out illiteracy, enlighten the masses, create a Is ound educated middle class, and train leaders imbued with the ideal of republicanism and democracy.

In planning for the structure of the new government 356

EDUCATION AND RELIGION to be instituted there will undoubtedly be numerous individuals and groups demanding the establis:hment of this or that department at the head of which there should be one with a Cabinet rank. There will be those desiring a separate Department of Education. The demands of simplicity and economy will probably compel the grouping of certain allied interests or activities with those of education. Whatever may be the final decision on this matter, the problem of edueational reorganization will be inescapable. With the Filipinos destined to have a greater voice and participation in the control and direction of education, it is inevitable that there will be changes: effected with a view to adjusting educational ends to means and means to ends, and with a view to readjusting educational theory and practice to the psychological and sociqlogical needs and demands of the people and of the times.

There is another task of national proportions. It is that of instilling among our young citizens the spirit of sacrifice. The character of our people will be strong or weak, Philippine democracy itself will be stable or unstable in proportion to our success or lack of success to accomplish this difficult task. Institutions of learning from top to bottom must become fountain source and laboratories of sacrificial patriotism. It is: not so much the days of plenty and of ease as the times of real difficulty that try men's souls and test the virility of social institutions. There are hard years ahead. Education must prepare the people to shoulder the burdens and undergo the sacrifices: which the new order entails.

The future difficulties and hardships will likely arise from the fact that we secured the law for our liberation without paying as great a price as other peoples have paid. It is the glory of both the United States and the Philippine Islands that the severance of political ties will 357

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES be effected without resort to war and without bloodshed.

Ours is the unique experience of attaining our national emancipation through diplomacy, through constitutional methods, through peace. Education must stress the efficacy of peace in the relations of men and nations. It must emphasize the arts of peace and the heroism of peace.

One contribution that the future Philippine government could make to the science of politics is the establishment not of a Department of War or a Department of the Navy but a Department of Peace and National Defense. That itself would be education in the obligations of peace. We need educating to bear the trials! and sufferings of peace.

In peace is found the security of nations relatively small and weak.

As we enter full blast upon the life which the new order brings we need to cultivate the genius and talent of Philippine citizens. Their inventiveness, their resourcefulness, their creative mentality in art and literature- all these are to be challenged to an extent h~therto unknown.

Education must cultivate them. I believe the people of the Philippines have abilities along these lines that lie latent for development. They should be stimulated and directed.

The new order should serve to awaken our people to new aspirations, to new achievements. Our new conquest would be hollow unless it ushers in a renaissance in the culture and civilization of the Philippines.

We shall not discuss minute details of the educative process. There are practices and theories which past experience will counsel continuance. There will be adaptations and improvements to be made. There are features wit h which laws: extant require compliance. The supremely important thing for the proper solution of educational problems under the new order in the Philippines is that there be substantial agreement upon the fundamentals, upon the aims and objectives which in the last analysis 358

EDUCATION AND RELIGION control the determination of policies and which condition the what and the how, the content and method of education.

As the thinkers, scholars, and leaders in different walks of Philippine life shall labor under the new order to strengthen our inational s.olidarity, establish justice, provide for peace and defense, promote progress and welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty and democracy to the present generation and posterity, the agents and agencies of education in our country must do their full share to help secure for the nation and for every citizen the highest and fullest measure of efficiency, freedom, and happiness. Theirs is the golden opportunity to develop worthy citizens for the new Philippine State and to harmonize the cultures and civilizations of the Orient and of the Occident.

359

CHAPTER

II

THE CONSTITUTION AND EDUCATION

It is commonplace to say that the Constitution is the fundamental law of the nation and that education is the greatest ally of democracy. The Filipino people have long 路srt;ruggled to convert the Philippines into a democracy, free and independent, and to organize a government of their own, republican in form and democratic to the core.

In consonance with their supreme ideal and aspiration, the people have always shown a deep interest and an abiding faith in education. In fact, their love of education is proverbial and their readiness to sacrifice for it is traditional.

Their age-long desire to become free and independent is at last soon to be realized. As an important preliminary step toward the uspering in of the Philippine Republic, a constitution has been formulated. This historic document will serve as the basis of and the guiding star for the government of the Commonwealth and of the Republic.

The Independence Act, approved by the Government of the United States, authorized the Philippine Legislature to pass a law for the election of delegates to a Constitutional Convention charged with the duty to draft and formulate the Constitution of the Philippines. Soon after the acceptance of the Act of Congress by the Philippine Legislature, a law (Act No. 4125) was pass'ed, providing for a general election to select the delegates to the Constitutional Convention. Pursuant to this Act of the Legislature, two hundred two delegates were chosen at the national election held on July 10, 1934, who in accordance with the same Act, met at the Hall of the Philippine Legislature on July 31, 1934.

The first fundamental point which needed definition 360

EDUCATION AND RELIGION at least in the minds of the members was the nature and scope of the Constitution. After a few weeks of discussion and deliberation, the judgment became crystallized that the Convention was not only authorized but expected to devise a constitution that would serve both for the Philippine Commonwealth and the Philippine Republic that is to come on the 4th of July, immediately following the expiration of the transition period provided for in the Congressional enactment.

Soon after the organization of the Constitutional Convention and the appointment of the various committees, the real work of the Convention began in earnest. Two delegates submitted ldrafts of the Constitution in toto, while most of the delegates presented numerous precepts, all of which were referred to the committees concerned.

After a few months, a Committee of Seven was created to study the different committee reports and submit a draft of the Constitution, which would serve as a basis of discussion and decision.

As this discussti on is not intended to be a complete history of the process and labor involved in the framing of the Constitution, we shall content ourselves with stating that after the Convention discussed the provisions of the draft of the Constitution, article by article, a vote was taken on January 31, 1935. A Committee on Style was then chosen to make such improvements in the Constitution and such recommendations as they deemed necessary to the Convention as a whole. This Committee forthwith devoted several days of serious and conscientious study and submitted their report to the Convention, which acted favorably upon all the important changeSJ and recommendations of the Committee on Style.

A complete history of the making of the Constitution can not now be written and will probably never be written, for this would involve a study of all the proposals 361

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES submitted, the discussions that took place, and the written and unwritten records of the work of all the committees and members of the Convention. It is enough for our purpose to say that the Constitution 3181 approved has been the result of the collective thinking and the cooperative labors of the delegates.

The Constitution contains provisions which have a direct and indirect bearing upon education. The preamble, for example, is a statement of the prime ideals and broad objectives of the Constitution. If the Government to be instituted is to reflect the ideals of the Filipino people, the document necesslarily must reflect something of the dominant educational ideals. Education must do its full share in achieving the ends for which the Constitution has been devised, among which are: (1) conserving and developing the patrimony of the nation, (2) promoting the general welfare, and (3) insuring to the people of the Philippines and their posterity "the blessings of independence under a regime of justice, liberty, and democracy."

The Declaration of Principles, the Bill of Rights, and variouS! other provisions have an intimate relation with education and should interest those charged with the administration, supervision, and management of the institutions of learning in the Philippines. Let us take as an example the provision which deals with peace. Education is essentially dominated by the ideal of peace and consecrated to the arts of peace. Those engaged in education will find joy in the declaration of the principle of peace embodied in the Constitution. It says: "The Philippines renounces war as an instrument of national policy and adopts the generally accepted principles of international law as a part of the law of the N.ation."

This provision has already merited favorable comment here and abroad, and is in line with the high idealism 362

EDUCATION AND RELIGION underlying the peace treaties signed by practically all the civilized nations of the world.

Several other provisions could be discussed, which like the provision on the policy of peace, have an indirect relation with education. Vve hasten to take up those provisions that directly r elate to education.

The ordinance appended to the Constitution contains the mandatory provisions in the Independence Act. One specific provision says: "The Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines shall establish and maintain an adequate s.ystem of public schools primarily conducted in the English language."

Under Article XIII, GENERAL PROVISIONS, we have an entire section devoted to education. Section 5 reads thus: "Sec. 5. All educational institutions shall be under the supervision of and subject to regulation by the State. The Government shall establish and maintain a complete and adequate system of public education, and shall provide at least free public primary instruction, and citizenship training to adult citizens..

All schools shall aim to develop moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, and vocational efficiency, and to teach the duties of citizenship. Optional religious instruction shall be maintained in the public schools as now authorized by law. Universities established by the State shall enjoy academic freedom. The State shall create scholarships in arts, science, and letters for specially gifted citizens."

The foregoing provision makes it clear that all institutions of learning, public or private, shall be under State supervision and subject to State regulation. The reason is that education is essentially a public function. Educa363

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES tional activities being intended to advance the interests of the country as a whole and the welfare of its inhabitants, it is only just and proper that the State be given authority and power to supervise and regulate the schools, colleges, and universities, to the end that they may not undertake any activity subversive of the State, inimical to the general welfare, and contrary to the letter and spirit of the Constitution. The people of the Philippines expect, and rightly, that the institutions of learning established in the land be effective agencies for the public good and in the service of the Nation.

The Constitution provides that "the Government shall establish and maintain a complete and adequate system of public education." This was approved by the Committee on Public Instruction created during the early part of the ses'sions, an.d embodied in their report to the Convention. For some reason, it was not included in the draft of the Constitution emanating from the Committee of Seven. Two delegates submitted this provision as an amendment. It fell to the lot of a delegate from La Union to discuss and explain the meaning of the provision. When vote was taken, the amendment was defeated by four votes.

Upon reconsideration, the s'a me amendment was approved by a majority of ten votes.

By this provision, public announcement has been made of the policy of the State to establish and maintain a complete and adequate system of public education. Every word in it has a purpose. The word "shall" after the word "Government" means that the establishment .and maintenance of a public educational system is not permissive but obligatory.

As a defender of this particular provision, and as I expressed it on the floor of the Convention, I hold among other things: 364

EDUCATION AND RELIGION (1) That the establishment of a public educational system is an inescapable obligation of the State.

(2) That it is a governmental function to administer, supervise, and manage a public educational system.

(3) That the 路s ystem of public education, essential in a democracy, must be complete and adequate.

(4) That each generation must determine what it deems a complete and adequate educational system.

(5) That it is contemplated that the State shall establish and maintain an elementary public school system, primary instruction at least, and, if possible all elementary instruction to be free.

(6) That there should be vocational schools: to serve and further the intellectual, industrial, commercial, and other economic interests of the nation.

(7) That within the limits of the funds available, the State should support, at least in part, public secondary education.

(8) That, subject also to the funds available, the State should establish and maintain a State university with the existing or additional branches, such a university to constitute the capstone of the national public school system.

For the sake of emphasis, let it be reiterated that this Constitutional provision contemplates that the State shall offer complete and adequate public elementary instruction, making at least primary instruction free. The consensus of opinion among the delegates was that the funds of the State permitting, the instruction in all the elementary grades should be free. The inclusion of the words "at least" does not preclude making instruction beyond the primary free. This accords with the determination to make the Philippines a progressive and enduring democracy. In a democratic organization, there should be full opportunity for the education of all children of elementaryschool age, in order to have a citizenry equipped with the 365

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES necessary tools of communication, conscious of the basic notions of good citizenship, and possessed of a criterion for judging what is right or wrong.

Another important provision from the standpoint of the education of our body politic is the citizenship training for adult citizens. There were some delegates who advocated military training for able-bodied men, and there were others who believed that military training, as ordinarily understood, is too limited in its scope and that the new Philippines demanded a broader program of citizenship training that would give adult citizens an opportunity for physical, mental, social, and vocational advancement.

In the course of the discussion of this provi'slion, two things were made clear. One is that adults should be trained to become literate, physically fit, and capable of achieving a measure of social competence through vocational rehabilitation or educatio. The other point is that adult citizenship training as herein provided need not necessarily be wholly free. Attention is invited to the comma after the word "instruction," in the following: "The Government shall eSltablish and maintain a complete and adequate system of pubhc education, and shall provide at least free public primary instruction, and citizenship training to adult citizens ... " Incidentally, this is an example of the necessity of absolute care in scrutinizing the meaning of every word, phrasle or punctuation mark in the Constitution.

With respect to the aim of education, it should be said that no attempt was made to embody a complete statement of the aim of education in the Constitution. The delegates realized that education is a science in the making, whose aims must necessarily undergo changes from time to time.

The general aim of education is to secure for each citizen, for every nation, and for the human family, the highest 366

EDUCATION AND RELIGION and fullest measure of efficiency, freedom, and happiness.

Educational administrators and teachers will undoubtedly be guided by this aim. The makers of the Constitution indicated certain specific aims which they deemed desirable for the youth of the Philippines, hence, this statement: "All schools shall aim to develop moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, and vocational efficiency, and to teach the duties of citizenship."

Among school people, it is common knowledge that education should aim to inculcate ideas and ideals of good citizenship and make the youth good, useful, and serviceable citizens. Those piloting our educational work have aimed and will continue to aim to make education function so as to develop moral character, which is basic in all educational endeavor. There must be a program worked out in detail, calculated to foster civic conscience, personal discipline, and vocational efficiency.

The Cons.titution ;furthermore is committed to the policy that the State should foster the development of the humanities, the arts., and the sciences. Section 5 of Article XIII, expressly provides: "The State shall create scholarships in arts, science, and letters for specially gifted citizens." The idea behind this provision is that poverty should not be a bar to the full development of especially poor students, endowed with unusual talents in certain branches of human knowledge. It grows out of the realization that the State would be investing by providing scholarships for citizens of extra-ordinary or special endowments.

Those connected with or interested in the State University will find joy in the inclusion of the principle of "academic freedom" in the Constitution. It is but fair that tax-supported institutions of learning, to serve the highest needs of the nation, be surrounded with an atmosphere of freedom and that members: of the faculty and the 367

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES administrative staff be guaranteed freedom from being harassed by interference from political or other sources.

University education stands for intellectual freedom. The principle of academic freedom is held sacred by true university men.

The citizens of this country, with a background of trouble and revolution because of the union of the Church and the State under the Spanish regime, must feel genuine satisfaction in the re-incorporation of the principle of the MaloloSl Constitution, of President McKinley's Instructions, and of the Philippine Autonomy Act, with respect to religious freedom. The Constitution also provides that: "Optional religious instruction shall be maintained in the public schools as now authorized by law." It should be made clear that wha~ is provided for is optional religious instruction, not compulsory religious instruction. Twice at least on the floor of the Convention there were attempts to embody as a part of the Constitution a provision for compulsory religious instruction, but these attempts were overwhelmingly defeated. The provision for optional religious instruction should forever close the avenue to obligatory or compulsory teaching of religion in the public schools of the Philippines.

The Constitution is very vitally and very intimately related to education. The ideas, ideals, and principles of the Constitution should be the concern of those engaged in education and institutions of learning. As the Constitution defines the larger objectives for the nation, so education should define its! particular objectives in the light of the larger objectives of the nation. It is because of thi's close connection between the Constitution and education, this interdependence, that the framers of the Constitution provided that institutions of learning in this country should be subject to State supervision and State regulation. The Constitution should be as:ource of encouragement and in368

EDUCATION AND RELIGION spiration to those directly interesteu in the social reconstruction through the process of education, and to all citizens who have faith in the efficacy of education as an agency of social progress. It should be the growing conviction of the Philippine citizenry that the remedy for the ills of the Nation is not less education but more education.

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III

EDUCATION AND MORAL CHARACTER

There are exceedingly few matters on which there is unanimity of opinion in education. One of these is moral character the value and importance of which are universally recognized. Morality indeed is deemed so essential that it has been advanced as a chief, even the chief, aim of educational effort. The Constitution of the Philippines itself requires the development of moral character as one of the ends to be achieved by educational institutions.

There is no universally accepted definition of morality.

In fact, there are two camps of thought: one holding to the belief that there can be no morality without religion, the other convinced that morality and religion are distinct and separate; one dealing essentially with the relations between man and man, the other dealing with the relations between man and his Creator. The ways and means of educating for moral character depend greatly upon the concept of morality entertained and the school of thought undertaking the task.

On the pedagogy of moral education there is likewise a division. There are those who advocate the direct method of teaching morality and there are those who espouse the indirect method. For the Philippines, where we have inherited both the Oriental and the Occidental points of view, we incline to the belief that both the direct and the indirect methods should be employed in developing moral character.

For our purpose, morality may be defined as conduct actuated by right motive and whose effect is to maintain and improve or spread the social good. The dictionary defines conduct as the way in which a person acts or lives; the doing or deeds of a person collectively considered; 370

EDUCATION AND RELIGION behavior; deportment. One noted writer, in substance, says that character consists of (1) power-not blind force but directed energy, efficiency in action toward some definite result; and (2) sensitiveness to the social situation.

Character is the sum total of attitudes, thoughts, and acts of an individual in the course of his life. Moral conduct in the broad sense may be said to be the conscious selfrealization of an individual through active participation in social life.

It is helpful to clarify the meanings of at least three terms that stand for three definite concepts at this juncture. These are (a) moral, (b) immoral, and (c) unmoral. It is customary to view an act as composed of two things: (1) the motive and (2) the result. A moral act or deed which has a good motive and a good result is good or social or moral. An act or deed that has a bad motive and a bad result is bad, unsocial, or immoral. An act or deed which is neither good nor bad, neither moral nor immoral, there being no conscious motive, is unsocial or unmoral. The acts of innocent children may be classified under the unmoral category.

An unmoral life is one moved by no consciousl motive or intention and is unsocial in nature. An immoral life is one which is impelled by wrong motive or intention and whose result, effect, or influence is bad for or harmful to society. An individual with good moral character is one whose life is piloted by good motive or intention and its result, effect, or influence conduces to the maintenance or the spr~ad of the good of society.

Educating for moral character is converting unmorality to posative morality, minimizing and, if possible, eradicating immorality, and maintaining and improving morality in individual and social life.

In this difficult and delicate task all social institutions of uplift should participate and cooperate. The school is 371

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES but one institution having to do with this complex problem of developing moral character.

The main factors operating to bring 'about moral training are: (a) the social forces, (b) knowledge including subject-matter and method, and (c) the influence of personality.

John Dewey in his classic little volume on Moral Principles in Education points out that moral training in school may ~be given (a) by the school community, (b) from the methods of instruction, and (c) through the social nature of the course of study. The moral trinity according to him consists of social intelligence, social power, and social interests.

"Our resources," he says, "are: (1) the life of the school a'S! a social institution in itself; (2) methods of learning and of doing work; and (3) the school studies or curriculum. In so far as the school represents, in it's own spirit, a genuine c(l)mmunity life; in so far as what are called school discipiine, government, order, etc., are the expressions of this inherent social spirit; in so far as the methods used are those that appeal to the active and constructive powers., permitting the chi1~ren to give out and thus to serve; in so far as the curriculum ' is so selected and organized as to provide the material for affording the child a consciousness of the world in which he has to play a part, and the demands he has to meet; so far as these ends are met, the school is organized on an ethical basis. So far as general principles are concerned, all the basic ethical requirements are met. The rest remains between the individual teacher and the individual child."

The operation of the factors at our command to bring about the development of moral character sihould result in the development of proper habits, attitudes, interests, methods, and ideals. These five elements together contribute to the making of character. It is thus plain that 372

EDUCATION AND RELIGION the task of moral training is delicate and complicated and can be achieved only through a long, patient, and painstaking process.

The various activities in the school may be made contributory to the moral objectives desired. Each subject of study should be employed as a means of identifying the individual student with the social group of which he is a part. It should be the concern of the teacher to lead the pupil to realize that each study is a means of making him a more serviceable member of society. The student on his part should seek to translate what he learns! into action that shall make for social betterment.

Such a concept of the moral value of studies dignifies the purpose of education. All information comes to mean possession of ideas and facts coupled with a conception of their possibilities for 's'ocial usefulness. A study becomes purposive for it is "a means of bringing the child to realize the social scene of action."

The school environment itself and the extra-curricular activities, if socialized, can serve as aids in moral training.

The school organized as a cross-Slection of social life in somewhat idealized form can come to -breathe an atmosphere that may exert a powerful moral influence. Administrators and teachers may give the institution a moral tone of a high order. Even the vocational aspect of education may be said to have a positive moral value in that it contributes towards making the individual a self-supporting citizen and an important member of society with a measure of social competence. Athletics indeed may also be looked upon as an important moral agency in that it helps replace amusements with the gambling element with activities of a wholesome type. Group games and athletic activities within proper bounds can, be made to contribute to the evolution of a nation more virile and more virtuous.

But while we believe in the efficacy of the social or373

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ganization of the school, the social nature of the studies and 'school activities, and the methods of instruction, we attach much importance to the factor of personality. The influence of personality upon young lives is often the one most readily observed and most keenly felt and also the most lasting.

We may say in closing what we have said in discussing the problem of the school and moral training in another volume: "Educators need to lead the public, and the public needs to be led, to see that human relationships underlie our studies; that the moral value of a study depends upon the extent to which the student is led to interpret his instincts and powers on the basis of their possibilities for social use; and that habits of usefulness and morality are the great ends of education."

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CHAPTER

IV

TRAINING FOR PERSONAL DISCIPLINE

One of the specific virtues particularly specified by the framers of the Constitution as a desirable objective of education is personal discipline. The Constitution provides that all schools should aim to develop this quality.

There are manifestations in practical life which evidence lack of proper personal discipline. The prevalence of crime, the violation of laws and ordinances, the occurrence of disorders, the impatience in the purchase of tickets at theaters or railroad stations, the marks on public buildings, the signs of ill-temper in personal conductthese and other evidences which could be cited argue for the need of training for personal discipline.

Since it is the universal desire of the people to make the Philippines a democracy, the kind of discipline that should be fostered should be one appropriate for and in a democracy. There is a great difference between discipline in an autocracy and discipline in a democracy.

Discipline in the former is unquestioning obedience; discipline in the latter is duty self-imposed. The moving power in the former is force from without; the moving power in the latter is force from within. In one there is coercion, in the other there is initiative. The kind of discipline desired is not the type that grows out of fear but one which springs from love.

The institutions of learning should develop the personal discipline which means freedom of action, limited by a consideration of the rights of othersi. Every citizen should realize the need of personal discipline, everywhere and at all times in the home, in the school, in the church, in the community, etc. It should be borne in mind that there are restraints everywhere and it is essential to exer375

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES cise inhibition and self-control. Conduct that is unrestrained would be liberty run riot which is not liberty but license. While freedom of action is encouraged, it should be remembered that the social idea is the basis of true and righteous discipline.

In the school there is much discipline that is wrong and objectionable. Certain teachers with a peculiar notion of discipline expect docility on the part of the children. Blind obedience is at a premium. The active students, those abounding with energy and enthusiasm, the boy's and girls who manifest surplus energy are often penalized. This is not the kind of personal discipline that should be developed nor should it be the militarized type or one that kills individuality.

The kind of discipline which the makers of the Constitution wi's.hed to see developed is not the quiet brought about by coercion ~ut order based upon freedom; not passive immobility but active spontaneity; not blind compliance through threat but cheerful obedience out of respect. In the home and in the school, there should be ample opportunity for the development of personal discipline based not upon fear or rigid rules or innumerable "don'ts" but on freedom of action circumscribed by a proper regard of the good to others. In other words, the desirable personal discipline is best attained where there is an atmosphere, attitude, or condition which makes for efficient, free, and happy life.

Discipline thus conceived is! not an end in itself but a means to an end. It is a 'q uality or endowment which makes for efficient work and for a rich life. In school, "discipline is that wise adjustment of plans, rules, and conditions that keeps the pupils working towards the de,sired goal willingly, happily, patiently, and successfully without consciousness of friction or undue fatigue." The Bureau of Education in its set of regulations evinced a 376

EDUCATION AND RELIGION proper concept of discipline when it said: "When a school is in an flttitude conducive to effective work it may be said to be orderly and well disciplined. Silence produced by fear or a slavish conformity to rules brought about by 'SIUppression of all natural tendencies of childhood is not to be mistaken for order and discipline as they are best understood."

Every citizen should be conscious that he lives under a government wherever he is, wherever he goes. There is a government of the family, a government of the school, a government of his organization or party, besides a government of hiSi town, his province, or his country. In every government there is necessity for the observance of proper discipline. Without discipline no government could exist. Under the government of a democracy there should be self-control, self-direction, self-government. The youth should be schooled and trained f~r personal discipline which makes for a life that is self-controlled, self-directed, s:elfgoverned.

In school while the pupils are free to make petitions or present protests, they are not at liberty to commit violence or go on strikes. The Director of Education has issued the following ruling on the question of strikes: "Pupils have the right to present petitions or protests to their teachers, or to higher school authorities, and this right should not be interfered with; on the other hand, pupils found using force or intimidation to secure signatures to petitions or protests should be severely dealt with. Every case of protest or complaint should have careful attention with a view to insuring justice to all parties concerned.

However, pupils who enter upon or encourage strikes are considered to have thereby forfeited all rights to protests and petition to the authorities of the Bureau of Education, and by their action they automatically effect their separation from the school. That is, pupils who go on strike no 377

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES longer come within school influence or authority, and have no rights as school pupils. Superintendents and teachers are expressly warned not to make overtures to striking pupils nor readmit them to school without authority from the Director of Education."

If pupils and students were allowed without restraint to take matters in their own hands or act as they please, there would be chaos just as there would be anarchy in the country if citizens were allowed to take the law into their own hands and act as they please without order, without discipline. Were such a situation to obtain, there would be mobocracy, not democracy.

In the school where much of the training for personal discipline must be undertaken the administrators and teachers should labor for habitual discipli,ne. It will not do for them to be strict one day and be lax the next. They should keep the pupils busy and interested in their work.

They should mechanize much of the daily routine such as the formation of lines, going in and out of school or the passing of papers, books, supplies., tools, and other articles.

The pupils and students should be accustomed: " (1) To move about the room quietly, as in passing, standing, or sitting down; (2) to get in and out of their seats quietly; (3) to handle books and erasers, properly; (4) to open and close their books quietly; (5) to move chairs and other obj ects quietly; (6) to open and close the door quietly; (7) to write on the board noiselessly; (8) to take their hats, umbrellas, and industrial articles quietly; (9) to recite in a moderate tone of voice, and to answer one at a time; (10) never to scatter waste paper on the playground or in the streets."

In the citizen's training for personal discipline, we hold as fundamental: (1) That the citizen be trained in self-control and self-direction; 378

EDUCATION AND RELIGION (2) That he acquire the attitude of humility; (3) That he be encouraged to exercise initiative; (4) That he be accustomed to have a proper regard for the good -of others; (5) That he be habituated to occupy his hours of work and of leisure; (6) That he be schooled to busy himself at fundamental and enduring things; (7) That he engage in pursuits or activities that promote the health and well-being of himself and others; and (8) That he be habituated in subordinating selfinterest to the larger social interest.

It should be remembered always. that personal discipline in a democracy is order rooted in the social idea; it is obedience growing out of respect for the welfare of others; it is liberty based upon law; and it is conduct conducive to the happiness of the citizen and his associates.

Where there is habitual personal discipline among the citizens, there would be a regime of justice, law, and order in the Nation itself.

379

CHAPTER

V

DEVELOPING CIVIC CONSCIENCE

It is the function of education to develop the full man.

The state and society establish and maintain institutions of learning to foster the all-round development of the individual citizen. Commencing with the inauguration of the new government under the Constitution of the Philippines, the schools of the country ought cheerfully to assume the obligation placed upon them, namely, that of developing civic conscience.

The fundamental law of the land requires that all schools aim to develop certain specific qualities of citizenship among which is civic conscience. This term is more or less abstract, but so is every desirable quality which is a worthwhile objective of education and of life. The very fact of abstractness necessitates explanation and elaboration. It is incumbent upon the leaders of thought and those entrusted with the task of directing the schools to work out the principles and details of educating for civic conscience.

The dictionary gives the following definitions: Civic-pertaining to, characteristic of, or befitting, a city, citizen, or citizenship.

Civics-the science of city government or of good citizenship.

Citizen-I. a native of a town or a city; 2. a native, or naturalized member of a state or nation, who enjoys political rights and privileges, and gives in return his allegiance to the state: Distinguished from a subject, who owes allegiance to a sovereign.

Citizenship-a status of a person who owes allegiance to the government in return to political rights and privileges.

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EDUCATION AND RELIGION

Conscience-the moral sense or consciousness within oneself that determines whether one considers one's own conduct right or wrong; popularly, the moral sense within one whfch urges to right conduct; conduct in accordance with one's sense of right.

In the light of the foregoing, we may define civic conscience as the inward sense or consciousness which helps the individual to determine what is right or wrong in the "large group" relations as a citizen and which urges him to right conduct. It is this quality of citizenship, this type of sense or consciousness, we believe, that the framers of the Constitution had in mind when they incorporated civic conscience as one of the ends for which educational institutions in the land should work. There will be no quibbling as to the desirability of developing civic conscience among citizens of the Philippines, born or naturalized.

The Constitution has the following provisions regarding ci tizensh.i p : "ARTICLE IV-CITIZENSHIP "SECTION 1. The following are citizens of the Philippines: "(1) Those who are citizens of the Philippine Islands at the time of the adoption of this Constitution. "(2) Those born in the Philippine Islands of foreign parents who, before the adoption of this Constitution, had been elected to public office in the Philippine IsJands. " (3) Those whose fathers are citizens of the Philippines. "( 4) Those whose mothers are citizens of the Philippines and, upon reaching the age of majority, elect Philippine citizenship. "(5) Those who are naturalized in accordance with law.

381

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES "SEC. 2. Philippine citizenship may be lost or reacquired in the manner provided by law."

The Constitution contemplates that citizens of the Philippines possess a developed civic conscience. Developing civic conscience as a duty of the schools is distinct and separate from the teaching of the duties of citizenship.

The exact constitutional provision reads: "All !Schools shall aim to develop moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, and vocational efficiency and to teach the duties of citizenship."

Compliance with the constitutional requirement that all schools foster civic conscience and teach the duties of citizenship demands that ther e be in the Philippines a broader civic education. For this purpose, mere indirect citizenship training will not suffice. Even the direct teaching now being undertaken through the inclusion of civics as a subject will not suffice. Nothing short of genuine civic education, broader and richer than hitherto known or practiced in the Philippine educational institutions, will suffice. It will be noted that this type of education is expected of both public and private institutions of learning for the Constitution requires it of all schools.

Civilized nations have for sometime recognized the need of civic education. Most school systems have included in their program of activities either formal or informal civic education. In some places the direct method has been employed while in others the indirect method has been preferred. In the Philippines, with the clearly specified purpose of teaching citizen's duties and furthering the growth of civic conscience, both the direct and indirect methods must of necessity be employed.

Here, as elsewhere, the need for civic education is obvious. It grows out of the prevalence of crime and its tendency to increase or appear in new manifestations. It 382

EDUCATION AND RELIGION arises from the existence of inefficiency, apathy, even corruption, in contemporary politics. It springs from the increasing complexity of social life. It is prompted by the growing demands of democracy. It is dictated by the modern conception of social economics.

Civic education is comparatively modern. Compared with other branches of education as a science, it is in its infancy. It will be necessary to do much clarifying, experimentation, and sifting process. Time is an essential element for the determination of the special province of this new civic education in Philippine educational theory and practice. I use the term "new civic education" deliberately to differentiate it from the attempts hitherto undertaken in the guise of citizenship activities, or civics, or government courses.

It will prove suggestive and enlightening to have a glimpse of what has been thoug;ht along this line in the United States. Writing on and in advocacy of the kind of civic education that will befit America, David Snedden, in his lucid and encyclopedic style, has defined its- special field in this wise: "First, civic education does not include training in reading, spelling, handwriting, or simple arithmetic, or in other fundamental processes such as drawing, the reading of a foreign language, or forms of laboratory manipulation. It includes none of the primary forms of phys,ical or vocational education.

Finally, it excludes many forms of cultural education where the controlling purpose is to establish enduring interests of an aesthetic or intellectual nature toward the enrichment of the individual life.

"The special objectives of civic education, then, have to do largely with political and other 'large group' membership, including compliance with laws of state, municipality, etc. These may be classified as follows: "a. The promotion of the appreciations, ideals, 383

ENCYCLOPEDIA o.F THE PHILIPPINES attitudes, and minor amounts of understanding necessary to procure conformity to legal and other direction-s and restraints, such conformity being always measured in terms of specific forms of social activity, such as honesty in property relationships, obedience to traffic laws, etc. '~b.

Promotion of the kinds and degrees of devotion to country, city, town, and other political groupings as collective social entities with a view to insuring the welfare of the commonwealth and the community. One species of these types of devotion can well be called patriotism, but there are others which can easily be distinguished. "c. Training in dispositions and abilities to participate actively in parties, volunteer service, and other activities of a positive nature designed to promote the public welfare.

- "d. Training in dispositions to advance the state directly by good service in family, vocational, religious, and other non-political social groupings."

Suggestive and excellent though the foregoing may be, it will be still necessary to broaden it because of the demand not only to inculcate upon the citizen a sense of his duties and responsibilities but also to cultivate that civic sense or consciousness within himself that will enable him to determine what is proper or improper and which will lead him in a given situation to act aright.

To develop civic conscience, it is necessary to build upon the individual's qualities and endowments, which are his by inheritance and 'Surround him with environmental stimuli conducive to making robust or enriching his innate CIVIC conscience.

By nature or by nurture thus the qualities that contribute to the healthy growth of civic conscience may be strengthened.

It is clearly beyond the province of this discussion to list the civic virtues or civic shortages or to enumerate the various and sundry activities that a citizen equipped 384

SAN JUAN DE LETRAN COLLEGE

SAN BEDA COLLEGE

EDUCATION AND RELIGION with the proper civic conscience should undertake. To specify in detail the things that should be done, such as doing those daily chores amidst home surroundings that wi1l make family life happy; the maintenance of public buildings and public parks in their state of usefulness and beauty; the covering up of holes on the streets or culverts for the protection of animals or human life; the placing of signs of warning on dangerous highways and bridges; reporting the existence of epidemics for the protection of health; combating fire in a forest-these and others like them are important. But far more important is the consideration of the fundamental things in civic conscience.

What are such fundamentals? We answer that the really es's ential things in civic conscience are: 1. Knowledge of the social situation.

2. Insight into environmental conditions.

3. Power to interpret cause and effect and elasticity of adjustment.

4. Sense of part-ownership in public property and national wealth, coupled with willingness to conserve and, if possible, to improve them.

5. Consciousness of co-responsibility in public enterprises and national movements.

6. Responsiveness to social demands and willingness to participate and' to act.

7. Cheerful readiness for volunteer service in matters of moment that makes for civic reform: It is likewise important to realize that there are two types of civic virtues. One type includes those virtues of conformity or imitation or followership; the other, the virtues of dissent, pioneering or leadership. The ordinary citizen for the most part is expected to follow, to conform; but tolerance should be shown non-conformists, dissenters, for often ,democracy recruits its leadership from their ranks. Reforms issue from trail-blazers, pioneers, men 385

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES and women endowed with the civic virtues not only of conformity but of initiative.

Not infrequently, impatience is shown by those occupying seats of power to men and women who air views, espouse causes, or advocate reforms which at the time are unpopular. Yet they must be tolerated in the main for such are the ways of true democracy. They are democracy's ways of effecting changes for the better and which later come under the category of civic reforms. Democracy and freedom recognize no beaten pathways. Their essence is diversity, based upon tolerance. Liberty is- freedom to do wise things or to say foolish things. Let us have the faith of John Milton, who, in defending the freedom of the press in his day, said: "Let Truth and Falsehood grapple; whoever knew Truth to be put to the worse in a free and open eneounter?"

While the school is called upon to develop those skills, appreciations, attitudes, sympathies, habits, powers, and other qualities that go to make the full individual, they are by no means the only agencies. The home, the church, the political parties, the vocational groups, the myriad organizations of uplift and the State itself--each of these has a part and a duty in developing civic conscience. All social agencies, all social institutions, should cooperate and contribute their share in developing civic conscie1.1ce, individual, social, national, and international.

To the State which guarantees to the citizen individual freedom and inalienable rights, to the nation that insures him his right to life, property, and liberty, to the world which makes possible for him to enjoy ;privileges, the citizen should give his loyalty to demonstrate that he prizes in very truth his rights and privileges. Certainly, it behooves him in return to assume his responsibilities and discharge his duties in a manner befitting a citizen with a developed civic conscience.

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CHAPTER VI EDUCATING FOR VOCATIONAL EFFICIENCY

It is a source of satisfaction and optimism that in prosperity and adversity the Filipino people's support of education persists and their faith and interest in it go on unabated. It is the obligation and responsibility of administrators of educational institutions and of teachers and students to justify this popular faith in the efficacy of education as an agency of social progress.

The prime function of education is to diagnose the social situation, interpret the dominant thoughts and tendencies, and adjust the educational aim, content, and method to changing and advancing civilization. Life is never static. It is in a constant 's tate of flux. Since education has for its mission that of enriching individual and social life, it must frequently be redefined. It must ever be a science in the making. It has to undergo revision and improvement from time to time.

The education of today in this country is different from tHe education of yesterday because Philippine life yesterday was not what it is today. The education of tomorrow will be different from the education of today because Philippine life under a semi-independent or independent status will not be what it is under a dependent status. The people of the Philippines must prepare themselves for the change and be ready cheerfully to shoulder the duties and responsibilities which change entails and pay the price and enjoy the blessings which it brings.

Chosen representatives of the Filipino people have just devised the Constitution of the Philippines. It must be the wish and determination of all that this document shall serve as an adequate instrument for the life and advancement of the Nation under the Commonwealth and 387

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES under the Republic. Since education is a great part and an important aspect of individual and national life it is but natural that the Constitution should deal with education and contain ideas and principles that are vital and fundamental to education. Since a constitution is. not a treatise on education,-anymore than it is a complete discussion of any other national concern-it is not to be expected that it outlines educational policies or defines general aims except by suggestion and implication. It does, however, enunciate certain principles, certain policies, and certain specific objectives which must be elaborated upon by those at the helm of our new Ship of State aided by educators, teachers" and citizens.

The Constitution makes education the concern of the State. Institutions of learning are subject to State supervision and regulation. A complete and adequate system of public education within the limitations of the resources of the government must be established and maintained.

Each generation shall determine what it deems complete and adequate for its needs. There will always be room for institutions of learning tax-supported and undertaken by private auspices, especially those devoted to higher education.

All educational institutions shall undoubtedly endeavor to make it their object to produce efficient, free, and happy citizens. The educational aim in terms of efficiency, freedom, and happiness is a general one and will forever be a common goal the achievement of which is supremely to be coveted. The framers of the Constitution embodied in their handiwork certain specific aims. Among these are the development of "moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, and vocational efficiency." It is with vocational efficiency that we are going to concern ourselves primarily in this discussion.

388

EDUCATION AND RELIGION It is desirable and necessary to define terms, and clarify concepts at this juncture to forestall confusion.

Vocation means calling, profession, occupation, career.

The vocation of an individual is his life pursuit or major life activity. A vocation which is a primary gainful pursuit is distinguished from an avocation which is a "\Side" occupation, a supplementary activity, or a secondary life interest.

Vocational education in the broadest sense is all education that makes for a definite life work or calling. The callings into which most men and women enter may be classified under six great divisions, namely:1. The professional; 2. The agricultural; 3. The mining; 4. The commercial; 5. The industrial; 6. The household.

In certain countries another division,-the marine callings,-is made. Still another may be made, the aerial.

It is apparent that anyone of these divisions may be further subdivided, and that each of them "possesses a number of distinctive characteristics."

Vocations may also be divided into two, the professional and the occupational. A profession is a vocation dealing essentially with human beings while an occupation is one primarily dealing with material things. This classification or differentiation is made Br observed by some writers. Other writers make a distinction between manual vocations and intellectual vocations,. Then, of course, there are workers who are followers taking orders while there are workers who are leaders giving orders.

The increased recognition of human worth has led society to exact direct or specialized vocational education for the professional callings. Dealing as they do with 389

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES human beings, their weliare and their very life, the professions have become "noted for the elaborate development of the educational means to employed in them, and the length of time given to preparation for them." The recent years have witnessed in the Philippines a gradual lengthening of the courses and the years that students must complete for the professional pursuits such as teaching, nursing, dentistry, medicine, law, and other professions. With the advance of civilization will probably come further elaboration and enrichment of the curricula and technique of education for vocational efficiency in the professions.

The substitution of direct vocational education for the indirect or "chance" education for a vocation which has been done in the professional callings has been extended to the occupational callings. These trends and tendencies are the products of the age demanding greater productivity on the part of the citizens. In the field of agriculture, a vocation which in the past recruited the rank and file of workers from among those who only had what we may term "by-education" or even "no-education," there has been great development in direct vocational training. In the Philippines we have seen these last few years settlement farm schools, secondary agricultural schools, and a College of Agriculture established. Following prevocational training in the lower schools, there are courses in the higher ' agricultural institutions designed to train students for varied specialized occupations. These involve training in tilling the soil, cultivating plants, breeding animals, and the like. In complexity they range from the simple and unskilled to the technical and scientific.

Then there is the mining vocation, which like agriculture, is concerned with getting raw products. This activity, included in the industrial group by some, deserves to have a separate classification. Starting from the old and

be

390

EDUCATION AND RELIGION crude manner of panning gold from river beds, mining has come to be a highly specialized occupation. The recognition of the need of vocational training in this line led to the establishment of colleges of or courses in mining engineering. This field is attracting deeper interest in the Islands and the future is destined to witness development in education for the mining vocation.

We come now to the commercial calling education for which has had an interesting evolution. There was a time when the merchant class ranked low in social estimation.

But business has come into its own and "business schools" developed. Such schools, however, especially those of secondary grade, did not train for commercial pursuits as much as they did for the clerical occupations. This is not said in disparagement to the secondary schools of commerce many of whose graduates have succeeded not only in the business field but in other fields. Generally, the courses given were language, penmanship, bookkeeping, typewriting, and stenography. Then the founding of institutions of commerce and business administration of collegiate rank followed. These offer opportunities to young men and women to gain knowledge of economics and to prepare themselves for trade, business, or commerce as a life calling. In a country like ours where the retail trade and the country's commerce are largely in the hands of foreigners there is a great field for Filipinos equipped with proper initiative and commercial efficiency.

The industrial group is the most complex group. It embraces a cons.iderable variety of crafts, trades, and manufacturing occupations. These range from specialized occupations entered into by employees and wage earners with little or no training, to the higher mechanical, technological, and engineering callings with elaborate technique. Industrial work is offered as part and parcel of the Philippine public school curriculum. With the greater de391

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES velopment of agricultural production and the consequent industrialization of the Philippines will come a number of industrial schools and colleges and courses in industrial chemistry and other courses for the rich and varied fields of industry. The future will see in the Philippines increasing emphasis upon education that is practical, productive, and profitable.

When we speak of the household as a vocation we are dealing with the oldest of occupations and with the largest number of participators. It is as old as the family and will last as long as the family exists. It embraces the callings that cluster around the home. Home-making or home-building, we should learn, has an art and science training in and for which is essential to happiness. The courses in household arts and home economics are exceedingly important for their sodal, economic, cultural, and spiritual values. The male sex ,should wake up to the need of direct vocational education for the duties and responsibilities of boyhood, manhood, husbandhood, and fatherhood just as the female sex had long ago awakened to the need of education for the responsibilities and obligations of girlhood, womanhood, wifehood, and motherhood.

Consideration should be given to the marine callings like those which have to do with the stream or the seathe fishermen, the sailor, and the like,-as well as the aerial callings like those which have to do with the airthe pilot, the flyer, and the like.

In the whole question of vocational education it is important that we keep to the fore the chief aims. These are vocational intelligence, vocational skill, and vocational sympathy. Vocational intelligence means insight into the thought process and product or outcome. Vocational skill means power of and dexterity in production. Vocational sympathy means desire to work, love of work, and sympatfly for the worker. Educating for vocational efficiency 392

EDUCATION AND RELIGION means education to develop the trinity of objectives, namely, vocational intelligence, vocational skill, and vocational sym;>athy. It means training the head, the hand, and the heart.

In the actual realization of these objectives there is a wide range of difficulties and problems, many of which grow out of the pedagogy of vocational education. One difficult problem is the proper harmonizing of the practical and the theoretical in vocational training under school conditions. Vocational education carried on in the home, the shop, and the factory is usually strong on the practical side but weak on the theoretical side; the student learns well through actual participation but is not given training in the facts and principles involved. Vocational education carried on in the school, on the other hand, is usually strong on the theoretical side but weak on the practical side. How to effect a proper balance of the practical and . the theoretical in the education for vocational efficiency is a constant problem, the solution of which demands cooperation between parent and teacher, between administrators of schools and directors of business enterprises.

Authorities on vocational education know that for the attainment of the highest type of vocational efficiency three groups of studies and practices must be provided. The first group of studies and practices are the practical; the second group, the technical; and the third, the general vocational studies. Snedden in "The Problem of Vocational Education" illustrates how these three groups of studies and practices playa part in the preparation of the horticulturist, the machinist, the trader, the home-maker, and the teacher.

The next epoch in the evolution of Philippine life will be one wherein science and economics will, in all probability, loom large. If this be true, vocational education 393

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES will receive greater emphasis than it has received in the past.

This country will have need of a greater number of citizens who are vocationally efficient.

Students should be given both pre-vocational and vocational training. More should be done in the way of vocational guidance. Graduates of higher institutions must be equipped not only with sound education that makes for a definite calling but with ability to manage men and groups of men.

Citizens should be trained in both wise production and wise consumption.

In all program for adult citizenship education there must be provision for vocational training and rehabilitation.

Filipinos need schooling in enterprises that require not only individualism but corporate organization and group cooperation.

The State must undertake the study, on a broad and scientific scale, of a more general' program of vocational education and determine on an actuarial basis the vocational needs and demands of the Nation.

The people should realize the dire consequences of unemployment and the government in cooperation with business should have a policy for the turning out from educational institutions such vocational workers and leaders as can be absorbed by the different professions or occupations.

The country at large should minimize and, if possible, eradicate social waste through non-productivity of ablebodied citizens. The life career-motive should be instilled in the youth. The citizens must be reared in the conviction that it is their obligation to be educated and to educate themselves for vocational efficiency if they are to be of the greatest usefulness and serviceability in the life of the new Philippine democracy.

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CHAPTER VII EDUCATION AND CITIZENSHIP One of the greatest difficulties in a Philippines under a state of dependency is the lack of definite status of citizenship on the part of the Filipinos. One of the frequent and unanswerable arguments used in favor of the grant of independence was that unless the Philippines is liberated, the Filipino is neither an American citizen nor a foreigner; he is, not an alien and is without a self-governing country for whose citizenship he and his children ought to be prepared. Thanks to the passage of the Independence Act, the political status of our country has been defined. At last we know that we are to have a Commonwealth and later a Republic and the Filipino can and will be a citizen of the Philippines.

The Constitution of the ~hilippines provides that Philippine citizenship may be acquired by birth or by naturalization. Subsequent legislation may provide for the details of naturalization as well as the manner by which citizenship of the Philippines may be lost or re-acquired.

In addition to the Constitutional provision in Article IV regarding citizenship, it is also provided in the Constitution (Article XIII) that the schools in our country "teach the duties of citizenship."

To be a citizen of the Philippines is like being a member of a family. In order that a person may belong to a family, he must be born into it or adopted by it. To be a citizen of the nation, a person must be born into it or be naturalized. The procedure in the adoption of a person to a family is by appeal to a court. Persons not born in the Philippines路 or not of Filipino parents may become citizens of the Philippines through the courts. This is the manner of acquiring citizenship through naturalization.

395

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Filipino citizens born or naturalized should know their rights and privileges and should likewise know their responsibilities and duties. It is important that these be known in order that they may become worthy citizens and be of the greatest serviceability to the State and the Nation.

The State gives protection to the citizen from disorder.

It seeks to preserve domestic peace and tranquillity. It maintains order within the borders of the country. The State likewise offers protection to the citizen in his personal liberty. He is assured against possible tyranny. Besides furnishing adequate security in his person, the citizen is given protection in his property. The State provides him other safeguards, such as freedom from cruel and extraordinary punishment, excessive bail, and from unwarranted searches and seizures. But the crowning privilege assured a citizen is the right to vote and to be elected to an office.

Among the greatest rights guaranteed by the State and the Constitution are his rights to property, life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. For these rights and privileges, the citizen owes a great debt to the government under which he lives and the country that gave him birth.

Every privilege carries with it a measure of responsibility and every right has a corresponding duty. A citizen who enjoys rights and privileges ought willingly and cheerfully to assume his :share of the burdens and responsibilities and duties. Every Filipino citizen should have a keen sense of responsibility for the welfare and progress of his country. He should not be content with being a mere spectator; he ought willingly to be a participant in the affairs of his government, it being a government of the people and for the people. As a citizen and voter .and with a part in the direction of the government, it is his duty to obey the law, to pay just and legal taxes, to act intelligent396

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Iy in the election of officers, and to stand ready to defend the Constitution and serve the country.

The Bill of Rights in the Constitution of the Philippines enumerates various rights to which Filipino citizens are entitled. Among the most important are: the liberty of abode, the inviolability of communication and correspondence, the right to form associations, the right to petition the government to remedy wrongs or grievances, the right to own or hold property, the right to demand justice, the priv).lege of the writ of habeas corpus, the freedom to meet and discuss problems, liberty to talk and write on matters of interest, and the freedom to worship in accordance with the dictates of his conscience.

For all these, it is the clear obligation of the citizen to be loyal to the state and the nation. On the subject of loyalty, an author well said: "We can sum up all of the citizen's duties in th~ one word loyalty. If you want a reason for being loyal, you can find one in this fact: that your country can . give you opportunities for freedom and cooperation only through good government, which depends upon the loyalty of citizens. It is to you,r interest to be loyal. It is also to the interest of your fellow citizens that you, as well as they, should be loyal, in order to secure for all the benefits of a well-governed country; but after all, loy'alty to one's country is something more than loyalty to one's own interests, or even to the interests of his fellow citizens. Your country's ideals and the blood that has been shed to achieve them have given it a personality which is worthy of the deepest devotion."

The citizen trained adequately in his duties has cultivated habits, attitudes, and skills. He thinks of himself as a part of a family, of a local community, of a town, of a province, of a country, and, if possible, of the world as a unified human organization. He realizes that society is more important than any individual or group of indivi397

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES duals. While he entertains a peculiar attachment toward his fellow-citizens, he is thoughtful of the well-being of strangers in his community whether born in the Philippines or abroad. And he knows the advantage and value of being a citizen of the Philippines and is more or less familiar with the Constitution of his country.

The following patriotic citizen's pledge written some years ago should prove of equal worth and applicability in the future: "I love my country, the Philippine Islands, and I love my people, the Filipino people. I intend to be a good Filipino citizen and be loyal to the cause of my country and people. I want my country to be free and independent, and I want my people to be happy and prosperous. For my country and for my people I will work and save, I will live and serve.

"I believe in a good, strong, clean government.

As a citizen I deem it my duty to bear my share of the sacrifice and burden and responsibility. I will obey the law and help the government officials enforce the law. I will try to be honest, self-supporting, serviceable.

"I love peace, but I will gladly fight for the sake of right, of freedom, and of justice. I love my life, but I will gladly die for the sake of my family, my people, and my God." This pledge of patriotism should carry with it respect and honor for the Filipino flag which symbolizes the country, the flag of the Sun and the Stars. Love of country or patriotism will be a virtue ever and always. It is the duty of Filipino citizens to value and exalt dynamic Filipinism.

But while citizenship carries with it the privilege and the duty to love one ',g. country and to practice patriotism, 398

EDUCATION AND RELIGION when we shall have become a Commonwealth and later a full-fledged nation, free and independent, it is essential that citizens acquire a sense of kinship with the whole human family. This necessitates a certain feeling and consciousness. on the part of everyone that he is a world citizen.

As a progressive citizen, it is his duty to acquaint himself with at least the elementary facts of world geography, world economics, and international politics. He should be equipped with sufficient and adequate facts upon which to base sound conclusions and discriminating judgments about the proper relationships that should exist between the nations and peoples.

Nationalism of the sound and humanized type should be a stepping stone to proper internationalism. Education should train for citizenship of the sane, broad, cooperative, and serviceable type.

I

399

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CHAPTER

VIII

DEMOCRATIZING EDUCATION

Historically there have been numerous systems or types of education. Even today there still exist different educational systems. This fact of difference is due to the existence of different kinds of society. Since education is a Isocial agency, it naturally reflects the type of social ideal which society designs it to promote. It is, therefore, essential to determine the particular social organization desired in order to adjust the type or system of education best calculated to further society's needs, demands, and interests.

A people's 'conception of the social organization they most desire conditions the aim, spirit, material, and method of education. For the Philippines, the social ideal has been defined. The history of the Filipino people shows an aversion to foreign control and to a monarchic or autocratic rule. The Congressional Act granting independence requires that the constitution and government of the Philippines be republican in form. The constitution of the Philippines formulated by representative delegates, and approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 23, 1935, declares that "The Philippines is a republican state" and that "Sovereignty resides in the people and all government authority emanates from them." It is thus clear that it is the conviction and determination of the Filipino people: 1.

2.

3.

To establish a republican government; To vest power and authority in the people; and To effect a democratically constituted society in the Philippines.

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EDUCATION AND RELIGION We should view a democracy as more than mere form or machinery of government. It should be looked upon as a form of human organization with distinctive characteristics. In a society dominated by the democratic ideal, there are no social castes; no insurmountable barriers between individuals or groups of individuals; no permanent dividing lines between governors and governed, and no rulers or ruled, no leaders or followers by the accident of birth or fiy pre-ordination.

In a democratic society there are numerous and varied points of shared common interests. There is reliance upon the mutuality of interests as a means of social control.

There is interdependence among individuals and social groups. There is social interaction between them and there is constant change, continuous readjustment resulting from interdependence, interaction, and intercourse. A democratic organization, as John Dewey well stated, "is primarily a mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated experience."

The essence of democracy is equality of opportunity and inequality of rewards. There should be free and equal opportunity for all to live and to progress but there should be no leveling down, as it were, and compensation should be in proportion to the quantity and quality of work performed or results achieved. In a democracy there should be equal rights for all and special privileges to none.

Paradoxical as it may seem, democracy tends to intensify inequalities. A social organization which offers equal opportunity for all accentuates inequality of reward, enjoyment, and responsibility. The industrious advance while the indolent lag behind. Those endowed with initiative and are willing to risk are more apt to reap greater benefits than the timorous and the weak. The courageous will cheerfully assume responsibility while the cowards will shun it. In an open and keen competition the alert, skilled, 401

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES and creative will outstrip the slow, untrained, and dull.

All these considerations point to the great and constant need of education in a democratic society.

In the Constitution of the Philippines designed, among other things, to insure the blessings of independence to the Filipino people and their posterity "under a regime of justice, liberty, and democracy," the great role of education is recognized. Provision is made obligating the State "to establish and maintain a complete and adequate system of public education."

Concretely, this constitutional provision means: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

That there should be, as far as possible, universal education throughout the nation.

That there should be a national system of public education.

That there should be the fullest opportunity for elementary education for all children of elementary school age in the country.

That there 'Should be an adequate number of agricultural schools to train as many young men as possible for the farm in an eminently agricultural country.

That proper facilities be made available for vocational education among boys and girls.

That there be at least a secondary school in every province or city.

That a state university be maintained with perhaps subsidiary branches in Is trategic educational centers.

It is essential for the healthy, cultural growth of the Philippines that the masses be educated so as to equip them with the elementary tools of communication, with the basic notions of the rights and duties of citizenship, and with criteria for judging what is right or wrong. It is likewise 402

i

EDUCATION AND RELIGION important that the youth be trained for vocational pursuits to the end that they may be self-supporting and productive citizens. There should furthermore be fair opportunity for secondary education to produce a sound and educated middle class capable of exercising a certain measure of leadership in their communities. To climax the educational system, university education is necessary to turn out leaders in various fields and to form a nucleus from which may be recruited men and women with the capacity for expert service.

But it is not enough to establish institutions of learning of every rank and type that. young citizens, may be trained for service in various fields; it is not enough that school facilities be made available to the children of the rich and the poor alike; it is not enough that the doors of opportunity be thrown wide open not only to the future doctors, lawyers, preachers, and teachers, but to the future artisans, artists, merchants, and farmers. Important though these are in themselves, they are not enough. , Something more must be done and that is to democratize education.

Education may be democratized (1) through the school organization, (2) through the curriculum, and (3) through method.

The atmosphere of the school should be surcharged with the spirit of democracy. Teachers and taught should bear a relationship built upon a democratic basis. The schools, the classes, even the extra-curricular groups, should be democratic organizations in miniature. It is desirable that educational institutions be veritable cross-sections of democracy at its best. These things should be so in order that the young in their school life may live and move in the very midst of democracy in 's omewhat idealized form, thereby preparing them for active participation in a democratically constituted society in their adult life.

403

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES To effect democratization, the curriculum must be subjected to change either as to subjects or as to emphasis upon topics within the subjects. The guiding principles in the inclusion of subjects of study and topics within the subjects should be their intrinsic value, their usefulness and usability, their frequency of need in life, and their cruciality. These are the criteria for selection and elimination.

For the sake of clearness, let us take concrete examples in a p.igh school curriculum fitted for democracy. In the first place, no mere tradition should control. Then too, the proverbial college dictation or domination should not be a de!ermining factor.

These said, we are ready to state that an adequate high school curriculum should, of course, include those which society through the ages, has found important and worfuwhile, but surely, the well-known rigidity of courses as if children were made of one mold, and standardized in their mental endowments is wrong. Allowance must be made for individual differences. Of course, training in English in its varied branches is essential. And since health is an inescapable factor in happiness, there must be those physical activities that promote the well-being of students. The girls -s hould be given household courses and the boys some manual activities to make them productive economic units. Many girls have been found to be on the whole not particularly strong in high school algebra or mathematics. For those who are congenitally averse to mathematics, there should be no reason why substitution may not be effected. Sufficient electives should be offered in order to make the curriculum appeal forcibly to the greates.t possible number of students.

Promotion by grades should be discontinued and substituted by the system of promoting by Is ubjects.

404

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Now, to illustrate the meaning of some of the principles above-mentioned.

A subject, in order to be placed in the category of the constants, should have a sufficient wealth of subject-matter and must have an intrinsic value of its own. Then a thing worth studying must be useful and usable. In the teaching of hygiene, the teaching of washing the face or brushing the teeth is important because of their frequency in life and they should be taught so that they may become habits. But we teach not only those things that frequently occur but those things that, though infrequent, are crucial, vital. For example, the resourceful teacher of hygiene and sanitation will teach what should be done in case an artery is broken or cut, not that thi\3 thing occurs often but because when it does occur, the proper remedy must be applied or it will prove fatal. This is what is meant by the factor of cruciality as a criterion for the selection of what should go into the curriculum.

The time has come for a re-analysis and re-evaluation of subjects to be included so that we might teach more of those things that really vitalize and less of those things which are more or less useless. There 路should be a study made as to the desirable adjustment of courses depending upon age and sex. Then there should be a better coordination and dove-tailing of studies given in a lower school and the next higher school to minimize and, if possible, eradicate waste and to close the gap now existing especially between the high school and college.

But it is not sufficient that the organization of the curriculum or a school be democratized. The very method must be democratized.

The old "pouring in" method of teaching, the dogmatic mann~r of the teacher, the procedure which practically reduces students to mere automatons-these and similar methods must give way to the democratized procedure.

405

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Herein the personality of the teacher plays an important role. The relation between the teacher and the students should be different from that existing between master and slave or ruler and subject. Rather the teacher and those committed to his charge should form a sort of cooperative society engaged in a common enterprise, each one at times a giver and at other times a recipient, all participants.

In conclusion, we shall present certain thoughts bearing upon the process of democratizing education in the Philippines.

Within the institutions of learning, there should be democratic situations created to which the school population should be subjected.

Stimuli that are calculated to produce democratic attitudes should be furnished.

Self-government projects and other projects encountered in a real socjal group should be chosen and worked out.

The background of the experience of the students should be taken into account in the assignment of the activities wherein they may participate, in order to preserve the elements of reality and interest.

While there should be a certain amount of uniformity of courses with respect to minimum essentials and to serve as a common basis of understanding and interpretation in the life of the nation, there should also be a certain amount of differentiation to foster individual initiative.

In planning for the turning out of graduates, we should take into account what Is ociety and the business world and institutional life may be able to absorb or utilize.

While valuing democracy, the eyes of the students should be opened to the fact that it is no more infallible or impeccable than any other type of social organization.

In fact, in some respects, democracy has inherent inefficiencies and defects compared, let us say, with dictator406

EDUCATION AND RELIGION ship, but this fact should serve as a warning signal showing what should be avoided instead of arguing for the abandonment of democracy.

Those wedded to the efficacy of an organization under an efficient monarch or dictator should not lose sight of the fact that individual freedom and initiative, which are the essential concomitants of democracy, are priceless.

We reiterate that while democracy has its weaknesses, no adequate -substitute has been found that is equal or superior to a democratically constituted s.ociety. In the long run, the ends and objectives which society prizes will best be realized in and through a democracy, and since the Filipino people have crystallized their judgment in favor of jt, it is the business of the State to encourage and support education which is the handmaiden of democracy and it is the duty of the people to insist that education be democratized.

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CHAPTER

IX

INTERNATIONALIZING EDUCATION

1

We of the National University gladly participate in this conference on higher education wherein are represented not only the colleges and universities of the Philippines but also those of other lands, because the institution I represent stands for cooperation, it believes in the integral unity of educational endeavor, and the guiding principles under which it is administered are the principles of nationalism, democracy, and internationalism.

The most striking phenomenon in recent years is the world's shrinkage. The world has, as it were, contracted thru the genius of man in improving facilities of communication and transportation, thru science and invention, thru the press and radio. The planet wherein we live has truly become one and united. The natural consequence has been the increased consciousness of unity, of the oneness Of the human family, and of the interrelation and interaction of men and nations.

In the light of these changes which have taken place before our very eyes and in our lifetime with kaleidoscopic rapidity, there has been a corresponding transformation in the concept of thinking men. The old, narrow, sectionalistic concept has become obsolete. Of necessity, the concept had to be broadened in order to be adequate for the modern age and it must be broad enough to encompass the world.

Education must necessarily be reoriented to reflect the dominant thoughts and tendencies of the times. Educational administrators broad-gauged and forward-looking 1 Address delivered at the Plenary Session of the Conference 1m Higher Education, held at the University of the Philippines, December 18, 1934.

408

EDUCATION AND RELIGION have redefined the fundamental objective and purpose of education. It must now be consciously realized that education must aim to secure the highest and fullest measure of efficiency, freedom, and happiness for every individual, for every nation, and for humanity at large.

In the light of this aim, our educational forces and resources must be mobilized and directed to train for local citizenship, for national citizenship, and for world citizenship. The aim, content, and method of education must take into account not only the local and national material and condition, but the international. In short, we must internationalize education.

The Philippines under a dependent status placed a great premium upon nationalism in its life philosophy.

This thought dominated, and properly, the thinking process of leaders in the various walks of life. The very university over which I preside, national in name and scope, while not neglecting democracy and internationalism, considered as most fundamental and of most immediate concern the principle of dynamic Filipinism. In carrying out this principle, we, of course, avoided its becoming narrow and chauvinistic. We have exalted patriotism as a virtue and shall continue to do so. But in the past and in the future, we believe not in the patriotism that tends to make individuals and peoples prejudiced, antagonistic, haughty, and imperialistic, but rather in the patriotism that is sane, pacific, and humanized.

On the eve of the new order that is to be ushered in by the establishment of the Philippine Commonwealth, semi-sovereign and semi-independent, and its transformation into the Philippine Republic, sovereign and independent, which are in the offing, a shift of emphasis must needs be made in our educational process and in our thinking process. As we are going to become a nation and, therefore, a member of the family of nations, our educational 409

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES concept must be broadened in keeping with the impending change of the status of the Philippines. We are embarked as a people, upon joining the concert of free nations.

We must train ourselves to play our full part, and when we do enter into the new life of our country, we must be prepared by training and discipline if we are to be worthy, respected, and loved. It is incumbent upon our schools, colleges, and universities to foster that mode of thinking and of living which is adequate for the Philippines not only, but for the world. This special, difficult, and delicate task falls particularly upon colleges and universities necessitating the modification of curricula, of texts, and of methods to help facilitate the internationalizing process.

The Philippines would seem ideally situated for this internationalizing venture in the educative process. By its setting, its history, its probable future relationships, the Philippines makes an excellent laboratory for internationalizing education. Geographically, this island country stands at the very crossroads of cultures and civilizations.

It lies on the Pacific basin, predicted as the theater for forthcoming great world events. Historically, the Filipinos have had the commercial, cultural, and spiritual contacts with peoples of the East and of the West. Culturally, our people have received the impacts of streams of civilizations from the Orient and from the Occident. Aside from the influences of the great thoughts and faiths of our Oriental neighbors, we have been directly influenced by European and Anglo-Saxon civilizations. We are destined in the future to have increasingly closer relationships with nations near and remote. For our own economic and social good, for the purpose of enabling us the better to contribute to the common fund of knowledge and experience of humankind, we must do more in internationalizing our outlook, our thought, the very life of our citizens and institutions.

410

EDUCATION AND RELIGION On the eve of, and under independence, our educative agencies must more consciously promote the idea and the ideal of interdependence among men and nations. Teachers and administrators must cheerfully welcome this new demand upon education. It should furnish new motivation in their work. It should inject new lifeblood into our educational institutions. It should help modernize both theory and practice. It should enrich our educational life.

Knowing as I do the self-sacrificing and progressive spirit of the rank and file of the administrative and teaching staff of our institutions both public and private, I believe they will gladly answer the challenge and find joy in this thrilling adventure in internationalizing education.

It is the inescapable duty of Filipinos in common with other peoples to shoulder the obligations and responsibilities entailed by this internationalizing process amidst a world contracting and unified. Institutions of higher education can not afford to be content with the mere teaching of subjects In the traditional curricula. There must be a shifting of emphasis in the very texts used and in the very subjects taught. There must be some subtraction and addition in institutional activities. The efforts and the energies put forth must make for increased neighborliness.

Citizens must be habituated to think in terms of economic cooperation more than economic competition.

Out of the higher institutions must come leaders of government and affairs devoted to the pursuit of tariff justice more than tariff warfare.

There must be more systematic planning calculated to create a saner and juster view of racial and interracial relations.

We must make the colleges and universities, in name and in fact, the fountain sources of cultural and spiritual refreshment and nourishment.

It is not imaginable that there should be much diver411

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES gence of opinion upon the principles herein made articulate and, certainly, there should be practical unanimity upon the objectives sought and the aims advanced. The question is how they may be achieved. It is our purpose now to specify practical suggestions and concrete proposals.

The idea Iof internationalizijng education should be popularized among the 'teachers and educational institutions. It should also be "sold" to the public in order that the work of the institutions may find support in public opinion.

Those charged with the duties of instruction, management, supervision, and administration must be men and women of broad concepts and 's ympathies devoted to their mission to educate the youth for local, national, and world citizenship. They must be grounded in the thought that theirs is the task of training the youth to become efficient, free, and happy citizens in a nation belonging to a family of nations.

The curricula of the institutions of learning should be enriched perhaps by elimination or by addition to make room for subjects and activities that result in the furtherance _of the spirit of internationalism.

The teaching of ,s ubjects itself has to undergo considerable change. Geography, for example, should be a study not of isolated but interrelated countries, industries, and peoples. Economics should stress the proper operation of principles and the desirability of fair exchange, trade, and commerce. History should be presented as a common stream of human progress, each nation a contributor to the common drama of life which has the world for its stage. Sociology should become a study of social forces of more or less equal applicability and validity depending upon the locality in the solution of social problems. Mathematics should. be taught as a science of truth, exact 412

EDUCATION AND RELIGION and immutable, regardless of time and clime. Literature and art should be emphasized as the patrimony of all, reflecting human sentiment and human spirit at their best, meriting universal appreciation. Science should be made an ally, not a foe of humanity, applied not for the destruction of human beings but for the advancement of their welfare and happiness. These should suffice to illustrate the change of emphasis as to subjects and methods in the light of this educational plan to create a proper international attitude.

As a specific proposal with respect to the introduction of new studies in the curriculum of higher education, I may mention a subject given over to the study of nations.

Youth everywhere would do well to devote themselves to the study of peoples and races, their psychology, their sociological nature, their history, and their potentiality. A study of this sort should lay stress not upon the differences and peculiarities but upon the analogies and parallelisms of peoples and their cultures, their points of excellence, and their contributions to the world. Along with this study, or separately, a course on a comparative study of the faiths and philosophies of different peoples would also, under proper professors with the requisite expert knowledge and sympathetic attitude, serve to advance the movement tending toward better world understanding and friendship.

Another point meriting consideration in connection with the role of higher education in internationalization is the establishment of a sy路s tematic plan among colleges and universities of different nations to accredit standard subjects in order that there may be general recognition of credits earned by students. Such a plan, like charity, should begin at home. There should be institutional courtesy in this respect. Nothing disturbs the college student transferring to another college, especially if he be enrolling in a foreign land, so much as the non-recognition or ut413

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ter di~regard of credits in standard collegiate subjects properly earned elsewhere.

Another plan which has been in a few cases followed worthy of being generalized is the system of exchange professors among universities of different countries. This may even be extended to the exchange of presidents for certain specified periods, a rather novel scheme but which has actually been broached to me by an American university.

A more general observance of this practice would result in the interchange of cultures and methods which can not but be beneficial to the countries concerned and to educ;;ttion in general.

The Philippines would benefit from an exchange of students with universities abroad. This is not new for it has been done in'several cases. An appropriation on the part of the State for such a purpose or the creation of a fund to be used fo scholarships to further this practice would be an investment of incalculable worth.

In the United States, I observed a tendency in some universities to establish international houses patterned after that in New York City, in connection with Columbia University. I have had occasions to visit and address the students from different countries living at the International House in New York. I was deeply impressed by the presence of university students representing over fifty nations living under one roof. They constituted the world in miniature. It may be thought by some that the implantation of such houses in these parts of the world would not be possible and yet I would remind them that the New York Il1,ternational House now grown to great proportions resulted from a modest Cosmopolitan Club organized by a handful of students at Columbifl University during the student days of Dean Francisco Benitez and myself and of which we were charter members. Certainly, Cosmopoli414

EDUCATION AND RELIGION tan Clubs, or if you please, International Clubs, can and should be organized in institutions of higher learning.

Colleges and universities could become better agencies for internationalizing education by forming international sections in their respective libraries. Great care should be exercised in the selection of works depicting the spirit of peoples. Only standard works that are authoritative, fair, and sympathetic, works that present conditions ac路 curately and on the basis of facts should be chosen.

There could also be formed what may be called traveling libraries. Each unit should contain a set of books which shall portray the true spirit and life of a country.

Perhaps an interchange or exchange could later be effected among universities of different lands. It is believed that such libraries traveling from country to country, bearing the stamp of approval of the universities sending them, would do much to do away with the prejudice and misinformation engendered by superficial pamphleteers and "inspired" propagandists, and to create truer understanding and international good-will.

A closely allied activity is the study of languages and literature of various nations. Greater attention should be given these subjects. Linguistic differences often serve as barriers to closer understanding among nations. A knowledge of languages and literature is essential to a proper appreciation and interpretation of the life and institutions, thoughts and practices, policies and plans, traditions and aspirations of peoples. A new incentive to the Filipino youth to pursue linguistic studies is the future demand for representatives of the Philippine State soon to be born in its diplomatic and consular service. The new order, too, demands that the real leaders of the future be steeped in literature for a better grasp of international affairs.

415

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Another effe~tive means of gaining knowledge of and insight into world conditions, is through the agency of travelogues and travel. Through travel, provincialism may be cured. Travel is liberal education of the best type.

Universities have not yet fully realized the value of wellconducted educational tours within the country and abroad.

This is a phase of educational endeavor awaiting further development.

The world anxiously awaits liberation from disorder and war and the establishment of the reign of good-will and peace. Institutions of higher education should more actively become instrumentalities to foster a genuine spirit of amity and to create a dynamic will to peace. To this end, we should inculcate upon the youth not the patriotism that is militaristic and warlike, but the patriotism that is constructive and humanized. At this juncture, I trust I may be permitted to quote from my statements路 of the guiding principles of educational administration when I became President of the National University in 1921, bearing on this point: "Perchance the great and distinct contribution of weaker nations may lie just in this, that in the definition of international philosophy they more than others, the smaller nations more than the bigger ones, may be the instruments of Divine Providence for the teaching of the wisdom of peace and the criminality of war-peace as an attribute both human and divine and war as a grievous wrong and an enormous crime."

One of my cherished hopes is that when the Filipino people shall in the future not distant come to be in full control of their way of life, they may in reorganizing the government establish not a Department of War or of the 416

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Navy, but a Department of Peace and National Defense.

It is my considered judgment that it is the duty of colleges

and universities to get actively behind this laudable project and thereby help create a philosophy that is conducive to world peace.

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CHAPTER X INTELLECTUAL PIONEERING

This new nation of ours has two great and outstanding needs that universities and university graduates should satisfy. These are: (a) the conservation and enrichment of our people's tradition, and (b) the encouraging and undertaking of intellectual pioneering.

The secret of success lies either in the doing of a common ordinary thing in an uncommonly good and extraordinarily excellent way or in the performance of a task or undertaking an original piece of work which contributes to human inheritance. Society looks to the products of a university for light and leading. It expects them not only to follow beaten paths but blaze new trails. In the field of the intellect and of the spirit, there is ample opportunity for pioneering.

Indeed, the door of opportunity is open wide to any individual in the Philippines with a logical mentality and possessed of the pioneering spirit of our Malayan ancestry, vigorous and unafraid. The age of modern progress is in reality comparatively young in the world. Rich returns, material or in satisfaction. await the veritable pioneer in $cience and industry, in the arts and the humanities. The new epoch of Philippine history which is about to commence should be distinctive for achievements in the nature of true conquests. It should, in fact, be a renaissance of progress, a reassertion of Filipino dynamism.

At such a challenging era, powers that have hitherto lain dormant should come to full awakening; potentialities that have been lethargic should be brought to life; energies that have been latent should be given release; aspirations that have for centuries been in process of flowering should come to fruition. Filipino capacity placed on its mettle, 418

EDUCATION AND RELIGION standing upon the crucible of severe trial, has now the untrammelled chance for golden expression. Our entire resources need rehusbanding, our vision needs reorientation, and our forces need redirection.

It should be the hope and the pride and the determination of Filipinos to make the next epoch the diamond epoch in our national evolution. Tillers of the soil, common toilers who live by the sweat of their brow, should find new motive to increase production and give added dignity to labor. Men and women with the commercial bent should find it patriotic to capture and control more of the country's trade and commerce. Wage earners and captains of industry in cooperation should redouble their efforts to add 'to the nation's prosperity. Social workers should do more to ameliorate the condition of rhe poor and the needy. Musicians and composers should give their best songs and write their best compositions. Artists should produce their m3!Sterpieces in sculpture and on canvas. Orators should speak in a new accent, factual, solid, thought-provoking.

Writers should express themselves in more virile verse and rhapsodic prose. Inventors must draw out of the depth of their genius and give what should add to the comforts and conveniences of life. Members of the bench and bar, and peace officers must lead in reverence for law and help establish a regime of justice, peace, and order. Scientists must make widespread the benefits of their profession and effect discoveries that make for life's enrichment. Educators and teachers should find new incentives in their mission to train citizens, stable in character, useful in the sel'Vice of their fellowmen. Moral and spiritual leaders must become true "fishers of men" .and make real the vision splendid. Philosophers should come forth to interpret life and make it more meaningful. Every individual doing his utmost and giving of his best, let us all become buildersbuilders of bodies, builders of minds, builders of spirits, 419

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES builders of edifices and institutions, builders of a new nation deserving a high place in the sisterhood of nations.

In this task of construction and reconstruction, the greatest task yet entrusted to Filipino stewardship, we must not be content merely with retracing the footsteps of others. We must be willing to venture into fields unexplored and follow ways hitherto untrodden. Copying or imitating will not suffice and cannot satisfy. There must be originating, pioneering.

In this pioneering adventure, we must take a leaf from the ways of the expert woodsman when felling a large tree.

His aim is true. His blows are telling. His powers and energies are coordinated and controlled, well-directed and without waste. To be sure, intellectual pioneering involves risk. It calls for courage of the highest order. It demands faith and persistence.

Those who have invested and sacrificed that the youth of the Philippines may acquire 'university education and the nation itself expect those directly connected with the universities and the products of these higher institutions of learning not only to conserve the tradition of our people but enrich it, not only to perform tasks ordinarily done but to undertake intellectual pioneering.

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CHAPTER

XI

EDUCATING FOR THE POSITIVE LIFE

The center of interest in the world is life. Any discussion to turn thought to the problem of life is never amiss. In fact it should become the object of deep concern and common counsel.' Education as an agency to enrich life consequently should become a common enterprise. We do what we do and refrain from doing that we should not do for the sake of life and its enrichment. It is one of the prime purposes of education to direct thought and guide conduct to the conscious doing of what should be done and not doing what should not be done.

The preliminary consideration leads us insensibly to the important fife question, WHAT KIND OF LIFE SHOULD WE LIVE? We should not live the negative life, one that is mere existence; life that is mere drifting without purpose or goal. The negative life is colorless, will-less, and soulless.

We should live the positive life, one that is real living; life that is risk; life that dares; life that is motivated. The positive life is an active life characterized by thought and action. The individual educated for the positive life is ashamed to die unless he has rendered constructive service to his country or until he has won victory for humanity.

Life is a drama and the world is a stage. Men and women are on-lookers and participants, spectators and actors.

Education should make individuals discontented with being mere spectators. It should lead them to be active and effective participants.

The man who has embraced the philosophy of the positive life refuses to be a non-entity. He plays his part in 421

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES life and its activities. He shares in its burdens and difficulties, its sorrows and joys. He earns his part in life's successes and glories.

The pathway of life is neither a plain nor a plateau of the same dead level. If it were, it would be uninteresting, monotonous, disappointing.

Life's pathway is one of varying topography. Its surface is undulating. It has its hills and valleys, its mountains and ravines. Because of this uneven, varying, and changing course of life, problems present themselves and we are thereby compelled to face life questions, to think, and seek proper solutions.

TJi.e road on which we travel in our pilgrimage from the cradle to the grave is not one strewn with roses. Perhaps it is best for, then, life will be too easy, "a snap" as collegians would say. Precisely because life's journey is beset with pitfalls and the road is thorny, life becomes challenging, travel is undertaken with care, walking is done circumspectly not as the fools but as the wise.

The men who are remembered in history are not those who have just existed and have done nothing; not 'Chose who used and abused what the world has to offer. Men who lead the negative life are relegated to the place where they properly belong, the limbo of forgotten things.

We subscribe with Rizal that that life is useless which is not consecrated to a great idea; that it is like a pebble cast aside without forming a part of any edifice.

The characters that stand out in history are those who have done something, stood for something-something useful and worthwhile demanding thought, necessitating work, entailing sacrifice, even suffering.

Theodore Roosevelt condemned the life of ignoble ease and lived the strenuous life.

GaIileo suffered for demonstrating what Copernicus propounded, namely, that the earth moves. Submitted to 422

EDUCATION AND RELIGION tortures, he tenaciously held to the belief that the earth does move and now the whole world acclaims him as a martyr, suffering for an idea he knew to be correct.

Paralytic Mabini, with an iron will is held in grateful remembrance because he was unyielding in the defense of his country's freedom and his people's rights.

Rizal has become a national hero because he gladly suffered punishment and calmly met a martyr's death for the sake of a conviction, an idea, a cause. His execution was rest to him. He met it serenely because he knew he was right.

Jesus underwent trials, suffered persecution but went to Calvary in triumph. His defamers and executioners are puny before His gigantic figure. They are insignificant before the majesty of His greatness and splendor.

These and other characters who are idealized and idolized have stood for something great and have >sacrificed for a worthy cause. They lived the positive life.

How to educate for the positive life is the logical problem. We shall indicate a few of the fundamental points that education should help accomplish for the individual in order that he may be trained and led to live the positive life~ 1. Have an Aim.-In every well-regulated life, there must be a conscious and definite objective. Just as every good recitation conducted by a teacher should have an aim, so must every individual have a life's aim. Education should contribute toward a clear definition of that aim.

If the aim of education determines the subject matter and method, the aim of life is the criterion for the process of selecting whai: to do and what not to do. It is the basis for the selection and rejection of life's activities. It is the yardstick with which to measure failure or success.

It stands to reason that the aim should be good, useful, and worthwhile. Ii: 'pays to aim high. A great thinker 423

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES said, "Hitch your wagon to a star". This is a homely and telling way of emphasizing the need of a high ambition in life.

When I was a student at the Seminary of Vigan, Ilocos Sur, I heard a story of two boys who served as sacristans. They were discussing what they wanted to be in life. One said, "I want to be the chief sacristan." The other said, "I do not want to be a sacristan all my life. I want to be the archbishop." They parted and after the lapse of thirty years they again met. This time the boy who aimed to become the archbishop had become a bishop while the other remained still a sacristan.

Individual,s- tend to become what they aim to be. A life's aim should, of course, not be so low that it is unworthy to be realized nor be so high that it is beyond realization.

The aim of life should be determined in the light of psychological and sociological factors. Heredity and environment are determining elements. Each individual should formulate his aim considering his endowments and limitations and the social situation in which he finds himself. By nature and -by nurture, a person progresses from what he is to what he hopes to be. His aim is his guiding star.

2. Undergo' Hardening Process.-The demands of the positive life are stern and implacable. Whoso chooses to lead the positive life must undergo a hardening process.

An individual who expects to achieve substantial success must be strong and healthy. He cannot afford to have a body that is weak or muscles that are flabby. He must submit himself to training and discipline that will strengthen the fibers of his being.

A person to fit himself for the hard struggle of life should store up energy. He must have reserve powers for emergencies. It is well enough that we be strong for the 424

EDUCATION AND RELIGION regular exigencies in life, but we must have reserve capital to utilize for the important and irregular life situations that present themselves. Doctors advise that we should ordinarily spend a certain number of hours for sleep. Yet, there are times when we ought to go sleepless for days and nights at a stretch, to finish a pressing task or to watch over a sick beloved.

A vital part of every person's education is a hardening process. Ad 'astra per asp era, to the stars through hardships, is a motto that holds true in any age.

3. Have a Disciplined) Mind.-Along with robust health, the positive life requires a disciplined mind. Higher education helps develop the power to think, think for a purpose and for a definite end.

Most people do not think. At least, they do no logical thinking. They do not have disciplined minds capable of sustained effort and creative work.

Little wonder that most people are mere followers.

They lead in no movement. What they say is a mere echo of what they have heard. They neither analyze nor synthesize. Such folks can not originate.

Modern civilization becoming more complex with every year that passes needs men and women in greater numbers, equipped with minds robust, trained, and disciplined. It is such folks who can and do think for themselves, have beliefs and convictions, and the courage to defend them cost what may.

It is the business of higher institutions of learning to educate young men and young women for the positive life endowing them with disciplined minds.

4. Have a Vocation and an A vocation.-Every useful citizen should have a vocation and an avocation by which and through which he in full measure expresses himself and renders constructive service.

A vocation is one's major activity, chief calling, oc425

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES cupation or profession. An avocation is a supplementary and pleasurable activity, a side issue, or a complementary pursuit.

That life is not complete which is not fully and wholeheartedly devoted to good and worthy vocational and avocational pursuits. The two satisfy our love of work and of play. There is great truth in the old saying, "All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy."

The new Philippines needs productive citizens, people who contribute through their vocational and avocational activities. Our schools and universities should turn out graduates who willingly and cheerfully husband their work impulses and play instincts for the common weal. Education would be remiss if it failed to train individuals for a vocation and an avocation.

5. Have a Resolute Will.-It is not enough for education to develop the body, or train the mind of an individual.

It must strengthen his will-power. A man who lives the positive life must have a resolute will, the will to win.

People fail to finish what they start because they do not possess the will to achieve. People succumb to temptations because they lack a strong will. People fall short of success because they lack the will to succeed.

Will-power is a great asset. It must be cultivated, strengthened, and multiplied. It is a positive force in life.

Will-power is man's driving force. It is the dynamo of life. A resolute will is all-conquering. Through it obstacles seemingly insurmountable are overcome. By it apparent defeat may be turned to victory. With it almost nothing is impossible. Certainly a resolute will is a priceless virtue to be coveted.

There is heaven on earth to the person who lives the positive life. Heaven is. attained through genuine achievement, through positive service. What greater joy is there 426

EDUCATION AND RELIGION than achieving what many and for long have deemed impossible?

Immortality is reserved for those who willingly and cheerfully live the rich, fruitful, positive life. I do not say being a positivist because that may mean only securing something beneficial to self. I say, the positive life which means thinking, doing, achieving, serving regardless of personal consequences, with an eye fixed to the social good, the triumph of an idea or the enrichment of life.

Institutions of learning should educate men and women to dedicate themselves to the positive life; to make their lives count by living for something that counts in human life; -Co make their characters stand out by standing for an idea, a principle, or a cause that is dearer than property or even life itself.

427

CHAPTER

XII

EDUCATING FOR THE REALIZATION OF LIFE'S GoAL

The subject deals with education and life. Education is no longer conceived as mere preparation for life.

It is life itself. It is not only concerned with making the youth earn their means of livelihood but training them to lead lives abundant and rich.

The main purpose of this paper is to challenge thinking on life, its meaning, and its goal. It is to provoke reflection on the great question, Whither are we bound?

It is to induce teachers and those having to do with managing, supervising, and administering institutions of learning to the ~onsideration of the problem of educating for the realizatio:q of life's goal.

There are two types of individuals in society. There are those whom we may call social liabilities and those who may be classified as social assets. The former are those who are drags upon society. They do more harm than good. They consume more than they produce. They get more from the world than they give to it. The latter are those who are contributors to society. They do more good than bad. They produce more than they consume.

They give more to the world than they get from it.

Education aims to insure individual and social progress by lessening the number of individuals who are social liabilities and augmenting the number of individuals who are social assets. Progress is relatively little or great, slow or rapid in proportion to the difference between the contribution of individuals who are assets, that is to say, the educated, and the drain of individuals who are liabilities, that is to 's ay, the uneducated.

Education should develop the life abundant. Every citizen, certainly every educated citizen, 's hould strive to 428

EDUCATION AND RELIGION live a life abundant and rich. The life abundant is the life that is purposeful, purposive, and directed as contrasted with the life that is aimless, misdirected or undirected. The life that society needs is one that is integral and unified; one with a good and definite objective; one with a worth-while goal and directed toward that goal.

Every individual should set his life's goal. Education should help him to formulate and define it, and to make him live to realize it.

Life is a pilgrimage. Its course is comparable to making a journey or a voyage. When an individual undertakes to travel on a train or on a boat, 路he knows his final destination. He defines it in advance. There may be intermediate stations but he travels with an eye single to his final station. Similarly an individual in undertaking to live his life should define his goal. There may be intermediate goals or slib-goals, but he must know his ultimate goal and resolutely set himself to the task of realizing, achieving, or reaching that goal.

What is life's goal?

Individuals often differ in their concept and definition of life's goal. Individuals who may have the same goal SeeK to attain it via different routes or by different means and methods. Every thinking individual should ask himself and answer for himself, what is my life's goal?

Once that goal is wisely defined and properly formulated, he should bend hi.s efforts, his energies, his talents to realize it.

Some persons covet fame or honor. They live as if it were the chief object of their existence. They make every sacrifice to attain it. By means fair or foul, they are determined to get it. In fact, not a few have been known to buy their way to fame or honor. Careful analysis, however, shows that neither is really satisfying.

Fame, indeed, at times becomes burdensome. It may be 429

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the bugbear of existence. We have it on the testimony of those who have deservedly attained fame or honor that it is shallow and empty; that it is the shadow not the substance. The Bible tells us that a prophet may enjoy honor elsewhere but not in his own country. We are not to be understood as discouraging entirely or deprecating unduly the efforts put forth to attain fame or honor but our point is that while the possession of both may be pleasant or valuable, each at best, should be considered only as a subgoal but never the chief goal of life.

Others covet a good name or wide reputation. They want to achieve popularity. It is natural that men should find enjoyment in the approbation of others. Yet popularity often is a negation of individual freedom. It is a bar and barrier to efficiency. To be sure, name or reputation can not lightly be cast aside. As the saying goes, "A good name is better than a good face." But reputation may be circumstantial. Not infrequently it is built upon a foundation that is insecure and at times at variance with reality. Sometimes, indeed, reputation is bought. It is promoted by high-powered salesmanship or stimulated publicity. A good name which is the product of labor and achievement is a genuine treasure. But it should not be the be-all and the end-all of earthly existence. It may be an intermediary goal, but it >should not be made the ultimate life's goal.

Then there are people who strive for position as the object of their life's endeavor. In our country during the epoch when political-mindedness is dominant, the attainment of an official position in the government has been a driving force and a great urge. But we know of innumerable cases of high officials who have voluntarily relinquished their jobs and whose invariable testimony is that they are glad to have done it. This fact, together with the general dissatisfaction experienced by those who 430

EDUCATION AND RELIGION have occupied various positions proved that position is not an end but merely a means to an end. A public office is good if it is assumed in the nature of a public trust. Men may exercise power or influence through occupying a position. But we must not forget that it is not the goal of life.

There is an increasing number of people in our country who make money their god and the amassing of fortune their chief concern. We are not so impractical as not to recognize the great role that wealth plays in all phases of life. We are not blind "Co the material basis of civilization. We are aware that money is essential to progress.

But individuals or groups of individuals should become sensible to the great truth that "the love of money is the root of all evil." Even the rich "Chemselves know that there are many thiI,lgs more worthy to be made the object of love or life',s great object than money.

I chanced not long since to be travelling on a boat across the Pacific with an American multimillionaire.

With him were his personal doctor, a nurse, a valet, and a retinue of assistants who were at his beck and call. One day he and I were side by side in our steamer chairs on deck, he very silent, I busy finishing an interesting book.

As is the practice on board these palatial steamers, appetizing things were served passengers many times during the day. The rich man saw me accept what were offered while I saw him decline everything. When he saw me taking things with relish, he said aloud: "Say, you know, I'd gladly give you a million dollars if I had your appetite."

That day I felt richer than the multimillionaire. I at least had a good digestion which the rich man did not have.

This illustrates that money is by no means everything in life. Shakespeare uttered a wonderful truth when, in one 431

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES of his plays, he made N eris's a say, ". . . they are as sick that surfeit with too much as they that starve with nothing."

There are still others who prize success most in life.

To be successful is the acme of their ambition. This is by no means an unworthy aspiration. Success is a high and noble goal. It is, however, a relative matter. The man looked upon as successful in business in a sman village may be nobody in the city. One who is hailed as being a 'Success in a certain line of activity may be utterly inconsequential in another line. A successful individual in a given epoch may not be accepted as such in another epoch.

One may be an aggregation of atoms in one place and an atom of aggregations in another place. Standards of success, we dare say, vary from age to age and from country to country. We believe that to succeed is a great achievement and that success is a worthy goal but not the supreme goal of life.

There is one thing that by common consent is held priceles~, the attainment of which is devoutly to be wished, and that is Character. To have a good and stable character is even better than to enj oy fame or honor, possess a good name or reputation, obtain position or wealth or to achieve success. All the educative and spiritual agencies combine to lead men and women to strive for a beautiful and sterling character. We have no hesitation to say that happiness based upon character is the supreme goal of life.

We say happiness, not pleasure, is the final goal.

Pleasure is transient. Happiness is permanent. Pleasure may be superficial. Happiness is deep, abiding. Happiness is pleasure plus. Happiness is solid satisfaction plus self-realization. It is a state of being. It is abundant living of a life complete and completed; integral and 432

EDUCATION AND RELIGION unified. It is not mere existence. It is active living in a pulsating world urged by a vision splendid and replete with services great.

So highly did Mabini prize this state of bliss that he enjoined his countrymen to strive for it. In his famous decalogue, he said, "Strive for the happiness of thy country before thy own, making of it a kingdom of reason, justice, and labor; for if thy country is happy, thou and thy family, too, must needs be happy."

The institutions of learning should educate for happiness as the goal of life both individual and social.

If happiness is a life's object so supremely desirable, it is well to know at least some of its essential factors.

Among these we shall mention good health first for that is basic in life. Then, too, there should be a certain measure of economic competence. Another factor is suitable work, occupation ot: profession which demands the application of man's best talents and through which he expresses his personality, and renders his major service. Friendship is an indispensable factor of happiness. An individual to be happy must have congenial relatives, associates, and friends true and tried, friends in need and in deed.

Ideals, of course, play a great role in the attainment of happiness. They are at once the motivating force and the guiding star in life. Lastly, we mention inward peace, and deep satisfaction which are the concomitants of spiritual stability. Happiness, it will be seen, is the fruit of no single factor or element, or quality. It is the product and by-product of abundant living. It is the result of disinterested service undertaken without thought of reward. It is the outcome of doing good for its own sake.

How may we educate for the realization of life's goal?

What should education do for individuals to achieve their goal?

433

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES 1. Concretely, education should lead individuals to exercise foresight. They should envisage the future, formulate the goal, and direct their course of action with a view: to attaining the goal.

2. Education should play a great part in preparing individuals for careers of usefulness. This it does not only by training but by habituating them to engage in selfstudy and self-activity.

3. Education should lead individuals to do successful planning. It is the planned life that succeeds and wins.

4. Education should accustom individuals to a life of work. It is active, hard, and systematic work that accomplishes results and brings about complete self-realization.

5. Education should discipline individuals to persist.

Strong characters throughout history have shown themselves possessed of the quality of persistence triumphant, determination that J::>rooks no defeat.

It is incumbent upon each individual to define his goal of life and live to realize it. It is the mission of education to help insure the realization of life's goal. The modern age demands more education not less education, especially the type thar educates for "life. That education is best which trains an individual to lead a motivated life, a life moved by high principles and directed toward a definite goal, a life filled with happiness, and radiating happiness to others.

434

ApPENDIX A

EDUCATION UNDER THE COMMONWEALTH

BY DR. MANUEL L. CARREON Chief. Measurement and Research Department Bureau of Educaticm. Manila

In response to the persistent invitation of President Pablo Caiiizares of the Manila Teachers Association, I take pleasure in expounding to you my personal views on what should constitute public education under the coming Commonwealth government. I consider this topic timely in view of the present session of the Constitutional Convention, which has been delegated the all-important and epochmaking task of drawing up a suitable constitution for the Philippine Commonwealth during the period of transition from the present government under the Jones Law to the future under the Republic.

PUBL~C

EDUCATION AS STATE FUNCTION

I consider public education as much a function of the State as public health and welfare, public works, the development of natural resources, the promotion of commerce and industry, the administration of justice, peace and order. It is for this reason that, in my opinion, the constitution, now under consideration for the Philippine Commonwealth, should make definite provisions for the fundamental aims, general policies, and chief agencies of public education.

This statement of educational aims, policies, and agencies should be so clear-cut and specific as to leave no doubt in the mind of our future generations on their proper interpretation without, at the same time, binding and tying the hands of our future legislative bodies under the Commonwealth government to such an extent as to prevent the inclusion of provisions or measures that would tend to improve conditions in the public school system. It is for this reason that I am in complete accord with those who are in favor of including in the constitution only the major and basic educational aims and policies to be carried out through a minimum of agencies under the Philippine Commonwealth.

NATIONAL ORIENTATION IN ACCEPTED PRINCIPLES

In accordance with established systems of public education in the most advanced countries of the world and in consonance with the

435

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPP1NES demand for a reinforced national orientation, I believe there should be established in the Philippines under the Commonwealth government a system of public education whose general aim should be to develop and maintain in the Philippines a representative democracy.

The specific aims of this education should be to (1) develop at least one common language as a means of national inter-communication, (2) develop and train healthy and vigorous Filipinos through a thorough understanding and practice of hygiene and sanitation, (3) develop and train the ability to participate in the affairs of the government and the ability to understand and perform the duties, assume the responsibilities, and, if need be, undergo the sacrifices, of Filipino citizenship, (4) develop good moral and ethical conduct, (5) develop and train the ability to participate in the membership of the home, preserve and enrich the finer traditions of the Filipino home and family, (6) train Filipinos in economic productiveness, thrift, industry, conservation of human and natural resources, and utilization of nati nal products, and (7) train the ability to make wise use of leisure time.

ASIS OF SPECIFIC AIMS

These specific aimsl are patterned after the seven cardinal principles of education and adapted to Philippine needs, conditions, ideals, and aspirations. I believe there will be as muc1i if not greater need than now existing for a more unified and a more homogeneous Filipino people. For this reason I am advocating the development of at least one common language as a means of national intercommunication. From my experience and observation, we have now three common media of national expression; namely, English, Spanish, and Tagalog. The farther development and enrichment of any one or more of these will, I believe, insure greater national intercourse and increase homogeneity in the Filipino people. Personally, I will give preference to English, the language of democracy and commerce of American and British Commonwealths, and most peoples of the Far East.

Nobody will probably deny the need of training for a balanced Filipino citizenship, the need for the highest type of moral conduct, the need for preserving the finer traditions of the Filipino home and family, the need for economic productiveness, thrift, industry, conservation of human and natural resources, and the utilization of Philippine products, and the need for training in the wise use of leisure time. With these fundamental aims we should be able to 436

EDUCATION AND RELIGION continue the constructive work that has been done so far in Philippine public education and improve upon the achievement of the past and of the present for the success and to the glory of the Commonwealth.

OBLIGATION OF THE STATE

In is quite difficult to determine to what extent the Philippine Commonwealth should support public education. I believe, however, as a sound basic principle, the State should furnish as a minimum to every Filipino a complete primary education comprising not less than four grades of elementary instruction in the 3R's and such other subjects as would make for a Filipino citizenry that is as balanced as it is socially efficient.

I believe also it is the obligation of the State to furnish as much aid (insular, provincial, and municipal) to the support of public education beyond the fourth grade. Nominal tuition fees may be charged in the intermediate grades and reasonable tuition fees in the secondary school to support public education on the intermediate and the secondary level.

There should also be some provisions for State support to help finance higher education in order to insure the proper training of leaders not only in the coming Commonwealth but also in the future Philippine Republic. Adequate provisions should be made by the insular, provincial, and municipal governments for scholarships through competitive examinations to pupils and students who are endowed with superior mental ability but whose parents or guardians are financially unable to support them in their studies beyond the fourth grade.

ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

As I stated at the beginning, just as there should be only general and basic aims and policies in the proposed constitution for the Philippine Commonwealth, there should also be only the minimum of the machinery or organization to carry out these aims and policies.

As a matter of principle, Philippine educationists will advocate a separate department of education with a secretary in the Commonwealth Cabinet. For the sake of economy, however, conservative friends of public education in the Philippines will probably be satisfied with a slight modification of the present departmental organization. In line with this policy of economy, we might have under the Commonwealth, a department of education and health with a 437

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES secretary and two under-secretaries, one for education and the other for health. The under-secretary of education might take charge of all work pertaining to private and public education under the Commonwealth. Under him we might have as at present a director of public education assisted by an adequate and competent supervisory and administrative personnel to take charge of the public school system and a commissioner or superintendent of private schools to have general inspection or recognized private institutions.

438

REFERENCES ON EDUCATION

Abecedario para uso de las escuelas primarias de la Di6cesis de Cebu Act No. 2706 of the Philippine Legislature Act No. 3162 of the Philippine Legislature Act No. 3227 of the Philippine Legislature Act No. 3262 of the Philippine Legislature Adler, Felix, Moral Instruction of Children Agnew, Walter D., The Administration of Professional Schools for Teachers Alexander, Thomas, The Prussian Elementary Schools Allen, William H., Self Survey by Colleges and Universities Annual Reports of the Director of Education of the P. 1., 1901-1933 Annual Reports of the President of the University of the Philippines Arias, Memoria Artigas y Cuerva, Manuel, La Instruccion en Filipinas Atkinson, The Philippitne Islands Babbit, Franklin, The Curriculum Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process Balfour, Graham, Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland Ballou, F. W., High School Organization Baltimore School Survey, 1920-1921, Vol. 2 Barrantes, Vicente, La Instrucci6n Primaria en Filipinas Barrows, History of the Philippines Benitez, Fernando, Real Sociedad Econ6mwa de Amigoes del Pais, Memoria de los Trabajos de La Misma Bla,ir and Robertson, The Philifppine JlSl:andJs. (55 vols.)

439

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Bloomfield, Meyer, VocationaL Guidance of Youth Bochman, F. P., Principles of Elementary Education and their Application Bocobo, Jorge, Streams of Life Boletin Oficial del Magisterio Filipino Bonser, F. G., The Elementary School Curriculum Bonser, F. G., and Mossman, L. C., Industrial Arts fo?'

Elementary Schools Brannon, M. E., Project Method in Education Brown, Edith, and Leavitt, F. M., Prevocational Education in the Public Schools Brown, John F., The Training ot. Teachers for Secondary Schools in Germany and the United States Brown, J. F., American High School Bryce, A.. G., Methods for Measuring Teachers' Efficiency Budget for 1926 of the Philippine Islands submitted by the Governor-General to the Philippine Legislature Bulletin No.2, U. S. Bureau of Education, 1922-1923 Burton, W. H., Supervision and the Improvement of Teaching Butler, Nicholas Murray, The Meaning of Education Calderon, Felipe G., El Colegio de San Jose Carney, Mabel, Country Life and the Country School Catalogues of various private institutions Census of the Philippine Islands, 1903, Vol. 3 Chancellor, W. E., Our Schools: Their Administration and Supervision Charters, W. W., Curriculum Construction Charters, W. W., Teaching the Common Branches Chirino, Pedro, Relaci6n de las Islas Filipinas Cloyd, D. E., Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Collins, V. L., American College, University Series, Princeton 440

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Compafiia de Jesus, Manual de la Infancia Comyn, Tomas de, Estado de las Islas' Filipinas en 1810 Cooley, E. G., Vocational Education in Europe Course of Study for Intermediate Grades Course of Study for Primary Grades Courtis, S. A., Measurement of Classroom Products Cubberley, E. P., Improvement of Rural Schools Cubberley, E. P., Public Education irn the U. S. Cubberley, E. P., Public School Ad.m inistration Cubberley, E. P., Rural Life and Education Cubberley, E. P., School Organization and Administration Curtis, H. S., Education Thru Play Davis, B. M., Agricultural Educat~on in the Public Schools Davis, C. 0., High School Courses of Study Davis, C. 0., Junior High School Education Davis, C. 0., Secondary Education Davis, C. 0., Vocational and Moral Guidance Del Rosario, Tomas G., La Instrucci6n Publica Baio el Regimen Espanol Dewey, John, Moral Prill'wiples in Education Dopp, K. E., Place of Industries in Elementary Education Dresslar, F. B., American Schoolhouses Dutton, S. T., and Snedden, David, Administration of Public Education in the United States Educational Finance Inquiry Commission Publication Eighteenth Annual Report of the President and the Treasurer, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1923 Eliot, C. W., Education for Efficiency Eliot, C. W., University Admirnistration Engelhart, N. L., School Building Program for Cities 441

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Exposicion General de las Islas Filipinas en Madrid, Instruccion Publica Superior.

Fernandez Arias, Evaristo, La Ensenanza Secundaria y Superior en Filipinas Forbes, W. Cameron, The Philippine Islands (2 vols.)

Foreman, The Philippine Islands Freeland, G. E., Modern Elementary School Practices Gardiner, John Hays, American College, University Series, Harvard General Catalogues of the University of the Philippines Grifol y Aliaga, Daniel, La Instrucci6n Primaria en Filipinas Hall-Quest, Alfred Lawrence, The Textbook: How to Use and Judge It Hanus, P. H., School Administration and School Reports Hanus, P. H., School EfNciency Hartwell, S. 0., Overcrowded Schools and the Platoon Plan Hilder, F. F., Education in the Philippines Hines, H. C., Measuring Intelligence Hoag, Ernest Bryant, Health Work in the Schools Hollister, H. A., High School Administration Horn, J. L., American Elementary School Howe, Frank William, Farm Economics Jacquet, E., Consideracio~es Sur les alphabets des Philippines Jagor, F., Travels in the Philippines Jernegan, Prescott F., La Instrucci6n Publica bajo cl Regimen Americano Jessup, W. A., Teaching Staff Johnston, C. H., Modern High School: Its Admitnistration and Extension J oint Legislative Committee Report on Education1926 442

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Journal of the Philippine Islands Medical Association, June, 1925 Judd-, Charles H., Psychology of High School Subjects Kahn, Joseph, and Klein, J. J., Principles and Methods in Commercial Education Kalaw, M. M., Philippine Social Life Kendall, C. N., and Mirick, G. A., How to Teach the Fundamenta~ Subjects Keppel, Frederick P., American College, Unitv,e rsity Series, Columbia Kern, O. J., Among Country Schools Klapper, Paul, College Teaching Kuo, P. W., Chinese System of Pub~ic Education LeRoy, Philippine Life in Town and Country Lewis, A., Democracy's High Schoo~ Lists of Private School Courses Operating under Government approval-1929, 1930, 1931, 1933, 1934 Macaraig, S. E., Social Problems Marvin, C. H., CommerciCIJ~ Education in Secondary Schools McCall, W. A., How to Measure in Education McKeever, William A., Training the Boy-Part Four McKeever, William A., Training the Gitrlr-Part Four McMurray, Frank M., Elementary School StGindards Meriam, Junius L., Child Life and the Curriculum Monroe, Paul, A Cyclopedia of Education Monroe, Paul, History of Education Monroe, Paul, Principles of Secondary Education Monroe, Paul, Survey of the Educational System of the P. 1.-1925 Montero, El A rchifpielago Fi~ipino Montero y Vidal, Historia Nevins, Allan, American College, University Series, Illinois Nolan, A. W., Teaching of Agriculture 443

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Nutt, H. W., The Supervision of Instruction Official Handbook, P.A.A.F., 19~4-25 Official Program of the Sixth Far Eastern Champion. ship Games Official Program of the Seventh Far Eastern Championship Games Osias, Camilo, Barrio Life and Barrio Education Osias, Camilo, Economic Possibilities, The School News Review, July 30, 1926 Osias, Camilo, Education in the Philippines Under the Spanish Regime Osias, Camilo, Our Education and Dynamic Filipinism Osias, Camilo, Patriotic Pride, The Filipino Teacher, May, 1926 Palma, Rafael, The Univer.sity and the People Pardo de Tavera, T. H., Contribuci6n al estudio de la antigua escritura hlipina Paterno, Pedro A., La Antigua Civilizaci6n de Filipinas Paulsen, Freiderich, German Universities Pavon, Jose Ma., Las Antiguas Leyendas de la Isla de Negros Payne, B. R., Public Elementary School Curricula Physical and Vocational Magazine, Vol. I Pieters, Albertus, Educational System of Japa;n, Pressey, Sidney L., Instruction to the Use of Standard Test8 Programa y Reglamento de Segunda Ensefianza para las Islas FiIipinas. Manila, 1867 Programa de Segunda Ensefianza. Manila, 1880 Prosser, Charles A., A General Report on Vocational Education in the Philippine Islands Prosser, C. A., Teacher and Old Age Public Education in Kentucky 444

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Pyre, J. F. A., American College, University Series, Wisconsin Reisner, E. H., Nationalism and Education since 1789 Reply of the Secretary of Public Instruction, 1925 Report of the Board of Agriculture of New Zealand Reports of the Commissioner of Education of the United States. Vol. I, 1899-1900, and Vol. II Reports of the Governor-General of the Philippine Islands Reports of the Philippine Commission Resefia Historica del Seminario de San Carlos Retana, W. E., Los antiguos alfabetos de Filipinas Richards, Charles R., Industria路l Work Rodriguez Berriz, Miguel, Diccionario de la Administracion de Filipinas Anuarios Rueda, Ricardo Diaz de, La Escuela de Instruccion Primaria Russell, Charles, Improvement of the City Elementary School Teacher in Service Russell, J. E., German Higher Schools Sandiford, Peter, Comparative Education School Buildings, Bul. No. 38, 1922 Sechrist, Frank K., Education and the General Welfare Senate Record, First Session, Seventh Philippine Legislature Service Manual, 1917 Smith, Harry Bradley, Establishing Industrial Schools Snedden, David, Sociological Determination of Objectives in Education Snedden, David, Vocatwnal Education Starch, Daniel, Educational Measurements Starch, Daniel, Educational Psychology Statistical Circular, No.4 Statistics of Public High Schools 445

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Strayer, G. D., and Thorndike, E. L., Educational Administration Survey of Education in Hawaii Survey of the Educational System in the Philippine Islands Terman, L. M., Measurement of Intelligence Terman, L. M., The Intelligence of School Children The Boise Survey The Cleveland School Survey The Gary Public Schools The Gary Schools The Portland Survey Thompson, F. V., Commercial Education in Public Secondary Schools Thorndike, E. L., Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements Thwing, Charles F., College Administration Thwing, Charles F., The College President Trabue, M. R., Measuring Results in Education Trafton, G. H., Teaching of Science in the Elementary School Tuthelry, William, The World at Play Uhl, Willis, L., Principles of Secondary Education Uhl, Willis L., The Materiels of Reading Virginia Public Schools Voarhees, Harvey Cortlandt, The Law of the Public School System of the United States Weeks, R. M., People's School Wells, Margaret Elizabeth, A Project Curriculum White, Eva W., Household Arts Williams, J. F., Organization and AdministraliJon of Physical Education Wood, B. D., Measurement in Higher Education 446

BOOK

Two

RELIGION

PREFATORY NOTE We confess at the outset that it has been more difficult to prepare Book Two, dealing with religion, than Book One, dealing with education. In the first place, we are more familiar with education and have had more experience in educational work. In the second place, there is greater dearth of authoritative material on religion than on education.

We are, however, conscious of the fundamental importance of religion. Believing that the Encyclopedia of the Philippilnes would be incomplete without including material on religion, we have dared to gather information and present the discussion on religion which we hope will prove of interest and value to all interested in the subject and especially to future writers on religion.

We have made every effort to adopt a historical and impartial attitude toward the subject. This is exceedingly difficult in a matter that can so easily be controversial.

We have tried to be fair and factual and to avoid partisanship or to play the role of an advocate of a particular belief or sect.

We cherish the thought that the composite material presented in the following pages will be the most convincing proof that we have sought to avoid creedal bigotry or any semblance of religious prejudice. If there is one wish in matters religious that we would like to see realized in the Philippines, it is the wish that there be greater religious tolerance, that there be increased consciousness of the essential unity of religion based on the belief in God as the Common Father of humanity, and that there be more practical religion manifested and manifesting in and through social service.

449

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES We owe a great deal to the authors of works which have proved helpful and to others who have directly or indirectly .a ssisted us in the preparation of Book Two in this volume.

CAMlLO OSIAS

450

Religion in the Philippines CHAPTER I RELIGION OF ANCIENT FILIPINOS

For a proper comprehension of the religious life of a people it is necessary to have at least an elementary knowledge of their geographical and their historical or social background.

The Philippines is a group of over 7,000 islands and islets situated entirely in the Tropics. southeast of the Asiatic mainland. The archipelago is found between 49 40' and 21 9 10' north latitude and 116 9 40' and 1249 34' east longitude.

The land area of the country is over 114,400 square miles. In size, thus, the Philippines is larger than Switzerland, Denmark, Holland, Portugal, and Belgium put together. It is equal to the combined area of all the New England States and New York. About 67 per cent of the land is comprised in Luzon of the north and Mindanao of the south, the two largest islands of the whole group.

About 95 per cent of the land area is comprised in the 11 largest islands.

The climate of the Philippines is tropical. It is free from the rigors of the cold of winter. Their proximity to the sea tempers the severe heat of summer suffered in other lands. The average temperature in the lowlands is 79.5 9 F. The thermometer in most localities rarely registers below 70 9 or over 90 9. In Baguio, a popular vacation resort in the Mountain Province, the temperature during the year ranges. from 50 9 to 75 9 â&#x20AC;˘ At night, even in the lowlands, it is invaria.bly cool and pleasant. During the coolest months, the night temperature is sometimes as low as 59 9 â&#x20AC;˘ 451

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Unlike the year in temperate countries which is divided into four seasons, the year in the Philippines is divided into two seasons, the dry s.e ason and the wet season.

The soil being fertile and the climate favorable, the basic industry is agriculture. Rice, corn, sugarcane, coconut, tobacco, hemp, rubber, a great variety of fruit trees, and vegetables are grown.

The country has an immense forestal wealth. The stand of commercial timber is roughly estimated at 486,000,000,000 board feet. Approximately 63 per cent of the vegetative area is commercial and noncommercial forest.

There are rich and varied minerals, metallic and nonmetallic, in the Philippines. Among the more important minerals are gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, zinc, manganese, sulphur, chromite, asbestos, and coal.

Another great source of wealth comes from the waters in and around the various islands. The rivers are potential agencies to supply heat, fuel, and power. There are lakes and streams, bays and seas. teeming with fishes.

Marine products like pearls, shells, trepang, and sponges abound.

The Philippines with its size and resources could be the home of fifty or sixty million inhabitants.

Comparatively recent investigations and findings have disclosed that the Philippines once was a part of the empire of Sri-Vishaya with Sumatra as the capital. From the name of this Hindu-Malayan empire is in all probability derived the name Visayas, which is the term applied to the group of islands lying between the Luzon group in the north and the Mindanao-Sulu group in the south. This empire existed probably in the period from about the 7th Century to the 14th Century of the Christian era. The grade of civilization of the people of that empire may be in part gauged from "the use of a written language, metal weapons, coat armor, raft dwellings, and walled towns."

452

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Following the decline of the Sri-Vishayan Empire came the founding of the Empire of Madjapahit. The latter empire flourished during the last quarter of the 14th Century. Historians state that the Philippines was a part of this J avan-Brahman Empire.

It is generally admitted by writers and historians that the aboriginal inhabitants of the Philippines were a dwarfed people or pygmies known as Aetas or Itas or N egvitos' 'ranging in height from three to five feet. As examples of the remnants of these dwarfed aborigines may be cited the Negritos of Bataan and Zambales and the Mangyans of Mindoro. The dwarf inhabitants are at present an insignificant group of the minority groups in number, in influence, and in importance. They are, however, interesting from the historical and scientific points of view. Popular writers speak of these people of the Philippines as if they were one type, but in reality they are well-described in the Census of the Philippine Islands (1918, Vol. II).

"In practically all preceding literature relating to the Philippines, these dwarf peoples have been lumped together under the name 'Negritos,' and have been considered as belonging to a single race. More recent study, however,-especially the research carried on by the department of Anthropology of the University of the Philippines,-has given rise to a new view. There now seems to be strong evidence that the Philippine pygmies represent remnants not merely of one but of three quite distinct aboriginal races.

"The first of these types is the true N egrito, or dwarf man of undoubted Negroid affinities. The second is a straight-haired dwarf type of strong Mongoloid affinities, which may be perhaps termed the Proto-Malay. Finally, the third is one more difficult to identify with any particular well-known type, but represents a dwarf hairy man intermediate between 453

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the aboriginal Australian and the Ainu of northern Japan. For the purpose of this discussion we may speak of this third type as the Australoid-Ainru.

"In actual distribution, the three types are now so mixed together that it is impracticable to attempt the isolation of distinct racial groups in our present necessarily brief discussion. Grouping will therefore be confined to geographical areas, under each of which the local mixture of types will be mentioned. It will be noted that "in a few areas there are some almost pure types, while in others the blending has been extensive.

"Before proceeding to discuss the specific geographic areas, a few fact s may be mentioned which apply more or less generally to all groups of Pygmies.

"In type of life and general culture, the Pygmies may be divided into two路 distinct classes: First, those of purest type, who live in wandering bands in the deep forests; and, second, those who have been more or less in contact with, or mixed with, the more cultured Filipinos,-and who have, in consequence, adopted a semi-sedentary mode of life.

"Those of the first class lead wholly wandering lives. They build no houses except a few temporary shelters of fallen leaves and branches; they live wholly by hunting, trapping, and the gathering of wild forest products; they practice no agriculture; they h a.ve a great fear of water, are entirely ignorant of the art of swimming, and make no use of boats or rafts.

Their principal, and often only, weapon is the bow and arrow. Their only mode of fishing is by shooting the fish from the bank, with an arrow to which a string is attached, so that they may pull it out without wetting themselves. They wear little clothing and few ornaments. Their only cloth is ta.pa, made from the bark of a tree. In some places they are reported to go entirely naked. Their beliefs, so far as known, are a simple form of fetishism. They abandon the dead in the forest, sometimes covering the body with a few branches and putting up a sign to warn all 454

EDUCATION AND RELIGION passers-by from the place. We know little of their social organization or government, except that the size of the bands is always very small.

"The second class of Pygmies have adopted many cultural traits from their neighbors. In some places they build houses of good quality, plant dry crops, and live for a considerable time in one locality. They nearly all, however, spend a considerable part of the dry season hunting in the forests. They gather forest products and trade them with their Filipino neighbors for clothing, ornaments, weapons, etc. Many of them even go into the towns and work for a season, though they always sooner or later return again to the forest.

Their social life and beliefs have become more complicated, and they are in no way comparable to their brethren of the wandering bands. .

"So far as is known, the true aboriginal speech of the Pygmies has entirely disappeared. All the vocabularies that have been collected show words of Malay type, though they often represent archaic forms that have long since become obsolete among the surrounding Malayan peoples. However, very little is known of the dialects of the wandering bands, and it is possible that elements of a true Pygmy speech may yet be found . . "The Pygmy types dwelling in each of the following areas will be briefly discussed: (a) Apayao swamp region; (b) Ilokos mountains; (c) Zambales mountains; ( d) East Luzon mountains; (e) South Luzon mountains'; (f) The Bisayan Islands; and (g) Mindanao. (a) Apayao Swamp Region

"A considerable number of Pygmies live in the great nipa swamp and included hillocks extending around the eastern and northern portions of the subprovince of Apayao and along the western border of Cagayan. In major physical type these people differ noticeably from most of the other Pygmy groups.

The Australoid-Ainu mixture is very strong, some individuals being almost of pure type. The majority, however, show mixed Negrito and Proto-Malay blood, and there are a few who are quite purely of those 455

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES types. There is much divergence in color some being very light witli wavy hair and others very dark with frizzled hair. All are of low stature.

"The majority live wandering about, hunting and fishing, and seem to have no settled habitations. On the other hand, some live in small villages or isolated dwellings built on the low hills found within the swamp. The house types are crude, but some of the people use a well-made boat by the aid of which they travel through the swamps. They have probably learned the art of boat-building from their Apayao or Ibanag neighbors. Those visited by': the writer spoke a dialect very harsh in phonetics but otherwise seeming to consist chiefly of a mixture of Ibanag and Apayao words. (b) Ilokos Mountains "Considerable sections: of the Ilokos mountain region were formerly occupied by Pygmies but at the present time most of them have disappeared. Those that remain live chiefly in Ilocos Norte and northern Abra. Very little information regarding them is available. They seem to be chiefly a N egrito type mixed with the Indonesian Apayaos. There are a few small settlements, but the majority live in wandering bands and seldom come out of the deeper forests.

Nothing is known as to their dialect. (c) Zambales Mountains "This region covers a considerable portion of the provinces of Zambales, Bataan, western Pampanga, western Tarlac, and south-western Pangasinan, and contains what is probably the largest number of true pygmies to be found in any single area in the Philippines. They may be divided into two groups, differing in both type and culture.

"The :southern group, in Bataan, southern Zambales, western Pampanga, and western Tarlac, is quite purely Negrito, with intermixture of the Australoid-Ainu and Proto-Malay types. The average stature is very low, being -not more than 4 feet 6 inches, while certain well-developed adults will be 456

EDUCATION AND RELIGION found as short as 3 feet 10 inches in height. Such tall individuals as are found are apparently the result of intermixture with the surrounding peoples.

"The northern group, in this region, is; confined chiefly to northern Zambales and southwestern Pangasinan, and represents a taller and more cultured type. They seem, from present knowledge, to represent a mixture of N egritos with the remnant of a once extensive group of pagan Indonesian Sambals. Their life is more advanced than that of the purer Negritos to the south of them, and they carryon a considerable variety of industries. They are warlike, and the Government 'is now making an attempt to confine them on forest reservations. (d) East Luzon Mountains "Numerous Pygmies inhabit the mountain ranges of eastern Luzon from Cape Engafio south to near Lucena, Tayabas, including the eastern parts of the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Rizal, Laguna, and the northern part of the province of Tayabas. The greatest number dwell in eastern Cagayan and Isabela. About twothirds of the region mentioned above is: practically unexplored and constitutes the largest unknown region in the Philippines. Such information as we have as to its inhabitants has been gathered from the socalled N egritos who come down to trade in the nearest Christian towns. The remaining third of the area nientioned is composed of a number of scattered districts that are better known. The most important of these are the regions about Cape Engafio, Palanan, Casiguran, Baler, and a few places along the Pacific side of the Tayabas coast. Negroid types also live in the interior of the islands of Polillo and Alabat.

From the information available the writer is of the opinion that the people of this whole area are much more Papuan in type than like true Negritos. The combination in the majority type of marked Negroid features with comparatively tall stature is quite different from the Negritos of the Zambales mountains.

"We have here, then, a new type found only along the eastern coasts of the Archipelago,-for individuals 457

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES and small groups of this type may be found scattered all the way from Cape Engaiio down to southeastern Mindanao, as will be mentioned later. The Papuan affinities of this type are so noticeable as to justify at least the temporary use of this. Melanesian term.

"In addition to this Papuan type, however, there are also numerous true pygmies in the region under discussion. Mixed N egrito and Proto-Malay types are scattered in small bands throughout the area, while in the lowlands to the southwest of Cape Engafio, in the north, there are groups with AusiraloidAinu mixture that are quite similar in type to the people of Apayao swamp region. In the same vicinity there is an interesting group of mixed Pygmy and Indonesian people who are known locally as 'Diango.'

The people of this whole area are worthy of most careful stud~, and may add much to our knowledge of Philippine racial history. ( e) South Luzon Mountains "The mountains of peninsular Tayabas, Ambos Camarines, and Albay contain a considerable number of Pygmies. Some quite pure Negritos are found, and others with extensive Proto-Malay mixture. The Papu~n type, discUissed above, also occurs here in very pure form. Septum sticks are worn in the nose, and several of the wandering bands wear no clothing other than a few ornaments. Masked dances are held in the forest, and the bodies of the dancers are frequently ornamented with grotesque designs in white ashes and colored pigments. There are a few more or less permanent !Settlements, but many live III wandering groups without settled habitation.

"The Albay pygmies are mostly of the ProtoMalay type, with relatively little Negrito blood, and all of them are now regarded as nominal Christians. (f) The Bisayan Islands "The principal Pygmy groups in this region are found in the islands of Panay, N egros, Mindoro, and Palawan. Other smaller groups exist on the islands of TablaJs', Sibuyan, and Guimaras.

458

EDUCATION AND RELIGION "There are two distinct classes of groups among these pygmies of the Bisayan Islands. First, we have in Negros, Panay, Guimaras, and Palawan, groups that are predominantly Negroid and which must be of N egrito or mixed N egrito origin. While, second, in Mindoro, Tablas, Sibuyan, and probably also in "Southern Negros, we have (for the first time) pygmy groups that are predominatingly Mongoloid,-or, in other words, of almost pure Proto-Malay type.

"Both of these classes of Pygmies, in Panay, Negros, and Mindoro, are geographically mixed with certain tall Indonesian groups which probably represent remnants of pagan inland Bisayas. These Pagan Bisayas will be discussed later, under the Indonesian division.

"The purer types of the first or N egrito class of the Pygmies of Panay and Negros are known locally as 'Ati,' while those bands which are much mixed with Indonesian blood are called 'Kalibugan.' The Atis live chiefly in wandering bands and practice little or no agriculture. The Kalibugans are more cultured; they are semi-sedentary and carryon a crude dry agriculture. One or two small band!SJ of the Atis live on the Island of Guimaras.

"The small Negroid group in northern Palawan is rapidly disappearing. They are known locally as 'Batak,' and are probably much mixed with a ProtoMalay type and with the tall Indonesians surrounding them. They are chiefly remarkable for the practice of polyandry, and for the use of the blowgun in addition to the bow and arrow.

"Of the second class of pygmies, the most interesting group is that known as the Mangyans of Mindoro. These people represent probably the largest and purest single group of the Proto-Malay type to be found in the Islands. They are by no means entirely pure, however, numerous individuals showing mixture of other blood. Much confusion has resulted in the past from the application of the name 'Mangyan' to all the pagans of Mindoro. The tall Indonesians of the southern part of the island are entirely different from the pygmy type of the central and 459

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES northern parts. The former are believed by me to be essentially identical with the Pagan B~sayas of Panay and Negros, while the latter are, as already stated, of a somewhat mixed but predominant Proto-Malay type. Some individuals show evidence of an ancient N egrito mixture, but no pure N egritos are found.

"The Pygmy Mangyans are not the ones who possess a syllabic writing,-that is confined to the Indonesian 'Mangyans' of the south. The pygmy culture is very primitive and the purer types live chiefly in wandering bands, supported by forest products and by hunting and trapping. The bow and arrow is the only weapon in common use. Very little clothing is worn, and it is made almost exclusively of tapa. The women do not wear the usual tapis but only a small tapa clout attached to a girdle which is made of numerous coils of rattan. Their only shelter consists of a few palm leaves. propped up on a stick. There are several dialects of which very little is known. The Census enumerated 12,851 Mangyans, of which number probably about half are of the pygmy type, while the remainder are Indonesians.

"Smail bands of pygmy Mangyans still exist on the Islands of Tablas and Sibuyan, and probably also in the southern part of the Island of N egros. According to the Pavon manuscripts in the Philippine Library, a quite large number of primitive pagan hill people known as Mangyans were living in southern N egros about 80 years ago. It is not yet certain which type of Mindoro Mangyans these Negros people were most like. (g) Mitndanao

"According to our present knowledge there are at least three distinct groups of more or less mixed pygmy peoples in Mindanao, and further exploration may bring to light still others which have not yet been described.

'-'The first group is that locally known as the 'Mamanuas' of the Surigao Peninsula. A considerable number of these Mamanuas appear to be of true N egrito type, - though here again, as on the east coast of Luzon, we have also the tall Negroid type 460

EDUCATION AND RELIGION which we have termed the Papuan. Many others are mixed to a greater or lesser extent with the Indonesian Manobos who surround them. Some of them live in more or less permanent villagesl, founded by the Jesuit missionaries, and practice a certain amount of agriculture. The purer types, however, continue to live in wandering bands without settled habitation.

"The second Mindanao group is a marked Negroid type dwelling among the Indonesian Atas to the north and west of Mt. Apo. It is not yet certain whether these people are true Negritos or are more of the Papuan type. Very little is known about them.

"The third group lies just to the north and east of the second, and the two are probably considerably mixed. This third group is known locally as 'Mangguafigan,' and seems to be chiefly of the Proto-Malay type. The native culture is very primitive, and the people are tImid and wild. Those who lie among or near to the Manobos and Mandayas have acquired a higher culture, and their language has also been changed. Very little is known of pure Mangguafigan life. Many are mixed with the Manobos, and the whole group is more or less dominated by a few Manobo chiefs."

Of the religions of these three classes of pygmies very little is known. From first hand study and contact with some of the existing remnants, we may judge that their original religion was largely based upon superstition and fear, that they had some hazy notion of spirits that were feared and whose wrath needed to be appeased, that nature worship was not foreign to them, and that they had faith in Anitos or ancestor-spirits.

Dr. Laubach in his volume on The People of the Philippines has a brief comment on the beliefs of the pygmies, classes I, II, and III. "The prehistoric religions of the second and third classes have long since vanished, leaving no traces behind them. We therefore bid them farewell without 461

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES further consideration. The first class, the true Negritos, never mixed freely with the later immigrants, but fled into the deep forests. Some of their ancient customs have therefore survived to the present day.

For example a little group (about 500) in Northern Palawan practice polyandry and use blow-guns. Mr. William Allen Reed has made a study of the pygmies of Zambales which are chiefly of class 1. They are polygamous if they can afford the luxury, but only the wealthier men can support more than one wife.

'All evidence goes to show that the Negritos are virtuous.' Death is the penalty for adultery, though offenders usually buy off the aggrieved partieS!. Among the pygmies in the mountains of Bataan 'sexual relations outside of marriage are exceedingly rare. A young girl suspected of it must forever renounce hope of finding a husband.'

"The Negrito rarely lies. Everybody accepts without question the word of his neighbors. Alcoholism is unknown, excepting where it has been introduced by other races. Murder almost never occurs, the N egrito being exceptionally peaceable in disposition. Theft may be punished by death, but the usual punishment is enslavement of the guilty party until the debt is paid.

"We may conj ecture that the N egritos always had these customs. When we turn to their religion, we find that most of it seems to have been borrowed from their more advanced neighbors, and that it does not today give uS! any hint of their religion prior to the arrival of the immigrant peoples. Were they originally animists? Probably. The following customs may have existed from time immemorial. " 'On the Tarlac trail between O'Donnell and BotoIan there is a huge black boulder which the N egritos believe to be the home of one powerful spirit. So far as I could learn, the belief is that the spirits of all who die enter this one spirit or anito, who has its abiding place in this rock.' NoN egrito ever passes this rock without leaving some article of food.

"When a deer has been captured and brought home, the head man of the party, or the most impor462

EDUCATION AND RELIGION tant man present, takes a small part of the entrails or heart, cuts it into fine bits and scatters the pieces in all directions, at the same time chanting in a monotone a few words which mean, 'Spirits, we thank you for this lSuccessful hunt. Here is your share.'

"That the Negritos (class I pygmies) will become extinct as civilization crops upon them seems certain.

Their mentality is so low that they apparently have no contribution to make . to the modern world. The class 2 pygmies, on the other hand, have many fine qualities and have contributed a valuable strain to the Filipino nation, as we shall soon see."

We shall leave these aboriginal types which some writers have seen fit to classify into three aboriginal classes using the temporary terms "N egrito, Proto-Malay, and Australoid-Ainu, to indicate in a general way their outstanding characteristics." We are now to take up taller migrating peoples who came to these islands in numerous waves and from whom the bulk of the Filipinos have descended.

For the main purpose of this work it is sufficiently correct to state that the rank and file of the people of the Philippines are of Malayan ancestry migrating from the Malay Peninsula and Malay Archipelago. They belonged to the brown race, one of the five races of mankind. Our Malayan ancestors were adventurous and pioneering. In frail barks called bOirangay, they braved the angry elements, crossed uncharted seas to build homesl, and establish settlements in an insular country poetically styled as the Pearl of the Orient Seas.

For the sake of historical information it may be said in passing that, according to certain writers, the earlier migrating people were of two types, the Indonesian and the Malayan.

The first Indonesian immigrants necessarily came in contact with the aboriginal inhabitants. Having brought 463

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES few women with them, they took their wives from those they found. The later Malayan immigrants in turn intermarried with Indonesians and as a result "it is today quite impossible to find any single group of Indonesians that can be said to be of wholly pure or unmixed type." In fact the pygmy groups and the Indonesian groups have been influenced by Malay culture.

It is of significance that the early community units were the barangay units, a term derived from the name of the boats on which our Malayan ancestors sailed. This form of social organization was used as a basis for subsequent political and social organizations in the country.

Under the Spanish regime there were officials known as cabezas de barangay or路 heads of barangay. The chiefs of the early Malayan immigrants sailing on their barangay must have been the precursors of the officials serving during the Spanish rule styled cabezas de barangay.

Professor H. Otley Beyer who has made extensive studies and original investigations testifies that even the "early Malayan cultures were of high type and represented a state of semi-civilization."

Writing on the characteristics of the Malayan peoples, Dr. David P. Barrows in his work on History of the PhiUppines gives the following information: "The Malayan peoples are of a light-brown color, with a light yellowish undertone on some parts of the skin, with straight black hair, dark-brown eyes, and, though they are a small race in sit ature, they are finely formed, muscular, and active. The physical type is nearly the same throughout all Malaysia, but the different peoples making up the race differ markedly from one another in culture. They are divided also by differences of religion. There are many tribes which 'a re pagan. On Bali and Lombok, little islands 464

THE LEGASPI AND URDANETA MO)/UMENT

EDUCATION AND RELIGION east of Java, the people are still Hindus, like most inhabitants of India. In other parts of Malaysia they are Mohammedans, while in the Philippines alone they are mostly Christians."

The same authority vouches for the fact that the later of the earlier Malayan immigrants into the Philippines had "a more developed culture and a higher order of attainment;" that these ancestors of the Filipinos "mastered the low country and the coasts of nearly all the islands, driving into the interior the earlier cO'mers and the aboriginal Negritos."

There are ample evidences to :s upport the fact that the ancient Filipinos long before the coming of the first Europeans had a culture and a civilization of their own; that they had their o~n alphabet and system of writing; and that they had those formal and informal means of enlightenment common to peoples of like cultural levels in the history of the world.

In a work of collaboration entitled Evangelical Christianity in the Philippines we call out informational mate- ' rial: "The early inhabitants of the Philippines had their culture and civilization. Th~y brought with them their heritage from their Malayan ancestors.

They had alphabets and systemsl of writing of their own. They used tools and utensils in common use by people of southern Asia. They had early trade relations with the Chinese and with peoples round about.

"In a historical study by Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera published under the title Resena Historica de Filipinas desde su Descubrimiento Hasta 1903, it is stated that the early alphabet widely used consisted of seventeen letters, three of which were vowels, anu that even in those early days the people had some books written on leaves or barks of trees, recording songs, formulas for enchantments O'r ceremonies and probably the history of their travels, wars, and national 465

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES events. The author also says that the people of the the better class had houses constructed on pillars of wood so that the elevation of the floor occupied by th~m was sufficiently high to enable the servants to live_beneath on the ground floor. Light vinegar and beverage were made from palmS\.

"Continuing, Tavera said: 'They cultivated the soil, planting rice, sweet potatoes and other tubercles or root crops and they know how to make instruments appropriate to husk the palay or unhulled rice, separating the grains clean and polishing it in a mortar.

'They manufactured various kinds of boats or sailing vessels, fishing instruments and weapons; they engaged in weaving from fibers of abaca or hemp, pineapple, cotton, and silk which came from China; they knew the art of embroidery, and made sculptures which represented their ancestors whom they called anitos. They worked with silver, gold, and copper to make jewelry, adornments of their weapons, and wire.

They traded taking their products to other barangays, on land or water, and they used to gather in special places where, as it was their custom, they did their marketing. Their articles of commerce were rice, fish, birds, cloths, fruits, weapons and some articles of copper and porcelain of Chinese origin, wooden plates, effecting their transactions as media of exchange in the absence of money. The gold" dust often served as a medium of exchange of the most stable value.' " While authoritative material i,s meager concerning the ancient religion of the Filipinos there is little or no doubt that such religion may be called Anitism. This is the cult of the Anito or worship of ancestral spirits.

Although some claim that the early Filipinos adored certain principal spirits and lesser spirits, our forebears 466

EDUCATION AND RELIGION even in those obscure days of the distant past believed in some sort of Supreme Being. They look up to a Bathala or Eabunian as Namarsua or Creator of the Universe.

Dr. Virchow in his work the Peopling of the Philippines says that "before Islam ancestor worship, as has long been known, was widely prevalent." He adds: "In almost every locality, every hut has its Anito with itsl special place, its own dwelling; there are Anito pictures and images, certain trees and, indeed, certain animals in which some Anito resides. The ancestor worship is as old as history, for the discoverers of the Philippines found it in full bloom, and rightly ha'sl Blumentritt characterized Anito worship as the ground form of Philippine religion."

To supplement the meager information on the early religion of the inhabitants of the Philippines, we shall reproduce pertinent excerpts gleaned from scattered sources.

Among the Igorrotes or inhabitants, of what today is known as Mountain Province, paganism is still rampant.

From an earlier period in their history to the present they believed in some kind of supreme being and inferior gods and in some abode after death. The following describes old beliefs of the Igorrotes or Igolots which to some extent still persist: "They live in villagesl of three or four hundred, with a chief in each, who is usually the richest man, and whose lands the common people cultivate. They are generally monogamous, and respect the marriage tie highly. They believe in a supreme being whom they call Apo or Lu-maoig; his wife Bangan; his daughter Bugan; and his son Ubban. There are two inferior gods Cabigat and Suyan. Their priests are called Maubunung and they heal sicknes'Si with charms and incantations. They believe in two places of abode after death: one pleasant and cheerful, for those who die a natural death; the other a real heaven, for warriors killed in battle and women who die in childbirth. They bury their dead in coffins in a sitting posi467

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES tion, in clefts or caves, and often dry the corpse over a fire.

Ancestor-worship is prevalent." (In Blair and Robertson's The Philippine Islands, Volume 14, pages 302-303).

Paul P. de La Gironiere in his Twenty Years in the Philippines translated from the French version gives the following account of the belief of the Tinguians which he gathered while traveling in the province of Abra.

"I was unacquainted with the religion of these people, so very curiouS! to study. Until then I had seen no temple; nothing that bore resemblance to an idol; I know not what God they worshipped. My guide, chatty for an Indian, gave me quickly every information n;ecessary. He told me that the Tinguians have no veneration for the stars; they neither adore the sun, 110r moon, nor the constellations; they believe in the existence of a soul, and pretend that after death it quits the body, and remains in the family. As to the god that they adore, it varies and changes form according to chance and circumstances.

And here is the reason: When a Tinguian chief has found in the country a rock, or a trunk of a tree, of a strange shape-I mean to say, representing tolerably well either a dog, cow, or buffalo-he informs the inhabitants of the village of his discovery, and the rock, or trunk of a tree, is immediately considered as a divinity-that is to say, as something superior to man. Then all the Indians repair to the appointed spot, carrying with them provisions and live hogs.

When they have reached their destination they raise a straw roof above the new idol, to cover it, and make a sacrifice by roasting hogs; then, at the sound of instruments, they eat, drink, and dance until they have no provisions: left. When all is eaten and drunk, they set fire to the thatched roof, and the idol is forgotten until the chief, having discovered another one, commands a new ceremony."

Antonio De Morga in his Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas gives a good historical account of things Philippines dur468

EDUCATION AND RELIGION ing the early part of the Spanish regime and throws considerable light upon various historical matters of interest.

This important work has been translated into English under the title Events in the Philippilne Islands published in the monumental work of Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands. A limited edition of 250 copies in two volumes was issued separately from the Blair and Robertson series containing Morga's work in English bearing the title, Morga's Philippines, Japa;n and China. From the second volume of this edition we quote the following which portrays early religious beliefs and practices including annotations of Rizal.

"In matters of religion, the natives proceeded more barbarously and with greater blindness than in all the rest. For besides being pagans, without any knowledge of the true God, they neither strove to discover Him by way of reason, nor had any fixed belief.

The devil usually deceived them with a thousand errors and blindnesses. He appeared to them in various horrible and frightful forms, and as fierce animals, so that they feared him and trembled before him.

They generally worshiped him, and made images of him in the said forms. These they kept in caves and private houses, where they offered them perfumes and odors, and food and fruit, calling them anitos. 157 "Others worshiped the sun and the moon, and made feasts and drunken revels at the conj unction of those bodies. Some worshiped a yellow-colored bird that dwells in their woods, called batala. They generally worship and adore the crocodiles when they see them, by kneeling down and clasping their hands, because of the harm that they receive from those reptiles; they believe that by so doing the crocodiles. will become appeased and leave them. Their oaths, exe157 It appears that the natives called anito a tutelary genius, either of the family, or extraneous to it. Now, with their new religious ideas, the Tagals apply the term anito to any superstition, false worship, idol, etc.-RIZAL.

469

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES crations, and promises are all as above mentioned, namely, 'May buhayan eat thee, if thou dost not speak truth, or fulfil what thou hast promised,' and similar things.

"There were no temples throughout those islands, nor houses generally used for the worship of idols; but each person possessed and made in his house his own anitos, 158 without any fixed rite or ceremony.

They had no priests or religions to attend to religious affairs, except certain old men and women called co,.. talonas. These were experienced witches and sorcerers, who kept the other people deceived. The latter communicated to these sorcerers their desires and needs, and the catalonas told them innumerable extravagancies and lies. The catalonas uttered prayers and performed other ceremonies to the idols for the sick; and they believed in omens and superstitions, with which the devil inspired them, whereby they declared whether the Ilatient would recover or die.

Such were their cures and methods, and they used various kinds of divinations for all things. All this was with so little aid, apparatus, or foundationwhich God permitted, so that the preaching of the holy gospel should find those of that region better prepared for it, and so that those natives would conf ess the truth more easily, and it would be lesls difficult to withdraw them from their darkness, and the errors in which the devil kept them for so many years.

They never sacrificed human beings as is done in other kingdoms. They believed that there was a future life where those who had been brave and performed valiant feats would be rewarded; while those 158 Others besides Morga mention oratories in caves, where the idols were kept, and where aromatics were burned in small brasiers. Chirino found small temples in Taitay adjoining the principal houses. (See Vol. XII, of this series, Chapter XXI.) It appears that temples were neV>(3r dedicated to bathala maykapal, nor was sacrifice ever offered him. The temples dedicated to the anito were called ulango.-RIZAL.

470

EDUCATION AND RELIGION who had done evil would be punished. But they did not know how or where this would be. 159 "They buried their dead in their own houses, and kept their bodies and bones for a long time in chests.

They venerated the skulls of the dead as if they were living and present. Their funeral rites did not consist of pomp or assemblages, beyond those of their own house-where, after bewailing the dead, all was changed into feasting and drunken revelry among all the relatives and friends." 160 159 San Agustin says that hell was called salad, and paradise, kalualhatian (a name st ill in existence), and in poetical language, ulugan. The blest abodes of the inhabitants of Panay were in the mountain of Madias.-RIZAL . .160 Cf. the "wake" of the Celtic and Gaelic peasants.

Cf. also the North-American Indian burial ceremonies, and reverence paid to the dead, in Jesuit R elations, I , p. 215; II, pp. 21, 14!t; III, p. 21; X, pp. 169, 247, 283-285; XIII, 259; XXI, 199; XXIII, 31; LXV, 141, etc.

In the Filipino burials, there were mourners who composed panegyrics in honor of the dead, like those made today.

"To the sound of this sad music the corpse was washed, and perfumed with storax, gum-resin, or other perfumes made from tree gums, which are found in all these woods. Then the corpse was shrouded, being wrapped in more or less cloth according to the rank of the deceased. The bodies of the more wealthy were anointed and embalmed in the manner of the Hebrews, with aromatic liquors, which preserved them from decay. * * * The burial-place of the poor was in pits dug in the ground under their own houses. After the bodies of the rich and powerful were kept and bewailed for three days, they were placed in a chest or coffin of incorruptible wood, adorned with rich jewels, and with small sheets of gold in the mouth and over the eyes. The coffin was all in one piece, and the lid was so adjusted that no air could enter. Because of 路 these precautions the bodies have been found after many years, still uncorrupted. These coffins were deposited in one of three places, according to the inclination and arrangement of the deceased, either on top of the house among treasures * * * or underneath it, but raised from the ground; or in the ground itself, in an open hole surrounded with a small railing * * * nearby they were wont to place another box filled with the best clothes of the deceased; and at meal-time they set various articles of food there in dishes. Beside the men wel'e laid their weapons, and beside the women their looms or other implements of work" (Colin) .-RIZAL.

471

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES It is important to make allowance for some of the exaggerations noted in the foregoing description of Morga who was biased in favor of the implantation of the Christian religion and, therefore, was against anything and everything that was not in conformity with the religious faith in which he himself was interested.

Isabelo de los Reyes in his interesting volume La Religion Antigua de los FilipiJnos (The Ancient Religion of the Filipinos) confirms the fact that the early inhabitants were addicted to worshipping Anitos. Now that we are to take up the impacts of other faiths upon the early religions of the Filipinos, it is worthwhile to note that Reyes in his work develops the tmesis that Brahminism, Buddhism, and Mohammedanism exerted influence upon the early religions of our ancestors.

It fs easy enough to prove the influence of Mohammedanism as there are ample evidences for even today, no little portion of our population are Mohammedans. Mohammedanism will form the subject of the following chapter.

That Buddhism also exerted influence upon early religions in the Philippines is more or less an established fact. This is to be deduced partly from the fact that the Philippines form a part of the Hindu-Malayan Empire with Sumatra as the capital. It may also be concluded from early commercial and social contacts of the inhabitants of these islands from traders of India and China. A Chinese work on Geography by Chao-Ju-Kua gives a short description of the Philippines and her people. This work also makes mention of various products of the Islands. and describes trading methods. The pertinent point in the abovementioned work which has relation to the present discussion is the existence in the Island of Luzon of small statues of Buddha which indicated a long continued intercourse between Chinese and Filipinos and points to the probabil472

EDUCATION AND RELIGION ity of Buddhist influence. Chapter XI of Chao-JU'-Kua's work discusses Ma-yi which was evidently the ancient name of Luzon. The Chinese author call the Philippine archipelago Ma-yi. The first part of the first paragraph of the Chapter reads: "The country Ma-yi is located north of Poui (Ancient Chinese name for Borneo) about 1000 families inhabit the shores of a river (probably Pasig) which has many windings. The natives dres路s in linen, wearing clothes that look like sheets; or they cover their bodies with sarongs. (Malay word for skirts). In the thick woods are scattered copper statues of Buddha, but no one can tell the origin of those statues."

Blair and Robertson commenting upon the last sentence In-'a: "footnote say: "This confirms the statement that the Philippine Islands were once under the influence of Buddhism from India."

Of the influence of Brahminism there is yet less proof that could be considered inclisputable historical evidence than that of Buddhism. Reyes thinks there is indication of Brahmin influence based on the following quaint quotation from Grijalva',s Cronica ilJe la orden de San Agustin desde 1533 a 1592: "La idolatria antigua y supers.t iciones dellos, no estana muy arraigada por que naturalmente eran poco religiosos. Aunque es assi que adoranan idolos, y recurrencianan deidad suprema, confesanan inmortalidad de las almas. Pero pareciales, que estauan siempre en cuerpos mortaies. Y assi tenian por cierta la transmigracion de vu cuerpo a otro; y en esto solo creyan que premiauan 0 castigauan los Dioses en tenerlas encarcelados en cuerpos hermosos 0 feos, pobres 0 ricos, bien 0 mal afortunados."

Reyes in Religion Antigua (p. 21) commenting on the foregoing says: "Esto era Brahmanismo" (This was Brahminism) .

473

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Another "possible point that has some semblance of historical evidence is what may be inferentially deduced from the Philippines once forming a part of the J avanBrahman empire of Madjapahit. Sumatra, a name of Sanskrit origin, played a prominent part in that ancient empire. In a note of Blair and Robertson on Antonio Pigafetta's Primo Viaggio Intorno al Mondo, we are apprised that "the ancestral home of the Malay race was in the interio"r of Sumatra, in the region of Menangkaba, whence they colonized the coasts of Sumatra and spread to outlying islands;" (The Philippine Islands, vol. XXXIV, p. 174).

Charles Wilkes in his Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition During the Years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, one of the earliest accounts of the island of J 010 and its people written by an American, speaks among other things of Sulu's success "to throw off the yoke of Borneo * * * '? Then follow these sentences which shed light upon the religions that exerted influence including Buddhism: "This event took place before Islamism became the prevailing religion; but which form of idolatry, the 8"ooloos pretend, is not now known. It is, however, believed the people on the coast were Bud (d) hists, while those of the interior were Pagans."

The subsequent chapters deal with religions established in the Philippines, at epochs comparatively less ancient in our history and therefore more susceptible of clearer proof.

474

CHAPTER

II

MOHAMMEDANISM

The inhabitants of the Philippines had early contacts with their various neighbors in the Orient with consequent inter-action in their commercial, social, political, cultural, and spiritual life. With the decline of the Empire of Madjapahit, the Philippines came in contact with Arabia mainly through Arab traders and missionaries. In the 14th century Islamism began to spread in Malaysia. The Mohammedan invasion of the Philippines belongs to the period from 1380 to 1450. The influence of Mohammedanism, therefore, began to be felt in the Islands nearly one century and a half before the first Europeans headed by Magellan set foot on Philippine soil.

The Census of the Philippine Islands for 1918 gives the first accurate information as to the classification of the people of the Philippines based upon religion. The following table succinctly presents the statistical data on this score: Population on sched- I Per cent of the ules Nos. 1 and 8 I total population I Males I Females I Males I Females.

Catholic ............. .

3,889,460 I 3,901,477 37.7 37.8 Aglipayan ........... .

6.9 6.8 715,380 I 702,068 Protestant ........... .

0.7 0.6 65,893 58, 682 1 Mohammedan ........ .

226,399 216,638 2.2 2.1 Pagan ............... . I 254,624 253,972 2.5 2.5 Buddhist ............ . I (a) 0.2 22,326 1,937 All other ............ . I 3,486 1,968 (a) I ~aJ (a) Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.

Religion

I

I

I I

I

I I

I

From the foregoing it is apparent that Mohammedanism left a permanent impress on Philippine life. It is most significant that despite the persistent attempt to extirpate it during the three centuries and more of Spanish rule and 475

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the great advance of Christianity, there should still be some half a million Filipinos in the south addicted to the Mohammedan faith. It is worthwhile at this juncture to look into the nature and character of the prophet and the religion he founded which today counts over 200 million followers in the world.

Mohammed whose name is sometimes spelled Muhammad or Mohamet was born in Mecca in the latter half of the 6th century A.D. His original name was Kutam. The exact date of his birth is not absolutely certain. Some place his birth in 562 A.D. The year usually given is 570 A.D. based on the fact that he was路 62 years old "at the known time of his death, 632 A.D." Mohammed became an orphan early, both his parents having died while he was yet an infant. His foster-mother, Halima, cared for him in his youth which was s.pent in the desert among the Bedoui:hs.

Abu Talib, his uncle, took the boy along in long journeys made by camel-caravan as far as Syria and perhaps into Abyssinia. The boy observed and learned much in these trips. He became proficient in the hazardous. business of conducting caravans and was employed when in his twenties by a rich widow 'by the name of Khadijah. ' Though several years his senior they were later married and out of the wedlock seven children were born.

Mohammed came in contact with Jews and Christians at home and in his caravan journeys. From them he learned stories in their sacred books. He had an excellent retentive memory and learned the traditions' of the Jews, Christians, and Arab pagans. He admired Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.

The city of Mecca grew around a Black Stone that is said to have fallen from the sky upon the Arabian Desert. It is not known just when the Stone fell but it acquired great importance economically and religiously.

476

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Arabians protected the stone and Meccan citizens built a house for it believing it to be heaven-sent. It became legendary and came to be called Kaaba or Cube.

An elaborate tradition has grown around the Kaaba.

Early in the seventh century A.D. the Kaaba w.as damaged by a flood. In the ceremony of replacing the Black Stone which then was held sacred there was much rivalry among tl}e families of the Koreish tribe as' to the one who should have the privilege of restoring it in its place.

To make a long story short, that honor fell upon one of their own tribesmen, Kutam, son of Abdallah and husband of the wealthy woman merchant of Mecca, Khadijah.

Kutam ceremoniously and dramatically restored the precious relic and was greatly praised by his fellows. It wa:s probably then that his name was changed to Muhammad or Mohamme1. With the change of his name a great change was wrought in the man.

Mohammed shortly became neglectful of his business.

He spent much time in a cave among the foothills of Mount Hira near Mecca meditating on religion. His selection to restore the Black Stone no doubt led him to think of divine matters. He sought solitude in the wilderness and began a deep religious experience.

Arabia at about that time was inhabited by several warring tribes. Religiously it was in the grip of superstition and paganism. Animism was becoming polytheistic.

Arabians were personifying patron saints or guardian spirits of Is acred stones, springs, trees, and mountains into gods and goddesses. There was dim recognition of Allah as the greatest but not the sole deity. The time was ripe for a unifying religion which was monotheistic.

Mohammed, obeying the voice of "a faithful spirit," felt "called" to be a prophet. Khadijah in due time became sympathetic. War aka the mystic rallied having become dissatisfied with the crude r~ligions of Arabia. Mo477

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES hammed became more confident when Ali, his cousin, Zeid, his slave, and the merchant Abu Bekr, hilS old friend and business chum, became his enthusiastic supporters. Meetings were held in the house of Arkam, an early convert, and presently the produce merchant and caravan leader as~ sumed the role of prophet and founder of a new faith which has come to be universally known as Mohammedanism.

Mohammed's message was notable for its terseness, clarity, and simplicity. It is summed up in the phrase known throughout the Mohammedan world.

"There is no god but Allah; and Mohammed is his prophet."

Mohammed came to deliver to his native Arabia the monotheistic religion which she needed. But it did not become accepted by his countrymen until after years of work, struggle, sacrifice, and no little bloodshed.

The innovation met with stiff opposition. His fellow townsmen did not take ea's ily and kindly to the preaching of Mohammed and his small circle of believers against the prevalent idolatry. The people's emnity became intense when the prophet bitterly attacked the prevailing religious customs characterizing them as superstitious and false.

He emphasized submission or Islam, the Arabic word for submission. Those who had business interests feared that people would no longer flock to Mecca to worship because of Mohammed's denunciations. Persecution increased until he and his followers were compelled to flee from Mecca to Medina. This flight called the Hegira occurred in 622 A.D. and later it became the point in time from which the Mohammedans reckoned the years.

The terrible insults and punishments he received prob~ ably were instrumental in his adoption of force typified by the sword as a part of his work of conversion. He was dissatisfied with the slow results of preaching, teaching, 478

EDUCATION AND RELIGION denouncing, and reciting of the Suras. He decided to utilize the sword to hasten the spread of the religion of Allah.

Edwin W. Pahlow in Man's Great Adventure says: "At Medina Mohammed and his followers took to plundering the caravans of those who were not of their faith ... and 'soon they became rich and strong enough to get control of their home town, Mecca."

Charles Francis Potter in The Story of Religion states: "When they attacked pilgrims during the sacred months, thus violating the ancient truce of the desert, the indignant people of Mecca sent an expedition of nine hundred men against Muhammad. He met it with three hundred at Bedr and won a victory, owing to the superior discipline of his troops and their fanatic disregard of death.

"Muhammad had revealed that the reward of one who died fighting for Islam would be immediate transition to a paradise of unspeakable bliss, where every sensual gratification would be provided. ",The effect of the victory at Bedr was to increase Muhammad's prestige. His armies did not always win in the campaign which followed, but his power grew rapidly and Mecca began to prepare for the inevitable. The Koreish decided there was no use fighting any longer against the man who had been divinely chosen to replace the Black Stone in the Kaaba wall."

Since then until the death of the Prophet the religion he espoused achieved great success throughout Arabia.

He knew his people well and adapted a religion attractive and 's uited to them. He sought to make religion light unto his followers. He dictated a book of injunctions, the Koran, consisting of 114 Suras or chapters. It is about the size of the New Testament.

H. G. Wells in A Short History of the World summarizes the reasons why Islam is a power in human affairs in these word'S: 479

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES "Yet when the manifest defects of Muhammad's life and writings have been allowed for, there remains in Islam, this faith he imposed upon the Arabs, much power and inspiration. One is its uncompromising monotheism; its simple enthusiastic faith in the rule and fatherhood of God and its freedom from theological complications. Another is its complete detachment from the sacrificial priest and the temple. It is an entirely prophetic religion, proof against any possibility of relapse towards blood sacrifice.

In the Koran the limited and ceremonial nature of the pilgrimage to Mecca is stated beyond the possibility of dispute, and every precaution was taken by Muhammad to prevent the deification of himself after death. And a third element of strength lay in the insistence of Islam upon the perfect brotherhood and equality before God of all believers, whatever their color, origin or status."

Fired by the flame of Mohammed's influence and spirit, imbued with the idea that it was his followers' "religious duty to conduct holy wars of conquest," the prophet's disciples labored to make widespread the faith synthesized in the simple creed "there is no God but Allah; and Mohammed is His prophet." Beginning with about the mfddle of the 7th Century, the advance of Mohammedanism by the sword was comparatively rapid.

To quote from Potter: "Damascus fell in 635; J erusalem in 636. The Euphrates region was won from Persia in 637. Egypt capitulated in 640. When Omar was assassinated in 644, he had carried Moslem power to the very borders of India.

"Hardly a check was suffered by the Muhammadan armies until a century after the prophet's death. All northern Africa and even Spain fell into their hand'S. At the Battle of Tours in France in 732 Charles Martel stopped them. But they held for centuries what they had gained.

480

EDUCATION AND RELIGION "When Europe suffered the eclipse of learning in the so-called Dark Ages, culture and science were kept alive in Islam. Even today when we write the date we use Arabic figures.

"Muhammadanism gradually lost its temporal power, however, and now only a small area is ruled by Moslems.

Yet in countries ruled by Christian nations, the followers of the prophet are many, and the Koran still governs the daily lives of millions."

Islamism gradually worked its way onward until it reached Malaysia early in the 13th Century. Historians state that some people in Sumatra were converted as early as 1206 A.D. and that the Malays of Malacca adopted Mohammedanism in 1276, the Javanese in 1478, and the inhabitants of the Moluccas about the middle of the 15th Century. Mohammedanism made its entry into the Philippines through Mindanao and Sulu in 1380. Saleeby says that the period of Mohammedan invasion may be fixed from 1380 to 1450.

The inhabitants of the Southland in common with the ancient Filipinos venerated Anitos or the spirits of their dead ancestors. Later with the influence exerted by people from India, they had pagan gods and mythological heroes. Bantugun was the greatest of these heroes. Offerings were made to spirits which they either believed in or feared. Upon the early religious beliefs Mohammedanism in the Philippines was built.

Just as Mohammedanism ingrafted unto itself much of Arabian superstition, fetish, animism, and sanctioned brigandage and polygamy, so Mohammedanism in the Philippines absorbed much of the superstition, custom, and Anitism of the early Filipinos and sanctioned piracy and the practice of having plural wives. Frank C. Laubach in The People of the Philippines rightly says: "While Is481

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES lam confirmed the piratical habits of the Moros, furnishing them with a philosophy which legitimatized murder and pillage, it did not start them in this evil way."

For a more detailed comprehension of Mohammedani's m in the Philippines, we are reproducing Saleeby's brief treatment of the history of Magindanao and the history of Sulu and Islamism therein which are parts of Chapters I and III in his Studies of Moro History, Law, and Religion, immediately following thi~ brief discussion.

At this point it is sufficient to state that Mohammedanism exerted a profound influence in the Philippines especially in Mindanao and Sulu. In common with the world, we inherited the Arabic numbel'iS. The new religion brought a new alphabet, a new art, a new form of government, new ideas, and above all, a new monotheistic faith.

Antonio Pigafetta, a participant of Magellan's historic expedition, in his Primo V~aggio Intorno al Mondo (First Voyage Around the World) has the following to say about Mohammedan worships in Borneo which is applicable to the Moros of Mindanao and Sulu: "Those Moros worship Mahomet. The latter's law orders them not to eat pork; as they wash the buttocks with the left hand, not to use that hand in eating; not to cut anything with the right hand; to sit down to urinate; not to kill fowls or goats without first addressing the sun; to cut off the tops of the wings with the little bits of skin that stick up from under and the feet of fowls; then to split them in twain; to wash the face with the right hand, but not to cleanse the teeth with the fingers; and not to eat anything that has been killed unles's it be by themselves. They are circumcised like the Jews." (In Blair and Robertson's The Philippine Islands, Vol. 33, pp. 227-229).

Domingo de Salazar, the Bishop of the Filipinas, in a communication to his Majesty Felipe II, dated at Manila, 482

EDUCATION AND RELIGION June 27, 1588, relates pessimistically of some of the failures or weaknesses of the Spanish rule in the islands. He refers among other things to the seeming unconcern shown with respect to checking the spread of Mohammedanism in Mindanao which he describes as "the pestilential fire."

In his own words, the good bishop writes: "The second point is that in the island of Mindanao, which is subject to your Majesty, and for many years has paid you tribute, the law of Mahoma has been publicly proclaimed, for somewhat more than three years, by preachers from Burney and Terrenate who have come there-some of them even, it is believed, having come from Mecca. They have erected and are now building mosques, and the boys are being circumcised, and there is a school where they are taught the Alcoran. I was promptly informed of this, and urged the president to !supply a remedy therefore at once, in order that that pestilential fire should not spread in these islands. I could not persuade them to go, and thus the hatred of Christianity is there; and we are striving no more to remedy this than if the matter did not concern us." (In Blair and Robertson, Philippine Islands, Vol. 7, pp. 68-69).

Fray Juan de Medina in Historia de la Orden de San Agustin de estas Islas Fili'{Yinas, a work written in 1630, makes mention of Mohammedanism having been established in the islands. His own words are: "Mohammetanism has secured a foothold in the islands, and the natives are constant in it as it does not forbid stealing or homicide, does not prohibit usury, hatred, or robbery, nor less does it deprive them of their women, in which vice they are sunken ... " The Mohammedan problem was a great problem to the Spanish officials in the Philippines just as it was to those in Spain. Expeditions were made to Borneo, Jolo, and Mindanao with a view to remedying the problem. In483

BNCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPIN ES vestigations were made in the course of these expeditions with a view to securing facts and information that would prove helpful. In 1578, Francisco de Sande "governor and captain-general for hIs Majesty of the western Islands" summoned to his presence one Magad-china, an inhabitant of Balayan, who was one of those detained in the island of Borney and who gives the following testimony shedding light upon Mohammedanism in the Philippines: "Being asked where he learned the worship of Mahoma, and who declared it to him, he said that the ancestors of the Borneans were natives of Meca, as he, the present witness, had heard; for the natives of Balayan, Manila, Mindoro, Bonbon, and that region did' not have knowledge of the said worship until the Borneans had explained it to them; they have.. done so with the natives of these islands, and therefore all these Moros now, because their ancestors learned it from the said Moros of Borney. Their language, both spoken and W1\itten, is derived from Mecca; and the said Borneans and natives of Sian and Patan possess and observe their Alcorans - the law and worship of Mahoma.

He said that in the book of the Alcoran, which the present witness has seen and has heard preached, they say and as's ert that they are enemies of the Christians. Likewise in other books they say that the Borneans have always desired to make Moros of the Christians - a thing that he has also heard declared by the caMtp (caliph) whom the said Borneans regard as a priest, and who preaches the said doctrine of Mahoma. This said catip, and others, with like expressions preach the said doctrine of Mahoma, so that the said natives observe it. They declare and publish that the law of the Christians is evil; and their own, good."

Mohammedani1:lm was taking deep root and was fast spreading over the Philippines until it was checked in the 16th century. The Spaniards with whom Moslem had 484

EDUCATION AND

R~LIGION

clashed in Europe were destined to have further encounters with them in these islands. It will be recalled that the Spaniards for over seven centuries and a half struggled to push the Moors slowly out of Spain until they were hurled across Gibraltar into Africa in the Battle of Granada ih 1492. Had not the advance of the Crescent been checked by the Cross carried to this archipelago by Spain the history of the religious faith of the Filipinos would have been entirely different. But to Spain that was victorious over the Moors in the European continent was reserved the honor and the privilege of again battling with them in the Orient.

How Catholicism checked the extension of Mohammedanism in the Philippines, the introduction of Christianity here, and its marvelous progress will be the topics to be discussed in the succeeding chapter.

485

A.

HISTORY OF MAGINDANAO AND SULU AND ISLAMISM

1

THE HISTORY OF MAGINDANAO

Before the first mass was celebrated on the northern shore of Mindanao mosques had been built on the fertile banks of the Pulangi, and before Legaspi landed on Cebu Kabungsuwan had been declared and acknowledged datu of Magindanao.

The Mohammedan conqueror of Mindanao was neither an admiral of a fleet nor a leader of an army of regular troops. He had no nation back of him to reenforce his battalions nor a royal treasury to support his' enterprise. His expedition was not prompted by mere chivalry or the gallant adventures- of discovery. He was not looking for a new route to rich lands nor searching for spices and gold dust. The emigrant sought a new land to live in, and trusted his fortune and success tp the valor of his crew and the influence of his witchcraft.

Having a fair admixture of Malay blood in him and sufficient Arabian energy and enthusiasm to push on, he came and conquered and soon found himself at home in Mindanao as well as at Juhur. There was no racial prejudice to contend against and the language of the new land was akin to his own. But true to his religion, as he was true to his ancestry, his faith suffered no defeat. No submission was accepted without conversion, and no friendship was cultivated with the unfaithfuJ. He married in the land of his conquest, and the ties of faith were soon strengthened by the ties of blood and kinship; and as the first generation passed and' the second generation followed, the conqueror and the conquered became one in blood and sympathy, one in faith, and one in purpose. A new dynasty 1 Najeeb M. Saleeby, Studies in Moro History, Law, and Religion, pp. 50-61; 155-163.

486

EDUCATION AND RELIGION which stood for Islam, for progress, and for civilization arose on the ruins of barbarism and heathenism. Savage and fierce as the Moros look, they are greatly superior to the surrounding pagans who inhabit the hills and the interior of Mindanao. Once their equals and kinsmen, they have vastly surpassed them now and are preeminently above them. With Mohammedanism came art and knowledge, .and communication with the outside world was established.

For four centuries two different agencies of civilization have been at work in the Philippine Islands. One started in the north and worked its way south, continually progressing and constantly growing in power and improving in character. The other began in the south and extended north, but it soon reached a definite limit, and like a tree stunted in its growth it reverted to its wild nature and grew thorny and fruitless. The first graft of the tree of Magindanao was not aided by later irrigation. The first wave of immigration was not reenforced, and with en ebb tide it lost most of its size and force.

The Moros of Mindanao figured very prominently in the his~ory of the Philippines. They were never united under one flag, but they formed different sultanates, some of which attained considerable power and fame. In the fullness of his glory, the sultan of Magindanao ruled over the whole southern coast of Mindanao from Point Tugubum, east of Mati, to Zamboanga, and beyond this latter point to the outskirts of Dapitan. All the pagan tribes living around the Gulf of Davao and in the Sarangani country, and all the Subanos west of Tukurun and Dapitan submitted to his power and paid him tribute. In the upper Rio Grande Valley the power of the rajas of Bwayan was felt and r.espected as far as the watershed of the Cagayan Valley on the north and the inaccessible slopes of Mount 487

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Apo on the east. The Ranao Moros controlled the whole country and the seacoast west of Cagayan de Misamis and north of the lUana Bay. The large majority of the Moro sultanates are, however, small, and have never been fully numbered or described. They generally represent small divisions of territory and subdivisions of tribes, each under one chief who calls himself sultan or datu. Nevertheless, tribal relations and language group these petty divisions into two large distinct groups, the Magindanao and the Iranun. The Ma. gindanao group includes the majority of the tribes. The Iranun group is restricted to the tribes living along the eastern coast of the Bay of Illana from the point of Polloc to the neighborhood of Tukurun, and the whole Ranao region lying between that the line and the Bay of Iligan.

The Magindanao group is the greater of the two in number, in the ext~nt of its territory, and in fame. Indeed, all the Moros of Mindanao, except the Iranun, were at once time under one influence and were brought under the sole control of the sultan of Magindanao.

The Samal Moros, who are variously elassified by different writers and who are often mentioned as one of the main divisions' of the Moros of Mindanao, are really foreign to Mindanao and belong to a distinct and separate group.

Until recently they had never been independent, but had lived under the protection of various datus, and always served the datu for the protection he afforded them, or paid him tribute. They were sea rovers and had no claim on territory anywhere. Lately they have settled down on the Island of Basilan, the Sulu Archipelago, and around the Zamboanga peninsula. The Samals were the latest of the Malay people to arrive in the Philippine Islands. In fact, they are the only Malay people of whom we have positive historical statement of emigt,a tion from the Malay 488

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Peninsula to Sulu and Mindanao, and were in all probability Mohammedans prior to their arrival in the Philippine Islands. With the Magindanao and Iranun peoples it is different. They were in the land and belonged to the native element of the country long before their conversion to Islam.

Islam was successfully introduced and firmly established in Mindanao by one man. This same man founded the sultanate of Magindanao and reformed the whole system of government among his converts. His' full name was Sharif Mohammed Kabungsuwan, generally known as Sharif Kabungsuwan.

Kabungsuwan was without doubt the greatest Mohammedan adventurer who trod the soil of the island. But both the traditions of Magindanao and its written records state that he w.as preceded by two pioneers, the first of whom was Sharif Awliya. Awliya was universally regarded as a relative and a predecessor of Kabungsuwan.

His history is wrapped in myths. He is said to have come to Mindanao in the 路.air to search for paradise, or that part of it which remain in Mindanao, and, while he was looking for it on the hill of Tantawan (Cotabato), to have found a houri who was sent to him from heaven. He married this houri and she bore a daughter called P,aramisuli.

Later the sharif returned to the west, but his wife and daughter remained in Magindanao.

The second arrival in Magindanao was Sharif Maraj,a, who married Paramisuli and was thought to have begotten Tabunaway and Mamalu, who were the chiefs of Magindanao when Kabungsuwan arrived in the land.

Sharif Maraja is said to have had a brother called Sharif Hasan, who accompanied him as far as Basilan, but who stopped there and founded the sultanate of Sulu. Whether Bidayan, the son of Sharif Hasan, who is mentioned in the fourth tan-sila, 路should be Bidin, the abbreviated form of Zainul-Abidin, who was the first sultan of Sulu, it is not 489

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES easy to say. No copy of the Sulu genealogy has been obtained as' yet, and no authoritative statement can be made.

But it is universally believed that the first sultan of Sulu came from Basilan, and that the ancestors of the sultans of Bruney, Sulu, and Magindanao were brothers.

Sharif Kabungsuwan was the son of Sharif Ali Zainul Abidin, a descendant of the Prophet Mohammed who emigrated from Hadramut, southern Arabia, to Juhur, Malay Peninsula. The sultan of J uhur was evidently a Mohammedan then, and was called Iskandar Thul-Karnayn, the Arabic appellation of Alexander the Great. The word "Sharif" is Arabic and means' "noble." It is a title which is universally given to the descendants of the Prophet Mohammed. The full title is "Sayid Sharif," the "master and noble." The Arabians generally use the first word, SOtyid, alone, but the Moros have adopted the second. Being highly respected on account of his ancestry, Zainul-Abidin was given the hand of the sultan's daughter in marriage. Her name was Jusul Asiqin, a corrupted form of the Arabic name "Jawzul-'Ashiqin." It is generally believed that she bore three children, the youngest of whom was called Kabungsuwan. The word "Kabungsuwan" is Malay and means "the youngest." The names of the two older brothers of Kabungsuwan were variously given. They were not mentioned in the ta.rsila. and have been obtained from mere traditions. One authority gave them as Ahmad and Alawi, the other as Mohammed and Ahmad. Both authorities agreed on the fact that the oldest founded the sultanate of Bruney, and the second the sultanate of Sulu.

Kabungsuwan probably knew some Arabic, but he necessarily spoke and used the Malay language, his mother's tongue.

The incidents connected with his departure from Juhuf are of considerable historical interest. No dates have been obtained relative to this departure. The early Moros never 490

EDUCATION AND RELIGION dated their events or documents. Their narratives were very brief and crude. When they dated their events or wars they used a cycle of eight years, and designated its years by the letters A, H, J, Z, D, B, W, D. Whenever one cycle ended they began another without any relation or reference to the corresponding Mohammedan year. The earliest date that has been obtained which has' immediate bearing on Mindanao history is that Bwisan, the father of the Corralat of Combes, was living in 1597; the next date was that of Corralat's defeat by General Corcuera in 1636.

Bwisan had two older brothers, and he was probably preceded in the sultanate by both of them. His father, Bangkaya, was the son of Makaalang, the son of Kabungsuwan.

It will therefore be within safe limits to say that Kabungsuwan's departure from Juhur or his arrival in Mindanao occurred about the end of the fifteenth or the beginning of the six.teenth ,,\entury. Captain Forest, who visited Magindanao in 1775, placed that event roughly at A. D. 1475, which is near enough to assume as correct.

Tarsita No. II states that there departed with Sharif Kabungsuwan from Juhur many people who were dispersed by the storm and ultimately found their way to different ports. The places to which they went were Balimbang, Bangjar, Kuran, Tampasuk, Bruney, Sandakan, Sulu, Malabang, Tubuk, and Mindanao. There is no doubt that this statement refers to an emigration from Juhur east as far as Mindanao, and that with this emigration came Kabungsuwan. The Samal people generally believe that they came from Juhur and its neighborhood. The traditions of Magindanao distinctly state that the people who came with Kabungsuwan were Samals. The Samals or Bajaws are the 's ea nomads of the Malay Archipelago and their emigrations are frequent.

The Samals of the Sulu Archipelago are ruled by the Sulu datus and are generally very submissive. They are 491

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES allowed to live on Sulu soil, but they have never made themselves independent anywhere. Indeed, all the evidence that can be obtained seems to point distinctly to the fact that they are of late arrival and do not belong to the older peoples of the Philippine Islands.

The early Magindanao records give the impres路sion that the arrival of Kabungsuwan and the conversion of the people of Magindanao to Islam were accomplished peaceably. The word Samal is never mentioned and the Samals are always considered as aliens in every respect. The Samals seem never to have settled in Magindanao itself, but they did settle for some time on the Island of Bongo or Bungud, that lies. opposite the mouth of the Pulangi, and at Batwan and Banago, near Malabang. From these places they moved later to Sibugay and Sarangani and the Gulf of Davao. Combes called the Samals Lutaw and said that they were in the employ of Corralat, and manned some of his boats, fighting and carrying on piracy side by side with the people of Magindanao and with the Iranun. Summing up the preceding evidence, we can unhesitatingly say that the Samals came to Magindanao with Kabungsuwan, but that they did not settle on the soil of Magindanao, nor did they intermarry sufficiently to assimilate with the Magindanao people.

The character of the conquest Kabungsuwan achieved and the bearing it has on the admixture of races in Mindanao is therefore of special interest. When Kabungsuwan arrived at the mouth of the Pulangi there were on the neighboring soil of Magindanao the following settlements: Slangan, Magindanao proper, Lusud, Matampay, Tagiman, and Katitwan. The first and the last were probably the greatest and the strongest of all, for they were the first to meet Kabungsuwan and interrupted his advance at Tinundan. After some fighting they were evidently defeated and retreated up the river. The people of Magin492

EDUCATION AND RELIGION danao, under the leadership of the brothers Tabunaway and Mamalu, came next, but their attitude was not hostile.

For some reason they secured an alliance or agreement with Kabungsuwan and invited him to Magindanao. They submitted to a form of Mohammedan baptism and to circumcision, and towed Kabungsuwan's boat from that place up to Magindanao. Hence the meaning of the word tinundan, the place of towing. The ceremony for circumcision occurred at Katuri, the little settlement on the river just opposite ,Cotabato; the baptism or washing occurred at Paygwan at the mouth of the river. The word katur-i means circumcision.

The dumatus urge that Tabunaway and Mamalu had been Mohammedans previous to that incident and that they had some intimate relation to Kabungsuwan. This is possible, but it is very difficult to understand how such a submission could have been enforced or obtained had Kabungsuwan been a mere relative and guest whom they had never . seen before. The people of Magindanao proper were, even in the best days of the sultanate, far outnumbered by the people of Slangan. Yet, soon after his arrival in Magindanao, Kabungsuwan went on conquering and converting to Islam all the surrounding tribes and chiefs, and succeeded. This seems impo's sible of achievement unless Kabungsuwan had some force with him which commanded the fear and respect of the natives, and which, with the aid of Magindanao, was able to carry his arms to victory over all the neighboring native chiefs and tribes of the land. This force was in all probability made up of the Samals who accompanied him from Juhur and who remained in his service and in the neighboring seas for a certain period of time. But having married in Mindanao, the succession to Kabungsuwan's sultanate naturally reverted to the native element, and the Samals were gFadually alienated and their sympathy with their master grew 493

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES steadily weaker. Not being agricultural in their habits and preferring the sea, they gradually withdrew from Magindanao. The natives proved superior to the Samals and, though converted to Islam, they preserved, to a great extent, their own identity and their language. Knowing how insignificant the former chiefs and their settlements had been, it is not difficult for us to conceive how Kabungsuwan, with a small foreign force but with superior talent and with 's uperior arms, could so easily accomplish the conquest of Magindanao. It is commonly believed that the natives who fought Kabungsuwan had no swords and depended chiefly on their wooden arrows as implements of war, and that the Mohammedans who attacked the natives fought with swords and gained an easy victory. Possibly they used gunpowder, too.

The inhabitants of Slangan, Magindanao, Katitwan, and those of all the other settlements of the valley were pagans and were very similar to the present Tirurays in language and worship. Those who adopted the new religion remained in the rich lowlands of the valley, but those who refused fled to the mountains and have stayed away ever since. Those who wavered in accepting the new terms of submission and who were later suffered to stay in the neighboring hills were called Tiruray. Those who refused to submit, fled to more distant places, and kept up theIr enmity and opposition were called Manobos. The pagans who are thus spoken of as related to the Moros of Mindanao in origin, besides the above, are the Bilans, the T.agabilis, and the Subanos.

Every settlement of these former pagan tribes had its chief. The chief was called tinnway. Tabunaway was the last timway of Magindanao. Manumbali was the last timway of Slangan. The Tirurays and the Manobos still call their chief tirnway. The ruler of the Mohammedan dynasty assumed the title of datu. The noun datu means 494

EDUCATION AND RELIGION king or ruler; the verb datu means to rule. Kabungsuwan retained the title sharif. His son Maka-alang also is always referred to as sharif. Later the term datu prevailed, and the first datu who is mentioned in the tarsila as ~ultan was Sultan Qudrat, whom Combes called Corralat.

Soon after Kabungsuwan had established his power in Magindanao he received the submission of many chiefs, all of whom he converted to Islam. Later he advanced up the valley to Bawyan and along the coast to Malabang.

Some believe that he went to the Ranao country, but it ig difficult to support all the statements made. His descendants and his converts carried on the war and the conversion, so that before the Spaniards reached their country their conquest and conversion had reached the present limits.

The story of Putri Tunina and her marriage to Kabungsuwan is universally known to the Moros of Mindanao. The custom of burying the dead next to the house, as practiced by Tabunaway, is still common everywhere, and trees are often planted around the tomb.

By Sarabanun, the sister of Tabunaway, Kabungsuwan begot no children. By Putri Tunina he begot three daughters, one of whom, Putri Mamur, married the first Moslem datu of B wayan , Malang-sa-Ingud. At Malabang Kabungsuwan married Angintabu, the daughter of the chief of that place, and begot Sharif Maka-alang, who succeeded him.

The people of Magindanao who aided Kabungsuwan in his wars secured from him certain privileges and favors over their neighbors. These privileges are still claimed by the dumatus, the present descendants of Tabunaway. They have not paid tribute to the datus and have often Slangan.

The descendants of Manumbali and hrs subjects all became subjects and servants to the datus. Their descendants are, however, still known and live in Lugaylugay, about 1 mile below Cotabato, and on the same side of the Pulangi.

495

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Little is known about Sharif Maka-alang. He in all probability ruled in Magindanao, not in Malabang. His wife was a Bilan woman related to Parasab, a Bilan chief.

Bangkaya succeeded Maka-alang and married three wives, daughters of the principal chiefs of Slangan, Magindanao, and Matampay, by each one of whom he begot a son. His sons were Dimasangkay, Gugu Sarikula, and Kapitan Lawut Bwisan, all of whom became datus and succeeded to the rule of Magindanao in order. Sarikula married a Sulu princes called Raja Putri, who wu!s supposed to be the noblest lady of her day in Magindanao and who probably was the daughter of the sultan of Sulu. The word Putri is equivalent to "princess," and Raja Putri means "royal princess." Kapitan means "holder" or "leader." Lawut is a Malay word meaning "sea;" Bwis means "tax." Kapitan Lawut Bwisan distinguished himself more than his predecessors and was the most powerful enemy Spain encountered in. the ,s outh in her first effort to reduce the Moro land. In 1597, in company with Silungan, the raja of Bwayan, he checked the invasion of Marquis Rodriguez and defeated him at Tampakan.

Bwisan was succeeded by his son, Sultan Dipatwan Qudrat, the Corralat of Combes. The word Dipatwan is Malay in origin and means "master" or "sir." The word qudrat is Arabic and means "power." The letters d and r and rand l are interchangeable in Moro, and the word qudrat is commonly pronounced kudlat or kurlat; hence the corrupted form "Corralat." Sultan Qudrat overshadowed his father, Bwisan, and ruled with a strong hand. He was probably the strongest and greatest Mindanao sultan that ever lived. He fought the Spaniards bitterly and held their sovereignty in check for many years.

His pirates terrorized Luzon and the Visayas and controlled the southern seas for a long time.

496

EDUCATION AND RELIGION In 1636 General Corcuera led an expedition against him and after a considerable difficulty reduced his fort and defeated his forces. Qudrat appears to have had a large number of firearms, and his fort was very strongly fortified. The Spaniards captured 8 bronze cannons, 27 lantaka or culverins, and 100 muskets.

In 1645 his relations with Spain had undergone a distinct change. He had become more powerful, but he was desirous of peace and made a treaty with the Spanish Government. This treaty was in the nature of an alliance for mutual aid and protection. It secured better commercial facilities and gave the Jesuits the privilege of building a church in the sultan's capital. Thirteen years later hostilities were renewed and another campaign was directed against Simway. This time Qudrat succeeded in blocking the river at different places and successfully checked the invasion.

Qudrat was followed by his son, Dundang Tidulay, of whom very little i's known. Sultan Dundang Tidulay begot Sultan Mohammed sa-Barahaman and Sultan Mohammed Kaharu-d-Din Kuda. Barahaman ruled peacefully and begot several children, two of whom Japar Sadik Manamir and Dipatwan Anwar, became sultans.

After the death of Sultan Barahaman his son Manamir was declared sultan. As Manamir was very young, his succession was considered illegal and an act of enmity directed against his uncle, Kuda. Kuda therefore "usurped the government and went to Simway, carrying with him the effects of the deceased 'Sultan."

Civil war ensued and the peace of the state was greatly disturbed. This war must have last.ed more than thirty years, and its story is variously related by the Moros. The tarsila do not mention it at all. The best description was given by Captain Forest, who learned its details from the 497

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES mouth of Pakir Mawlana, the chief person who conducted the campaign and terminated the struggle.

Kuda invited a party of Sulus living in Magindanao to Simway to support him against his nephew. The Sulus came, but finding him with only a small force, they treacherously murdered him and plundered his camp and possessed themselves of many pieces of heavy cannon, which Kuda had transported from Magindanao to Simway. "The Sulus returned home with their booty, and Manamir's party got the ascendency." But the Sulus, conscious of their iniquity and fearful of resentment when peace should be restored, fomented trouble between Manamir and his brother Anwar, and supported the latter. The state was again divided against itself, and the second struggle proved worse than the first. Skirmishes were kept up and nightly attacks and assassinations were continued until both sides were very much weakened. Their enmity grew bitter and Malinug, the son (l)f Anwar, killed his uncle Manamir.

Manamir was the rightful sultan, and on account of his assassination he has ever since been called Sahid Mupat, which means "died a martyr." Pakir Mawlana and Pakaru-d-Din, the sons of Sahid Mupat, were obliged to leave Magindanao, and retired to Tamontaka. "The country then suffered much. The great palace at the town was first plundered and then burned. In the conflagration many of the houses of Magindanao were destroyed, as, was also a great part of the town of Slagan. The groves. of coconut trees were also mostly destroyed, as being convenient and at hand to make palisades for temporary forts."

In the meantime Sultan Anwar died at Batwa and has ever since been referred to as Mupat Batwa, which means "died in Batwa." Malinug assumed the sultanate after his father's death and kept up the fight.

"After a tedioU's, desultory war, Malinug fled up the Pulangi to Bwayan. Pakir Mawlana then got possession of 498

EDUCATION AND RELIGION all the lands about Magindanao, and peace was made soon after. Malinug died a natural death, and some time later his two sons visited Pakir-Mawlana."

Pakir Mawlana was a man of low stature, smiling countenance, and communicative disposition. He acquired a great reputation for wisdom and bravery during the civil war, which he brought to a happy conclusion. He spoke Malay and . wrote the best tarsila of Magindanao. Magindanao flourished in his day and regained its former glory and prosperity. His pirates invaded the Celebes and had several encounters with Dutch and English vessels, often with success. His relations with Spain were friendly, but Spain had very little influence outside of the Zamboanga colony.

The greater r>art of Magindanao was in his, days built on the point and the adjacent narrow strip of land which lies at the junction \of the Matampay and the Pulan~i and between them. A longitudinal raised street began at the point and extended .for half a mile to a canal which was cut from river to river. More than 150 houses were situated on both sides of this street. The town of Slangan was really continuous with Magindanao and extended for about half a mile down the river, forming one continuous street.

Slangan was the larger town and had over 200 houses. Both towns had large numbers, of mechanics, vessel builders, and merchants. Many Chinese carpenters, arrack distillers, and millers lived in both towns, but chiefly in Slangan.

Gardens and rice fields ~'urrounded the town. The chief datus at that time had forts and kept small bodies of troops as bodyguards and artillery corps to take care of the muskets and gUll'S. Kibad Sahriyal, son of the sultan, had the best and strongest fort at that time. This fort was called Kuta Intang (diamond fort) and was located at the extreme point of the land and commanded the river and the town. The fort had five pieces of cannon, 6 and 9 pound499

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ers, and a large number of swivels and lantaka. The Magindanao warriors of those days wore armor coats and helmets and carried krises, spears, and shields. The natives made gunpowder and secured their saltpeter from a cave near Taviran. They built vessels of all dimensions and cruised as far as Java and the Celebes. Their vessels were ~lways long for the breadth and very broad for their draft of water.

In 1774 Mawlana retired from office in favor of his brother, Pakaru-d-Din. Pakar was a weaker man than his brother and practically had very little control over affairs, and always acted in important state questions with the advice and consent of Kibad, his nephew. During his time the English tried to get Bongo Island and to establish a footing near the mouth of the Pulangi.

Sultan Pakaru-d-Din was succeeded by Kibad Sahriyal, who possessed many of the good qualities of his, father and ruled with firmness and success. In the meantime the power of Spain in Mindanao had revived and her forces became active again. Kibad maintained friendly relations with Spain and signed a treaty with her in 1794, in which he promised not to enter into any treaty or agreement with another power.

Like his father he had many wives and concubines and begot many children, chief among whom are Sultan Kawasa and Alamansa Sul-Karnayn.

Kawasa succeeded hi,s. father and maintained the dignity of his office and the prosperity of his sultanate. He is often called Anwaru-d-Din (lights of religion) and Amiru-I-Umara (the prince of the princes). He had many children, chief of whom was Intirinu or Amirul.

Alamansa died at Dansalan. He had many children, two of whom were Raja Twa and Datu Dakula, the prince of Sibugay. Raja Twa begot Untung and Perti. The nation looked to Raja Twa to succeed Sultan Kawasa, but he 500

EDUCATION AND RELIGION died before his uncle, and the sultanate fell to his young son, Untung. Intirinu wa:s rejected for family reasons and Datu Dakula was set aside to give representation to the favorite house of Twa. Untung was known as Sultan Sakandar Qudratu-lLah (Alexander, the power of God). He wa:s also surnamed Jamalu-I-A'lam (A'zham), which means "greatest beauty."

Qudrat the Second was the last sultan who observed all the customs and rites of the sultanate. He was young when he assumed power, and his reign marked the beginning of the downfall of the sultanate and the actual occupation by Spain of the Rio Grande Valley. In the treaty of 1837 he submitted to the sovereignty of Spain and accepted the subordinate title of Feudatory King of Tamontaka. Spain appointed his successor and prohibited his people from invading any territory west of Point Flechas. She regulated the licensing of boats sailing beyond Zamboanga and erected a trading house at Paygwan, at the mouth of the Rio Grande.

In 1843 Datu Dakula ceded to Spain the west coast of the Zamboanga peninsula, promised to aid in suppressing slavery, and acknowledged Spanish protection.

In 1845 Sultan Qudrat confirmed the treaty of 1837, with a more definite submission, and allowed the establishment of a Spanish trading house at Cotabato.

This aggression on the part of Spain was prompted by her increased strength and an additional naval revival.

Steamboats and improved firearms ended Moro aggression and solved the Moro question. In 1851 Polloc was occupied and was made a naval station. In 1857 Spanish boats advanced as far up as Tambao and drew up a treaty with the sultan of Talakuku in which he acknowledged his surrender and his submission to the authority of Spain. In 1861 camps were established at Cotabato, Libungan, Tambao, Taviran, and Tamontaka.

501

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Sultan Qudrat begot Mamaku, Ambuludtu, Mastura, Raja Putri, and others. Mamaku is the present Raja Muda of Magindanao and lives at Cran, Sarangani. Ambuludtu and Mastura are living at Nuling, abqut 1 mile above Cotabato. Raj a Putri, generally known as the Princesa, was Datu Utu's wife.

Sultan Mohammed Makakwa, the son of Intirinu, succeeded Qudrat. He was the last sultan of Magindanao who lived in Cotabato. The Spaniards paid him a monthly salary of 70 pesos, but kept him under complete control. In his days modern Cotabato was built, and in 1871 it was made the capital of Mindanao. An earthquake destroyed the town that year, and in 1872 it was abandoned as路 capital in favor of Za~boanga.

Makakwa died about 1883, and his son, Pablu, became sultan. Pablu's fun title was Sultan Mohammed Jalalu-dDin Pablu. He lived at Banuou, opposite Cotabato, and was the last sultan who received a salary from the Spanish Government.

In 1884 the Spanish engaged the forces of Idris, the sultan of Talakuku, on the banks of the river at Tambao and completely defeated him. Idris路 then signed a treaty acknowledging unconditional surrender and submission.

During Pablu's life General Terrero conducted the campaign of 1886-87 against Datu Utu of Bwayan, and the Spanish gunboats destroyed every fort on the river.

Datu Utu resisted the Spanish invasion vigorously and repeatedly, but he was repeatedly defeated, and the Moros of the Rio Grande felt convinced that the arms of Spain were much superior to their own, and have submitted peacefully ever since. Pablu's 路sultanate was nominal and powerless. In 1888 Pablu died, and the seat of the sultanate remained vacant until about 1896 .. Pablu died without a male heir. Mamaku, the Raja Muda of Magindanao, did not meet the requirements of the SUltanate, so the sul502

:EDUCATION AND RELIGION tanate passed over to the house of Datu Dakula the First.

The prince of Sibugay had three sons, Pagat, Puyu or J amalu-I-Kiram, and Datu Dakula the Second. Pugat, the eldest, begot Mamuppun, the last prince of Sibugay, and Mangigin. Datu Dakula the Second begot Datu Dakula the Third, who lives at Kumaladan, at the head of Damanquilas Bay. Mamuppun was pa:ssed over by the council of the datus in favor of Mangigin, the present sultan.

Mangigin is a weak man. After his succession he went to Libungan and lived there during Spanish rule. After the Spanish evacuation and after the attack on Cotabato

by Datus Ali, Jimbangan, and Piang, which occurred in 1899, he became fearful of the Saraya datus and returned to peaceful Sibugay, his birthplace and the land of his father.

In her conquest of Mindanao Spain directed her forces against the district of Sibugay first, and then against Mindanao. The district of Sibugay was in a state of complete submission before the Rio Grande Moros were controlled.

The subjection of Sibugay advanced to such an extent that in 1896 the region was- divided into three districts, to each one of which a datu was assigned by Spanish authority. The datus received orders and directions from the governor of Zamboanga direct, and an annual tax of one real was imposed upon every Subano and Moro and male above the age of 18 years.

RISE AND PROSPERITY OF SULU

Sulu Before Islam The Genealogy of Sulu is a succinct analysis of the tribes or elements which constituted the bulk of the early inhabitants of the island and is the most reliable record we have of the historical events which antedated Islam.

503

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The original inhabitants of the island are commonly referred to as Buranun or Budanun, which means "mountaineers" or "hill people." This term is occasionally used synonymously with Gimbahanun, which means "people of the interior," and with Manubus in the sense of "savage hill people" or "aborigines." Some of the old foreign residents of Sulu maintain that they recognize considerable ~imilarity between the Buranun and the Dayaks of Borneo, and say that the home utensils and clothes of the SuIus in the earlier days closely resembled those of the Dayaks.

The capital of the Buranun was Maymbung. The earliest knowtn. ruler of Maymbung Was Raja Sipa'd the Older, of whom nothing is related except that he was the ancestor of Raja Sipad the Younger. In the days of the latter there appeared Tuan Ma路s ha'ika, about whose ancestry there seems to be considerable ambiguity and difference of opinion. According to the Genealogy of Sulu he was supposed to have issued out of a stalk of bamboo, and was held by the people as a prophet. The traditions state that Tuan Masha'ika was the son of J amiyun Kulisa and Indira Suga, who came to Sulu with Alexander the Great.

J amiyun Kulisa and Indira Suga are mythological names 1 and in all probability represent male and female gods related to the thunderbolt and the sun, respectively.

The former religion of the Sulus was of Hindu origin. It deified the various phenomena of nature and assigned the highest places in its pantheon to Indra, the sky; Agui, the fire; Vayu, the wind; Surya, the sun. The ancient Sulus no doubt had many myths relating to the marriages and heroic deeds of their gods by which natural phenomena were explained, and it is not unlikely that the above story 1 J amiyun is Sanskrit and means brother or sister's son; ~ulisa is Indra's thunderbolt. Indra is one of the names of the WIfe of Vishnu; Suga, Sulu, the sun.

504

EDUCATION AND RELIGION of J amiyun Kulisa was one of those myths. Taken in this light, the above legend may express the belief of the ancient Sulus that, by the marriage of the gods, Jamiyun Kulisa and Indira, rain fell and life was so imparted to the soil that plants grew.

The word Masha'ika is so written in the Malay text as to suggest its probable formation from two words Ma,sha and ika. The Sanskrit word Masha means "pulse" or "plant." Ika or eka means "one." On the other hand masha-ika may represent the two parts of the Sanskrit mashika which means "five mashas." It may not therefore be improbable that mlkSha'ika refers to the subordinate deity which assumes the form of a plant or signifies the first man, whom the deity created from a plant. It is not an uncomm,on feature of Malay legends to ascribe a supernatural origin to the ancestor of the tribe, and Tuan Masha'ika probably represents the admission into the Buranun stock of foreign blood and the rise of a chief not descended from Rajah Sipad the Older. The tarsila 1 adds that he married the daughter of Raja Sipad the Younger, Iddha,2 and became the forefather of tlie principal people of Sulu.

The common belief among the Sulus that Alexander the Great invaded their island is one of many indications which lead one to think that most of their knowledge and traditions came by the way of Malacca or Juhur, and possibly Tuan Masha'ika came from the same direction. It does seem therefore as if the dynasty of Sipad was supplanted by a foreign element represented by Tuan Masha'ika.

These two elements were later augmented by the Tagimaha who settled at B'wansa and along the coast west 1 Genealogies; see Vol. IV, pt. 1, p. 11, Ethnological Survey Publications.

2 Sanskrit; sunshine.

505

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES of that point, and by the Baklaya who settled on the same coast east of the present site of Jolo. The four tribes thus brought so closely together mixed very intimately and later lost their identity in the development of a single nation, which reached its maturity under the guiding hand of a Mohammedan master. In spite of later immigrations to the island and in spite of conquest and defeat, the national character thus formed has remained unchanged throughout history and the Sulu of to-day still maintains that same individuality which he acquired in his earlier days.

The noted emigration of the Bajaws or Samals of Juhur must have begun in the earlier parts of the fourteenth century, if not earlier. These sea nomads came in such large numbers and in such quick succession as to people the Whole Tawi-tawi Group, the Pangutaran and Siasi Groups, all available space on the coast of Sulu proper. the Balangingi Group, and the coasts of BasiIan and Zamboanga. before the close of the century and before the arrival of the firf;t Mohammedan pioneers.

The Samals exceeded the Sulus in number, and the effect of such overwhelming immigration m'ust have been considerable; but. nevertheless. the Sulu maintained his nationality and rose to the occasion in a most remarkable manner. The newcomers were taken into his fold and were given his protection. for which they rendered noteworthy service; put their relation was never allowed to exceed that of a slave to his master or that of a subject to his ruler. and the Samals thus r"e mained like strangers or guests in the land until a late date.

Besides the Samals. some Bugis 1 and Ilanun emigrants gained a foothold on the northern and northeastern coast of Sulu. The Bugis appear to have lost their identity.

1 Natives of the Celebes; they were often called by the Spaniards Macassars.

606

EDUCATION AND RELIGlON but the Ilanun are still recognizable in many localities, and some of the principal datus of Sulu still trace their origin to Mindanao.

The numerous and extensive piratical expeditions undertaken by the Sulus from time immemorial must have been a great source of further influx of foreign blood.

The earliest traditions say that, in the days of the Timway, 1 Orangkaya Su'il, slaves or hostages were sent by the raja of Manila to secure the friendship of the Sulus.

These slaves were, according to some accounts, of six colors, but the written records give them as four-red-eyed, white-eyed, blue-eyed, and black-eyed. The people do not entertain any doubt relative to the truth of these statements, and the custom is current even among the Samals of referring to the origin of some person as descended from the red-eyed slave, in making distinction as to whether he comes from a noble or is of low birth and as to the part of the country to which he belongs. According to general opinion the red-eyed slaves lived at Parang, the western section of the island; the white-eyed at Lati, the northern section lying to the east of Jolo; the black-eyed at Gi'tung, the middle and southern section; the blue-eyed at Lu'uk, the eastern section.

This color distinction is difficult to explain, but it must have arisen out of the established custom of dividing slaves and captives, after returning from a piratical expedition, among the great chiefs of the various parties which composed the expedition. These parties as a rule belonged to four sections representing the four great districts of the island, over each of which one chief formerly was in authority.2 1 Timway or tumuway, meaning "leader" or "chief," is the title given to the chiefs of the land before Islam. Timway has been replaced by datu.

2 It is possible that this color distinction arose from an early

507

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The number of elements which have thus entered into the constitution of the Sulu people must be great, for there was not a single island in the Philippine Archipelago which was spared by these marauders. Indeed, the nation owes its origin and its chief characters to piracy. As pirates these people took refuge in this island and lived in it, and as pirates they have stamped their reputation on the annals of history.

However, the SuI us do not differ in this particular point from the Malays of other countries. All Malays were equally addicted to piracy. "It is in the Malay's nature," says an intelligent Dutch writer, "to rove on the seas in his prau, as it is in that of the Arab to wander with his steed on the sands of the desert. It is as impossible to limit the adventurous life of a Malay to fishing and trading as to retain a Bedouin in a village or in a habitation. * * * This is not merely their habit; it may be termed their instinct." 1 "As surely as spiders abound where there are nooks and corners," says another, "so have pirates sprung up wherever there is a nest of islands offering creeks and shallows, headlands, rocks, and reefs-facilities, in short, for lurking, for surprise, for attack, and for escape. The semi barbarous inhabitant of the Archipelago, born and bred in this position, naturally becomes a pirate. It is as natural to him to consider any well-freighted, ill-protected boat his property as it is to the fishing eagle above his head to sweep down upon the weaker but more hard-working bird and swallow what he has not had the trouble of catching." superstition or belief of Hindu origin assigning those divisions of the island to the four respective Hindu deities, who are generally represented by those four colors.

1 Quoted in Keppel's "Visit to the Indian Archipelago," p. 127.

508

EDUCATION AND RELIGION So we are told that before the days of Makdum and Raja Baginda, Sulu had long been an emporium not only of regular traders from most nations, but the headquarters of those piratical marauders who there found a ready market for enslaved victims.

Introduction of Islam and the Rise of a Mohammedan Dynasty in Sulu, 1380-1450 To this period belongs the Mohammedan invasion of the Archipelago. If the Buranun 1 were Dayaks' in origin, they certainly did not keep their Dayak characteristics very long. For in all probability Tuan Masha'ika, the Tagimahas, and the Baklayas were Malays2 who came into Sulu from the west, and the dynasty established by Masha'ika must have exercised due influence on the Buranun. vVhatever religion or customs these Malay conquerors had in their original land, they no doubt continued to practise in their new home. It does not appear that the Samals produced any change in this respect, and the same worship and social organization which the Sulus had remained unchanged until the Mohammedans reached the Archipelago.

The two prominent characters who mark this era are Makdum and Raja Baginda. Makdum was a noted Arabian judge or scholar who arrived at Malacca about the middle of the fourteenth century, converted Sultan Mohammed Shah, the ruler, to Islam and established this religion throughout the state of Malacca. He evidently practised magic and medicine and exerted an unusually strong influence on the people of Malacca. Continuing 1 This term is applied in Sulu in the same sense as the Malay terms Orang-banua and Orang-bukit, meaning hill tribes or abrigines, or, as they say in Mindanao, Manubus.

2 This term is used here in the same sense as Orang-Malayu meaning the better or seacoast Malays.

509

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES farther east, he reached Sulu and Mindanao about the year 1380. 1 In Sulu, it is said, he visited almost every island of the Archipelago and made converts to Islam in many old capital of Sulu, and the Island of Tapul. It is said that the people of Bwansa built a mosque for him, and some of the chiefs of the town accepted his teachings and faith.

The Tapul people claim descent from him, and some of them still regard him as a prophet.

Makdum's success in preaching a new faith to people as independent in their individual views and as pertinacious in their religious practices, beliefs, and customs as the Sulus must have been in his time, is certainly remarkable and creditable to a high degree. The results of his mission to Malacca and Sulu throw a new light on the history of Islam in the Philippine Islands and modify the opinion formerly held relative to its introduction by the sword.

How much of a lasting effect the teachings of Makdum could have had on Sulu is very difficult of estimation, but in all probability the new sapling planted in the soil of Sulu would have withered before long had it not been for the future current of events which watered it and reared it to maturity.

Some time after Makdum (the Genealogy of Sulu says ten years) there came into Sulu a prince from Menangkabaw called Raja Baginda. Menangkabaw2 is a rich, high region in central Sumatra, from which many Malayan dynasties seem to have come. Raja was the usual title applied to all Malayan kings. Baginda is said to have touched 1 The determination of this date and that of the rule of Abu Bakr is covered by a complete statement which will appear in the chapter on the eady Mohammedan missionaries in Sulu and Mindanao, to be published in a later paper.

2 The first historic set of Malay rule was Pagar Ruyong (in the mountains of Sumatra), the capital of the so-called "Empire of Menangkabaw." (Malay-English Dictionary, R. J. Wilkinson, III, 2.)

510

EDUCATION AND RELIGION at Sambuwangan (Zamboanga) and Basilan before reaching Sulu. The nature of such a move can not be explained unless he followed the northern route leading from Borneo to Kagayan Sulu, Pangutaran, and Zamboanga, which route seems to have been taken by all Mohammedan missionaries and invaders mentioned in the tarsila.

The written records of Baginda's arrival and his later places. The Island of Sibutu claims his grave, but the places at which he was most successful are Bwansa, the history are exceedingly brief. When he arrived at Bw:ansa, the Sulus came out to engage him in battle, as we would naturally expect; but, the tarsila continues, on learnthat he was a Mohammedan, they desisted from fighting, invited him to stay with them, and seem to have entertained him very hospitably. Such an account is absurd on the face of it. Raja Baginda was not a trader' nor a traveler touring the Archipelago. He was accompanied by ministers and no doubt came to Bwansa to stay and rule.

His coming was an ordinary kind of invasion, which proved successful. When Abu Bakr reached Bwansa, as we will learn later, he was directed to Raja Baginda, who must have been the sup,r eme ruler of Bwansa. Accordingly we find all the chiefs of Sulu enumerated in the tarsila at the day of Baginda's arrival subordinate in rank, having no "rajas" among them.

The Genealogy of Sulu is as misleading as the tars1la of Magindanao in that it pictures the arrival of Baginda as peaceful as that of K.abungsuwan. Some of the chiefs who were Mohammedans possibly intrigued against their former overlords, and, joining Baginda's forces, defeated their opponents; but the dearth of information relative to this early Philippine history renders it impracticable to secure any more light on the subject. It may not, however, be out of place to remind the reader that the four511

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES tee nth century was marked by unusual activity in methods of warfare. Gunpowder, wnich was known and used as an explosive long before that date, had not been made use of in throwing projectiles in battle. The Arabs, we know, used firearms early in the fourteenth century, and we may conjecture that they introduced such weapons into Malacca and other parts of Malaysia as they moved east. It is not improbable then that a prince coming from Sumatra was provided with firearms which overawed the ignorant inhabitants of BWansa and subdued the valor and courage of the Sulu and Samal pirates of those days. The statement made in the tarsila of Magin'danao that, after the people of Slangan came down the river to where Kabungsuwan was anchored, "He beckoned (or pointed his finger) to them, but one of them died on that account, and they were frightened and returned," is the only kind of evidence found which can possibly be interpreted to indicate that a firearm was used. Lacking confirmation as this may be, yet we positively know that when the Spaniards reached these Islands, these people had an abundance of firearms, muskets, lantaka 1 and other cannon, and we may be justified in saying that probably firear'ms existed in the land in the century preceding the arrival of the Spaniards. This brings us approximately down to Baginda's days.

In considering the etymology of the titles of the Sulu chiefs mentioned in the time of Baginda, we observe that they are of three classes. The first class were the datus.

These had mantiri or ministers and probably represented the descendants of Raja Sipad and Tuan Ma:sha'ika. The second class were the sayk. "Sayk" is probably derived from the Arabic "Sheikh" meaning "chief." These were the Tagimaha chiefs, and their rank was evidently subordi1

Brass cannon used by Moros.

512

EDUCATION AND RELIGION nate to that of 'datu. The third class were the oramgkaya. the Baklaya chiefs. These are also subordinate in grade and could not have been higher than the sayk. The ~rds datu and orangkaya it must be remembered are of Malay origin, while raja and baginda are Sanskrit, baginda b~ing the highest and being often used as equivalent to emperor, while raja means only king.

Jawa is the Malay term for Java. The incident related in the tarsila relative to the gift of two elephants sent by the raja of Java to the raja of Sulu is interesting, in that it explains the evistence in J 010 of the elephants found there during the earlier Spanish invasions. It further indicates that Raja Baginda Was not an insignificant chief an'd that he kept up some kind of communication with the rajas of western Malaysia.

The elephants received by Baginda were let loose, the story says, and they lived and multiplied on Mount Tumangtangis. On the declivity of this mountain there is a place still called lnbluban-gaja, which means the "habitat or lying-place of tlie elephant." The people relate several stories which make mention of the elephant, one of Which declares that the chief Who killed the last wild elephant was given the hand of the sultan's daughter in marriage, in admiration of his strength and bravery.

Establishment of the Mohammedan Church in Sulu and the .

Reign of Abu Bakr, 1450-1.~80

Brevity is without exception a marKed characteristic of all Moro writings. Their letters, unlike those of the Malays and Arabs, are brief and devoid of compliment or detail.

It is very difficult to pick out a superfluous word or phrase from the text of the Sulu tarsila. In fact, the narrative of events thoughout the manuscript is to curtailed 513

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES as to be reduced to a mere synopsis of headlines. It gives a very dim view of the general subject and leaves out much that is desired. Thus, the whole question of establishing Islam in Sulu and organizing its sultanate is dispensed with in one short paragraph briefly enumerating the fol- ' lowing facts: That Sayid Abu Bakr came to Bwansa from Palembang by the way of Bruney; that he lived with Raja Baginda and taught and established a new religion for Sulu; that he was greatly respected by the people; and that he married Paramisuli, the daughter of Baginda, and became sultan.

The traditions of the country, notwithstanding their brevity, add some further but less reliable information.

It is the common belief that Abu Bakr was born in Mecca and that he lived some time at Juhur (or Malacca). Others state that it was his father, Zaynul Abidin, who came from Mecca and that Abu Bakr was born of the daughter of the Sultan of Jahur at Malacca. He came to Pangutar an first, the narrative continues, then to Zam,boanga and Basilan. His younger brother, who had accompanied him, continued eastward to Mindanao, while he remained at Basilan for a short while. Having heard of Abu Bakr, the people of Sulu sent Orangkaya Su'il to Basilan to invite him to Bwansa to rule over them. This invitation was accepted and Abu Bakr was inaugurated sultan over Sulu soon after his arrival there.

From the annals of Malacca we know that Abu Bakr was a famous authority on law and religion and that his mission to Malaysia was prompted by enthusiasm for the promulgation of the doctrines of Abu Ishaq, which were embodied in a book entitled "Darul-Mazlum, or The House of the Oppressed or Ignorant." After preaching these doctrines in Malacca with success, he evidently proceeded farther east, stopping at Palembang and Bruney and reach514

EDUCATION AND RELIGION ing Sulu about 1450. The hospitality with which he was received at Bwansa points to success in his mission to a degree that enabled him later to marry the Princess Paramisuli, the daughter of Raja Baginda. He established mosques there and taught religion and law; and the people and chiefs actually abandoned their former gods and practiced the new religion and observed its commandments.

This process of reformation and conversion was no doubt slow and gradual, but it was real and sure.

There is no evidence to show that Abu Bakr had any military forces by virtue of which he could assume military authority and rule after Baginda's death. But it .is perfectly credible that Raja Baginda, being without a male heir, appointed Abu Rakr, his son-in-law and chief judge and priest, as hi~ heir, and delegated to him all the authority he exercised over Bwansa and the Island of Sulu.

This it appears was acquiesced in by the native chiefs who accepted Abu Bakr as their temporal overlord, as well as their spiritual master. Claiming descent from Mohammed, he assumed the powers of a caliph and entitled himse]f sultan. The Sulus as a rule refer to him as As-Sultan ash-Sharif al-Hashimi, meaning the Sultan, the Hashimite Sharif or noble. The words Mohammed and Abu Bakr are generally left out when he is mentioned in prayer or in ordinary discourse.

Having established the church, his next aim, after ascending the throne of Sulu, was the political reorganization of the government. This he undertook to frame on the same principles as those of an Arabian sultanate, giving himself all the power and prerogatives of a caliph. In enforcing such claims of absolute sovereignty, Abu Bakr declared to the people and their local chiefs that the widows, the orphans, and the land Wlere his by right. This the people hesitated to submit to, and another measure was adopted which r'econciled the interests of all parties. They 515

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES agreed that all the shores of the island and all that territory within which the royal gong or drum could be heard should be the sultan's personal property, and that the rest of the island should be divided among the subordinate chiefs and their people. The island was accordingly divided into five administrative districts, over each one of which one panglima exercised power subject to the supervision and superior authority of the sultan. These districts were again divided into smaller divisions, which were administered by subordinate officers or chiefs called maharaja, orangkaya, laksamana, parukka, etc. The districts were called Parang, Pansul, Lati, Gi'tung, and Lu'uk.

The boundaries which it seemed necessary at that time to define were marked by large trees, none of which is living at present. Thus a sangay 1 tree separated Parang from Pansul. -The location of this tree was at a point near Bud Agad and the stream Agahun, which runs down from Tumangtangis toward Maymbung. A ba'Wnu 1 tree separated Pansul from Lati. This tree was located at a place called Indung, intermediate between Asturias and the walled town of J 010. A mampalam 1 tree called Tarak separated Lati from Lu'uk. It was in the vicinity of the settlement of Su'.

A variety of durian tree named Siggal-saggal formed the boundary of Lati and Gi'tung.

According to later usage, these districts are defined as follows: Parang is the western district lying west of a line passing through a point east of the summit of Tumangtangis and a point on the southern coast 3 miles west of Maymbung. A line passing through Mount Pulaand a point a little east of Maymbung marks the boundary between Pansul on the west and Lati and Gi'tung on the east. The watershed is generally considered as the dividing line between Lati and Gi'tung. A line joining Su' 1

Variety of mango.

516

EDUCATION AND RELIGION on the north and Lubuk on the south separates Lati and Gi'tung from Lu'uk.

A sixth district has lately been carved out and termed Tandu, forming the easternmost part of the island. A line joining Sukuban on the ~outh and Limawa on the north divides Tandu and Lu'uk.

The government thus organized was conducted in conformity with local customs and laws modified to such an extent as not to be repugnant and contrary to Mohammedan laws and the precepts of the Quran. To preserve this consistency, a code of laws was made and promulgated

by Abu Bakr. This, once established, became the guide of all the subordinate officers of the statâ&#x201A;Ź, who, as a rule, observed it and carried out its instructions. The general lines on ,which Abu Bakr conducted his government seem to have been followed very closely by all his successors. Such an adventurous and aggressive man as he was could not have stopped within the limits of the island. In all probability he pushed out in various directions, but no records have so far been found which give any account of the conquests he made or the limits of his empire. Abu Bakr lived thirty years in Sulu and 'died about 1480.

517

CHAPTER

III

THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

In the preceding chapters we dealt with the early religion of the Filipinos, their contacts with their Oriental neighbors, and the impacts of other faiths notably Mohammedanism. In this chapter we shall take up a new relationship of the Philippines and the implantation of Christiani ty.

It is customary, in a discussion of the relationship of the Philippines with Spain, to start with the statement that Magellan discovered the Philippines on the sixteenth of March, 1521. In reality, however, this phase of Philippine hi's tory goes back to the year 1493 when Pope Alexander VI issued his famous bulls establishing the Line . of Demarcation. These were later modified by the Treaty of Tordesillas signed by the respective representatives of the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs on the seventh of June, 1494. These representatives were given full powers by their respective sovereigns, the Spanish in a communication of June 5, and the Portuguese in a communication of March 8, 1494. The Spanish sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella, ratified the treaty affixing their signatures at Arevalo on July 2, and the King of Portugal doing the same at Setubal on September 5, 1494.

The important documents bearing on these important matters including the Papal bulls, the lett~rs of instruction to the representatives from the Spanish and Portuguese sovereigns, and the Treaty of Tordesillas translated into English appear in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, Volume I. As an outcome of these Papal and imperial authorizations, the two kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula extended their sway over the seaJs until they almost embraced the 518

EDUCATION AND RELiGION world. The extraordinary activities of Spain and Portugal during the latter part of the fifteenth century and during the sixteenth century in the discovery and conquest of lands in the Eastern world served to check the expansion of the Mohammedan empire which was fast spreading in all the Malaysian region.

Twenty years elapsed after Magellan's discovery of the Philippines in 1521, before Spain made serioU's and systematic attempts to secure possession of the Philippines. Several expeditions ostensibly for such a purpose were undertaken. The expedition of Loaisa in 1525, of Saavedra in 1527, and of Villalobos in 1543 did not succeed in effecting the conquest of, or establishing any settlement in, the archipelago, which began to be referred to as Las Felipinas in honor of the new king, Felipe II. (Congressional Record, December 6, 1932).

King Philip II' decided upon the colonization of the Philippines. He commanded the Viceroy of New Spain, as Mexico was then,called, to prepare a fleet for an expedition as early as 1559. The plan did not materialize until five years later. On the twenty-first of November, 1564, the fleet of four vessels set sail from Navidad, Mexico, under the command of Miguel Lopez de LegaISpi, with Friar Andres de Urdaneta as "spiritual leader and chief navigator."

The fleet anchored near Cebu on February 13, 1565.

Legaspi, bent on the conquest of the Philippines, found the Islanders hostile. Urdaneta objected to the colonizatIon of the islands because he thought they belonged to Portugal and because Ithe warrant of the Augustinian authorities in Mexico emphasized his spiritual mission "of leading peopletS to embrace the faith" so that "the most brilliant light of faith may beam upon the populous races that dwell in that region of the world."

519

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The interesting and historic Augustin,ian Warrant establishing the first branch of their brotherhood in the Philippines is here given in full: "Fray Pedro de Herrera, vicar-general of the Order of Hermits of our holy Father Augustine in the regions of the Indies, with Fray Diego de Vertavillo, provincial of the same order in this Nueva Espana, and Frays Antonio de Aguilar, Nicolas de Perea, Francisco de Villafuerte, and Juan de Medina, dejinitors-to our very dear Brethren in Christ, Andres de Urdaneta, prior, Diego de Herrera, Andres de Aguirre, Lorenzo de San Esteban, Martin de Rada, priests, and Fray Diego de Torres, to you, all and singular, everlasting greeting in the Lord.

"Very beloved sons: You are aware how Felipe, by the grace of God king of the Spains and the Indies, and our lord, has been greatly pleased with the news that some brethren of our order are to go with the expedition now being equipped by his very illustrious viceroy and captain-geneval, Don Luis de Velasco, in this Nueva E:spana, which is to sail through the Western Sea of this kingdom toward the continent and certain of the islands that lie between the equator and the Arctic and Antarctic poles, and below the region of the torrid zone itself-to the end that according to right reason and the benign counsels of Christian piety, both at home and abroad as will best seem consonant with the purpose of his royal majesty, you may control the fleet and troops of the Spanish army. E's pecially too that the most brilliant light of faith may beam upon the populous races that dwell in that region of the world. Through the benignity of God most holy and supreme, and your preaching, there is hope that those benighted barbarians may cast aside the errors and more than Cimmerian darkness of idolatry for the splendor of the gospel; and that they who, so long unacquainted with gosJ>el truth, have been groping in the gloom of Satamc bondage may now at last through the grace of Christ, the common savior of all men, gaze at the full light of truth in their knowledge of his name.

520

EDUCATION AND RELIGION "Wherefore, as it has seemed our filial and reasonable duty not to prove wanting in view of the favor and trust granted us by his royal majesty, whereby measures will be taken to add to the divine glory, our homage to the king, and the safety of many mortals,-therefore after long meditation on this matter and mature counsel, sure as we are of your piety, deep learning, charity, and merits, we have chosen you for this apostolic charge, the task (with the help of the Lord, to whom we commend you) of leading peoples to embrace the faith. In order that greater and richer merit may -ensue from your obedience in undergoing these very great hardships, which you ar~ ready to meet through your love of Christ-although we have ever found you willing and ready to comply with our mandates-yet now in virtue of the Holy Ghost we command you, the above-named brethren, to set out in this first voyage with the fleet which the illustrious and well-born knight Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, governor and commander of the fleet, whom our style captain-general, is to conduct to the aforesaid lands. We exhort and pray you earnestly, as far as we may in the Lord, to be in all things as the good actor of God, as becometh the holy ones and ministers of God, in all virtues-especially humility, patience, and discipline.

"Chiefly, however, we desire to have shine forth in your deeds that singular and renowned token of Christians which our Savior Christ, when on the point of offering up his most innocent life and hi,s most holy blood-that thereby, in rescuing us from the deadliest of fates, he might ensure the freedom of mortals-commended repeatedly to his followers as a countersign, in these words: 'By this shall all men know that you are my discipl~s, if you have love one for another.' This is that priceless boon of charity which Paul styles 'the bond of perfection,' which we trust may not only shine forth from your midstwhereby you should cling to Christ as a companion, and seek the possession of his spirit-but that the same affection of peace and love flow thence from you to all other men as from a clear fountain, to the 521

~NCYCLOPEDIA

OF THE PHILIPPINES

end that those who have made profes:sion of this soldiership in Christ may cling to one another in the mutual bond of charity, to the maintenance amidst the ~lash of arms of that 'grace which,' the Apostle affirms, 'is above all sense.' For peace, be it known, dwells even in the midst of affrays, and is to be commended by you all, to the best of your power, to the inhabitants of those region.g-to whom you should, as the heralds and vanguard of true evangelical piety, appear as in search not of what is your own, but of what is Jesus Christ's. Moreover, we earnestly exhort your charity in the Lord, as far as lies in our power, to announce the ~ll-holy gospel of Christ to all races, baptizing them that believe in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; training them in the holy Catholic faith, on the .game lines on .,which the faithful are trained by our cherished mother the Church of Rome; shunning utterly therein all novelty of doctrine, which we desire shall in all thip.gs conform to the holy and ecumenical councils and doctors acknowledged by the same Church; teaching them especially that obedience which all Christians owe to the supreme Pontiff and the Church of Rome-which in truth is always the leader, head, and mistress of all other churches of the world-then to their lawful rulers and master-s; teaching them at the same time to live under the yoke and discipline of Faith, Hope, and Charity, and to forget, moreover, their old-time superstitions and errors of the Devil.

And that you may the more easily fulfil the duty of your apostleship, to which you have been called by the Lord, we declare and appoint all among you who arEl priests among the preachers and confessors of . our order, granting to you whatever privileges have hitherto been granted or shall be granted by the supreme Pontiff.g themselves, or their legates, to our order especially, as well as to other orders, hospitals, houses, congregations, or other persons whatsoever -the privileges whereof may be considered as commO{1 to us by reason of many apostolic grants, among oth~rs, especially, the grants made to us by Julius the Second, Leo the Tenth, Clemens the Seventh, and 522

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Paulus the Third. Moreover, we grant you especially all the authority hitherto given by Sixtus the Fourth, Nicholas the Fifth, Gregorius the Ninth, Leo the Tenth, Adrian the Sixth, Clemens the Seventh, Paulus the Third, and Paulus the Fourth, or which hereafter may be given by all other Pontiffs, to all brethren going to the countries of unbelievers, to preach the holy gospel of Christ--espec'ially to Farther Tartary, China, and other regions of the earth wherein we know not whether up to these times has been preached the piety of the holy Catholic faithamong which induIts of the Pontiffs, Adrian the Sixth granted and conveyed all his power of whatsoever kind that might seem of need in the conversion and maintenance of neo-Christians. By reason of our office we grant and convey to you this power as far as lies in us.

"We grant you, moreover, the power to establish houses and monasteries of our order in whatever places it may seem expedient to you for the glory of God and the health of our neighbor, and all the privileges, especially those of Sixtus the Fourth, Julius the Second, and Leo the Tenth for the reception of novices to the habit of our order. , Shunning, moreover, all novelty, you shall zealously bring them up in the same mode of life that you yourselves have learned from your mother, our order, under the rule of our holy Father Augustine, and the constitutions of the order.

"Also, we grant you power to administer all the sacraments to commanders, soldiers, sutlers, traders, and other-s who go on this expedition, as well as to all other faithful in Christ, who you may encounter wheresoever you go, in virtue of the grants made therefor to us by Adrian the Sixth, Paulus the Third, and all other supreme Pontiffs.

"Also to the very venerable father Fray Andres de Urdaneta whom you all-each for himself, publicly and privately, at the same time when through our commission you were assembled in chapter-have chosen canonically as your prior and prelate for this expedition, we grant the fulness of all our authority 523

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES in Gorporeals as well as spirituals, as far as we have it arid are enabled, without reserving anything whatsoever to ourselves. And this authority we wish to terminate in the aforesaid father, whenever according to our instructions you shall choose another, and pass thence in its fulness to the newly elect, and so on in succession for all time, until this grant of ours shall be recalled by ourselves or our chiefs.

"In testimony and faith whereof, we have signed our names, with the titles of our office, to this our grant, whereto we have ordered the seals of our order to be appended.

"Given in our convent of Culhuacan (Mexico), the fifth ides of February, in the year of our Redemption one thousand five hundred and sixty-four.

"FRAY "FRAY "FRAY "FRAY "FRAY "FRAY

PEDRO DE HERRERA, Vicar general.

DIEGO DE VERTAVILLO, Provincial ANTONIO DE AGUILAR, Definitor.

NICOLAS DE PEREA, Definitor.

FRANCISCO DE VILLAFUERTE, Definitor.

JUAN DE MEDINA, Definitor."

The religious motive of Spain's colonial venture was emphasized in the instructions given to Legaspi. He was directed that when the fleet was to embark "the Augustinian religious shall be taken on board, who go 'to bring the natives of those regions to a knowledge of our holy Catholic faith,''' that before setting sail "all the people have confessed and received Communion," and that in any settlement to be made "a church shall be built * * * and a house for the religious * * *" In addition to the detailed and specific instructions on various matters given to Legaspi were these: "And you shall have especial care that, in all your negotiations with the natives of those regions, some of the religious accompanying you be present, both in order to avail yourself of their good counsel and advice, and so that the natives may see and understand your high estimation of them; for seeing this, and 524

EDUCATION AND RELIGION the great reverence of the soldiers toward them, they themselves will hold the religious in great respect. This will be of great moment, so that, when the religious shall understand their language, or have interpreters through whom they may make them understand our holy Catholic faith, the Indians shall put entire faith in them; since you are aware that the chief thing sought after by his majesty is the increase of our holy Catholic faith, and the salvation of the souls of those infidels."

Legaspi, in a communication to the king before starting on the voyage dated November 18, 1564, from Puerto de la Navidad, announced that he had taken over "two large ships and two pataches, and one ,small brigantine," wherein were 150 seamen, 200 sailors, and 6 religious of the order of Saint Augustine, the chief of whom is Fray Andres de Urdaneta in all, counting servants, numbering a total of 380 souls. He assured the king that he "will display, on bios part, all possible diligence and care, with the fidelity which I owe, and which I am under obligation to have;" he begged the king to bear them in mind and send aid "to us who go before," and to commit this to one who has care and diligence, "as a matter that concerns greatly the service of God, our Lord, the increase of his holy Catholic faith, and the service of your majesty, and the general good of your kingdoms and seigniories."

The idea of establishing the Roman Catholic Church and implanting Christianity in the Philippines was in the mind of the members of the famous Magellan expedition.

The Italian historian Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan in his memorable voyage of circumnavigation, gives the following vivid description of the Mass said at Limasawa, the first Mass ever said on Philippine soil: "Early on the morning of Sunday, the last of March, and Easter-day, the captain-general sent the priest with some men to prepare the place where Mass was to be said; together with the 525

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES interpreter to tell the king that we were not going to land in order to dine with him, but to say Mass. Therefore the king sent us two swine that he had had killed. When the hour for Mass arrived, we landed with about fifty men, without our body armor, but carrying our other arms, and dressed in our best clothes. Before we reached the shore with .o ur boats, six pieces were discharged as a sign of peace. We landed; the two kings embraced the captaingeneral, and placed him between them. We went in marching order to the place consecrated, which was not far from the shore. Before the commencement of Mass, the captain sprinkled the entire bodies of the two kings with musk water. The Mass was offered up. The kings went forward to kiss the cross as we did, but they did not offer the sacrifice. When the body of our Lord was elevated, they remained on their knees and worshiped Him with clasped hands. The ships fired all their artillery at once when the body of Christ was elevated, the signal having been given from the shore with muskets. After the conclusion of Mass, some of our men took communion." (In Blair and Robertson's The Philippine Islands, Volume 33, pages 123-125).

It is well to pause and con,sider that great genius and inspirer of Christian propagation through the instrumentality of the Roman Catholic Church, St. Augustine. Few names in Christian theology stand higher than St. Augustine',s, and, Potter in The Story of Religion assigns the following reasons:

"He was the first to explain the difficulties and contradictions of the Bible to the satisfaction of the average Christian.

"He was the first to build a coherent and complete system of theology for the rapidly growing Christian church.

526

EDUCATION AND .R ELIGION "He was in his own personal life the first great example of the power of Christian salvation to redeem the blackest sinner and heretic and make of him the brightest saint."

A man who has been able to make such contributions as these is worthy to be studied. St. Augustine's is an admirable character. He had an unusual dialectic ability and W3lS an indefatigable writer. He was an intellectual giant and used his intellectual powers to enrich knowledge.

He battled successfully within himself and came out triumphant. He experienced all the doubts and anguish that harass thinkers and finally saw light. He showed all the frailties and virtues of humans but his services and contributions far outweighed his mistakes and pitfalls.

Aurelius Augustinus was born at Tagaste in North Africa in 354 A. D. His parents were of Roman colonial stock. Patricius, his father, was a Pagan but Monica, his mother, was a devout Christian. From infancy thus he was in the midst of a great struggle, the conflict between the forces of paganism and Christianity.

The boy had his early schooling in his native town later supplemented by a study of grammar and rhetoric at Madaura, a neighboring city. At sixteen he was at home during which time his idle hands did much mischief. He later confessed that "the briers of unclean desires grew rank over my head, and there was no hand to root them out." He attached some blame to his father who W3lS willing to sacrifice for the son's higher education but was not so concerned about the boy's chastity. He also complained of his mother who was much interested in his educational advancement but discouraged his marrying early which Aurelius thought would have solved his personal problem.

"About this. time," says Potter, "the boy took to himself a misfress, evidently without strenuous objection from his parents. He kept her for about fifteen years."

527

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES His parents arranged to send Aurelius to Carthage to complete his education but he disappointed their expectations by his pursuit of pleasure and neglect of serious study. During his undergraduate study his mistress presented him with a son. The father who was barely nineteen named the child Adeodatus, "the gift of God." The young siludent seems later to hlave taken his studies more seriously for he is known to have been a wide reader and his Carthage student days ended up by his finishing his courses with honor.

Then came a year of teaching at Tagaste; but he found his native town too tame and quiet so Augustine returned to Carthage where he founded a school of expression where literature, oratory, and argumentation were taught. He was an active participant in rhetorical contests until he was "crowned victor in a poetry competition in the theater of Carthage by the p~oconsul himself." Ten years were spent in Carthage.

Aurelius interested himself in philosophy through a lost book of Cicero called Hortensius. He was dissatisfied and embraced the cause of the Manichaeans, a semi-philosophical and semi-religious group and remained with them for nine years.

He went to Rome, the haven of aspiring orators, then to Milan where, as a rhetor, he achieved an enviable position of prominence. In this latter city he was converted to Christianity. Some attribute his conversion to a poor but happy mendicant of Milan; some to the 'prayers of his saintly mother; some to St. Paul's Epistles; some to the N eo-Platonic writings of Platinus; others to St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan. The truth probably is that he was converted through a combination of a variety of causes and influences.

To make a long story short, we shall say that thenceforward Augustine retired into solitude and prepared him528

THE CHURCH OF THE FRANCISCANS

CHURCH OF LUBAO, PAMPANGA,

1572

EDUCATION AND RELIGION self for baptism at the hands of Ambrose. Then he went to Africa to sell hi'S estate and helped the poor, retaining but a part for himself. He became an assistant of the bishop of Hippo and in 395 succeeded to the see. He wrote voluminously and served the holy Catholic cause with zeal, enthusiasm, and devotion. His best writings are his Confessions, an autobiographical work which is destined to be immortal, and his City of God (De Civitate Dei) which is a defense and a vindication of Christianity.

The list of church fathers who are remembered with veneration is a long one. Among them are Polycarp, Irenaeaus, Tertullian, Origen, At hanasius, Eusebius, Gregory Nazianzen, Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose, Chrysostom, Jerome of the early years of the Church; and St. Benedict, St. Francis of Assisi, St. Dominic, St. Ignatius Loyola, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Francis Xavier, Pope St. Gregory the Great and many other popes, leaders, and martyrs in the building up of the Roman Catholic Church. Some may have been as learned or more learned than St. Augustine but none stand out more prominently in the history of the Church than this towering figure whom Catholics acknowledge as Hthe greatest of the Church Fathers."

The work of conversion among the Islanders began auspiciously soon after the arrival of Legaspi and Urdaneta in Cebu. Fired by apostolic zeal, industrious, and enthusia's tic the representatives of the Augustinian order working in harmony with Legaspi not only were able to win converts but labored to check the spread of Mohammedanism. Some of them especially Martin de Rada learned the language of the locality and were preaching in Visayan within a few months. According to Medina's account, Hthe first to receive the holy sacrament was a niece of Tupas, who was named Isabel." The baptismal ceremony was celebrated with great pomp and it made a deep impression. After her baptism Isabel was married to 529

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Maestre Andres, a calker of the fleet. Then came the baptism of a Bornean Moro who was an interpreter and "served the Spaniards so well among the Islands * * * and was the key to all the islands, as he was well known in them all * * *" The turning point came in 1568 with the conversion of Tupas, an influential chief, and of his 'son. This example of Tupas "had great weight" and paved the way to wholesale conversion among the inhabitants of the islands.

As a part of Spanish colonization policy, and no doubt encouraged by early successes, other religious orders came to the Philippines. According to Martinez de Zuniga in his Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas the Franciscans first arrived in the Philippines in 1577; the Jesuits in 1581; the Dominicans in 1587; the discalced Augustinians (Recoletos) in 1606.

The different religious orders working in different parts of the archipelago achieved varying successes. They not only attended to their 's piritual mission but did much to encourage agriculture and economic progress, to build orphanages, asylums, and hospitals, to undertake works of charity, to help the government in various ways and to establish institutions of learning. Through the Society of Jesus, for example, the college of San Jose was founded in 1601. The prominent part played by the Church in education may be judged from the discus's ion of education in Book One of this volume.

The work of implanting the Catholic Church in the Philippines is further attested by Diego Aduarte, in Historia de la Provincia del 'Santo Rosario de la Orden de Predicadores written in 1640. The work which deals with the history of the Dominican order in the Islands recites "the advance made by the Indians of this province in virtue, and their attendance upon the sacraments;" "the devotion with which these Indians approached the holy communion, 530

EDUCATION AND RELIGION and 'some events which give much glory to the Lord;" the excellent response of the Filipinos to missionary efforts once they are convinced of the sincerity and genuine interest of the missionary workers in them. The following from Aduarte is typical of communities where successful work has been achieved: "As soon as the Order of St. Dominic came into thi's region, they immediately went to live among the Indians; and they built their churches and houses, which were more like huts built to last two days.

They employed upon them very few laborers, and had no teacher or journeymen. The Indians would have died before they admitted them to their villages (and, as it was, there was some difficulty about it), if the good name of those who had been in Pangasinan had not reached these Indians also-who in this way learned how the religious treated the Indians as if they were their own children, and defended them against those who wronged them. When they began to consider the mode of life followed by the religious, their patience and labors, their avoidance of flesh food, their many fasts', continual prayers, great povertyfor poverty of the Order of St. Dominic here is very great-and the gentleness and love with which they treated the natives, God was pleased that in those villages where there are missionary religious, all the inhabitants desired to be Christians. They have not only become very friendly to the Spaniards; thus the religious have put peace and security where they were not before. As a result, in regions where soldiers and garrisons used to be necessary, there now are none, and the country is very peaceful. Every evening the men gather together and recite prayers before a cross, which is usually 'set up in the plaza of the village, the women doing the same by themselves in another place.

Baptisms in the heathen villages are constantly increasing, while those for whom there are not missionaries enough ask for them with all their hearts, and are so desirous to become Christians that we ought therefore to offer thanks to God." 531

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES How the zealous missionaries of the early days went about their mission and how they enlisted the good-will of the people with whom they worked may be gauged from the typical example of Fray Juan de Anaya who in 1598 was sent to the district of Nueva Segovia in Northern Luzon, the conversion of which had just b.e gan. Aduarte in his Historia reports thus: "He learned the language very quickly, and so wrought with them that he not only taught them the gospel and the Christian life, but also civilization.

He showed them how to build their houses, and how to work their fields; and taught them all other matters of human life, not only by instruction, but by example. He sought out the Indians, and brought them down from the mountains and the hiding-places where some, deluded by their sins, had gone to hide from grace. Fray Juan was not content to a:sk where they were and to send :(or them; but, trusting in his natural strength, he went to look for them and brought them down from the mountains, traveling through the rough and thorny places among the thickets where they did. He compelled them to enter upon the path of their welfare, not by the violence of a tyrant, but by.the force of love and charity. When he was vicar of Pilitan, some of the poor Indians lost all their harvest from an overflow of the river. Not daring to wait for those who were to come and get the tribute, and indeed through fear of starvation, they left the village, and many of them fled to the mountains.

Fray Juan was deeply afflicted because of the danger which their .souls ran. This grief and his many labors affected his health, and finally brought on a flux, from which he died."

The Catholic Church rendered incalculable service in the Islands by impeding the growing tide of Islamism.

Medina in his Historia, speaks of the labors to check the advance of Mohammedanism in the Philippines and expressed the hope "with the help of His Divine Majesty, 532

EDUCATION AND RELIGION that the evil seed (i.e. Mohammedani's m) will be truly eradicated from these islands with the lapse of time, so that the seed sown by his ministers (Le. the Christian) may increase and bear a most beautiful harvest." He also speaks of the conversion and whose baptism was considered "of great importance," thereby remedying in part "injuries which the devil was working in the souls of the natives * * *" The same author states "that the progress of the diabolical worship of Mahomet * * '" was shortened by our coming" (Medina's Historia in Blair and Robertson, Volume 23, pages 185-186).

The work of establishing the Roman Catholic faith in the Islands was not without difficulties on the part of the early crusaders. A letter of Pablo de Jesus of the congregation of the discalced Franciscans to Pope Gregory XIII giving accoul1t of the journey to the Philippine Islands in 1580 gives an idea of the Augustinian's "unspeakable hardships" and later of the success in enlisting "so great a multitude of men, women, and children" to the Catholic religion. We quote a pertinent portion of the letter: "Sailing thence we soon reached the Philippine Islands, where we found the fathers of the Augustinian order, who, fairly worn out with their unspeakable hardships, toils, dangers, and sufferings for the last twelve years, gave us the heartiest of welcomes.

In the beginning they seemed to be without any hope that we ever could bring those Indians to the light of the Christian faith; all their labors, they said, had been fruitless, their efforts in vain, their toil for the benefit of those people without result. For twelve years they had employed every endeavor, nor left anything undone whereby they might induce them to forswear their idols and embrace the true Catholic religion, but all to no purpose. Wherefore, they had it in mind to prepare for baptism only those whose tender and youthful age gave promise of success. But happily by divine bounty, before long, after hope had 533

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES given out, after we had been 's tationed in different parts of the islands, so great a multitude of men, women, and children flocked to us for instruction and baptism, that we were unable to cope with their numbers-a matter that was the more wonderful since this wild and savage race of men had never displayed the slightest trace of religion, and ' had neither places of worship, nor sacrifices." (In Blair and Robertson's The Philippine Is'lands, Volume 34, page 318).

Catholic Church officials in the Philippines had a great deal to do with the government of the Islands, for under Spain Church and State were united. The members of the clergy were civil functionaries in addition to their religious role. A statement of the organization of the Catholic Church in the Philippines during the Spanish rule is therefore in order.

At the head was the Archbishop of Manila. Assisting him were the bishops of Jaro, Nueva Caceres, and Nueva Segovia. Below them were the curates or parish priests appointed to each town.

The power of the priest was not limited to purely spiritual matters. He had manifold duties and powers. The Director of the Philippine Census of 1903 quotes Father Juan Villegas, the provincial or head of the Franciscan Friars who in 1900 gave the following statement as to the powers exercised by the parish priest: "The following may be mentioned as among the principal duties or powers exercised by the parish priest: He was inspector of primary schools; president of the health board and board of charities; president of the board of urban taxation (this was estab1ished lately) ; inspector of taxation. Previously he was the actual president, but lately honorary president of the board of public works. He certified to the correctness of the cedulas-seeing that they conformed to the entries in the parish books. They did not have civil registration here, and so they had to depend upon the books of 534

EDUCATION AND RELIGION the pari's h priest. These books were sent in for the purpose of this cedula taxation, but were not received by the authorities unless viseed by the priest.

"He was president of the board of statistics, because he was the only person who had any education. * * * "Under the Spanish law every man had to be furnished with a certificate of character. If a man was imprisoned and he was from another town, they would send to that town for his antecedents, and the court would examine whether they were good or bad. They would not be received, however, unless the parish priest had his vise on them. The priests also certified as to the civil status of persons. Every year they drew lots for those who were to serve in the army, every fifth man drawn being taken.

The padsh priest would certify as to that man's condition. * * * "By law he had to be present when there were elections for municipal officers. * * * He was censor of the municipal budgets before they were sent to the provincial governor. * * * He was also counselor for the municipal council when that body met. * * * The priests were supervisors of the election of the police force. * * * He was examiner of the scholars attending the first and second grades in the public schools. He was censor of the plays, comedies, and dramas in the language of the country, deciding ,whether they were against the public peace or the public morals. These plays were presented at the various f~estas of the people. He was president of the prison board and inspector (in turn) of the food provided for the prisoners. He wa's a member of the provincial board. Besides the parish priest there were two curates who served on this board. Before the provincial board came all matters relating to public works and other cognate matters. All estimates for public buildings in the 535

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES municipalities were submitted to this board. He was also a member of the board for partitioning Crown lands. After the land was surveyed and divided, and a person wanted to sell his land, he would present his certificate, and the board would pass upon the question whether or not he was the owner. This would be viseed by the board for the purposes of taxation. When a private individual wanted to buy Government land he would apply to the proper officer, pay his money, and the board would determine whether the transfer was according to law.

"In some cases the parish priests in the capitals of the provinces would act as auditors. In others, where there was an administrator only, the curate would act as auditor.

"Besides th'e above there were other details which de. volved upon the priest. It might be said that there were times, however, when nothing of moment was done in the towns."

The spirit of Christ and the capacity of the Filipinos for high ideaHsm and noble spirituality aided the Spanish governmental and ecclesiastical authorities to achieve remarkable results some of which may fairly be considered unparalleled. Frank C. Laubach in The People of the Philippitnes enumerates certain profound social changes, favorable and unfavorable, wrought in the Islands. The student of religious history may consult his treatment.

Histories abound with recital'S of inefficiency, corruption, abuse, persecution, and execution which need not be repeated here. But reference at least must be made to two great sources of a train of evils arising from (a) the encomienda system and (b) the union of the state and the church under the Spanish rule.

The implantation of the encomienda system led to the neglect of the more important phases of governmental and missionary endeavor and to the rise of selfish and cruel 536

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Spanish encomenderos. We have ample historical evidences from high and unimpeachable authori~ies. Bishop Salazar speaking of the suffering of the natives because of the tributes exacted says: "* * * on the contrary, their present condition is sueR that it would seem the Spaniards had never gone thither to do aught else than to reduce and conquer them in order to exact tributes.

We may even say that if the Spania.rds had never come, for, with the harsh treatment and oppression that they have received at our hands, they are at present further from receiving the law of God than if they had never known us." The good Bishop having at heart the welfare of the masses and unable to countenance the tyranny and inhumanity of the encomenderos exclaimed in rightful indignation: "It is grievous inhumanity and a sort of cruel tyranny to seize the chiefs and keep them prisoners until they pay the tribute of those who fail to do so; and it is a much greater wrong to afflict and torture them while in durance."

Another prolific source of trouble in the Spanish administration of Philippine affairs was the union of the church and the state. There were conflicts between the civil authorities and ecclesiastical authorities. The first bishop of Manila condemned the civil officials' greed, the unjust taxes levied upon the people, and the forced labor required. Governor Dasmariiias in turn bitterly complained against the interference of the church. A quarrel over jurisdictional authority arose between the Archbishop of Manila and Governor Corcuera in the case of a Spanish soldier, Nava, who killed a girl and ran for refuge to an Augustinian convent. The governor took the murderer from the convent by force and ordered him hanged. The archbishop forthwith excommunicated the governor and the governor imprisoned the archbishop. In 1668, Governor Salcedo had serious disagreements with 'some friars 537

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES and the archbishop. In this case, the Augustinians and Jesuits were on the governor's side while the Dominicans and Franciscans were against him. In 1678, another conflict arose between Governor-General Vargas and Archbishop Pardo. In 1719, Governor Bustamante angered the friars and there started a rebellion resulting in the death of the governor at the hands of a mob at his own palace.

Events such as these and others that could be cited could not but result in maladministration andJ disaffection on the part of the people.

It is not to be wondered at therefore that Filipinos should have peacefully sought reforms and, when peaceful methods proved unavailing, later resorted to revolution for freedom and for separation.

In order that the discussion of Catholicism in the Islands may be absolutely fair and complete, we shall supplement ours with the papers immediately following as a part of this chapter.

538

A.

RELIGION IN THE PHILIPPINES

BY FATHER RECTOR SERAPIO TAMAYO, O. P.

The religious system of the Filipinos, at the time of their conquest by the Spaniard'S', was as primitive and rudimentary as their social and political conditions, notwithstanding the picturesque descriptions and statements of some modern pre-historians of the Philippines.

The religion of the old Filipinos was characterized by a kind of animism, the worship of the ancestors, the human sacrifices and the lack of temples. Animism is the worship of the spirits, and means an inferior grade of culture, because the conception of the spirit is conceived by those semi-savage people, not as we understand it, but as a body, either ponderable and palpable, like our own bodies, or tenuous and light bodies. They worshipped the god of the sea, the god of the rivers, and to those gods they sacrificed pigs, specially redcolored. Morga, in his History, page 311, says that the Filipinos worshipped the sun and the moon; and some of them a bird named Bathala, and commonly the crocodHes,.

According to Fr. Colin, the natives of these Islands had nothing written about their religion or their political government. All that is known in that respect is only founded in the tradition pre'Served in certain songs the people learned by heart.

The worship of the ancestors was generalized among the people. They supposed, for instance, that the spirit of a parent was floating around the house, and other places he used to frequent while living. He was careful about the happiness of his family, provided this made some offerings in the form of meals, drinks, and clothes. But if his sons forgot him, then he became an avenger, sending them diseases, and all kinds of misfortunes.

Regarding the sacrifices, whenever a prominent person died, "they killed some of their slaves, more or less, 539

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES proportionately to the category of the deceased and his fortune" (Doc. ined. Tom. II, page 113).

Fr. Colin, Chapter XVI, page 73, says that "there were principals possessing 100-200 or 300 slaves"; andJ therefore there was no lack of material for frequent sacrifices.

One of the first steps of the Spanish Governor Legaspi was to forbid such inhuman sacrifice'S, persuading and ordering the natives to stop those human sacrifices, showing them that it was an awful crime. The natives promised to obey the order (Doc. ined. Tom. II, page 114).

The worst danger for the Filipinos was the graduating invasion by the Mohammedans of the South; and the timely arrival of the Spaniards was a true providence as it prevented the whole archipielago from becoming Mohammedan. The conversion of the natives of the Philippines to the Catholic faith was the work of the Spanish Religious Orders, supported by Spanish Kings, who, as it is well known, had in view the propagation of the Catholic religion in the heathen countries. The adoption of the Catholic faith by the Filipinos worked in a short time the union of most of the inhabitants of the Philippines.

"There is no doubt," says J. Bowring, 1 "that the same religion is the strongest link for the people. I have observed in various parts of the Orient the racial repulsions and differences; and for one who knows that the race is the great division of society, the contrast and exception of the Filipino people is wonderful."

Those remarkable results of uniting the :patives of so many Islands, were due to the unifying force of the Chri'Stian religion. That is the reason why the Duke of Alencon, in his book, Luzon and Mindanao, says: "The friars have elevated the people to the highest point of civilization to which a race in the last four centuries', found in the most abj ect barbarism, is susceptible. The Religious lA Visit to the Philippine Islands, Chapter I.

540

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Orders can show today with pride, the results of their efforts in those towns in the Philippines, more civilized, more independent and richer than any other colony in Asia, and even in the whole Orient."

As in the last years it has been the interest of some writers of Philippine history to make slanderous statements in regard to the mi's sionary work of the Friars in the Philippines, it will be allowed to me to take also some quotations of the most reliable historians of the Islands: "I have met with many friars," says Bowring, Chapter VI, "who were objects of special respect and affection: and in fact, they deserved it as guardians and restorers of peace in the family, and as protectors of the children in their studies. Besides, their efforts were always devoted to the welfare of their respective parishes."

And Comyn, in his report on the Philippine Islands, 1810: "As the parish priest is the consoler of the afflicted, the peace maker in the family, the promoter of useful ideas, the preacher and the example of all that is good; a's all these qualities are associated with a generous liberality, and the Indians see him alone in their midst, without parents, without trade, and always devoted to promote the interests and welfare of his parishioners, they get their entire confidence, they get accustomed to live happy under his fatherly direction, placing their entire confidence in him."

Mr. Frederic H. Sawyer, in his book, The Inhabitants of the Philippines, page 75, adds: "They-the friarswere formerly and even latterly the defenders of the poor against the rich, and of the native against the Spaniard.

They have consistently resisted the enslavement of the native."

As to the grade of civilization, in which the Americans found the Filipino people, I am going to quote some statements of Mr. W. H. Taft, who was the first American civil 541

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Governor of the Philippines, after the American occupation in 1898, and later on Secretary of War and President of the United States. Answering to an inquiry of the Director of The New Century of Washington on the 13th of February, 1904, Mr. Taft said: ''When for the first time I went to the Philippines, I soon realized that I found myself in the middle of a people, almost Catholic as a whole; and I lively learned how great had been the work of the Spanish friars in the Philippines. . ... I don't hesitate to state that the whole world is indebted to those men, for having Christianized and civilized the Filipino Malays, the only ones converted till now to Christendom."

And in the month of March of the same year 1904, Mr. Taft in the Presbyterian Social Union of Philadelphia praised in exalted words "the great civilizing work of the Spanish friars in the Philippines," frankly recognizing that, thanks to their meritorious labours, the Americans in their arrival in Manila, had found that most of the Pilipinos understood well the American civilization.

And finally, in the Bale Club, Mr. Taft emphasized the fact that "among the Filipinos, there was double the number that was required of educated and capable persons to occupy responsible positions in all branches of the Civil Government."

The adoption of the Catholic religion by the Filipinos was the main source of culture and civilization that Mr. Taft and other Americans admired Ln them~ This shows most eloquently that the Spanish domination and the work of the Spanish friars was not so bad, nor so deficient as many anti-Spanish historians of later times pretend to depict it. Let us hope that some impartial author on the History of the Philippines will relate the facts as they were in truth and in accordance with the most reliable and conscientious historians of the Islands.

542

B.

CATHOLICISM IN THE PHILIPPINES

1

PROPAGATION OF CATHOLICISM Diff~culty

of the Undertaking

Among the benefits which the Filipino people have received from Spain, the greatest and transcendent has been the apostolic Roman Catholic religion, with the abolition of the idolatry and heathen superstitions which they formerly professed.

In order to understand what this- benefit is and the difficulties which the missionaries had to encounter in the evangelization of the Philippines, it is necessary to look back and briefly consider what the Filipinos were before the Spanish conquest.

Superstitions and Barbarous Customs of the Indians What Were the Filipinos before Magellan and Legaspi arrived at these islands as regards religion? They were What the immense majority of the idolatrous Indians of Asia, the Chinese, the Japanese, the Igorrotes, the Aetas, the Manobos, and the savages of the high mountain ranges of Mindanao, not yet conquered and converted to the Christian faith, are still to-day. They were Animists, or worshipers of the souls of their ancestors; they were Sabians, or worshipers of the sun, of the moon, and of the stars. They had no idea of one God, spiritual, infinite, eternal, Creator of heaven and earth, and Kind Father of the human race; they found gods in plants, in birds, in quadrupeds, in cliffs, in caves, and in the reefs of the sea.

This explains how the Tagalos worshiped a blue bird called 1 From the Report of the Philippine Commission, Vol. IV, 1900, pp. 95-112: This paper is furnished by the Jesuit Fathers of Manila.

543

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Tigmamanuquin, which they honored under the name of Bathala, which signifies among them divinity; they gave the same honors to the crow, which they called Maylupa, or lord of the earth; they did the same with the alligator, which they saluted when they saw it in the water by the name of Nono, which means grandfather, and affectionately begged it not to hurt them, and for this purpose they offered it something of what they had in their canoes.

Among the rocks which they adored and to which they offered gifts, one on the banks of the river Pasig, near Guadalupe, was for many years an idol of the Tagalo worship, which they said was a crocodile changed into stone.

They adored, as all the people of the Malay race, the tree called B'alete, and they did not dare to cut it. They had in their houses many monstrous small idols, which the Visayas called Diwata and the Tagalos Anito. According to them there were aJ}.itos of the country, who gave permission to go through it; anitos of the fields, who influenced the fertility of the earth; anitos of the sea, who fed the fishes and took care of boats; anitos to look after the houses and new-born and nursing infants. These domestic anitos were, according to the Malays, the souls of their ancestors, whom they venerated with a religious worship as the Chinese do; and even some old people, in order to have themselves adored by the people after death, affected a divine air and demeanor in their words or actions.

They described the creation of the wo~ld with gross fables. . They said that formerly the sky and water were walking together; that a Milano (kite) interfered between them, and in order to keep the waters from rising to the sky, he placed over them the islands, and so the world 'was formed, which for the Filipinos was represented by a number of islands. The first man and the first woman, according to the Filipinos, came out of a piece of bamboo.

544

EDUCATION AND RELIGION This cane was floating on the water; the water cast it at the foot of a kite, and he, angered 路 by the blow, broke it open with his beak, and the man came out of the joint and the woman out of another.

They believed that the souls of the defunct were material; that they ate morisqueta and drank tuba, and so, on burying the dead, they pla'ced food on their sepulchers.

This custom is still kept up among the savage races of Mindanao.

Instead of priests they generally had priestesses, whom the Visayas called baylanas and the Tagalos catoolanas, who used to be ridiculous, ast ute, and devilish old women who, at the feasts, made sacrifices of animals, and even of slaves and human victims, to the sound of musical instruments. When a chief fell sick and found no relief in medicines, he called on the baylan~ or catoolana. She placed a pig or a bound slave near the bed of the sufferer, or in the middle of the room; then taking a lance and dancing to the sound of a bronze bell, called agum, she attacked the victim and wounded him with a lance thrust, and with his blood she anointed the sick person, and then opened the entrails of the animal or of the slave and examined them after the manner of augurers; and the baylana or catoolana, pretending by grimaces and foamings at the mouth that the prophetic genius had taken possession of her, predicted the result of the malady. If the prophecy was of life, all ate and drank until they became drunk; if it was of death, she consoled the sick person by telling him that he should prepare to ascend to the stars by way of the rainbow.

The Filipinos did not have churches, because all their houses served them as chapels or places of worship. They believed in a multitude of auguries or superstitions. The hooting of the owl and the song of the wild dove, called 545

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES limocon; the sight of a serpent, the hissing of a lizard, were to them so many messages from heaven. The asuang was an evil sprite, witch, or demon, feared by all the Tagalos, Bicolanos, Pampangas, Visayas, and Mandayas; and they believed that it took different forms, such as dog, cat, bird, goat, or other animal. The asuang caught, by preference, abandoned children, solitary travelers, and even with its horrible, swollen, black, and flexible tongue extracted unborn children from women. A thousand other fabulous and fictitious horrors were attributed to the asuang.

Finally, whoever wishes to inform himself of the superstitions and the dark myths of infidelity with which all the Malay race of the Philippines路 were surrounded on the arrival there of the Spanish Catholic missionaries should read Book 3, Chapters XVI and XVII, of the history written by Father Delgado of the Company of J esus; or count, if he has t ime and takes pleasure in it, the nine hundred divinities or superstitious beliefs so ably described by the German Philippinologist, Fernando Blumentritt, in his recent Mythological Dictionary.

To this darkness in religion should be added the corruption of Philippine morals in the times of paganism, the buying and selling of wives which took place whenever matrim10ny was entered into; the usury of premium on loans to an inconceivable degree; slavery so general in the country that children had no objections to making slaves of their parents; war to the death, or to the . extermination, of some tribes against others; and anyone will be convinced of the great labor and difficulties which presented themselves to the missionaries in propagating Catholicism with such happy results among the inhabitants of the 1,400 islands of which the archipelago of Magellan is composed, all of whom were in general imbued and saturated to their bones with those superstitions and customs so contrary to 546

EDUCATION AND RELIGION the Gospel and to Christian civilization and so difficult to uproot. Who could have caused the Philippine nation, buried in the darkness of their false deities, obsence rites, and bloody sacrifices to be transformed into a Catholic nation, zealously believing in one true God; most devoted to the immaculate Virgin Mary, preeminent in the services of the Catholic worship; acknowledging the sanctity of m'a rriage; respectful to their wives, whose dignity has been raised to the height of a true companion for man; generous toward their slaves, to whom they gave liberty as soon as they embraced the Christian faith? This radical transformation of a people could only proceed from divine grace, and through the medium of the Catholic Church, the only true church of Christ, which has civilized Europe and America, and which will civilize the rest of Oceania, Africa, and Asia.

But let us see how this miracle was accomplished.

Extended Through the Archipelago by the Augustinian, Franciscan, Jesuit, Dominilcan, and Recoleto Missionaries We have already told how the first missionaries of the Order of St. Augustine, who arrived at the Philippines with the immortal Legaspi, labored for the conversion of the Indians. Father Herrera founded the province of the Santisimto Nombre de Jesus with Augustinian monks (not barefoot), returned to Europe, where he gathered together 40 missionaries of his order, of whom 34 were left in Mexico on account of illness, and the other 6, together with 3 others, residents of New Spain, undertook the journey to these islands, but were wrecked by a furious storm on the coast of Catanduanes, and there murdered by the savages.

How many missionaries, martyrs like these, the history of the Philippines records. But that does not matter. The Order of St. Augustine grew, watered with the blood of its 547

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES sons, and they founded their first convent in Cebu, and soon after another . larger one as the head of the order in Manila. On the other side of the Pasig River the Augustinian missionaries founded the parish of Tondo, that of Tambobong, and that which bears the name of Pasig, near the Lake of Bay; and traveling through Bulacan they founded the convents and parishes of Dapdap, Guiguinto, Bigoa, Angat, Balinag, Quingua, Malolos, Paombong, Calumpit, and Hagonoy. In the province of Pampanga they founded a multitude of Christian communities, such as those of Bacolor, Macabebe, Porac, Mexico, Arayat, Tarlac, and they arrived as far as San Miguel de Mayumo, Candaba, Apalit, and even to the mountain ranges, where they domesticated the mountain Indians. In Batangas they founded towns as large as Taal, Balayan, Bauan, Batangas, Tanauan, an<\ Lipa, which have 20,000, 30,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, all Christians. In the island of Panay they founded the parishes of Capiz, Dumalag, Antique, Jaro, and many other5. Even in the provinces of Ilocos they established missions in the northern part of Luzon, which later, in the course of time, became large towns.

A fleet of Franciscan missionaries being in Seville, in the year 1576, ready to sail for the Solomon Islands, Philip II obtained the permission of Pope Gregory XIII that they should go to evangelize the Philippines, where they arrived the 24th of June, 1577, being received in Manila with enthusiastic demonstrations of joy. They soon founded a religious province, which they called St. Gregory the Great.

The grand marshal, Don Gabriel de Rivera, built them the convent of San Francisco the same year, 1577. The holy martyr of Japan, Father Pedro Bautista, Franciscan, was the founder of the convent of San Francisco del Monte, outside of Manila. The convent of Franciscan nuns of Santa Clara was founded in 1620, its first mother supe548

EDUCATION AND RELIGION rior being Geronima de la Asuncion. A porter of the convent of San Francisco, of Manila, was the founder of the hospital of St. Lazarus in 1598, which afterwards, in ~603, was located outside of Manila. The Franciscan missionaries were the first missionaries of Sampaloc, Pandacan, Santa Ana, Meycauayan, Bocaue, Morong, Baraa, Pagsaughan, Santa Cruz de la Laguna, and Mainit, where were established some baths of hot sulphur water from the springs in that locality. In this same province of Laguna they founded Nagcarlang, Lilio, and Mahayhay, and some missions in the mountains of Daractan.

They were the apostles who evangelized and converted to Christianity the provinces of Camarines. In the province of Tayab3is they established the towns of Pagbilao, Sarriaya, Lucban, and others; the missions of Lupe and Ragay, those of t he mountains of Mangairia, and on the opposite coast the Christian communities of Binangonan, Polo, Baler, and Casiguran. These distinguished missionaries of the glorious San Francisco extended their apostolic zeal even to the islands of Japan, where 23 canonized martyrs and 40 blessed ones shed their blood for Jesus Christ.

A lay brother named Friar Antonio de San Gregorio, who was the corner stone of this holy and apostolic province of St. Gregory the Great, was able to give all this glory to God. To these two missionary bodies was added a third, that of the Society of Jesus. As the sons of Ignacio have everywhere marched in the vanguard of Catholicism, it could not fail to happen that they should wish to emulate the distinguished sons of San Francisco and San Augustine in the Philippines by dauntlessly following the footsteps of the Apostle of the Orient and their brother, St. Francis Xavier.

The Jesuit fathers who arrived at these islands in 1581 549

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES in company with the firยงt bishop, Domingo de Salazar, of the Order of Preachers, were two only; but it would be hard to find two men who have rendered greater services to the Philippines. Their names were Antonio Sedeiio and Alonzo Sanchez. Father Sedeiio, a native of the town of San Clemente, province of Cuenca, in Spain, followed in his youth the career of a soldier under the orders of the Duke of Frias, at which time he studied the art of fortification. He afterwards professed in the Society of Jesus, and was a missionary in Florida. He taught the Filipinos to sew cloth, to cut stone, and to make mortar. He built the Episcopal palace, procured quantities of seeds, taught them to spin silk, planted mulberry trees, set up looms, had painters come from China, opened the first school in the Philippines, founded the colleges of Manila and Cebu, and seut out missionaries all through the Visayas. He died in peace after fourteen years of apostleship.

Father Alonzo Sanchez was sent as an ambassador to Macao, and then to the courts of Madrid and Rome to negotiate with the King of Spain and with the Pontiff the establishment of the fundamental bases and the relief of the most urgent necessities of the infant colony. It was he who obtained from Philip II the support of the colony against the opinion of the counselors of the Crown, who thought it should be abandoned on 3iccount of the large expense it occasioned without giving any return.

The King, influenced by the reasoning of Sanchez, energetically supported his proposal for love of the salvation of the souls of the poor Indians. The principal measures which he obtained from the King and from. the Pope were: The preservation of the cathedral; the sending out of missionaries of the different religious orders at the expense of the State; the founding of two hospitals, one for Spaniards and the other for Indians; the founding of the 550

EDUCATION AND RELIGION college of Santa Potenciana for Spanish girls; the imposition of a 3 per cent tax on goods in the custom-house; and besides, that from each tax one-half real should be taken for the support of the ministers and holy objects of the church; that the debts of the first Spaniards who arrived in the islands at the expense of the State should be paid; that the Governor-General of the Philippines should not confer offices on his relatives, but on people who had worked in the country for three years; that in the lawsuits of the Indians he should proceed summarily; that slavery should be abolished by freeing the children of slaves; that the army should be well provided for from the royal 'treasury of Mexico; that soldiers in active service could not engage in trade; that the city of Manila should be fortified; that four strongholds should be constructed in the archipelago, defended by a powerful squadron; that, in view of the distance, the Governor-General should have unlimited power in case of need; the consent of the bishop, of the audiencia, and of the chiefs of the army being sufficient.

The Jesuits founded the royal college of St. Joseph in 1595, and then that of San Ignacio, which was raised to the rank of pontificial university in 1621 and royal in 1653 ; the community of Santa Cruz, that of San Miguel, and the N oviciado de San Pedro Macati. In the mountains of the country of the Tagalos they built the sanctuary of Antipolo, where they placed the miraculous image of Nuestra Senora de la Paz y Buen Viaje, the object of the pilgrimages of the pious Filipinos. In Cavite they established the missions of Cavite Viejo, Silang, Indang, and Maragondon. They devoted themselves to the study of Tagalog and filled their large libraries with Tagalog books. But as the Tagalo provinces already had missionaries of other religious orders, the Jesuits hastened to the evangelization of 551

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the Visayan Islands; they established a central college in Cebu, and from there they undertook a spiritual campaign against error, ignorance, superstition, and vice, which lasted for two centuries and which extended throughout the islands of Bohol, Negros, Leyte, Samar, Mindanao, Marianas, and Carolinas. In Bohol, from 1597 to 1622, Fathers Gabriel Sanchez and Juan Torres founded the missions of Loboc, Baclayon, Danis, Malabohoc, San Miguel, Talibon, and Inabanga; in N egros, the towns of Hog and CabancaIan. In Leyte Fathers Chirino, Jimenez, Carpio, and others founded the towns of Leyte, Palompon, Ormoc, Baybay, Hilongos, Maasin, Sogor, Cabalian, Carigara, and many others. Fathers Otazo, Ponce, Miralles, and Damian passed over to the mountainous island of Samar, wall of the Pacific Ocean, and reduced it all to orderly life. By studying the language and reducing it to writing, they composed dictionaries and elegant books, and gathered together twenty centers of population, not without infinite labor, shipwrecks, captivity, and the martyrdom of some of their mISSIonaries. In Guinang, a town of said island, Father Delgado wrote his copious history, in the year 1790.

From Samar, Leyte, and Bohol the Jesuits proceeded to the evangelization of Butuan and Dapitan, in Mindanao; and toward the south they reached Zamboanga, Basilan, and Jo16, accompanying the Spanish squadrons, who were fighting against the Moros. Father Sanritores, with a few companions, evangelized the Marianas Islands, where he was martyred by those islanders in 1670, after having baptized 13,000 of them and leaving 20,000 catechumens. And still the zeal of the Society of Jesus was not satisfied, and during the last century it did not cease sending various expeditions to the Caroline Islands, which were not successful, because the majority of the missionaries perished, victims of the furious typhoons which are so frequent in those seas.

552

EDUCATION AND RELIGION After the Jesuit missionaries the Dominican fathers arrived in the Philippines in the year 1587. In order to understand the great benefits which these most learned fathers have conferred on the islands, read the magnificent History of the Province of Santisimo Rosario, written by Father Fonseca, for it would be a task little less than impossible to reduce to a brief sketch all their labors and enterprises in Luzon, Formosa, and in the vast Empire of China. The first bishop of Manila, Rev. Father Domingo Salazar, was a Dominican, and from the Dominican monastery of that city there havE' gone out a multitude of wise and holy prelates, who liave occupied the sees of the East, and even many of the sees of Spain, to the glory of their order and the Holy Catholic Church, which they have extended in the Orient.

The image of Our Lady of the Rosary, which is venerated in the Church of Santo Domingo, is celebrated in all the islands, and there is no more popular feast than that called Naval, which is held yearly, the first Sunday in October, in said -city of Manila. Their University -of St. Thomas, founded in 1611, confirmed as the Pontifical University in 1640 and as the Royal University in 1680, has b'een the most lasting center of learning of all those founded in the Philippines, and has had professors as learned as Cardinal Ceferino Gonzalez. These missionaries scattered themselves throughout the provinces of Batuan and Pangasinan, and reduced them all to Christianity. The government of the Sangleys or Chinese Christians was intrusted to them. It was not long after their arrival when they extended their missions throughout Cagayan and the B'atanes Islands. Their zeal not being satisfied with sueh a vast field, in 1626 Friar Bartolome Martinez, provincial of the Dominicans, with five other monks of his order, navigated to the island of Formosa, where they established several missions. In 1633 Father Juan de Morales was 553

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES sent out to organize the missions of Fokieu, in China, which have been maintained in a flourishing state to the present time. In 1676 Fathers Juan de la Cruz, Arjona, and Morales crossed to Tonquin and were the founders of the Spanish mission in that Kingdom, where the Christian religion has been propagated in a marvelous manner in spite of the persecutions suffered, and in which 12 Spanish Dominicans, 6 of them bishops, 26 native Dominicans, and more than 5,000 Christians died as martyrs. But now Christianity had so increased in Tonquin that Pius IX created for its ecclesiastical government two apostolic vicarages, and Leo XIII added a third, the three now being named Oriental, Northern, and Central.

The great sacrifices made for a holy cause are an example and stimu.Ius for noble souls. Thus we see that the Fathers Recoletanos, of the Order of St. Augustine, being holily jealous of the p,a ins, labors, and triumphs which other religious bodies had had in the conversion of the Philippines, came to these islands in the year 1606. Their first missionary was the venerable Father Juan de San Geronimo, who renounced the Bishoprie of Chapa, in America, to devote himself to the spiritual conquest of these lands, as the humblest of the followers of the Gospel. Without allowing themselves a moment of rest, the Recoletos Fathers began their apostolic journey, evangelizing the mountains of Mariveles and the province of Zambales, where they made the echoes of their inspired words resound. In the southern part of the archipelago there is the large and ' most fertile island of Mindanao, the home of Moro piracy and of the obscene errors of the K;oran, against which these missionaries declared war without truce or quarter. The most celebrated of them all, in Philippine history, is Father Pedro de San Agustin, called Father Captain. The glorious deeds of this vigorous champipn of the faith ap554

EDUCATION AND RELIGION pear incredible. He was the first who, about the year 1835, penetrated to the Lake of Lanao and inspired the fanatical followers of Mohammed with terror, since they not only did not wish to be converted, but devastated the Christian communities which the father had established with so much trouble and labor in the north of Mindanao.

The island of Romblon was the prey of the Mussulman piracies, and there Father Captain went, obeying the orders of his superiors, humiliating the power of the Moros (Mohammedans) in those seas, and constructing bulwarks such as those of Banton and Punta Ragacay, which demonstrate a very superior knowledge not only of military architecture, but also of ballistics. The flourishing state of religion in those islands proves how great the Lord is, who from a peaceful monk could make a bold captain and apostle of tHese regions.

In the Calamianes Islands, in Paragua, Mindoro, in the island of Tablas, in Masbate, in that of Burias, in that of Ticao, in the most fertile island of Negros, and in the province of Cavite, the Recoletanos Fathers have established numerous missions and parishes, which will be a monum;ent of their zeal and the fruitfulness of the Catholic Church.

Besides, they promoted the arts and agriculture, building in Manila an iron gothic church, called San Sebastian, an.d cultivating in the province of Cavite, the famous plantation of Imus.

To the labors of these five missionary bodies we have just mentioned, namely, the Augustinians, the Franciscans, the Jesuits, the Dominicans, and the Recoletanos, must be added the work of the secular clergy, composed in part of Spanish clergy and in part of native' clergy. To them is due the maintenance of worship in the cathedral churches of Manila, Cebu, J aro, Nueva Caceres, and Nueva Segovia.

The native clergy already in the last century administered 555

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES 16 cura'cies in the Archbishopric of Manila, 15 in the Bishopric of Cebu, 18 in that of Camarines, and 4 in that of Cagayan, or Vigan, and they are the ones who up to the present time have held the office of coadjutors of the rectors in the large parishes of the rest of the archipelago.

Their knowledge of the languages of the country in which they were brought up makes them very well fitted for the m~nistry of the Word and for the administration of the sacraments to the Indians. They have not failed to give eminent men to the Philippine church.

Establishment of the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy The Philippine Church could not exist without ecclesiastical hierarchy, and indeed Philip II selected at once Father Domingo Salazar, master in theology of the Mona~tery of St. Stephen in Salamanca, of the Order of Preachers, aSl the first bishop of the Philippines, and Pope Gregory XIII approved his selection and he was consecrated in Madrid in the year 1579, arriving at Manila in 1581.

The series of most illustrious bishops and archbishops of this see can be found, together with an account of their principal enterprises, in the history written by Father Delgado of the Society of Jesus, Book 2, Chapter X. Among the preeminent pontiffs there are worthy of mention, besides Salazar, Santibafiez, raised to the dignity of archbishop in 1598; Benavides, foupder of the University of St. Thomas, who died in 1616; Guerrero, intrepid defender of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction, who died in 1641; Miguel Poblete, Mexican priest, who died full of merits and virtues in 1667; Diego Camacho, most zealous for the splendor of the cathedral and a great lover of the seminary, who rested in peace in the year 1712; Rodriguez, who died in 1742, and others whom we do not mention for the sake of brevity. All of them distinguished thems.elves by their 556

EDUCATION AND RELIGION love for the Indians, protecting them with their episcopal authority, which is greatest among the ecclesiastics of the Far East. The archdiocese of Manila is one of the most extensive and populated of the Catholic world, and has to-day subject to it the episcopal chairs of Cebu, Nueva Segovia, Nueva Caceres, and J aro.

Foundation of the Different Dioceses The diocese of Cebu was founded in 1535, and Father Pedro de Augusto, of the Order of St. Augustine, was elected as its first bishop, and governed it holily until 1608. The illustrious Arce succeeded him, who died in 1642. Several other most edifying prelates succeeded him, among those worthy of m;ent\on being Miguel Bayat, barefooted Fran- . ciscan, who when he died had but five reals, because he gave all his treasures to the poor.

This diocese was so extensive that it included, before that of J aro was created, all the Vi sayan Islands, Mindanao, J 010, the Marianas, and the Carolines. The life of man was to short to visit it, and it was necessary to divide it, as was done in 1865.

The diocese of Nueva Caceres, or of Camarines, was created by apostolic brief of Clement VIII, in the year 1595, at the samle time as that of Cebu, and its first bishop was Francisco de Otorga, Augustinian monk, who died in 1601. His successors were generally apostolic men taken from the monasteries and the missions; although there were seated in this chair, as in the rest of the archipelago, priests of the secular clergy, as illustrious, zealous, and charitable as Felipe de Molina, native clergyman of the town of Arevalo, in Iloilo, who repaired the ruins of its church and governed th~ diocese apostolically.

The first Bishop of Nueva Segovia was Miguel de Benavides, who ruled over the church from 1599 to 1603, 557

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES when he was promoted to be Metropolitan of Manila. He was succeeded by other learned men of much power, some of whom were also transferred to the archiepiscopal chair of Manila, such as the illustrious Serrano and Jose Millan de Poblete; and still more worthy of mention is what happened with Father Juan Arrechedera, Dominican monk, who, at the same time he was Bishop of Nueva Segovia, was elected by decree of the royal audiencia to fill the office of governor and captain-general of the islands', on account of the death of Don Gaspar de la Torre, and he held the staff of the supreme command of these islands from the year 1745 to 1750, being very much beloved by the Indians. In truth, this Philippine colony did not need soldiers for a period of three centuries to maintain order, or even to defend itself from foreigners, because religious influence substituted with advantage military force, and it was lost only when the Spanish Government allowed this religious influence to diminish.

The diocese of Jaro was created by bull of Pope Pius IX in 1865, its first bishop being Mariano Quartero, who died in 1884. Leandro Arrue, of the Order of Recoletanos, succeeded him, who died in 1897, Andres Terrero de San Jose, monk of the same order, being elected to succeed him.

In all the dioceses the bishops took care to found seminaries for the native clergy, not only because they were necessary to assist in the administration of the sacraments in the large parishes created by the monks, but also in order that they could occupy some district parishes which from very old times had been reserved for them.

The Fathers of the Congregation of St. Vincent de Paul, the Capuchins, and the Benedictines Arrive at the Islands To govern some of these seminaries there came from Spain in 1862 the Sons of St. Vincent de Paul, together 558

EDUCATION AND RELIGION with the Sisters of Charity, who took charge of the attendance on the sick in hospitals and of the instruction of girls.

The Capuchin Fathers also arrived in these islands in .

1886 for the purpose of taking charge of the m1ssions of both the Caroline and Palaos islands-an office which they have filled in a marvelous manner, not without the sacrifice of all earthly ambitions, going to bury themselves forever in those solitary places of the Pacifc Ocean for love of the poor natives.

Finally, in 1895, the Benedictine Fathers of the Monastery of Montserrat, in Spain, disembarked for the first time in Manila to take charge of some missions on the eastern coast of Mindanao.

Wonderful Transformation of the Philippines What a beautiful page for the Catholic Church the history of the propagation of Christianity in the Philippines presents! What fruitfulness on the part of the Church!

What glory for the missionaries! What honor for Spain!

The monks arrived at these islands in the year 1565. They found in them about 2,000,000 inhabitants; some of them wholly savage, cannibals, others semibarbarous; all of them pagans, idolaters, sunk in the densest darkness of superstition, slavery, and vice. But what was the condition of the Philippines one century later? The barbarians had already been reduced to civil and orderly life; idolatry had disappeared; slavery had been abolished; matrimony had been sanctified; thousands of children attended the schools, magnificent churches had been erected, and 1,000,000 inhabitants had received the waters of baptism and practiced the Christian religion, just as those born in Europe.

In the succeeding century the number of Catholics became 2,000,000, and soon 6,000,000.

559

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES This is the work of the Catholic Church and of the Catholic Spanish nation, true mothers, the one spiritual and the other temporal, of this fortunate colony; the most pious spirit of both dictating the benevolent dispositions and concessions of the Popes and of the Philippine episcopate, and the most magnanimous and humanitarian laws of the never sufficiently praised code of the Indies, so suited to the capacity and so protective of the rights of the Indians, that it seems rather to come from the good heart of a Pontiff than from a temporal monarch-a true model of Christian secular legislation. These two powers and legislations, ecclesiastical and political, always working with the most admirable harmony during the first three centuries, were the two agents, but in spirit one, of this work of culture, which has no equal in the history of colonial civilization.

PRESENT STATE OF THE CATHOLIC RELIGION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Progressive Increase of Catholics in the Philippines until 1898 In order to understand the present state of the Catholic religion in the Philippines (we refer to the year 1896, before the Tagalo insurrection) it would be well to put before the eyes of the reader the growth of the Christian population and the increase of the faithful from the time of the arrival of the Spaniards until the present time.

The number of inhaMtants which the Spaniards found on their arrival in these islands is not definitely known, but it is estimated by some historians as less than 2,000,000, and it would not be imprudent to affirm that it scarcely reached 1,500,000, all of them either idolaters, who admitted a plurality of gods, or Mohammedans, who, although they professed, as they still do, the unity of God, did not 560

EDUCATION AND RELIGION believe, nor do they yet believe, in the divinity of Jesus Christ, but rather have almost always been instructed from their earliest youth by their parents and teachers to hate Christianity.

Then the Spanish missionaries arrived and began the work of evangelization, at the same time as the humanitarian undertaking of reducing them to political life, because the majority of the Indians and Moros lived scattered about on the shores, fields, and in the woods, forming little ranches.

What was the result of their apostolic labors? Let us see. Juan 'Francisco de San Agustin, chronicler of the Franciscan missionaries, gives us the following: Gene'1'al resume of souls, not taking into account m.ore than the natives converted to Christianity in all the Philippine archipelago in the year 1735.

In 142 towns which th'e clergy have 'n their charge in all this archipelago .............. . ..................... .

Shod Augustinians (in more than 150 towns) .......... .

Order of Santo Domingo (in 51 towns) ............... .

Society of Jesus ( in 80 towns) ....................... .

Augustinian Recoletos (in 105 towns) ................ . .

Barefoot Franciscans (in 63 towns) .................. .

131,279 241,806 89,752 170,000 63,149 141,196

Total .......................................... .

837,182

Father Delgado, who wrote about the year 1750, gives almost the saIOO statistics, but adds these words: I do not doubt that the souls ministered to by the secular and regular priests in all the islands of this archipelago exceed a million and many thousands more, because in the church registers children under 7 years are not entered or enumerated, and so I am depending on the count which was made a few years ago.

In the work entitled "State of the Philippine Islands," written by Don Tomas de Comyn in 1820, and translated 561

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES into English by William Walton in 1821, there is an appendix, as follows: Recapitulation of the population of the Philippine8.

Indians of both sexes (Catholics) ..................... 2,395,687 119,719 Chinese half-breeds (Catholics) .......................

7,000 Sangleyes, or Chinese ..... .. .........................

Whites ..............................................

4,000 Total population ...............................

2,526,406

Comparison of the total population in 1791 and 1810.

Indians ............. . . .

Half-Breeds Total

........ . .. .

Increase.

I 2,395,687 812,926

Year 1791.

Year 1810.

I

1,582,761 66,917

119,719

I

1,649,678

2,515,406

II

52,802 865,728

And he concludes, saying: The difference resulting from the foregoing comparison, founded on public documents, gives an excess of 52 per cent of increment in each eighteen years, and if said proportion continues, the population of the Philippine Islands will be doubled in thirty-four years, an increase which might be considered incredible if we did not have an extraordinary example in Philadelphia, which has doubled its population in twenty-eight years, as Buffon affirms, on the authority of Dr. Franklin.

This remark of Mr. Comyn has already been realized with accuracy, if we hold to what Don Felipe del Pan, a studious newspaper man of Manila, assures us of in his published works; for, according to this author, in 1876 the population of the Philippines amounted to 9,000,000 individuals.

Mr. Ferreiro, secretary of the ~ographic Society of Madrid, also estimated the population of the Philippines in 562

EDUCATION AND RELIGION 1887 to be approximately 9,000,000, a figure which to some appears to exceed the true number.

In a study made the last three months of 1894 the population of the archipelagoes which were under the general government of the Philippines appeared as follows: Christian parochial population ....................... .

Refugees ........................................... .

Regular and secular clergy .......................... .

Spanish and Indian soldiers ......................... .

In asylums ......................................... .

Criminals .......................................... .

Chinese foreigners .................................. .

White foreigners .................................... .

Mohammedans ...................................... .

Heathen ........................................... .

Total

........................................ .

6,414,373 128,287 2,651 21,513 689 702 74,504 1,000 309,000 880,000 7,832,719

Finally, the secretary of the archbishopric of Manila offers us tbe following census with relation to tlie Catholics in the Philippine, Marianas, and Caroline archipelagoes in the year 1898, according to the parochial registers: Number of persons per diocese.

Archbishopric of Manila ............................ .

Bishopric of Cebu .................................. .

Bishopric of J aro ................................... .

Bishopric of Nueva Segovia ......................... .

Bishopric of Nueva Caceres ......................... .

1,811,445 1,748,872 1,310,754 997,629 691,298

Total number of Catholics .................... .

6,559,998

To whom is due this increase of Catholicism and this growth of the popUlation of the Philippines in general from the time of the Spanish conquest? It is due to the regular and secular clergy. Scarcely any importance can be attached to the immigration into the Philippines in the course of years. The Chinese and the Europeans, in563

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES eluding the Spaniards themselves, may be considered, as a general rule, birds of passage, who come to pass a few years here and then return to their own country. The Philippine population has increased, thanks to the organization and good government of the centers of popUlation, principally established by the action of missionaries at the time of the conversion to Christianity of the natives of the evangelized territories. The secular power, even aided by arms, did not attempt to create towns of infidels. Not even the military posts have become populous or permanent towns.

The center of attraction and of permanence in Philippine towns has always been, and continues to be, the church and the monastery. The parish priest, who is not a bird of passage, is generally the most respected authority, the chief guarantee of peace and order, and the most zealous guardian of morality, the undoubted and most important cause of the increase in the population of any country. The numerous and important towns, which now have other powerful roots and elements of cohesion, began and grew in this way. Take away from them, especially when recently founded and young, the center of union of which we have spoken, 'and it will be seen how the families will separate and the new citizens readily return to the life of the mountains.

Present State of the Archbishopric of Manila and the Bishoprics of Cebu, Jaro, Nueva Caceres, 'and Nueva Segovia.

To shepherd this flock of 6,500,000 Catholics the church of the Philippines has an archbishop and four bishops.

The present archbishop of Manila is Don Bernardino N ozaleda, of the Order of St. Dominic, a wise and prudent 564

EDUCATION AND RELIGION prelate, who took possession of his chair the 29th of October, 1890. This archdiocese has a magnificent cathedral and a considerable chapter, which in the time of Spanish dominion was composed of 24 prebendaries. The ecclesiastical court has its offices in the archiepiscopal palace.

The seminary of the council is a beautiful edifice and is governed by the Fathers of the Congregation of St. Vincent de Paul. It is now closed on account of the state of war which exists in the country. The pious works of the miter before the revolution counted upon a considerable fund, and they are in charge of an administrator. The archbishopric of Manila has 219 parishes, 24 parish missions, 16 active missions, 259 parish priests' or missionaries, and 198 native c)ergymen to assist the parish priests.

The diocese of Cebu is ruled over by Don. Fr. Martin Garcia de Alcocer, of the Order of St. Francis, a most worthy prelate and very much beloved by an those in his diocese. He took possession of his diocese the 11th of December, 1886. In Cebu there is an old cathedral, and they were building a new one when the revolution broke out.

Besides, that city has a conciliar seminary, in charge of the Paulist Fathers, and two hospitals dependent on the miter. The diocese has 166 parishes, 15 parish missions, 32 active missions, 213 parish priests or missionaries, and 125 native clergymen.

On account of the death of Father Leandro Arrue, which occurred in 1897, D. Fr. Mauricio Ferrero, ex-provincial of the monks of the Recoletano Order of St. Augustine, has just been appointed bishop of Jaro. The bishopric of J aro has a cathedral church, which is at the same time the parish church of the city of Jaro, with the corresponding ecclesiastical court, and a seminary governed by the Fathers of St. Vincent de Paul. There are in the dio565

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES cese 144 parishes, 23 parish missions, 33 active missions, 200 parish priests or missionaries, and 73 native clergymen employed in the parochial min~stry.

The diocese of Nueva Caceres has for its bishop D. Fr. Arsenio del Campo, of the Order of St. Augustine, who took possession of his chair the 3d of June, 1888. Although it lacks a chapter, as the dioceses of Cebu, J aro, and Nueva Segovia, there is, nothwithstanding, in Nueva Caceres as cathedral church, ecclesiastical tribunal, conciliar seminary in charge of the Paulist Fathers, and a leper hospital. The bishopric of Nueva Caceres has 107 parishes, 17 parish missions, 124 parish priests or missionaries, and 148 native priests.

The present bishop of Nueva Segovia is Don Fr. Jose Heria Campomanes, a monk of the Dominican Order, very well versed in the Tagalo language, who previously had been for many years parish priest of Binondo, which parish he enriched with a magnificent cemetery. He took possession of his chair on the 19th of June, 1890, but, the revolution having broken out, he was made a prisoner, and at the present writing he is still groaning under the painful chains of captivity, and not always treated as his sacred character, his authority, and his personal qualifications merit. The diocese of Nueva Segovia has 110 parishes, 26 parish missions, 35 active missions, 171 parish priests or missionaries, and 131 native priests. The ecclesiastical court is located in Vigan, where there is, besides, a cathedral church and conciliar siminary, which have been governed up to the present time by the monks of the Order of St. Augustine.

State of the Religious Bodies The Corporation of Augustinian Fathers (shod) had, before the revolutionary movement, the fine monastery 566

EDUCATION AND RELIGION and church of San Agustin in Manila, those of Cebu and Guadalupe, and the orphan asylums of Tambobong and Mandaloyon; and in Spain the colleges of Valladolid, of Palma de Mallorca, and of Santa Maria de la Vid, with the Royal Monastery of the Escorial and the hospitium of Barcelona, besides a mission in China. The total number of monks was 644.

The Corporation of Recoletos, Augustinians, also had, before the war in the Philippines, a monastery and church in Manila, churches in Cavite, San Sebastian, and Cebu, and the plantation house at Imus; and in Spain the colleges of Monteagudo, of Marcilla, and of San Millan de la Cogulla, the number of m10nks being 522.

The monks of the Order of St. Francis have in the Philippines their monastery and church in Manila, and that of San Francisco del Monte, the Hospital of St. La.zarus, the church of the Venerable Third Order of Sampaloc, the almshouse of San Pascual Baylon, the infirmary of Santa Cruz de la Laguna, a leper hospital in Camarines, the college of Guinobatan, and the monastery of Santa Clara; and in Spain the colleges of Pastrana, Consuegra, Arenas de San Pedro, Puebla de Montalban, Almagro and Belmonte, with a residence in Madrid, and besides a college in Rome. The total number of monks is 475 and of nuns 34.

The monks of the Order of St. Dominic, besides the missions in China and Formosa, have in Manila the convent and church of Santo Domingo, the university of Santo Tomas, the college of Santo Tomas, that of San Jose, and that of San Juan de Letran, the college of San Alberto Magno in Dagupan, the vicarage of San Juan del Monte, and of San Telmo in Cavite, the nunnery of Santa Catalina de Sena in Manila for girls, that of Our Lady of the Rosary in Lingayen, that of Santa Imelda in Tuguegarao, and that of Our Lady of the Rosary in Vigan, also for the education of girls; and in Spain the two colleges of Santo Domingo de 567

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Ocana and Santo Tomas de Avila, with a total number of 528 Illjonks.

The missionaries of the Society of Jesus have in Manila a central mission house and municipal school, the normal school, and a meteorological observatory, and they administer 37 missions, with 265 stations or settlements of converts in Mindanao, Basilan, and Jolo. The total number of Jesuits resident in the Philippines was only 164, but the province of Aragon, to which the mission belongs, has several preparatory houses, colleges, and residences in Spain besides those it supports in South America.

The fathers of the Mission of San Vicente de Paul have the house of San Marcelino in Manila and the conciliar seminary of that city, with also those of Cebu, Jaro, and Nueva Caceres.

The Capuchin missionaries have the church and mission house in Manila, the mission of Jap in the Western Carolines, that of Palaos, that of Panapa, in the Eastern Carolines, and the procuration of Madrid, the total number of monks being 36.

The Benedictine missionaries occupy the Central Mission House in Manila, the missions of Taganaan, Cantilan, Gigaquit, Cabuntog, Numancia, and Dinagat in Mindanao, and a college of missionaries in Montserrat (Spain). Those resident in these islands number 14.

In conclusion, there are in the Philippines, besides the monks, several nunneries dedicated, some to contemplation, .such as those of Santa Clara; others to education, such as those of Asuncion, the Dominicans, and the nuns of the Society of Jesus; and, finally, others to the practice of charity, such as the Sisters of Charity or of St. Vincent de Paul, who have in their charge the hospitals, although they also devote themselves with great success to the instruction of girls in the colleges of Concordia, Santa Isa568

EDUCATION AND RELIGION bel, Santa Rosa, Escuela Municipal, Looban, Hospicio, San Jose in Jaro, and Santa Isabel in Nueve Caceres.

Religious Spirit of the Country After this superficial account of religious statistics, we can not resist the desire to set forth, although very briefly, what is at present and in reality the character or qualities of the religious spirit reigning in this country, which owes all that it is, aside from purely natural elements, to the Catholic civilization of Spain. Moreover, the point is very pertinent to the subject.

It is indisputable from the very beginning that the native masses who have received the direct influence of the Spanish civilization are Wholly Catholic. The infidel natives are still barbarous or semi-barbarous; and the Moros, besides lacking the civilization of the Christian Indians, only retain of merely external Mohammedanism their innate pride and treaCHery, and a few formalities known and practiced -by a very small number of their race. Those in the Philippines who profess, or are said to profess, any other positive religion, and especially Christian distinct from Catholic, are not found except among the foreign element. Therefore, Catholicism is the religion, not only of the majority, but of all the civilized Filipinos.

It is also certain that the Filipinos are sincere Catholics. Their religion suits them and is agreeabJe to them; they practice it voluntarily; they profess it without objection, openly and publicly. The most remote suspicion that Catholicism is not the true religion, and the only one capable of insuring temporal and eternal felicity, is far from their minds. All these Indians are in themselves docile to the teachings and admonitions of their parish priests and spiritual fathers; many good people readily and frequently partake of the holy sacraments, and that many 569

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES others either do not come, or do not come so frequently, must be attributed to neglect, to carelessness, or to real impediments, but never to aversion. The ceremonies and the solemnity of the worship attract them extraordinarily, as do also the popular Catholic exhibitions of great feasts and processions. They show, without any objection, but rather with much pleasure, the pious objects and insignia of any pious devotion or association to which they belong, and in many places the women use the scapular or the rosary around their necks as a part or complement of their costume. I may be said that there is not a house or family, no matter how poor, which does not have an altar or domestic oratory. Among the Filipino people there may be careless, vicious Christians, and those scandalous for their bad habits, and even those ignorant of the essentials of their religion; but there are no unbelievers or impious ones, unless there are some, iIt number relatively insignificant, who have gone to foreign countries and become vicious, and have afterwards returned to the country; and even these have taken good care not to show it until now, because of a certain remnant of shame, unless among irreligious or sectarian companions. Finally, the three orders, confraternities, pious associations, and old and new devotions have always had in the Philippines a great number of inscribed, and even faithful and fervent, affiliated members.

The Catholic religion, always holy and sanctifying, works in its subjects who embrace it according to the natural or acquired disposition of the same. So "that the defects of character of the" Indians" although they are frequently lessened, thanks to the religion which they profess, hardly disappear wholly, and even influence the private life and religious character of the natives. Therefore, because they are more superficial and more impressed with novelties than other races, they perhaps might be less constant in their Catholic practices, sentiments, and convic570

EDUCATION AND RELIGION tions, and they would more readily than others feel the evil influences of false doctrines and worships if they should experience them. They are prone to superstition, on account of ancient bad habits, on account of the proximity and intercourse with those still infidels, and on account of their puerile imagination and their natural love of externals.

This we understand to be, in broad lines, the religious character of the Indians of the Philippines.

Now read what has been said recently on this same subject by another eye-witness, with whom we agree almost entirely.

Mr. Peyton, Protestant bishop, in a meeting of Protestant bishops of the Episcopal Church, held in St. Louis last October, said, speaking of Catholicism in the Philippines: I found in all the towns a magnificent church. I attended mass several times, and the churches were always full of natives, even under unfavorable circumstances, on account of the military occupation. There are almost no seats in these churches, the services lasting from an hour to an hour and a half. Never in my life have I observed more evident signs of deep devotion than those I witnessed there--the men kneeling or prostrated before the altar and the women on路 their knees or seated on the floor. Nobody left the chUl'ch during the services nor spoke to anyone. There is no sectarian spirit there. All have been instructed in the creed, in prayer, in the ten commandments, and in the catechism. All have been baptized in infancy.! I do not know that there exists in the world a people as pure, as moral, and as devout as the Filipino people.

This Granted, Would Freedom of Religions be Advisable in the Philippines'?

Therefore, religion-and, consequently, morality-, being so universal in the Philippines, would it be advisable 1 It must be understood that this is outside of living missions, in more or less ancient Christian communities and towns.

571

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES to introduce liberty of religious worship in this country?

If by freedom of religion is understood religious tolerance

in fact, by virtue of which no one can be compelled to profess Catholicism, or be persecuted for not being a Catholic, but each individual may privately profess the religion which suits: him best, then this liberty has always existed in the Philippines; and no Filipino or foreigner has ever been forced to embrace the Catholic religion. But if by liberty of religions is understood the granting to all religions-for example, the worship of Confucius, or of Mohammed-and to all the Protestant sects equal rights to open schools, erect churches, create parishes, have processions and public ceremonies, with the Catholic Church, we believe that it would not only not be advisable, but it would be a lamentable measure for any government which may rule the destinies of the Filipinos. In fact, if this Government should concede this liberty of religions, it will make itself hateful to 6,500,000 of Filipino Catholics; because, although said Government may not profess any religion, the Filipino people would hold it responsible for all the consequences of this measure, and so it could not be regarded favorably by these 6,500,000 Catholics. They are fully convinced that their religion is the only true one, the only one by which man can be saved; and if any government should try to deprive them of this religion, which is their most precious jewel and the richest inheritance that they have received from their superiors, although it may not be more than permitting Protestant or heterodox propagandism publicly and boldly, then they could not help complaining, and disturbance of public order might even result from it, with all the fury and all the disasters, which, as is well known, this kind of war usually entails.

Two serious difficulties may oppose the rights of Catholicism in the Philippines. The first is the Americans who are now governing here, and the second is the Fili672

EDUCATION AND RELIGION pinos themselves. The Americans enjoy in America the most complete religious liberty. Why, then, should they not enjoy the same liberty on moving to the Philippines?

We answer that each citizen should conform to the laws of the country where he lives. The Chinese enjoyed the most complete liberty to erect temples to Buddha or to Confucius; but for three centuries they have not had such liberty in Manila. On the other hand, no Chinese has been obliged to become a Catholic; and, we may say more, no Chinese has needed to make a show of his religion in order to trade, become rich, and return to die in China. The same may be said of Englishmen and Americans. If, in the Philippines, for the good order and government of 6,500,000 Catholics, besides which there are only 1,500,000 inhabitants, idolaters and Mohammedans, Who are still to be civilized, it is necessary not to permit nor to encourage liberty of religions, the government which rules the destinies of these islands should legislate in this direction, for the laws should be adapted to the necessities of the majority of the citizens. And Americans tbemselves who make their residence here should accommodate themselves to this law, without any temporal or spiritual injury resulting to them from it, because, privately, they could profess the religion which their conscience dictates to them to be the true one. The English in Malta do this, where the Catholic religion flourishes; and, although the island is very small, there are more than 2,000 Italian Catholic priests there, better satisfied and content to live under the English Government than under the Italian Government.

The other difficulty against the Catholicism of the Filipinos arises from the Filipino rebels themselves, who in their congress at Malolos proclaimed liberty of religions and separation of cnurch and state. Why, then, should not this religious liberty be granted to the Filipinos if they 573

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES themselves demand it? We answer that they also ask for independence. Will the Americans, therefore, give it- to them? The majority of the Philippine insurgents were addicted to Masonry. They had agreed a long time ago to work for the expulsion of the friars, and drunken with the wine of liberty they asked for all liberties, inclU'ding religious freedom. These revolutionists, who have abjured Catholicism, how many are they? They do not exceed two. dozens. For them the law of religious liberty is unnecessary, because they do not profess any. The Filipino people, that is to say, the 6,500,000 Catholics inscribed in the parochial registers-these do not ask for nor want religious liberty, nor the separation of the church and state; these are content with their' Catholicism, and they do not desire anything more, nor would they suffer their government to overthrow the Catholic unity.

This we have heard from qualified and accredited 'defenders of Philippine independence, who even deny that the Malolos platform was the true expression of the will of that congress; that on the contrary it was far from being the total and proper representation of the Filipino people. This people have a horror of heresies and of all religious disturbances. Whoever should introduce them would commit an offense. Therefore it is demonstrated that religious liberty in the Philippines is not only not advisable but adverse to the public peace.

In conclusion, if it be said that as regards the state of religion in the Philippines there are points of public interest which demand some reform, we shall not deny it; but the church has the desire and the means to remedy these supposed or recognized evils. If by chance she does not remedy them because she is ignorant of them, then anyone interested may make them known, and the government of the country sooner than anybody else. On the other hand, this subject has nothing to do with religious liberty.

574

CHAPTER

IV

THE PROTESTANT CHURCH

The history of Spanish rule in the Philippines clearly shows that the religious and missionary purpose was a prominent one in Spain's colonial policy. This is obvious from the early expeditions undertaken for purposes of discovery and, later, conquest and settlement. In practically every expedition there were church representatives.

Magellan and his followers had mass said by the priest who accompanied them on Easter morn in Limasawa, March 21, 1521. The discussion in the previous chapter shows that in the instructions to Legaspi and Urdaneta the religious motive was a dominant one. The very Spanish Monarch was referred to as His or Her Catholic Majesty. The imperial reign was characterized by the union of the Church and State.

There is no doubt that the Philipprnes owes much to the good Spanish administrators especially to the early missionaries and Christian leaders who were really devoted to their mission of winning souls to God. The earnest men who were true to their faith and lived up to their vows of obed.ience, chastity, and poverty are entitled to a great deal of credit for the progress made by the Philippines under Spanish rule.

There is no doubt that Spain wrought much good in the Islands. Likewise, there is no question that Spain wrought much evil. There is ample historical evidence to support the authors of Evangelical Christianity in the Philippitnes in their statement which is here quoted.

"With the excesses crept ippine affairs. with the most

roll of the years, a train of abuses and into Spanish administration of PhilA regime which started well enough benevolent of intentions gradually be575

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES came distjnctive for its rapacity and avarice. The continued imposition of tribute upon the masses; the evils of trade monopoly'; the unfair dealings of the encomenderos; the oppressive tactics of governmental authorities; the amassing of money, land, and other property holdings by the religious corporations; the torturing and imprisoning of innocent victims; the exile and execution of Filipino leaders-all these combined to develop disaffection among the inhabitants against foreign rule. Consequently the thinking nationals strengthened their union and coordinated their forces to secure some measure of relief and, if possible, bring about thorough-going reforms in the government and the church."

It may seem strange but it is true that both the good and the evil in the Spanish administration contributed greatly 'to the Filipinos' long clamor for reform and later their struggle for separation. The educational progress made together with the enlightenment of the Filipinos of vision inevitably ushered in the era of reform. The abuse, oppression, and corruption that were rampant intensified the people's desire for change. Several other factors were responsible in accentuating a,n d accelerating the movement for reform, a few of which we shan briefly mention.

On or about the middle of the nineteenth century came the opening of the Suez Canal. This important event and the establishment of a cable between the Philippines and Spain served to foster closer commercial and cultural relations between Europe and the Islands. They opened wide the flood gates of modern culture and liberalism.

Soon after came the brief period when Spain ceased to be a monarchy and became a republic. The reforms at Madrid had their repercussions in the administration of the colonies. The Filipinos were given representation in the Cortes. A new governor for the Philippines, Carlos de la Torre, was appointed. Coming as a representative 576

EDUCATION AND RELIGION of the ideas and principles of the new liberal government of Spain, a thorough democrat at heart, the Filipinos welcomed Governor La Torre with open arms and with high hopes. He quickly introduced reforms in the Island路s dispensing with the formality and pomp of former Spanish governors, dismissing "the escort of halberdiers, with their medieval uniforms and weapons," clothing himself as a civilian without ostentation and enforcing the principles of equality between the Spaniard and the colonist, without distinction of race or birth. The Filipinos naturally were greatly elated and encouraged but most of the Spaniards and the 'friars were thoroughly disgusted and made no end of troubles for La Torre's administration. Among the Filipinos, there was a new incentive for liberal reforms.

The friars being opposed bitterly to the new spirit of liberalism and the Filipinos' demands, anti-friarism became more vehement and widespread. The defeat of the Republicans in Spain and the consequent reactionary movement in the Philippines, far from quieting the Filipinos, served to make the spirit of unrest more acute. The people became more vocal in their insistence for reforms. Among the most important in the Filipinos' program of reforms were: "1. Expulsion of the religious orders or at least dissolution of the monasteries.

"2. Representation of the Philippines in the Spanish Cortes.

"3. Application of true justice in the Philippines, equally for the national and the Spaniard.

Identity of laws between Spain and the Philippines.

Participation of Filipinos in the chief positions of the civil administration.

"4. Readjustment of property of the parishes, and of taxation in favor of the nationals.

"5. Proclamation of the individual rights of the national and freedom of the press and of assembly."

577

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES In the ranks of the priests there was discontent. A group of native priests headed by Dr. Jose Burgos and Father Gomez demanded that the friars vacate the parishes and that secular priests be put in their stead. They based their demand upon the statutes of the Council of Trent.

The spread of Masonry in the Islands contributed mightily to the development of the spirit of liberalism.

The people were enthusiastic over the meals of liberty, equality, and fraternity which it espoused.

The government and ecclesiastical authorities, instead of heeding the peaceful petitions of the people, became more haughty and oppressive. Violence was resorted to as a means of suppressing the rising tide of liberalism.

In 1872 the Cavite revolt took place. When it was suppressed the administration became more ruthless and tyrannical. Many Filipinos who sympathized with La Torre's administration were arrested, tortured in prison, and executed. Prominent among those who were made to pay the supreme sacrifice were three Filipino priests, Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora to whom Rizal dedicated his El Filibusterismo.

The Filipinos seeing that their peaceful efforts to obtain reforms were fruitless began to think more seriously of freedom and separation from Spain. Rizal's novels, Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo depicted the evils that existed and which called for effective remedies. The Katipunan was founded. Patriots arose in defense of the people's rights. Spanish atrocity fairly made the Bagumbayan field flow with the blood of countless Filipinos many of whom are now acclaimed as heroes and martyrs. The climax was reached when Jose Rizal, the national patriotmartyr, was condemned on a trumped-up charge and, on December 30, 1896, was executed.

That year marked the beginning of the greatest and most successful Philippine Revolution against Spain. In 578

EDUCATION AND RELIGION fact it is commonly referred to as the Revolution of 1896.

It resulted in the establishment of the Aguinaldo Revolutionary government, the short-lived Philippine Republic, and the formulation of the Malolos Constitution. One important feature of the Malolos Constitution is the provision for the >separation of the Church and State and the freedom of religious worship.

At about this time the Cubans were restive because of the injustices perpetrated by Spain in Cuba. Commercial interests plus Spanish atrocities led to American intervention in Cuban affairs. The sinking of the "Maine" at Havana harbor precipitated the declaration of war by the United States against Spain. That War ended with Spain relinquishing "all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba," and her ceding "to the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands * * *" Just as Spain's colonization was not without a commercial motive, so America's taking possession of the Philippines was not without some Christian motive. Bishop Matthews in The Call of China and the Islands says: "Not by mere chance were the Stars and the Stripes placed over the Philippine Islands * * * That was one of God's orderly movements." And he quotes the following statement of McKinley which according to him, "reads like a paragraph from the Bible": "When I discovered that the Philippines had fallen into our lap, I confess I did not know what to do with them. I sought counsels from all sides, but got little help. I walked the floor of the White House night after night till after midnight, and I am not ashamed to tell that I went down on my knees and prayed God for light and guidance more than one night. Well, it came to me this way. (1) That we could not give these islands back to Spain; that would be cowardly and dishonorable. (2) We could not leave them to themselves, or they would soon have 579

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES misrule and anarchy. (3) There was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, to educate and uplift them, to civilize and Christianize them, and by God's grace do the very best we could for them as our fellow-men for whom Christ also died. And then I went to bed and to sleep, and slept soundly; and the next morning I sent for the chief engineer of the War Department, who is our map-maker, and said, 'Put the Philippine Islands on the map of the United States.'

And, pointing to a large wall map, I said, 'And there they are and shall remain as long as I am President.' " One of the mo.st delicate and vital questions awaiting settlement during the early part of the American administration was the friars' lands and the religlOus jssue involved. The extent of the land holdings of the Catholic Church may be judged from the following paragraph of the report of the United States Philippine Commission commonly known as the Taft Commission: "The acreage as stated in our last report, of the land owned by friars' in the provinces where the population is dense and the question is a heated one is: Cavite 121,747 acres; Laguna 62,172 acres; Manila Province (now Rizal), 50,145 acres; Bataan 1,000 acres-upward of 300,000 acres. In addition to this there are something more than 100,000 acres, onehalf in Isabela and one-half in Mindoro, in regions sparsely settled, the ownership of which by the friars does not involve so much popular resentment because of their remoteness."

The policy of governmental purchase of the friars' agricultural lands and the sale in small parcels to the tenants upon long and easy payments was recommended, by the Schurman Commission and the Taft Commission. The recommendation was concurred in by the Secretary of War and the President of the United States. Governor Taft was directed to visit Rome and confer with the Pope re5&0

EDUCATION AND RELIGION garding the question of purchasing the friars' agricultural lands and other questions of a similar character which were pending between the Roman Catholic Church and the Government. After years of negotiation the government of the Philippines authorized the issuance of bonds and obtained the money with which to buy lands of the religious orders.

The resentment engendered by the friars' ownership of large tracts of lands, the disaffection caused by abuses committed by the encomenderos, the exacting of unjust tributes, the evils that grew from the union of the Church and the State, and the series of cruelties and tyrannical acts combined to make the Filipino people desire changes -political, economic, 路social, and religious.

The Filipinos showed their religious idealism in the approval of the provision for religious freedom in the Ma10los Constitution. President McKinley instructed the Philippine Commission "* * * that no law shall be made resp~cting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, and that the free exercise and enjoyment of religious profes路sion ' and worship without discrimination or preference shall forever be allowed," and "* * * that no form of religion and minister of religion shall be forced upon any community or upon any citizen of the Islands; that upon the other hand, no minister of religion shall be interfered with or molested in following his calling, and that the separation between state and church shall be real, entire, and absolute." The principles enumerated by McKinley together with the American policy of securing to the people the blessings of peace, prosperity, liberty, and happiness did much to win the goodwill of the Fili pinos.

Meanwhile the Protestant Christians in America saw a wonderful opportunity for missionary service in the Philippines and to establish therein the Evangelical Chris581

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES tian Church. In this connection w,e can do no better than reproduce in full the chapter from Evangelical Christianity in the Philippines, devoted to a discussion of the "Earlier Days of Protestantism in the Philippines."

"We have seen that of the population of the Philippines in 1918, ninety-one per cent (91 ro) are Christians belonging to the Roman Catholic, the Aglipayan, and the Protestant churches and路 that the balance is made up of Mohammedans and pagan elements about equally divided. The percentage of Christians today can be conservatively estimated to be not les路s than 92%. We have touched upon different movements calculated to bring about reforms in the Spanish administration of Philippine affairs under the church and the state. In the preceding chapter we discussed the constitution of the Philippine Republic, especially as it relates to the provision for religious freedom.

Other liberalizing factors tending to strengthen the liberty in matters of religious worship achieved by the Filipinos in the Malolos Congress were likewise analyzed. It is clear that the ground had been suitably prepared and the time was ripe for the entry of the Protestant movement when the Islands came under American sovereignty in 1898.

The Bible "The progress of Evangelical Christianity in the Philippines cannot be adequately understood without taking into consideration the popularization of the Bible among the laity. While it is perhaps not quite accurate to 's ay that the Bible was an absolutely closed book during the Spanish regime, there is no blinking the fact that all attempts to introduce it into the country and make it popular among the people were thwarted by friardom. The impression which the clergy created was that it was a bad and dangerous book in the hands of laymen and therefore forbidden.

There had been cases when the possession of the holy book was the cause for persecution if not execution.

582

EDUCATION AND RELIGION And yet as in the case of the proverbial forbidden fruit, the Bible became all the more attractive and coveted because of the very prohibition against it.

Coupled with the strict vigil to prevent the people owning or knowing the Bible was the great religious intolerance then rampant. No wonder the parishioners became ignorant of the fountain source of enlightened Christianity. Another factor which militated against Filipinos becoming widely familiar with the Bible was the fact that none during the Spanish regime was available in the vernacular.

"But such a state of affairs could not long continue. With the triumph of religious liberty, and the change of sovereignty darkness had to give way to light. Whether by mere coincidence or not, it was about this time that Pope Leo XIII made the offer of plenary indulgence to those who would make a daily practice of reading the scriptures. But, as Doctor Laubach truly states, 'the Catholic Church in the Philippines is lagging behind the Pope, and is doing next to nothing to disseminate Bibles even to this day.'

"Despite dangers there were courageous souls who did secure copies of the Bible. The number brought into the country despite precautions of the friars will never be known, but it was far greater than the obstructionists will ever admit. Even as Masonry found its way into the Islands in spite of severe penalties, even so did Foreign Bible Societies succeed in distributing thousands of Bibles. Such were the beginnings of the entry of the Book of books into the Philippines. The names of two Spaniards, Lallave and Castels, who at great risk to themselves served their Master by bringing Bibles to the Islands, and the names of C. B. Randall and C. A. Glunz, and F. A. Jackson who carried the Pangasinan gospels translated by Lallave years before and disseminated Bibles in the earlier days, deserve to be remembered.

"Since 1898 the work of popularizing the Bible has continued. Bibles in Spanish and English were offered for sale at nominal prices. Too much praise cannot be given to the colporteurs or Bible agents .583

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES who travelled in the cities and towns selling Bibles or portions of the Bible. Mr. Prautch testifies to his having been instrumental in selling thousands of Bibles in cooperation with priests of the Aglipayan church.

"The next important step was the translation of the Bible into the vernacular. Religious workers busied themselves with the gigantic task of placing the Bible within the reach of the masses. They translated first certain portions of the Bible like the Gospels and later, the whole New Testament into languages which the people know. After years of effort the entire Bible finally came to be translated and made available.

"With the growth of education, with the establishment of many classes for teaching the Bible, with the introduction of Evangelical Christianity and allied agencies, the word of God was disseminated throughout the length and breadth of the Philippines. For this great achievement the British and Foreign Bible Society, the American Bible Society, the Young Men's Christian Association, and the various missions deserve the people's gratitude.

Protestantism on the Scene "Not long after Dewey's guns roared in Manila Bay, American Boards of Foreign Missions saw in the Islands a wonderful field of opportunity. A Presbyterian wrote enthusiastically saying: 'Never in the history of the American church has such an opportunity been placed upon the American public. Conditions in the Philippines are similar to those in Germany when Luther arose ... * *' "Others in the different denominations became equally enthusiastic.

"According to Doctor Stuntz 'the Methodist Episcopal Church was the first to send a regularly accredited representative to found its work in the Philippine Islands.' Bishop James M. Thoburn then in episcopal charge in southern Asia was such a rep-

*,

584

EDUCATION AND RELIGION resentative. 'For more than a dozen years,' Thoburn reported in 1900 to the General Conference, 'God had been turning my thoughts in that direction, and it was with a thankful heart that I set out upon that voyage. My stay in Manila was brief; but I secured a theater and began preaching, and before leaving made arrangements for permanent religious services.

I also took steps to open a place both for religious meetings and for public resort for our soldiers. During the year this provisional arrangement although attended with many difficulties, received God's blessing, and when I returned two months ago, I found nQt only a good work among the soldiers, but over eighty Filipino probationers in our Church, with four or five well-attended preaching places among the natives of the city and suburbs.'

"From such a start developed the work in the Methodist Mission field which is at present the largest in point of membership. It is of interest to note that Bishop Thoburn reported also in 1900 that before leaving Manila he ordained the first Protestant Filipino preacher ever admitted to the Christian ministry.

"There were others who early saw the challenge to missionary endeavor and who did much to interest large sections of the Protestant community in America to start work in the newly acquired insular possessions.

"In the Presbyterian ranks there were Dr. Arthur J. Brown, Foreign Secretary of the Presbyterian Missionary Society and Dr. George F. Pentecost.

Doctor Brown influenced the society of which he was secretary to act. On June 6, 1898, this society took the first steps toward opening Philippine mission work and a few days afterward the Executive Council to which the question was referred recommended that 'The Christian people of America should immediately and prayerfully consider the duty of entering the door which God in His providence is thus opening. This appears to be, so far as we can judge, the feeling of the Presbyterian 585

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Church. * * * However, it is only fair to presume that this sentiment is not peculiar to Presbyterians. Indeed, there are rumors that the Foreign Mission Boards of other churches are disposed to consider the relation of their Boards to these opening fields * * * We believe that the new situation thus providentially forced upon us affords us excellent opportunity not only for beginning this work, but for beginning it right from the viewpoint of Christian fellowship and economical use of men and money.

To this end we recommend that the Executive Council be directed to hold an early conference with the representatives of the American Board, the Baptist Missionary Union, the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, the Board of Foreign and Domestic Missions of the Protestant Epi'scopal Church, and the Board of Foreign Missions of the Reformed Church in America with a view to a frank and mutual understanding as to the responsibilities of American Christians for the people of Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands, and an agreement as to the most effective distribution of the work among the several Boards * * *' "On July 13 the conference above referred to was held, and an amicable understanding was reached.

This insured comity and cooperation in the work of evangelism in the Philippines.

"Doctor Pentecost at a Bible Conference held at Winona Lake, Indiana, that same month very effectively presented the opening of fields in the Islands for the forces of Evangelical Christianity..

"N ot long after the different Boards began to send the first missionaries. On April 21, 1899, Doctor and Mrs. Rogers under the Presbyterian Board came to the Philippines. Reverend, Rogers was the 'first regularly appointed missionary' of the Evangelical Church to reach the Philippines. He had previously rendered service in Brazil where he learned Portuguese thus facilitating his acquisition of a sister 586

EDUCATION AND RELIGION language, the Spanish. Other denominations also sent their contingent of missionaries. Among these were the Methodists, the Presbyterians, the Episcopalians, the Baptists, the United Brethren, the American Board (Congregational), the Christian and Missionary Alliance and the Seventh-Day Adventists.

Difficulties Encountered by Missions "The introduction of Evangelical Christianity into the Philippines wa:s not without a certain degree of romance. It called for no little heroism. It should路 be borne in mind that at that time the prejudice and opposition to Protestantism were very pronounced and widespread. The rigors of a tropical climate, the lack of good roads, especially in the outlying districts, the difficulty of adjusting to new modes of life under a different environment--these combined to make the work and the life of the early American missionaries exceedingly difficult.

"After pointing out 'the hardness and impenitence of the human heart' a:s the 'chief hindrance to rapid advance of the Kingdom of God' in all lands, Homer C. Stuntz in the chapter of his book dealing with the difficulties confronting mission work, mentioned three particular ones. He said: 'Particular hindrances which affect us here may be limited to three. These are the almost invincible tendency to religious formalism on the part of the people, the vicious example of worldly and godless Americans, and the language barriers which rise between us and those to whom we would minister.'

"It is truly admirable for Americans to leave their native homes with the comforts and conveniences to which they have been accustomed, cross the seas, and face risks and dangers to bring to the people of the Islands the Word of God, the living Christ, and His Message of salvation. With a fervor and devotion 587

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES known only to men and women endowed with a holy vision, these missionaries carried on their work to help the poor and the needy, to visit the sick, to comfort those in trouble, and in other ways to perform those ministrations to human life in conformity with the teaching and example of the Founder of the Christian faith. .

Division ofT erritory "Early in the history of Evangelical Christianity in the Philippines, a statesman-like policy was adopted. The representatives of the different denominations in 1901 met in counsel and, after much thought, discussion, and prayer, took a step which was essential and necessary to effective cooperation. They were conscious that the harvest wa:s truly plenteous but the laborers were few. Probably because of this fact, and because of the consciousness of a common goal, they decided to divide the Archipelago into different zones of denominational influence. The following division of territory among the various mission groups with a view to unity and comity was agreed upon: 'Methodists: The provinces of Rizal, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Pangasinan, Bataan, Zambales, Cagayan, Isabela, and Ilocos Sur. This territory covers most of the iSland of Luzon north of Manila.

'Presbyterians: The provinces of Luzon, south of Manila, namely: Cavite, Laguna, Tayabas, Batangas, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Albay, and Sorsogon; and, in addition, the following islands and provinces south of Luzon: Masbate, Cebu, Leyte, Bohol, Oriental Negros, and Samar.

'United Brethren: La Union and Mountain Provinces in northern Luzon.

'Disciples: Ilocos Norte, Abra, Ilocos Sur 588

EDUCATION AND RELIGION north of the city of Vigan, northern Mindoro, and designated places near Manila by agreement with Presbyterian Mission.

'Baptists: Panay, southern Mindoro, Romblon, and Occidental N egros.

'Congregationalists: Mindanao, except western end.

'Christian and Missionary Alliance: Western Mindanao and Sulu Archipelago.

'Manila is re!!arded as common territory for all the Missions.'

This agreement was indeed a fortunate one. It revealed that there was a truly Christian spirit devoid of petty jealousies prevailing among the different Protestant denominations. It made more effective the task of o:vercoming prejudice. It did away with unnecessary d~plication of work and facilitated the development of a practical program for the Evangelical Movement which probably would have been impossible had not such a policy been adopted.

Service of Missions to America and Americans "It must never be forgotten that the Christian program of the Evangelical Movement in the Islands has been useful not only to the Philippines but to America. .

"Devins, writing in 1905, speaking of the obstacles to Protestantism in the Philippines, adduces the following testimony: 'If the question were asked: "What is the greatest obstacle to Protestantism in the Philippines?" nearly every Protestant worker in that archipelago would say: , "The example of Americans." , There were a great many Americans, indeed, who went to the Philippines in sore need of the civilizing influence of Christianity. The Y. M. C. A. saw this need and sent out secretaries in the early days of American occupation to work among American sailors and soldiers.

589

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES " 'It is sad but true,' wrote Stuntz, 'that one of the most powerful hindrances to our work of evangelization of the native population of the Philippines is due to the worldliness and open godlessness of many Americans. The worldliness that smites the most Americans who come to the Philippines is chiefly seen in the neglect, if not open and sneering contempt, for all forms of religious W9rship * * * " 'The society life of Manila seems given over to bridge, whist, dancing, Sunday games and fetes, and other occupations which do not tend toward religious living. Many of the American women have little to do. * * * All this tends away from spirituality, and affects the tone of social life unfavorably.' . "Continuing, this American writer and bishop 'Said:

'The largest items in the indictment are drink, lust, and gambling. It will forever remain a mystery to the thoughtful why the military government admitted shiploads of liquor in the beginning, and permitted greed for gain to supplement the evil of the regimental canteen in ruining our soldiers and setting an evil example to the natives of the Islands. * * * Saloons sprang up on every hand. Soldiers lay sodden drunk on the public roads. Our national honor was dragged in the very dirt of the streets.'

"The American-Philippine War, which in many cases showed Americans at their worst, having just come to a close and the impressions of such men being still fresh in the minds of the Filipinos, it was indeed necessary for 'Some disinterested and Christian enterprise to convince the people of the Islands that America was not the barbarous nor the unchristian country which Spaniards depicted it to be at the height of the American-Spanish War. It is certainly true that the work of the missionaries in the field of religion and of the teachers in the field of education was more 590

EDUCATION AND RELIGION effective in pacifying the Filipinos and in winning their faith and confidence than the force of American arms.

"The work of Evangelical Christianity was a great factor in strengthening America's policy. The pronouncements of American officials demonstrative of altruistic and humanitarian motives were vindicated by the examples set by the American missionaries and Christian laymen.

"Let not America forget the debt which she owes to the industry and the zeal and the unselfishness of missionaries and Chri~tian workers sent from the United States. The unselfish contribution of men and money from the United States to the Christian work in the Islands has been of incalculable benefit to Filipinos and Americans alike.

"Bishop Brent of the Episcopal Mission announced the following as his general policy in his First Annual Report: 'From every point of view, the most important section of our work at present, and it will be for some time to come, is among Americans and other English-speaking people * * *' "It is significant that several Americans of high rank became Christians while in the Islands. Laubach records in his volume on The People of the Philippitnes that Bishop Brent 'baptized both General Pershing and General Wood' in the Philippines.

"Mention must be made of the influence of the exemplary life led by the American Christian families who have done so much to offset the misconception of American life produced in the minds of those who have observed the life and conduct of non-Christian Americans.

Spread of Protestantism "Evangelical Christianity, of course, like every new movement had its mistakes and weaknesses. Dur591

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ing its early development there was a tendency to dwell upon the differences among the different Christian groups. A good deal of quibbling took place dealing with non-essentials. No little intolerance was shown at times by the Roman Catholic Church toward Protestants on the one hand and the Protestants toward Catholics on the other. But these were the weaknesses that originated in a lack of adequate knowledge on the part of some of the workers of the psychological and sociological conditions which obtained in the Philippines. There were those who upon arriving in the Islands were so impressed witb the superiority of things American that they immediately set to work to transplant institutions and practices, dogmas and creeds which may have been perfectly good and useful elsewhere but were not quite so effective and efficacious in the Philippines. Happily for the Protestant movement and fortunately for Christianity as a whole these early mistakes and weaknesses are not now so prevalent. Greater tolerance exists among Roman Catholics, Aglipayans, and Protestants. More and more, the emphasis is placed upon a program of social service and upon elevating life. Evangelical Christianity has busied itself in recent years more with the practical presentation of Biblical thoughts and enduring religious principles.

There is a greater disposition on the part of religious workers now to appeal to the spiritual nature of the individuals and to stress the presentation of Christ as a Savior. These resulted in the triumph of Christian evange}i,sm.

"Greater progress has been achieved for in 1903, according to the official censu's, there were but thirtyfive Protestant churches of all denominations, whereas in the census of 1918 there were four hundred and eighty-six or twelve times more than in 1903. More rapid progress has been made all along the line since.

It should be borne in mind, however, that the progress of a spiritual movement cannot be gauged from cold data and statistics. There are achievements in the field of the spirit the value of which can be apprecia592

EDUCATION AND RELIGION ted only by those who have themselves undergone that sweet and all-satisfying experience that comes only to a life redeemed through the saving power of the living and loving Christ."

It is really remarkable that there should have been so many men and organizations both during the Spanish and路 American regimes that interested themselves in the introduction and spread of Christianity in the Philippines.

This fact can only be explained by the dynamism of the Christian message and the gripping personality of Jesus.

There is universal human interest in the colorful accounts of events connected with Jesus' life such as the angelic annunciation, the virgin birth, the story of the angels and the shepherds, the visit of the wise men, the plotting of Herod, the flight of Joseph, Mary and the Holy Child, the presentation of the baby Jesus in the temple when it was prophesied that the child would perform prodigious deeds and achieve greatness. Prophetic of what He was to do and to be in the future was His visit to Jerusalem with His parents during the feast of the Passover.

Luke tells of Jesus at the early age of twelve discussing theological and religious questions with wise men and learned doctors who were amazed at the boy's perspicacity, knowledge, and wisdom. It was with a sense of triumph when in all earnestness the boy Jesus informed Mary when He was found in the temple that He was "in my Father's house about my Father's business."

It was thus in His early youth that Jesus crystallized His mission "about my Father's business." Herein is summed up the secret of His life, labors, death, and influence. Later, as He broadened and deepened, He saw and proclaimed the great truth and the wonderful reality of the Fatherhood of God and the consequent brotherhood of men. . 593

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Following the incident in the temple were years of normal life more or less uneventful except, as Luke reports, that he grew "in wisdom and stature and in favor with God and man." At thirty he was baptized by John. Then followed three years of earnest and effective ministry, during which time he wrought much good, teaching wisely and showing men the way unto salvation. Yet he was persecuted and reviled. He learned that "a prophet is not without honor, save in his own country, and among his own kin, and in his own house." He was betrayed, tried, tortured, and crucified-but He succeeded in living what He preached and millions upon millions since have come to accept that He is the way, the truth, and the life.

Jesus taught mankind to pray saying the significant and meaningful phrase, "Our Father." He left that priceless legacy, the Sermon on the Mount. He showed how people may become true children of God. He enj oined believers to become fishers of men. He lived and demonstrated that man may be perfect even as. His Father in Heaven is perfect. In His crucifixion, the world knew the glory of martyrdom and the immortal lesson of the resurrection.

No wonder fortunes and lives have been freely and cheerfully used and sacrificed to proclaim the glory of Christianity and the saving power of the living Christ.

Paul was a great apostle consecrated to Christian evangelism and in extending Christianity to other iands. Countless disciples, apostles, and believers have lived, suffered, served, and died for Christ and His cause, notable among whom were St. Augustine of the Catholic Church and Luther of the Protestant Church.

Of St. Augustine, we spoke in the chapter on the Catholic Church. We shall now speak of Luther, a historic 594

EDUCATION AND RELIGION character about whom a noted writer said: "He has been most extravagantly praised and most bitterly condemned.

Whereby we know him to have been truly great."

Martin Luther was born in 1483. His father was a poor miner who wanted his son to be a lawyer. The boyhood of Martin was spent in poverty and superstition.

By dint of hard labor and through much sacrifice the parents managed to send their son to school where punishment was visited upon any boy who lapsed from Latin to German. When Martin was thirteen he was sent to school at Magdeburg. He had to beg his food on the streets.

He almost starved so he was transferred to study at Eisenach where the oegging was not so hard. It was here while singing for his supper that "his sweet voice attracted the attention of the motherly Frau Cotta who soon took him into her home to live. The starved soul of the boy expanded in the genial environment, and his school work began to reveal his unusual mental ability.~' His father's affairs improved and so Martin was sent to the University of Erfurt matriculating in 1501. He made rapid progress obtaining his bachelor's degree in 1502 and his master of arts degree in 1505. When he finished his college work he suddenly decided to become a monk. "He summoned his college friends," says a writer, "for a last evening together, and the next morning he led them to the gate of a monastery, bade),them and the world farewell, and became a begging friar."

He was greatly preoccupied about his personal salvation. He was worried by the fear that nothing that he could do, no good work he could perform, would save him from hell. He found solace in the thought that sincere faith in God would save him. He studied much and won the respect of the head of the monastery, who recom595

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES mended Luther to Frederick the Wise of Saxony as a good professor of ethics and philosophy in the new Wittenberg University.

Professor Luther urged his students to study the Bible and rely upon it. He especially recommended Paul's letters. Evidenty, he himself was much influenced by Paul's teaching that "the just shall live by faith." Luther's idea of salvation was by faith and not by "good works."

Meanwhile things were happening in Rome which were destined to affect all Christendom. The construction of the new palace of the Vatican was undertaken with its thQusands of rooms, great and路 small, some beautified by the most distinguished Italian painters and others adorned with statuary. The celebrated cathedral of St. Peter's with its imposing approach and vast dome was built in place of the ancient St. Peter's basilica. The enterprise was daring and costly. Pope Leo X, in order to raise money, arranged for extensive distribution of indulgences in Germany. In 1517, a Dominican monk by the name of Tetzel did a thriving business selling indulgences in the neighborhood of Wittenberg. He stirred people with his preaching of the awfulness of hell and purgatory. In his enthusiasm he made exaggerated claims for the indulgences which to Luther appeared violative of the fundamental principles and irreconcilable with the deepest truths of Christianity.

Accordingly, Luther protested in several sermons and advocated reforms within the Roman Catholic Church but they fell upon deaf ears. He, therefore, resolved on a bolder stroke. In accordance with the prevailing custom of his time Luther wrote out a series of ninety-five statements or theses regarding indulgences, posted them on the church door, and challenged the defenders of indulgences to a debate.

596

EDUCATION AND RELIGION The zealous reformer did not intend these theses to be an attack against the Catholic Church nor did he' expect them to cause a sensation. They were written in Latin and the author thought they would be discussed only by the learned men. As it turned out they were of interest to both the learned and the unlearned. They were translated, into German, printed, and copies were scattered throughout the land. They were live topics for discussion to high and low alike.

Luther in forceful and challenging language declared in his ninety-five theses that indulgences were unimportant and the poor would do better in spending their money for their household needs; that the really repentant do not flee punishment but bear it willingly as a token of genuine sorrow; that if the Pope only knew how his agents were misleading the people he would rather have St. Peter's cathedral turn to ashes than to secure money to build it under false claims; that there was danger that the common man would be led to ask such awkward questions as, "Why does not the Pope empty purgatory from charity?" ; that "every Christian truly repentant has full remiss.ion of guilt and penalty even without letters of pardon"; and that faith in God, not the procuring of pardons, brings forgiveness and salvation.

In a short time the theses were being discussed all over Germany. Luther became a national figure. He won countless sympathizers and created enemies who busied themselves to bring about his downfall. He was accused of heresy and Luther expected excommunication. In 1520 a personal enemy of his, John Eck, arrived in Germany armed with a papal bull condemning many of Luther's statements as heretical and giving him two months to recant. The bull irked the German princes. Many made 597

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES common cause with Luther. The "heretic" dramatically had a fire built and cast into it Pope Leo X's "Bulla contra Errores Martini Lutheri et sequarium."

The die was cast! On January 3, 1521, the Pope announced Luther's definite excommunication. Emperor Charles V, through the representations of Alexander, the pope's chief representative in Germany, wrote asking Luther to appear at the Diet at Worms and granting him safe conduct. Luther rode to Worms triumphantly, people crying to him not to recant. Luther acknowledged authorship of a pile of Latin and German works and more. To the query if he would recant, Luther, after deliberation, answered, "I cannot and will not recant anything, for it is neither right nor safe to act against conscience. God help me. Amen!" As was foreseen the Edict of Worms of 1521 was issued outlawing Luther, "who had denied the binding character of the commands of the head路 of the Church."

The revolt against the papacy thus began in Germany. .Luther worked feverishly. He was indefatigable in turning out theses, treatises, pamphlets, and books. He was eminently successful though not without great difficulties and sufferings. Other reformers were equally busy at work. The Protestant Reformation became a burning cause to countless thinkers and leaders among whom were Wycliffe, Huss, Savonarola, Erasmus, Zwi ngli , Melanchthon, Calvin, Swedenborg, Schleiermacher, Otterbein, John Knox, Nicon, Wesley, John Bunyan, ~eorge Fox, John Murray, Roger Williams to mention but a few.

Some preceded Luther, others came after him but to Luther the Protestant Church owes more than any other reformer. To him Harnach attributes the credit of having "freed religion, and by that he freed all things."

The Reformation set in motion by the dynamic Luther was not only important to Protestantism. It had reper598

EDUCATION AND RELIGION cussions in other faiths including the Roman Catholic.

Pahlow in Man's Great Adventure (page 498) says: "The importance of Luther's revolt, as far as the Catholic Church was concerned, lay in the fact that it centered the attention of Catholics on those of their leaders who had long been trying to make reforms.

These men now got a hearing, the papal court was reformed, and earnest, high-minded Christians like Paul III supplanted thâ&#x201A;Ź pleasure-loving Popes of the early sixteenth century. Next the long-awaited Church council (of Trent) was summoned."

Protestantism by placing other religions on their mettle, by provoking wholesome competition in social and spiritual service, a~d by popularizing the Bible has been a great contribution to the world.

From Germany, through the United States of America, the movement reached our shores and the Protestant Church has become an established institution in the Philippines.

As a supplement to the foregoing discussion, we append hereto the Constitution and By-Laws of the National Christian Council of the Philippines showing the organization of the main Protestant communions in this country.

599

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS OF THE NATIONAL CHRISTIAN COUNCIL OF THE PHILIPPINES

(As Revised and Adopted in February, 1934) PREAMBLE

The Federation of Evangelical Missions, known as the Evangelical Union of the Philippines, was organized in April, 1901, by representatives of the Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the U. S. A., the Methodist Episcopal Church and the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, the Christian and Missionary Alliance, and of the British and Foreign and American Bible Societies and the Y. M. C. A. Later the Missions of the Baptist, the Congregational and the Disciples joined.

In 1920 and 1921, owing to the growth of the Churches as self-governing bodies, they were received as members in the Union. Each Communion appointed its delegates to the Executive Committee of the Union.

Of late years it has been felt that there should be further change looking toward the making of the churches the units of this Council and in obedience to this sentiment the following Constitution and By-Laws have been prepared and are submitted to the Executive Committee of the Evangelical Union for their consideration and approval.

The articles of this proposed Constitution follow in principle the Constitution and By-Laws of the Evangelical Union.

In compliance with this principle and continuing the basic principles and plans of the Evangelical Union as to Mutual Relationship (Comity) and Division of Territory, we, the undersigned representatives of the Evangelical Churches in the Philippine Islands, adopt the following Constitution and By-Laws for the National Christian Council which we hereby establish.

600

EDUCATION AND RELIGION ARTICLE I

Name The name of this society shall be the National Christian Council of the Philippine Islands.

ARTICLE

II

Object It shall be the object of this society to unite various Christian agencies in the Philippine Islands for the purpose of securing comity and effectiveness in their operations.

ARTICLE III Membership The Christian agencies in the Philippines whose objects. and personnel are in harmony with the object of the National Christian Council may be members of the National Christian Council.

IV Management The Council shall have a central Executive Committee to be known as the National Executive Committee of the National Christian Council of the Philippine Islands.

ARTICLE

1.

The membership of the Executive Committee: A.

It shall consist of eight members to be chosen annually by each of the United Evangelical Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church; three members each, by the Baptist Church and the Church of Christ (Disciples); and a proportionate num路 ber, at least one, by each of the other bodies recognized by the National Christian Council. The 601

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

B.

C.

2.

general officers shall be members of the Executive Committee in case they are not sent as representative members.

The members shall be chosen by the highest representative body of each communion and other Christian agency in the manner in which each shall decide.

Vacancies due to unexpired terms in the membership of the Committee shall be filled by the Committee from the group from which a representative is to be elected. In cases of general officers, their successors shall be chosen from the N ational Christian Council at large.

Powers and r>uties of the Committee: A. This Committee shall have advisory power only, except in so far as the interest of the constituent Christian agencies shall be entrusted to it by the communions or churches and other agencies concerned.

B. It shall serve as mediator in questions that may arise between the bodies represented therein.

C. It shall study, devise and promote methods of union, and of united or affiliated effort.

D. It shall serve as an agency for the promotion and coordination of departmental national organizations.

E. It shall have power to admit to representation on this Committee any communion or church or other agency andshaJI have power to decide when such representation shall cease.

F. It shall serve as a means by which Christian agencies in the Philippines may express themselves unitedly when they so desire upon great 602

EDUCATION AND RELIGION moral or other issues, and by which the Philippines may be represented in their relation with national and international Christian organizations.

3.

Officers of the Executive Committee: A.

The National Executive Committee shall elect its own officers.

B.

The National Executive Committee the execution of its duties to a full time Executive Secretary and such may be necessary, to be paid by Christian Council.

C.

The National Executive Committee shall delegate the execution of the duties of the Committee on Christian Education to a full time or part time Secretary of Christian Education to be appointed by the Executive Committee of the National Christian Council upon nomination of the Committee of Christian Education. This appointment shall be submitted to the World's Sunday School Association for approval.

Such other officers of the Committee of Christian Education as may be named shall be appointed by the Executive Committee of the National Christian Council upon nomination by the Secretary of the Christian Education Committee.

D.

The above named officers shall hold office in a:ccordance with ~he agreement at the time of employment and shall receive such remuneration for their services as the National Christian Council shall determine.

603

may delegate time or part assistants as the N.ational

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ARTICLE

V

Committees The Executive Committee of the Council shall appoint the following standing committees: A. Committee on Christian Education B. Committee on Evangelism C. Committee on Education D. Committee on Rural Work E. Committee on Finance F. Committee on Comity and Church Relations G. Committee on Stewardship H. Committee on Social and Moral Welfare I. Committee on Christian Literature and Publications J. Committee on Literacy' K. Committee on Health and Sanitation

Functions The functions of these cQmmittees with the exception of the Committee on Christian Education and the Committee on Finance described hereinafter shall be to promote the special interests entrusted to each and to encourage cooperative activities in the various departments of Christian work.

Committee on Christian Education A. BASIS: The basis of this Philippine Committee on Christian Education shall be inter-denominational, enabling the churches and Christian organizations to cooperate, in loyalty to all they hold to be true and with mutual respect for each other's doctrines and standards, in the promotion of the functions enumerated below (C. Functions).

604

EDUCATION AND RELIGION

In such cooperative effort, it is understood that the groups so cooperating shall have full right of initiative and control of any program of religious education within the districts where they may be working, and that any effort, or any work, whIch the Committee may do, will be in fullest understanding of this principle of local initiative.

AFFILIATION: The National Christian Council, through the Philippine Committee on Christian Education, shall be affiliated with the World's Sunday School Association, and report shall be made through this Committee to the World's Sunday School Association.

B.

C. FUNCTIONS: GENERAL. In general it shall be the duty of the Philippine Committee on Christian Education to care for the work of the Council of Religious Education which is . now merged with the National Christian Council; namely: to promote organized Sunday School work and other phases of religious education, to encourage the study of the Bible, to assist in the spread of Christian religion, to provide materials and programs for religious education activities, and to set up national institutes and local institutes and conventions. It shall report annually to the National Christian Council, and through the National Christian Council to th~ World's Sunday School Association.

It shall be responsible for making the program for the work of the department of religious education.

It may appoint the following 'Sub-committees and such others as may be necessary: (a) Curriculum (b) Leadership Training (c) Children's Work 605

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES (d) (e)

Young People's Work Vacation and Week-Day Bible Schools.

The Curriculum Committee shall be representative of the different denominational groups affiliated with the National Christian Council through the Committee on Christian Education.

D.

MEMBERSHIP:

The members of this Committee shall consist of: Two members elected by the National Convention.

2. Denominational members chosen officially by their respective groups as follows: Two members from the United Evangelical Church.

Two members from the Methodist Episcopal Church.

One member from the Church of Christ (Disciples).

One member from the Baptist Church.

1.

One member each from other Evangelical Churches recognized by the National Christian Council and approved by the Committee on Christian Education.

3. Members at large, not to exceed five in number, may be coopted annually by the Committee because of their special qualification in the field of religious education.

E. MEETING: The Committee on Christian Education 'shall hold an annual meeting just prior to the April meeting of the National Christian Council.

Functions of Finance Committee The Finance Committee of the National Christian Council shall be responsible for making the budget of the 606

EDUCATION AND RELIGION National Christian Council. This budget shall be a unified budget covering all the several activities of the officers and committees of the National Christian Council.

ARTICLE

VI

Expenses

The National Executive Committee shall prepare an annual budget to cover the expenses of the National Christian Council and shall raise the needed amount from churches and other Christian organizations and from individual givers in the Islands and elsewhere.

The Committee shall not assume financial obligations for expenditure for any given year beyond the amount available for the preceding year, except as the funds for such increase in expenditures may have been assured.

The Committee shall not be authorized to incur debts which may become an obligation upon the National Christian Council, its constituent agencies or other cooperating bodies.

ARTICLE

VII

General Officers

The general officers of the National Christian Council shall be a President, two vice-presidents, a secretary and a treasurer, and one or more regional or associate secretaries who shall cooperate with the Secretary of the National Christian Council in promoting regional conferences. These officers are to be elected at the biennial convention or general convention of the National Christian Council.

2. The general officers shall be members ex-officio of the National Executive Committee.

1.

607

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ARTICLE

VIII

Representation in the General Convention Each recognized church shall have one delegate.

2. Provision shall also be made for adequate representation of interdenominational, undenominational and other Christian agencies.

3. The following shall be ex-officio members: 1.

(a) (b) (c)

Pastors Missionaries The members of the Executive Committee.

IX Amendment

ARTICLE

This constitution may be amended upon recommendation by a two-thirds vote of the National Executive Committee, such amendment or amendments to be approved at any General Convention of the National Christian Council by a majority vote of the members present at a General Convention, notice of at least three months having been given of such proposed amendment.

BY-LAws 1. The principles of the Evangelical Union and the precedents established during the past twenty-seven years shall be of force unless abrogated by this new Constitution and By-Laws or by later enactments of the National Christian Council.

2. The N.ational Executive Committee shall meet at least twice a year and at any time upon the call of the Chairman and Secretary for any business. to come before the Committee.

608

o

E-o

Z

...:

rn

EDUCATION AND RELIGION 3. The National Christian Council shall meet in a General Convention once in two years, arrangements for which shall be in the hands of the National Executive Committoo.

4. One of the duties of the National Executive Committee shall be to meet and confer with workers of any communions or societies that are not now parties to this agreement, and to confer with and advise representatives of communions or societies arriving in the future as to the location of their respective fields. Also earnestly to urge them to become parties to the agreement and to choose members who shall represent their communions or other agencies in the National Christian Council.

(Note :-'CQmmunion' means denomination. 'Church' refers to the local organization).

609

CHAPTER

V

THE AGLIPAYAN CHURCH

Shortly after my assignment as a supervising teacher in the province of La Union following my return to the Philippines in 1910 as a government student in the United States, I had the good fortune to occupy the same compartment on a train leaving Manila for the north with a distinguished looking Filipino prelate who was none other than the head of the Filipino Independent Church, Supreme Bishop (Obispo Maximo) Gregorio Aglipay. At Caloocan, the first station where the train stopped, a dignified looking priest boarded the train and came to the same compartment. He was a Spanish Jesuit priest well advanced in years, had seen long service in the Philippines, and, as I later came to know, quite learned.

It was not long before a discussion arose between the two on the merits or demerits of the Roman Catholic Church and the Aglipayan Church. It was a rare treat to witness a debate that lasted for hours between able defenders of two Christian faiths. They discussed religious history, dogma, and philosophy. I was a silent and interested listener until they came to the knotty question involving church tenets. An impasse was reached on a certain point and the Catholic priest thinking I was of his faith turned to me and said, "Don't you think I am right?"

I replied, "No." Then Bishop Aglipay thinking I was on his side said to me, "I am right, and I not?" I replied, "No." Surprised, both of them simultaneously asked, "What is your church?" I said, "I belong to the Protestant Church."

The discussion then became three-cornered until we reached Dagupan when the good Jesuit father got off leaving Bishop Aglipay and me to travel together to the terminal station.

610

EDUCATION AND RELIGION It was an excellent occasion for me to know the Bishop more intimately and the movement of which he is the recognized leader. He was patient and p"ainstaking in answering the numerous questions I asked him. Before we parted he promised to send me some of the publications bearing on the Filipino Independent Church which in due time he did. From that day to the present, I have enjoyed the friendship of Bishop Aglipay and have been an interested student of the Aglipayan movement.

My knowledge of the affairs of the Aglipayan Church was increased by my association with helpers of Bishop Aglipay inchiding former Senator Santiago Fonacier who has since become a Bishop of the Church and Don Isabelo de los Reyes who has written much and edited many of the publications dealing with the movement and with whom I served in the Philippine Senate. I further deepened and increased my understanding of Aglipayanism since myappointment as Resident Commissioner in the United States, compelled as I was to inform myself on the various phases of the Philippine question that I may, on the basis of facts, the better speak and write.

The Filipino Independent Church is an outgrowth of a widespread desire of the Filipinos for reform in the oppressive rule of Spain in the Philippines which culminated in the Revolution of 1896 fought for freedom and separation. It was the outcome of a spirit of revolt against an intolerable state of affairs in the Philippines produced by governmental tryranny and abuses from some friars.

Just as the people in general wanted political freedom from Madrid, so the Filipino clergy wanted autonomy from Rome.

The Aglipayan movement is not unlike the Protestant Reformation in Europe, at first initiated for purposes of reforJ:.TI but later became a general revolt against Romanism and the papacy.

611

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES In the preceding chapters, we indicated the historical causes-political, social, economic, and religious, which gave rise to the unrest and upheaval in the Philippines during the Spanish regime. It is unnecessary here to repeat the numerous events and their varied ramifications which the people considered acts of injustice necessitating drastic remedies. All that need be said is that some rep,r esentatives of the Roman Catholic Church had a major part in the oppressive and repressive measures; that the extensive church properties and land holdings intensified popular suspicion and opposition; that the priestly dictatorship had become altogether too powerful and unbearable and that friar ism was haughty and irksome engendering disaffection in the secular clergy and the Filipino priesthood. Filipinos did not look with favor upon the continued supremacy of some foreign friars and the continual humiliation of the Filipino priests who were in some cases relegated to the background despite their demonstrated ability and worth.

There w~s too much myopia in the high places. Those drunk with power were deaf to just and peaceful petitions.

Basking in self-complacency, intrenched in their accumulated wealth, and dependent upon the force of might, the authorities had become callous to the sufferings of the masses. The ecclesiastical and spiritual leaders content in their palatial convents were indifferent to, or aloof from, the rank and file of the people.

A wide gap had grown up between the people and the ecclesiastical authorities especially the friar-curates.

The "friar controversy" had become acute and widespread and entered n~t only into the religious question but into every phase of the complicated Philippine problem. Just as the friar influence invaded every field of Philippine life, so friarism became involved in every important controversy. The hatred toward friarism spread everywhere.

612

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Definite charges were hurled against Romanism, without saying whether founded or unfounded, these were: because of the large areas of rich and agricultural lands secured by the friars, thereby enriching their orders; because they were instrumental in stifling liberty of thought; because they helped suppress freedom of speech on religious and political matters; because they had become too materialistic and greedy; because many of the friar-curates had become openly immoral; because in some cases they exercised despotic control over the people; because they played a prominent role in the arrest, imprisonment, torture, exile, and execution of many leading Filipinos.

It is out fair to mention that "the superiors of the corporations of the Augustinians, Franciscans, Recollects, Dominicans, and Jesuits established in 'Filipinas'" prepared an elaborate friar memorial in 1898 addressed to "His Excellency, the Minister of the Colonies" in their defense requesting the minister to lay the same before their Royal Majesties King Don Alfonso XIII and the Queen Regent Dona Maria Cristina and before the entire Spanish nation.

The brief which is published in full in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, Volume LII seeks to deny the charges brought against the friars.

The Filipino priests, however, shared the grievances expressed by the people because they, too, suffered ignominies. The Filipino clergy entertained hopes of reforms and desired fuller recognition by the Vatican. The Filipino priests and their parishioners remembered the execution of, their most prominent priests, Burgos, Gomez, and Zamora, following a court martial in connection with the Cavite revolt of 1872. In their hearts the wounds produced by so much terrorism and persecution and the execution of many patriot-martyrs including Jose Rizal had not cauterized. The clamor for religious autonomy became daily more vocal and insistent. Marcelo del Pilar abroad 613

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES busied himself writing pamphlets like La Soberania M onacal en Filipinas, La Frailocracia Filipina, and Los Frailes en Filipinas; other writers published articles directed against the friars. Rizal's novels, though forbidden, were circulated among the Filipinos. All these were utilized as arguments in favor of greater recognition, substantial reforms, and more autonomous powers. Prominent among the reforms demanded was the expulsion of the friars.

In due time historic events had been taking place.

The Revolution of 1896 against Spain, the establishment of the Revolutionary government, the Spanish-American War, the proclamation of the short-lived Philippine Republic, the approval of the Malolos Constitution, and the Philippine-American rupture followed one another in rapid succession. Circumstances favored changes in various fields including innovation in the religious field. The time was ripe for the entry of Protestantism into the Islands and for another liberal movement within the country.

Isabel0 de los Reyes who had long been in Spain busy with his prolific pen presently returned to the Philippines in 1901. In 1897 he was sent to Spain as a prisoner accused of propagating Masonry and because of "his sensational Memoria sobre la Revolucion Filipina de 1896, wherein he denounced all the crimes of the friars * * *" While in prison he fraternized with "eminent anarchists of action like Francisco Ferrer Guardia, Ramon Sempan, Ignacio Bo Singla, and Torrida del Marmol." De los Reyes by his reading and association became a radical Socialist. He almost lost his faith in God and in religion. His faith was restored and strengthened by studying the New Testament given him by the British and Foreign Bible Society. He was released from prison after the signing of the treaty between the United States and Spain. He was indefatigable as a writer. He wrote articles and pamphlets. He 614

EDUCATION AND RELIGION published a pro-independence paper called Filipinas Ante Europa. He translated the New Testament into Ilocano.

Back in Manila with the popularity won by his stay in Europe and by his works, Isabelo de los Reyes was well liked by the masses. His advice and counsel were sought by the labor elements. On January 1, 1902, a small group of laborers mostly lithographers called upon him to direct them in the formation of a modest trading society. De los Reyes proposed the formation of a Labor Union (Union Obrera) instead of just a small society, such union to embrace all labor activities and thus utilize labor for the uplift of the poor and the needy by securing necessary reforms and laws favorable to labor. Many laborers agreed to cooperate and on February 2, the organization of the Democratic Labor Union (Union Obrera Democratic(J;) was proclaimed at a meeting held in one of the theaters. On that occasion de los Reyes spoke of the bright future of the laboring classes if they would band themselves together, work hard, and practice thrift. The bases for the Union were read and approved and Isabelo de los Reyes was chosen president and Hermenegildo H. Cruz, general secretary.

Within a few months the organization grew. Some twelve organizations for men and two for women were formed. Weekly meetings or conferences were held.

There was great enthusiasm for the movement. Much practical work was accomplished for the benefit of the laboring classes. It is claimed that, upon the initiative of the Union Obrera living conditions were improved, favorable labor legislative measures were enacted, the Bureau of Labor was organized, and several factories were improved and made more sanitary.

But strangely enough, the greatest single achievement of the Union Obrera Democratica is the Filipino Independent Church proclaimed by Isabelo de los Reyes on August 3, 1902. As president he informed the Consejo general of 615

E~CYCLOPEDIA

OF THE PHILIPPINES

the invitation of Mr. Pascual H. Poblete to the Union Obrera to a meeting against the friars that was to be held at the Zorrilla Theater. The members of the Union consulted resolved to join the meeting initiated by Poblete, and unanimously approved the prepared speech which de .Jos Reyes was to deliver in the name of the Union.

In the speech delivered at the memorable meeting of August 3, 1902, Mr. Isabelo de los Reyes made reference to his negotiations in the name of the F'ilipino clergy headed by Father Aglipay then of the Roman Catholic Church and later named by Aguinaldo as head of the Filipino Church during the Revolutionary days, with the Papal Nuncios one of whom Cardinal N ava di Bontife declared that it was preferable that the friars then held as prisoners be assassinated than to accede to the petition that ecclesiastical dignitaries be Filipinos and another papal representative said that it was well-nigh impossible to name Filipinos for high ecclesiastical posts; he also stated that the Union Obrera Democratica was in thorough sympathy with the idea of having the Spanish friars expelled from the Archipelago; and that it was impossible to reach an understanding with the Pope adding: "* * * after consulting the General Counsel of the Democratic Labor Union I came here authorized to give our humble cooperation to Mr. Poblete upon whose initiative this demonstration against the friars is held and, at the same time, to declare without vacillation that from now on we definitely separate ourselves from the Vatican forming a Filipino .Independent Church * * * " De los Reyes likewise made public the proposal in the name of the Union Obrera of an executive committee composed of laymen and a Council of illustrious and virtuous priests headed by Father Aglipay. The general attitude which was enthusiastically manifested at the meeting was tersely expressed by the orator when he said: "We shall 616

EDUCATION AND RELIGION follow all the holy inspirations of God, but not the inj ustices and the mere caprices of men. We respect devotion to the Virgin and the Saints, but over and above all we shall place the worship of only one God." It was in the same speech that de los Reyes suggested various high dignitaries for the new church and climaxed it thus: "As a tribute of fealty to the sovereign will of the Filipino people solemnly manifested at the Council of Tarlac in 1899 we propose as the supreme head of the Filipino Independent Church the most virtuous and the great patriot, Father Gregorio Aglipay."

Gregorio Aglipay y Labayan was born in Ilocos Norte province on May 9, 1860. Of poor parentage, he had his early training under the parental roof, his mother taking great interest in the boy's education. At sixteen young Gregorio and his father were thrown into prison. Why? "Because they had not set out the number of tobacco plants demanded by the government tobacco monopoly.

That they had been prevented by a drought made no difference to the government authorities." This taste of Spanish oppression growing out of the pernicious encomienda system mentioned in an earlier chapter left an indelible impression upon the young man. On being released Gregorio Aglipay went to Manila and largely supported himself through college.

After graduation from the Dominican college of San Juan de Letran in Manila, he continued his studies at the Conciliar Seminary of Vigan, Ilocos Sur. It was in this Dominican Theological Seminary that Aglipay showed himself an unusually industrious, apt, and progressive student and became highly regarded by the Spanish friars.

In 1899 Aglipay was ordained in Manila.

He made no little progress in the ministry. In some respects Aglipay's gain in esteem was truly remarkable considering how Filipino priests were systematically rele617

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES gated to the background or deliberately held down. He was at one time trusted by Bishop Hevia of the Ilocos region and by Archbishop Nozaleda. Dr. Laubach, in The People of the Philippines, says: "Bishop Hevia of the See of Nueva Segovia, while captive in the hands of the insurgents, (revolutionists) made Aglipay ecclesiastical governor of his diocese, thus investing him with the prerogatives of a bishop (the reader should not forget this, as it has an important bearing on the future career of Aglipay). In November, 1898, he went to Manila and was there received with open arms by Archbishop N ozaleda, who told him the Philippines were sure to be a republic, and that Aglipay should then be a link between the Islands and the Vatican. 'He gave me further directions to organize the provinces of Bulacan, Pampanga, and Pangasinan * * * He approved the transfer of the episcopate by Bishop Hevia to me, and I returned cheerfully to the great task assigned me'.

The friars had played their highest card.

"Meanwhile the revolutionists were playing theirs.

At the advice of * * * Mabini, Father Aglipay was appointed 'First Military Chaplain of the Isurgent (Revolutionary) Army', and later (October 28, 1898) he was appointed the Vicar-General of the whole archi pel ago ."

In 1899 trouble arose between Archbishop Nozaleda and Vicar-General Aglipay. The former wanted Aglipay excommunicated for employing the title "Military Chaplain of the Revolutionary Army," for being closely allied with the Filipino clergy against the Spanish prelates, and for usurpation of power. Aglipay in turn appealed to the Pope charging Nozaleda for systematic misrepresentation to the Vatican the real condition of the Islands and for condoning the sins of the friars. The Pope sent as delegate to the Philippines, Archbishop P. L. Chapelle of New Orleans, to remedy matter. The papal delegate reached 618

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Manila in January, 1900. As generally foreseen, he immediately took the side of the friars against the claims of the Filipino clergy.

Matters became worse. Confidence in Rome was shaken and disaffection grew. The spiritual discontent increased until 1902 when in August of that year a conference was held between Aglipay and de los Reyes, on the one hand, and the Protestant missionaries, on the other.

Aglipay with clearness depicted the popular opposition against the friars, the ill-treatment of the native clergy, the unrest of the Filipinos, and his proposal to lead in establishing an independent Filipino Catholic church.

While there was cordiality on both sides, and under ordinary circumstances Protestant missionaries would have been overjoyed at this movement in favor of an indigenous church, the missionaries were unfavorable to the new church for four reasons, according to Laubach: "in ritual, it was too Roman; in theology, too nationalistic; in ethics, too Spanish; and in politics, too independista." . When the meeting of August 3, 1902, proclaimed the organization of an Independent Filipino Church Aglipay had not left the Roman Catholic Church. In fact he at first declined to be the supreme head of the new church hoping that the Vatican would give fuller recognition to the rights of the Filipino clergy and to the demands of the people. But when all hope had vanished Aglipay definitely and decisively broke with Rome and signed the "third epistle" of the new church on October 17, 1902. Nine days afterwards Aglipay said his first Mass as "Obispo Maximo de la Iglesia FUipina Independiente." The celebration was held in the open air at Tondo, Manila; several thousands of people attended, and it produced a tremendous sensation and a deep impression.

The Aglipay movement progressed.

As one writer testifies: "The excitement rose higher than it had been 619

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES when Aglipay said his first mass. There was a landslide into the schismatic church.

In Ilocos Norte only three priests remained true to Rome. All the Filipino priests on the Island of Panay, sixty in number, left the Catholic Church. The poor, the oppressed, and the radical clamored for freedom. In general, the more the communities had been touched by unrest, the greater was the number of those who broke from Rome. Indeed Aglipay and his fellow bishops were swamped. The movement was one of the people even more than of the priests. In no case did a priest go into the new movement without the support of his congregation. In many instances parts of congregations broke away from the priest who refused to go with them. The new church was embarrassed for want of priests and bishops." (Laubach).

Seminaries were started and students were rushed through their training in rituals and other subjects to act as priests for the mass movement into the Aglipayan Church. Springing up at a time when the spirit of nationalism was rising, the new church in 1918 according to the Official Census of the Philippine Islands had a membership of about one million and a half.

The aims and objectives of the Aglipayan Church are tersely summarized in the Catequesis (p. 100). "The object of the foundation of the Filipino Independent Church," it says, is: (1) To re-establish in all its splendor the worship of the only God and the purity of truth which under the reign of obscurantism have been contaminated and disfigured in a manner most discouraging to any Christian * * *; (2) To liberate the conscience of all error, exaggeration, and unscientific scruples and from anything that may be contrary to the laws of nature and sound reason; (3) and to form and dignify a Filipino Clergy reconâ&#x20AC;˘ 620

EDUCATION AND RELIGION quering all its rights and prerogatives which it lost by the expoliation and degradation of which it has been and still is the object."

The same authority adds: "Our church is catholic or universal because it considers all men without distinction as children of God. We do not, therefore, prohibit the study of other religions; on the contrary, we should learn and adopt what they have that may be better than our doctrines and practices. Likewise we do not admit excommunications because not only are they contrary to charity but also to the oft repeated teachings of Jesus and His apostles."

The creed of the Aglipayan Church translated from the Gatequesis de la Iglesia Filipi:na Independiente (pp. 3940) is as follows: "I believe in only one God (Blessed be His Holy name), that universal, intelligent, eternal, supreme, and mysterious Force, who produces, vitalizes, directs, moves, and conserves all beings: is the soul of the Universe, the beginning of all life and movement. Although His nature has not as yet been discovered, we divine it and see, in His great handiwork, His power and admirable wisdom:; we hear in the depth of our .conscience His most holy voice, and experience His loving and diligent Fatherhood in the providential satisfaction of our daily needs. I believe that God who is the Supreme Being must also be the supreme perfection. I believe that God made man to contribute with his virtues and activities to the general well-being and progress for which we should be ever useful and seek with our labor the remedy for our necessities; to think and labor well because God rewards the good and punishes in this life bad intentions not with infernal absurdities but that the inexorable justice of God is perfected by His infinite mercy. I believe that the Maker who protects me 621

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES now as a loving Father, likewise, shall protect me in my death as proven in modern science and that I shall never disappear but shall only be transformed. Amen."

The Aglipayan Church outlines in some detail the duties of man which may be summarized under seven points: 1. To love God. Under this, man is enjoined to worship our Celestial Father by means of good sentiments and deeds, to remember and adore Him and to flee from bad thoughts and acts.

2. To love his fellow men. Men is enjoined not to wish or do evil to anyone, to practice all the good possible especially to the poor and unfortunate and to do unto others what he would have others do unto him.

3. To be good and just and to commit no excess.

4. To be honorable. Man is told that honor dignifies and ennobles.

5. To be industrious. "Labor is the sole source of well-being which honorably satisfies ou.r needs."

"Science provides 6. To study useful knowledge. knowledge of necessary information and is an invaluable factor to progress in all branches."

7. To be useful to the country. Man is told to serve his country "securing and defending her welfare, her independence, her liberty, her rights and interests with ardor, dignity, and disinterestedness, and not with shameful abdications or sale of conscience.~' The regulations of the church (Reglas Constitucionales) outline the duties of the ministers (apostles) under four classifications, namely: 1. Spirituality (religiosidad). The minister is enjoined to consecrate himself to God, fostering worship and improving the church and to seek to merit the title of minister of God by his Christian conduct.

622

EDUCATION AND RELIGION 2. Diligence. The ministers shall disregard comfort, fatigue, the inclemencies of the weather and the inconvenient hours of the night in administering spiritual aid to those in need; to treat the people always with love and never with the harshness with which ministers usually treat them; and to defend the church and advance her cause.

3. Instructions. The minister shall devote his hours of leisure to the study of the divine teachings of Jesus Christ and must diffuse them. He should endeavor to establish schools for boys and girls "to sow in their virgin minds the beneficial maxims of our Divine Master and other modern knowledge of great usefulness."

4. Obedience. The minister is made conscious that he is a member of a "society of formal men" and, therefore, is in duty bound to obey and respect the directors or leaders of such a society and to comply with orders received from his superiors bearing in mind that in order that he may be obeyed by his subordinates, he must give example of discipline and obedience.

The Catequesis also outlines the duties of a bishop.

Upon taking his office, a bishop takes a solemn oath to be faithful servant of God and a diligent shepherd of his sheep; to follow the "divine teachings of our Lord Jesus and those of His apostles and prophets contained in the Gospel (Evangelio) of our Church"; to respect the "Bible as a sacred book except the human interpolations, the existence of which Jesus Himself declared in the Holy Gospel"; not to go against the truth of the B.ible nor against the sciences; and to exalt Christian charity and the liberty and progress of humanity. A bishop is likewise to obey the Filipino Independent Church and the Supreme Bishop as well as the official church publications like the Gospel, the Divine Office (Oficio Divino) of the church with its rituals (ceremonials) the Epistles and the constitutional rules in so far as these are not subsequently modified by later of623

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ficial publications; and to promote the worship of God in his diocese and all that may redound to the progress of the church.

In the Catedra of the Filipino Independent Church (March, 1932) Bishop Aglipay outlines the reorganization of the Church. The main features are (1) the injunction of righteousness upon the ministers; (2) recommendation of study of previous publications with the Catedra or Sermonario as the latest suppressing in earlier publications the words soul and spirit (alma y espiritu) and substituting life or being (vida 0 se,r). and substituting transformation (transformacion) for death (muerte); (3) order of reorganization; (4) instructing bishops to have parochial posts secured by competitive examination; (5) pres'c ribing conditions for securing license and for promotion; (6) outlining the daily duties of an Aglipayan; (17) formation of a corps of deaconesses; (8) establishing seminaries and schools; (9) outlining what ministers of the Church should know; (10) holding fraternal dinners (salosalong /caJpatiran); (11) conditions of places of worship (oratorios); (12) urging progress and improvement; (13) organizing Boy Scouts; and (14) final recommendation for the selection of the best and ablest to continue the mission of the Church when the present Obispo Maximo shall have completed his mISSIOn. The full text of the plan of reorganization is found in the Catedra, pp. 117-129.

In Evangelical Christianity in the Philippines, (pp.

128-130) the contributions of the Aglipayan Church are enumerated and we can do no better than to quote the summarization therein presented: "It is but fair to mention briefly some of the more important phases of the Filipino Independent Church which constitutes one of the three branches of Christianity in the Archipelago.

This Aglipay movement, so called because it is headed by Bishop 624

•

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Gregorio Aglipay, has undertaken work which in some respects is unique in religious history because of the boldness of the conception, and the ambitious program and task it has set for itself.

"Aglipayanism is important in that it is a Filipino religious movement ooncretely exemplifying the people's devotion to liberty of thought and of religion.

It has chosen the Bible and science, love and liberty as its supporting pillars. It has stood for 'unity of God in Jesus' (La unidad de Dios en Jesus) thus inclining toward unitarianism. It has enthroned reason as the guide in religious interpretation. It has sought to harmonize and unify the 'authentic parts of the four Gospels' and evolve a Filipino Gospel simplified and coordinated. (Con el auxilio de Dios, la Iglesia Filipina Independiente va a intentar 10 que hasta ahora no se ha hecho ni en Europa, America ni en otra parte, 0 sea la refundicion de las partes autenticas de los cuatro Evangelios en uno solo uniforme y completo que co;ntenga la verdadera Doctrina y Biografia de Nuestro Senor Jesucristo, y que este purificado de ingertos y de contradicciones consigo mismo, cuando no con el Antiguo Testamento). This institution has undertaken under the leadership of that industrious layman worker, Isabelo de los Reyes, sanctioned by the Supreme Council of Bishops in the church and promulgated by the Supreme Bishop, (Obispo Maximo) Aglipay. The Oficio Divino of the church is a publication containing the New Gospel (Novisimo Evangelio) and the Eucharistic Rituals (Culto Eucaristico) or missal which should commend itself to serious and earnest students of comparative religions."

When the Aglipayan Church was started the leaders entertained the dream that it may become catholic or universal. In recent years the head of the Church received recognition beyond the confines of the Philippines. He was invited to the United States by the Unitarian Church and there Bishop Aglipay delivered a series of lectures and was conferred the honorary degree of Doctor of Divinity.

625

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TIlE PHILIPPINES Bishop Aglipay was a prominent delegate and speaker at the International Congress of liberal churches held in August, 1934, at Copenhagen, Denmark. A prominent writer reporting on the International Congress pays deserved tribute to the Filipino representative, saying among other things: "Mgr. Aglipay was a veritable glory of the Congress and revealed himself as a most worthy father of religious liberalism in the Orient."

The Aglipayan Chur,ch stands as a great monument to his vision and talent and to his spiritual and executive leadership.

626

CHAPTER

VI

THE OUTLOOK FOR RELIGION

Man lives路 upon a planet the exact age of which no one knows. Estimates are many and varied and the trend has been upward. It is now believed that half a billion years would be a probable minimum and one and a half billion years a probable maximum. Years and years, countless and as yet undetermined, elapsed before life appeared upon the earth. A long and gradual process which we in this age, with all our vaunted knowledge, can not with finality explain, had to be undergone before the first man appeared. The different stages of growth and development of life in our world remain a mystery which science, we are pleased to call modern, has been unable to clarify. Before man and society learned to write and enter upon the beginning of civilIzation they had to go through ten thousand years of barbarism and ten times ten thousand years of savagery.

The poet, Carruth, spoke with a background of rich informatjon when he penned these lines: "A fire-mist and a planet, A crystal and a cell, A jelly-fish and a saurian, And caves, where the cave-men dwell; Then a sense of law and beauty, And a face turned from the clodSome call it Evolution And others call it God." Religion is as old as man. Endowed with the instinct of fear, superstition was awakened in him. Fear and superstition controlled the primitive man. He was afraid of the roar of the wind, the growl of the beast, the crash of thunder. The universe into which he was thrown seemed 627

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES filled with danger. The deep mystery of earth, sea, and sky which his puny mind could not understand was a source of fear. He became afraid of the boulders that toppled, the disease that attacked him, the death that converted a body erect and moving into one laid low, cold, and inert.

All nature appeared to him as a relentless foe.

Man saw his shadow. Perhaps it dawned upon him that life was more than the body. He began to do a little crude thinking. He thought that danger could be averted.

Hostile objects, he began to think, could be appeased. Belief was born. Because of his belief grew superstition, magic, - religion.

It was not long before man came to realize his dual nature, that he has a body and a shadow or image. Shadow is Nitu or Anitu in Sanskrit and Ania,ni in Malayan.

From such probably came the Ilocano Aniniwan, the Tagalo Anino, and the Latin Anima which signify shadow and which later became what We call spirit or soul. This spirit lived after the body, and, following the death of the body, this spirit, according to ancient belief, went to the mountains-the spirit of the good to beautiful and pleasant mountains, the spirit of the bad to volcanic mountains to be burned. From such may have evolved later concepts of paradise or heaven, limbo, purgatory, and hell.

The early man lived in a world filled with shadows, spirits, or souls. He saw them everywhere - in the things around him. Through his fear he worshipp~d spirits.

Hence the animistic religion; hence, too, the Anitism of primitive Filipinos.

The spirit had to be pleased or appeased. Fetishism developed. The anting-anting idea became prevalent in the Islands. The wearing of amulets, medallion or goodluck charm was a common practice, for it gave the wearer a sense of being better able to meet danger, ward off hazards, or control spirits. The production or manufac628

EDUCATION AND RELIGION ture of fetishes or strings of fetishes which may be worn became a sacred occupation. Then the medicine man, the professional holy man or priest made his advent.

Natural objects were among the first fetishes of primitive men or tribes. Trees of peculiar shape or stones of unusual color served the purpose. The Kaaba Stone of the Moslems persists as an example. Later, representations of the objects of worship were manufactured. The fetish makers made idols. Idolatry entered into the religious practice.

The idea of sacrificial offerings to spirits or idols came upon the scene. Food, flowers, animals were offered, and the spiritual leader or priest did his office with much ceremony and with words of praise. Incantations, ceremonial songs, hymns, and praying were born.

The spirits or idols in time were sheltered. The shade of a tree first served the purpose, later a specially built hut. The church or cathedral idea was a result of the evolutionary process which originated with the simple thought of sheltering objects of worship.

Religion and those practices connected with it, crude though they were, had great utility and value to primitive men and primitive societies. Primitive religion entered very fully into primitive life in all its aspects.

Early Philippines found in the clutches of primitive beliefs and polytheistic faith was invaded by a new religion that came swooping from foreign strands. It was revolutionary because it proclaimed monotheism. Its creed was based upon the idea of one God and one prophet. Unity was stressed. "There is no God but Allah; and Mohammed is His prophet."

Then came another religious invasion, the coming of Christianity into the Philippines. God was presented as a loving Father of mankind. The social horizon became widened. The religion of fear was transformed into a 629

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES moral religion. A great advance was made. The message of Christ has been and is being propagated by the Roman Catholic Church, the Protestant Church, and the Aglipayan Church.

What is the outlook for religion in the Philippines?

Voices at once respectable and influential are often heard bemoaning that religion is decadent. Indeed there are not wanting those who boldly state that the present generation is irreligious.

In spite of dire forebodings, the facts seem plainly to indicate that religion continues to register substantial conquests; that those who appear irreligious are only nonreligious and are bent to get their religious bearings; that the frontiers of Christianity are continually being pushed forward; and that religion is undergoing change as to form and suostance adjusting itself to the realities of life and to advancing civilization.

The Filipino people have gotten and gained too much from their religion to permit it to suffer a setback. They are a religions people and it is unthinkable that they will ever lose their spirituality. The Filipinos take just pride in the fact that they are a Christian people and should find new motive to become more genuinely religious in the pr ospect of the Philippines becoming the first Christian Republic in the Far East. It must be the concern of future generations to conserve the religious gains of the past, enrich their spiritual heritage, and make their contribution to the accumulating wealth of spiritual experience.

The prospects for religious growth and progress in the Philippines lappear bright and encouraging. There is ground for belief that in the future, paganism will wane while the organized religions will continue to wax in influence. The Mohammedan panditas and leaders are anxious to spread the knowledge of the Koran and Islam630

EDUCATION AND RELIGION ism. The Christian entities are active in their work of instruction, evangelization, or, if you please, Christianization.

There are various Roman Catholic corporations actively at work to strengthen the Catholic Church. Among these are: The Dominicans, Augustinians, Franciscans, Recollectan, Capuchin, Benedictine, Jesuits, Redemptorists, Belgian Missionaries, Vincentians, and other organizations or entities.

The work of propagating the Evangelical Christian faith is shouldered by denominations various. and sundry.

The most important of these are: The Methodist, Presbyterian, Baptist, Christian Mission, United Brethren in Christ, Congregationalist, and Christian Missionary Alliance. The les er or smaller bodies are: The Evangelical Methodist Church in the Philippine Islands (Zamoristas), The Evangelical Christian Church, National Church, Independent Philippine Church of Pandacan, Trinitarian Christian Church, Church of Christ, Church of Christ the Savior, Evangelical Religion of Living Christians, Church of Jesus Christ of the New Jerusalem, The Modern Philippine Independent Church, Church of Jesus Christ the Son of God, Christian Church, Church of the Christian Filipinos, Church of Christ Eternal, Church of God, Apostolic Evangelical Christian Church, SeventhDay Adventists, Glorious Christian Church, Evangelical Church, Reformed Philippine Church.

The Roman Catholic Church has had and continues to have a program of religious education from the lowest grade to the highest. It has parochial schools, colleges, a university and conciliar seminaries. Under the Spanish regime five conciliar seminaries were maintained in the Philippines. A more extended discussion of these educational institutions may be found in the part devoted to education.

631

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES At this point it is well to recall that the Council of Trent provided for the establishment of institutions for the formation and training of native clerics,. A souvenir publication on Misiones Catolicas gives a detailed description of what has been accomplished by the different Catholic orders and societies including the institutions established for pUl'poses of instruction. The University of Santo Tomas as early as 1623 was commended by Philip IV for its work resulting "in great advantage to the youth, to the preaching of the Gospel and to the education of the sons of the inhabitants." Pope Leo XIII on September 17, 1902, in his Constitution Quae 1'YU1h'i Sinico commended the work of this venerable institution and conferred honors on it saying: "Quare pri1)ilegia et honores a Romanis Pontificibus Innocentio X et XI et Clemente XII eidem concessa plenissime confirmantes, illud Pontificiae Universitatis titulum augemus, quique gradus academici in eo conferun.tur, eandem vim habere volumus, quam in caeteris Pontificiis Univers~tatibus obtinent." The General Bulletin of the University is authority for the following pertinent information: "His Holiness, Pope Pius X, not only confirmed the privileges granted by his predecessors, but increased them, as on April 4, 1906, he granted to the Faculty for Clergymen the character of a real Seminary, and gave the University the exclusive power to confer academic degrees upon the former."

The Pontifical University offers comprehensive courses on Christian doctrine, church dogma and practice, and religious matters under the heading of Apologetics which are obligatory for students: Apologetics A dealing with "the elements of Christian doctrine; the creed; creation; incarnation, redemption; last judgment; and the church"; and Apologetics B dealing with "the elements of Christian Moral; the human actions, the last end of man; the law; virtue; and sin" are obligatory courses for Freshmen.

632

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Apologetics C dealing with "the commandments of God; religion as virtue; the commandments of the Church"; and Apologetics D dealing with "the Lord's Prayer; the Sacraments; the mass; and the sacred liturgy" are obligatory courses for Sophomores; Apologetics I dealing with "revelation; miracles and prophesies; documents of Christian revelation, historic value - authenticity, integrity and reliability of Gospel; profession of the divinity of the mission of Jesus Christ and Ris work, the Catholic Church"; and Apologetics II dealing with "the infallibility of the teaching body; promise of primacy; nature and character of Christ's Church; the infallibility of the Pope; the bishops, and church and state" are obligatory courses for juniors.

Apologetics III dealing with "grace and the sacraments; grace, its nature; sacraments in general; baptism, confirmation and Eucharist"; and Apologetics IV dealing with "the mass; penance, extreme unction; holy orders; matrimony; and the church as a means of salvation" are obligatory courses for Seniors.

This highest institution of learning under Roman Catholic auspices also maintains a faculty of sacred theology for students who desire to follow the ministry, The courses under Pacultas Sacrae Theologiae follow: ANNO 1 (Praeparatorio) De Revelatione; De Vera Christi Ecclesia; Introd.

Generalis in S. S.; Rist. Eccles. (Ad Schisma Occid.) ; Patrologia; Archeologia Christiana; Lingua GraecoBiblica; Theologia Pastoralis; Catechetica; Lingua Rebraica.

ANNO II (l Summae) Theologia Dogmatica; Theo!' Mor. Speculativa; Intro. & Exeg. in Vetus Testam.; Institut. Iur. Can. (De Rebus) ; Rist. Eccles. (Ad Schisma Occid.) ; Rist.

Religionis; Rist. Missionis.

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ANNO III (II Summae) Theologia Dogmatica; Theol. Mor. Speculativa; Introd. Spec. & Exeg. in Novum Testam.; Institut. Iur. Can. (De Rebus) ; Ascetica; Quaest. Recentiores Apologet.; Exercitatio Pract. (Dogmatica); Exercitatio Pract. Historica; Exercitatio Pract. Biblica; Exercitatio Pract. (Moralis).

ANNO IV (Ill Summae) Theol. Dogmatica; Theol. Mor. Speculativa; Theol. Mor. Practica; Introd. & Exeg. in Novum Testam. ; Quaest. Selectae Ex. Theol. Dogm. Spec. ; Quaest. Selectae Ex. Theol. Mor. Spect.; Exercitationes Practicae.

ANNO V (Curriculum Doctoratus) Institutiones Syst. Rist . Liturgiae; Quaest. Theol. ad Or. max. Spectantes; Exercitationes Practicae.

Disciplinae Speciales et Exercitationes Practicae incipient in initio mensis Augusti et cessabunt in fine mensis Ianuarii.

Early in the life of the Aglipayan Church the necessity of religious education and leadership training was realized. In 1904, when the Doctrina y reglas constitucionales de la Iglesia Filipina Independiente were promulgated, bishops were enjoined to create Ischools and colleges for both sexes "inasmuch as it is of great importance for us to teach the divine teachings of Jesus Christ and the redeeming doctrines of our church to the children"; it was made clear that "the first duties of our bishops consist in establishing a good seminary in their respective dioceses which may serve as a training school for new priests, educated according to the new doctrines of independent Filipino church." Continuing it says: 634

EDUCATION AND RELIGION "The plan of studies shall be based on the principle that we must begin to learn the most necessary, secondly, the most useful, and thirdly, the sciences that ought to always adorn the worthy priests of God. The plan recommended in the fourth epistle of our church shall be followed.

"But knowledge will be vain and useless in a priest, if he is not adorned with the Christian virtues of holiness, altruism, obedience, and zeal for the greater glory of God. Consequently, the young men shall be instructed in the practice of an ascetic and disciplined life, and they shall become accustomed to prayer, the sacraments, and the exercises of evangelization."

The plan of studies was patterned after that of the conciliar seminaries of the Roman Cathalic Church. We quote hereunder the provisions in the Aglipayan R1des: "The diocesan committees shall exert their efforts very earnestly in creating with all haste, seminaries, in order to be able to provide all the parishes with young and learned priests, since the scarcity of priests is the principal pretext of the Roman priests, in order that they may introduce foreign priests here. They shall endeavor to attract as great a number of students as possible, with the assurance that in two years' time only they will be given a complete, concise, and more nutritive instruction than the interminable years of unnecessary dissertations and fruitless 'therefore' with which the friars feed the best years of our young men, in order by that method to hinder the multiplication and true education of our priests.

"The plan of studies which shall be followed for the present shall be as follows:

Baccalaureate "If the students are very young, they shall have to pass in all the courses of secondary instruction.

But if they are twenty years old, only the following courses shall be demanded of them: English or 635

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Spanish, geography, history, arithmetic, natural sciences (natural history, physics"and chemistry), and rhetoric.

Priesthood "1st year: Bible and theology simplified.

2nd year: Amplification of the preceding course, and application of the Bible to all the problems, of life, social, and private, to the ceremonies and to the priestly life, and to ecclesiastical discipline.

"By simply passing these courses, and if the good deportment of the students be proved, they shall be ordained as presbyters and placed in the parish churches.

"But not on that account shall they cease to continue their studies, and as is now the custom among the Roman priests, they shall be examined annually, to determine whether they are fit to continue the duties of priest, in the following manner.

"1st yean History of religions.

2nd year: Study of the distinct philosophical and theological systems.

3rd year: Canons.

4th year: The studies of the baccalaureate which they have not passed.

"Those who shall have studied theology already in the Roman Seminaries, shall be ordained 'as soon as possible as subdeacons, deacons, and presbyters, successively."

The Protestant Church maintains schools of various types. Under the different denominations are administered colleges or institutes, in different parts of the archipelago, the best known of which are the Central Philippine College at J aro, Iloilo, and Silliman University at Dumaguete, Oriental Negros. In such institutions courses on Religion and the Bible are taught.

There are other evangelical agencies, for religious education. These are (a) the Sunday schools; (b) the Bible classes; (c) the Young People's Societies; (d) the Daily 636

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Vacation Bible Schools; ( e) the young people's conferences; (f) the Bible training schools for women; and (g) the teachers training classes conducted under the auspices of the Committee of Religious Education of the National Christian Council.

The Young Men's Christian Association and the Young Women's Christian Association likewise conduct classes and activities for the teaching of the Bible and religion.

The Protestant communions have combined to establish the Union Theological Seminary which, among other things, offers courses in theology leading to the degree of bachelor of theology and bachelor of divinity. According to the Articles of Incorporation, "the object of this corporation shall be to establish and conduct a Theological Seminary and other allied departments of education for the purpose of training young men for the Gospel ministry, and young men and young women for other forms of Christian service."

The Seminary catalog amplifies the statement of the aim of the institution thus: '~The aim of the Seminary in its various departments is to furnish to young men and women desiring to prepare themselves for Christian service, a thoroughly high grade training and to inspire in these students a pas's ion for unselfish service. The development of Christian manhood and womanhood is a supreme objective of all the departments. The ministry is exalted as the supreme calling and challenge. The main task js to find, train, and inspire young people to go out as specialists. in building the Kingdom of God."

The Seminary offers thorough training and maintains a high standard for students who are candidates for the B. Th. and B. D. degrees. The following net units beyond high school including both college and seminary work are 637

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES required for the four-year course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Theology: English. . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. ..

Bible as Literature ................ . .

General and Philippine History ......

Church History ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Philosophy and Psychology .. . . . . . . . ..

Religious Education .................

Practical Theology ..................

Systematic Theology ................

New Testament .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Old Testament ......................

Physical Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hymnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Orientation ........................

Electives ...........................

18 6

6 12 6 12 12 12 6

21 15 4 6 2 6

Tot a I .................... 144 The following net units beyond high school including both college and seminary work are required for the six-year course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Divinity: English. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..

Language ..........................

Science ............................

Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(6 extra units of science may be substituted for lVIathematics) Sociology ................. :........

(3 units Social Teachings of Bible and 3 units in Ethics may be applied in Sociology. ) Philosophy and Psychology ..........

History .................. , . .. . . . . ..

Religious Education .................

New Testament ....................

638

18 12 15 6 12

12 12 12 21

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Old Testament .....................

Practical Theology ..................

Systematic Theol. and Philosophy of Religion ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Church History ....................

Physical Education .................

Hymnology and Music ..............

Thesis .............................

Electives (according to major and minor requirements) ....................

15 12 12 12 4 6 2 29

Grand Total ............... 212 In religious education there must be a clear distinction between religious teaching and teaching about religion, between religi.ous education which takes effect in conduct and mere education about religion.

An educated ministry is necessary for an enlightened citizenry.

The outlook for religion is bound to be bright as long as the different churches vie with one another in improving their ministers and provided religious education is kept up in a manner that is efficient and systematic.

In the field of education there has been great transformation. There was a time when the educative process was conceived as mere preparation for life. Now the prevailing philosophy is that education is life itself. Some similar development must be made in the religion of the Philippines. There must be greater recognition in theory and practice that religion is life; that true religion is unseparated and inseparable from the life of the individual and society.

Religion in the Philippines must suffuse art and literature. It must be reflected in the development of the art and literature of the Nation. It is said that "if we were to select the one supreme expression of Christianity in France and Spain we should have to name the cathe639

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES drals. In England and in Germany Christianity found its supreme expression in the translations of the Bible, themselves creative works of art. In Italy the spirit of Christianity expressed itself most distinctly in the frescoes.

This is not to say, of course, that in France and Spain there was not a body of literature informed with the Christian spirit, nor that in England and Italy there were no cathedrals. A certain uniform expression of Christianity occurred in all lands; but the artistic achievements in each country varied with local conditions and with racial temperament."

What will be the supreme expression of Christianity in the Philippines? Will the future witness a close and happy relation between religion and art? Between religion and literature? Will religion work its way into the soul of Filipino artists and Filipino writers in the way it worked itself into the life of the author. of the immortal "Divine Comedy"? These are questions which only time can answer.

Will religion vitally affect Philippine music? How and to what extent? These again will have to be left to the future. This is and will likely remain essentially a Roman Catholic country. Will some genius路 like Palestrina arise who will infuse "a depth of feeling and a quality of artistry" in our church music? Protestantism will no doubt develop, too. Will some Bach come forth to produce some church cantata? Will the Aglipayan church develop some musical works distinctly its own? The years that are yet to come will tell whether Filipino composers will spring up and contribute to the world's wealth of hymns, anthems, canticles, cantatas, oratorios, and other sacred musical works.

It was once fashionable to harp upon religion as the foe of science and upon the conflict between science and faith. Now the trend is in the opposite direction. Scien640

EDUCATION AND RELIGION tists prominent for their discoveries and achievements are proclaiming the harmony between religion and science.

The belief that science is an ally of religion has become current. Science indeed is considered as furnishing "grounds for a theistic interpretation of the universe."

The Aglipayan Church is insistent upon religion grounded in science. It is no mere optimism that prompts the claim that in the future, if religion is to function in the lives of , people and peoples, religious teachers must in an increasing measure square their teachings with the discoveries and findings of science.

Religion is a continuallY expanding field. It is projecting itself more and more into social and economic problems. Creeds are being formulated which are more inclusive. Church organizations are pleading for the "right of all men to the opportunity fo]' self-maintenance-for the protection of workers from the hardships of enforced unemployment." They are demanding greater stress upon the "applications of Christian principles to the acquisition and us~ of property and for the most equitable division of the product of industry that can ultimately be devised."

Religious leaders are boldly enunciating programs of social justice dealing "with such issues as the participation of the worker in the income from industry, a minimum wage to provide living conditions, social insurance, unemployment and farm relief."

Churchmen are venturing into new fields. They are prominent in the movement for a warless world and for international good-will. All these point unerringly to the fact that religion must cease to be a mere veneer; that it must vitalize the mores and the morals of men and nations; that it must be interrelated with life in all its phases including philosophy and ethics.

641

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Will the future witness the dominance of one religion to the exclusion of other religions in the Philippines?

Will it see a greater spirit of tolerance and unity and cooperation among the different communions? Will there be a successful selective eclecticism so that the religion of the Filipinos will be one distinctive for the severe monotheism of both Christianity and Islamism and their religious faith will be a beautiful alchemy of the ritualism, grandeur, and reverence of Catholicism, the intellectuality, democracy, and devotion of Protestantism, and the patriotic, progressive, and scientific spirit stressed by Aglipayanism?

Dealing with the prospects of religion is, of course, to enter the field of speculation, even conjecture. It necessarily must be so. Yet it should be at least clear that the church leaders and church people must more and more divest themselves of their inherited bigotry, narrowness, and prejudice. The "holier-than-thou" attitude must give way to genuine humility. They must not be too sure that they are absolutely right and true and that others must be vicious and false. They must do away with that attitude, that frame of mind, that cattiness which repels and develop that open-mindedness, that intellectual charity, that breadth of sympathy which attracts.

Religion must be looked upon as a means' of man's adjustment in his many-sided relationship-man's relation to man, his relation to his environment, his relation to society, his relation to his Maker.

The religion of the future will be a veritable agency for soul development. It must take seriously into account the soul of man, the soul of a nation, the soul of humanity.

Mankind envisages religion as a polestar of conduct, a regulator of life, a dynamo of existence.

642

EDUCATION AND RELIGION The supreme aim of human life is to attain truth, beauty, and righteousness; efficiency, freedom, and happiness.

The outlook of religion is extremely bright if it leads human beings to know in all its grandeur and fullness the Way, the Truth, and the Life.

643

ApPENDIX A

SPIRITUAL EMERGENCY

BY DR. JORGE BOCOBO President, University of the Philippt'!nes

What is the mission of the Christian Church at this time when momentous changes in our national life are taking place? Will the church go on in the even tenor of her way, and let far-reaching ev~mts take their cour&e, without having her influence brought to bear on the mode of thinking of the people and on the trends of policy of the- new State? It seems to me that the church in the face of the new order should declare a sort of spiritual emergency, as governments sometimes declare a state of national emergency. Traditional and worn-out methods must be discarded, for they are utterly inadequate. Routine should be avoided as deadening. The church militant must become a living reality, and that militancy must reach out far beyond the church door. It would not be amiss, I venture to say, if this conference created an emergency committee to study ways and means for meeting the new situation in our national life.

There is a Hindu saying that an a~ch never sleeps. In the same way, the church can not afford to sleep, lest the national edifice which mainly rests upon religion crumble down at this time of crisis and hard test.

"Without vision the people perish." Now more than ever, that vision is needed so that our people may devote themselves to a deep, searching spiritual self-analysis, to find the flaws in our national character. In our national reconstruction, we must see to it that we do not reject the granite that should become the mainstay of the national temple. Many are the suggestions and ideas for the materials that should go to make up the ' national edifice. But just as every architect builds his heart into every pillar and 路tower and arch of the buildings, the Christian Church must build her spirit into the national life that is being reconstructed. We should therefore approach our task as the builder approaches his, that is, in the mood described by Ruskin in these words: "Therefore, when we build, let us think that we build forever.

Let it not be for the present delight, nor for present use alone; let it be such work as our descendants will thank us for, and let us think, as we lay stone upon stone, that a time is to come when those stones will be held sacred because our hands have touched them, 644

EDUCATION AND RELIGION and that men will say as they look upon the labor and wrought substance of them, 'See, this our fathers did for us.' " In what way, then, may the Christian Church help build the national character in the years that are immediately ahead of us?

In the first place, as we all too painfully realize, the commonwealth period will be one of hardships because of the loss of our markets in the United States. There will be serious discontent among the masses, and discouragement among the educated class of our peoplE'.

With a broken spirit, and dejected heart, the country will need the church, which should offer the spirit of the Master who gives rest unto all who are weary. The church should furnish that hope which, in the words of the poet, is the "balm and life blood of the soul."

It is thus our duty to stand guard, like the vestals of old, to see to it that the lamp of hope is not extinguished in the life of the people, lest the darkness of despair may envelop the humble toilers in the field as well as the educated man in city and town.

In the second place, the years to come will be years of self-rule and self-determination. The church should provide a growing definite sense of maturity, a sobering sense of responsibility, which will foster a craving for accomplishment, a desire to take hold of things with dauntless resolution. No nation ever did anything permanent and enduring in spirit of thoughtlessness. It is imperative that all of us should think and act in a heroic mood-not of course in a grand gesture, but in the deepest recesses of our being. Zeal and earnestness must permeate the national life, if we are going to exercise our self-rule in a constructive and patriotic manner. This spirit of high resolve can best be nurtured by the Christian Church.

Fortunately the deeply religious make-up of our people will facilitate the task of church in the way of infusing a serious trend of mind into the national thinking. The manifestations of undesirable traits which we notice are merely superficial, and are not inherent in the Filipino character; it is incumbent upon the church to bring out to the surface the profound sense of reverence and the sound philosophy of life of the Filipino. A study of Filipino proverbs reveals that the Filipino has healthy and sensible ideas of life. His mistaken modernization has somewhat concealed those salutary ideas.

Lastly, the commonwealth and the republic later on will impose upon us an inviolate responsibility, which is to transmute into reality that national self-expression in culture which it is the duty of every nation to develop. Political independence is justified mainly on that ground. In literature, in the fine arts, in the beauty of home life,

645

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES in the working out of social justice-in these things the Filipino nation must contribute the best of itself to world civilization. These things of culture are highly spiritual, and what better force makes for things of the spirit than the church? I doubt if any people that is irreligious and skeptical and cynical can touch the deepest springs of the soul so as to unfold the beauty of its life.

646

ApPENDIX B THE CATHOLIC VIEW OF EDUCATION

BY BROTHER MARCIAN JAMES, F .S.C. R ect or , De La Salle Colwge

To anyone who understands the position of the Catholic Church in this world and her claim to Divine guidance her views and directions are final with regard to matters affecting Faith and Morals.

Even when her pronouncements are not put forth as ex cathedra utterances they are still regarded by her children as authoritative guidance which they ought to respect and obey.

We propose giving here a few quotations from the Encyclical of His Holiness Pope Pius XI on Christian Education in which he very definitely expresses the 'mind of the Church on this important subject.

TO WHOM DOES EDUCATION BELONG ?

Education is essentially a social and not a mere individual activity. N ow there are three necessary societies, distinct from one another and yet harmoniously combined by God, into which man is born: two, namely the family and civ.il society, belong to the natural order; the third, the Church, to the supernatural order.

In the first place comes the family, instituted directly by God for its peculiar purpose, the generation and formation of offspring; for this reason it has priority of nature and therefore of rights over civil society. Nevertheless the family is an imperfect society, since it has not in itself all the means for its own complete development; whereas civil society is a perfect society, having in itself all the means for its peculiar end, which is the temporal well-being of the community; and so, in this respect, that is, in view of the common good, it has pre-eminence over the family, which finds its own suitable temporal perfection precisely in civil society.

The third society, into which man is born when through Baptism he receives the Divine life of grace, is the Church; a society of the supernatural order and of universal extent; a perfect society, because it has in itself all the means required for its own end, which is the eternal salvation of mankind; hence it is supreme in its own domain.

Consequently, education, which is concerned with man as a whole, individually and socially, in the order of nature and in the order of grace, necessarily belongs to all these three societies, in due pro647

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES portion, corresponding, according to the disposition of Divine Providence, to the coordination of their respective ends.

And first of all education belongs pre-eminently to the Church, by reason of a double title in the supernatural order, conferred exâ&#x20AC;˘ clusively upon her by God Himself; absolutely superior therefore to any other title in the natural order.

The first title is founded upon the express mission and supreme authority to teach given her by her Divine Founder: "All power is given to me in heaven and in earth. Going therefore teach ye all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you, and behold I am with you all days, even to the consummation of the world." Upon this magisterial office Christ conferred infallibilit y, together with the command to teach His doctrine. Hence the Church "Was set by her Divine Author as the pillar and ground of truth, in order to teach the Divine Faith to men, and keep whole and inviolate the deposit confided to her; to direct and fashion men, in all their actions individually and socially, to purity of morals and integrity of life, in accordance with revealed doctrine."

The second title is the supernatural motherhood, in virtue of which the Church, spotless spouse of Christ generates, nurtures and educates souls in the Divine life of grace, with her Sacraments and her doctrine. With good reason then does St. Augustine maintain: "He has not God for father who refuses to have the Church as mother."

END AND OBJECT OF CHRISTIAN EDUCATION

The proper and immediate end of Christian education is to cooperate with Divine grace in forming the true and perfect Christian, that is, to form Christ Himself in those regenerated by Baptism, according to the emphatic expression of the Apostle: "My little children, of whom I am in labor again, until Christ be formed in you." For the true Christian must live a supernatural life in Christ: "Christ who is your life," and display it in all his actions: "That the life also of Jesus may be made manifest in our mortal flesh."

For precisely this reason, Christian education takes in the whole aggregate of human life, physical and spiritual, intellectual and moral, individual, domestic and social, not with a view of reducing ' it in any way, but in order to elevate, regulate and perfect it, in accordance with the example and teaching of Christ.

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EDUCATION AND RELIGION Hence the true Christian, product of Christian education, is the supernatural man who thinks, judges and acts constantly and consistently in accordance with right reason illumined by the supernatural light of the example and teaching of Christ; in other words, to use the current term, the true and finished man of character.

For, it is not every kind of consistency and firmness of conduct based on subjective principles that makes true character, but only constancy in following the eternal principles of justice, as is admitted even by the pagan poet when he praises as one and the same "the man who is just and firm of purpose." And on the other hand, there cannot be full justice except in giving to God what is due to God, as the true Christian does.

The scope and aim of Christian education, as here described, appears to the worldly as an abstraction, or rather as something that cannot be attained without the suppression or dwarfing of the natural faculties, and witheut a renunciation of the activities of the present life, and hence inimical to social life and temporal prosperity, and contrary to all progress in letters, arts and sciences, and all the other elements of chtilization. To a like objection raised by the ignorance and the prejudice of even cultured pagans of a former day, and repeated with greater frequency and insistence in modern times, Tertullian has replied as follows: We are not strangers to life. We are fully aware of the gratitude we owe to God, our Lord and Creator. We reject none of the fruits of His handiwork; we only abstain from their immoderate or unlawful use. We are living in the world with you; we do not shun your forum, your markets, your baths, your shops, your factories, your stables, your places of business and traffic. We take ship with you and we serve in your armies; we are farmers and merchants with you; we interchange skilled labor and display our works in public for your service. How we can seem unprofitable to you with whom we live and of whom we are, I know not.

The true Christian does not renounce the activities of this life, he does not stunt his natural faculties; but he develops and perfects them, by coordinating them with the supernatural. He thus ennobles what is merely natural in life and secures for it new strength in the material and temporal order, no less than in the spiritual and eternal.

This fact is proved by the whole history of Christianity and its institutions, which is nothing else but the history of true civilization 649

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES and progress up to the present day. It stands out conspicuously in the lives of the numerous Saints, whom the Church, and she alone produces, in whom is perfectly realized the purpose of Christian education, and who have in every way ennobled and benefited human society. Indeed, the Saints have ever heen, are, and ever will be the greatest benefactors of society, and perfect models for every class and profession, for every state and condition of life, from the simple and uncultured peasant to the master of science and letters, from the humble artisan to the commander of armies, from the father of a family to the ruler of peoples and nations, from simple maidens and matrons of the domestic hearth to queens and empresses. What shall we say of the immense work which has been accomplished even for the temporal weU~being of men by missionaries of the Gospel, who have brought and still bring to barbarous tribes the benefits of civilization together with the light of the Faith? What of the founders of so many social and charitable institutions, of the vast numbers of saintly educators, men and women, who have perpetu~ ated and mUltiplied their lifework, by leaving after them prolific institutions of Christian education, in aid of families and for the inestimable advantage of nations?

Such are the frui~s of Christian education. Their price and value is derived from the supernatural virtue and life in Christ which Christian education forms and develops in man. Of this life and virtue Christ, our Lord and Master, is the source and dispenser.

By His example He is at the same time the universal model accessible to aU, especially to the- young in the period of His hidden life, a life of labor and obedience, adorned with all virtues, personal, domestic and social, before God and men.

THE MISSION OF THE CHURCH

Hence it is that in this proper object of her mission, that is, "in faith and morals," God Himself has made the Church, sharer in the Divine Magisterium and, by a special privilege, granted her im~ munity from error; hence she is the mistress of men, supreme and absolutely sure, and she has inherent in herself an inviolable right to freedom in teaching." By necessary consequence the Church is independent of any sort of earthly power as well in the origin as in the exercise of her mission as educator, not merely in regard to her proper end and object, but also in regard to the means necessary and suitable to attain that end. Hence with regard to every other kind of human learning and instruction, which is the common pa-

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EDUCATION AND RELIGION trimony of individuals and society, the Church has an independent right to make use of it, and above all to decide what may help or harm Christian education. And this must be so, because the Church as a perfect society has an independent right to the means conducive to its end, and because every form of instruction, no less than every human action, has a necessary connection with man's last end, and therefore cannot be withdrawn from the dictates of the Divine law, of which the Church is guardian, interpreter and infallible mistress.

This truth is clearly set forth by Pius X of saintly memory: Whatever a Christian does even in the order of things of earth, he may not overlook the supernatural; indeed he must, according to the teaching of Christian wisdom, direct all things towards the supreme good as to his last end; all his actions, besides, insofar as good or evil in the order of morality, that is keeping or not with natural and Divine Law, fall under the judgment and jurisdiction of the Church.

It is worthy of note how a layman, an excellent writer and at the same time a pro ound and conscientious thinker, has been able to understand well a d express exactly this fundamental Catholic doctrine: The Church does not say that morality belongs purely, in the sense of exclusively, to her; but that it belongs wholly to her. She has never maintained that outside her fold and apart from her teaching, man cannot arrive at any moral truth; she has on the contrary more than once condemned this opinion because it has appeared under more forms than one. She does however say, has said, and will ever say, that because of her institution by Jesus Christ, because of the Holy Ghost sent her in His name by the Father, she alone possesses what she has had immediately from God and can never lose, the whole of moral truth, omnem veritatem, in which all individual moral truths are included, as well those which man may learn by the help of reason, as those which form part of revelation or which may be deduced from it.

Therefore with full right the Church promotes letters, science, art, insofar as necessary or helpful to Christian education, in addition to her work for the salvation of souls; founding and maintaining schools and institutions adapted to every branch of learning and degree of culture. N or may even physical culture, as it is called, be considered outside the range of her maternal supervision, for the

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES reason that it also is a means which may help or harm Christian education.

And this work of the Church in every branch of culture is of immense benefit to families and nations which without Christ are lost, as St. Hilary points out correctly: "What can be more fraught with danger for the world than the rejection of Christ? NQr does it interfere in the least with the regulations of the State, because the Church in her motherly prudence is not unwilling that her schools and institutions for the education of the laity be in keeping with the legitimate dispositions of civil authority; she is in every way ready to cooperate with this authority and to make provision for a mutual understanding, should difficulties arise.

Again it is the inalienable right as well as the indispensable duty of the Church, to watch over the entire education of her children, in all institutions, public or private, not merely in regard to the religious instruction there given, but in regard to every other branch of learning and every regulation insofar as religion and morality are concerned.

N or should the exercise of this right be considered undue interference, but rather maternal care on the part of the Church in protecting her children fram the grave danger of all kinds of doctrinal and moral evil. Moreover this watchfulness of the Church not merely can create no real inconvenience, but must on the contrary confer valuable assistance in the right ordering and well-being of families and of civil society; for it keeps far away from youth the moral poison which at that inexperienced ~nd changeable age more easily penetrates the mind and more rapidly spreads its baneful effects.

For it is true, as Leo XIII has wisely pointed out, that without proper religious and moral instruction "every form of intellectual culture will be injurious; for young people not accustomed to respect God, will be unable to bear the restraint of a virtuous life; and never having learned to deny themselves anything they ~ill easily be incited to disturb the public order."

The extent of the Church's mission in the field of education is such as to embrace every nation, without exception, according to the command of Christ: "Teach ye all nations;" and there is no power on earth that may lawfully oppose her or stand in her way. In the first place, it extends over all the Faithful, of whom she has anxious care as a tender mother. For these she has throughout the centuries created and conducted an immense number .of schools and institutions in every branch of leal'ning. As we said on a recent occasi@n:

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EDUCATION AND RELIGION Right back in the far-off middle ages there were so many (some have even said too many) monasteries, convents, ehurches, collegiate churches, cathedral chapters, etc., there was attached to each a home of study, of teaching, of Christian education. To these we must add all the universities, spread over every country and always by the initiative and under the protection of the Holy See and the Church. That grand spectacle, which today we see better, as it is nearer to us and more imposing because of the conditions of the age, was the spectacle of all times; and they who study and compare historical events remain astounded at what the Church has been able to do in this matter, and marvel at the manner in which she has succeeded in fulfilling her God-given mission to educate generations of men to a Christian life, producing everywhere a magnificent harvest of fruitful results. But if we wonder that the Church in all times has been able to gather about her and educate hundreds, thousands, millions of students, no less wonderful is it to bear in mind what she has-done not only in the field of education, but in that also of true and genuine erudition. For, if so many treasures of culture, civilization and literature have escaped destruction, this is due to the action by which the Church, even in times long past and uncivilized, has shed so bright a: light in the domain of letters, of philosophy, of art and, in a special manner, of architecture.

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ApPENDIX C FOR A SPIRITUAL MONARCHY*

BY CAMILO OSIAS President, N aticmal U.niversity

To you my friends and brethren, who have chosen to spend a few days of retreat in this lovely spot of our beautiful Philippines, I bring you cordial and fraternal greetings filled with the joy of yuletide. My sincerest felicitations go to the organizers and participants of this enterprise which ought to prove useful and inspiring. This conference and other similar conferences, refreshing and elevating, are of the type which easily warms the heart and brings delight and solace to the spirit.

I emphasize the spirit because it is the core of human existence.

It is central in life. When the spirit is low the very atmosphere is heavy, things round about us seem dull, and the future looks dark.

But when the spirit is right in tune with the Infinite, all nat1.!lre smiles; the world is clothed with beauty; life itself becomes full of the promise of happiness.

Gathered amidst environs of scenic loveliness, within sight of majestic Mount Makiling, made legendary by Rizal's prolific pen, and met on a day sacred in our history, the youth do well calmly and seriously to re!ilect upon life and its problems. The setting and the occasion combine to compel us all to interest ourselves deeply in a serene consideration of life in relation to its material environment, of man and his relation to his fellowmen, and of the individual and his relation to God. This trinity of subjects should occupy our thoughts throughout the coming year. In fact, a thorough study of them could profitably constitute a full course throughout the rest of our earthly existence.

The wonder of wonders about man is his seemingiy eternal stupidity. He is particularly stupid about himself. He boasts of his material conquests. He points to the obvious evidences of progress attributing to himself much credit. But up to this modern day and age, man appears to be lacking in a sane sense of perspective. He is indolent or negligent in applying his God-given talents to the consideration of first things first . â&#x20AC;˘ Speech delivered at the Los Banos Conference, Los Banos, Laguna, Decem¡ ber 30, 1931.

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EDUCATION AND RELIGION It was over twenty centuries ago that Socrates after musing over the meaning of life in the shadow of the Acropolis gave the injunction to man, - "Know Thyself". Despite the lapse of the years, man knows not himself. Even the pioneer of knowledge, the scientist, has not studied life with the same meticulous care that he employed in studying the stones and stars, trees and flowers, birds and fishes, animal varieties living and extinct. Only recently one might say did he turn his instruments upon himself and busied with explorations in the realm of the spirit.

Some two thousand years ago, Christ taught men to seek first the Kingdom of heaven. But most men make the quest of heavea the obj ect of their last search, and their least concern. He likewise said that the Kingdom of Heaven is within us, but most people know it not. The scientific study of religion although it has attracted heroic pioneers and zealous devotees has lagged behind in its development compared with the scientific study of other subjects like botany or zoology~ physics or chemistry, psychology or sociology.

The continent of the human spirit, indeed, remains as yet unexplored and unknown.

Humanity cries ou,t for a greater number of souls to plumb the depths of the conscience and the spirit and discover and bring forth priceless路 treasures to enrich the world. Men and women, young and old, need a new awakening to develop the divine power that is within them. There must be a new consciousness that "there are untapped resources within the human personality waiting for release".

People and peoples are in sore need of a revival in religion. In the process of readjustment and reorientation of Philippine life under the new order, the Filipino people need religious re-dedication and spiritual reenlistment. The new Philippines, let us not forget, needs vital, true, and real religion.

Fortunately for the new generation, religion as superstition is fast disappearing. Religion, primarily as fear, is lessening its hold.

Religion as blind faith is weakening its grip. It is gradually giving way to religion as seeing faith. Now and in the future as never before, the Filipinos have need of religion as vital force, religion as social service, religion as expression of human experience--in short, religion as Jesus preached and lived it.

Spiritually, the Filipino youth are on trial. On every side, the charge is made that they are becoming irreligious. I do not believe the accusation is well-founded but it is well for the youth to know that it is freely hurled against them. I think there is room for the belief that present-day youth are fast becoming non-religious. Their

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES dissatisfaction over religion as ceremony, as weekly routine, as dogma, is driving them to doubt, suspicion, even disbelief. Such a situation demands new approach, new methods, new technique. A negative religion will not satisfy. Only a positive religion can challenge the youth in revolt, a religion that takes effect in conduct, one that has a firm grip upon life.

Such a positive religion is found in Christi~nity. It is a religion in and through the dynamic personality of Christ. The life of Jesus synthesizes Christianity. The youth of this or any other country can be regenerated spiritually through a frank, vivid, and earnest presentation of the living Christ and His supremacy in human affairs. Let Christ become an over-mastering cause in all life.

Let Him be supreme in the life of the individual. Let Him be the guide in the family. Let Him be the leadeJ.'! in the community. Let Him be the ruler in the nation. Let Christ be the supreme monarch in the world.

The rank and file of our citizenship need to effect a mental adjustment in their concepts in things earthly and in things heavenly. There must be a harmonizing of governmental concept and spiritual concept. Paradoxical though it may seem, this mental adjustment, this harmonizing process Can best be achieved through tne separation of the church and state. This is so because the development of the two institutions have in the main followed different, I may almost say, opposite trends. Roughly speaking, the development of government has been from the rule of one or a few to the rule of the many or the rule of the people. In other words, politically speaking, the progress has been from the monal'chical concept to the democratic concept. In spiritual matters, on the other hand, the opposite trend is in the main what has taken place. The development has been from the belief in gods many and sundry to the belief in one God supreme and mighty. In other words, spiritually speaking, the progress has been from the polytheistic conc~pt to the monotheistic concept. It is thus obvious that the union of the church and the state in a democratic society is unwholesome and unnatural.

For even in a governmental monarchy, history shows that invariably there prevailed the rule of force while in a spiritual monarchy, the motive power has been the force of love.

Democracy is my ideal for the Philippine nation in matters political, economic, social, and educational, that is to say, in matters earthly. But in matters spiritual, monarchy is my ideal. Let us seek to effect a spiritual monarchy in the Philippines.

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BELL TOWER AND CHURCH OF BANTAY, ILOCOS SUR

BONTOC CHURCH, MOUNTAIN PROVINCE

EDUCATION AND RELIGION While freedom of religion must forever be guaranteed and kept inviolate, there is no blinking the fact that the Philippines is eternally wedded to the Christian religion. This is a fact and should occasion no offense to people of other faiths. In fact, here as elsewhere, the spirit of Christianity is permeating other religions for it can not be denied that th-ere is an inevitable interaction and interpenetration among the existing faiths and religions.

God in His infinite wisdom and through His limitless love sent His Son into the world to show the way of life unto Salvation.

The outcome of His mission has been the implantation of the Christian Religion. Through the redeeming power of His great spirit and His boundless love, countless souls have been brought into closer relationship with God and communities and nations have come under His reign. As it was in the beginning, so it will be for all time, Christianity shall ever have for its highest purposes, firstly, the serving, lifting, and saving of the individual, and secondly, the establishment of the Kingdom of God. The citizenry of the Philippines especially the youth must be lifted up from their present religio~s illiteracy. There is no excuse for spiritual ignorance in our qay with the Bible as an open book and available in the languages we use. The churches and their subsidiary organizations and other allied institutions in this era of transition must awaken to their duty and responsibility to labor for individual repentance, individual -enlightenment, individual conversion, and individual salvation. Their activities must be redoubled in view of the numerous problems that press themselves to the attention of our citizens in order to fulfill their mission to develop Christian character. Christians and Christian institutions owe it to themselves and to the Christian cause to help advance the frontiers of Christianity. This living religion has an individual and social purpose. It aims at nothing short of Christianizing nations, yes, Christianizing the world. This is anoth-er way of saying that Christianity seeks to establish the Kingdom of God, -a kingdom where benevolent justice reigns, where loving, serving, and sharing rule the social order and where the supreme ruler is the All-wise and All-just, loving and living God. It must be our pride and determination to make the new Philippines a land to which Rizal would gladly come back, a place where there are neither slaves nor oppressors where faith kills not, where He who reigns is God. It is a great privilege and a grand opportunity to be living at such times as these and be living witnesses to the Philippines that is emerging. What a challenging 657

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES thing it is to envision thE,> Philippines soon to be a country politically free, economically stable, and spiritually right and righteous!

It is both sublime and glorious to have a part, however modest it may be, to make that vision a reality.

As the Philippines becomes a nation and a full-fledged entity in a world of nations, we shall particularly need as a people the leavening influence of religion. In a life of nationhood with consequent emphasis on patriotism, it is essential that thel'e be new emphasis on religion with its tendency to stress the universal in life.

What will be the religion of this emerging Philippines?

It must not be a flabby and shallow religion. It must not be one cursed with bad feelings that make for division. It must not be one wherein creedal bigotry or theological disputation looms large. It must not be one whose fruits are emnities, strife, jealousies, and wrath. It must not be one wherein denominational caste is made all important or wherein intolerance is dominant.

Let us rather adopt a religion of action rather than contemplation; one distinctive for its spirit of union and tolerance; one whose fruits are love, joy, peace, and goodness. It must be a progressive religion, "transfused with the spirit and transformed by the methods of modern science".

The youth of our counrty must be schooled in positive Christianity, the fundamentals of which shall be: 1. Faith in the fatherhood of God. 2. Acceptance of Christ as a personal savior.

3. Belief in the immortality of the soul.

4. Recognition of the Bible' as the textbook of Christianity.

5. A code of ethics and morals based upon tenets of more or less universal acceptance, like the Ten Commandments, the Sermon of the Mount, the Golden Rule, and the like.

6. Religion as social service.

The stability of the Philippines and the permanence of our institutions depend upon a strong political structure and a sound economic organization not only, but upon the sterling character of her citizenry.

The young people of the Philippines should make it their conscious concern to build stately mansions for theiT souls, acceptable to God who sent Christ to show the way to happiness. No one need be discouraged ' for we have the blessed assurance of Jesus when He said: "I am not come to call the righteous but sinners to repentance".

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EDUCATION AND RELIGION We in the Philippines are exceedingly fortunate to have for our guides two heroes of peace. Rizal, the Filipino ideal and idol, waS a man of peace who believed in social regeneration through the- arts of peace. Then we have Christ as our spiritual ideal and idol, the harbinger of peace and goodwill to men and nations.

The clear call to the men and women of the new nation soon to be born is the Macedonian call to individual salvation and spiritual regeneration. Let us be one in coveting for our country the establishment of a spiritual monarchy with Christ crowned King and with ,every citizen a true, loyal, and faithful subject.

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REFERENCES ON RELIGION

American Baptist Foreign Missionary Reports American Bible Society Reports American Board Mission Annual Reports Ames, Edward Scribner, The Psychology of Religious Experience Astete, Gaspar, y Cuartero, Mariano, Ca.tecismo de la Doctrina Cri.stia1la Bannasar, Guillermo, Catecismo de la, dQctrina cristiana en Castellano y Tiruray por un P. misionero Barton, G. A., The Religions of the World Brown, Arthur J., The New Era in the Philippines Calderon, Felipe G., Mis Memorias Sobre La Revolucion Filipina.

Castano, Jose, Breve noticia del origen, religion, creencias y supersticiones de los Antiguos Indios del Bicol Catedra de la Iglesia Filipina Independiente Catequesis de la Iglesia Independiente Census of the Philippine Islands, 1918 Craig and Benitez, Philippine Progress Prior to 1898 Delbeke, Dame M. E., Religion and Moral of the Early Filipinos a~ the Coming of the Spaniards Devins, John B., An Observer in the Philippines Devoto Trisagio Fernandez, Leandro H., A Brief History of the Philippines Glunz, Charles A., The Presbyterian Church and the Filipinos Hibbard, D. S., Making a Nation High, Stanley, A Waking World Huerta, Felix de, Estado Geografico Topografico, Estadistico, Historico, Relig1'oso de la Santa y .4postolica, Provincia de Sa.rn Gregorio Nlagno 660

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Iglesia Filipina Independiente, Doctrina y Reglas Constitucionales, Imprenta Modesto Reyes y Cia. J ames, William, The Varieties of Religio'US Experience Jevons, F. B., Comparative Religion J ones, Stanley, Christ of the Indian Road Kalaw, Teodoro M., La Masoneria FilipinaJ Lala, Ramon Reyes, The Philippine Islands LeRoy, J. A., Philippine L~fe in Town and Country Lorenzana and Osias, Evangelical Christianity in the Philippine Islands La~lbach, F. C., The People of the Philippines Laubach, F. C., Seven Thousand Emerald Isles Martines de Zuniga, Joaquin, Estadismo Mazo, Santiago Jose Garcia, El Catecismo de la Doctrina C?-istiana Explicado Methodist Episcopal Reports Misiones Catohcas en Filipinas Oficio Divino de la Iglesia Filipina Independiente Osias, Camilo, The Contributions of Evangelical Christianity Paterno, Pedro A., The Ancient Tagalog Civilization Paterno, Pedro A., El Cristianismo en la Antigua Civilizacion Tagalo,q Pigafetta, Antonio, Prrentier Voyage Anto'lLr du Monde Pilar, Marcelo H. del, La Soblerania Monaca路l en FiUp~nas

Pons y Torres, Salvador, Defensa del Clero Filipino Potter, Charles F., The Story of Religion Regidor, Antonio, El pleito de los Filipinos contra loa frailes Reports of the Philippine Commission, 1900 Reyes, Isabelo de los, La Religion Antigua De Los Filipinos Rizal, Jose, El Filibusterismo 661

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Rizal, Jose, Noli Me Tangere Robertson, James A., The Aglipay Schism in the Philippine Islands Ryan, L. A., Religious Education in the Philippines Saleeby, N. M., Studies in Moro History, Law, amd Religion Saleeby, N. M., The History of Sulu Sastron, Manuel, ~ Insurreccion en Filipinas Smith, Edwin W., The Shrine of a People's Soul Tavera, Pardo de, The Legacy of Ignorantism Zamora, Eladio, Las Corporaciones Religios(J)s en Filipinas

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