HISTORY The province has 23 municipalities and 371 barrios. Its capital is Malolos, with 26,444 inhabitants. It is located in the southwestern part of the province. III MUNICIP ALITIES
Norzagaray Obando Paombong Polo Pulilan Quifigua San Ildefonso San Jose del Monte San Miguel San Rafael Santa Maria
Angat Baliuag Bigaa Bocaue Bulacan Bustos Calumpit Guiguinto Hagonoy MALOLOS Marilao Meycauayan IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ..... . ..... . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 ., School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ....... . .... . .... Third class .................. 269
182.9 138.8 48.7
260,980 150,880 82,830 275,918 72,185 P70,221,810 370.4
CAGAYAN I
HISTORY
The narrow strip of territory along the northern coast of Cagayan, and the northern part of the Cagayan Valley, were among the regions of Luzon early visited by the Spaniards. These places served as bases for the conquest of and the implantation of the cross in northeastern Luzon. What later b-ecame the Province of Cagayan or Nueva Segovia had its origin in these regions. As early as 1583, the political division of Cagayan was already recognized. The exploration of Cagayan began during the administration of Guido de Lavezares (1572-1575). The first explorer was Juan de Salcedo, who in 1572 visited some of the northern coast towns like Pamplona, Abulug, and Aparri. Another well known adventurer in this region was Captain Juan P. Carreon, who led an expedition in 1581 for the purpose of driving away the Japanese corsair Tayfusa who was then threatening the coast towns of Cagayan. Carreon, after driving away Tayfus'a, founded the town of Nueva Segovia (now Lal-Io) on the banks of the Cagayan River and explored the neighboring regions. A decade later, Luis Perez Dasmarifias also explored the territory. He sailed up the eastern coast of Luzon from Binafigunan de Lampon and visited the towns of Aparri, Abulug, and Pamplona. In spite of its isolation from the western provinces of Luzon, Cagayan was often influenced by events from that quarter. The rebellion which Malong started in 1660 in Pangasinan had its echo in the region along the northern coast of Cagayan, especially in Pata and Bangan. The 270
HISTORY Silang Rebellion of 1763 also had its effect in Cagayan. It was the occasion for an uprising in Tuguegarao, Cabagan, and Ilagan. The injustices of the tobacco monopoly were felt in all the tobacco-producing regions throughout the Islands, but more so in Cagayan than elsewhere, especially during the time of Alcalde Mayor Jose Martinez Canas. In fact, the enforcement of the tobacco monopoly resulted on more than one occasion in the reduction of the population of Cagayan by the emigration of numbers who sought to escape it. As constituted in the early days, the Province of Cagayan included roughly all the territory east of the Cordillera central mountains and north of the Caraballos del Sur. In the course of time there were formed out of this extensive region new provinces and comandancias. In 1839, Nueva Vizcaya was created into a separate politico-military province. Isabela was c,reated a province and separated from Cagayan in 1856. In 1889, by order of General Weyler, the territory roughly coextensive with the present Subprovince of Kalinga was organized into the '''Partido de Itaves," while the following year the region north of the newly created "Partido" was organized into the comandancia of Apayao. The effect of the Revolution was not at once felt in Cagayan. But about the middle of August, 1898, the revolutionists under the command of Colonel Daniel Tirona landed at Aparri from Steamer Luzon, formerly the Campania de Filipinas. His forces took Aparri and then proceeded to Lal-Io. On the 31st of August, the revolutionary army entered Tuguegarao. Civil government was established in Cagayan in September, 1901. In 1908, the Philippine Commission passed an Act establishing the Mountain Province, whereupon Kalinga 271
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES and Apayao, which had hitherto been a part of Cagayan, were created as subprovinces of the Mountain Province. II
GEOGRAPHY
The Province of Cagayan occupies the lower basin of the Cagayan River. Its eastern coast is high and mountainous. The north coast bordering on the North China Sea is low; that on the south touching Kalinga is high, while the one adjoining Apayao is low and swampy. The northern coast has been largely built up hy the deltas of the Cagayan and Abulug Rivers. Between the low mountains are large valleys fertilized by alluvial soil that is deposited by the rivers every year. Northern Cagayan is adapted to rice but not to tobacco as in the south,as it is low and exposed to the sea breezes. Rainfall is abundant with the coming of the northeast monsoons. The forests that crown the mountains invite electrical disturbances during the rainy season. The tobacco-producing region occupies the whole of the Chico-Cagayan Valley. Coconllts. are also , grown here. Besides tobacco and rice, corn is also cultivated. There is much sugar land but little sugar is grown on account of lack of transportation. East of the Cagayan Valley is the extensive Cagayan Lake. The nipa swamps do not constitute an important source of revenue as in Bulacan and Pampanga. Formerly there were distilleries in Abulug and Pamplona, but with the imposition of internal-revenue taxes the industry was destroyed. The forests are extensive and contain much hard wood, but the lack of transportation facilities prevent their exploitation. Near the ends of the mountain chains in the east and west are wide 272
PART OF THE GREAT WALL OF MANILA AND THE PARIAN GATE (1782) WHERE FOR CENTURIES PHILIPPINE CIVILIZATION FLOURISHED
HISTORY grassy plains suitable for cattle. Formerly, large herds grazed there but the rinderpest has thinned them out. No minerals of value are found in Cagayan. In the vicinity of Mount Maguipit is a bed of copper while near Mount Cagua there are a few veins of coal. There are several caves or grottos, the largest of which, famous for the edible birds' nests that are found in it, is at Mount Quira. Except in the tobacco and rice regions, the occupation of the, people is chiefly that of trading. The Cagayan River is the one commercial outlet. Rafts and bancas are sent up the river for tobacco that is gathered and stored in the warehouses of Aparri where boats from Manila call once a week. This latter port is so exposed that vessels have to proceed for some distance up the river to find shelter. The Abulug River is deep, but very swift and infested by crocodiles. Along the coast the fishing industry attains considerable importance. The people salt or dry the fish and export great quantities to Isabela and to the Ilocano provinces. The people are Ibanags and IIocanos. There are also many Negritos on the low hills of the marshes, Aetas on the Sierra Madre and Kalingas and Apayaos on the cordillera. Cagayan is fairly well populated, but it needs more people to develop it. The Claveria-Bangui Road increased the influx of IIocano settlers to this region. Two kilometers from the northwestern corner of the Cagayan Peninsula is the Island of Palani where a lighthouse is established on Cape Engafio. About forty kilometers north of Cagayan is the Babuyanes group. In these islands are two active volcanoes, one in the Didicas Rocks and another now in the solfataric stage in Camiguin. They are said to have first appeared in 1857. 273
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Rice, tobacco, and sugar are the principal agricultural products of these islands, while fishing and cattle raising are important industries. The climate is salubrious. though the region lies in the path of typhoons. This province has 24 municipalities, 2 municipal districts, and 493 barrios. Its capital is Tuguegarao, with 19,284 inhabitants. It is located in the south central part of the province. III MUNICIPALITIES
Abulug Alcala Amulung Aparri Baggao Ballesteros Buguey Calayan Camalaniugan Claveria Enrile Faire
Gattaran Gonzaga Iguig Lal-Io Pamplona Pefiablanca Piat Rizal Sanchez-Mira Solana Tuao TUGUEGARAO
MUNICIPAL
DIST~ICTS
Lagangan
Allacapan IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . 274
854,850 535,230
HISTORY Still available for agriculture (hectares) Population (estimated), as of July 1,1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
I
I
275
170.9 92.7 84.2
450,920 226,153 58,836 P34,050,780 347.8
CAMARINES NORTE I
HISTORY
Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur for over two centuries and a half formed only one political unit, namely, the Province of Camarines or Bikol, later better known as Ambos Camarines. These two regions from 1573 to 1829 made up the Province of Camarines; in 1829, they were separated, only to be reunited in 1854 as Ambos Camarines. In 1857, they were again separated but joined once more in 1893. From that year till the present March, 1919, they continue to form one province. In fact, these two regions existed as separate provinces only for about sixty years.l The region generally known as Camarines Norte was explored by Juan de Salcedo in 1571. It will be remembered that Salcedo in that year, after subduing the towns of Taytay and Cainta, marched across Laguna and Tayabas and visited the goM mines at Mambulao and Paracale. It appeared that Salcedo was attracted to this region by the news obtained from the natives regarding the abundance of gold. Spanish influence, however, did not make itself felt until the permanent establishment of a Spanish garrison in Naga by Captain Pedro de Chaves. This was accomplished during De Sande's administration. At the time of the arrival of the Spaniards, there were already several native settlements in what is now Camarines Norte. Besides the mining towns of Mambulao and Paracale, there also existed the settlements of Indan and Daet. Paracale is described by early Spanish chroniclers 1 An Act has been passed by the Philippin~ Legislature, March, 1919, authorizing the Governor-General to separate these two regions into the provinces of Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur.
276
HISTORY as having about 2,000 inhabitants and possessing gold in abundance. The mines Salcedo found to be "excellent, very rich, and more than thirty or forty estados in depth." The towns of Capalonga, Mambulao, Paracale, Indan, and Labo are inhabited chiefly by Tagalogs, the remaining towns of Camarines Norte, although predominantly Visayan, show strong Tagalog influence. This is because Camarines Norte, especially its northern section, was settled from the neighboring Province of Tayabas. The immigrants are believed to have come mostly from the town of Mauban. The state of affairs in Camarines Norte about the middle of the seventeenth century may be seen from the following ~ata, taken from an account of the Franciscan missions in this region in 1649, to wit: (a) Capalonga had a population of 400 souls and possessed a bamboo church and convent, (b) Paracale had a population of 800 and a bamboo church and convent, (10) Indan had a population of 1,800 and a wooden church and convent and (d) Daet had a population of 1,200 with a wooden church and convent. In 1829, when the Province of Camarines was divided, Camarines Norte was assigned the following towns: Daet, Talisay, Indan, Labo, Paracale, Mambulao, Capalonga, Ragay, Lupi, and Sipocot. However, in 1846 Camarines Norte lost to Camarines Sur the towns of Sipocot, Lupi, and Ragay in exchange for Siruma. As already indicated, Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur were again united in 1854, only to be separated once more three years later. But in 1893, they were again united so that there was but one Province of Camarines during the Revolutionary period and the subsequent years. Civil government was established in Ambos Camarines on April 27, 1901. 277
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The Act passed March, 1919, authorizing the GovernorGeneral to divide Ambos Camarines into two provinces, assigns to Camarines Norte the following towns: Capalonga, Mambulao, Paracale, Indan, Labo, San Vicente, Talisay, Daet, Basud, and the islands along her coast. Daet is the capital. II
GEOGRAPHY Camarines Norte occupies the northernmost part of the southeastern cordillera which runs throughout the length of the Bicol Peninsula. This portion of Ambos Cama.rines is distinct from southern Camarines particularly in physiography and natu~al resources. The coast is exposed to the northeast monsoons, but it is so well indented that there are places which afford safe anchorage. Capalonga, Mambulao, Paracale, and Gubat are well protected by promontories. Along the northeast coast there are several islands known as the Calagua group. Tinaga, the largest of the group, is mountainous and bordered by reefs on the north and west. The mountains, the most important of which are Bagacay and Colase, are covered with timber suitable for construction purposes. The most important rivers are the Basigon and' the Labo. The climate is agreeable because of the mountains and vegetation. The cold and the heat are felt intensely during the north and the south monsoons, respectively. The land is, in general, sandy and stony, but fertile in many places. The valleys near the coast are tilled for rice, corn, and other products. Rice, however, is imported. Abaca is cultivated extensively on the hillsides. There are vast areas of grassland. 278
HISTORY The place is rich in mineral resources. Gold is found in many places and its commercial exploitation is being carried on in Mambulao and Paracale. Iron, silver, lead, and copper are also found. The exploitation of these mines will surely develop the country which is not so far advanced as the southern portion. There are also several miner.al springs. Daet is the most important commercial town. The mines of Mambulao and Paracale are, however, making these two towns the centers of industry and, naturally, of commerce. The region is sparsely settled. Most of the people are Tagalogs, immigrants from Tayabas. III MUNICIP ALITIES
Labo Paracale San Vicente Talisay
Basud Capalonga DAET Indan Jose Pafiganiban IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . 200,790 Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . 132,350 Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . 115,030 Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. 64,119 School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. 16,673 Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . P15,541,380 Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 144.5 First class .................... 59.7 Second class .................. 75.0 Third class ................... 9.8 279
CAMARINES SUR I
HISTORY
Juan de Salcedo, the explorer of Camarines Norte and many other regions of the Islands, was also responsible for the opening up of what is generally known as Camarines Sur to the Spaniards. In 1573, during the administration of Guido de Lavezares, he led an exploring expedition into this region and founded the "villa" of Santiago de Libon, a town now belonging to Albay. He left at this place a small garrison of eighty Spanish soldiers under the command of Captai~ Pedro de Chaves. It was this small garrison that became the nucleus of Spanish power in the Bicol regions, for a: little later, in order to continue the work so well begun Py Salcedo, Governor De Sande ordered Captain Chaves to found the Spanish City of Nueva Caceres on the site of the then already prosperous native settlement of N aga. The city was accordingly built and immediately became the capital of the 路old Province of Camarines. Besides Naga, there were already at tlie time of the arrival of the Spaniards, several other centers of population in what is generally called Camarines Sur and especially along the banks and in the immediate neighborhood of the Bicol River. Among these early native towns were Libmanan, Canaman, Minalabac and Bula. Peaceful as the people of Camarines appear to have been, yet the history of the province shows that she has not been altogether free from rebellious tendencies. About the middle of the seventeenth century, when the great Sumoroy revolt was in progress in the neighboring island of Samar, the people of Camarines declared themselves against 280
HISTORY Spain. Disturbances of a rebellious character also occurred in this region during the British occupation of Manila when Spanish power seemed to be on the decline. Up to the year 1829, there was but one Province of Camarines. This comprised the regions generally known as Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur and parts of the present Province of Albay. But, in 1829, the province was divided into Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur. The latter province as constituted that year had four main sections, namely: (a) The district of Nueva Caceres consisting of the towns of Tabaco, N aga, Camaligan, Canaman, Magarao, Bonbon, Quipayo, Calabanga, Libmanan, Milaor, San Fernando, and Minalabac ; (b) the district of Rinco~ nada consisting of the towns of Bula, Baao, Nabua, Iriga, Buhi, and Bato; (c) the district of Iriga, consisting of the towns of Libon, Polangui, Oas, Camalig, and Capsava; and (d) the district of Isarog consisting of Goa, Tigaon, Tinambag, and the mission of Manguirin. The delineation of Camarines Sur was greatly changed in October, 1846, when she lost Siruma to Camarines Norte and the towns of Camalig, Guinobatan, Ligao, Oas, PoIangui, Libon, Mauraro, Quipia and Donzol to Albay. At the same time, however, she acquired from Camarines Norte a few towns in the territory between the Bicol River and Tayabas and the Ragay Gulf, ,a nd from Albay the Caramoan Peninsula. In 1854, the Camarines provinces were united to be again separated three years later. During this brief period of union, the province lost the Island of Burias which in 1856 was created into a separate comandancia politicomilitar. Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur remained as separate provinces from 1857 to 1893 when they again were reunited. 281
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES At the outbreak of the Revolution, anti-friar propaganda was already on foot in Camarines Sur. In 1897, several prominent residents of this province among whom were Manuel and Domingo Abella were executed at Manila for alleged conspiracy against Spain. When the Revolutionary Government was established, Camarines Sur, then a part of the Province of Ambos Camarines, came under its control. Civil government was established in Ambos Camarines on April 27, 1901. An Act was passed by the Philippine Legislature, March, 1919, authorizing the Governor-General to divide Ambos Camarines into two provinces. This Act gives Camarines Sur the following towns: Cabusao, Canaman, Cabalonga, Camaligan, Gainza, Libmanan, Lupi, Magarao, Milaor, Minalabag, Naga, Pamplona, Pasacao, Ragay, San Fernando, Sipocot, Baao, Buhi, Bula, Bato, Caramoan, Goa, Iriga, Lagonoy, Nabua, Pili, Sagnay, San Jose, Siruma, Tigaon, and Tinambac. N aga was made the capital. II
GEOGRAPHY
Camarines Sur embraces the valleys of the Bicol River and its branches, the volcanic regions of Mounts Isarog and Iriga, and the Caramoan Peninsula. The climate is distinctly tropical. The typhoons which occur during the change of the monsoon pass through the country, but do not cause very much damage. The land bordering on Ragay Gulf is traversed by low mountains from which rise many but short rivers. This region is not very fertile, and with the exception of Ragay and Pasacao its population is sparse. Caves and grottos are found in Lupi, Ragay, Bula, Libmanan, and Pasacao. 282
HISTORY The valley of the Bicol River is very fertile. It is here where most of the towns are located. Below the headwaters of the southern branch of the Bicol, there are lakes, the Buhi, Bato, and Baao nipa swamps .and mangroves. These lakes and the coasts are sources of fish for export. In Lake Buhi are found the smallest fish in the world. It takes hundreds of them to make a handful. Mounts Isarog and Iriga, extinct volcanoes, are conical and, although low in altitude, they seem to appear high when compared with the low flats up the Bicol. These volcanic cones supply the valleys with fertile soil carried down during the rainy season. Caramoan Peninsula, jutting toward the northeast, forms a distinct physiographic province. The region is mountainous and of extreme relief. Geologists say that Caramoan Peninsula was formerly an island and had been joined to the mainland by deposits built up through eruptions of Isarog Volcano. The higher elevations culminating in Saddle Peak (elevation, 1,031 meters) in the Calinigan group of mountains, lie in the southern part of the peninsula, but extend west through the central portion. Mount Putianay, one of the prominent western peaks, displays a white scar near its summit, which makes it conspicuous from the direction of the town of San Jose. The eastern end of the peninsula is rugged, but the hills attain only moderate elevations. The northern coast and the outlying islands are low and are fringed at places with swamps. The principal drainage systems discharge on the northern coast; no large river has developed so as to control the topography, but a series of short streams with tidal lower courses serve to carry away the run-off from an exceedingly heavy rainfall. The peninsula is very sparsely inhabited and a splendid forest covers its western half. The forest yields a 283
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES great deal of rattan, the rattan industry together with hemp planting and fishing being the principal industries. Some of the small islands to the north of Caramoan abound with coconut groves. The southern coast of the peninsula is bounded by straight lines; within a short distance from the shore the sea attains depths of 900 meters. The southern coast, in contrast, is sinuous with numerous indentations and the adjacent sea is shallow. The forest resources make the peninsula important. Gold, copper, mercury, coal, clay, stone, and gravel are the minerals already discovered, but which are so far unexploited with the exception of stone and gravel which are now used locally. The exports of Camarines Sur are abaca, copra, forest products, fish and manufactured articles. Pili nuts and the resin obtained from the tree, sinamay made from abaca, and chairs made of bamboo and rattan are the most important exports. There are a number of distilleries in which alcohol is manufactured from the sap of the nipa and coconut palms. A considerable amount of the products of Camarines is transported on its rivers and roads. Small steamers from Manila ascend the Bicol River to Naga, the capital, and flat-bottomed boats go as far as Nabua. The road from Naga extends through the Bicol Valley to Albay. Iriga is an important town on its road. The people are Bicols and are among the most industrious and progressive of the Archipelago. This province and Camarines Norte form what is known as the Province of Ambos Camarines and both have 40 municipalities and 558 barrios. Its capital is Naga, with 9,468 inhabitants. It is located in the central part of the province. 284
HISTORY III MUNICIP ALITIES
Milaor Minalabac Nabua NAGA Pamplona Pasacao
Baao Bato Buhi Bula Cabusao Calabanga Camaligan Canaman Caramoan Gainza Goa Iriga" Lagonoy Libmanan Lupi Magarao
Pili Ragay Sagfiay San Fernando San Jose Sipocot Siruma Tigaon Tinambac
IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class .................. 285
189.8 103.2 33.7
536,610 429,840 305,700 240,384 62,881 P40,514,060 326.7
CAPIZ I
HISTORY
It is believed that the term Capiz comes from the Bisayan word "Kapid" meaning twins. This name, which the whole province has come to bear, was first given to the town of Capiz, it is said, in commemoration of the twins that were born there in the early days of its history. The ancient name of Capiz was Aklan. The ten datos who once purchased Panay from the Negritos (see Antique) divided the island into three "sakops." One of these "sakops" was Aldan, which was placed under the rule of a dato called Bangkaya who became, according to this tradition, the founder of the first Malay settlements in what is now Capiz. The Spaniards entered Capiz as early as 1569. It was Legaspi himself who built the first Spanish settlement on Panay Island, on the site of the present town of Panay. This settlement was the second Spanish settlement in the Philippines, the first being San Miguel (Cebu) which the Spaniards partially abandoned in 1569 on account of repeated Portuguese attacks of the previous years. When the Spaniards entered Capiz, they found a few native settlements already established in this region. Among these early centers of population which were later organized into towns were, besides Panay, Bulacale, Aclan, Dumarao, Ibahay, and Dumalag. Batan and Mamburao were organized during the first decade of the seventeenth century. Capiz was organized into a politico-military province in 1716. Before this time, this region was included with286
HISTORY in the jurisdktion of Oton, Iloilo. As organi.zed in 1716, Capiz embraced not only its present territory but also the neighboring islands of Romblon, Maestre de Campo, TabIas, and Sibuyan. Like the rest of the Visayan provinces, Capiz at the end of Spanish rule was still a politico-'military province. The revolutionists entered Capiz in 1898. Immediately thereafter, Panay island was abandoned by the Spaniards. Capiz, like Antique and Iloilo, came under the Revolutionary government. For some time, Ananias Diokno was the civil and military commander of Capiz. Civil government was established in Capiz on April 15, 1901. II
GEOGRAPHY
The name of this province is said to have been derived from the Visayan word "Kapis," the name of a pearl shell that is found in abundance on the coast. From the western range that separates it from Antique, the land slopes northeastward to the Visayan sea, while, tlie eastern and southern boundaries are formed by the Province of Iloilo. The coast is somewhat irregular in places. The capital, Capiz, has a harbor that is well-sheltered from the northeast and southwest winds and so has Pontevedra, where the arms of the land surrounding it reach far out into Pilar Bay. All along the coast of Capiz there are small islands which seem to be of coral reef or of sandbar origin. The southwestern part of Capiz is very mountainous. Between this and Antique are found peaks of considerable size like Baloy, Nantud, Magosolan, Toctocan, Balabac, and Tinayunga. The western portion is drained by the Aclan 287
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES River and its tributaries and the eastern side by the Panay River and its affluents. The climate is tropical. There is only one short dry season. The rains are heaviest during the northeast monsoons. At the time of the change in the direction of the winds the typhoons that cross Samar also pass through Capiz and frequently cause much damage in Dumalag, Ibajay, Jamindan, Mambusao, and Sapian. The land may be considered as divided into two regions, the Aklan Valley, and the Panay plain called Ilaya. The Aldan Valley produces and exports abaca and copra in greater quantities than Ilaya. Coconut plantations are found along the coasts and hemp is grown along the river banks and mountain slopes. Rice and corn are also raised though not in sufficient quantities for even local consumption. In Ilaya, rice and sugar are the principal p'roducts. The eastern part is especially adapted to sugar cane and the central portion is the rice granary of Panay and N egros. The land under cultivation for sugar, while extensive, is very small compared with that now lying idle for lack of capital to develop it. Around Capiz and at the mouths of the Panay River and its tributaries are extensive swamps overgrown with nipa palms and mangroves. The nipa sap was formerly distilled for alcohol, but with the increase in the internalrevenue tax this industry was ruined. However, with capital, sugar could be extracted from the sap. At present nipa thatching is exported from Capiz, Panay, and Pontevedra; and lumber and firewood, from Sibuyan and New Washington, respectively. The forests are rich in trees that yield timber suitable for construction purposes as well as gum, pitch, and resin. 288
HISTORY Dao, Dumalag, Dumarao, Libacao, Madalag, Balete, and Jamindan are the most favored localities in forest wealth. Deposits of coal, gold, gypsum, and granite are hidden in the mountains of Capiz, but the hand of man has not yet unearthed them for commercial purposes. Mineral springs are found in Buruanga, J amindan, Libucao, and Mamburao. A few of the natural attractions in Capiz are the numerous waterfalls, the natural bridge of "Suhut" in Dumalag and the famous caves of the same town. Near the natural bridge a spring of sulfurous and salty water bubbles forth. The cave of Dumalag is a charming manifestation of the work of nature. An hour's walk from the entrance leads one to a place where the roof has collapsed and trees nave grown to gigar tic heights, the cave continuing to an unknown distance. Everywhere within are to be found fantastically shaped stalactites and stalagmites. The weaving of textiles is an industry well developed in Capiz. Almost every house in Aldan contains several looms for the women of the house. The towns of Kalibo, Makato and Ibahay supply the markets of Manila with fiber fabric known by the names of the towns from which they come. Bags for sugar are woven from buri leaves. A fabric known as Daet or saguran, made of buri fiber for hats, slippers, mats, household adornments and sail, is also woven. Commerce, local as well as interisland, is extensive. The roads are good and each river outlet has a good port. This province has 27 municipalities and 510 barrios. Its capital is Capiz with 21,996 inhabitants. It is located in the northeastern part of the province. 289
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES III MUNICIPALITIES
Makato Malinao Mambusao Nabas New Washington Numancia Panay Panitan Pilar Pontevedra Sapian Sigma Tapas
Altavas Banga Balete Batan Buruanga CAPIZ Dao Dumalag Dumarao Ibajay Iuisan Jamindan Kalibo Libacao IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ , Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 '.. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ........ . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
290
230.1 137.0 61.5
442,890 277,830 175,550 357,214 92,974 P40,645,070 428.6
CAVITE I
HISTORlY
At the time of the arrival of the Spaniards in Manila, the region which was later organized into the politico-military Province of Cavite was but sparsely populated. The centers of population in those early days were Kawit, Baco or, Maragondon. As late as 1735, the population of the province was only about 5,904 souls. Cavite was created a politico-military province in 1614. It then occupied approximately its present territory except Maragondon and the neighboring region bordering on the south channel. Maragondon and neighboring territory were annexed to Cavite in 1754, when they were separated from the corregimiento of Mariveles to which they had previously belonged. The town of Cavite, once a barrio of Kawit but now the capital of the province, owes its growth to the navy yard which the government there early established. Here the ships used in the Manila-Acapulco trade and in southern expeditions against the Mohammedan pirates were fitted out. The history of Cavite in the seventeenth century records two events of historical importance, namely, the Dutch attack of 1647 and the foundation of the settlement of Ternate. In 1647 a Dutch squadron suddenly made its appearance off the coast of Cavite and bombarded the fort. It is said that the Dutch fired more than 2,000 cannon balls at the fort and almost succeeded in capturing the place, but in the end, however, they were forced to withdraw. 291
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The settlement of Ternate was founded in 1660, as a result of the abandonment of the Moluccas by the Spanish government about this time. It appears that when the Spaniards withdrew their forces from the Island of Ternate, the Jesuit missionaries took their converts with them back to Manila. To provide homes for these exiles the Jesuits later founded the town of Maragondon. From very earl)' times, the fertile soil of Cavite attracted the attention of enterprising religious orders and later on the rich coastal plain was gradually converted into flourishing haciendas. The administration of their vast estates, however, resultea in numerous conflicts between the orders and the tenants. Agrarian disputes arose, especially in the towns of Imus, Malabon, Kawit, and Silang and drove such men as Luis Parang and Juan U pay to the mountains where t ey preferred to live as outlaws. Later, about 1869, similar t roubles broke out, the refractory element being headed by Eduardo Camerino. In 1872, a military mutiny led by Lamadrid took place in Cavite. This mutiny though insignificant in itself had important political results. The government made it an excuse for the execution of three leading native priests, Dr. Jose Burgos and Fathers Gomez and Za~ora, and for the exile of many innocent Filipino leaders of the liberal movement of 1869-1871. This was the first uprising in which the educated class was involved. From the beginning to the very end of the Revolution, Cavite was the center of military operations. Zapote bridge, for example, was more than once the scene of hard fighting. Practically every town in the province was at one time or another fought over. Many of the leaders of the Revolution, like Emilio Aguinaldo, who was President of the Philippine Republic, his cousin Baldomero, Noriel, Trias, and others are sons of Cavite. Moreover, when the 292
HISTORY Revolutionary Government was established, Bacoor, was really the first capital. For a time, the province was governed by Ladislao Diwa in the name of the Revolutionary Government. Civil government was established in Cavite on June 11, 1901. II
GEOGRAPHY
Cavite, in the southwestern part of Luzon, lies along the shore of Manila Bay. It has an area of about 1,202 sq. km. Except at the extremities, the coast, which extends from Sangley Point in the northeastern part to Limit Point in the southwest, is very regular and free from barrier reefs that would obstruct navigation. It boasts of a fine harbor, so situated as to make it an excellent location for a naval station. Cavite is the capital of the province and is noted for its dockyards. The province may be divided geographically into two parts, which present striking contrasts. The northern portion is a level plain, dotted here and there by low swelling mounds, while the southern half is traversed by mountain ranges. But those mountains are not high enough to serve as a barrier to invasion. The only high peak is Mount Sungay, which rises about 752 meters above sea level. The climate changes with the seasons. The highlands receive much rainfall during the northeast monsoon, but little or none from February to April. But when the southwest monsoon comes, it brings abundant rains in the southern and southwestern parts of the province causing the rivers to overflow and destroy crops and other property. The plain of Cavite is very fertile because it is of volcanic origin. The most important agricultural products are rice, hemp, sugar, copra, cacao, coffee, and corn. Rice 293
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES is produced in nearly all the towns of the province. It is raised both on irrigated and unirrigated land. Hemp is grown principally in the towns of Alfonso, Indang, Mendez and Amadeo and largely exported to Japan. Sugar cane is cultivated in the towns of Naic, Silang, Malabon, and Carmona, while coconuts are grown mostly in the towns of Alfonso, Indang, and Silang. Most of the products grown in this province are sent to the markets of Manila by boats and by rail. Large numbers of cows, carabaos, horses, and sheep are raised on the wide grazing grounds of the province. The swamps, which are few in number and of little significance, are usually found near the seacoast. Some of the plants found in them are utilized for their fiber, while dwarf trees are used for fuel purposes. The mountains are clear of forests so that the highlands are practically all under abaca cultivation. The lumber found in the province is not hard and durable enough for heavy construction purposes. Cavite furnishes but few minerals, the most important of which is a soft stone which is used for building purposes. The rivers are short, but navigable for small boats. Most of them rise in the mountains of Indang and Silang and discharge their waters in Laguna de Bay, while the rest find their outlets in Manila Bay. Although the rivers are short and of recent origin, the geologIcal formation of the country is such as to make it favorable for drilling artesian wells for irrigation purposes. These rivers teem with fish although most of the fish supply is obtained along the seacoast. The inhabitants are mostly Tagalogs. About fifty per cent of them can speak the Spanish language, thus showing the influence of the Spaniards who lived there for hundreds of years. Farming is the chief occupation of the in294
HISTORY habitants of the interior, salt-making and fishing of the dwellers along the coast, while on the hills and higher levels of the province the people largely devote themselves to cattle raising and lumbering. This province has 20 municipalities and 171 barrios. Its capital is Cavite, with 22,163 inhabitants. It is located in the northern part of the province. III MUNICIP ALITIES
Alfonso Amadeo Bacoor Bailen Carmona CAVITE Dasmarifias General Trias Imus Indang
Kawit Magallanes Maragondon Mendez-N ufiez Naic Noveleta Rosario Silang Tanza Ternate IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ........... . 120,180 Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . 105,980 Still available for agriculture (hectares) 56,710 Population (estimated) as of July 1, 1935 .. 180,881 School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. 47,225 Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . '3(}, 858, 666 Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 251.6 First class .................. . 180.6 Second class ................ . 82.9 Third class .................. . 60.1 295
CEBU I HISTO~Y
The town of Cebu or Sugbu existed as a prosperous native settlement before the discovery of the Philippines by Magellan. Its king, who appeared to be the recognized leader of a great part of the Island of Cebu, was well known to the people of some of the settlements along the coasts of the neighboring islands. Judged from the Chinese plates, bells and gongs found in Cebu by the Spaniards in 1521, this town must have had trade connections with China in pre-Spanish times. In fact, several days before Magellan arrived in Cebu a boat from Siam had anchored in the port to trade with the Cebuanos. The Island of Cebu, was discovered by Magellan on April 7, 1521. The town was then under the rule of Raja Humabon, a powerful chief who had eight subordinate chieftains and a force of some two thousand warriors under him. Magellan made friends with Humabon and succeeded in baptizing him, his wife, and as many as eight hundred of his men. Magellan also endeavored to bring the people of Mactan under Spanish influence. In this attempt, he met his death while engaged in battle with the people of Opon who were then under Chief Lapulapu. Forty-four years after Magellan's time, Legaspi occupied the town of Cebu which was then under the rule of Tupas. Here Legaspi founded the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines which he called San Miguel. The town, which was planned in the shape of a triangle, was defended on the land side by a palisade and on the two sides facing the sea by artillery. The name of the town was later 296
HISTORY changed to the City of the Most Holy Name of Jesus "in honor of an image of the Child Jesus which a soldier had found in one of the houses." The establishment of the Spanish settlement in Cebu brought to this island the Portuguese who then disputed the ownership of the Archipelago. In 1566, 1568, and 1570, Portuguese expeditionary forces were sent to Cebu to drive away the Spaniards. First in 1568 and again in 1570, the Portuguese blockaded Cebu, but in both cases the blockade resulted in a failure. The people of Cebu did not suffer as much from the blockades as they did from the frequent attacks of the Moro pirates. The coast towns especially suffered terribly from these incursions which became quite a constant menace to life and property toward the end of the sixteenth century. These raids continued well into the seventeenth century. About the middle of seventeenth century, on the occasion of the Sumoroy revolt in Samar, the people of Cebu showed great restlessness. Only the presence of substantial government force prevented a general revolt. Similar rebellious tendencies were manifested by the people of this island during the British occupation of Manila. The population of Cebu showed marvelous increase during the nineteenth century. Buzeta and Bravo gave the following figures: 100,000 souls in 1799; 334,790 in 1846, and 389,073 in 1850. Many towns were also founded during this time, among which are N aga (1829), Talisay (1834), San Fernando and Cordoba (1844-1866), and Alcoy and Santander (1866-1880). In 1863, Cebu was thrown open to foreign trade. This event was important, for it resulted in the general economic growth of the province. From that time on, Cebu 297
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES prospered as a trading port until it became a worthy rival of Iloilo. . Like many of the other Visayan islands, Cebu did not immediately join the Revolution. Later, however, the standard of revolt was raised and the Spaniards had to evacuate the island in December, 1898. II
GEOGRAPHY
The Island is bounded on the north by the Visayan Sea, on the west and northwest by the Taiion Strait, on the south by the Mindanao Sea, on the southwest by the Bohol Strait and on the east by the Camotes Sea. Although the mountains extend through almost the entire length of Cebu, the island is the lowest of the Visayas. The highest peak, found at the central portion, is Mount Uling (1,013 meters), so called for the black color of the coal that is found in the region. From this peak the land falls away on all sides to form the central plateau, which is one of the most densely peopled regions of the island. In the north and south are several other plateaus, but thes.e are not well populated because of less fertile soils and the absence of streams that afford good drainage. The coast is irregular and though reefy has fine places for anchorage. In fact, it is the reefs that give the island many a sheltered harbor with a deep approach. Because of the proximity of the mountains of Samar, Leyte, and N egros that cut off the moist winds from the northeast and southwest, respectively, the .island does not receive enough rain for the cultivation of rice. The conditions of rainfall and of the soil make corn the staple food of the people. They also make the region of the capital 298
HISTORY and other nearby towns more salubrious, although the climate is warmer. Cebu is visited by terrible hurricanes at the approach of the equinox. The plains yield as many as three crops of corn a year. Coconuts, sugar cane, abaca, peanuts, bananas, pineapples, camotes, and tobacco are other products. . The island is rich in minerals, of which gold and coal are the most important. Industries are well developed in Cebu. Good fishing banks found along the shores furnish the people with food for local use and for export. Hogs and goats are raised for local use. Poultry raising enables the people to export chickens and eggs to neighboring islands and even to Manila. Cotton cloth, woven for local use and sino,may, made from the fiber extracted from hanana and pineapple leaves, are exported. Much tuba is collected in the coconut regions. This province has 52 municipalities and 880 barrios. Its capital is Cebu, with 65,300 inhabitants. It is located in the east central part of the province. III MUNICIPALITIES
Boljo-on Borbon Carcar Carmen Catmon CEBD Compostela Consolacion Cordova Daanbantayan Dalaguete
Alcantara Alcoy Alegria Aloguinsan Argao Asturias Badian Balamban Bantayan Barili Bogo 299
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Poro Ronda Samboa'll San Fernando San Francisco San Remigio Santa Fe Santander Sibonga Sogod Tabogon Talisay Toledo Tuburan Tudela
Danao Dumanjug Ginatilan Liloan Madridejos Malabuyoc Mandaue Medellin Minglanilla Moalbual Naga Opon Oslob Pilar Pinamungajan IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectar路es) ........... . 483,550 428,300 Agricultural area (hectares) ........... . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. 220,200 1,064,880 Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 . ' School population (estimated), 1933-1934 . 276,885 Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ...... . P109,076,090 Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 ... . 942.4 First class .................. Second class ................ Third class .................
300
626.0 201.4 115.0
COTABATO I
HISTORY
The ter.m "Mindanao" or "Maguindanao" was originally given to the town now known as Cotabato and its immediate vicinity. The word is derived from the root "danao," which means inundation by a river, lake, or sea. The derivative "Mindanao" means "inundated" or "that which is inundated." "Maguindanao" means "that which has inundated" . . .. The "Cotabato" is in Moro, Kuta watu, which means "fort." As the sultan of Maguindanao became more poweI1ful, however, he extended his dominion over the neighboring territory -qntil it included the whole valley of the Rio Grande and the seacoast. Islam was successfully introduced and firmly established in Mindanao by one man. This same man founded the Sultanate in Maguindanao and reformed the whole system of government among his converts. His full name was Sharif Mohammed Kabungsuwan, and he is believed to have established himself in this region toward the end of the fifteenth century. Garcia J ofre de Loaisa, who in 1525 led an expedition from Coruna, Spain, reached the coasts of Mindanao, which Urdaneta called Bendanao, in October, 1526. Loaisa entered one of the ports, which, judged from the description, must have been Pollok or some place in IIlana Bay, remaining there about ten days. If this is so, L(}aiBa and Urdaneta were the first Spaniards to visit Cotabato. The first attempts to conquer the Maguindanao Moros were made by Rodriguez de Figueroa and Pedro de Almonte. Rodriguez de Figueroa in 1596 occupied the town 301
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES of Tampacan and tried to restrain the Moros from their piratical activities. The people of the region, however, under the leadership of their brave chieftains Malaria, Silongan and Buhisan, attacked the little band of Spaniards. Figueroa was killed and the Spaniards, on the death of their commander, abandoned the place. Forty-three years later, General Almonte, who was then operating in Lanao, penetrated into Cotabato and established a small presidio at Buhayen. These early attempts to bring Cotabato under control were soon abandoned. For a period of over two hundred years, or from 1640 to the middle of the nineteenth century, the Maguindanao Moros, Maranao, were really an independent people recognizing no authority except that of their datos or sultan, and obeying no laws but their own. In June, 1851, Cotabato was again visited by the Government forces. An expeditionary force attacked and occupied Pollok. The Spaniards were not blind to its strategic position and immediately converted it into a naval base. Three years later, Pollok was made a politico-military district dependent on Zamboanga. The subjugation of Cotabato now started on a more determined policy. The year 1861 saw three campaigns in this region. The first one, which was led by General Salcedo and the then Comandante politico-militar of Mindanao, sailed up the Cotabato River and reached as far as the site of the present town of Cotabato. After some difficulty, the Sultan and his father, Dato Arnirol, recognized Spanish authority, the irreconcilables retiring to Pagalufigan. The second was conducted by Enrique Garcia Carrillo, politico-military governor of Davao, and had for its objective the acquisition of Lake Buluan region. The expedition reached as far as a place called Mailad, where a fort capable of accommodating two hundred soldiers, was 302
HISTORY built. The third was led by Captain Casto Mendez-N ufiez and Lieutenant Malcampo. This expeditionary force sailed up the Cotabato River and finally succeeded in taking Pagulungan. In 1862, the military base at Tamantaka was established. Immediately, thereafter, Cotabato was founded. Then other interior towns were occupied and military establishments set up. By 1872, Cotabato was so far more advanced than any other region and was made the temporary capital of the whole Island of Mindanao for a period of three years. At the end of Spanish rule, Cotabato, then the fifth district of Mindanao, was composed of the politicomilitary comandancia of Pollok and the military districts of Malabang, Reina Regente, Taceran, Babia, lHana, Baras, and Lebac. Early in 1899, Cotabato was evacuated by the Spaniards. A native government under Roman Vilo was set up. A rival Moro government, however, was also organized under Dato Piang. In 1903, when the Moro Province was created, Cotabato became one of its districts. In 1914, civil government was established in the Department of Mindanao and Sulu and Cotabato was organized as one of the provinces of the department, now under the Bureau of non-Christian Tribes. II
GEOGRAPHY Cotabato, a term which signifies a "stone fort," is the name of the province occupying the entire southwestern portion of Mindanao. Together with the small island of Bongo, it has an area of about 24,916 square kilometers. The coast is regular with few important indentations; 303
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES namely, the Polloc Harbor on the northwest, the Linao and Tuna bays on the west, and the Sarangani Bay on the southwest. These indentures are deep, landlocked harbors, and are therefore good for anchorage. There are big towns near the coasts. Most of them are found along the rivers, especially along the Cotabato River and its tributaries. Cotabato, the capital, is at the mouth of the river, and forms an important shipping center. The Cotabato River system, though not as swift as the Rhine River of Germany, serves the same purpose to Cotahato as the Rhine to Germany, in the sense that it forms the chief means of communication, and transportation for conveying finished products and raw materials from the different towns to the coast. In general, Cotabato is mountainous, excepting the broad valleys which are drained by the great but sluggish river system. The mountain ranges on the north are low in comparison with those of the west, south, and east. The highest peaks on the western range are Mount Blik (1,226 meters) and Mount Binaca, (1,021 meters) ; those of the south are Mount Matutum, a recently formed volcano, (2,292 meters), and Mount Latian (1,612 meters). On the eastern border, Mount Magolo (1,450 meters), and Mount Apo (2,929 meters), the highest peak in the Archipelago, are the most important. These mountains are densely wooded with the finest and hardest timber to be found in the Archipelago. With the exception of that small portion around Sarangani Bay, where logging is being carried on, most of the forested area is not yet exploited. The most important forest products, which are at present exported in great quantity, are the candlenut, almaciga, and guttapereha. The climate is agreeable. The province receives little rainfall during the northeast monsoons, because the 304
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,
,
,
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PADRE MURILLO'S FAMOUS MAP OF 1744 ENGRAVED BY NICOLAS DE LA CRUZ BAGAY
HISTORY mountains along the eastern border are lofty, thus preventing the rain clouds to pass over them; consequently, only a little shower falls on the Cotabato Valley. But when winds come, the land receives much rainfall, causing the rivers to overflow their banks and renew the fertility of the soil by depositing the sediment which they carry from the mountains to the plains. The soil recently put under cultivation, is very fertile and productive. It is well fitted to rice cultivation. But because of the scarcity of laborers to cause the soil to produce the greatest yield, only a small area of this great and resourceful plain of Mindanao is under the experimental stage of development. On the eastern side of the valley are many extensive but shallow swamps, such as the Liguasan and Libungan. Large lakes, as Buluan and Cebu, and many small ones abound. These natural basins yield an immense wealth for the country. On the marshes, mangroves and nipa grow in abundance, while the lakes teem with the rarest and choicest fish. Sulphur is abundant near and around Mount Apo, an extinct volcano. The difficult ascent and the lack of transportation facilities make exploitation impossible at present. Mineral springs can be found near the town of Cotabato. The population of the province is very sparse. The Christian people, who emigrated from the different parts of the Philippine Archipelago to exploit this rich valley, built their homes along the river basins and near the bays accessible to commerce. Lumbering and agriculture are the most important industries of these people. The Moros, who inhabit the interior valleys and inaccessible coastal plains, manufacture trays, krises and other implements of warfare from brass imported from Singapore. The Moros 305
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES possess valuable jewels and ornamental gongs and dishes imported from China during the early days. This province has 1 municipality, 37 municipal districts and 218 barrios. Its capital is Cotabato, with 4,105 inhabitants. 1 It is located in the northwestern part of the province. III MUNICIP ALITY
COTABATO MUNICIPAL DISTRICTS
Kidapawan Kitubud Kling Koronadal Lebac Liguasan Libungan Maganuy Nuling Parang Piki t-Pagalufigan Reina-Regente Salaman Sebu Silik Subpafigan Talayan Tumbao
Awang Balatikan Balut Danisilan Barira Buayan Bugasan Buldun Buluan Carmen Daguma Dinaig Dulawan Gambar Glan Isulan Kabakan Kalafiganan Kiamba 1
Non-Christian population, 1,772, not included.
306
HISTORY IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............. . Still available for agriculture (hectares) ... . Population (estimated), as of JUly 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 ... . Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ........ . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 ..... . First class ........... . ......... Second class .......... . ........ Third class ....................
J
307
86.2 69.2 74.2
2,491,580 1,294,880 1,253,780 220,017 57,133 P9,066,490 229.6
DAVAO I
HISTORY
In 1847, D. Jose Oyanguren, a native of Vergara, of the Province of Nueva Guipuzcoa, Spain, led a successful expedition to what is now the town of Davao. Two years later, he organized the neighboring regions, together with a strip of territory from the province of Caraga (now Surigao) into a new province. He called this province Nueva Guipozcoa, in honor of his home province; the capital, which was established in what is now the town of Davao, he called Vergara in honor of his native town. In this province of Nueva Guipozcoa, the present Province of Davao had its origin. Parts of Davao were visited by the early Spanish explorers. For example, the Island of Sarangani was visited by Alvaro de Saavedra during the latter part of 1528. Saavedra stopped here for about three days on his way to the Moluccas. Th€ towns of Baganga and Manay on the eastern coast of the province wer€ visited . by Villalobos in 1543, and found to be uninhabited. Villalobos also paid a visit to the Island of Sarangani whither he went in search of provisions. The Spanish soldiers under his command planted corn on the island from which they obtained a good harvest. Up to about the middle of the nineteenth century, Davao was under the jurisdiction of the sultanate of Mindanao. In 1844, however, Governor Figueroa of Zamboanga and Agustin Bocallan, a brigadi€r in the Spanish army, obtained from the sultan of Mindanao the cession of this vast region to the Spanish government. 308
HISTORY Tlie cession of Davao was followed by its conquest by Jose Oyanguren. Immediately after the cession of Davao, Oyanguren went to visit it. He was so impressed by the possibilities of the region that when he returned to Manila, he proposed to lead an expedition thither for the purpose of bringing the region under Spanish sovereignty, expelling or pacifying the Moros, establishing 'Christian settlements, and opening up communication with the inhabitants in the interior. Permission was duly granted by Governor Narcisco Claveria. Oyanguren becaime the first governor of the province newly created by him. As then constituted, Nueva Guipozcoa included the territory bordering on the Gulf of Davao, together with a strip of territory from the old province of Caraga including the towns of Tandag, Tago, Lianga, Mision de San Juan, Bislig, Jinatuan, Cateel, Quinablangan, Dapa, and Baganga. In 1858, the Province of Nueva Guipozcoa was abolished as such and in its stead there were created two politico-military comandancw}s: Bislig and Davao. In 1860, these comandatncias were included in the District of Davao, one of the six districts into which Mindanao was divided. The District of Davao comprised the southeastern territory of Mindanao. At the end of the Spanish rule, Davao was one of the seven districts of the politico-military government of Mindanao. It was governed by an army officer of the rank of major. Davao then included two politico-military comandancias: Mati and Glan. Each was under a captain of the Spanish army. In 1903, the Moro Province was established. This included the Sulu Archipelago and the whole Island of Mindanao with the exception of Misamis and Surigao. Davao became a district of this province. 309
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES In September, 1914, the Moro Province was abolished and in its stead there was created the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, comprising seven provinces. Davao became one of the provinces of this department, with the capital at Davao, and now under the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes. II
GEOGRAPHY
Davao Province occupies the southern part of the Agusan Valley, the southern part of the eastern coastal plain, and the coastal plains around Davao Gulf. The coasts of Davao are much indented and if it were not for the big vv,aves caused by the south and southwest monsoons, there would be many' good harbors. The principal anchoring gro \ nd is found in the passage between the mainland of Davao and the west coast of the Islands of Samal. It is an open roadstead with a depth ranging from 8 to 15 fathoms. Baganga, Caraga, Pujada, Cateel, and Malalag bays also offer safe places for anchorage during certain seasons. In the Davao Gulf are found the ~slands of Samal and Talicud. Sarangani and Balut are other islands south of Point Tinasa. The land is exceedingly mountainous. The ranges of mountains run in almost all directions, the one along its western boundary being the highest and longest. The most important peaks are Mounts Latian, Magolo, Sinako, Malambo, Apo, Matutum, and Saddle, the last three of which are semf-active volcanoes. Apo is the highest mountain in the Philipp,ines. Between the mountain ranges are wide fertile valleys through which flow wide, navigable rivers that overflow 310
HISTORY their banks annually. The most important rivers are Agusan, Davao, Lasang, Libuganon, Cateel, and Mohanook. The climate along the coasts is wholesome and agreeable. The rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year. The typhoon belt does not cross this region. Because of the fertile soil and fine climate, agriculture is much encouraged. Almost all of the arable land of Davao is in the hands of Japanese corporations. A few Christian Filipinos from the Visayan islands and Luzon and a few Moros also own farms. Large abaca plantations have been set out on the plains around Davao Gulf, and, along the shores, thousands of coconut trees have been planted. Abaca fiber and copra are exported. Coffee, cacao, and rice are also raised successfully. The mountains are covered with forests yielding hard woods which are excellent for building purposes. The slopes are covered with grass that could support thousands of cattle. Coal is found in the mountain near the Mayo River, and sulphur, almost in a pure state, covers the top of Mount Apo. These, together with the agricultural lands and the pearl and fish wealth of the coasts, will undoubtedly make Davao one of the richest provinces in the future. More than a half of the population are pagans, among whom are the Mandayas and Bagobos who form the largest tribes. The Bagobos, taken as a group, have many customs in common with the Christian Filipinos. The Mandayas are the most numerous and the most powerful pagan people of Mindanao. Of all the non-Christian tribes in the island, they have the best developed primitive civilization. Their women weave excellent cloth, which is dyed in curious and ornamental patterns, and the men make daggers, spears, and other articles of metal. They also grow corn, mountain rice, and an excellent quality of hemp. 311
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The Bagobos, being fond of horses, raise very good ones. They trade by barter with the Moro and Chinese merchants. Davao is the capital and principal port of this province. This province has 7 municipalities, 15 municipal districts, and 236 barrios. Its capital, Davao with 13,046 inhabitants,! is located in the west central part of the province. III MUNICIP ALITIES
Baganga Caraga Cateel DAVAO
Manay Mati Santa Cruz MUNICIPAL DISTRICTS
Moncayo Pantukan Samal Saug Sigaboy Surup Tagum
Batulaki Caburan Camanza Compostela Guianga Kapalong Lupon Malita IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ........ . .. . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . 1
Non-Christian population, 2,144, not included. 312
1,929,720 1,322,680
HISTORY Still available for agriculture (hectares) Population (estimated), as of JUly 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ........ . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class .................... Second class .................. Third class ...................
313
57.3 68.0 23.7
1,195,890 152,750 39,487 P42,981,330 149.0
ILOCOS NORTE I
HISTORY
At the time of the arrival of the Spaniards there was already a region known as Ilocos, which included the greater part of northwestern Luzon. The centers of population seem to have been Laoag and Vigan. The Spaniards created this region into the Province of Ilocos, with Vigan as the capital, but by a royal decree of 1818, the northern part was separated and erected into a province called llocos Norte. To the new province were assigned the following towns: Bangui, N agpartian, Pasuquin, Bacarra, Vintar, Sarrat, Piddig, Dingras, Laoag, San Nicolas, Batac, Pa0ay, and Badoc. At the time Ilocos Norte was made a separate province, the towns above mentioned had a population of 135,748. It is believed that even before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Chjnese and Japanese traders were already familiar with the coast towns of Ilocos. Spanish exploration of Ilocos began as early as 1572, when Juan de Salcedo made his famous trip along the Ilocano coast. During this trip, he visited what is now Ilocos Norte, occupying Laoag, which even then seems to have been the chief center of population of that region. He explored the mouth of the Laoag River and had several encounters with the hostile natives. He also sent a punitive expedition to a town called Bacal, probably the present town of Batac. The history of Ilocos Norte from the beginning of the Spanish rule to the first decades of the nineteenth century records many important revolts, which may be classified 314
HISTORY as those that were caused by the "tributes" and forced labor and those that were caused hy the monopolies. The first important revolt caused by the injustices arising out of the collection of tributes by the encomenderos occurred in Dingras in 1589. The next, arising out of the same causes, took place in 1660. This uprising was led by Don Pedro Almasan of San Nicolas, who, influenced by the action of Andres Malong in Pangasinan, proclaimed himself king and his daughter and son-in-law as heirs apparent. Two revolts of consequence were caused by the monopolies. In 1788, an uprising occurred in Laoag caused by a general discontent over the t obacco monopoly, when, it is said, about 1,000 persons rose up in arms. In 1807, another revolt resulted from the injustices of the wine monopoly. The leaders of thi~ uprising were one Ambaristo and Pedro Mateo. The centers of the movement were Sarrat, Laoag, Batac, and Paoay. The nineteenth century records no important revolts in the history of Ilocos Norte. On the other hand, the economic progress of the province during this period was well marked; As a result of the operations of the Real Comparita de Filipinas, the textile industry was developed on a large scale. The manufacture of indigo was also encouraged in Ilocos Norte as well as in the other Ilocos provinces. Toward the close of the nineteenth century, economic progress was furthered by the abolition of the tobacco monopoly. Like many other provinces, Ilocos Norte espoused the cause of the Revolution. Gregorio Aglipay of Batac, now the head of the Philippine Independent Church, was among the first to join the ranks of the Revolutionists. The Revolutionary Army under the command of General Manuel Tinio occupied Ilocos Norte as well as the other Ilocano provinces in the name of the Revolutionary Government. 315
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Civil government was established in Ilocos Norte on September 1, 1901. II
GEOGRAPHY
This Province occupies the whole of the coastal plain in the northwestern corner of Luzon. The Cordillera del Norte, which separates it from Abra and Cagayan, extends along the eastern border to the China Sea in the north. Along this range, the highest peaks are Simminublan, Burnay, Sicapco, Licud Dinawanang, and Quilang. The coastline is so regular that although there are several ports, such as Gabut, Laoag, Bangui, Diriqui, and Currimao, the last named is the only one which offers any protection from the north winds. The climate is humid but generally favorable except during the rainy season from May to September when the hurricanes which form in the Pacific sweep across this region to the China Sea. The hottest months are' from April to July. The land being open towards the north and west, the people suffer from the effects of the change of the direction of the monsoons. The land, especially towards the west, is level, sandy along the shore and stony along the rivers. Much soil is washed down from the mountains and as most of that of the plains is clayey, it is, therefore, adapted to the growth of rice. There are no swamp lands. A few lakes are to be found, among which the N agpartian and the Dacquel a Danum (Paoay Lake) are the largest. The latter has a depth of about 10 meters and is located only about 3 kilometers from the sea. A canal from this lake to the seashore would permit vessels to penetrate inland and would assuredly develop the region commercially. 316
HISTORY
The mountains are covered with fine timber trees, and resin, honey, and wax are found on their slopes. Between the Cordillera and the coastal plain are low hills which make fine grazing lands. Cattle raising, however, has declined as an important occupation of the people, although it is being revived because of the increasing prices of carabaos and cattle in the neighboring provinces. A few grottos or caves are found near the mountains of the interior. There are a number of stone quarries. Limestone is found on Mount Calvario, San Nicolas and in Burgos. The beach supplies a great amount of coral for road building. East of Cape Bojeador are manganese and asbestos deposits which are being exploited. Farming is the most important occupation and rice is the principal product. Corn, beans, peas, tobacco, and cotton are planted after the rice harvest season. Sugar cane is widely produced, but most of the juice is made into an alcoholic beverage called "basi." The amount of fertile and well drained land is somewhat limited so that the land holdings are small. Fishing is carried on extensively, both in the sea and fresh water. Commerce in foodstuffs is not great, as the people produce almost everything they need on their small farms, but rice, peas, and beans are exported to !locos Sur and Cagayan and tobacco and maguey to Manila. The weaving of textiles is the principal industry among women throughout the province. Paoay specializes in the weaving of towels and figured blankets, Batac in cloth for wearing apparel and plain blankets, and San Nicolas in silk handkerchiefs. Along the coast, salt is produced from the sea water by heating. Mat making and the pottery industry are also well developed. Laoag, which means "clear" in the dialect of the people, is the name of the capital and the center of commerce. 317
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES It is situated on the bank of the Laoag River, and through it passes the first-class road which connects all of the coastal towns from San Fernando, La Union, to Pangasinan. The people residing along the coast and in the plains are Ilocanos. Up in the mountains are a few Tinguianes, Igorots, and Apayaos who venture to come down only to trade their wax, rattan, and honey with the Christians. The Ilocanos are noted for their industry. Not having sufficient land for their activities in Ilocos Norte, they emigrate in large numbers to Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, Pangasinan, Cagayan, and Isabela. Many of them have travelled as far as Mindanao in search of farm lands. This province has 18 municipalities, 3 municipal districts, 3 rancherias and 361 barrios. Its capital, Laoag, has 38,294 inhabitants. It is located in the west central part of the province. III MUNICIPALITIES
Nueva Era Paoay Pasuquin Piddig Pinili San Nicolas Sarrat Solsona Vintar
Bacarra Badoc Bangui Banna Batac Burgos Currimao Dingras LAOAG
MUNICIPAL DISTRICTS
Dumalneg
Adams Carasi 318
HISTORY IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometer), 1934 ..... . First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
319
126.3 197.8 25.5
334,890 215,030 117,690 260,954 68,005 P34,540,810 349.6
ILOCOS SUR I
HlSTORY
Due to the rapid increase of popUlation of the old Province of Ilocos which included all of the Ilocos and part of the mountain country, it was deemed necessary to divide this extensive region into two provinces; namely, 110cos Norte and Ilocos Sur. The division was made in 1818, pursuant to a real cedula dated February 2 of that year. The capital of the new province was Vigan. As created in 1818, Ilocos Sur included the northern part of what is now La Union as far as the town of Namacpacan, now Luna, and approximately what is now Abra Province. But later, these sout.hern and eastern extremeties were separated. \ The exploration of Ilocos Sur began in 1572, when Juan de Salcedo made his famous expedition into the Ilocano country. It was to this illustrious Spaniard that Ilocos Sur as well as Ilocos Norte owe a good deal of their early prosperity. It should be remembered that Salcedo was the encomendero of Vigan and Lieutenant-Governor of 110cos. He was the founder of the Spanish city of Fernandina which he erected in the heart of the ancient and prosperous Ilocano settlement of Vigan. He was also the moving spirit for the evangelization of the neighboring territory. In direct contrast to Salcedo's beneficent influence was the terror felt by the natives on the occasion of Limahong's landing in Sinait in 1574. This Chinese pirate, it should be remembered, effected a landing in the above 320
HISTORY mentioned town for the purpose of plunder while on his way to Manila. Ilocos Sur embraces within its confines some of the oldest towns of the Philippines. Besides Vigan, several other towns already exist~\:.l in this region before the close of the sixteenth century; namely, Santa, Narvacan, Bantay, Candon, and Sinait. Among the several disorders and revolts recorded in the history of Ilocos Sur, two stand out prominently. These uprisings were the Malong rebellion of 1660 and the Silang rebellion of 1763. Malong, who was trying to carve out a kingdom for himself in Pangasinan and the neighboring territory, sent his two able generals, "Count" Gumapos and Jacinto Macasiag to the north to effect the conquest of this region. Gumapos and Macasiag, however, proceeded only as far as Vigan, from which place they were recalled by Malong. Diego Silang who led the great rebellion of 1762 dominated the greater part of Ilocos Sur. He fought pitched battles with the Spanish forces at Vigan and Cabugao and practically succeeded in establishing a government of his own in Ilocos Sur. The greater portion of the first half of the nineteenth century was a period of economic development in Ilocos Sur as well as in Ilocos Norte. During this time the exploitation of the cotton, tobacco, and indigo industries was greatly encouraged. The effects of the Revolution were not readily felt in Ilocos Sur. But toward the beginning of the year 1898, anti-government propaganda already existed in Candon, where a sort of Revolutionary government had been established shortly before the arrival of the Americans in Manila. Moreover, Don Mariano Acosta later took posses321
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES sion of the government of nocos Sur in the name of the Philippine Revolutionary Government. Civil government was established in nocos Sur on September 1, 1901. II
GEOGRAPHY
Ilocos Sur, another typhoon-swept region, is the narrower of the Ilocos provinces. In some parts, the branch of the Cordillera range, that separates it from Abra, runs clear to the coast, which is so reefy that there are very few places that offer safe shelter for vessels. Pandan is the principal POl\t. Although it is sheltered from the north winds, the harbor at Salomague is sought only during a typhoon. A mile to the northwest of Salomague harbor is an island surroundeCl by a reef which runs southwest and forms with the coast the side of a passage through which boats pass into the harbor. Another island on the coast is Pingit, low, covered by forest, and surrounded by a reef that makes the coast unapproachable. The mountains are almost bare of timber so that rainfall is scanty and the land sandy in character. The rice produced is not enough for the provincial needs, quantities being imported from nocos Norte and Pangasinan. The land is especially adapted to the growth of maguey, a fiber which constitutes the principal export. Sugar is also another article that is exported in quantities. Indigo was once a great source of wealth, but production has greatly declined as a result of the manufacture of cheap aniline dyes in Germany. There are no metal mines in Ilocos Sur. Narvacan has great deposits of lime carbonate. Formerly, jasper 322
HISTORY was found in abundance. In Bantay there are quarries of a poor quality of stone, and in the neighborhood there are indications of the existence of copper. There are very few mineral springs. The only one of importance lies two kilometers from Santa Maria at the foot of Mount Lubung. The rivers that drain the province, with the exception of the Abra River, are short and swift. Usually the lakes are found along the shore, but those in Santo Domingo and Can don are located far enough inland to add to the fertility of the region. Because the soil will not support the population, a great many persons have turned to manufacture and trade. These gave rise to industrial specialization in different towns. Those alf>mg the coast extract salt from the sea water and export it in great quantities to inland provinces. In San Esteban, tH re is a quarry of stone from which mortars and grindstones are made. San Vicente, Vigan, and San Ildefonso specialize in woodworking, the first in carved wooden boxes and images and the others in household furniture. Most of the wood used in these handicrafts is imported from Abra and Cagayan. Bantay is the home of skilled silversmiths. In the other towns saddles, harness, slippers, mats, pottery, and hats are made and exported to some extent. Candon on the coast exports great quantities of coconuts to Ilocos Norte. Sisal and hemp fiber extraction and weaving of cotton cloth are common household industries throughout the province. Most of the people are Ilocanos but there are also some Tinguianes, Igorots, and Negritos living on the slopes of the Cordillera. This province has 27 municipalities, 7 municipal districts and 441 barrios. Its capital is Vigan, with 17,764 323
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES inhabitants. province.
It is located in the northwestern part of the
III MUNICIPALITIES
Banayoyo Bantay Bauguen Burgos Cabugao Candon Caoayan Cervantes Galimuyod Lapog Lidlidda Magsingal Nagbukel Narvacan
San Esteban San Ildefonso San Vicente Santa Santa Catalina Santa Cruz Santa Lucia Santa Maria Santiago Santo Domingo Sinait Tagudin VIGAN MUNICIP AL DISTRICTS
Sigay Sugpon Suyo
Alilem Angaki Concepcion San Emilio
IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) Agricultural area (hectares) Still available for agriculture Population (estimated), as of
............ . ............ . (hectares) .. , July 1, 1935
324
262,210 211,720 159,410 252,014
HISTORY School population (estimated), 1933-1934 Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class .... . .............
325
217.4 68.4 11.1
65,683 P31,370,310 296.9
ILOILO I
HISTORY
According to tradition, the first ten datos from Borneo (see Antique) to settle Panay Island landed in the neighborhood of the present town of Miagao. These datos, who finally purchased the island from the Negritos, then inhabiting that region, divided Panay into three districts called "sakops." One of the three "sakops" was called Irong-irong, which presumably is the present Province of Iloilo. Irong-irong was placed under the rule of a dato called Paiburong, who became the founder of the first Malay settlements in Iloilo. The Spaniards began to enter Iloilo as early as the time of Legazpi. In the settlements here they found a people who were in the habit of painting (tattooing) their bodies. Among the largest of these early settlements was Ogton, more generally called Oton at a later time. J aniuay, Dumangas, and Tigbanuan were also old centers of population. Immediately following their entrance into this region, the Spaniards established themselves at Oton; but it was not till the time of Governor Ronquillo (1580-1583) who founded the villa of Arevalo that Spanish power really made itself felt. This villa appeared to have immediately superseded Oton in importance and became the capital of the alcaldia, the jurisdiction of which included practically all of the Island of Panay and a great part of the Island of N egros. Iloilo, now the provincial capital, did not gain its present position till the year 1688. 326
HISTORY Iloilo, like Antique and Cebu, suffered greatly from the raids of the Moros and the Dutch toward the end of the sixteenth century and in the beginning of the seventeenth. Forts were established at Oton, Arevalo and Iloilo, but the pirates of the high seas continued their periodic visits, and even extended their activities further north. During the eighteenth century, the Province of Iloilo lost a good deal of her territory, as a result of the creation of Capiz in 1716 and of Antique in 1798. Her jurisdiction over a part of the Island of N egros also ceased in 1798. The nineteenth century was a period of prosperity in the history of Iloilo. The population of the province reveals a steady increase. The province in 1818 had only a population of 176,901 souls; these figures rose to 277,571 in 1845 and to 348,371 in 1870. This prosperity of the province was greatly enhanced as a result of the opening of the port of Iloilo to foreign trade in 1855. At the end of Spanish rule, Iloilo was a politico-military province like the rest of the Visayan provinces. Iloilo was evacuated by the Spaniards late in 1898. But several months before this event, the revolutionists were already active in this province. Subsequent to the evacuation of Iloilo by the Spaniards, the province came under the control of the Revolutionary Government. The prominent revolutionary leaders were Martin Delgado and Pablo Araneta, the former serving for a while as military . and civil commander. Civil government was established in Iloilo on April 11, 1901. II
GEOGRAPHY
Iloilo, one of the three provinces which form the Island of Panay, occupies the entire southern portion of the 327
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES island. The coast is very irregular, especially in the southeastern part, and is dotted with many small islands, the most important of which is Guimaras, which is separated from the mainland by the Iloilo Strait. The province has an area of 5,284 square kilometers. Iloilo, the capital, is about 258 miles away from Manila. It is located on a narrow arm of the sea, and by its favorable location has become the most important port of western Visayas. Large vessels from China, Japan, Europe, and the United States, put into Iloilo for sugar. The most important market towns are Iloilo, J aro, Oton, and Pototan. In general, the land is mountainous, the highest peaks being Mount Baloy, Mount Inaman and Mount Igadalig which form a chain running along the borders of Antique and Iloilo. The climate is milder and cooler than that of the other provinces of western Visayas. The southwest monsoons that bring moisture are usually accompanied by winds of such viole'nce that they paralyze traffic and industry and ruin the crops. On the mountains grow hard woods suitable for shipbuilding and furniture-making, while on the hillsides cacao, hemp and sibucao for dyeing purposes are grown. The amount of arable land for the growing of sugar cane, rice, corn, tobacco, hemp and other tropical products is about 131,269 hectares, while 148,877 hectares still remain idle. The province ranks third in the production of rice, and althougli the sugar industry is coming to the fore, the output is still small in comparison with that of N egros because of the lack of centrals. But the future holds better prospects there than in N egros, on account of the well-situated port of Iloilo, the navigable rivers, transportation facilities and the industrious inhabitants of the province. Pasture lands are scarce and cattle raising does not flourish. While the wide level lands produce abundant 328
HISTORY crops, the mountains, besides furnishing hard wood for heavy construction purposes, are rich in resins and building stone. Gold and natural gas have already been located and exploited, but they are poor in quality and limited in quantity so that there is little possibility of development. Mineral springs are said to exist in Maasin, Tubungan, Janiuay and Nagaba. Not only is the land productive, but also the rivers and adjacent seas. They teem with fish, and afford the inhabitants an easy means of communication. At present, irrigation projects are intended to bring the arid and idle lands under cultivation, and to make Iloilo the wealthiest province in the Vi sayan group. With the exception of a few Americans, Europeans, and Chinese, the people are mostly Visayans, active and industrious. The principal pursuits of the people are farming, weaving jusi, pina, maguey, hemp fiber and silk, lumbering and fishing. In the weaving industry, they resemble the Ilocanos except that here they weave the fine pina for camisas while in Ilocos they make heavy, durable cotton blankets and towels. This province has 37 municipalities and 1,310 barrios. Its capital is Iloilo, with 49,808 inhabitants. It is situated in the southwestern part of the province. III MUNICIP ALITIES
Ajuy Alimodian Arevalo Balasan Banate Barotac Nuevo Barotac Viejo
Buenavista Cabatuan Calinog Carles Concepcion Dingle Duenas 329
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Miagao Oton Passi Pavia Pototan San Dionisio San Joaquin San Miguel Santa Barbara Sara Tigbauan
Dumangas Estancia Guimbal Igbaras ILOILO Janiuay Jaro Jordan Lambunao La Paz Leon Maasin IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ........... . Agricultural area (hectares) ........... . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 . School population (estimated), 1933-1934 . Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ...... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 ... . First class .................. Second class ................ Third class .............. .. ,
330
404.8 110.1 99.4
528,360 428,080 270,280 599,486 156,220 P120,099,230 614.3
ISABELA I
HISTORY
The Province of Isabela was created, with Ilagan as its capital, in May, 1856, out of territories belonging to Cagayan and Nueva Vizcaya. To form the new province, the towns of Cabagan and Tumauini, together with a few rancherias, were taken from Cagayan; and the towns of Ilagan, Gamu, Angadanan, Camarag (now Echague), Carig, and Palanan were detached from Nueva Vizcaya for the purpose. From this newly created province, the military comandancia of Saltan, which had hitherto belonged to Nueva Vizcaya, was made dependent. Prior to this reorganization, there already existed, in what is now Isabela, centers of population. Some of these settlements like Camarag, Angadanan, and N agali, have disappeared and new towns have taken their places. When the missionaries arrived, they chose some of these old settlements as centers of missionary activity. For example, the old town of Cabagan, which later was called San Pablo, was for a long time the headquarters of missionary propaganda. Moreover, P. Pedro Jimenez, as early as 1677, carried his religious movement in the regions of Gamu, Ilagan and Itugud. Like many other provinces, Isabela was the scene of important uprisings. In 1763, for example, stirred by the influence of the Silang Rebellion in Ilocos, the people of Isabela revolted, led on by Dabo and Juan Morayac. The centers of rebellion were Hagan and Cabagan. Again in 1785, another revolt broke out. This time the rebellion was 331
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES led by Labutao and Baladon. The rebellion was caused by the grievances of the people against the collection of tribute and the enforcement of the tobacco monopoly. Unlike many other provinces, Isabela was not readily affected by the revolution on account of its isolation. It was not until late in 1898 that the province came under the control of the revolutionists, when Colonel Daniel Tirona occupied the northeastern provinces of Luzon. A historical spot of Isabela is the little town of Palanan near the Pacific Coast. It was here that General Emilio Aguinaldo maintained his headquarters until his capture in March, 1901. Civil government was established in Isabela on August 23, 1901. II
GEOGRAPHY
This chief tobacco province of the Philippines occupies the upper part of the Cagayan Valley. Along the eastern coast runs the Sierra Madre which ends at Escaparda Point in Cagayan. The southern part is traversed by the branches of the Caraballo Mountains while to the west lie the foot hills of the range that traverse Ifugao, Bontoc, and Kalinga. The land is well-drained by the Cagayan River and its two most important tributaries, the Magat and the Abuluan. The rivers are the principal means of communication and transportation. All articles of commerce are transported on the Cagayan River from and to Aparri at its mouth. Trade with the people of Ifugao, Bontoc, and Kalinga is carried on through the rivers. The climate is healthful and is very favorable to the growth of tobacco. The northeast monsoons bring heavy rains which wash down the fertile mountain soil and find 332
HISTORY their way into the rivers that deposit the silt all along the plains. Every year, the tobacco fields are fertilized in this manner. Corn is another important crop, much of it being used as a staple food, although much rice is imported from northern Cagayan. The province possesses vast resources. The forests of the Caraballo and Sierra Madre are scarcely touched because of the lack of transportation. There are extensive tobacco lands available for homesteading or which can be leased very cheaply from the Government. The grasslands of the slopes offer great possibilities for cattle industry. Much fish is caught in the rivers and game abounds on the grassy plains and in the forests. There are very few towns and, save Palanan, they are all located along the Cagayan, Magat and Abuluan Rivers. Palanan Bay on the east is exposed to the weather and the anchorage is reefy. The town is separated from the rest of the province by great mountains which make communication and travel difficult and dangerous. Ilagan; the capital, lies at the junction of the Cagayan and the Abuluan Rivers. The people are principally Ibanags, but on the plains there are also to be found many Ilocano settlers and traders. The Sierra Madre Mountains are peopled by Catalanganes, Ilongotes, Bunganases, and Majoyaos. Isabela is much larger than Cagayan but it has only one-half as many people. Better transportation facilities and government encouragement would assuredly result in increased immigration, settlers and laborers being the chief need of Isabela. This province has 15 municipalities, 3 municipal districts, and 249 barrios. Its capital is Ilagan, with 28,259 inhabitants. 1 It is located in the north central part of the province. 1
Non-Christian population, 171, not included.
333
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES III MUNICIP ALITIES
Palanan Reina Mercedes San Mariano San Pablo Santa Maria Santiago Tumauini
Angadanan Cabagan Cauayan Echague Gamu ILAGAN Jones Naguilian
MUNICIPAL DISTRICTS
Dalig
Antatet Bannagao IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ........ . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ......... . . . . . . . . . Third class ...... ............
334
202.6 1.8 14.2
1,085,270 608,740 556,870 151,026 39,137 P29,432,140 218.6
LAGUNA I
HISTORY
The region around the Laguna de Bay was one of the earliest to be visited by the Spaniards in Luzon. In 1571, Juan de Salcedo, in answer to a challenge made by the natives of Cainta (now belonging to Rizal), led an expedition against that town, attacked its forts and forced the people to surrender. The submission of Cainta having been received, Salcedo next took the neighboring town of Taytay. Thence he led his victorious army along the southern coast of the bay, exploring the neighborhood as he went and finally struck out for the gold mines of Paracale. Among the interior towns he visited in Laguna were N agcarlan, Lilio and Majayjay, at which points he encountered determined resistance from the natives. Laguna at this early date was already fairly well populated. Among the early towns, besides Nagcarlan, Lilio, and Majayjay, were Bay, Pila, and Paiigil. The great center of population at that time seems to have been the town of Bay, which was the capital of the province till 1688 when the seat of government was moved to Pagsanj an. Santa Cruz, the present capital, did not achieve its present position until 1858. In 1639, some of the towns along the southwestern coast of the bay became involved in a large Chinese rebellion which spread as far as Manila. The uprising began in Calamba and quickly spread to the neighboring towns. The revolt was not suppressed until after about 20,000 Chinese lost their lives and property amounting to seven million pesos was destroyed. 335
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Serious disturbances again occurred in the western part of the province in 1763 when a British army under the command of Backhouse invaded this region in search of the treasure of the galleon "Philippino." Backhouse plundered the towns but made no attempts to hold them. Two events of importance in the history of Laguna took place in the nineteenth century. The first of this was the revolt of the Cofradia in 1840. This movement, which was led by Apolinario de la Cruz, had its center in Tayabas, but it quickly spread to certain towns in Laguna like Majayjay, Bay and Bifian. In fact, Bay was for a while the center of the disturbance. The second event was the agrarian dispute in Calamba, the native town of Dr. Jose Rizal, in which the family of the hero became involved. This particular disturbance is worthy of note because of the extreme cruelty exercised by the Government in the ejection of the tenants. A number of changes took place in the boundaries of the province between 1853 and 1883. Laguna, or Bay, as it was sometimes called, from the time of its creation till 1853 was bounded as follows: on the north, Manila and Nueva Ecija; on the east, the Pacific Ocean; on the south, Tayabas and Batangas; and on the west, Cavite. But in '1853, when the district of Morong was created, Laguna lost to the newly created district the greater part of its territory north of the bay including the towns of Agono, Binangonan, Morong, Baras, Tanay, Pililla, and Jalajala. To make up for this loss, however, she acquired from Nueva Ecija the district of Infanta in 1858, and from Batangas the town of San Pablo in 1883. Laguna was one of the first provinces to raise the standard of revolt. During the early months of the Revolution the military leaders used to meet secretly in the underground cemetery at Nagcarlan. When the Revolution336
L
J
MEMORIES OF THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION SHOWING FILIPINO SOLDIERS, MEETING PLACES AND SESSION OF THE FILIPINO CONGRESS
HISTORY ary Government was established, Escolastico Salandanan became the governor of the province. Civil government was organized in Laguna on July 1, 1902. II
GEOGRAPHY
The Province of Laguna is situated on a narrow plain which lies to the east, south, and southwest of Laguna de Bay. It is separated by ranges of mountains from the Provinces of Tayabas, Batangas, and Cavite. The fertile mountain slopes varying in width from 2 to 20 miles and in altitude from 100 to 7,000 feet, furnish ideal conditions for the cultivation of coconuts, rice, sugar cane, abaca, corn, and a great variety of fruits and vegetables, all of which find a ready market in Manila. The climate is very pleasant, the usual temperature being several degrees cooler than that of Manila. The rainy season lasts for a longer time than in other provinces because of the dense vegetation. Being protected by mountain ranges, of which the most important peaks are Maquiling, Malepunyor, San Cristobal, and Banahao, typhoons are less violent than in the more exposed provinces. Concentration of industries is well marked in Laguna. Some of the largest kind of hempen cables are made in the rope factory at Santa Cruz. Buntal hats and pan dan mats are made in Majayjay and Luisiana, pandan hats in Cavinti, Sabutan hats in Mavitac, rattan chairs in Paquil and Los Banos, wooden slippers in BU'ian and Calamba and abaca slippers in Lilio. Furniture is also made in Paete, soap in Santa Cruz, crude pottery in Lumban, better grade of glazed pottery in San Pedro Tunasan, coconut wine in the upper towns, and embroidery in Lumban. Mineral waters are bottled in Los Banos, Pagsanjan, and Magda337
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES lena. A steam saw mill is located in Santa Maria. In Los Banos is a stone quarry that supplies crushed stone for the Provinces of Bulacan, Rizal, Cavite, Batangas, and Tayabas. The province, besides having a rich soil, has an abundance of water supply. The Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the Philippines, permits of easy and cheap transportation. Fifteen of the 29 municipalities are reached by water and a line of steam launches provides a daily service between the lake and port of Manila. The lake abounds in fish. The swamps along its eastern shores are overgrown with pandan groves. The bay is covered during the rainy season with the pink-flowered, lotus plant. Along the low shores are verit~ble hunting grounds which abound in snipe and wild ducks. In picturesque scenery, Laguna is unequalled. The Pagsanjan gorge is considered one of the beauty spots of the world. Between Majayjay and Luisiana, the turbulent Botocan River takes a 200-feet plunge over a precipice, forming the largest waterfall in the Islands. In the San Pablo valley, there are nine beautifully set crater lakes. Banahao, a mountain having an elevation of 7,382 feet is covered with vegetation of all kinds. In the crater of San Cristobal at an elevation of about 5,000 feet is a beautiful fresh water lake. Though rather difficult . of access at present, it promises to become the summer resort of south central Luzon. The mineral springs in Pansol and Los Bafios well repay a visit. Los Banos is the seat of the College of Agriculture of the University of the Philippines. The people are mostly Tagalogs, there being a considerable admixture of Chinese blood in certain localities. Santa Cruz is the capital, and has 14,151 inhabitants. It is located in the northeastern part of the province. This province has 29 municipalities and 581 barrios. 338
HISTORY III MUNICIP ALITIES
Majayjay Nagcarlan Paete Pagsanjan Pakil Pangil Pila Rizal San Pablo San Pedro SANTA CRUZ Santa Maria Santa Rosa Siniloan
Alaminos Bay Binan Cabuyao Calamba Calauan Cavinti Famy Lilio Longos Los Banos Luisiana Lumban Mabitac Magdalena IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. Population (estimated), as of July 1,1935 . School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 ..... . First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
339
202.0 61.2 12.3
186,400 173,140 59,750 244,464 63,552 P63,794,760 275.5
LANAO I
HISTORY
The first attempt made by the Spanish Government to bring the territory now known as Lanao under its control took place during the administration of Governor-General Hurtado de Corcuera. In 1637, Corcuera himself led an expedition against Sultan Corralat. He arrived in Zamboanga in February, 1637, and from there proceeded to Corralat's stronghold at Lancitan, which appeared to have been located on the coast of Lanao, though there is no town of this name at present in this region. The Moro stronghold was defended by some 2,000 warriors, but it was finally taken, the Spa~i ards captur ing "about thirty-five cannons and Zan takas and more than one hundred muskets and arquebuses." Two years later this attempt was followed by a decisive campaign into the interior led by General Pedro de Almonte, with the cooperation of Alcalde Mayor Francisco de Atienza of Caraga. Spanish power, however, was really never established in Lanao. After Corcuera's rule, the Maranaos were left much to themselves. They remained practieally an independent people, constituting several Mohammedan states, almost to the end of Spanish rule. Beginning from the administration of Governor-General Weyler, a series of campaigns was started to bring the Lanao region under Government control. In 1891, Government forces occupied Malabang and other towns along the south coast. Despujol continued the campaigns, but it was left for Governor-General Blanco to establish Spanish power in this region. The governor landed in 340
HISTORY 1894 in Iligan with a force of 3,000 men under the immediate command of General Parrado and succeeded in taking, among other Moro cottas, the stronghold at Marahui, reputed to be the strongest of the kind in Lanao. In 1895, in pursuance to a gubernatorial decree dated at Marahui on October 8 of that year, Lanao was organized into a district with a politico-military government. It became the seventh district of Mindanao and Sulu. In 1896, a few members of a batallion of disciplinarios rebelled in Iligan, then a part of Misamis. This uprising was really a phase of the Philippine Revolution. Aside from the killing of some Spanish officers, this event had no serious results. In 1903, the Moro Province was established with Lanao as one of its districts. In 1914, civil government was established in the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, and Lanao became one of the seven provinces of the department, now under the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes. II
GEOGRAPHY
Lanao Province occupies the plateau region around Lake Lanao and extends to Iligan Bay on the north and to Illana Bay on the south. Iligan Bay, which is separated from lUana Bay by an isthmus about 13 miles wide, is well protected against the winds, hence, the presence of the two good ports of Kalambugan and Iligan. A line drawn across Lake Lanao in a southwesterly direction divides the province into two geographical areas: First, the exceedingly mountainous northwestern region that slopes from the ranges along the lake to the Pangil and Iligan Bays, and, second, the southeastern portion, hav341
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ing an older topography, which gradually slopes from the highlands on the northern border of Cotabato to the lake. The most important rivers of the former region are the Liangan, Agus and Bayug. All of these empty into Iligan Bay. Along the shores of Pangil Bay are extensive mangrove and nipa swamps. The road from Dansalan, the capital, to Iligan runs along the Agus River. The rivers of the southeastern region, of which Malaig and Putian are the most important, empty into Lake Lanao. There are many waterfalls in this province which could be utilized as sources of power. Lake Lanao is believed to have been formed as a result of the subsidence of the land accompanying the eruption of volcanoes in the surrounding country. The smaller lakes in the same region are crater lakes. Mounts Makaturing, Lulukan, a d Ragang are active volcanoes. The climate, especially around Lake Lanao, is very cool. Many of the people living on the lowlands of Mindanao go to Dansalan and spend the hot season there. This place can be converted into a fine summer resort like Baguio. Rice and corn are raised only for local consumption. Coffee and abaca are planted to some extent. In some parts of the province, the soil is well adapted to sweet potatoes and peanuts. The climate is favorable to the cultivation of many crops of the temperate zone. Fishing is an important industry both in the lake region and along the coasts. The Moros of Lanao make mats of tikug and send them to Iligan for sale. At some places of the lake shore, articles of brass are made. This brass work is different from that of the Moros in the Cotabato Valley. Lumbering is also an industry, and an excellent grade of lumber is exported from the northern coast. 842
HISTORY The population is composed of Moros who occupy the eastern shore of Lake Lanao, and of Visayans who live in the coast towns. In this province there are no primitive pagans. Dansalan is its capital, with 5,988 inhabitants. It is located in the northeastern part of the province. This province has 3 municipalities, 35 municipal districts, and 283 barrios. III
MUNICIPALITIES
Malabang
DANSALAN Iligan
MUNICIP AL DI STRICTS
Masiu Mulundu Momungan Munai Nunungan Pantar Pantaw-Ragat Pualas Seguiaran Sufigud Tamparan Taraka Tatarikan Tubaran Tugaya Kolambugan Uato
Bakulud Balut Bayang Binidayan Bubung Baru-un Butig Ditsaan Ganassi Gata Kapai Kapatagan Lumbatan Madalum Madamba: Maging Mandulog Marantau 343
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............. . Agricultural area (hectares) ............. . Still available for agriculture (hectares) Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. . School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. . Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ........ . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 ..... . First class .................... Second class . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . Third class ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
} I
344
52.8 118.9 8.7
631,700 363,400 225,100 141,782 36,559 P4,257,170 180.4
LA UNION I
HISTORY
The Province of La Union was created in 1854 out of towns which had heretofore belonged to the Provinces of Ilocos Sur and Pangasinan. Ilocos Sur, previous to this time, extended as far as Namacpacan (Luna). All the territory south of Namacpacan belonged to Pangasinan. It was the union of portions of Ilocos Sur and Pangasinan that gave the new province its name. Ilocos Sur and Pangasinan that gave the new province its name. As constituted, the new province included the following towns: Bangar. N amacpacan (now Luna), Purao (now Balaoan), Balatao, which then included the present towns of Bacnotan and San Juan, San Fernando, Bauang, Naguilian, Aringay, Agoo, and Santo Tomas. The region now belonging to La Union was explored by Juan de Salcedo in 1572. P. San Agustin records that the first town touched by Salcedo was "Atuley." No such town exists at present, but undoubtedly it must have been in what is now La Union. Another town visited by Salcedo was that of Purao, now Balaoan. In these towns Sal路路 cedo met with vigorous opposition on the part of the natives, especially in the inland town of Purao. Although La Union was not created until after the middle of the nineteenth century, nevertheless it includes within its boundaries some of the oldest towns in the Archipelago. Among these are the former town of Purao (now Balaoan), Bauang, and Agoo. An important event in the early history of La Union was the attempt of Malong in 1661 to make this region a 345
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES part of his kingdom. It should be remembered that Malong sent an army of 3,000 men under the command of Gumapos and Makasiag to subjugate the Ilocano country. This army encountered the Government forces sent to oppose it at the town of Agoo and sent them down to an overwhelming defeat. Then it triumphantly made its way through La Union up to Vigan. According to the Quia Oficial (1898), the population of La Union at the end of the Spanish rule was about 116,000. According to Cavada, the population of the same province about 1876 was in the neighborhood of 8,500. This marvelous increase of population in about a generaI tion was due to the influx of Ilocano immigrants from the north. The effects of the Revolution were felt in La Union from the beginning. The Government arrested a few individuals who were looked upon as "dangerous." Later, General Manuel Tinio entered La Union. The province came under the control of the Revolutionary Government and Lucino Almeida acted as governor. Civil government was established in La Uuion on August 15, 1901. Since that time nothing of importance has taken place in the history of La Union, except the adjudication to the Subprovince of Amburayan of a narrow strip of territory inhabited by Igorots, along the eastern boundary of the province. II
GEOGRAPHY
With the exception of Abra, La Union is the most mountainous of the Ilocano provinces. I t is only near the coast and where wide plains are found. Whatever arable lowland there is elsewhere is found along the river valleys. 346
HISTORY The rivers are numerous, short, and swift, and lakes are found near the coast. The mountains cover an area of about 168,414 hectares. They are not thickly forested and wood for construction is now scarce because of the excessIve cutting of timber. Aside from salt, lime, and pottery clay, La Union has no mineral wealth. At the foot of Mount Bayahas is a hot salt spring. The people and agricultural products of this province are similar to tnose of the provinces to the north. La Union is not, however, so much affected by the typhoons. Tobacco, rice, sisal hemp, sugar, coconuts, corn, and cotton form the most important products. Although the land is near the coast, the rivers fertilize the plains with silt, so that La Union ranks third in tobacco production. Sisal, sugar, and coconuts are important exports. Rice is imported. Very little cotton is produced, yet weav~ng is an important industry. Cotton cloth is exported to Manila, and to the mountain people. Vegetables, chickens, and eggs are exported to Baguio. Much fish is caught along the shores and salted and dried. It is shipped to the inland towns. The making of baskets, mats, ropes, native hats, lace, and embroidery are as yet only household industries. The raising of bananas for their sheaths which, when dried, are used for wrapping purposes, is also an industry that might be profitably developed. Caba, one of the smallest towns, receives annually about P20,OOO for its "alupasi," the local name for the dried banana sheaths. The making of articles of adornment out of shells is another household industry still in its infancy which had its origin in the little town of Santo Tomas. Pottery clay is found practically in every municipality. Salt and lime are made in all the towns of the coast. 347
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Darigayos, San Fernando, Pandan, Taboc, and Santo Tomas are ports that offer fine anchorage; of these San Fernando, the capital, has the best harbor. Steamers that ply between Aparri and Manila usually stop here for tobacco. The Manila North Road that passes through almost all of the coastal towns meets the Manila North Railroad at Bauang. These two afford easy means of transportation and help to foster commerce along the lines of route. The population is industrious and is composed mostly of Ilocanos, but there are a few Pangasinanes in the southern part. In the eastern mountains, there is to be found a number of Igorots. San Fernando is the capital, with 19,885 inhabitants. It is located on the northwestern part of the province. This province has 14 municipalities, 6 municipal districts, and 354 barrios. III MUNICIPALITIES
Agoo Aringay Bacnotan Balaoan Bangar Bauang Caba
Luna Naguilian Rosario SAN FERNANDO San Juan Santo Tomas Tubao MUNICIPAL DISTRICTS
Bagulin Burgos Pugo
San Gabriel Santol Sudipen 348
HISTORY IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .,. Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
349
149.8 79.1 7.0
113,770 96,990 42,600 194,223 50,571 P27,609,040 235.9
LEYTE I
HISTORY
Limasawa, an islet south of Leyte, has the, unique dis路 tinction of being the place where mass was first celebrated in the Philippines. Toward the end of March, 1521, Magellan discovered this little island, which then appeared to be a prosperous community. It was here that Magellan met Rajas Calambu and Ciagu, who feasted the Spaniards and exchanged presents with them. Leyte, wh~ch was generally called Tandaya in the early days, was the fh::st island of the Philippine Archipelago to receive the name 'of "Felipina." On the occasion of Villa路 lobos' expedition in 1543, a party visited this island in search of food, and gave the place the name that, in a mod路 ified form, the whole Philippines now bears. Legazpi also touched here, visiting the neighborhood of Abuyog and the Island of Limasawa. During the early days of Spanish rule, Leyte like Samar, was under the jurisdiction of Cebu. Later, Leyte was erected into a separate political division. By 1735, Leyte was already reported as a politico-military province having jurisdiction over Samar. In 1622, a religious revolt broke out in Leyte, the leaders of which were Bancao, chief of Limasawa, and his high priest, Pagali. The center of the uprising was the town of Carigara, on the northern coast, where Bancao had erected a temple sacred to the diwatas. The rebellion spread to several neighboring towns. Bancao, the leader, was an old friend of the Spaniards, having received Legazpi in a friendly fashion in 1565. It appears, however, 350
HISTORY that the old chief gave up Catholicism in his last days and went back to the practices of his former religion. Twenty-seven years after the revolt of Bancao, another uprising took place in Leyte. This was merely an echo of the Sumoroy rebellion then in progress in Samar. The center of disturbances in Leyte was a village called Bacor, where the church and the convent were burned by the rebels. In 1768, Leyte and Samar were separated, each constituting a politico-military province by itself. From time to time the capital of the province of Leyte was changed from one town to another. The first capital was Carigara; it was transferred to Palo, then to Tanawan, and finally, to Tacloban. In pursuance with the royal decree of July 31, 1860, which ordered the reorganization of the provincial governments of the Visayas, a politico-military government was confirmed for Leyte. To the end of Spanish rule, the form of government in Leyte remained politico-military. In 1874, Tacloban was opened to foreign trade. This event is important inasmuch as it resulted in the quickening of the economic life of Leyte. The Revolution did not spread to Leyte readily. Later, however, General Vicente Lukban took possession of that province as well as of Samar in the name of the Revolutionary Government. The people of Leyte, like those of Samar, then joined hands with the expeditionary troops from Luzon, in order to expel the Spaniards from the island. Civil government was organized in Leyte on April 22, 1901. II
GEOGRAPHY
Leyte is one of the largest and most fertile islands in the eastern Visayan group. The province of that name em351
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES braces the Islands of Leyre, Maripipi, Biliran, Guiguintangan, Panaon, Limasawa (five wives), and several other small adjacent ones. The Island of Leyte is situated southwest of Samar and is separated from it by the San Juanico Strait, which is said to be one of the most beautiful waterways in the world, but dangerous because of its swift currents. The province covers an area of 7,783 square kilometers, but only a small portion of the land available for cultivation is as yet under tillage, because of the unfavorable topography of the country, the scarcity of labor, and the lack of capital necessary for the development of idle lands and for the opening of roads through the forests and remote valleys. The coast is much indented, especially at Carigara Bay on the north, Sogod Bay on the south, Leyte Gulf on the east, and Ormoc Bay on the west. Tacloban, the capital, is the most important seaport on the eastern coast~ while Ormoc is the outlet on the western part. Like Samar and other Visayan islands, Leyte is traversed by many low mountain ranges. The ridge which extends from the northwestern part of the province to its southeastern extremity is very rugged and almost impassable. There are also many extinct volcanoes of which Mahagrao is the most important. The climate is agreeable and healthful. Due to its geographical position, the island is favored with rainfall continuously throughout the year. The northern part of the province is often visited by typhoons during the period of the northeast monsoon, whereas the southern and central parts are seldom affected by them. Oftentimes the high winds which pass over the northern part of Leyte are so violent as to blow down large buildings, uproot big trees, and damage the entire crops planted on this portion of the island. 352
HISTORY The coastal plains and the interior valleys are fertile and productive. Hemp and copra are the most important products exported. Although rice is grown in all the towns of Leyte, corn is the principal food of the people. Other products raised in the plains are tobacco, bananas, papayas, and pineapples. The swamps are wooded with nipa and mangroves, while the mountains yield rattan and timber for various purposes. At present there are thousands of hectares of virgin forests which await the enterprising Filipino capitalist to convert them into actual source of wealth. Among the domestic animals are cattle, carabaos, hogs, horses, and goats. There was abundance of cattle and carabaos in Leyte before the Insurrection, but the ravages of war and animal diseases have greatly reduced their number. While the rivers, lakes and seacoasts abound in fish, the mountains are well timbered. Coal is found in the towns of Leyte, Ormoc and J aro. Petroleum and asphalt are also found in the town of Leyte, the latter being mined for street paving purposes. Gold is found in Pintuyan and San Isidro; sulphur around Mahagnao; mineral springs in the crater of Mahagnao, Ormoc, San Isidro, Caibiran, Main it, Burawen, and Carigara. The healthful climate and productive soil of Leyte attract many immigrants from Bohol, Cebu, Masbate, and Samar. The people are industrious and friendly, their most important pursuits being farming and fishing. Lumering is neglected because of the lack of good roads, and because nearly all the inhabitants live near the coast away from the sources of supply. This province has 47 municipalities and 969 barrios. The capital is Tacloban, with 15,478 inhabitants. It is 10~ated in the northeastern part of the province. 353
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES III MUNICIP ALITIES
La Paz Leyte Libagon Liloan Maasin Macrohon Malitbog Maripipi Matalom Merida Naval Ormoc Palo Palompon Pastrana Pintuyan San Isidro San Miguel Sogod TACLOBAN Tanauan Tolosa Villaba
Abuyog Alangalang Albuera Anahawan Babatafigon Barugo Bato Baybay Biliran Burauen Cabalian Caibiran Calubian Capoocan Carigara Dagami Dulag Hilongos Hindang Hinunangan Hinundayan Inopacan Jaro Kawayan IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) 354
778,300 624,180 443,790
HISTORY Population (estimated), as of JUly 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ........ . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
355
198.8 256.6 38.8
815,781 211,205 P51,783,020 494.2
MANILA CITY I
HISTORY
The name "Manila" is derived from the Tagalog word Nila was a kind of plant which used to abound on the Pasig River. In the beginning what subsequently became Intramuros was known as M ay-nila. At the time of the arrival of the Sp'a niards, Maynila (now Intramuros) was ruled by Raj ah Soliman. It was then a strongly-. protected town being surrounded hy a heavy palisade anq defended by many well-armed warriors. Opposite to it, on the northern bank of the Pasig, stood another tnriving town. It was ruled by Rajah Lakandola, the King of Tondo. Manila was first visited by the Spaniards in 1570. Legaspi, hearing of the existence of a prosperous Mohammedan community in Luzon, sent an expedition to it under the command of Martin de Goiti. De Goiti anchored at Cavite and sent a message of friendship to Rajah Soliman. Soliman was willing to befriend the Spaniards but would not submit to Spanish authority. This attitude of Soliman led to friction and trouble. In June, 1570, De Goiti attacked Soliman's city, cap,t ured it after a stout resistance and having taken possession of it in the name of the King of Spain, returned to Panay. The next year, the Spaniards returned. This time Legaspi himself led the expedition. The inhabitants of M ay-nila seeing the coming of the Spaniards set fire to the place and fled to the neighboring town of Tondo. Rajah Lakandola accepted the offer of friendship with Legaspi. Soliman, however, remained irMaynila, meaning "there are nilas."
356
HISTORY reconcilable. He gathered a strong force and prepared to expel the Spaniards. The decisive battle was fought at Bangcusay. Here the Filipinos were defeated, Soliman himself perishing in the struggle. Legaspi then began to rebuild the city of Soliman. He ordered the construction of 150 wooden houses for the Spaniards and a palace for himself. Besides, he established a new government for the city, appointing two judges, twelve aldermen and several other officers. He called it, the "distinguished and ever loyal city" and in it he established the seat of government of the Philippines. In the meantime, the surrounding communities came under religious influence. Towards the end of 1578, missions were established in Santa Ana, San Miguel, Dilao (now Paco) , Sampaloc, and Pandacan. Since the early years, Manila was threatened with danger from various sources. What proved to be a constant source of danger for a long while were the Chinese. Even as early as 1574, Manila was threatened from this danger. In that year, Limahong with a fleet of sixty-two Chinese warships bearing a force of 3,000 men, besides a large number of women, tried to take the city. His attempt, however, failed. At various times during the following century, the Chinese rose in revolt. In the revolt of 1602, the Chinese did considerable damage. They set on fire buildings in Tondo and Quiapo and for a time threatened to capture Intramuros. In 1662, the Chinese in Manila again revolted, while, in 1686, a number of them under the leadership of Tingco conspired to kill the Spaniards. It was to minimize the danger of a Chinese uprising that during the early years, Chinese were confined to a particular place in the city, known as the Parian or AIcaiceria. 357
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ,
A notable event in the history of Manila during the eighteenth century was the occupation of the city by the British in 1762. The British occupation was an echo of the Seven Year's War in which England and Spain had taken opposite sides. The British arrived in September, 1762. They were under the command of Admiral Cornish and General Draper. They remained in the city until June, 1764. In 1830, with the adoption of a more liberal commercial policy, the port. of Manila which had up to that time been a closed port was thrown open to foreign commerce. Manila grew in importance as a result of this policy. The number of commercial houses in Manila increased rapidly. By 1842, there 'were 12 foreign firms in the city and in 1859 three more ~re established. Before 1850, consulates were maintained i ~ Manila by France, the United States, Denmark, Sweden, and Belgium. Manila up to about the middle of the nineteenth century formed part of the ancient Province of Tondo. This province included almost the whole of what is now the Province of Rizal. In 1859, a decree was issued establishing a civil government for the Province of Manila. With this decree what formally was the Province of Tondo became the Province of Manila. According to this decree the civil governor of the province was also corregidor of the city of Manila. In 1863, Manila was visited by a severe earthquake which resulted in great loss of life and property. Among the buildings destroyed by the shock was the Cathedral of Manila. Almost all the people who happened to be inside the church at the time of the occurrence of the earthquake perished among its ruins. Among the victims was Father Pedro Pelaez, one of the early champions of the cause of the Filipinoy clergy. Another public calamity occurred in 358
HISTORY the city in 1867. In September of that year, Manila was visited by a severe typhoon which resulted in the inundation of the suburbs of the city. For a time bancas were the only means of transportation in several places of the city. In 1880, Manila was visited by a severe earthquake which reduced to ruins many of the public buildings of the city and almost all the churches. The city of Manila may be said to be the birthplace of the Katipunan, for it was here in a house on Calle Azcarraga where on the 6th of July, 1892, Andres Bonifacio with Deodato Arellano, Valentin Diaz, Ladislao Diwa, and some others, founded the association. The Katipunan was discovered by Father Gil, the curate of Tondo, on tlie 19th of August, 1896. With the outbreak of the Katipunan in August, 1896, Manila, as a port of the Province of Manila, was declared to be in a state of war. Hostilities took place at various places on the outskirts of the city, such as Caloocan, Balintawak, and San Juan del Monte. Manila fell into the hands of the Americans on August 13th, 1898. A military government was in control of the city for some time. With the establishment of civil government, the old Province of Manila was abolished, and some of the towns which belonged to it were given to the newly created Province of Rizal. To the city of Manila with its present limits was granted on August 7, 1901, a charter which vested the government of the city in a municipal board composed of five members, three of whom were directly appointed by the Governor-General, two, the president of an advisory board and the city engineer, being ex-officio members. In June, 1908, the charter was amended so as to give to the people of the city some participation in the go v359
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ernment. According to the amended charter, the government was vested in a municipal board of six members, three appointive members, the city engineer, and two elective members. Recently, a further amendment was introduced in the charter of the city giving to the people much greater participation in the affairs of municipal government. With the new amendment, the government of the city is vested in a mayor appointed by the Governor-General and ten councilors elected by the qualified voters of the city. II
GEOGRAPHY
Manila is the most beautiful and interesting city on the shores of the China Sea. It is situated at the mouth of the Pasig River, em the west coast of the Island of Luzon. Besides being the metropolis and capital, it is now one of the most important ports of call and entry in the Far East. Because of its beauty and importance, it has also been named the "Pearl of the Orient." The city is practically divided into two parts by the Pasig River which runs through it. To the north of the river, near its mouth, lie the districts of San Nicolas, Binon do, and Tondo, the last being the oldest part of the city. These form the business center of the city. The Escolta, traversing the district of Binondo and close to the Pasig River, is the most important business thoroughfare. The Rosario, another busy street in the same district, is chiefly occupied by Chinese stores. The other principal districts north of the river are Santa Cruz, Quiapo, Samp,aloe, and San Miguel. To the south of the Pasig River are the Old City, surrounded by a thick and high stone-wall, Ermita, Malate, Paco, Singalong, Pandacan, and Santa Ana. 360
HISTORY Tondo is the most thickly populated and on that account it is not an attractive district. The greatest portion of the residents here are native Tagalogs. Ermita, San Miguel, Malate, and Paco are the seat of the best residences in the city. Manila covers a large area, and an extensive system of transportation is required to carry the people to different parts of the city. Electric cars furnish transportation to the majority of the traveling public. Automobiles, calesas, and carretelas are other means of public conveyance. Manila is provided with a modern water-system, a sewerage, and electric light system. Gas is also used for lighting houses and for fuel. Recently an automatic telephone system has been installed in addition to the old system. The city has a population of 353,418, the greater portion of which are Tagalogs. The other native elements are Ilocanos, Pampangos, Visayans, and Bicols. Of all the foreigners, the Americans are the greatest in number. There are thousands of Chinese who are either merchants or laborers. The rest of the residents are Spaniards, Englishmen, Japanese, and citizens of various foreign countries. The hot season commences in March and continues until July. The rainy days begin in August and last till December. The climate is generally warm except in the months of November, December, and January when the temperature is rather mild. Frequently, storms from the Pacific bring heavy rains causing destructive floods in the subllrbs. The places of recreation and amusement can compare favorably with those of any American city of its size. There are fine cinematographs and theaters. Other places of interest are the Luneta, where the Constabulary Band plays on most evenings, the athletic grounds around the Walled City, the Mehan Gardens, the churches, and the Ce361
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES menterio del Norte. Being the capital of the Philippines, Manila has many fine buildings, monuments, and parks. The former seat of Government was the Ayuntamiento in the Walled City. It is now in the City Hall located on P. Burgos, Ermita. The Legislative Building, the Post Office Building, the Crystal Arcade on the Escolta, the Metropolitan Theater on the former Mehan Gardens, and many others, and a number of fine school buildings have been constructed, such as the Philippine Normal School, the Philippine School of Arts and Trades, the Philippine General Hospital, and the buildings of the University of the Philippines. Among the imposing monuments are those to Rizal, Legaspi and Urdaneta, and Magellan. As the chief commercial center in the Philippines, Manila has an excellent harbor. The port is protected from the waves by a breakwater. Behind this wall, where the water is calm, large steamers from foreign countries load and unload beside modern piers. Along the shore south of Pasig River is the water front. There are warehouses in which goods are stored. The mouth of the river is used by small steamers and sailing vessels, especially those engaged in coastwise and inter-island trade. Launches, cascos, and barges ply up and down the river transporting cargo to or from the ships. The Pasig River, flowing through Manila, is crossed by several high bridges. Big vessels can not go under these bridges, but launches pass beneath them. Several roads and railroad lines enter the city. These are the ways on which products of the provinces are brought for the local factories or to be exported. Cheap transportation for freight is made possible by the esteros, or estuaries, which enter the land all around Manila Bay and are often connected with one another. Along these arms of the sea are 362
HISTORY built the cigar factories, distilleries, cold-storage plants, saw mills, vegetable oil factories, rice mills, and cotton mills. As a distributing center, Manila receives the greatest portion of the imported products for the various parts of the Philippines. From the different provinces inter-island boats bring tobacco, sugar, copra, and hemp for export. Rice, firewood, vegetables, fruits, poultry products, mats, and zacate are brought in from the neighboring provinces for local use. III STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ........... Population (estimated), as of JUly 1, 1935 School population (estimated), 1933-1934 Assessed' value of real estate, 1934 .......
363
. . . .
3,700 353,418 91,918 P405,213,530
MARINDUQUE I
HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY
Marinduque, separated from Tayabas by the Mompog Pass, is a hilly island covered with evergreen grass and shrubs. The climate is agreeable. Cattle, firewood, and sinamay, are exported to Tayabas. Abaca and coconuts are the leading products, while sugar cane, rice, and corn, are raised for local use. Gold, zinc, lead, and copper, are found in the island. The chief markets are Boac, the capital, and Santa Oruz, on the Santa Cruz harbor, which has an average depth of from 7 to 15 fathoms. Another important harbor is Port Balanacan in the northwest, with an average depth of from 6 to 12 fathoms. Marinduque was part of the province of Tayahas in 1918. So its history is linked with that province of Apolinario de la Cruz, one of the greatest Filipino revolutionists. Marinduque was consolidated with Tayabas by Acts Nos. 499 and 1649 of the Philippine Legislature, and reestablished as a separate province of the Philippines by Act No. 2880 of February 21, 1920. II
MUNICIPALITIES
Mogpog Santa Cruz Torrijos
BOAC Buenavista Gasan 364
HISTORY III STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class .................... Second class ...... . ........... Third class ....................
365
55.2 74.4 8.4
92,200 73,230 44,060 62,280 16,303 PI4,230,350 138.0
MASBATE I
HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY
The Island of Masbate, as well as the islands of Ticao and Burias, was explored in 1569 by Captain Luis Enriquez de Guzman. Captain Andres de Ibarra subsequently continued the exploration of these islands and furthered Spanish influence. It is believed that Enriquez de Guzman also landed on the mainland and travelled over the region of Ibalon, which, according to Morga, was then a port of Sorsogon. The first serious disturbance that occurred in Sorsogon took place in 1649 on the occasion of the Sumoroy uprising in Samar. Influenced by this uprising, the people of Sorsogon rose in rebellion and drove away the Spanish friar of the town of Sorsogon. The people of Masbate also revolted and killed a Spanish alferez stationed there. The Island of Masbate, like Sorsogon proper, was at first a part of Albay. In 1846, however, it was separated from Albay and with Ticao was made a separate coman.dancia politico-militar, with Gium, on the Asid Gulf, as capital. The prosperity of Masnate dates as far back as 1837. In that year, many settlers were attracted to this island by the news of the abundance of gold in the neighborhood of the present town of Aroroy. The story is told that even the Chinese flocked in considerable numbers to the harbor of Aroroy, telling the people that they were going Hal oro." It is believed that this town was named Aroroy or Aloroy from this incident. 366
HISTORY Civil government was established in Masbate on March 18, 1901. Recently, however, Masbate lost its status as a province and was annexed to Sorsogon. Masbate was consolidated with the province of Sorsogon by Act No. 1413 of the Philippine Legislature and later reestablished or made a separ:ate province of the Philippines by Act No. 2934 on December 15, 1920. II MUNICIP ALITIES
Milagros San Fernando San Jacinto San Pascual
Aroroy Cataifigan Dimasalang MASBATE III
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilom.eters), 1934 路 First class .................... Second class .................. Third class ...................
367
92.5 55.1 49.3
400,150 271,560 250,100 92,356 23,908 P18,624,190 196.9
I
MINDORO I
HISTORY
Mindoro was known to the Chinese even before the coming of the Spaniards to these shores. It is believed that Chinese traders made frequent visits to this island as well as to other places in the Philippines for purposes of trade. When the Spaniards arrived, they found evidences of the existence of commercial relations between the natives and the Chinese. Salcedo, while exploring Mindoro in 1570, found two Chinese junks anchored at the mouth of Baco River. These junks were found to be laden with Chinese merchandise. The Spaniards first visited Mindoro in 1570. It was in this year that De Goiti and Salcedo, while on their way to Manila, had occasion to explore the coasts of Mindoro. They sailed along the western shore of the island touching at the Island of Ilin, the mouth of Baco River, Mamburao, and Lubang. The next year Legaspi, while on his way to the conquest of Manila, also visited the island and brought its inhabitants under Spanish authority, imposing upon them the royal tribute. In the early years, Mindoro was administered as a part of the province of Bonbon, now Batangas. About the beginning of the seventeenth century, however, the island was separated from Bonbon and organized into a corregimiento, with Puerto Galera as capital. Of this newly organized corregimiento the Island of Marinduque became a part. Mindoro, like many other provinces, was for several years a victim of Moro piracy. In fact, its history through368
HISTORY out the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is practically a story of the constant struggle between the islanders and the Moro pirates. The Moros established two strongholds on the island: Mamburao and Balete. From these places, they sallied forth to attack defenseless communities, destroying property and carrying people away into slavery. As a result of these depredations, whole communities were destroyed or abandoned by their inhabitants. Pinamalayan and Masanlay (Bulalacao) were once deserted by their former inhabitants for fear of Moro attacks. Hin, once a prosperous community on the southwest coast of the island, was totally destroyed by the buccaneers. For a long time the Spanish authorities were unable to put a stop to Moro depredations upon communities on the Island of Mindoro. The successful expedition sent against Mamburao, the Moro stronghold in Mindoro, during the governorship of Simon de Anda served to put an end momentarily to the activities of the Moros. But no sooner had the Spanish force withdrawn than piracy was resumed. It was not until the close of the eighteenth century that the Spanish government began to deal effectively with such activities. The inhabitants gradually lost fear of the Moros and began to come down to live in their former homes. As a result, communities developed and population grew. The population of Mindoro 'w hich in 1800 numbered only 15,845 had increased by 1845 to 28,795, and five years later this number increased to 35,136. In the year 1837, the capital of the province was transferred to Calapan, where it has remained to the present. Mindoro, like many other provinces, came under the Revolutionary Government soon after the latter was established. Mindoro continued to be under it until 1901, the year when the Americans occupied the island. 369
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Mindoro was made a part of Marinduque in June, 1902, when it was organized into a regular province. Five months later, however, Mindoro, with the island of Lubang, was separated and organized into a special province. II
GEOGRAPHY
The island formerly called Mait is named Mindoro from the Spanish phrase Mina de Oro or gold mine, as mining is said to have once been great source of wealth. Mindoro is divided into two distinct parts, the western and the eastern, by a range of mountains of which Mount Halcon is the highest peak. Other important peaks in the province are Mounts Calavite, Buco, and Hagdanan. The eastern part of Mindoro gets its rain from the northeast monsoon. The western part which has a long dry season receives the southwest winds. Atmospheric disturbances are most frequent during the change of the monsoons. The climate is healthful. The coast is very irregular and has very many harbors. Calapan, Puerto Galera, Santa Cruz de Mindoro, San Andres, Sablayan, Palanan, Mangarin, Bulalacao, and Pola on the mainland, and Lilic and Looc on Lubang Island are the best places for safe anchorage. All along the coast, especially on the south and north, there are many islands. Off the coast of Mindoro, in Verde Island Passage, is a beautiful submarine garden like the one on the Batangas coast. The island is traversed by numerous rivers the most important of which are Baco, Baruyan, Calapan, Abra de Ilog, and Subaan on the north, Silonay Sinabu, Navotas, Caoayan, Pola, Pinamalayan, and Aglubang in the east; Caguray, and Bulalacao in the south, and Sinambolan, Bag370
HISTORY buajan, Mangpong and Arunay in the west. These rivers have many falls and rapids and could be well harnessed for power. Lake Naujan has a circumference of about 25 kilometers. Crocodiles, wild ducks, and much fish inhabit the lake. Although in general the land is rugged in character, the coastal and river valley plains offer extensive fertile irrigation lands to the agriculturist. Rice, copra, abaca, sugar, and corn are the principal products. Fruits and vegetables grow in abundance. Along the coasts are extensive nipa swamps which could be used as a source of thatch and sap for alcohol, vinegar, or sugar. The mountains on the southwest are forested, and the slopes are suitable for pasturage. The northeastern part, especially on the mountains southwest of Lake Naujan, is heavily wooded. Transportation facilities which could be easily built towards the sea coast will open up this region as a great lumbering center. Gold is found in the rivers Binabay, Baco, Bongabong, and Mangasauan Tubig. Coal of good quality is found north and west of Bulalacao, white marble northwest of Mount Halcon, slate deposits near the headwaters of Pagbaban and other rivers of the western coast, sulphur and gypsum on Lake Naujan, and south of Calapan, hot springs between the sea and the northwestern part of Lake Naujan, and salt springs in Damagan, Bulalacao. Guano deposits are found in the caves. Mindoro is sparsely populated; it needs immigrants to take advantage of the free public lands, to raise rice, coconuts, sugar, and abaca, and to exploit the forests and mines. The inhabitants, few as they are, are engaged in very many of these industries. The sugar industry is well developed, as shown by the existence of a sugar central. Cattle and poultry are raised in considerable quantities. 371
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPIN'ES Lumbering, too, is quite extensively practiced. The rubber tree grows well in Mindoro and the rubber industry is quite well developed. The fishing industry is lucrative. Off the west coast of Mindoro is one of the most important fishing banks of the Philippines. The people are mostly Tagalogs. There are, however, a number of Visayan and Ilocano immigrants. Calapan, the largest town, is the capital, and has 12,684 inhabitants. 1 It is located in the northeastern part of the province. This province has 17 townships and 108 barrios. III MUNICIPALITIES
Ahra de Ilog Baco Bongabong Bulalacao CALAPAN Looc Lubang Mamburao Mansalay
Naujan Paluan Pinamalayan Pola Puerto Galera Sablayan San Jose San Teodoro
IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) Agricultural area (hectares) Still available for agriculture Population (estimated), as of 1
............ . ............ . (hectares) .. . July 1, 1935 ..
Non-Christian population, 770, not included. 872
1,017,350 568,620 520,210 105,647
HISTORY School population (estimated), 1933-1934 Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class .................... Second class ............... '. .. Third class ...................
373
74.7 98.4 13.5
27,264 P17,269,830 186.6
MISAMIS OCCIDENTAL I
HISTORY
The history of the province of Occidental Misamis is so closely linked with that of the province of Oriental Misamis from the days of King Corralat and the arrival of the Spanish missionaries to the coming of the Americans until the separation of the original province of Misamis into two distinct provinces in 1929, that it should be necessary to write about them under the title "Misamis." Hence, the history of Misamis follows. The first Spaniards to arrive in the regions which constituted the prpvince of Misamis were missionaries, whose leaders were the Recollects. They landed in 1622 at a place not far from where Cagayan at present stands. Shortly after, the Jesuits arrived and began to carryon missionary work in what is now known western Misamis. At the time of the arrival of the missionaries, Mohammedan influence prevailed in what is now the municipality of Misamis of Misamis Occidental. Its regions were included in the vast Kingdom of Corralat, Mohammedan King of Mindanao. The lord of this region was Salanpang, a vassal to King Corralat. Upon hearing of the presence of the Recolletcs within his territory, Corralat prepared to expel them. But Salanpang, who had become a convert to Christianity, gave the missionaries protection. He removed to Cagayan which he fortified strongly against Corralat. The Recollects found safety in this place. They built their convent here and made it the center of their missionary activity. 374
HISTORY The original inhabitants of Misamis were the Bukidnons, but these retired into the interior as immigrants from the Visayan Islands arrived. These immigrants came mainly from Bohol and Cebu. They founded settlements along the coast and on the Island of Camiguin. The first settlement to be established on the Island of Camiguin was Guinsiliban. The growth of population as a result of this immigration was rapid. As first constituted, Misamis formed part of the Province of Cebu. Later it was made a corregimiento. In 1818, Misamis had the status of a province, with four distinct divisions called "partidos." These divisions were as follows: (1) Partido de Misamis, which included the forts of Misamis and Iligan, besides Loculan and Initao; (2) Partido de Dapitan, including Dapitan, Lobungan, and a number of villages; (3) Partido de Cagayan, which included Cagayan and a number of villages like Iponan, Molugan, Hasaan, and Salay; and (4) the Partido of Catarman, on the Island of Camiguin, which included the town of Catarman, and the villages of Mambajao, Guinsiliban, and Sagay. In 1850 Misamis constituted one of the four political divisions into which Mindanao was divided, including within its jurisdiction a great portion of what is now Lanao, all of Bukidnon, and the northern portion of what is now Cotabato. Except during the first decades of the nineteenth century when the population of Misamis suffered considerable reduction as a result of Moro attacks, the history of Misamis showed a continuous growth of population. About the beginning of the nineteenth century it was 56,390. By 1818, this had been reduced to 26,226. But from that time on the number of inhabitants steadily grew. In 1870, the population was 78,104. In 1887, this had grown to 116,024, and ten years later it had increased to 169,356. 375
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES At the end of Spanish rule, Misamis constituted one of the seven districts of Mindanao. It was governed by an army officer of the rank of lieutenant-colonel. The capital w.as Cagayan de Misamis. The comandancia of Dapitan with the towns of Dapitan, Dipolog and Lobungan was a dependency of this province. Misamis came under the Revolutionary Government in December, 1899. It remained so .for about three months, at the end of which time it fell into the hands of the Americans. Civil government was established in Misamis on May 15, 1901. As constituted, Misamis included what was then the Subprovince of Bukidnon. In 1907, Bukidnon was given to Agusan, which was created into a province that year. But Bukidnon is also now a province like Agusan under the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes. It was in 1929 when, by virtue of Act No. 3537, Misamis was divided into two separate provinces; namely, Occidental Misamis and Oriental Misamis. II
GEOGRAPHY
"The province of Occidental Misamis," says Act No. 3537 of the Philippine Legislature in 1929, "shall consist of the other portion of the present province of Misamis, comprising the municipalities of Baliangao, Plaridel, Lopez J aena, Oroquieta, Aloran, Jimenez, Tudela, Clarin and Misamis." Occidental Misamis is bounded on the north by Mindanao Sea, together with Murcielagos Bay and Iligan Bay; on the south by Panguil Bay and Zamboanga province; on the east by Iligan Bay, and on the west by the province of Zamboanga. 376
HISTORY The coast of this province is irregular, indented like Oriental Misamis with large open bays, Murcielagos, !ligan and Panguil. The important towns of this coastal province are Oroquieta, the capital, Baliangao, Plaridel, Jimenez and Misamis. This province has a rugged surface and its mountains are low, with the exception of Mount Malindang, with 2,427 meters elevation. The climate is healthful, with breezes coming from the sea and fresh air from the mountains and the valleys. During the northeast monsoons, the land receives abundant rainfall. Strong winds are not common, so that abaca and coconuts and coffee thrive well. The soil along the coast is favorable for the growth of coconuts, while the leeward sides of the hills are excellent for abaca cultivation. The elevated regions are good for coffee plantations. These are the three main crops of the province, that form the source of income of Occidental Misamis. Most of the people are Visayans, chiefly from the Islands of Bohol, Negros, and Cebu. The inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, fishing, and salt-making. The non-Christian people who form part of the popUlation live and do some cultivation in the interior valleys, especially near Zamboanga and Lanao. Oroquieta is the capital of Occidental Misamis. There are good roads and bridges leading to this capital. But the principal means of transportation is by water. This province has 10 municipalities. III MUNICIP ALITIES
Aloran Baliangao
Clarin Jimenez 377
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Plaridel Tafigub Tudela
Lopez-J aena Misamis OROQUIETA IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) Population (estimated, as of July 1, 1935 .. School popUlation (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 ..... . First class .................... Second class .................. Third class .,.................
378
88.4 25.1 10.7
176,580 97,900 61,940 116,066 29,985 P20,802,230 124.2
MISAMIS ORIENTAL I
HISTORY
Inasmuch as the historical account of Oriental Misamis is linked with that of Occidental Misamis until Legislative Act No. 3537 of 1929 made them two separate provinces, the attention of the reader is referred to the History of Misamis; see Misamis Occidental. II
GEOGRAPHY
Legislative Act 3537 of 1929, as amended by Act 3777 of 1930, says that <iOriental Misamis shall consist of that portion of the present province of Misamis which comprises the municipalities of Balingasag, Cagayan, Gingoog, Initao, Salay, Quiniguitan, Talisayan, Tagoloan, and the island of Camiguin with its municipalities and adjacent small islands and the municipal districts of Claveria, Lourdes and Lumba." The province of Oriental Misamis is roughly divided into two parts, namely, the narrow coastal plain bordering the Bukidnon province, extending from Diuata Point to the town of Lugait, and Camiguin Island. The coast is very irregular, indented with large open bays, like those of Gingoog, Macajalar and Iligan. Although Oriental Misamis is a coastal province, there are but few large towns, the most important being Cagayan, the capital of the province, and Tagoloan, and Catarman and Mambaj ao on the Island of Camiguin. 379
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Cagayan is now the largest and gayest town in northern Mindanao. It is situated at the mouth of the Cagayan River. It is also the center of trade not only of Oriental Misamis but also of all the other northern and central provinces and districts of Mindanao. All of the products of the Bukidnon people pass through Cagayan where steamboats take them to the Visayas and to Manila. Camiguin has a volcanic cone, 1,333 meters high. The province has a very rugged surface, but the mountains are low. The climate is healthful. During the northeast monsoons, the land receives abundant rainfall, though less than the amount of precipitation that falls on the eastern side of Mindanao. Strong winds are not common, so that abaca and coconuts thrive well. The soil along the coast is favorable for the growth of coconuts, while the leeward sides of the hills are excellent regions for 路 abaca cultivation. Copra and abaca are the two chief crops that form the source of wealth of the province. Rice is imported on a large scale. Coal, gold, and sulphur, found around the volcano of Camiguin, are the minerals of Oriental Misamis. These mineral deposits have not been mined yet, because of the lack of capital and labor on the part of the people. Most of the people are Visayans, chiefly from the Islands of Bohol, Negros and Cebu. The inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, fishing, and salt-making. The nonChristian people who form the least part of the population of this province live and do some cultivation in the interior valleys. This province has 11 municipalities and 3 municipal districts. 380
HISTORY III MUNICIP ALITIES
Balingasag CAGAYAN Catarman (Camiguin Island) Gingoog Initao Mambaj ao (Camiguin Island)
Quiniguitan Sagay (Camiguin Island) Salay Tagoloan Talisayan
MUNICIPAL DISTRICTS
Lumbia
Claveria Lourdes
IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
381
163.2 126.0 13.2
270,900 175,680 138,030 153,573 39,898 P21,382,350 302.4
MOUNTAIN PROVINCE I
HISTORY
The Mountain Province, the third largest province in the Philippines, comprises that wide mountainous territory lying between Cagayan, Isabela, and Nueva Vizcaya and the Ilocos provinces. It is made up of several subprovinces, namely, Apayao, Kalinga, Lepanto, Bontoc, Ifugao, Benguet, and Amburayan. The exploration of the regions now included in the Mountain Province started as early as 1663. It was in this year that Governor-General Diego de Salcedo sent an expedition under the command of Pedro Duran de Monforte which succeeded in penetrating as far as Kayan, in Lepanto. In 1756, the Alcalde Mayor of Pangasinan, Manuel Arza, made an attempt to lead an expedition into these regions. Nothing, however, came of this attempt. In 1785, on the occasion of an uprising among the Kalingas, an expedition was sent from Cagayan by order of Governor-General Basco for the purpose of restoring order. During the first half of the nineteenth century, several important expeditions were made into the mountain country, largely by the famous Spanish explorer Guillermo Galvey. This brave military officer led no less than fortyfive expeditions into the mountain regions, the most famous of which were made in 1829, 1832, 1833, and 1837. On these occasions, he visited the greater part of the southern portion of what is now the Mountain Province. He touched Trinidad, Lutab, and Kalayan (Benguet), Kiangan and Mayoyao (Ifugao), Kayan (Lepanto) and Suyoc (Amburayan). Galvey, however, shared the honors of the ex382
HISTORY ploration of Lepanto with Antonio Hernandez, a Spanish military engineer. It was Hernandez, who, about the year 1850, visited the greater part of Lepanto for the purpose of gathering general information with a view to making maps and mining plans. At the end of the Spanish rule, the region which now forms the Mountain Province was divided into several politico-military comandanciM as follows: Cabugaoan, situated just east of Ilocos Norte; Apayao, adjoining Cabugaoan to the east; Haves, now the subprovince of Kalinga; Bontoc; Lepanto, with its dependency Tiagan; Amburayan; Kiangan, now approximately Ifugao; and Benguet and Cayapa, now eastern Benguet. These comandancias were formed at various times. The earliest of these politico-military comandancias to be formed were Benguet (1846), Lepanto (1852), and Bontoc (1859). The latest ones created were Amburayan (1889), Caougaoan (1891), and Cayapa (1891). In the early years of the Revolution this territory was practically unaffected by the war. But later, the revolutionists penetrated into some of these districts. For example, Amburayan was for a while governed by Pio Ancheta in the name of the Revolutionary Government. Benguet was likewise for a while governed by Juan Carino. General Luna is believed to have visited Cervantes for the purpose of establishing in that place an impregnable stronghold that could be used in case of necessity. Aguinaldo, in his memorable retreat that ended at Palanan, passed through Benguet, Lepanto-Bontoc, Ifugao, and Kalinga. The famous battle of Tila Pass in Lepanto, where General Gregorio del Pilar made his gallant stand, may also be mentioned in this connection. Of all the regions included in what is now the Mountain Province, Benguet was the first to be organized as a 383
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES province under American Rule. Civil government was established in Benguet as early as 1900, when Baguio was made capital. The next region to receive provincial organization was Lepanto-Bontoc. Lepanto-Bontoc was organized as a province in 1902, with Cervantes as capital. It had three subprovinces, namely, Amburayan, Lepanto and Bontoc, which included part of the territory now approximately known as the subprovince of Kalinga. Kalinga, however, was created as a separate subprovince of Lepanto-Bontoc in 1907. Apayao, from 1901, formed part of Cagayan Province, but it was created a subprovince in 1907. Ifugao from 1902 formed part of Nueva Vizcaya. Such was the governmental system which obtained in the mountain country until 1908. Then the Mountain Province was organized as a special province of the Archipelago, with Bontoc as capital. The newly created province includes as subprovinces the following units: Benguet, Amburayan, Lepanto, Bontoc, Ifugao (separated from Nueva Vizcaya), Kalinga, and Apayao (separated from Cagayan). This Mountain Province is now under the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes. II
GEOGRAPHY AMBURAYAN Amburayan, the only mountain subprovince possessing a coastline, is separated from Benguet and Lepanto by a high range of mountains of which Guirayan and Malaya are the highest peaks. The other mountain ranges run east and west between the rivers. The main road to the interior of this region is through a pass at an elevation of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level. 384
HISTORY The whole province is drained by the Amburayan River and a few small streams that flow into the sea across La Union. The valley of the Bakun and that of the main branch or the Amburayan comprise the southern two-thirds of Amburayan. The northern third is occupied by the valley of the Chico branch. The southern part is very inaccessible. The rivers are too swift and precipitous even for rafts. There are no roads of any importance except one horse trail from Tagudin to Alilem, the former capital. The climate is the same as that of Ilocos Sur and La Union. The rainfall comes from the west coast. Amburayan is very poor in natural resources. The only lowland under cultivation is the narrow coastal plain around Tagudin. The rest of the cultivated areas is confined to the valleys of the three branches of the Amburayan River. Here the Igorot villages are surrounded by rice terraces irriga ed in the same manner as those of Lepanto and Benguet. The Bakun district has the most striking rice-terraces. This region is a great plateau surrounded by high precipices difficult of access. Parts of the trails to Bakun consist of ladders hundreds of feet high on the side of cliffs. On this plateau are found the great amphitheatres of rice terraces. Sweet potatoes, vegetables, and tobacco are raised and exported. Coconut trees and mangoes are also found in large numbers. There are pine forests on the M;alaya range. On the mountains deforested by Igorots, there are grass lands, but cattle raising is limited. There are but few metallic minerals. Some deposits of asbestos and a low quality of copper ores are reported to exist in the range between the Amburayan and Malaya. The southern part of the subprovince which may contain minerals, has not yet been explored. Clay for common pottery is the only mineral used. 385
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The great water power available from the Amburayan river is not being utilized. There is at present a project to establish an irrigation system from this river to water the fields of Bangar, Balaoan and Luna. Fishing is extensive along the coasts. In the interior, little fish is found, for the rivers are too swift. Baskets are made for export. Excellent weaving is done in the valleys where cotton is grown. Tagudin is the only town inhabited by an entirely Christian population. On the valley of the Chico are many villages of Christian and non-Christian Igorots who have the same industries as the people of Tagudin and Lepanto. This subprovince and Lepanto have 1 municipality, 19 townships, and 191 barrios. Its former capital, Tagudin, with 11,237 inhabitants, now belongs to the Province of Ilocos Sur. It is located in the northwestern part of the province. APAYAO From the Cordillera range on the western border, the Subprovince of Apayao slopes eastward down to the valley of the Cagayan River. The eastern portion from the Tauit and Abulug Rivers is covered by an extensive nipa swamps, dotted here and there by low hills. The most important river, the Abulug, makes a remarkable curve, starting from the headwaters of the Apayao River in the northwest, then going southeastward to Kabugao whence it makes a northeasterly bend to the sea. Other rivers are the Talifugo, the Matalak, and the Sinundungan. Maize, camotes or sweet potatoes, and a great number of coconuts and bananas are grown. Upland rice is planted in /COlingins, or fire clearings in the forests. Tobacco 386
HISTORY planted in these clearings is sold to the lowlanders and marketed as Cagayan tobacco. Apayao contains one of the richest virgin forests of the Philippines, but because of the difficulty of transportation lumber is not cut on a commercial scale. Beeswax and rattan, however, are gathered and exchanged for pots, cloth and metals with the lowlanders. Mineral resources are as yet little explored. There are a few undeveloped copper and ore deposits on the Apayao and Talifugo Rivers. Limestone is also found. Fine clay for pottery is sold to the Ibanags of Isabela from whom the Apayaos buy the finished products. Apayaos hunt a great deal and fish by means of traps in the rivers. Crocodiles are plentiful in the Abulug and Tauit Rivers. The Negritos hunt deer and wild carabaos on the swamp hills. The Apayao villages are found along the rivers and the inhabitants become expert in managing their rafts or boats in the rapids. They are essentially a river people and are reluctant to settle in the valleys. The population is thickest in Kabugao where many rivers flow together. This town is the capital and is located in the south central part of the subprovince. Health conditions in the western half of the province are excellent, but in the swamps pernicious malaria and skin diseases of all kinds are prevalent. This subprovince has 5 townships, 60 settlements, and 136 rancherias. BENGUET The subprovince may be divided into three geographical areas: the valley of the Bued River which rises from the Baguio plateau; the Agno River of Benguet Valley occupying the northern and northeastern part of Benguet; and 387
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the Kapangan district, which embraces the headwaters of the Amburayan and Bauang Rivers. These different divisions are separated from one another by ranges of mountains, the one separating the Agno Valley from the Kapangan district being the higher. This range is second to the Cordillera Central in height. It is on the eastern border of :genguet that the highest peaks of Luzon are found. The land is well-drained, but the rivers are all precipitous, with large rapids and falls. In several places the slopes are so steep that landslides are common occurrences. There are also several lakes, most of them small in size, on the tops of mountains, Lake Trinidad is the largest, having a perimeter of about 4 kilometers. The Baguio Lake, although large in area, is a combination of several pools. The climate is, in general, humid, cool, and healthful. Although it is cool and refreshing in Baguio, it is colder in La Trinidad and Haight's Place, which is about 3,000 feet higher than Baguio itself. La Trinidad is the garden of Benguet. Strawberries, celery, cabbages, and other temperate fruits and vegetables are exported to Manila. In Haight's Place, the highland moss and lichen show how low the temperature gets during the year. Although the land is mountainous and hilly, the different industries have great possibilities. Agriculture is well developed, and although rice is imported, the people raise millet, beans, corn, and sweet potatoes in considerable quantities. Coffee is raised and exported in the Kayan district. There are vast tracts of land where cattle could be raised on a large scale, and if it were not for the fear of cattle disease, the Mountain Province would rank as the chief cattle-raising region in the Philippines. 388
HISTORY Benguet is at present the most important gold-mining district. The Igorots exploited the mines long before the coming of the Spaniards, and it is said that because of much experience, the Igorots are more skillful gold miners than those who use their knowledge of chemistry and mining engineering. Hot springs are found at Klondikes, Daklan, and Bunguias. Coal deposits exist in Mount Kapangan. _ The women weave cotton cloth for their skirts and jackets and for the men's G-strings. Local commerce is generally carried on by barter. The Igorots exchange gold nuggets for some of their necessaries. Cotton cloth in plaids or checks, hogs, chickens, dogs, and salt are also imported from the lowland regions. The people, with the exception of those in La Trinidad and Baguio, are Igorots. A few of them have been christianized and taught the industries of the Ilocanos. The Igorots are peaceful and industrious people. This subprovince has 14 townships and 95 barrios. Its capital is La Trinidad, with 503 inhabitants. l It is located in the west central part of the subprovince. BONTOC The Subprovince of Bontoc is exceedingly mountainous. There are no level spaces or plains except in the extreme eastern part where the rolling foothills descend into the Cagayan Valley. Separating Bontoc from Lepanto and Ifugao is the Cordillera central on the west and the Polis Range on the south. The highest peaks along the border are Mounts Mengmeng, Sipitan, and Amuyao. The land may be divided into three well-marked geographical areas: 1. The valley of the upper Chico and its tributaries. 2. The Siffu (Cadaclan) valley and its branch1
Non-Christian population, 2,572, not included.
389
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES es occupying the eastern portion that slopes eastward to the Cagayan valley. 3. The valley of the Tanodan River between the Chico and the Siffu Valleys. These valleys are separated from one another by high mountains that average 2,000 meters in height. The climate of the western half is similar to that of the southwestern half ' of Kalinga. The eastern half receives its rainfall from the east after the winds have passed through the Cagayan valley so that it is much drier than the western portion. The mineral resources of the region have not yet been explored, consequently very little is Known of them. Deposits of iron of considerable size have been developed and in places, as Tanolo for instance, small veins of lead and silver are found. Mainit is noted for a hot salt spring from which the natives extract large quantities of salt for local use and for export to Kalinga and Lepanto. There are two other hot springs in Sadafiga. Other non-metallic minerals are clay from which the natives make pottery and stone used by the Bontocs to build the walls of their rice terraces. The most important crops raised are rice, sweet potatoes, millet, and tobacco of a poor quality. There are very few fruits and vegetables. Rice terraces are usually found at the bottoms of river valleys and are carried only a short distance up the mountain sides. Probably more camotes are raised in Bontoc than in any other part of the Archipelago. Sweet potatoes are grown in terraces among the rice fields and also between the houses. The patches are so planted that the wayfarer is struck by the appearance of the curious geometric figures in which the sweet potatoes are planted. Millet is raised as a dry crop on the hillsides above the rice terraces. 390
HISTORY Fish is caught to some extent along the Chico river. Except chickens and dogs there are no domestic animals. Carahaos are allowed to run loose in fenced-in areas, and killed when wanted for food. There are only a few . wild animals, the only important ones being the wild pigs, carabao and deer in the extreme eastern portion. Besides agriculture and pottery-making, the principal industries consist of basket-making, lumbering, weaving, and metal-working. Bamboo and rattan baskets are exported to the rowlands. In Fidelisan a large sawmill has been erected which is operated by water-power for the pine lumber in the forests. The women, by means of their hand looms, weave a great deal of highly colored cloth out of yarn which they get by harter from the people of Isabela and Abra. The men manufacture head-axes and knives from steel which they obtain in the same way from the Igorots in the west. Most of the towns are 路much larger than those of the other subprovinces and are located along the rivers flowing through the valley bottoms. The people are being gradually christianized and take to-education readily. This subprovince has 7 townships and 47 barrios. Its capital is Bontoc, with 609 inhabitants. l It is located in the southwestern part of the subprovince. IFUGAO The Polis Mountain range on the north and west forms the border of the Suhprovince of Ifugao and cuts it off from Benguet and Lepanto in the west and from Bontoc in the north. Mount Pulog (2,924 meters) in the southwestern corner is the highest peak in Luzon and second only to Mount Apo of Mindanao in the Philippines. The Polis pass through this range and is 1,940 meters above lNon-Christian population, 10,107, not included. 391
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES sea level. Mountains cover the western two-thirds of the province. The eastern third, practically uninhabited, slopes gradually away into the valley of the Magat River. This region is one of the most fertile spots in the Philippines and is a part of the best tobacco-producing region of Isabela. It has always been a neutral ground between the Christians and the Apayaos. The southeast winds bring so much moisture that in the northern part of the province it rains all the year round. The land is well drained and the locality healthful. The north central part of Ifugao, included within a radius of 20 kilometers on either side of the Kiangan-Banaue road, is sparsely populated. "The soils are of basalt rock origin, very fertile and extensively cultivated. The chief agricultural product is rice, which is grown on terraces along the mountain sides. Nowhere in the Philippines is irrigation developed to the point reached in Ifugao. There are approximately 100 square miles of irrigated rice terraces that are watered by great ditches that run for miles. The terraces are all buttressed with stone walls which measure a total length of about 12,000 miles. It is believed that the construction of the present terraces and irrigation systems has taken from twelve to fifteen hundred years of time."-BEYER. The Ifugaos have so utilized every drop of available water supply that in most places it is useless to construct any more ditches for lack of water, a deficiency mostly due to deforestation. Several areas have been abandoned awaiting reforestation. Potatoes, taro, tobacco, cotton, and a great variety of vegetable such as peas, beans, and onions are grown by the Ifugaos. Except non-metals, no valuable minerals have as yet been discovered. There is a small seam of coal along the 392
HISTORY border of Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya near Cawayan, but it is not mined because of the difficulty of transportation. Around Kiangan, and especially to the south of it, there are deposits of lime suitable for mortar. There are extensive areas of good building stone such as terrace walls are made of, hard basic rocks of diorites and conglomerates. There is also good pottery clay. Salt springs and deposits of rock salt are found in the lower Cadaclan and in the valleys of the Asin and Andangan Rivers. The salt finds a large local market. No animals are used for field work, for everything is done by hand. When the rice fields become dry, fish for food is raised in ponds. Deer and wild carabaos are plentiful in the uninhabited regions. Two dialects are spoken in Ifugao, a circumstance evidently due to the separation of the inhabitants into two divisions by the ra'llge of mountains between the Alimit and the Ibulao Rivers. The Ifugaos are a very industrious people as shown in their terrace construction of rice fields. They only need education and Christianity to make them one of the great factors in the progress of these Islands. This SUbprovince has 3 townships and 191 barrios. Its capital is Kiangan, with 216 inhabitants. 1 It is located in the southwestern part of the province. KALINGA Except where this subprovince touches Cagayan and Isabela, it is entirely surrounded by a high range of mountains whose peaks range from 1,514 to 2,576 meters in height. Geographically, it may be divided into three regions: first, the more or less mountainous western third路 1
Non-Christian population, 37,897, not included. 393
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES west of the Chico River drainage basin; second, the valley of the Chico and its branches; third, the level plains region between the Chico River and Cagayan Province. The tops of the mountains are covered with pine forests and the slopes which are exceedingly rugged and precipitous are either bare or covered with grass. The land is b-arren because of continuous forest fires and landslides. The central valley region is the most densely populated. The principal products are irrigated upland rice, camotes and maize. Rice is planted in terraces along the bottoms of river valleys, not on the slopes of the mountains as in Ifugao, and three crops are commonly raised. This cereal is cheaper and more plentiful in Kalinga than in any other subprovince. The eastern third is covered with grass and thinly inhabited. The rivers are young and therefore rapid. Although there are many rapids and falls for power the water is utilized only in the southern part for irrigating the few terraces on the mountain sides. There are no lakes so that the rivers are the only source of the meager fish supply. The climate of the subprovince differs according to the region. The northeastern half which gets its rain from the Cagayan Valley has a well marked wet and long dry season. The southwestern half depends upon the west winds so that it receives much greater rainfall. Very little is known about the minerals of the region. There are no mining claims and the only industry that is based on the produce of the soil is pot-making which is confined to the lower part of the Chico River Valley. On the whole, the land is unfertile and unprepossessing. Agriculture is difficult without the aid of irrigation and fertilization of the soils. Cattle raising holds out hope for the prosperity of the subprovince. 394
HISTORY Besides rough pottery, the people also engage in bamboo and rattan basket-making, weaving and metal-working. Rattan is gathered in the forest along the western border, the only part where there is a true virgin forest. Weaving is carried on in the southern portion and metalworking by the Tinguianes on the western horder, especially in Balbalasang. Their chief products are head-axes, bolos, and spears. Steel is obtained by barter with the Ilocanos. There is very little outside trade. The people in the west trade with Abra, those in the east with the Ibanags of Cagayan and those in the south with Bontoc. Rice and baskets are the only exports. The inhabitants of Kalinga are the most mixed of any province of northern Luzon. Lubuagan is the capital and largest town, and has 226 Christian inhabitants. 1 It is located in the southwestern part of the subprovince. This subprovince has 4 townships and 39 barrios. LEPANTO Lepanto consists of the upper Abra River Valley, except a small area bordering on Ifugao and Bontoc which is drained by the headwaters of the Chico River. Running along the boundary of this subprovince are lofty mountains, the highest being the Polis Range. There are as many as 200 mountain peaks, the best known, not necessarily the highest, being Mount Data. Because of these high mountains, intercourse in former times throughout the region was done up and down the river valleys. The climate is similar to that of the west coast, the rainfall coming mainly from the west winds. 1
NOl1-Chl'istian population, 8,952, not included. 395
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The land, althO.ugh exceedingly mO.untainO.us, has very little virgin fO.rest, this being fO.und O.nly O.n the bO.rder range. Pines are the O.nly trees fO.und and are scattered O.n the mO.untain sides. The greater part O.f the cO.untry is cO.vered with grass and the river valleys are cultivated. There are as many as 15 to' 20 crater lakes fO.und in variO.us places. One lake is fO.und at the to'P O.f MO.unt Data and anO.ther O.ne at MO.unt Cagubata, to' which the IgO.rO.ts go. fO.r pilgrimage. The cultivated area is fO.und chiefly O.n the headwaters O.f the Chico. and Abra River Valleys. Lepanto' is next to' IfugaO. in the number O.f rice terraces. CamO.tes fO.r 100cal use, pineapples fO.r expO.rt, and sugar cane fO.r basi are also. raised. CO.ttO.n is cultivated in large quantities in the regiO.n frO.m Sabangan to' Insuda in the Chico. Valley, and frO.m Angaki to' the Abra bO.rder. Lepanto' and Benguet are the regiO.ns having the mO.st minerals in LuzO.n. All the mO.untain ranges in the sO.uthern part have milliO.ns O.f pesO.s wO.rth O.f CO.pper O.re depO.sits. Mankayan is the center O.f the CO.pper mining industry. Here, the Spaniards fO.und the IgO.rO.ts using the Chinese methO.d O.f mining and smelting. At present, there are abO.ut 50 O.r 60 American miners in the regiO.n, but nO.t much actual wO.rk is dO.ne fO.r lack O.f capital. SuyO.c is the gO.ld mining center. Here is fO.und O.ne O.f the mO.st striking features O.f the wO.rld. A whO.le side O.f a range O.f mO.untains, abO.ut 15 kilO.meters acrO.ss, slides dO.wn to' the valley. On this slide, knO.wn as the Palidan Slide, are fO.und parts O.f gO.ld veins which must have their cO.nnectiO.n sO.mewhere else. GO.ld mining has great pO.ssibilities in the regiO.n, but the wO.rk would prO.ve prO.fitable O.nly to' large cO.mpanies. The rO.ugh tO.pO.graphy O.f the land and the lack O.f transpO.rtatiO.n facilities are the O.nly 396
HISTORY difficulties encountered. Some Filipinos, especially the Igorots, are interested in gold mining. The household industries are well developed. Clay products, such as pots, jars and pipes made for export, are the best in the Mountain Province. The men are experts in metal-working. They make weapons, pots, and spoons out of copper which they mine and smelt by native process. They also manufacture iron or steel spears, bolos, knives, and tools of all sorts, which they sell to or barter with the natives of the lowlands. Gold is used by them in making ear-rings and other ornaments. They also carve wood into images, bowls, ornaments and other utensils. The women make sufficient cloth for their own use and for sale. They spin, dye, and weave the cotton raised there. The Tinguians who live in the region north of Concepcion-Angaki and in San Emilio weave cloth for export to western Abra. Cattle-raising is more extensive in Lepanto than in any other subprovince. Thâ&#x201A;Ź>usands of horses are allowed to run wild. These are exported to Bontoc, Ifugao, and Ilocos. There is but little fishing done in the rivers. Eels in large numbers are raised for religious purposes in Lepanto. Lepanto is accessible by two roads, one passing from west to east, the Tagudin-Bontoc road, and the other from south to north, from Benguet passing through Mankayan, Cervantes, and Angaki to Candon. Most of the people, except along the borders of Ifugao and Abra, are Igorots. Its capital is Cervantes, with 2,513 inhabitants.! It is located in the southwestern part of the subprovince. Lepanto has no municipality. It has 19 townships and 191 barrios, with Amburayan. 1
Non-Christian population, 3,259, not included. 397
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES III
MUNICIP AL DISTRICTS
Kiafigan Kihufigan La Trinidad Lubuagan Luna Mankayan Mayoyao Namaltugan Natonin Pinukpuk Sabafigan Sablan Sadanga Sagada Tabuk Tinglayan Tuba Tublay Tanudan
Atok Bakun Balbalan Banaue Barlig Bauko Bayag Besao Bokod B.ontoc Buguias Burnay Cabugao Conner Hunduan Itogon Kabayan Kapafigan Kayan IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . Population (estimated), as of July 1,1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class .................. . 173.6 Second class ................ . 612.9 Third class ................. . 29.6 398
1,402,120 620,380 572,030 397,456 102,136 P26,402,585 816.1
NEGROS OCCIDENTAL I
HISTORY
Occidental N egros may be said to be one of the latest provinces to be created under Spanish rule, for it was only in 1890 that it came into existence as a province. Previous to that time it formed an integral part of the island and province of N egros. The old name of this island was Buglas, but the Spaniards who first visited the island, seeing the place inhabited by Negritos, gave to it the name which it has ever since borne. Fray Andres de Urdaneta visited the island in 1569, landing at the mouth of Danao River, within the territory which now belongs to Occidental Negros. It appears that Occidental Negros, and in fact the whole island of N egros, unlike many regions in the Philippines, was very sparsely populated in tIie early years. In what is now Occidental Negros, Ilog and Binalbagan appear to be the only native settlements at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. These settlements were later erected into towns, Binalbagan in 1575, and Ilog in 1584. It was perhaps due to this scarcity of population that the island of N egros was organized as it was at first. N egros being divided, for purposes of administration, between Iloilo and Cebu. According to this arrangement, practically what is now Occidental Negros formed part of the Province of Iloilo. In 1734, however, the island was made into a military district by itself. Of this district, Negros Occidental became a part. The new district had Ilog as capital for a time. Later the seat of government was 399
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES transferred to Himamaylan from which in 1849, it was removed to Bacolod, at present the capital of Occidental Negros. Such was the status of Negros, a military district up to about the middle of the 19th century. Then in 1856 Negros was raised to the category of a politico-military province, Don Emilio Saravia being the first politico-military governor. It was during the governorship of Saravia that several towns of Occidental N egros, like San Isidro, San Carlos and Calatrava were established. The last half of the nineteenth century was a period of rapid material growth and development in the history of Occidental N egros. One evidence of this development was the growth Qf population. In 1856, there began a great influx of immigrants into the island from neighboring provinces like Antique, Capiz, and Cebu. A considerable number of the immigrants found their way to what is now Occidental Negros, settling in districts which had hitherto been sparsely, if at all, inhabited. As a consequence of such an influx of immigrants, the population of Occidental Negros increased from about 18,000 in 1850 to 148,137 in 1887. Another result was the establishment of new towns. In 1860, there were founded the important towns of Saravia, Valladolid and Escalante. The economic prosperity which set in d1,lring the same period was shown by the marked increase in the production of sugar. This result was due to the stimulus given to the cultivation of cane sugar by the opening of ports like Iloilo and Cebu to foreign commerce. The Island of N egros soon led the other provinces in the production of sugar. In 1856, N egros produced only about 4,000 piculs. This amount was increased to 100,000 in 1864, and 2,000,000 in 1893. In Occidental Negros, the cultivation of cane sugar soon began to be made on a large scale. The years 1860400
ApPROVAL OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE PHILIPPINES BY U. S. PRESIDENT FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF THE PHILIPPINES, 1935
HISTORY 1861 saw the beginning of the creation of large haciendas like San Ildefonso de Minuluan, Silay, and Vista-Alegre. Modern machinery also began to be used, and by 1864 seven machines, operated by steam, were being used in the towns of Bacolod, Mim.iluan, and Bago. During the last decade of the nineteenth century two important events occurred in the history of Occidental N egros. One was the division in 1890 of tlie Island and province of Negros which had theretofore existed as a politico-military province since 1856. The other took place in 1898. In November of that year the Spanish authorities capitulated at Bacolod to the Revolutionists under Juan Araneta. Immediately thereafter a Revolutionary Government was established, Juan Araneta acting as governor. Under this government Occidental and Oriental N egros were once more UNited and so remained until the establishment of civil government when the former divisions were reestablished. Civil government was established in Occidental N egros, April 20, 1901. II
GEOGRAPHY
The Province of N egros Occidental occupies the northern and western parts of the Island of N egros. It has an area of 8,097 square kilometers, about 110,256 hectares of which are actually under cultivation. The coast is very much more irregular than that of Oriental Negros. By reason of the coral reefs which abound near the coast, particularly to the west, navigation is very dangerous and difficult. Large vessels cannot enter the port of Bacolod, the capital, because of shallow water in the harbor. Sugar from the province is carried by "lorchas" to the port of Iloilo, the greatest terminal port of call in western Visa401
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES yas, for export. Escalante, sheltered by coral reefs, is an important harbor in the northeastern part, while San Carlos, which is also protected by Refugio or Sipauay Island, is an important port of call on the west. The northern and western parts of Occidental N egros are a vast level plain, while the remaining portion is practically a land of sierras of varying elevations. Mount Silay and Mount Mandalagan are the highest peaks in the province. The western part of the province, though covered with mountains which are overgrown with valuable timber and rattan, is much more accessible than the eastern side of the island. Coal deposits have been discovered but their extent is not yet known. A medicinal spring is found in the town of Murcia. The province enjoys a very cool and invigorating climate. Rainfall is abundant, except in the south where a long dry season is experienced. This is because the high mountains on the north cut off the rain brought by the northeast monsoons. The coastal plain is broken up here and tliere by many large rivers, the most navigable of which are the Silay River, the Ilog, the Binalbagan and the Bago. The soil is of limestone origin, well adapted to the growth of sugar-cane. About 75 per cent of all the exported sugar from the entire Archipela,go comes from Occidental N egros. Bacolod, Bago, Talisay, San Carlos, Ilog, the Binalbagan are the centers of sugar industry. Occidental N egros has as many as 518 haciendas, and six sugar centrals in actual operation. Rice, hemp, and tobacco are chiefly raised in the town of Escalante, while corn is produced in San Carlos. Copra is exported from the southern towns. The province is but thinly populated and the necessary hands are lacking to develop the limitless resources of the 402
HISTORY mountains and plains. Most of the laborers come from the island of Panay, principally from Iloilo and Capiz. While the majority of the population is engaged in agriculture, a goodly percentage is employed in lumbering, an industry which is being rapidly developed by the establishment of sawmills. This province has 26 municipalities and 442 barrios. Its capital is Bacolod, with 19,350 inhabitants. l It is located in the northwestern part of the province. III MUNICIPALITIES
BACOLOD Bago Binalbagan Cadiz Calatrava Cauayan Escalante Himamaylan Hinigaran Ilog Isabela Kabankalan La Carlota
La Castellana Manapla Murcia Pontevedra Pulupandan Sagay San Carlos San Enrique Saravia Silay Talisay Valladolid Victorias
IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ........... . Agricultural area (hectares) ........... . 1
Non-Christian population, 64, not included. 403
809,370 601,080
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. Population (estimated), as of July 1,1935 . School population (estimated), 1933-1934 . Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges, (kilometers), 1934 ... . First class .................. Second class ................ Third class .................
404
491.8 113.9 59.0
424,200 488,716 127,141 P144,542,530 664.7
NEGROS ORIENTAL I
HISTORY
N egros Oriental, like its sister province to the west, was not created into a separate province until 1890. On this account it has the distinction of being one of the last few provinces to be created by the Spanish government. Previous to 1890 Oriental N egros was an integral part of the Island and Province of Negros. This island was formerly known as Buglas, but the name was changed to "Negros" by the early Spaniards because of the fact that at the time N egritos abounded on the Island. Like N egros Occidental, N egros Oriental was at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards far from being a wellpopulated region. There were not to be found here thriving native settlements such as existed in other regions of the Philippines, even before the arrival of the Spaniards. Dumaguete, formerly known as Managuit, a name which was given to it by Moro pirates, seems to be the only settlement in Oriental Negros when the Spaniards arrived. Some of the towns of early creation were founded at the close of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th. Dauin, for example, was founded in 1787; Tayasan, in 1790; Jimalalud, in 1797; Guijulngan, in 1800; and Bacong, in 1801. As first constituted, what is now Oriental Negros was placed under the jurisdiction of the Province of Cebu. As such, it remained until 1734, when the whole Island of Negros was made into a separate military district. Of this district, Oriental N egros became an integral part. 405
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Like many other provinces, Oriental N egros suffered long and greatly from the ravages of Moro pirates. As a matter of fact the Moros continued to make incursions upon the coast towns of the province down to as late as 1873. As a defensive measure, watch-towers were erected along the coast. In these towers men were stationed to watch for the approach of the Moros. One of such towers, built in 1811, is still standing in Dumaguete. In 1856, the military district of Negros was raised to the category of a politico-military province. In the same year began the immigration into N egros of people from neighboring provinces like Antique, Capiz, and Cebu. As a result of such immigration, the population of Negros Oriental increased considerably. In 1850, it was estimated to be a little over 20,000. In 1887, however, this number had increased to 122,754. The second half of the 19th century was a period of economic prosperity for the Island of Negros and incidentally for the province of Oriental N egros as well as for Occidental N egros. This period saw the opening of the ports of Iloilo and Cebu to foreign commerce. The opening of the ports gave incentive to the production of sugar in N egros. In 1856, only about 4,000 piculs of sugar were produced. However, in 1864, this amount had increased to 100,000 piculs, while in 1893 the amount reached the 2,000,000 mark. In 1890, the Island and Province of N egros was divided into two politico-military provinces: Occidental and Oriental N egros. Oriental N egros remained as such till the close of Spanish rule. As constituted in 1898, it included the following towns: Amblan, Ayungon, Ayuquitan, Bacong, Bais, Bayanan, Canoan, Dauin, Dumaguete (capital), Guijuliigan, Manjuyod, Nueva Valencia, Siaton, Tanjay, Tayasan, Tolon, and Zamboanguita. Moreover, it included 406
HISTORY in its jurisdiction the Island of Siquijor, which formerly was a dependency of the Province of Bohol. The Revolution had its effects also in Oriental Negros, where the people, shortly after the outbreak of the Revolution, rose in revolt. The uprising led to the capitulation of the Spaniards in November, 1898. A Filipino Revolutionary Government was immediately thereafter established, Juan Araneta acting as governor. Under this government Negros was constituted as a single province, known as the "Politico-Military Government of Negros." With the establishment of civil government, the island was again divided into Occidental and Oriental Negros. In Oriental N egros, civil government was established May 1, 1901. II
GEOGRAPHY
This Province, belonging to the eastern Visayan group, forms a part of the Island of N egros. It comprises the region east of the central range of the island of N egros, Siquijor Island, and a number of smaller ones lying adjacent. It is separated from Occidental Negros by a chain of rugged mountains and from the Island of Cebu by the Tafion Strait. The province, covering an area of 4,926 square kilometers, is sparsely populated, because the surface of the land, with the exception of a narrow seaboard, is hilly. The coast is very irregular. The most important indentations are the North Bais Bay and the South Bais Bay. The latter, besides having a deeper entrance, is a safer place for anchorage than the former, which is obstructed by coral reefs. The climate is like that of Cebu. The province has but little rainfall, because it is shut off from the east by 407
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the mountains of Cebu and from the west by those of Occidental Negros; consequently, the rivers are short, but are navigable for small boats carrying on local trade. The soil is sterile, being of limestone origin. The chief food of the people is corn. Kapok and coconuts are exported. Abaca and sugar cane are also grown but to a limited extent. The animals raised are similar to those of Cebu. There are two large lakes in Oriental N egros, namely, Lake Balinsasayao, and Lake Lanao which is the crater of an extinct volcano. There are two active volcanoes, one of which, called Canlaon, is in the extreme north, and the other one, which emits smoke and gases, is near Dumaguete. The mountains are covered with forests of fine timber, but the difficulty of transporting logs to the coast is so great that lumbering is not much of an industry among the people. Sulphu has been discovered at Tayasan and Mount Tanglad. The town of Dauin is well known for its medicinal spring. Most of the people live near the coasts, where they have better facilities to engage in interisland commerce. Their chief occupations are farming, sinamay weaving, embroidery, and the making of !mats and hats from the leaves of buri palms and of chairs and other furniture from rattan. The capital is Dumaguete, a town so situated on the mouth of a river as to make it an important commercial center. It has 16,227 inhabitants. Some of the other important towns are Tolong, Bais, Vallehermoso, La Libertad, Tayasan, Tanjay, Dauin, Siaton and Siquijor in the Island of Siquijor. The interior of the province has only a few towns and the means of communication between them is poor. 408
HISTORY This province has 24 municipalities, 1 municipal district, and 217 barrios. III MUNICIPALITIES
Luzuriaga Manjuyod Maria San Juan Siaton Sibulan Siquijor Tanjay Tayasan Tolong Vallehermoso Zamboanguita
Ayufigon Ayuquitan Bacong Bais Dauin DUMAGUETE Enrique Villanueva Guihulfigan Jimalalud La Libertad Laren.a Lazi
MUNICIPAL DISTRICT
Tambo
IV STATISTICS
492,620 Approximate area (hectares) ............ . 278,020 Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . 188,350 Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. 352,96391,715 School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ........ . P35,719,230 383.6 Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class .................. . 281.5 Second class ................ . 68.3 Third class ................. . 33.8 409
NUEVA ECIJA I
HISTORY
In 1705, Governor Fausto Cruzat created a portion of Pampanga into a military comandancia of that province, naming the district Nueva Ecija, in honor of his native city. In that newly created C'omandancia, what is now the Province of Nueva Ecija had its humble origin. From a military comanrlancia., Nueva Ecija grew into a province of important dimensions. In 1818 her limits extended to the Pacific and included regions which now form part of othâ&#x201A;Źr provinces. The town of Palanan, now belonging to Isabela, was once a part of Nueva Ecija. The northern portion of what is now Tayabas, including the towns of Baler, Casiguran, Infanta, and Polillo, was also included within the limits of Nueva Ecija. Extensive as was the territory of Nueva Ecija, her population up to the middle of the nineteenth century remained comparatively small, being only 9,165 in 1845. In 1848, however, Gapan, San Isidro, Cabiao, San Antonio and Aliaga were separated from Pampanga and added to Nueva Ecija. The adjudication of these towns to Nueva Ecija raised the popUlation to 69,135, besides enlarging her already extensive territory. It was not long, however, before great portions of this territory were taken away and Nueva Ecija was reduced to practically her present limits. In 1853, the district of Principe, now a part of Tayabas, was formed out of Baler, Casiguran and two other towns of Nueva Ecija. In 1856, Isabela was created into a province and Palanan and the neighboring regions were given to the newly created prov410
HISTORY ince. Two years afterwards, Binangonan and Polillo were also separated from Nueva Ecija to form part of Infanta which was created a military district that year. Nueva Ecija was one of the first eight provinces to raise the standard of revolt in 1896. Later, when the Revolutionary Government was formed in 1898, Nueva Ecija came under its control. Felino Cajucom for some time acted as governor. Civil go~ernment was organized in Nueva Ecija on June 11, 1901. The seat of government of Nueva Ecija was transferred from one place to another at various times. Baler was the first capital, Bongabong the second, and Cabanatuan the third. In 1852, the capital was moved to San Isidro where it remained until 1912, at which time it was restored to Cabanatu n. II
GEOGRAPHY
Nueva Ecija is the easternmost of the provinces in the fertile central plain of Luzon. Tilting westward from the Caraballo mountains, it is bounded on the north by Pangasinan and Nueva Vizcaya, on the east by Nueva Vizcaya and Tayabas, on the south by Pampanga and Bulacan, and on the west by Tarlac and Pangasinan. The province is new and sparsely settled. Most of the inhabitants are immigrants from the Tagalog, Ilocano, and Pangasinan regions. At present, Nueva Ecija is second in rice production and a large part of its crop is exported. Vegetables and fruits are abundant. Corn, sweet potatoes and sugar cane are important products. 411
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The rolling hills towards the mountains are suitable for pasture lands. The mountains are thick with untouched forests that yield fine wood and minor forest products. In the mountains and rivers gold is found. Placer mining is the method used to recover it. There are many mineral and hot springs, the ones at Bongabon and Pantabangan being the most important. The land is well drained by the Pampanga River and its tributaries. Though the rivers are too small to be navigable for case os except in the rainy season, the basin affords easy road making. There are a few lakes, the San Francisco, the 'Falavera, and the Paitan being the most important. They teem with fish. Cabanatuan, the capital, San Isidro and Gapan are the chief commercial towns. There is a Government Agricultural School at Munoz which is attended by students from different provinces. This province has 27 municipalities and 223 barrios. The capital is located in the southwestern part of the province, and has 15,282 inhabitants. III MUNICIPALITIES
Aliaga Bongabon CABANATUAN Cabiao Carranglan Cuyapo Gapan Guimba Jaen
Laur Licab Lupao Munoz Nampicuan Pantabangan Papaya Penaranda Quezon 412
HISTORY Santa Rosa Santo Domingo Talavera Zaragoza
Rizal San Antonio San Isidro San Jose San Leonardo IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area: (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 '.. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ........ . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class .. . . . ... . ........ Third class ..................
413
315.3 229.7 57.6
541,710 383,610 159,090 323,962 83,708 P92,616,780 602.6
NUEVA VIZCAYA I
HISTORY
As early as 1839, Governor Luis Lardizabal, upon the advice of the Alcalde Mayor of Cagayan, issued an order creating Nueva Vizcaya into a politico-military province. The order was approved by a Royal Decree dated April 10, 1841. The new province included the regions comprising the old missions of Ituy and Paniqui, in addition to the towns of Gamu, Furao and Dagan. At the time of its creation, the new province had a population of about 19,754 souls. As created in 1839, Nueva Vizcaya comprised a rather extensive territory including not only what is now Nueva Vizcaya, but also the present subprovince of Ifugao and a good deal of the present province of Isabela. But when Isabela was created in 1856, Nueva Vizcaya ceded to the newly created province a good deal of her northeastern territory, including Camarag, her capital. The capital of Nueva Vizcaya was moved to Bayombong. The history of Nueva Vizcaya, like that of many other provinces of the Philippines, antedates its creation as such. The early history of what is now Nueva Vizcaya is, to a great extent, really the history of the missions of Ituy and Paniqui. As far back as 1609, the mission of Ituy was already organized. Among the early missionary centers established in this region were the now defunct town of San Miguel, founded in 1632, and the town of Aritao, founded in 1665. Bayombong was in the beginning a missionary center of Ituy. So was Bagabag. 414
HISTORY The work of the missionaries proceeded under great difficulties, inasmuch as the natives disputed with them every inch of territory and resisted their advance. Military expeditions were therefore dispatched to these regions from time to time. Gaspar de la Torre, for example, sent in 1745 such an expedition under the leadership of a native soldier by the name of Lorenzo Dipagang. Three years later, another expedition was again dispatched under the command of Vicente de Ibarra, a Spanish military officer, ably seconded by a native soldier by the name of Cuarto Maddela. In 1832, Guillermo Galvey led another expedition through these regions which traversed the towns of Bayombong, Lumabang (now Solano), and Bagabag. But perhaps the mo~t famous of all the expeditions through this territory was the one led by D. Mariano Oscarriz in 1847 and 1848. He explored the Ifugao country and visited Palanan. The influence of the Revolution was not felt at once in Nueva Vizcaya. It was not until the latter part of 1898 that the Revolutionists, after having taken Cagayan and Isabela, occupied Nueva Vizcaya. Bayombong, whither Jose V. Perez Martinez, the last Spanish governor of Isabela had fled, capitulated in September, 1898. Civil government was established in Nueva Vizcaya in January, 1902. But in September, 1905, Nueva Vizcaya was made a special province. Three years later, when the Mountain Province was created, the Ifugao territory of Nueva Vizcaya was detached and given to the newly created province. To compensate it for this loss, Nueva Vizcaya was given the region formerly known as the comandancia of Binatangan, which had hitherto been a part of Isabela. This province is now under the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes. 415
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES II
GEOGRAPHY
The Province of Nueva Vizcaya is in the north central part of Luzon and is bounded by Isabela and the Mountain Province on the north, Nueva Ecija and Tayabas on the south, the Pacific Ocean on the east, and Pangasinan clnd the Mountain Province on the west. From the south and west, Nueva Vizcaya may be reached via Nueva Ecij a or Pangasinan from where there are trails, passable for horses, which connect the said provinces with the Bayombong-Santa Fe road, a distance of 49 kilometers from the capital of the province. The present number of Christian inhabitants of the province is 28,432. There are vast areas of fertile public land, suitable for rice, tobacco, sugar, beans, potatoes, coffee, cacao, coconuts, and abaca, practically untouched, as well as virgin forests filled with all classes of valuable timber. Nueva Vizcaya forms part of the so-called Cagayan Valley and is the gateway to and granary of the tobaccoproducing provinces of Isabela and Cagayan, whose valleys are each year fertilized by the waters of the Cagayan and Magat Rivers, arising in the forest clad hills and valleys of Nueva Vizcaya. The climatic conditions of Nueva Vizcaya are unsurpassed. There are places the climate of which is similar to that of Baguio. There are also places of scenic beauty, such as Salinas, which are not inferior to world-famous objectives of tourist travel. The salt springs at Salinas have been from time immemorial the source of this essential food element to the peoples of even distant regions. The application of modern methods of salt production is one 416
HISTORY of the activities of the provincial government in the development of our marvelous natural resources. The province has 6 municipalities, 5 municipal districts, and 153 barrios. Its capital is Bayombong, with 5,585 inhabitants. 1 It is located in the northwestern part of the province. III MUNICIP ALITIES
BAYOMBONG Dupax Solano
Aritao Bagabag Bambang
MUNICIP AL DISTRICTS
Pinappagan Pingkian
Imugan Kayapa Kasibu IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School popUlation (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ....... . ......... Third class .................. 1
102.6 34.6 31.4
Non-Christian population, 34, not included.
417
684,390 283,890 267,370 35,838 9,431 PI0,433,900 168.6
PALAWAN I
HISTORY
The settlements of the province of Palawan were undoubtedly among the earliest to come under Mohammedan influence. It is believed that the Mohammedan movement which overran all of Oceania between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries took two distinct courses on reaching the Philippines. One of these led to Mindanao, while the other lay through the string of islands which constitute the present pr vince of Palawan. The Spaniards established their authority first in the northern portion of the province, over the islands of Calamianes group. Th"ey organized these into a province, known as Calamianes. The southern portion of the province, that which includes the big Island of Paragua, was then a part of tbe sultanate of Borneo and as such was beyond Spanish authority. However, in the early part of the eighteenth century, the Spaniards established a garrison at Taytay in the northern portion of the island. Later they built a fort there capable of accommodating a garrison of 70'0 men. From that time on, Taytay became the bulwark of Spanish authority in that portion of Paragua, as well as an advanced post of Catholicism. The Moros tried to capture it in 1730 and again 1735 but their attempts failed each time. Aoout the middle of the same century, the Spanish government obtained from the Sultanate of Borneo the cession of the southern part of Paragua. The attempt was soon after made to extend Spanish authority to the newly acquired territory by establishing there a colony similar 418
HISTORY to the one at Taytay. The enterprise, however, had to be abandoned because of the outbreak of fever from which a considerable number of the expeditionary force perished. During the nineteenth century several changes were made in the organization of the province. In 1818, practically all the territories which now belong to Palawan was known as the province of Calamianes. This province had its capital at Taytay. In 1858, Calamianes was divided into two provinces: Castilla and Asturias. The first comprised the Calamianes group and adjacent islands, and the northern portion of Paragua. Its capital was Taytay. Asturias included the rest of Paragua together with the Island of Balabac, which early that year was made into a politico-military province under the name of Principe Alfonso. This province had its capital at Puerto Princesa. Later, during the time of Governor Izquierdo, a further change was made. The Island of Paragua was organized into a separate politico-military province with Puerto Princesa as capital. At the end of Spanish rule, the Province of Palawan was divided into three district politico-military provinces: Calamianes, Paragua, and Balabac. Among the places of special interest in Palawan may be mentioned Balabac, on the Island of the same name. It will be remembered that a great number of the men who were exiled in 1896 because of alleged complicity in the Katipunan, which in August of that year raised the standard of revolt, were sent to Balabac. Civil government was established June 23, 1902. The province as organized was known as Paragua. It included practically what belonged to the former province of Castilla, namely, the Calamianes group and adjacent islands and that part of the Island of Paragua north of the 10Q north latitude. The capital was first established at Cuyo. Later, however, it was moved to Puerto Princesa. 419
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES In 1903, the boundary of the province was extended to include its present territory. In 1905, the name Paragua was changed to Palawan, the present name of the province. II
GEOGRAPHY
The long and narrow Island of Palawan lies across the Sulu Sea between the Islands of Mindoro on the north and Borneo on the south. This province, with an enormous area of 14,553 square kilometers, includes the island of Palawan and about 200 other small islets, of which the Calamian Group, Cuyo, Dumarang, Cagayanes, and Balabac, are the most important. The eastern coast contains many deep, landlocked bays and excellent harbors, with a depth ranging from 2 to 20 fathoms. These arms of the sea are well-protected from terrific storms, and from the influence of strong currents and big weaves of the Sulu sea. The western coast is bordered with dangerous coral reefs, so that there is practically no trade carried on here. The bays of Bacuit, Imuruan Ulugan, and the Malampaya Sound, afford good places for anchorage on the west coast. The climate is rather warm, because of its long dry season. The rain clouds during the northeast monsoons practically lose all their moisture before reaching the southwestern parts of the Archipelago, so that Palawan receives no rainfall at this time. When the southwest winds come, the land receives torrential rains, which are not so evenly distributed as to support the growth of abaca. A chain of mountain ranges of considerable height runs throughout the entire length of the island, dividing it into two distinct parts. The highest peak on the south 420
HISTORY is Mount Mantalingahan, 1,788 meters, and the Cleopatra Needle Peak on the north, which is 1,585 meters high above sea level. The proximity of these mountains to the coasts gives rise to short rivers of little importance. The forests are rich in valuab'le woods, rattan, beeswax, resins and barks for tanning leather, which are exported in great quantities. The narrow plain along the coasts, and the valleys in the interior are fertile and productive. Rice, corn, and sweet potatoes are raised for local use, though rice is imported to a considerable amount. Coconuts thrive best along the seashores, and form the chief item for export. Oranges are also exporteo from the Island of Cuyo. There are plenty of grazing grounds on some of the small islands, where cattle and carabaos are raised and exported. The .island is dch in mineral resources. Iron, SUlphur, gold, lead, antimony and quartz, are believed to exist because of the geological conditions. So far copper is the only mineral discovered, but not yet exploited. The chief industry of the people is fishing, gathering trepangs, seashells, and edible birds' nests on the limestone cliffs near the shores. Trepangs and edible birds' nests are excellent food for the Chinese, and are therefore exported to China. The seashells are exported to Manila for making buttons. The capital is Puerto Princesa, having 5,827 inhabitants. I It is the largest town and chief seaport of Palawan on the east coast. Taytay is the chief seaport on the north. Cuyo and Balabac are other towns of commercial importance. The latter trades with the Spice Islands, particularly Borneo, while Puerto Princesa, and Cuyo deal with the ports of Manila and Iloilo. 1
Non-Christian population, 645, not included.
421
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The proximity of th~ island to the Dutch East Indies and to Borneo puts Palawan in a very advantageous position commercially. Besides the favorable location, Palawan is favored by the valleys of great fertility, the well protected ports, the easily exploited virgin forests and the rich fishing banks. The Palawan group has a very few people. The Tagalogs and the Vi sayans o'Ccupy the northern part of Palawan and some of the best islands on the north; the Moros live in the south, while the Bataks, the Taghanuas and the primitive Palawans, ' inhabit the impregnable interior. This province has 8 municipalities, 3 municipal districts, and 132 barrios. III MUNICIPALITIES
Agutaya Bacuit Cagayancillo Coron
Cuyo Dumaran PUERTO PR.INCESA Taytay MUNICIPAL DISTRICTS
Aborlan Balabac
Brooke's Point
IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) Agricultural area (hectares) Still available for agriculture (hectares) 422
1,455,320 798,990 786,810
HISTORY Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 School population (estimated), 1933-1934 Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ......... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 ..... . Second class ................... Third class ....................
423
47.7 56.8
103,816 26,766 P6,242,700 104.5
PAMPANGA I
HISTORY
Soon after the Spaniards occupied Manila in 1571, they learned that north of Manila Bay along the bank of a great river, there lived brave people called PaJrnpangans. This people had several prosperous settlements" among the most important of which at that early time were Lubao, Betis, Macabebe, Bacolor, Candaba, and Arayat. A story is told anent the refusal of the people of what is now southern Pampanga to receive the Spaniards as friends. It appears that soon after Legazpi had occupied Manila, a delegatIOn of prominent natives from Macabebe and Hagonoy went to Tondo to persuade Rajah Lacandola to expel the newcomers. Legazpi learned of the arrival of the delegation and sent two Spaniards to receive them and to conduct them to his palace in the belief that they had coone to declare their allegiance to Spain. But the native delegates, true to their intentions, refused the friendly overtures of Legazpi's envoys. The king of Macabebe, who led the delegation, is reported to have told the Spaniards: "May the sun split my body into halves, and may my women folks heap their hatred on me, if I should ever become a friend of the Castilians." To overcome the resistance of the Pampangans, Legazpi sent Martin de Goiti with an army to effect the submission of the region north of Manila Bay. At Lubao and Betis, the Spaniards met great opposition. The Pampangans entrenched themselves in strong forts and at first successfully resisted the Spanish attacks. However, after great difficulties, Goiti succeeded in advancing and early 424
HISTORY in 1572 had the greater part of what is now Pampanga under control. In the course of his exploration, he penetrated as far north as the shores of the Lingayen Gulf. Hardly had the conquest of Pampanga been completed, when this region was formally created into a province with Bacolor as capital. As created, the new province occupied a vast region, including parts of the present Provinces of Bataan, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija. About the middle of the seventeenth century, two great rebellions broke out in the province. The first of these took place in 1645 as a result of the injustices connected with the collection of tributes. It spread quickly and extended to Zambales. The second revolt took place fifteen years later as a result of the forcible employment of natives in the work of cutting timber and of the failure of the Government to pay for large amounts of rice collected in Pampanga for the use of the royal officials. The leader of the rebellion was Francisco Maniago. It spread rapidly among the inhabitants of the towns along the banks of the Pampanga River, and was only suppressed after drastic measures were taken by Governor-General Manrique de Lara. It may also be mentioned that the attempt of Andres Malong to annex Pampanga to his projected kingdom of northern and western Luzon occurred at this time. Malong sent an army of 6,000 men under Melchor de Vera to effect the conquest of Pampanga. This army reached as far as Magalan, but here it met the Spanish forces which forced it to retreat. The province of Pampanga as created in 1571 comprised a vast region which, however, was reduced from time to time. In 1754, when the Province of Bataan was created, it was given a narrow strip of Pampangan territory comprising the towns of Dinalupihan, Hermosa, 425
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Orani, Samal, Abucay, Balanga, Pilar, and Orion. In 1848, by adjudication to Nueva Ecija, Pampanga lost the towns of Gapan, San Isidro, Cabiao, San Antonio and Aliaga, as well as the town of San Miguel and its neighborhood which was given to Bulacan. For the third time in 1860, Pampanga lost a portion of her territory. It was in this year that its northwestern district including the towns of Bamban, Capas, Concepcion, Victoria, Tarlac, Mabalacat, Magalan, Porac, and Florida Blanca was detached and erected into a cmnandancia politico-militar. The last four towns, however, were returned to Pampanga in 1873. Pampanga was one of the first provinces to start the Revolution. During the early part of the war, Mariano Llanera commanded the Revolutionary forces. Later, Tiburcio Hilario took possession of the pi'ovince as governor in the name of the Revolutionary Government. Civil government was established in Pampanga on February 13, 1901. II
GEOGRAPHY
With the exception of the western portion which embraces the low hills of the Zambales range, and of Mount Arayat, Pampanga is the lowest and most level of all the provinces of the Philippines. As the province is destitute of mineral wealth, the people depend mostly upon agriculture, lumbering, fishing, and other industries. The areas of fertile heavy soil in the northern part make Pampanga the chief sugar-raising province of Luzon and the second in the Philippines. The central and southern portions and the areas bordering the Candaba swamp export much rice. Other parts of the plain produce corn, peanuts, bananas, mangoes, and other 426
HISTORY fruits and some vegetables. The mountains of the west and Mount Arayat supply much timber. The Negritos of the Zambales side trade rattan and beeswax with the lowland people. The low hills contain fine grasslands for cattle and horses. The eastern portion, embracing almost one-fifth of the area of the province, is covered by the Candaba swamp, which is a principal resource of the people for alcohol and nipa thatch. The delta of the Pampanga River in the south bordering Manila Bay is also covered with mangrove swamps which supply firewood and tan bark. It is also the home of the fishermen. Besides farming, sugar making, lumbering and fishing, the people are engaged in several other industries, such as the distillation of alcohol, buri, hat making and pottery. Thousands of pilones for the sugar industry and quantities of clay jars for the surrounding provinces are manufactured. The sedimentary character of the soil and the topography of the province favor the drilling of artesian wells, over 300 of which are at present in use. Pampanga is an exceptionally fertile plain and, with initiative and effort, the inhabitant has every opportunity to become prosperous by taking advantage of the great possibilities around him. Commerce is fostered by cheap transportation. Th.,e tributaries and estuaries of the river afford easy means of travel. Small boats ply in the rivers from one town to another, carrying goods to or from Manila. The railroad has greatly assisted the development of the province. Many of the inhabitants are traders and those from Macabebe are given to traveling in other provinces. This province has 21 municipalities and 410 barrios. Its capital is San Fernando, with 21,092 inhabitants. It is located in the southeastern part of the province. 427
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES III MUNICIP ALITIES
Angeles Apalit Arayat Bacolor Candaba Floridablanca Guagua Lubao Mabalacat Macabebe Magalan
Masantol Mexico Minalin Porac SAN FERNANDO San Luis San Simon Santa Ana Santa Rita; Sexmoan
IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 " Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
428
222.6 90.0 137.9
210,190 139,260 47,650 292,912 76,519 P67,852,280 450.5
PANGASINAN I
HISTORY
It is believed that a native kingdom existed in preSpanish times in the region which now belongs to Pangasinan. This native kingdom was called by the early chroniclers "Layug na Caboloan." At the time of the arrival of the first missionaries in this region, the king was Kasikis. His capital was Sapan Palapar in the neighborhood of the present town of San Carlos. The coast towns of Pangasinan, like those of Ilocos, were known to Chinese and Japanese traders long before the arrival of the Spaniards. It is believed that commercial relations then existed between these foreign traders and the natives. As a matter of fact, Chao-Ju-Kua, a Chinese geographer of the thirteenth century, recorded the existence of a region called Li-King-Tung, with which the Chinese traded. This region is believed to be Lingayen. The exploration of Pangasinan began immediately after the occupation of Manila by Legaspi. Field Marshal Martin de Goiti headed the expedition that was sent to effect the subjugation of the region north of Manila. De Goiti explored not only what is now Pampanga, but also Tarlac and Pangasinan, reaching as far as the shores of Lingayen Gulf. Salcedo in 1572 led another expedition that sailed up tIie western coast of Luzon, visiting several coast towns. He landed at the mouth of the Agno River and explored the neighboring regions where he invariably encountered hostile natives. The missionaries followed in the footsteps of these two daring explorers. As early as 1585, Franciscan mis429
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES sionaries succeeded in penetrating into the kingdom of Layug na Caboloan. Their attempt to convert the natives to Christianity greatly antagonized King Kasikis, who ordered the execution of the friars. But for the timely intervention of King Lakandola of Tondo, who advised Kasikis to receive the Spaniards favorably, the missionaries would have been executed. In spite of great difficulties, the missionaries persisted in their efforts at conversion and as early as 16013 they had established five mission houses in Pangasinan, located as follows: one in Agoo (now in La Union), one in Binalatongan (now San Carlos), one at Calasiao, one at Mafigaldan, and one at Manaoag. Pangasinan was created into a province in 1611. As created that year, it included a considerable portion of the northern part of what is now Tarlac. Its western boundary extended only a far as the Zambales mountains. Pangasinan also included the northern part of what is now La Union as far as Santo Tomas. Later (l~85), the northern boundaries was moved to Bacnotan where it remained until the creation of La Union into a province. Hardly had the Spanish exploring expedition under Salcedo left Pangasinan, when another disturbing factor appeared in 1574. It was in that year that Limahong after his repulse at Manila, appeared with his vast army at the mouth of the Agno River and tried to found a settlement on its banks. This attempt of Limahong was a fail are. During the period from 1660 to about 1765, two important revolts occurred in Pangasinan. The first of these was the rebellion led by Andres Malong, who in 1660 attempted to establish a great kingdom with Binalatofigan as capital and comprising all of northern and western Luzon as far south as Zambales and Pampanga. It was Andres Malong, it should be remembered, who sent his able 430
HISTORY generals Pedro Gumapos and Jacinto Makasiag with a large army to effect the conquest of northern Luzon. The second revolt was led by the famous Pangasinan leader, Juan de la Cruz Palaris, often known as "Palaripar." This rebellion which took place in 1762 was caused by the injustices of the tribute. Its center was also at Binalatongan. The rebellion lasted over two years during which time it spread practically throughout the whole province. It ended with the capture and execution of Palaris in 1765. The latter part of the nineteenth century was a period of economic growth in the history of Pangasinan. In 1855, the port of Sual was thrown open to foreign commerce. This single event alone stimulated commerce and industry not only in Pangasinan, but also in the neighboring provinces. Later, in 1891, the Manila-Dagupan railway was opened. This improved the system of transportation and resulted in economic prosperity. The Revolution did not gain headway in Pangasinan until the latter part of the year 1897. A few towns then became the scene of rebellious activities, especially San Quintin. In the beginning of 1898, in spite of the Pact of Biac-na-bato, disturbances were going on in various towns like Balincaguin, Agno, Alaminos, and San Nicolas. When the Revolutionary Government was proclaimed, Pangasinan, like many other provinces, came under the control of the new government. Civil government was established in Pangasinan on February 18, 1901. In 1903, Pangasinan saw a slight alteration in her boundary. In that year, the province acquired the northern portion of Zambales comprising the towns of Alaminos, Bolinao, San Isidro, Infanta, Anda, Bani, and Agno. 431
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES II
GEOGRAPHY Geographically, the province may be divided into two parts, the northwestern whIch occupies the peninsula bordering Lingayen Gulf on the east and the China Sea on the north and west, and the central and eastern regions which include the main portion of the Agno River delta and the drainage basin. The relief of northwestern Pangasinan, is quite moderate, seldom reaching a height over 130 meters. This region, within comparatively recent times, has been gently uplifted above sea level and erosion has subsequently cut out the various topagraphical foI'ilTIs of the extensive plateau. The erosion generally is immature and the majority of the rivers are incised in narrow sharp valleys which broaden into a flood plain dust before entering the sea. Mount San Isidro forms a prominent feature of the landscape. It has a conical shape with two conical points which apparently represent stocks of volcanic events. The major part of the mountainous region is unforested. Sufficient mangrove firewood is cut near the sea-coast. Cogon and talahib are found everywhere except in the cultivated valleys where rice, coconuts and tobacco are raised. On the southern end, the hills embrace 't he headwaters of the Alaminos and Balincaguin Rivers and are characterized by narrow valleys and precipitous slopes. The rivers are rapidly cutting canyons. Cliffs and buttes are frequently seen. The Alaminos flood plain is the largest valley in area (75 square kilometers). Coral reefs, recent and living, fringe the shore lines. Harbors are found at several places along the coast, particularly, at Sual where there is deâ&#x201A;Źp, well-protected water. Except for coastwise trade, Sual is not now utilized, al432
HISTORY though during the Spanish regime it was one of the centers of foreign commerce. N ow all imports and exports are handled by the Manila Railroad Company. Dasol Bay has also a fine anchorage, the depth rang;ing from 14 to 20 fathoms. Bolinao harbor is well-sheltered, and the narrow southern entrance is 20 feet deep. The occurrence of copper, gold, silver, iron, manganese, and antimony has been confirmed, but the known deposits appear to be of no value. Mineral springs are found in Mangatar~, Balungao, and Pozorrubio. The eastern portion is part of the central Luzon plain built of the flats and delta of the Agno, and makes Pangasin an one of the richest provinces of the Archipelago. Rice, tobacco, and coconuts are the principal products. The rice lands are so extensive and so fertile that during hard times thousan~ of people throughout the Archipelago, especially from the !locos provinces, flock to Pangasinan either as settlers or as workers during the harvest. The province has been rightly called the granary of the Philippines. Tobacco and coconuts are raised for export. The swamp lands and tide flats are sources of nipa thatch and alcohol. Mongo, cogon, sugar cane, and mangoes are also raised extensively. The existing industries entirely depend upon the natural resources. Along the tidal flats, saltmaking is so universal that the province has been named "Pangasinan," meaning ttthe place where there is salt." Large parts of these same tidal lands are converted into artificial fish ponds with suitable gates that admit water during high tide. Even as far south as Bayambang, the overflowed lands of the Agno River have been converted into similar ponds where quantities of fresh water fish are obtained and shipped to Manila in large baskets containing water. 433
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The famous Calasiao hat is made from the leaf of the buri palm. Matmaking is an industry in Bani and Bolinao. Lingayen uses the palm fiber for making sugar sacks and San Carlos for the salacot or native helmet. Calasiao, Mafigaldan, and San Carlos prepare the tabo or native cup from the coconut shell. Binmaley and Dagupan manufacture the sueco (wooden shoe), from the woods cut in the Zambales mountains. San Carlos, Binmaley, Santa Barbara, Malasiqui, and Bayambang have brickyards and factories of pottery. Mafigaldan is famous for its indigo blue and blue-black dyes. Commerce, local as well as inter-provincial, is extensive. Lingayen is the capital, with 22,730 inhabitants. It is situated in the north central part of the province. This province has 46 municipalities and 809 barrios. III MUNICIP ALITIES
Calasiao Dagupan Dasol Infanta Labrador LINGAYEN Mabini Malasiqui Manaoag Mangaldan Mangatarem Mapandan Natividad Pozorrubio Rosales
Agno Aguilar Alaminos Alcala Anda Asingan Balungao Bani Bautista Bayambang Binalonan Binmaley Bolinao Bugallon Burgos 434
HISTORY Santo Tomas Sison Sual Tayug Umingan Urbiztondo Urdaneta Villasis
San Carlos San Fabian San Jacinto San Manuel San Nicolas San Qjuintin Santa Barbara Santa Maria IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
435
593.4 53.1 83.5
504,170 410,680 146,950 703,609 182,964 P95,299,560 730.0
RIZAL I
HISTORY
The Province of Rizal was created in 1901 out of the Spanish military district of Morong and several towns which up to that time belonged to the province of Manila. It was named after Jose Rizal, the most beloved of Filipino heroes. Late as was the creation of Rizal Province, the region nevertheless includes some of the oldest towns in the Philippines. Some of these, like Paraiiaque, Pasig, Taytay, and Cainta, were already thriving native settlements even before the arrival of the Spaniards. In fact, it is believed that some of the eal\liest Tagalog settl$llents in Luzon were established in this region, particularly in that part of it which is traversed by the Pasig River. The first Spaniard to visit the region which now belongs to Rizal was Juan de Salcedo. In 1571, he travelled up the Pasig for the purpose of bringing the people of Taytay and Cainta under Spanish authority. These two places were at that time large centers of population, surrounded by well-cultivated fields and trading with the neighboring settlements and with the Chinese. Salcedo, after bringing them under Spanish authority, explored the neighboring regions, traversing what is now Laguna and going as far as Paracale. The Chinese uprising in 1639 was the occasion of more or less serious disturbances in various places of the province, during which considerable damage to property was done. The Chinese burned the churches at Pasig, San Ma436
HISTORY teo and Taytay. The uprising was of brief duration, however, and order was soon restored. About a hundred years after the Chinese uprising of 1639, the province again became the scene of serious disturbances. About the middle of the year 1762, a British force arrived in the Islands and occupied Manila. Anda, in his attempt to starve the British and force their withdrawal, detailed a Spanish force at Pasig to prevent the transportation of provisions from Laguna to Manila, whereupon the British comlmander, Backhouse, sent troops to dislodge them. At the battle of Maybonga, the Spaniards were defeated and forced to retire to Mariquina. The British then turned to Pasig, which they occupied after a slight resistance, and remained there until their departure from the Islands in 1764. An important event in the history of Rizal was the creation in 1853, from portions of Manila and Laguna, of the military district of Morong. This district was made to include the region belonging to the towns of Taytay, Cainta, Antipolo, and Bosoboso, of the Province of Manila, and the region belonging to the towns of Morong, Baras, Tanay, Pililla, Binangonan, Jalajala, and Angono, of the province of Laguna. The capital was established at Morong and the district became the nucleus of the present Province of Rizal. What is now Rizal includes the places like San Juan del Monte, Caloocan, and Pasig where first blood was shed in the Revolution. In this province also is to be found the historic spot of Balintawak, where Andres Bonifacio and his little band of loyal followers sounded the "cry of Balintawak," the call for the outbreak of the Revolution. When the Revolutionary Government was established, it brought under its control that part of the province of 437
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Manila which was later given to Rizal, Ambrosio Flores acting as governor. To the new province were added towns like Caloocan, Las Pifias, Mariquina, N ovaliches, Pateros, etc., which formerly belonged to Manila Civil government was established in Rizal at the time of its creation, June, 1901, Pasig being made its capital. II
GEOGRAPHY
Rizal Province lies to the north of Laguna de Bay, and extends from Manila Bay on the west to the Sierra Madre mountains on the east. It has an area of 2,328 square kilometers, about 13,237 hectares are devoted to the cultivation of rice. Between Manila Bay and the mountain ranges the country is dotted with hills. The land near Manila Bay and that separating the lake and the bay are low and flat. Pasig, the capital, is an important commercial town. It is located on the Pasig River, which connects the Laguna de Bay and the Manila Bay. It has 16,174 inhabitants. The Pasig River is navigable throughout the year. Numerous steam launches and bancas ply between the city of Manila and lake towns. Malabon, noted for her bay fisheries and fish ponds, furnishes Manila with路 choice fish to the value of thousands of pesos every year. Ducks are raised on the Pasig River and poultry and eggs are sent daily by the lake towns to Manila. Pateros is the center of the poultry industry. The climate in general is healthful. The province is seldom visited by typhoons, being protected from violent winds by the Sierra Madre on the east and by the Batangas and Laguna mountains on the southwest. N ovali438
HISTORY ches and Antipolo, situated on high plateaus, are much frequented during the hot season of the year. The soil is well adapted to the cultivation of rice of which the town of Mariquina is the chief producing region. Sugar cane ranks next in importance, but the industry is not well developed because of the lack of capital. Coconuts are raised in the lake region and cacao and coffee on the leeward sides of the mountains and hills. Other minor products are maguey, abaca, maiz, and various kinds of fruits. The business of raising livestock flourishes because of the encouragement the people receive from the Agricultural Station at Alabang. Rattan and firewood are taken from the forests and timber is found on the high mountain,s. The most important mineral resources of the province are clay, stone, lime, iron, and coal. N either iron nor coal occurs in great quantities, and they are respectively of lower quality than the iron of Bulacan and the coal of Batan Island, so ffiat there is very, little likelihood of their exploitation. There are several waterfalls in the province, but whether they could be used to advantage as a source of power remains to be seen. The headwaters of the MontaIban River furnish the water supply for the city of Manila. Emoroidery work has assumed considerable proportions in the town of Parafiaque, while in that of Mariquina the chief industry is the making of shoes and slippers. Along the borders of the Pasig River much grass ( zacate) is cultivated to furnish the Manila market with green fodder for horses and carabaos. This province has 27 municipalities and 203 barrios. Its capital is Pasig, with 16,174 inhabitants. It is located in the southwestern part of the province. 439
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES III MUNICIP ALITIES
Muntinlupa Navotas Parafiaque Pasay PASIG Pateros Pililla San Juan del Monte San Mateo Tagig Tanay Taytay Teresa
Antipolo Baras Binafigonan Cainta Caloocan Cardona Jalajala Las Pifias Makati Malabon Mandaluyong Marikina . Montalban Morong
IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ........... . 232,770 182,410 Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . 140,660 Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. 314,458 School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. 81,401 Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ......... . 1'94,980,110 Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 279.0 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
440
214.3 56.4 8.3
ROMBLON I
HISTORY
The Islands of the province of Romblon were known to the Spaniards from the early years. Loarca, who visited the Philippines about 1582, wrote of the Islands of Simara, Banton, Romblon (then called Donblon), and TabIas (then known as Osigan). He estimated that the population of Simara, was 150; that of Banton, 200; of Romblon, 250; and of Tablas, 250. The islands in the Romblon group were then included within the jurisdiction of the town of Arevalo. The Recollects arrived at Romblon in 1635. Previous to this time, the islands were administered by the secular clergy. Some of the inhabitants of Romblon, therefore, were already Christians at the time of the arrival of the Recollects. In 1637, there were in what is now Romblon Province seven missionary centers, namely: Romblon, which had a population of 5,858; Badajoz, with a population of 3,356; Banton, with a population of 4,717; Cajidiocan, with a population of 7,132; Odiongan, with a population of 5,705; Looc, with a population of 5,449; and Magallanes, which had a population of only 859. Romblon did not wholly escape the raids which were made at various times upon many a province of the Philippines. In 1646, considerable damage was inflicted by the Dutch in an attack on Romblon. But the greatest injury was that received at the hands of the Moros. During the period of Moro piracy scarcely a year passed in which they did not attack Romblon, burning villages and churches and carrying away the inhabitants to captivity. In 1753, 441
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the year when the Moro fleets practically covered the Visayas seas, the town of Romblon was attacked by a strong force of Moros. The enemy, however, was repulsed, thanks to the fort which protected the town. In 1818, the following islands in the Romblon group formed part of the Province of Capiz: Romblon, with the town of Romblon; Sibuyan, with the towns of Cauit, Pa路 galar, and Cajidiocan; Banton, with the town of Banton; Tablas, with the towns of Guintinguian, Agbagacay, Odion路 gan, Lanan, and Looc; Simara, with San Jose and Coloncolon; and the island of Maestre de Campo, with the town of Sibali. In 1853, these islands were organized into a politico-military comandancia dependent upon Capiz. They remained in this status up to the end of the Spanish rule. In 1898, the islands of Romblon were governed by an army officer witH the rank of captain. The capital was the town of Romblon. Besides the capital, the following towns were at the time in existence: Azagra, Badajoz, Banton, Cajidiocan, Corcuera, Looc, Magallanes, Odiongan, Despujol, and Santa Fe. Romblon came under the Revolutionary Government in 1898. Coronel Riego de Dios, commander of the Revolutionary forces, for a time ruled the province. Civil government was first established in Romblon on March 16, 1901. In 1907, it was annexed to Capiz as a subprovince, its revenues being insufficient for, its support. Recently, however, Romblon was separated from Capiz and made once more a sep'a rate province. Of late, many of the towns of Romblon have been depopulated because of the emigration of their inhabitants to such places as the mines of Masbate and Mindoro and the sugar plantations of Hawaii. Some of the towns thus depopulated are Magallanes and Azagra, on the Island of Sibuyan, and Santa Fe, Despujol, and Concepcion on the Island of Tablas. 442
HISTORY II
GEOGRAPHY
The Province of Romblon, lying north of the Island of Panay, is composed of three large islands, Tablas, Sibuyan, and Romblon, and several small islets. Its estimated area is 1,308 square kilometers. The first two islands are thinly populated. The capital of the Province is Romblon, located on the Island of the same name, about 187 miles from Manila, has 10,457, inhabitants. This town has a deep, well-sheltered harbor, which makes it one of the most excellent seaports south of Luzon. Port Concepcion, Maestre de Campo, and Looc, on Looc Bay, Tablas Island, are also important ports and trade centers. The numerous mountains of the islands are low, with the exception of the peaks of Sibuyan, some of which range from 1,219 to 2,057 meters above sea level. The mountain tops are covered with forests of local importance, while the slopes and table lands are covered with grass on which animals without number could graze. The climate of the islands is conducive to the productivity of the hills and valleys. The winds from the southwest, which are usually accompanied by destructive bar gu'ios, bring copious rainfall into the land. But these high winds which pass over the islands do more harm than good, because lives and property are often destroyed and crops damaged. The valleys in the interior and the plains along the coasts would yield immense crops if they were cultivated intensively. Abaca and copra, the chief products, are exported to Manila and Iloilo, from which they are shipped to foreign countries. Corn and rice, which form the chief staple food of the people, are not grown to a considerable 443
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES extent, so that rice is imported. Hundreds of cattle raised on the vast grazing lands are exported to Manila and Tayabas on the hoof. The most important mineral resources are gold, in Sibuyan, and marble, in Romblon. The gold deposit has not yet been worked, but the marble deposit has been quarried and in use for years, and is now disappearing. Gypsum is mined on the little Island of Banton. The people, consisting largely of Visayans, are peaceful agriculturists. Stock-raising, logging, and the making of mats from the leaves of the buri palm, also form the chief occupations of the Christian people. The women of Romblon are famous throughout the islands for crochet laces and bedspreads which they make for borne use and for export. There are a few bands of pagans who make clearings (kaiiigins) in the forest. These people, the Mangyans and N egritos, have no permanent settlements and wander from place to place in the interior in quest of food. This province has 11 municipalities and 138 barrios. III MUNICIP ALITIES
Badajoz Cajidiocan Concepcion Corcuera Despujol Jones
Looc Magdiwang Odiofigan . ROMBLON San Fernando IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............. . 444
130,790 105,760
HISTORY Still available for agriculture (hectares) Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .,. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. . Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ......... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 ..... . First class .................... Second class .................. Third class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H5
32.0 108.8 5.0
80,010 76,870 20,033 P9,531,970 145.8
SAMAR I
HISTORY
To Samar belongs the distinction of being the first island of the Philippine Archipelago to be discovered by the Spaniards. On March 16, 1521, Ferdinand Magellan sighted an island then called Zamal by the natives. The island, which is now called Samar, was described as having lofty mountains. The day following, the Spaniards effected a landing on the little Island of Homonhon, where two huts were built for the sick sailors. Homonhon was then uninhabite'd, but a few natives from the neighboring Islet of Suluan came in a pwrao to see the new-comers. During the early days of Spanish rule, Samar, then often called Ibabao, was under the jurisdiction of Cebu. Later, it was declared a separate province, but in 1735, Samar and Leyte were united and created into a province, with Carigara in Leyte as capital. This arrangement, however, did not prove very satisfactory, and in 1768 Samar was again separated from Leyte. From that time on to the present, Samar has always constituted a political unit by itself, with Catbalogan as capital. In 1649, the greater part of the Island of Samar became involved in a great rebellion which became the signal for a general uprising in the Visayas and in parts of Mindanao. This rebellion had its center Palapag and was headed by Sumoroy. The cause was enforced labor in connection with shipbuilding. The uprising began in June, 1649, and was not suppressed till the middle of the year following. The rebels fortified themselves in the mountains and there established an independent settlement. 446
HISTORY "From here they went forth from time to time and harassed the Spanish forces sent against them. In these little skirmishes, they were usually victorious. Indeed, they became contemptuous of the Spaniards. On one occasion, when the Spanish captain asked them for the head of Sumoroy in atonement for what he had done, they sent him the head of a swine." Till the beginning of the nineteenth century, the coast towns of Samar were a constant prey to the attacks of the pirates from the south. Moro vintas were frequently seen in the waters of Samar. The natives of the island suffered greatly from the depredations accompanying these visits and in consequence, until about the middle of the nineteenth century, the population of Samar remained small. In 1860, in pursuance to the royal decree of July 31 of that year, which ordered the reorganization of the provincial governments of the Visayas, Samar was created into a politico-military province, and maintained that status until the end of the Spanish regime. The Revolution did not immediately spread to Samar. Later, however, General Vicente Lukban took possession of the island in the name of the Revolutionary Government. The people of Samar then raised the standard of revolt and with the expeditionary force from Luzon expelled the Spaniards from the island. Civil government was established in Samar on June 17, 1902. II
GEOGRAPHY Samar is the fourth largest island of the Philippines. It lies southeast of Luzon, and is separated from the Province of Sorsogon by the San Bernardino Strait. The prov447
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ince, covering an area of 13,576 square kilometers, comprises the Island of Samar and 146 other small adjacent islands, which are mountainous. Some of these, important because of their ports, are Laoang, Capul, and Homonhon. Daran Island protects Maqueda Bay from the strong currents and violent waves of the sea, and thus makes it a safe harbor. Catbalogan, the capital, is located on Maqueda Bay and is an important seaport. It has 13,863 inhabitants. This town has the advantage of being a commercial center in the eastern Visayas, because it lies about half-way between the ports of Manila and Zamboanga. Because of the irregularity of its coastline, the island has many important seaports, among which are Catarman, Borongan, and Calbayog. There is not an island in the Archipelago which has so rugged a surface as the ISland of Samar, hence its sparsity of population. But all of her mountain ranges are low, so that there is no part of the island which does not receive rainfall during the northeast monsoon. It has many short, navigable rivers on both the east and west coasts and traveling across the island may be accomplished almost entirely by means of bancas. Due to the rugged nature of the interior of the country, nearly all of the towns are located near the coast. Another. characteristic feature of the mountain regions is the presence of caves, of which the most noted is the Sohotan Cave near Basey. River transportation is the chief means of communication. The most important rivers are the Catubig, Vlot, Dolores, Suribao, Llorente, and Gandara. The climate is cool and healthful. But the geographical position of the island is such that it often suffers from violent and destructive typhoons, usually during the months 448
SEAl. OF THE XXXIII INTERNATIONAL EUCHARISTIC CONGRESS (MANILA,
1937) SHOWING DISCOVERY OF AND CELEBRATION 1521
OF THE FIRST MASS IN THE PHILIPPINES,
HISTORY of September and October. The frequent damage to crops is injurious to the progress of agriculture. The land devoted to agriculture is very small. Only the fertile coastal plains and some of the accessible interior valleys are at present under tillage. Rice is the chief food of the people, while coconuts are raised for export. Cacao and abaca are planted on the hillsides, and tobacco, camotes, and corn are grown in the valleys for local use. The swampy parts of the island yield material for making mats. The forests, which cover about two-thirds of the entire province, yield valuable timber for various purposes. But the largest part of the forest area is still unexplored and undeveloped because of the lack of capital and labor. The scanty population is made up of Bicols, Tagalogs, Boholanos, and Cebuanos, who live near the coast. They are engaged in agriculture, weaving abaca fiber and silk, and fishing along the coast. Samar has 37 municipalities, 6 municipal districts, 522 barrios, and 6 rancherias. III MUNICIP ALITIES
Catubig Dolores Gandara Guiuan Hernani Laoang Lavezares Llorente Mondragon Oquendo Oras
Allen Almagro Balangiga Basey Bobon Borongan Calbayog Calbiga Capul Catarman CATBALOGAN 449
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Palapag Pambujan Salcedo San Antonio San Julian Santa Margarita Santa Rita Santo Nino
Sulat Taft Tarangnan Tinambacan Villareal Wright Zumarraga
MUNICIP AL DISTRICTS
Maslog Matuguinao San Jose de Buan
Concord Hinabangan Jipapad IV
STATIS'l1ICS
Approximate area (hectares) ........... . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . Population (estimated), as of July 1,1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ........ . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
450
264.1 124.1 98.7
1,355,610 854,910 751,310 498,402 129,263 P33,359,390 486.9
SORSOGON I
HISTORY
The Province of Sorsogon as constituted at present is made up of Sorsogon proper, formerly a part of Albay, and the Islands of Masbate, Ticao, and Burias. This province is one of the youngest in the Island of Luzon, having been created toward the end of Spanish rule. The earliest step taken by the Spaniards to secure a permanent hold on Sorsogon was the establishment of a mission in Casiguran, a port in the Bay of Sorsogon. In the years following, Spanish activities spread to Bacon and Sorsogon. It appears that Sorsogon, the present provincial capital, was in the beginning only an outgrowth of Bacon. The first serious disturbance that occurred in Sorsogon took place in 1649 on the occasion of the Sumoroy uprising in Samar. Influenced by this uprising, the people of Sorsogon rose in rebellion and drove away the Spanish friar of the town of Sorsogon. The people of Masbate also revolted and killed a Spanish alterez stationed there. A great event in the history of Sorsogon was the invention of a hemp-stripping machine by a priest named Espellargas, about 1669. The invention was made in Bacon, where it seems hemp then abounded. The contrivance was ingenously constructed and was quite well adapted to local conditions. Many of the galleons that the Spanish Government used in the Manila-Acapulco trade were built in Sorsogon, especially on the Island of Bagatao, at the entrance of Sorsogon Bay. Many of these ships were wrecked while navi451
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES gating the waters of Sorsogon. It should be remembered that these vessels laid their course for Mexico via the San Bernardino Strait, a passage which abounds in dangerous currents, shoals, and rocks. For example, the galleon San Cristobal was wrecked in 1733 near the Calantas Rock. In 1793, the galleon Magallanes also ran aground at this place. Other vessels went down in this neighborhood from time to time, as the Santo Cristo de Burgos, in 1726, near Ticao, and the San Andres, in 1798, near N aranj a Island. Like Albay, at the outbreak of the Revolution, Sorsogon remained peaceful. Later, however, it came under the Revolutionary Government. For sometime, the prominent military leader here, as in Albay, was Vito Belarmino. Civil government was established in Sorsogon on April 30, 1901. II
GEOGRAPHY
Sorsogon occupies the southernmost tip of the Bicol Peninsula. The coast is very irregular, the largest indenture being the Gulf of Sorsogon. This deep, landlocked body of water is one of the finest harbors in the Philippines. Sorsogon, the capital, located on the gulf, is an important commercial town. It has 17,049 inha,bitants. The town of Pilar is noted for her shipyards. Ships, lorchas, and boats are built here from fine timber grown nearby. Bacon, Gubat, Bulan, Matnog, and Bulusan are the largest towns on the coast. The land is mountainous and covered with excellent lumber suitable for shipbuilding and furniture-making. Rattan grows in abundance in the forests, and a great quantity is exported to Manila and the neighboring prov452
HISTORY inces. Mount Bulusan, with an elevation of 1,560 meters, is an active volcano. The mineral resour,ces are coal and sulphur, but they are as yet unexploited. Sulphur is abundant in Mount Bulusan region. The climate is noted for its coolness. There are two rainy seasons, one during the northeast and the other during the southwest monsoon; as a result, vegetation grows luxuriantly. The fertile soil of Sorsogon leads the people to engage chiefly in agriculture. About 78,452 hectares are under tillage. The chief products are abaca, the best in Luzon, and coconuts, which grow along the seashore. The less important crops are corn, sugar, and pili nuts. The cultivation of abaca is far more remunerative than that of rice, so that much of the cereal used for consumption is imported. The Province of Sorsogon is noted for its beautiful scenery. The Ginulajon waterfalls, near the capital, the wild vegetation and the cataracts along the Irosin River, the medicinal hot springs at Mombon, Bujan, and Mapaso, together with the beautiful panorama from the Bulusan Volcano are especially striking. Like Mount Vesuvius, Mount Bulusan has an old crater, and a new cone that has appeared on the slopes. Inside the crater, about 50 feet deep, are two pools of hot water which form the basin from which the Irosin River rises. The people are all Bicols, industrious and thrifty. Fishing, next to agriculture in importance, is carried on along the coasts. Weaving cloth from abaca, and the making of slippers from the same fiber, are the chief household industries. The Province of Sorsogon has 16 municipalities and 279 barrios. 453
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES III MlTNICIP ALITIES
Irosin Juban Magallanes Matnog Pilar Prieto-Diaz Santa Magdalena SORSOGON
Bacon Barcelona Bulan Bulusan Casiguran Castilla Donsol Gubat
IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ........... . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ........ . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 ... . First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
454
174.4 58.0 21.0
186,050 153,920 40,490 238,866 61,896 P29,917,250 253.4
SULU I
HISTORY
Inhabiting the shores and coasts of the numerous islands 'which constitute the Sulu Archipelago, the people of this region naturally take to a seafaring life. Long before Legaspi colonized Cebu, foreign traders were already familiar with Sulu waters. On the other hand, native boats brought silk, amber, silver, scented woods and porcelain from China and Japan; gold dust, wax, dyes, salt-peter, slaves and food stuffs from Luzon, the Bisayas and Mindanao; gunpowder, cannon, brass, copper, iron, rubies, and diamonds from Malacca and Brunei; and pepper and spices from Java, the Moluccas and Celebes. Mohammedanism was introduced and firmly established in the Archipelago by three men; namely, Makdum, Raja Baginda, and Abu Bakr. Makdum was a noted Arabian scholar who, after introducing Mohammedanism into Malacca, visited almost every island of the Sulu Archipelago toward the end of the fourteenth century and made numerous converts especially in Bevansa and Tapul. Raja Baginda, soon after the arrival of Makdum, came by way of Zamboanga and Basilan. He was of princely rank and is believed to have come accompanied by ministers of state. He settled in Bevansa and became the supreme ruler of Sulu. Abu Bakr, who seemed to have been quite a learned man, arrived in Bevansa about the middle of the fifteenth century. Here, he lived with Raja Baginda, teaching the people the Mohammedan reiigion. He later married Parasimuli, the daughter of Raj a Baginda, and succeeded his father-in-law as sultan. 455
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The reign of Abu Bakr (1450-1480) was noteworthy not only because of the firm establishment of Mohammedanism, but also because of the governmental reforms then effected. Abu Bakr reorganized the government of Sulu, dividing it into five main administrative districts, each under a Panglima. He promulgated a new code of laws which became the guide for all officials of the state. During his reign, Sulu's power was felt not only in Mindanao and the Bisayas, hut even in Luzon. The administration of Governor-General Sande (15751580) was the beginning of a continuous state of warfare between Spain and Sulu which lasted to within two decades before the end of the Spanish rule. Sande wanted to reduce Sulu to a subject state, impose tribute on its people, secure for the Spaniards the trade of the Archipelago, and convert the inhabitants to Catholicism. To attain these ends, he sent Captain Rodriguez de Figueroa to Sulu with a large army. This expedition, however, accomplished nothing beyond the arousing of the Sulus to hostility and the inception of numerous Moro raids on the Visayas and Luzon. During tEe first half of the seventeenth century, the Spanish Government sent at least five expeditions of importance to J 010 for punitive purposes. The first of these expeditions was led by Gallinato in 1602; the second, by Cristobal de Lugo in 1628; the third, by Olaso Ochotegui in 1630; the fourth, by Governor-General Corcuera in 1638, and the fifth, by General Pedro de Almonte in 1639. Perhaps the one conducted by Governor Corcuera in 1638 deserves attention, as it resulted in the first Spanish occupation of the town of J 010. Corcuera made several gallant attacks on the forts of J 010, which were repulsed with equal bravery by the Sultan's men. The fighting converted itself into a long siege of three and a half months, the 456
HISTORY Sulus finally abandoning their capital. Corcuera occupied the town, reconstructed its forts and left there a garrison of two hundred Spaniards and two hundred Pampangans under General Pedro de Almonte. In 1646, however, this garrison was recalled to Manila and Sulu was abandoned. The reign of Sultan Alimud Din I (1737-1773) forms an interesting chapter in Sulu history. This extraordinary man generally referred to by Spanish writers as Don Fernando de Alimudin, suffered as a result of the disloyalty and ambitions of the usurper Bantelan a long period of exile in Manila where he was "converted" to Catholicism by the then archbishop-governor of the Philippines and later thrown into prison with his household and immediate followers, due to the suspicions of the Spanisli governor of Zamboanga as to the sincerity of his professed friendship for Spain. As a ruler, Alimud Din appeared to have been both able and progressive. Soon after his accession to the throne in 1737, he revised the Sulu code of laws, reorganized the juridical system, had parts of the Koran and some Arabic texts on law and religion translated into Sulu, prepared an Arabic-Sulu vocabulary so that the people could learn Arabic, and tried to suppress piracy. Aside from the repeated attempts of the British to gain a permanent foothold in Sulu, the other important event in Sulu history during the nineteenth century was the second occupation of the Archipelago by the Spaniards. This event, which was facilitated by the use of steam war vessels on the part of the Spanish government, occurred in 1850. Governor-General Urbiztondo sent an expedition to Tongkil and J 010 which resulted in the "incorporation of the Sultanate of Sulu into the Spanish Monarchy." Sulu really became a Spanish protectorate and the Sultan, among other things, agreed to allow the Spanish government to erect a trading post at Jolo and to establish a small 457
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES garrison there, ostensibly to protect the trading post. Not content with this, Spain in 1876 sent another expedition to Sulu. Malcampo, who led this expedition, repeated the feats of Urbiztondo in 1850 and left a large garrison in J 010 under Captain Pascual Cervera, who was given the title of "politico-military governor" of Sulu. In 1878, Sulu was constituted into a regular district of the general politico-military government of Mindanao. The period between 1884 and 1894 was a period of civil war in Sulu. The cause of this internecine war was the succession to the sultanate. There were two strong candidates; namely, Datu Alimuyud Din and Raja Muda Amirul Kiram. Each proclaimed himself Sultan. For sometime, the Spanish governor of Sulu liesitated as to which party to support. Finally, a third man, Datu Harun, whose signal services to the Spanish government in the establishment of order in Palawan strongly recommended him for the sultanate, was proclaimed sultan by Governor-General Terrero at Manila. The situation became worse, as the people refused to accept the Spanish nominee. Finally, Harun withdrew from the sultanate and Amirul Kiram was allowed to ascend the throne in 1894. Spain evacuated Sulu in May, 1899, turning the local government over to the Americans. In 1903, the Moro Province was organized and Sulu was made one of its districts. In 1914, civil government was established in the Department of Mindanao and Sulu and Sulu became one of its regularly constituted provinces, now under the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes. II
GEOGRAPHY
Sulu Province includes all of the islands of the Sulu Archipelago, which form one of the three connections of 458
HISTORY the Philippines with the Island of Borneo and prove the geologic theory that the Philippines belong to the same geographic region as Borneo, Sumatra, and Java, and, therefore, to Asia and not to Oceania. They bear the same relation to Asia as the Antilles to America. Geologists have theorized that the islands are made of a multitude of madreporic isles growing in circular form on and around submarine mountain tops. With the help of the waters saturated with carbonic acid gas, the calcareous substances were dissolved and, therefore, left the interlaced branches of the coral reefs to be crystalized into hard rock which formed docks against the soil, debris and other sediments. With the uplifts, ancient and recent, caused by volcanoes, the deposits emerged from the sea as islands. Further deposition was caused by the lava which was ejected from some of the volcanic cones. Brydon found as many as 7 layers of lava on some of the islands. The Sulu Archipelago is very often affected by earthquakes, the Sulu Sea, a seismic center, constituting one of the most irregular and consequently most unstable regions of the Philippine group. Even where there are no islands, the Sulu Sea is dotted with coral reefs which make navigation dangerous. The environment has, however, taught the people to avoid the perils of the sea, their principal resource. The waters of the Sulu Sea are warmer than those of the adjacent oceans, for, being nearly inclosed, and its connections with the China Sea and the Pacific everywhere shallow, only the warm surface water can flow through the passages connecting them. The topography is young, Bahu and Butpula being mere hills and Sumatanguis alone (2,940 feet) rising to the dignity of a mountain. Whatever valleys there are, most of them are cut up by swift streams. Nature, however, has spared neither beauty nor verdure, nor 459
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES luxuriance which are found throughout the islands. On some of the coral reef islands, no fresh water is found. The climate is warm and moist, for Sulu is near the equator. The rainfall is well distributed throughout the year and typhoons pass far north of the Archipelago. Because of the formation of the land, the character of the soil and the climate, Sulu Province has a greater variety of products than any other part of the Philippines. Besides all the crops of other parts of the Islands, and fruits such as organes, lanzones, mangoes, and jacks, several fruits not known in the islands to the north are grown; for instance, the mangQsteen and durian. Carabao, cattle, and horses are raised in J 010 for export. Fishing is the most important industry. J 010 is the center for most of the pearling fleet. Sitanki, Omapui, Tumindao, Balimbing, Landubas, Laja, and Siasi are other important fishing centers. The sea turtle, fish of all kinds, and the trepang are caught. Beautiful trays and combs and other articles are made from the back of the sea turtle, and fish and trepang are cured and exported. Most of the fishing industry is in the hands of Chinese and Japanese, so that it is high time for Filipinos to go out also and exploit their sea wealth. The Sulu Archipelago, especially Jolo, the capital and principal port, trades with Zamboanga, Borneo, and Singapore. This town has 5,796 Christian inhabitants 1 and is located in the northwestern part of the Island of J 010. Chinese merchants traded with Sulu long before the arrival of Legaspi in the Philippines. When Manila and Cebu were yet small settlements, J 010 was already a city, the most important in the Philippines. 1
Non-Christian population, 14,423, not included. 460
HISTORY Sulu has almost as many people as Zamboanga. As the land area is small, this shows that the islands are well populated. Both Samals, the latest Malayan group to arrive in the Philippines, and Sulus live along the coasts, but the population living in the interior and cultivating the soil is largely Sulu. These are the most powerful and most highly cultured of the Mohammedan groups. This province has 1 municipality, 21 municipal districts, and 99 barrios. III MUNICIP ALITY
JOLO MUNICIP AL DISTRICTS
Balimbing Bongao Cagayan de Sulu Laparan Lu'uk Maimbung Marungas Panamau Pangutaram Parang Pata
Patikul Siasi Simunul Sitangkai South Ubian Talipao Tandubas Tongkil Tapul Indanan
IV ~TATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............. . Agricultural area (hectares) ............. . 461
280,240 203,440
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Still available for agriculture (hectares) ... Population (estimated), as of July 1,1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ., ....... Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 ..... First class .................... Second class .................. Third class .... . ..............
462
. . . . .
121.6 2.2 12.9
179,960 258,425 66,641 P5,510,180 136.7
SURIGAO I
HISTOR,Y
'Vhat is now Surigao was once a part of the old province of Caraga which in former years existed in northeastern Mindanao. The term "Caraga" was derived from the "Caragas," the name路applied to the people who at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards inhabited Surigao. It is believed that the Caragas were of Visayan stock, mixed probably with Manobos and other peoples of Mindanao. They were a warlike people, noted for their bravery and ferocity. The eastern coast of Surigao was explored by Villalobos in 1543. Bernardo de la Torre, a member of the expedition of Villalobos, named the land which they sighted Cesarea Karoli, in honor of the reigning sovereign of Spain, Charles V. This name was later applied to the whole Island of Mindanao. Villalobos, however, was not the first to visit Surigao. That honor belongs to a Portuguese, Francisco de Castro, who visited the towns of Butuan and Surigao five years before the arrival of Villalobos. He baptized the natives of those places, including the regulo of Butuan and that of Surigao, to whom he gave the name Antonio Galvan in honor of the governor of Ternate. The Recollects endeavored to establish missions in what is now Surigao Province as early as 1597, but their efforts were a failure due to the hostility and resistance offered by the Caragas to the Spaniards. The government was forced to launch an expedition against the natives in 1609 before Spanish authority could be established under the command of Juan de Vega. This expedition consisted 463
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES of 400 Spaniards and a number of native allies. It proved a success, the Caragas being defeated, and more than 1,500 Christian prisoners being liberated. The Spaniards thereupon erected a fort at Tandag as an outpost of Spanish authority. Like many other provinces, Surigao suffered severely from Moro raids. Probably the most destructive of these was the one that took place in 1752. In that year, the Moros practically covered the seas of Visayas with their fleets, . frequently bringing desolation and ruin to the places they visited. In what is now Surigao, the town of Surigao and the Island of Siargao were attacked. Surigao was devastated and ruined. Nearly all her population of 2,000 souls were either killed or ,c arried away to the Island of Siargao, where about 1,600 persons were also either slain or carried away to slavery. Up to 1849, Surigao included that part of southeastern Mindanao which now belongs to Davao. This territory, however, was ceded to Nueva Guipozcoa, which was made a province in 1849. To this newly created province were ceded the following towns: Tandag, Tago, Lianga, Mission de San Juan, Bislig, Jinatuan, Catel, Quinablengan, Dapa, and Baganga. By the decree of 1860 establishing a pnlitico-military government for Mindanao, what is now Surigao Province together with the present Province of Agusan, became one of the six districts into which Mindanao was divided. It was known as the East District and was supposed to include the territory lying between the Butuan and Caraga Bays. This territory was known in 1870 as the district of Surigao. At the close of the Spanish rule, Surigao constituted one of the seven districts of Mindanao. I ts boundaries then were practically the same as those of the province at 464
HISTORY the time of the establishment of civil government. It was ruled by an army officer with the rank of major. The capital was Surigao. There were, besides the capital, 27 other towns. The district had a population of 93,000 Christian Filipinos. This district included the politicomilitary comandancia of Butuan. Civil government was established in Surigao May 15, 1901. As constituted at the time, Surigao included as a subprovince, the former politico-military comandancia of Butuan. Upon the creation in 1911 of the Province of Agusan, Butuan was separated from Surigao. II
GEOGRAPHY The Province of Surigao is located in the northeastern part of the island of Mindanao. It comprises the northern half of the eastern coastal plain and mountain slopes of Mindanao, and several islands, the largest of which are Dinagat and Surigao. It has an area of about 7,483 square kilometers. It is separated from Agusan Province, except at Lake Mainit, by the Diuata range, the highest peak of which rises to a height of 1,838 meters. The coast is very irregular, and although it offers many places for anchorage, it is much exposed to the northeast monsoon and the southeast winds. The tides of the Pacific cause high waves to break along the shore, but during the southwest monsoon season the coast is safe. T,he climate is healthful. The northeast monsoon brings considerable rainfall. Typhoons and earthquakes are very seldom felt and do not cause the immense damage inflicted elsewhere. The rivers, though short, are navigable for boats that go down to the ports for abaca fiber and copra. Lake Ma465
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES init, the crater of an extinct volcano, is a great source of fish. There are hot springs nearby. Abaca, copra and maize are the most important agricultural products. The area of arable land is extensive, but very little is under cultivation. The forests have fine hard wood suitable for building material. There is much fine timber in the forests of Mindanao, though little lumber is now obtained. The best of the timber obtainable equals iron and concrete in durability. Coal, iron, copper and gold deposits form another source of wealth. Gold is at present mined. Hydraulic mining is employed in the northeastern part, where waterfalls furnish the motive power. With the exception of agriculture and mining, Surigao can not boast of highly developed industries. Weaving of baskets and hats a:nd embroidery are taught in the schools. The people of Dinagat export "tikug" hats. Those living along the coast of the mainland are engaged in fishing and catching tortoises, the shells of which are sold in the market. Trade along the seacoast is quite considerable. The province has also regular steamship communication with Manila, Cebu, Tac1oban, Catbalogan, Calbayog, and other points in the Archipelago. Transportation throughout the province itself or from the capital to other coast towns is generally effected by means of steamboats and launches. Roads to connect some of the municipalities with each other are now being constructed. There are but few towns in this province, and the population is l~rgely made up of Visayans, who originally immigrated from Cebu and Bohol; those coming from the latter island constitute about one-half of the total population. Immigration from Leyte, Iloilo, and other distant provinces is also increasing yearly. There is a very in466
HISTORY significant number of non-Christians, Manobos and Aetas, who, through frequent contact with the civilized inhabitants, are gradually adopting the customs and habits of the latter. The people who live around Lake Mainit are Negritos. This province has 19 municipalities, 15 municipal districts, and 146 barrios. Its capital is Surigao, with 15,792 inhabitants. 1 It is located in the northwestern part of the province. III MUNICIP ALITIES
Bacuag Bislig CantHan Carrascal Dapa Dinagat General Luna Gigaquit Hinatuan Lanuza
Lianga Lingig Loreto Mainit Numancia Placer SURIGAO Tago Tandag MUNICIPAL DISTRICTS
Bani Borboanan Babafigahan Coleto Libas Macopa Pamaypayan Pili 1
San Isidro San Miguel Sibahay Soriano Tagbayani Union Xavier
Non-Christian population, 459, not included.
467
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES
IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ........... . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . Population (estimated) as of July 1, 1935 ., School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
468
105.3 36.7 50.2
757,400 480,070 406,730 155,458 40,379 P24, 795, 730 192.2
TARLAC I
HISTOR,y
The Province of Tarlac was one of the latest to be created during Spanish rule. Formerly the region which now belongs to Tarlac was shared by the Provinces of Pampanga and Pangasinan. The first step towards the creation of this region into a province was taken in 1860, with the erection of a portion of western Pampanga into a military comandancia, which included the following towns: Bamban, Capas, Concepcion, Mabalacat, Magalang, Porac, Florida Blanca, Victoria, and Tarlac, which latter was made the capital. This ,()omandancia was the nucleus of what later became the Province of Tarlac. Considered from the viewpoint of the foundation of its towns, Tarlac appears to be a province of late development. With the possible exception of Tarlac, which was founded in 1686, not one of the towns which belong to the province of Tarlac was founded earlier than the beginning of the eighteenth century. The oldest towns in this province, except that of Tarlac, were founded in comparatively late years. For example, Bamban was not created until 1710; Capas not until 1712; and Panique not until 1754. The early history of Tarlac records another important event besides the foundation of its early towns, and that is the uprising of 1762, headed by Juan de la Cruz Palaris. This revolt liad its effects upon Tarlac, especially the northern section of the province. The town of Paniqui, responding to the appeal of Palaris for action against the Spaniards, joined other towns in raising the standard of revolt. 469
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The population of the region of Tarlac remained practically stationary for quite a number of years. But with the influx of immigrants from the north, especially the Ilocanos, the population steadily grew. The immigrants found their way through Pangasinan to the northern part of Tarlac, settling in such towns as Camiling, Gerona, and Paniqui. The extent of this immigration may be seen by a glance at the growth of population in the towns just mentioned within a period of about two decades. According to reliable records, the population of Camiling, Gerona, and Paniqui about the year 1850 was 14,266. In 1870, it had increased to 33,941. This marvelous growth of that section probably led to the erection of the military comJl!ndancia of Tarlac into a regularly organized province. In 1873, the prosperous portion of Pangasinan which included the towns of Camiling, Gerona, and Paniqui was segregated from that province and made part of the new Province of Tarlac, which was created in that year. The newly created province included all the towns which formed part of the military comandancia of Tarlac, with the exception of Mabalacat, Magalang, Porac, and Florida Blanca, which were returned to Pampanga. Tarlac apparently showed unmistakable ' signs of unrest on the eve of the outbreak of the Revolution, for Governor Blanco included in his decree of August, 1896, the Provinc.e of Tarlac among the eight provinces where a state of war was declared to be in existence. Indeed Tarlac, like most provinces, was ripe for revolt. Later, when Malolos was evacuated, the town of Tarlac became for a time the headquarters of the Philippine Revolutionary Government. Civil 'government was established in Tarlac on the 18th of February, 1901. 470
HISTORY II
GEOGRAPHY Tarlac is situated in the central plain of Luzon, surrounded by the Provinces of Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Zambales. It has an area of 3,051 square kilometers, about 57,477 hectares of which are under cultivation. The capital of the province is Tarlac, an important commercial town. It is located in the east central part of the province and has 23,886 inhabitants. l Camiling, Moncada, Gerona, Victoria, and Capas, are also important trade centers, connected by good roads. Some of the rivers flow into the Agno River and the Chico Pampanga River. Lake Pinac and Lake Victoria furnish good sport for wild duck hunters. The land forms two distinct geographical areas. The northern and eastern parts of the province consist of an extensive level plain, while the rest is covered with mountains which abound with timber suitable for building material and furniture making. The minor forest products are anahaw, palasan, rattan, honey, and bojo for sawalL Buri and anahaw are found in the swamps. Deposits of chalk and limestone have been discovered, but so far nothing has been done toward their exploitation. Medicinal springs are also found in the province, the two most notable of which are the spring of O'Donnell, in the municipality of Capas, and that of Sinait. The fertility of the soil makes agriculture the most important industry of the people. Like the western provinces of Luzon, Tarlac receives its copious rainfall during the southwest monsoon, but unlike them it raises two crops of rice a year, by means of irrigation, particularly in the town of San Miguel. The people are industrious, but a 1
Non-Christian population, 653, not included. 471
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES large part of the arable lands still lie untouched for lack of work animals and capital. While rice constitutes the chief crop, sugar and tobacco are also raised in large quantities. Corn, beans, potatoes, coconuts, and pineapple~ are also grown. Goats, sheep, and cattle are raised on the grassy hillsides and uncultivated plains. The population is composed of Tagalogs, Ilocanos, Pangasinanes, and Pampangos, emigrants from their respective regions where the struggle for existence is keen. Besides agriculture, they also engage in the making of furniture of various kinds and of wooden clogs. Little attention is paid to lumbering, the chief interest of the people being centered on agriculture. This province has 17 municipalities and 262 barrios. III
I
MUNICIP ALITIES
Anao Bamban Camiling Capas Concepcion Gerona La Paz Mayantoc Moncada
Paniqui Pura Ramos San Clemente San Manuel Santa Ignacia TARLAC Victoria
IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . 472
301,390 213,670
HISTORY Still available for agriculture (hectares) Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
473
199.1 47.3 20.8
97,420 210,198 54,704 1"68,618,630 267.2
TAYABAS I
HISTORY
The region now known as Tayabas was explored by the Spaniards in 1571 and 1572. In 1572, Juan de Salcedo visited what is now the central portion of Tayabas on the occasion of his march across Laguna to Paracale. The following year, Salcedo led his famous expedition around the northern coast of Luzon. He visited the contracosta towns of Casiguran, Baler, and Infanta. The territory which now constitutes the Province of Tayabas was at one time under the jurisdiction of various provinces. The southern and central portions, for example, were in 1585 under the jurisdiction of the province of Bonbon, sometimes called Balayan. The northern portion was divided between Laguna and Nueva Ecija. In 1591, Tayabas was created into a province under the name of Kalilaya. Its capital was the town of Kalilaya, now Unisan. However, by about the middle of the eighteenth century, the capital was moved to .the town of Tayabas. The new capital in the course of time gave the province its present name. Another important event in the annals of Tayabas is the revolt of the Cofradia in 1841. This revolt was led by Apolinario de la Cruz, once a lay brother in the San Juan de Dios Hospital. The rebellion spread to a few towns in the neighboring Provinces of Laguna and Batangas. Apolinario was called by his followers" the king of the Tagalogs." Like many other provinces, Tayabas suffered from Moro depredations. In 1798, a fleet of some tweny-five 474
HISTORY Moro boats harassed the towns of Casiguran, Palanan, and Baler and took 450 captives. The towns along the southern coast of Bondoc Peninsula were also at their mercy. These depredations continued almost to the end of the Spanish rule. Tayabas was among the first provinces to join the Revolution. On August 15, 1898, General Miguel Malvar took possession of Tayabas in the name of the Revolutionary Government. Civil government was established in Tayabas on March 12, 1901, with Lucena as the capital. On June 12, 1902, the district of Principe, formerly a dependency of Nueva Ecija, and the district of Infanta, including Polillo, formerly a dependency of Laguna, were annexed to Tayabas. Six months, later, Marinduque, which up to that time had been a separate province, was also annexed to Tayabas. Marinduque is now made a sepa:rate province. II
GEOGRAPHY
Tayabas is the second largest province of Luzon. It occupies the eastern coastal plain south of Nueva Vizcaya. Covering an area of 10,865 square kilometers, it embraces the Islands of Polillo, Patnanongan, Alabat, and many smaller ones. The coast is indented by many open bays, such as Dingalan, Lamon, Tayabas, and Ragay Gulf. Short but navigable streams traverse the whole country, the most important of which are Umaray, Kanan and Agos. The Sierra Madre runs along the whole length of the province, so that only a narrow strip of land along the coast and the river valleys is available for growing crops. Copra, abaca, and corn are raised for export, rice and vegetables for local use. The mountains are densely wooded, but these resources have not been developed, except on the 475
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES outskirts of the forests. There are unlimited areas of rolling hills, covered with succulent grasses where grazing could be profitably carried on. Mineral resources are abundant, especially in the Bondoc Peninsula where gold, coal, and petroleum are found. These have been worked to some extent, but without much success, because of the lack of capital and labor and the difficulty of transportation. There are other industries. Aside from agriculture and mining, hat-making in, Lucban, Mauban, and Tayabas is an important source of wealth. Lumbering is in its first stages. There is a lumber camp at Guinayangan and a modern saw ana planing mill in Lucena. The Botocan Falls, where a ~tream 40 feet wide makes a leap of 190 feet, could supply the entire province with light and power for all its needs. With the exception of the towns of Baler and Infanta, there are but a few settlements in the east. Most of the important towns are located along the shores of Tayabas and Lamon Bays. Lucena, the capital, is an important commercial town on the Manila-Hondagua railway line. It is located in the southwestern part of the province. It has 11,939 inhabitants. The towns of Gumaca, Mauban, and Atimonan, protected from high winds by the Islands of Polillo and Alabat, are important coastal trade centers. The population of Tayabas is very sparse. All the Christian inhabitants are found along the shores, chiefly on Lamon Bay. Among them are found Ilocanos, Tagalogs, Bicolanos, and Vi sayans. The primitive tribes occupy the mountainous regions of the interior. POLILLO The Island of Pollillo is separated from Tayabas by the Polillo Strait. Like Marinduque, Polillo has -a rugged 476
HISTORY surface. It is sparsely populated. The mineral resources of the island are gold, coal, oil, and lead. Trepang is found on the coasts and exported to China. The town of Poli110, located on a fine harbor of the same name, is the largest on the island and is the center of trade. This province, Tayabas, has 30 municipalities and 630 barrios. III MUNICIP ALITIE S
Macalelon Mauhan Mulanay Padre Burgos Pagbilao Perez Pitogo Polillo Quezon Sampaloc San Narciso Sariaya Tayabas Tiaong Unisan
Alabat Atimonan Baler Calauag Candelaria Casiguran Catanauan Dolores General Luna Guinayangan Gumaca Infanta Lopez Lucban LUCENA IV
STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ........... . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) 477
1,214,510 747,870 539,880
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Population (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. 273,455 School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. 70,982 Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... .- P58,867,360 Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 377.5 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
478
250.9 56.4 70.2
ZAMBALES I
HISTORY
The exploration of Zambales began in 1572. In that year, Juan de Salcedo sailed along the coast of this region, visiting some of the native settlements on the way. The little band of explorers on the third day of their voyage reached Cape Bolinao (now belonging to Pangasinan), where they met a Chinese sampan in which a native chieftain and a number of his followers were being held captive. Salcedo liberated the prisoners, by which act of generosity he gained ,the good will and loyalty of the natives. Zambales was organized into a province immediately after Salcedo's exploration of thi~ region. The capital was first established in Masinloc, but was moved later to Iba. As created in 1572, the new province included all of the coastal plain from the Gulf of Lingayen to Subic Bay. Though a very small province, Zambales was nevertheless, one of the earliest to be organized. The name of the new province was taken from that of the people (Zambals) who inhabited this locality. This people, it appears, had already, before the arrival of the Spaniards, established several villages which became the nucleus of new towns. Among the earliest organized in Zambales were Masinloc (1607), Iba (1611), and Santa Cruz (1612). Like Bataan and several other provinces of the Philippines, Zambales was visited by the Dutch during the early part of the seventeenth century. It was in 1617 that Admiral Spielbergen, with a powerful fleet appeared off the coast of Playa Honda. The Government forces, under the 479
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES command of Juan Ronquillo, sallied out and engaged the Dutch squadron. Spielbergen displayed much bravery, but was defeated. The Zambals were known to be one of the bravest and most warlike people of the Philippines, ever ready to join uprisings in the neighboring provinces. The Pampangos, for example, who revolted in 1645, found numerous sympathizers and comrades at arms among the Zambals. In fact, the uprising readily spread to Zambales. And in 1660, this same people became the voluntary allies of Andres Malong of Pangasinan. About the middle of the nineteenth century and after, the population of Zambales showed marvelous increase. In 1818, it was 18,841; but this figure rose to 95,260 in 1847. During this period, moreover, new towns were founded like San Antonio (1836), San Marcelino (1843), San Narciso (1849), and San Felipe (1860). This great increase in population was due to Ilocano immigration. The Revolution did not readily spread to Zambales, but in the early part of 1898, in spite of the Pact of Biacna-bato, disturbances occurred in this province. The Revolutionists seized the telegraph lines between Manila and Bolinao and besieged the cable station. Civil Government was established in Zambales on August 28, 1901. Then as formerly, Zambales extended to the Lingayen Gulf; but in 1903 the northern portion of the province, comprising the towns of Alaminos, Bolinao, San Isidro, Infanta, Anda, Bani, and Agno, was detached and given to Pangasinan. II
. GEOGRAPHY
The Province of Zambales, with an area of 3,680 square kilometers, lies in the western part of Luzon, between the 480
HISTORY Provinces of Pangasinan on the north, and Bataan on the south. It includes the Islands of Hermana Mayor, Hermana Menor, Salvador, Capones, Los Frailes, and several other minor ones. The coast is very irregular, notably so on the southern and northwestern parts of the province. Along the west coast, there are no good harbors to protect shipping from the turbulent waters of the China Sea. On the south, however, there are two well sheltered ones, Olongapo and Subic, wherein the water ranges in depth from 6 to 20 fathoms. Transportation in the province is ex\!eedingJy difficult. There are few good roads, and although there are many rivers, they are short and sluggish. The most important of these latter are the Cabaluan, Bucao, and the Grulio. The swamps at the mouths of these rivers are overgrown with nipa and mangroves. Iba is the capital of the province. It is located in the western part and has 5,451 inhabitants. 1 Subic, on the Bay of the same name, is an important port. Olongapo is a naval station that boasts of one of the largest floating dry docks in the world. Almost all the large towns are located near the coast. The land on the north is not so rugged as that of the south. The mountains are covered with extensive forests of fine timber, of which few have been exploited as yet because of the difficulty of transportation, and the impassable nature of the mountains. Rattan, tan bark and a small amount of timber are exported to the nearby provinces. The climate is similar to that of the other western provinces of northern Luzon. Heavy storms are frequently experienced inland during the southwest monsoon. Conditions in the coastal plain are favorable to the cultivation 1
Non-Christian population, 239, not included.
481
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES of rice, of which a large amount is exported to Cebu and Batangas. The land along the coast and foothills in the north are adapted to the growth of coconuts. Sugar, tobacco, and mangoes are raised for local use. The fertile valleys in the interior and the hillsides are covered with grass on which thousands of cattle, carabaos, and horses feed. Deposits of copper, zinc, and coal, await hands to exp,loit them, and mineral waters are found in the vicinity of Iba, Subic, and Palanig. The scanty population is composed principally of Ilocanos. A number of Tagalogs inhabit the southern part of the province, and in the mountain fastnesses a few N egritos dwell in their accustomed seclusion. The province has 13 municipalities and 113 barrios. III MUNICIP ALITIES
Botolan Cabangan Candelaria Castillejos IBA Masinloc Palauig
San Antonio San Felipe San Marcelino San Narciso' Santa Cruz Subic IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) 482
368,040 187,850 152,050
HISTORY Population (estimated), as of July 1,1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. Assessed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
483
158.0
6.8 9.4
99,482 25,929 P12,093,750 174.2
ZAMBOANGA I
HISTORY
It is believed that Dapitan is the first point within
the confines of the present Province of Zamboanga to have been visited by the Spaniards. Legaspi in 1565 touched at the town of Dapitan, one of the oldest towns in the Philippines. This town, which was founded by immigrants from Boho], became noted later as the place where Dr. Jose Rizal lived as an exile. By 1631, the Spanish mISSIOnaries were already at work in this region and in other parts of northern Mindanao. During the early decades of the seventeenth century, several armed encounters between the Christian Filipinos and the Spaniards on the one hand, and the Moros on the other, took place in Zamboangan territory. In 1628 and again in 1630, the Island of Basilan was the objective of primitive expeditions against the Moros. In 1636, the governor of Zamboanga defeated the famous Tagal, brother of the Sultan of MagIndanao, off the coast of Punta de Flecha. It is said that about three hundred Moros together with their famous "admiral" perished in this battle. Due to these frequent encounters with the Moros, it was thought wise to establish a fort in Zamboanga. Consequently, as early as 1636, Don Juan de Chaves founded Zamboanga and began the construction of Fort Pilar. In 1662, however, the fort was abandoned due to the withdrawal of the garrison, which was recalled to Manila to defend the capital against the threatening attack of the Chinese pirate Kotsen or Koxinga. Half a century later, 484
HISTORY the king ordered the refortification of Zamboanga, but this was not done till the rule of Bustamante, who rebuilt the fort in 1719. In order to strengthen the Spanish position in Zamboanga and in the neighboring region, three companies of Zamboanga volunteers were organized in 1832. In 1847, this volunteer organization was made into two companies of two hundred and fifty men each. The Province of Zamboanga had its beginnings in the old "corregimiento militar" of Zamboanga. In 1837, the government of this "corregimiento" was changed to a "gobierno militar." In 1860, Zamboanga was one of the six districts into which lVIindana0 and Sulu were divided. At the end of the ~panish rule, Mindanao and Sulu were divided into seven districts, Zamboanga being the most important of the seven. From the beginning of the Spanish rule to the end, Zamboanga town was the capital of Mindanao, excepting the brief period between 1872 and 1875 when the general government was located at Cotabato. Dapitan, now a part of Zamboanga, was created a politico-military comand(J;ncia in 1863. At the end of the Spanish rule, it was still a politico-military comandancia dependent on Misamis. In 1897, as a part of the Philippine Revolution, a rebellion broke out in Zamboanga under the leadership of Isidoro Midel and Melanio Ramos. This uprising did not secure important results. In 1898, the Philippine Revolutionary Government appointed Vicente Alvarez general of the revolutionary forces in this region. General Alvarez attacked the Spanish forces, which were then being concentrated in Zamboanga, and finally took possession of the province. In 1903 1 the Moro Province was organized with Zamboanga as one of the districts. In 1914, civil government 485
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES was established in the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, now under the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes, Zamboanga becoming one of the regularly constituted provinces of the department. The town of Zamboanga was made the capital. II
GEOGRAPHY
The Zamboanga Peninsula lies on the northwestern part of Mindanao. The province, with an area of 16,532 square kilometers, comprises the peninsula, Olutanga Island and the Basilan group. The coast is very rough and full of many deep indentures, the most important of which are the Bays of Sibuguey, Dumanpulas, Pagadian, Dapitan, Sindangan, Sibuko, and Port Sibulan. The bays are deep, ranging from 3 to 27 fathoms, but are open roadstead, while Port Sibulan, with a depth of from 2 to 15 fathoms, is well sheltered by the Island of Olutanga near its entrance. Zamboanga, located on the southern extremity of the peninsula, is the capital of the province and the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, and has 30,872 inhabitants.! This port is about 512 miles distant from Manila via the west coast of Mindoro, and about 519 miles from 路 the Capital City via Verde Island Passage. All the largest towns are situated near the coast, the most important of these are 'Sibucao, Sindangan, Kumalarang, and Dapitan. The province is exceedingly mountainous. These mountains are well wooded and contain the best timbers for shipbuilding and furniture-making. The mountains in the north central part are not yet explored because of the absence of good roads and long rivers as natural highways. But the forest resources around the bays of Sibu!
Non-Christian population, 4,143, not included. 486
HISTORY guey and Dumanquinlas, where sawmills are established, are under exploitation. Guttapercha for insulating cable wires and almaciga for varnish are the most important forest products for exports. The province has a delightful climate, except during the months of November to January, when it is exceptionally cold. The rainy season lasts from May to October. The rivers flow over their banks and destroy the crops. The land is seldom visited by strong winds, so that famine is rarely felt there. The broad coastal plains can support thousands of people, if extensively cultivated. The soil is very fertile, and very well suited for abaca and coconut growing. Ahaca and copra are the chief export crops, while rice is cultivated largely for home use. On the plateaus and hillsides, cattle, horses, carabaos, and sheep are raised. Coal and gold are found on the peninsula. The situation of these mineral deposits is very favorable, but because of the lack of capital and labor, they still remain intact. The population can be divided into three groups, namely, the Christian people, the Moros, and the Pagans. The Christians live mostly along the coasts and do the tilling of the arable coastal plains. They are the most progressive people of Mindanao. The Moros inhabit the regions along the rivers and coasts, while the primitive people occupy the interior. Basilan Island is hilly, three-fourths of its area being covered with forests. Lumbering is being carried on in this island, a lumber mill having already been established in Isabela, its largest town. There are plantations for the growing of rubber here. Copra and abaca are exported. 487
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES This province has 6 municipalities, 13 municipal districts, and 43 barrios. III MUNICIP ALITIES
Dapitan Dipolog Isabela
Katipunan ZAMBOANGA Bolong MUNICIPAL DISTRICTS
Bangaan Dinas Kabasalan Labangan Lamitan Malangas Malusu
Margosatubig Panganuran Sibuko Sindangan Sirawai Taluksangay IV STATISTICS
Approximate area (hectares) ............ . Agricultural area (hectares) ............ . Still available for agriculture (hectares) .. . Populatiort (estimated), as of July 1, 1935 .. School population (estimated), 1933-1934 .. AsSâ&#x201A;Źssed value of real estate, 1934 ....... . Roads and bridges (kilometers), 1934 First class ................... Second class ................. Third class ..................
488
67.7 198.6 57.8
1,653,200 915,350 847,520 198,662 51,461 P26,824,830 324.1
SUPPLEMENTS THE COMMERCE OF ACAPULCO * By FELICIANO BASA METHODOLOGY The ideal goal of History would be that of reconstr ucting, throug h the series of time, the integral life of humanity. This reconstr uction will always be partial and imperfect, because with respect t o the ancient period, a great deal of historical facts have disappeared without leaving any trace, and in modern times the number of existing documents is so great that it is impossible to know and utilize all of them. And even if it were possible to know them all, their value and. the relative worth of the facts to which they refer would have to be determined and it is impossible to proceed to determining them with absolute certainty of accuracy. Anent the galleon trade of Acapulco there are many episodes found in the enormous writings of historians of the Indies and to them I shall have to go for guidance because history is not invented, and it should be given as it occurred and as recorded by contemporaries. It is certainly no easy task to select data and information and extract the essence of the wealth of historical records dispersed in chronicles, descriptions, and memoirs. If the preparatory labors of analysis was long and difficult without putting them through the test of critici sm of the work and events, the labor of synthesis was no less for it was not limited to the classification of the facts after the fashion of a methodic inventory, but it was likewise necessary to exert an attempt at historical construction and generalization. Within the limits of this work there is no room for the biography of personages or a rigorous chronology of their enterprises, or for a monograph on each event, each institution; its object and its contents are more modest. The time for its preparation was not ample and nothing has been written on this matter that would serve as a basis for amplifications. In order to put in relief the representative character of each personage and an approximate appraisal of â&#x20AC;˘ Translated from Spanish into English by Camilo Osias.
489
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES events we shall simply present some facts which truly reflect their colonizing acts and which properly interest us within the scope of this work, to wit: The Epoch The Medieval Age and the Renaissance. Geographic discoveries. The two trends of Spanish and Portuguese colonizations: the demarcation line. Colonization of the Philippines Discoverers: first expeditions. Representative Men { Magellan. The conquerors: Legaspi. The question of the Moluccas. International conflicts { Friendly relations with neighboring peoples. Political regime-the Spanish colonial policy in the Philippines. General principles. Ports: Boats: cargo} neighbors and natives. Commercial regime Subject of commerce religious orders. Object of commerce Chinese and JapaJ nese. Currency. Fiscal regime: Taxes, fees, and tributes. Navigation: Movement of boats-marine disasters. Enemies of commerce. Balance and conclusions. THE EPOCH The Medieval Age and the Renaissance Just as geologic convulsions wherein certain upheavals bring to the surface soils of previous formation, so from the nebulosities of the Middle Ages came forth the Renaissance in a resurgence of the ancient classical values over and above the medieval warlike and mystic spirit. The Medieval Age is a period of hypnosis under which continued latent the life which the Roman empire left as a legacy to the ancient world. The Renaissance is a palingenesis, a return to the ancient, a reversion, the resurgence of the ashes that turned into strata in the face of the alluvials of invasions but which, exposed to the new winds, leave exposed the eternal verities which 490
HISTORY Greece dignified and Rome diffused throughout the vast extent of its mpire. With the Renaissance, God steps aside to give way to gods that return; Olympus comes to have a new value like that of Sinai; it was the resurrection of the gods so dear to Emperor Julianus and which aborted in the Byzantinism of his epoch. The latter days of the fifteenth century witnesses the admirable spectacle of general development of man's activity in the most varied fields of action; in letters with Ariosto and Tasso in Italy and with Cervantes and Lope in Spain; in science with Mercator, Corpernicus, and Pare.
Geographic Discoveries A truly great century was the sixteenth for Spain! The unity of Castilla and Aragon assured in the person of the Emperor; the Moors expelled from their last stronghold, Granada, and pushed back to their own lands in Africa; a great part of Italy subdued by the valor of Gonzalo of Cordoba and his captains; the German princes humiliated; France in Pavia and San Quintin severely punished; the Ottoman power sunk in the waters of Lepanto; Spain was the arbiter of the nations of Europe the while extending and consolidating her domains in the vast regions of America and Oceania. And what was the motive power behind the great journeys which in emulation were from time to time undertaken by Spain and Portugal amidst universal admiration? It was commerce which has always been a powerful stimulus to great human enterprises. The desire for gain has been the cause of many changes and transformations among peoples and the cause of numerous wars and conquests which up to the present have been explained as being due exclusively to political motives. Without wishing to give to history, after the fashion of Seligman, a purely economic interpretation, it can not be denied that trade has been a great stimulus to the discovery and progress which man has achieved. The Phoenicians of antiquity contributed greatly to the peoples of the Mediterranean knowing one another; it was trade that was responsible for the greatness and sustained the power of Genoa and Venice. And in the emporium of commerce, the Orient has always proved to be a great attraction; her products, at all times coveted, have been necessary to life and industry. Space limited efforts. But man tenacious songht his way across arid deserts crossing latitudinal and longitudinal boundaries, in search of a natural route that would carry him in an argonautic renaissance to the fabulous haven of
491
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the spices and precious metals. And it is in the midst of a fever of expansion, when with the artistic renaissance there is a rebirth of aspirations, that there surge those types of adventurous mariners, Baptists of a New World, inventors of lands, who had an imagination aflame with the idea of unknown lands, of magic regions laden with gems and gold, an idea which, joined with vague presentiments, made them believe that the world could not be plain and limitless like the Homeric world represented in the seal of Achilles, but that, on the contrary, there must be a limit to the Atlantic, considered by the cosmographers of that epoch-and it was heresy to opine otherwis~to be without border or limit. To romantic souls enamored with the mysteries of the seas, the idea of a limitless desert of water was repugnant; they held fast to Dante's verses which said: "the sun upon leaving us perhaps shines upon other peoples who await it." It was fortunate, as Humboldt says, that the false notion of the seas prevalent in the days of Ptolemy did not prevail in science for it would have impeded the great discoveries of the sixteenth century. In the beginning audacious mariners attained a measure of success in the coasts of Africa but when Vasco de Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope he opened access to the Indian seas assuring to Portugal the commerce of the Far East and in the Iberian peninsula, Spaniards and Portuguese emulate one another in the noble ambition of being in the vanguard of humanity by their spirit of enterprise.
The Two Directions of Spanish and Portuguese Colonization Portugal, bordering upon the Ocean, seeks its ,natural expansion, since in the continent she was obstructed by the Spanish domains. Columbus, seeing a world-Orbis Novus-as an impassable barrier in the path of his fleet; the Cabots discovering the east coast of North America; Vasco de Gama, rounding the African continent; and Magellan opening the gates of the Pacific by forcing himself through the strait that bears his nam~these are efforts that converge to break the secret hermetism of the routes that led to the rich lands of the Indies and the fabulous empires of Cathay and Cipango. Malacca-the Cattigara of the Romans-which was then what Singapore is today, the key to the China seas and the great commercial center of the Far East naturally excited Portuguese ambi492
HISTORY tion and, as a result, an expedition directed by Albuquerque reached there and took it by assault. Malacca opened a new era in political and commercial history and at the same time in the geographic history of the Orient. It becomes a new center of operations in Far Eastern parts. The Portuguese fleet radiated from this point to all directions across the innumerable archipelagos of the spices, where they supplanted the Arabs. and toward the ports of the Chinese coast. The colonial expansion of the Portuguese in this epoch was amazing: they rounded the cape of Comorin, visited Ceylon in 1506, passed in front of the coast of Coromandel, stopped at Bengal Bay, reached India up beyond the Ganges, Malacca in 1509, the isles of Sonda in 1512, the Moluccas in 1513, China in 1514, and Japan in 1542. Spain in turn opened another route first by the explorations of Columbus which revealed the existence of the American continent, and later with the voyage of Magellan around the world, concluded by Elcano. Thus Spain had the lands of gold and Portugal those of the spices.
Demarcation Line After the discovery of the islands and eastern coast of America by Columbus and his followers, no other geographic discovery was made of such importance as that of Vasco Nunez de Balboa because the finding of the Pacific Ocean or South Sea clearly showed that America did not form a part of Asia, as it was till then believed, but that it was a distinct continent. The event that began at the port of Polos on August 3, 1492, with the departure of Columbus' vessels may be said to have culminated in its most transcendental aspect on September 29, 1513, at the shores of the gulf which Balboa named St. Michael (S. Miguel). It is known that, since Columbus undertook his first voyage, the main ambition of all the Spanish sailors and adventurers was to find a free western route to the Oriental Indies and thus be able to participate with the Portuguese in the lucrative exploitation of those lands. The news of the existence of the Ocean discovered by Balboa convinced all that at last the longed for route had been found and that, fortunately for Spain, this was situated West of the Demarcation line. With confusion in their discoveries, the Spanish and Portuguese, to avoid conflict, took as their arbiter the Pope; despite the fact that the Church maintained that the doctrine of the sphericity of 493
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the earth was heretic, he had no other course but to bow before the reality. A brief of Pope Alexander VI issued in Rome on May 4, 1493, granted to the Catholic kings, with the wOl'ld divided in two by a line drawn, the right to conquer lands lying to the West of the 180 9 meridian and leaving the Oriental hemisphere lying East of the said meridian to Portugal. Hortello placed the first meridian at the westernmost part of an island (Isla de Hierro) as was done by most of the geographers with Ptolemy who chose this point deeming it the most western of the Ancient. But Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, in one of his voyages to India, having sailed west to avoid the winds and currents of the Guinea coast discovered Brazil in 1500 and in order to enjoy it, the King of Portugal asked the Pope that the demarcation line be moved 100 leagues farther west of the Azores and securing this, he further asked that it be moved 360 leagues still farther West with a view to possessing not only the coasts of Brazil but all its territory. The Treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494) modifies the delimitation authorized by the Pope; this treaty gives to Portugal all the territories discovered east of a line traced from the Arctic Pole to the Antarctic Pole, 370 leagues West of Cape Verde Islands. Spain was allotted territories west of this line. Magellan found that the firs\ natural meridian was really situated at the third island (one of. the Azores) where the point of the compass turns to the North without inclining to the Orient or to the Occident, as it would in every other point, upon which to base reason to persuade the Emperor to take possession of the Moluccas. However, since the means of measuring longitude were so inexact as to make it impracticable to determine the line of demarcation, the treaty was the object of various interpretations thus giving rise to Portuguese claims West of Brazil and the Spanish claims to the Moluccas. COLONIZATION OF THE PHILIPPINES Columbus and Magellan were the two great figures of this heroic epoch and although separated by only a quarter of a century, in reality they belonged to distinct epochs; they were two historic figures that bring to mind Dante's image of the high tower in a solitary camp. There was none in Magellan of the medieval and prophetic mysticism of Columbus. Magellan was a man of action, strong, energetic, patient, and eminently practical. Columbus' voyage, breaking the secular barriers of the Ocean, was an act of sublime faith. He was called a humble bearer of Christ (Christopher) and in the name of the most Holy Trinity 494
HISTORY undertook and carried to successful termination the most glorious and transcendental expedition undertaken by man. Magellan's voyage, however, was far more arduous. A majority of the English and Dutch who undertook similar voyages at the end of the sixteenth century had to discontinue. England and Rolland, the rivals of Spain and Portugal, likewise desire to take part in the commerce of the East, and, seeking a shorter and more direct route, turned their efforts to the Northeast and the Northwest; this problem of seeking a route to the North and the equator obsessed these nations for three centuries without finding a solution until the nineteenth century with the opening of the Suez Canal and the new solution with the opening of the Panama Canal. The first voyage of Columbus lasted thirty-five days. Magellan's expedition may be said to have commenced from the severe winter of San Julian (Sevilla, August 19, 1519-Cebu, April 7, 1521). Columbus took away the non from the plus ultra of the Strait; Magellan placed the yonder to the Far West. Columbus removed the mystery of the Atlantic, the dark sea; Magellan, that of the Pacific, the mysterious and unknown ocean. As Columbus discovered a new world, Magellan, in Elcano who continued it, made the first eircumnavigation of the globe. The first was of great political importance while the second was of great geographic importance. Columbus and Vasco de Gama destroyed the narrow limits, the occidental (1492) and the oriental (1497) to which was circumscribed the greography of the times. Magellan and Elcano like an immense tie covered the whole â&#x201A;Źarth in that first circumnavigation only 57 years later. Drake in his fleet of the Ciervo de Oro was the second to make the circumnavigation of Elcano. For these and similar reasons, the posthumous judgment of history places Magellan as an incomparable navigator and considers his voyage as the greatest human effort witnessed by the ages. The Pacific or the Great Ocean is one of the greatest marine areas. Its surface is nearly double that of the Atlantic and is approximately one-third of the total area of the earth. In the Pacific are found the greatest depths like the depth near the Marianas, said to be 9,636 meters deep. Its principal currents are those of Humboldt, the equatorial, and Kurochivo. It is subject to the changing winds and, near the coast, to the monsoons. All in the Pacific Ocean is colossal. It is the geographic unit that dominates all by its magnitude and harmony. In the first place, its extent is greater than that of all the continents and islands of the earth; its borders are 495
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES formed by rugged coasts by stupendous mountain ranges where are found sinister volcanoes. In the next place, its abysms are the most profound discovered by man; and as a colorful contrast to all this sublimity, are the islands which in their borders are remnants of the eternal struggle between the sea and the granite and the archipelagos that make us think of an oasis that rise from coral formations. If the Atlantic is the dangerous sea, the Pacific is one of misfortunes. Father Calancha in his Historia de Peru notes that all the discoverers of the Pacific ended their lives in misfortune because the Mariner Lope, who was the first to see it from the boat, abjured the faith and became a Moro; Vasco Nunez de Balboa who took possession of it was hanged; Ruy Falero, who should have accompanied Magellan died mad in Sevilla; and Magellan ended his days a-bleeding by a poisoned arrow. Barbosa, the successor of Magellan, was killed at a banquet. In the second expedition, Loaysa and Elcano died on the high seas; Salazar who took command died upon reaching the Carolinas i Ifiiguez succeeded him and died poisoned by the Portuguese. Villalobos died in Amboina, under the protection of St. Francis Xavier, out of remorse for having touched the Moluccas against a pledge given to the Emperor. In the beginning, it was the Sp~ce Islands that attracted the Spaniards and Portuguese to undertake voyages. The Moluccas were the special object of those expeditions and only accidentally touched the Philipines. The Moluccas were the cause of a heated discussion between the Cortes of Spain and Portugal that threatened to end in a conflict: thus it continued until 1539 when it was ended by treaty by which the king of Spain renounced his claim to those islands receiving a certain sum from the King of Portugal. By this treaty of 1539, the Spaniards then sought to conquer the Islas de Poniente thus called since they left the Moluccas. Magellan called them the Archipelago of San Lazaro, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, Islas Filipinas, in honor of Philip II, while yet a Prince of the Asturias. The Emperor changing the object of his quest then resolved that a fourth expedition be sent to the islands (Islas de Poniente), the possession of which and even their existence was yet to many problematical. The expedition of Villalobos had to turn to Mindanao for supplies, but the Portuguese also went to that island and they did not want to recognize it among those called Islas de Poniente. The history of the archipelago thus begins from the sixteenth centUl'Y: all that was before that date may be said to belong to the pre-historic. There is no chronicle relating what had gone on in the Philippines before the discovery by Magellan. 496
1
SPANISH GALLEON MORO VINTA
HISTORY The political interests and the religious interests inspired the first voyages that were to contribute to the extension of the geographic knowledge of the Orient: we shall see later how the commercial interests begins to contribute to the same end. The voyage of Marco Polo was to Europe a revelation of the world then unknown, a world whose exuberant nature offered its magnificent products, its perfumes and spices, precious stones and pearls to the exploitation of a rich commerce that extended to the Malayan archipelago and China to the oriental coasts of Africa. During the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries, the Asiatic Orient was the golden dream of Europe and the world of business was anxious to conquer the market of that part of the world. In order to establish a commercial current between two points, there is no doubt that the first thing is that there be difference of production in the same manner that there can be no current of water between two points unless there exists a difference of level. The discovery of America did not solve the problem of finding a route to the Indies. The Portuguese in their route did not cease in their attempt nor did the Spaniards in theirs. The Purtuguese viceroy Alfonso de Albuquerque, famous conqueror of Malacca, sent a fleet on December, 1511, to the Spice Islands, which early in 1512 visited Amboina y Banda, returning to Malacca with rich cargo of spices. The fact that these islands were 50 9 east of Calicut, revived the old project of Columbus to reach them sailing westward. Magellan decided to undertake it: he saw Cabral and Vasco de Gama returning triumphant and enlisted himself in the expedition of Almeida (1505~, staying seven years in the East Indies and taking part in the conquest of Malacca. Magellan offended by the refusals of the King of Portugal, he publicly renounced his allegiance and went to Spain to offer his services to the Emperor, promising him that he would continue the voyage to the Occident until the Malacca and Moluccas, lands where grew spices, and which he believed were not within the domains of Portugal, according to the demarcation line prescribed by Alexander VI. Columbus was going to the Indies and discovered America creating a vast ultra-colonial empire; Magellan was going to discover the Spice Islands and discovered the Philippines, creating an oceanic empire. The conqueror of Pavia understood the Portuguese navigator when he received him in Zaragoza in 1517 and placed at his disposal the means and resources with which to realize his bold project of 497
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES seeking a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific and the lands and continents whose existence he supposed, granting him in advance the title of .4.delantado, the habit of Santiago, and the twentieth part of the tributes and benefits of the territories he would discover. On August 19, 1519, the expedition left from Sevilla. The fleet consisted of the following boats: Trinidad (132 tons)-Magellan. S. Antonio (144 tons)-Juan de Cartagena. Concepcion (108 tons)-Gaspar de Quesada. Santiago (90 tons)-Juan Rodriguez Serrano. Victoria (90 tons)-Juan Rodriguez Serrano. On October 21, 1519, he rounded the Cape of the Virgins: and before continuing farther south he called his captains to a meeting to inquire into the state of their supplies. On November 27, 1520, he passes the strait that carries the name of its discoverer, sailing with great difficulty for twenty days without seeing a single inhabitant and seeing at night only vague signs at the southern coast of what they called Tierra del Fuego. After rounding the Cape of All Saints, Magellan at last entered the new Ocean, whicH he called Pacific. Great was the difficulty of sailing in that ocean yet untravelled and whose extent Magellan did not expect, for none in his times believed the existence of a body of water so immense in the world. On March 6, 1521, Magellan saw certain islands (islas de las Velas Latinas) which formed part of an archipelago which he called Ladrones, later cal1ed Marianas in honor of Da. Maria Ana de Austria, the mother of Charles III, where he stayed for three days looking for supplies. On March 16, 1521, he reached the island of Limasawa (between Mindanao and Leyte) and soon after discovered many more islands to which he gave the name of San Lazaro (Filipinas). On March 30, 1521, he took possession of Butuan. On April 7, 1521, he visited Leyte, Samar, Cebu, where were converted King , Hamabar and eight hundred of his subjects. They did not doubt that they did not reach Asia, because the Malay slave Enrique, who went with Magel1an, could make himself understood to the inhabitants. On August 26, 1521, in a battle at Mactan, Magellan was killed with a poisoned arrow. The rest of the voyage was made for the most part through regions where Portuguese had already travelled. 498
HISTORY Concepcion was abandoned because of being unseaworthy and the voyage was continued on the Victoria and the Trinidad. After leaving the Philippines they touched the western coast of Borneo and went down to the Moluccas where they took an abundant cargo of spices and were preparing to return to Spain; the Victoria had to go to Cape Verde and the Portuguese colonists of these islands knowing that the Victoria was returning from India with spices, captured the crew of a launch that went to land in search of health. The llictoria had to sail hastily with only twenty-two men. On September 6, 1522, after thirty-seven months from its departure the Victo1-ia dropped anchor in San Lucar de Barrameda, Elcano being the first to have gone around the world. The Emperor, among other honors he conferred, gave Elcano a globe with this note: "Hie primus geometres: primus circumdedit me." Says Retana on this point in his Aparato bibliografico: "The epistle of Transilvano (1524) is the first printed chronicle that treats of the Philippines. He narrates the trip around the world began by Magellan -in 1519 and finished by Elcano in 1522. The first voyage around the world had three chroniclers almost simultaneously: Pigafetta, who formed a part of the expedition and whose chronicle was not published until 1525; Maximiliano Transilvano, who narrated what he heard from the crew of the Victoria as a result of its having reached Valladolid and his was the first narration that was published, as already mentioned; and Pedro Martir de Angleria who also immediately, like Transilvano, wrote his chronicle and sent it to the Pope; but this chronicle disappeared and it was not known to the public until 1530, when it was printed at Alcala forming a part of the work "De orbo novo. "By a strange coincidence it turned out that none of the narrators was Spanish. Pigafetta was an Italian; Transilvano was a Bohemian; Angleria, was an Italian. The discoverers were likewise foreigners: Columbus, a Genoese; Magellan, a Portuguese. But all were in the service of Spain. In 1524, the second expedition set sail from the port of Coruna, composed of six boats and four hundred and fifty men commanded by Fray Juan Garcia J ofre de Loaysa; in this expedition went EIcano and Urdaneta. During the trip Loaysa, Elcano, Alonso Salazar, Martin Ifiiquez, died; these were successively heads of the expedition until Hernando de la Torre, who succeeded to the command, decided to stay at Tidor until receiving aid from Spain. Saavedra with three boats sailed from Mexico in 1528 toward Tidor to save the balance of the expedition commanded by La Torre. 499
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The Portuguese consented to accede to Saavedra and gave him the necessary aid to return to Spain in 1535 after touching the island of Ceylon. The expedition of Villalobos consisting of four boats, a gelleon and one bergantin, with three hundred and seventy men, sailed from the port of Juan Gallego or Navidad on November 1, 1542. The galleon S. Cristoba;i reached Sarangan after five months, causing great rejoicing mounted upon noticing their condition in that strange islands rich with supplies and which could be gotten from the inhabitants with ease. From such satisfaction came the tribute to the Prince, the name of Felipinas (or Philipinas, latinized) for those islands. The fleet went to several islands in search of supplies since they could find no gold and death was taking place through hunger, sickness, and conflicts and twice they attempted unsuccessfully the return voyage on account of difficulties various and sundry.
J
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CALDERON'S MEMOIRS OF THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION By
TEODORO
M.
KALAW
Di,路ector. Natwnal Library of the Phiiippimes
These Memoirs, left by the late Professor Calderon and now published in complete form, refer to important facts connected with the Philippine Revolution and the first years of American occupation. They consist of two parts: the first comprises the period from May, 1898, to January, 1899, and the second that from May, 1899, to 1901. The first part is well known: it was published by EI Renacimien to in 1907. It was subsequently printed in book form, under the title Mis Memorias sobre la Ret'olucion F'ilipina. In printing this book the same type was used as had been used in the newspaper, hence its form is very deficient and it offers many difficulties to the student as a source of information. Not only are there typographical errors in nearly every paragraph, but the narration of the facts is interrupted by an unfortunate mistake in the pages, aggravated still further by the reproduction in the form of notes and appendices of official documents and clippings from newspapers which greatly diminish the intrinsic value of the work and the personal contribution of the author to the whole. As to the second part, we have been able to preserve a copy of it which is now published for the first time. We believe, saving better information, that it is as yet unpublished. In it continues the narrative, often crude, but always interesting, of the events of the Revolution. It speaks of the thousand of incidents of the organization of the first municipalities under the American regime; of the first organization of the Supreme Court and the Attorney-General's office; of the constitution of the first Bar Association; of how and why the Aglipayan Church, the Escuela de Derecho, and the Federal Party were founded; of the friar land question, etc., in all of which events the author took a part, often a most important one. It being the purpose of this publication to offer to the students of the history of our country these valuable "Memoirs" in their own juice, as it were, and in the simplest, clearest, and most concise form, we have taken the liberty to omit, especially in the first part, all long and unnecessary citations, to eliminate the appendices that do not serve our purpose, and to postpone until afterwards a few judgments the publication whereof seems still untimely, although, 501
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES as a fact, that which is now published may already give rise to very just controversies. In everything else, even in the transcription of the American names, we leave everything unchanged, as it appears in our copy. FIRST PERIOD (From May, 1898, to January, 1899)
When on May 1st, 1898, the Spanish fleet was destroyed in Manila Bay by the North American fleet commanded by Admiral Dewey, general excitement took possession of the entire population of Manila, and, while endeavors were made to adopt all measures for the best defense of the territory, the authorities tried to gain the friendship of the rebels that had remained in the Philippine Islands after the Biak-na-bato treaty. The Biak-na-bato treaty had been signed on December 14, 1897, and, as the commander-in-chief of the insurrection, Emilio Ag~inaldo, said in his Reselia veridica de la Revolucion Filipina, published in the newspaper Filipinas ante Europa, it was made and signed under the following conditions: 1st. That I was 'free to live abroad with such companions as might wish to follow me, the residence being fixed at Hongkong, at which place the 800,000 pesos of indemnity were to be delivered, in three instalments: 400,000 upon receipt of all the arms there were at Biak-na-bato; 200,000 when the number of the arms surrendered had reached 300, and the other 200,000 when the total number of arms surrendered had reached 1,000, and after the Te Deum had been sung at the Manila cathedral, as an act of thanksgiving. The second half of February was fixed as the time limit for the surrender of the arms. 2nd. The money was all to be delivered to me personally, it being understood that I and my companions and the rest of the insurgents were to be completely at liberty. srd. Prior to the evacuation of Biak-na-bato by the Filipino insurgents, Captain-General Primo de Rivera was to send me two generals of the Spanish army who were to be kept as hostages until I and my companions arrived in Hongkong, and until the receipt, of the first instalment of the indemnity, that is the 400,000 pesos. 4th. It was also covenanted that the religious corporations should be eliminated from the Islands and that political and administrative autonomy should be established, although, at General Primo de Rivera's request, these points were not reduced to writing, for 502
HISTORY the reason, as he alleged, that it would be very humiliating for the Spanish Government to do this. HQwever, he guaranteed their compliance, upon his honor as a gentleman and a soldier. General Primo de Rivera paid the first instalment of 400,000 pesos while the two generals were still kept as hostages. The famous Biak-na-bato treaty is one of the obscurest points in the history of the Philippines, and while I have transcribed the conditions as stated by the chief of the insurrection, Aguinaldo, in his Memoria General Primo de Rivera, the principal author of that treaty, absolutely denies many of the points above indicated. There is no doubt that a money stipulation actually existed, though the amount can not be stated with exactness. When General Aguinaldo left for Hongkong with many of the chieftains of the insurrection, 400,000 pesos were consigned to said Sr. Aguinaldo's order. It can not be doubted, either, that for the surrender of the arms General Tejeiro and Monet of the Spanish army remained as hostages in the mountains of Biak-na-bato and did not come back to Manila until the return to this capital of Miguel Primo de Rivera, lieutenantcolonel of the Spanish army and nephew of General Fernando Primo de Rivera, who had accompanied the insurgents to Hongkong. This detail of the money paid over to Aguinaldo and his followers and deposited at Hongkong has exceptional importance, because, a disagreement having arisen as to the conditions under which said money wai; deposited in the bank, between General Isabelo Artacho, Agustin de la Rosa, and Celestino Aragon on the other, these three sued Aguinaldo in the courts of the colony mentioned for their share of the money deposited. Then, on one of the days when the money deposited was to be sequestered, Aguinaldo left Hongkong for Singapore, here the last agreements were made with the Americans for the coming to the Philippines and the recommencement of the insurrection which had been quelled by means of the Biac-na-bato treaty. The whole country was eagerly watching the events as they developed. Don Basilio Augustin, then governor-general of the Philippines endeavored on his part, to gain the good will of the Filipinos. For this purpose he organized not only the Filipino militia, but also the Asamblea Consultiva Filipina. Unfortunately, however, the events did not prove propitious for the Spanish governor, and upon the arrival of Aguinaldo in the Philippines, on May 19, 1898, on board the military transport "Mac-Cullough," and after he had landed at Cavite a general movement took place throughout the country in the sense of the imitation of another campaign against
503
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Spain. However, I think it is proper to say that the conduct of North America, or, if the North-American people will not assume the responsibility therefor, that of the commander of its fleet, Admiral Dewey, is not much in accordance with the principles of public international law in time of war, which strictly prohibits any country at war with another from making use of a faction engaged in civil war with its own country, for the purpose of fighting the country, ag'ainst which war is carried on. Hardly had Aguinaldo arrived at Cavite, on May 19, 1898, when I who was at the pueblo of Bacoor, sought an interview with him. In fact, about May 21 or 22, I left the beach of Bacoor on a banca accompanied by one of the principal men of that pueblo, Felix Cuenca, and after crossing the bay, we arrived at Cavite and met Emilio Aguinaldo at the house of Maximo Inocencio, in the Calle del Arsenal, of that same port. There I met the venerable Don Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, and immediately engaged in conversation with General Aguinaldo. On the same day Aguinaldo had made a prisoner of Felipe Buencamino who, while in command, as colonel of the Tercio de Anda y Salazar, on the Zapote line, had, as he stated in a letter of his, gon to Cavite for the purpose of inducing Aguinaldo to go over to tHe Spanish side. The first question which I addressed to General Aguinaldo was that with reference to the situation of the Filipinos towards Admiral Dewey. I proposed to him that a commission of Filipinos, presided by him, should go to see Admiral Dewey immediately, or rather, on the following day, and ask him to obtain from the Congress of the United States full power to stipulate with us, as representatives of the Filipino people, concerning the future of our country, and that in case of Admiral Dewey not accepting our proposition, we insurgents would adopt a neutral attitude. In making this proposition, I was impelled by several reasons, among which I consider the following as the most important: First. I was of the opinion that the war was sure to end unfavorably for Spain; and unless our status with regard to the N orthAmericans was determined, we ran the risk of finding ourselves in a much worse position than at the beginning of the war; Second. The Filipino people were being told that the people of the United States guaranteed our independence. As a fact, at least then and thereafter, as corroborated subsequently, General Emilio Aguinaldo was never able to produce documents or undisputable evidence that such a promise had been made to him. It is true that facts, if not accepted, yet at least tolerated by Admiral Dewey dur-
504
HISTORY ing the blockade of Manila Bay and subsequently during the siege of this city and its occupation on August 13, 1898, showed the existence of such an agreement. Among those facts, I remember the following: Vessels armed with cannon and with insurgent troops on board were allowed to fly the Filipino flag in Manila Bay, as known and tolerated not only by Admiral Dewey, but by the other fleets in our bay. Then there was the delivery of the prisoners made by the American ships in Manila Bay, among whom I remember the colonel of the Macabebes, Sr. Blanco, who, together with several officers of that volunteer battalion, was detained on the S. S. Filipino. Later, when the Filipino troops evacuated the city of Manila, they were treated with all the honors of a belligerent army. These acts and many others made it appear and caused one to presume t~at the Americans, or rather, the commanders of the army and navy of the United States in the Philippine Islands, recognized the personality of the Filipino Government and considered the same as a power: with which a treaty had been made. Old Don Ambrosio Rianzal'es Bautista fully concurred in my opinion that such an agreement should be made; but notwithstanding our efforts, we could not convince General Emilio Aguinaldo that such a treaty should be made. At a very late hour of the night-it must have been about three o'clock in the morning-I returned to Bacoor by banca, accompanied by Felix Cuenca. On our way we deplored the future of our country and the fact that we were about to begin a war without having stipulated anything with the North-American government. Early in the morning of the following day, I came to Manila and related my impressions to Don Leon Maria Guerrero, Don Ariston Bautista and some others. Wean expressed our regret that the insurrection was being started again without having stipulated anything with the representative of the United States. On the afternoon of that same day I again returned to Bacoor and found there a letter of Don Ambrosio Rianzares inviting me, in General Aguinaldo's name, to remove to the port of Cavite with my entire family, which was at Bacoor to cooperate in the work of the revolution. To this letter I replied that I could not conscientiously compromise the fate of our country by aiding in starting another revolution without something being first stipulated with the Government of the United States as I greatly feared that upon the termination of the war between Spain and America, we would find ourselves embroiled in another war, either with Spain or with the United States because in case we should take up arms and side
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES with the Un'ited States without having stipulated anything with that country and the Philippines should be ceded to the United States as a result of the war. We Filipinos, drunken with the idea of independence, would finish by engaging in a bloody war with the United States, and there was the danger that after much bloodshed, we would finally be defeated by the power of North-America. If, on the contrary, the Spanish sovereignty should continue here as a result of the war, inasmuch as we had taken up arms on the side of the United States during the war, Spain would initiate a series of reprisals in which we Filipinos would suffer very seriously. For these reasons I asked to be absolutely excused from taking any part in the arrangements for an insurrection so long as nothing had been stipulated with Admiral Dewey, and as, on the other hand, I saw that there was a certain animosity against me on account of these tendencies to come to an agreement with the commander of the United States fleet, to such an extent that a Filipino general on whose house I was living told that so far as he was concerned, he would cut off the heads of all educated men, who were good for nothing but to obstruct any movement of the people, I decided to return to Manila that same day giving as a pretext the serious illness of my mother. Felipe Buencamino, in certain notes which he is publishing, under the pseudonym Heraclito, in the review La Solidaridad has the following to say on this particular: "The dictatorial government was assumed with the Honorable Emilio Aguinaldo alone with the private concurrence of the jurisconsults Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, Apolinario Mabini, and Felipe Calderon; but the latter found it necessary, owing to the illness of his mother, to leave the Filipino Government . established in Cavite." Don Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, in a statement published in the Diario de Manila about the end of 1900, also relates all that I have stated. As I said, I returned to Manila and moved with my family to Santa Ana. I then learned that General Augustin, Governor-General of the Islands and Commander-in-Chief of the army thereof, had issued the decree creating the Asamblea Consultiva, and that Pedro Paterno had petitioned for autonomy. In talking matters over with my friends, among them Leon Maria Guerrero and Dr. Ariston Bautista, I represented to them that in my opinion those measures came too late, especially so because the insurrection had already materialized and I knew that the hos506
HISTORY tilities would begin on May 31, or even sooner, the company of the Spanish 74th Regiment which garrisoned the fort of Cavite Viejo being ready to revolt with all its officers on May 28. In consequence of my intimate relations with the Jesuits, and as they knew that I was familiar with the developments of the insurrection, because the Jesuits Jose Algue and Jose Clos, who had gone to CaYite in order to pacify and win over to the side of the Spanish Government the influence of the ex-insurgents, had received a missive from me, I being at Bacoor, advising them to return immediately, in order to avoid their being made prisoners, the Superior of the Jesuits, Pio Pi, who had since asked me to have a talk with General Augustin and with the Archbishop of Manila, Fr. Bernardino Nozaleda. This I did, telling them that all conciliation with Spain was already impossible; that nothing could be done except by making great concessions to the insurgents, and that even with such concessions I considered success doubtful, for the reason that the arrival of, Aguinaldo had raised the spirits and the majority of the. Filipinos had very little confidence in the promises of Spain. I proposed, however, as a radical and extreme measure for the purpose of bringing about a reconciliation, much more than what Pedro Paterno had proposed in his bases for autonomy. My propositions were, in brief, as follows: the immediate withdrawal of the Spanish governors from the provinces and the placing of the government of the latter in the hands of prominent Filipinos; the immediate withdrawal of all friar parish priests, who must turn the parishes over to the secular priests of each pueblo most influential with the parishioners; the formal promise of the sale of the haciendas by the Government to the tenants, in small parcels. These measures I proposed as measures of an urgent nature, without prejudice to other measures to be adopted later. General Augustin promised me he would study the propositions and submit it to the Junta de Autoridades. This was actually done, and at four o'clock in the afternoon of that day, which must have been the 25th or 26th of May, a meeting of the Junta de Autoridades was called. Between nine and ten o'clock in the evening of that same day I received the visit of Colonel Soto, General Augustin's adjutant who informed me that the Junta de Autoridades would not under any consideration accede to any of the points referred to. In view of this I saw General Augustin on the day next following and told him I considered any adjustment impossible as I was very doubtful even of the success of the measures proposed by me and had advanced them as an extreme recourse, and that I must therefore not 507
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES be deemed a traitor if I went to the insurgent camp and worked for the cause of my country. I installed myself with my family in the pueblo of Santa Ana, for which place my friend, Sr. Leon Maria Guerrero and his wife left with me; but at dusk on May 28, while I was walking with Captain Urbano Lacunam of the Filipino militia, between seven and eight o'clock that night, heavy rifle reports began to break out in all the parts of the pueblo, so that we found it necessary to return to our homes while the bullets were flying through the streets of the pueblo. The firing did not stop all that night, and both I and Leon Maria Guerrero were compelled to sleep, or rather to spend the night in a dried-up well under the open sky, waiting for the morning of that fearful night, as it was impossible to stand up. Inasmuch as the firing continued during the following days, and as I had received a message from the director of the Observatory, Father Jose Algue, asking me to live in the Observatory Building, not only in ol'~er to protect that building against any invasion by the insurgent forces, but to prevent any disorder from occurring among the persons from Ermita, Malate, and Paco, numbering over three thousand, who had taken refuge in the Normal School building, I decided to remove there with my entire family and remained there until August 13th, the day of the occupation of Manila. However, I kept posted on all the measures taken and all events that occurred in Cavite. Having received a verbal message from General Emilio Aguinaldo to have a talk with him, I left Ermita on June 28, at six o'clock in the morning, in order to go to Cavite. My odyssey, as I may call the journey I had to make in order to get there, was curious and full of adventures. I left Ermita on a carromata accompanied by a guide. We went as far as the San Juan bridge, where we were met by the Spanish artillery guard who refused to allow us to continue in a vehicle. We, therefore, were compelled to leave our carromata. On that bridge we met a German, who was then a pharmacist or one of the clerks in Jacobo Zobel's pharmacy, and who told me he was on his way to visit his family at Malabon. Hardly had we crossed the bridge and passed the first blockhouse, occupied by the Spanish army, when we found that the Spaniards in that blockhouse were having a fight with the insurgents occupying the last blockhouse of the lines of defense then established around this city. We found it impossible to go back, and so we were compelled to crawl over a kilometer on all fours, the German, 508
HISTORY the guide, and I, as the bullets were whistling on every side. I do not know how I ever came out of that scraps alive. And all the while the rain never stopped and the roads were full of mud, so that we were drenched with water and mire. We continued on our way afoot, and upon arriving at the Mariquina boundary line we met with the first insurgent camp, where I was taken for a Spanish secret-service man and subjected to a lengthy interrogatory. Thanks to the intervention of an old coachman of mine who recognized me, I was not maltreated in any way. The German produced papers showing his nationality and was not molested. Accompanied by two soldiers and sergeant from the blockhouse, I went to the house of the general in command of that zone, in the town of Mariquina, and there met my friend, Sr. Montenegro, who received me very affectionately. On the way in the town of Mal'iquina, I met my friends Benito Legarda, Gregorio Araneta, Jose Albert, Jacinto Limjap, and othel's, who did not recognize me immediately, on account of my pitiful condition, drenched with water and mud as I ' was. They were all anxious to hear the news. The strangest thing was that at noon of that day the ships at anchor in Manila Bay fired guns, and everybody there believed the bombardment of the city of Manila had begun, but I informed them that this was not the case, but that they were merely celebrating the birthday of Queen Victoria of England. I lunched with my good friends, and my fl'iend Araneta even furnished me with a pair of socks, mine being completely torn and full of mud. At three o'clock in the afternoon I continued my journey and as I had been informed at Mariquina that just in those moments heavy firing was heard towards Santolan, at the pumping station of the waterworks, and I therefore ran the risk of being damaged by a stray bullet if I took the direct road to Pasig. I went towards Taytay by short cuts and trails, accompanied by a guide furnished by the local president of Mariquina, getting farther away from Pasig, and after having passed the pumping station I went towards Pasig. Upon arriving at the barrio of Rosario, I hired a carromata which took me to the Pasig convent where I had been assured I would find my good friend and fellow country-man, General Pantaleon Garcia. As the latter was not at the convent, I decided to continue to Taguig, where I stayed over night at the house of a boyhood companion, Marcelo Verzosa. There I rested until the first hours of the morning of the thirteenth, when I took up the journey again and, cross-
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ing the mountains of Taguig and the celebrated desert line, which Emilio Aguinaldo and his men made famous when, despite the cordon of troops, the chieftain of the insurrection crossed it upon evacuating Cavite and marched to the mountains of Biak-na-bato, I arrived at Parafiaque between ten and eleven that day. From Parafiaque I went by carromata to Bacoor, putting up at the house of my friend Felix Cuenca, where I changed clothes and picked up some articles of wearing apparel in order to continue my journey to Cavite. I immediately went to Cavite accompanied by General Noriel, and there I found that Aguinaldo had changed residence and was living at the government house of the port. There I also met Mabini and many other friends. That same morning I was told Admiral Dewey was going to call on Aguinaldo, and, in fact, there was some movement in the building, Arevalo's band and a company of insurgent soldiers being ready in the street to receive the visitors with the proper honors. In fact, they arrived shortly afterwards, there being two persons, one dressed in civilian clothes and the other wearing an admiral's uniform. The latter I took to be Admiral Dewey, in which opinion I was confirmed later. They had a long conference with Aguinaldo. and as I learned subsequently, his object was to ask the leader of the insurrection for permission to have the troops that had recently arrived take up quarters in Cavite. The visitors were accorded military honors and I heard for the first time t.he American anthem executed by Arevalo's band. I saw there my good friend Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, who invited me to the Recollect convent where he was living and where many persons were gathered whom Don Ambrosio fed at his own expense: There were Arsenio Cruz Herrera, Mariano Legaspi, and many other people from Manila and the provinces whose names I do. not remember. There I also met my friend Vicente Lukban, who had arrived from Hongkong only a few days before, and the Scarella brothers who were getting ready for the expedition to leave for Camarines under Lukban's command, Buencamino was already at liberty, thanks to Don Ambrosio Rianzares' good offices. I then learned of Aguinaldo's decrees, and one of the principal questions which I debated with the friends gathered there was the one relative to civil marriag'e, which had been made obligatory for all under the penalty of the nullity of the canonical marriage. I observed a general opposition to many of Mabini's measures, which were inspired by a sectarian and anti-Catholic spirit; but I also noticed tha~ nobody dared to argue such questions. In view of this, and in order to avoid that the insurrection should begin by doing
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HISTORY violence to the consciences of the Filipinos, nearly all of whom are Catholics, I called the attention of all those present to the dangerous nature of Mabini's decree making civil marriage obligatory, and told them that such an order would not only be ill received by the people, but the Filipino clergy would consider it a violation of the sanctity of the sacrament of matrimony, which would naturally result in deep-going dissension, and, moreover, the other nations and especially Rome, might believe the Philippine revolutionary movement to be directed against the Catholic religion. After some discussion, and after conferences with some of those present, including Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, Jose Basa Enriquez, Arsenio Cruz Herrera, and even Buencamino, and others whom I do not recollect, we came to the conclusion that it was indispensable that General Aguinaldo's attention be called to this matter and that Mabini be invited to discuss the matter, in order to avoid, if possible, a reform so radical and doing such violence to the consciences of the Filipino people. This was represented to General Aguinaldo, and the latter, after a talk with Mabini, agreed that we should have a conference in the afternoon of one of those days. The conference was actually held and was attended by Jose Basa, Arsenio Cruz H~rrera, and myself, Pedro Lipana and Anastasio Pinzon appearing to defend Mabini's order. There was considerable discussion and powerful arguments were adduced which Anastasio Pinzon, as Catholic, could not but accept as conclusive. I do not know what happened, but the fact of the matter was that order remained in force. For this reason I became to a certain degree disliked in Cavite, which I did not realize until Don Ambrosio warned me to be careful, because my life was in danger. In the several conversations that I had with Vicente Lukban, the latter informed me that nothing in writing and official had been stipulated with Admiral Dewey concerning the conditions under which the war was carried on in the Philippines. He also told me that a cargo of arms embarked in a Chinese port, on the S. S. Pasig, if I remember correctly, bound for the Philippines had been stopped by the British authorities at the request of the North-American consul of Hongkong; that the Americans were not ready to make any concessions to the Filipinos, and that, after using Aguinaldo as a tool and causing him to start the insurrection again, they would abandon him or become his enemies. In view of these statements of Lukban, I suggested to him the urgent necessity of submitting all he had told to Aguinaldo, and that it was necessary to convince 511
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES him that he must at all costs obtain formal and solemn promises from Admiral Dewey, as representative of the Congress and President of the United States. Lukban replied that such an undertaking was difficult, inasmuch as Aguinaldo was much compromised; and that if any person could do it, that person was Felipe Agoncillo, upon whose advice Aguinaldo had come to the Philippines without stipulating anything with Admiral Dewey. A few days before, Isabelo Artacho and his brother, Agustin de la Rosa, Celestino Aragon, and others I do not remember had arrived at Cavite, at the same time as General Lukban. As soon as these gentlemen had landed, Agustin de la Rosa, the Artacho brothers, and Celestino Aragon had been arrested with a great display of military force, and deported to the pueblos in the interior of the province. The cause of it all was the famous affair of the money at Hongkong. From my conversation with Don Ambrosio Rianzares I deduced that that venerable old man was thoroughly discouraged by the state of affairs and feared the consequences that he had foreseen since the beginning, namely, that the absence of an agreement with the American wa~ bound to lead to war between us and them sooner or later. To these fears of my friend was added his worry over the serious dissension among the Filipinos that was bound to result, more than from anything else, from the mania of Aguinaldo, or rather of his adviser, Mabini, to elevate any person who was a Mason. Then the existence of the three evils that were to undermine the insurrection later on became noticeable, these being the sectarian Masonic spirit, the preponderance of all Cavitenos, and the belief on the part of the old members of the Katipunan that they were of the insurrection and later of the Filipino people. These three evils were responsible for the consequences that came afterwards. There were also in Cavite at that time General Ambrosio Flores, and hi!> adjutant, my friend and relative, the former Spanish army officer Mariano Queri, who had joined the insurrection upon the surrender of the Spanish troops. It was said in the beginning that General Flores would be secretary of war, but owing to reasons that I am still unable to understand, that appointment did not materialize and Baldomero Aguinaldo was given the secretaryship instead. As I noticed that a dislike for me was beginning to develop among certain elements, not only because I had discussed many of Mabini's measures, especially those relative to marriage, but also because I believed that it was harmful to introduce such radical
512
HISTORY reforms in all the organisms of administration at that time, I decided to return to the capital. This, however, I had to do secretly and as, on the other hand, Aguinaldo urged me to bring my family to Cavite, so much so that I wrote a letter to my wife telling her to get ready to go there accompanied by a relative of Aguinaldo's married to a Chinaman who made business trips from Manila to Cavite later, I arranged with my friend Don Ambrosio to leave Cavite when everybody least expected it. At that time, several Chinamen of this capital were going to Cavite with merchandise, such as matches, cigars, and cigarettes, and also with silver money which they exchanged for notes of the Banco Espanol-Filipino in circulation in that region, and even for one and two centimo coins. They were doing an excellent business with the notes; I believe that the selling price or rate of exchange was four silver pesos for a fivepeso note, or eight pesos for two five-peso notes. One of these Chinamen, a friend of Don Ambrosio's, was approached by the latter with the request that he allow me to return to Manila in his banca. This he did, and at two o'clock in the afternoon of July 4, I left Cavite by banca. After crossing the bay, we arrived at the capital between five and six o'clock that afternoon and I landed at the Farola. I went to the house of my brothel'S who were living at Binondo, and there I found my wife and children ready to go, because on the next day they were to embark early in the morning in a banca with Aguinaldo's relative order to go to Cavite, pursuant to the letter I had written to my wife. That same night, between midnight and one o'clock, my wife gave birth to a child, which furnished me a magnificent excuse for not returning to Cavite. As I said before, about June 30, while I was at Cavite General Aguinaldo receive the visit of Admiral Dewey, and I learned there that the purpose of his visit was to ask the chieftain of the insurrection for permission to land the troops that had just arrived. These troops were the Regiment of California Volunteers commanded by Colonel Smith, the present Governor-General of these Islands, and the Oregon Volunteers Regiment. One of these regiments was quartered in the Arsenal and the other in Fort San Felipe. I then made the acquaintance of the chaplain of the Oregon Regiment and the colonel of the same to whom I was introduced by the Protestant chaplain at San Roque. I also met Father McKinnon, the Catholic chaplain of the California Volunteer Regiment, and Colonel Smith.
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Having returned to the capital, as I have already stated, and my wife having had her child, I had a magnificent excuse for writing Emilio Aguinaldo that it was altogether impossible for me to return to Cavite; but the real reason was that I did not in any manner desire to become responsible for things that were being done there and which I considered harmful to the cause of the insurrection. I had been in Manila two or three days when the German who was with me on the expedition to Cavite, by way of Mariquina, and who had assured me that he was going to see his family at Malabon, came to have a talk with me. This German invited me to have supper with him at Lala's and there he broached to me the subject of the future relations between Filipinos and Americans, asking me, finally, whether I knew if anything had been stipulated in a formal and serious manner hetween the two. I answered that I was completely unaware of the existence of any contract in writing relative to the future situation of the country. He then affirmed that, he al 0 was convinced that no such contract existed, and wound up by telling me that one of the objects of his journey to Malabon was to s e the Admiral of the German fleet then in the bay, who had commissioned him to look for a person to negotiate with the Germans, with a view to signing an agreement, in order that in case the Americans did not conduct themselves as we Filipinos hoped they would, they, the Germans, could take a hand in the matter. I told him that I had no authority nor power to start such negotiations, but what I could do was to bring this proposition to Aguinaldo's attention, so that whatever could be done in the future with regard to an understanding between Filipinos and Germans, in case of any trouble between Filipinos and Americans, might be determined upon. The things Vicente Lukban had told me with regard to acts on the part of the Americans which plainly showed that they wished to rule the country in the future, making use of the Filipinos, and my having learned subsequently that the fortified place of Cavite had to be abandoned by Aguinaldo, who had removed to Bacoor, compelled to do so by the American military commander, caused me to write to Aguinaldo, through Vicente Lukban, in order to submit to him the propositions which the German had made to me. In addition to the first conference, I had had two or three others at Lala's hotel, at one of which an adjutant of the admiral of the German fleet was present. My letter was taken to Cavite, and as General Vicente Lukban to whom the letter enclosing the one I wrote
514
HISTORY to Aguinaldo was addressed, had already left for Camarines, the letter was handed to Aguinaldo himself by Silv-estre Legaspi, according to my information. Five or six days after writing the letter, I received a reply thereto from Mabini, who wrote me by Aguinaldo's order, telling me that it was not advisable to start any negotiations with the Germans, for the reason that the North-American were noticing that we were suspicious of them, and that a Hongkong newspaper had already mentioned that the relations between Americans and Filipinos were not of the best. I showed this let•ter to my friend Leon Guerrero, and after I had explained all the pr·e cedents to him, he ag'reed with me that a good understanding with the Germans would be advantageous for us at the time, not precisely in order to separate from the Americans, but to oblige the latter to make some written stipulation with regard to the futur-e of our country. Those letters I tore and it is a pity I can not reproduce them now. In view of Mabini's answer I said nothing to the German, giving as explanation that I had not received any letter in reply to the one r had written. I stayed in Manila then, and I rfimember very well that on the night of July 31 the fight waS so fierce out at San Antonio Abad that we all believed the place would be taken that night. Then, while the Americans were fighting sid-e by side with the Filipinos in the trenches at San Antonio Abad, I received every day information that a rupture between the insurgent and United States armies was imminent and might come .at any moment. The 13th of August arrived, and I had left the Observatory in the morning, when, shortly afterwards, I noticed that the fleet was moving to advance and cleared for action to attack the city. I immediately returned to the Abservatory, where I made arrangements with Father Algue in order to prevent any disorder in the N.ormal School. I prepared my insurgent hat and badge with the colors of the Filipino flag and the silver triangle, which had been furnished to me at Cavite as insignia as a member of the insurrection and between nine and ten o'clock they began by bombarding Fort San Antonio Abad, where many hapless artillery soldiers and cazadores perished in order to save somebody's face, because if, as we learned later, the surrender of Manila had already been arranged, with the intervention of Andre, the Belgian consul, it was perfectly useless to simulate that attack on Fort San Antonio Abad, which resulted in burying a number of unfortunate artillery and infantry soldiers under the ruins of that ancient fortress.
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Between twelve and one o'clock the white flag waved on the Real Gate; at that moment Ermita was already occupied by the insurgent troops and at the same time by the American army. The Ermita convent was in the possession of the insurgent forces, and a North-American regiment was stationed on Calle P. Faura, opposite the Observatory. As soon as the invasion came Father Algue and I statiom'ld ourselves at the door of the Observatory and were successful in preventing any soldier from entering the place armed with his rifle. Shortly afterwards, the insurgent soldiers brought a body, over which Father Algue said a prayer, promising that the ' mass on the next day would be offered for the repose of the soul of that victim. That afternoon and night I had to prepare a lot of food in the part of the Observatory where I was, because many insurgent friends came to sup with me. Among them I l'emember General Mascardo, Colonel Ocampo, and other officers, all of whom helped me to prevent disorder and confusion not only in the Observatory, but in all Ermita. I also learned that General Luna and General Alejandrino had met several American generals at the Ermita convent for a parley, in order to prevent disorder and disturbances throughout the city. I shall never forget the peculiaT impression which I received on the day when the combined insurg-ent and American troops entered the city of Manila. As I understand it, the inhabitants of a city occupied by an army, must receive that army with demonstrations of sadness and grief; but here the victorious army was received with great rejoicing and with cheers. This shows that the Filipino people believed that the 13th of August was the day of their emancipation and redemption, and that they looked upon it as the day of the real triumph of the revolution over the Spanish sovereignty. Two or three days after the occupation of Manila, that is, about August 17 or 18, 1898, while I was at Juan Cuadra's pharmacy in Ermita, Antonio Luna, Leon Guerrero, and several others arrived and insisted that I go with them to Cavite Viejo, where Aguinaldo was. I resisted this invitation with all my might, because I believed that after all that had happened in Cavite, the same in May as in the first days of July, I would; upon going to see Aguinaldo, become also responsible for the future misfortunes liable to befall our country on account of imprudent acts committed since then. In view of the repeated requests of my friends that I go with them, I saw myself constrained, however, to accede to the invitation, and
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HISTORY a party of us went to Cavite Viejo, among whom I remember Luna, Guerrero, Jose Torres Bugallon, who still belonged to the Spanish army, with the rank of captain, Pedro Paterno, and many others. We arrived at Cavite Viejo or Kawit after having gone by steamer as far as Cavite and by banca from that port to Cavite Viejo. At the latter place we were received by Aguinaldo. On that occasion Pedro Paterno showed again that he was a man who knew how to adjust himself to all conditions, because he then boasted of his skill in arranging the treaty of Biak-na-bato. We returned to Manila and I then attended to my things and affairs until having been appointed representathl1 e for the district of Paragua in the Revolutionary Congress, I moved with my whole family, on September 10 to the pueblo of Barasoain, and, by order of Emilio Aguinaldo, installed myself in one of the rooms of the convent of that pueblo, in the church of which the Congress met. I remained there with my family from September to November. I suffered great privations, having neither servants nor money wherewith to pay 'them. My wife attended not only to the kitchen, but also to the care of the children and the washing of our clothes, until, thanks to the kindness of Don Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, the latter furnished me with the meals, and Emilio Aguinaldo, having learned through Domingo Colmenar that I had not a single servant, furnished me with three Spanish prisoners, who to say the truth, served me very well and were very grateful for the benevolent treatment that they received from me while they were living with me. The period from September, 1898, to December of the same year has doubtless been one of the most important and busiest of all my life. When I was appointed a member of the Revolutionary Congress, I trembled in the face of the tremendous responsibility involved considering my scant knowledge in political and constitutional matters; but the events showed later on that though unfamiliar with all that, I was not far behind my colleagues. After the great festivities of September 13, in honor of the ratification of the ind.ependence, and when the Congress had already been constituted, the first thing was the drafting of the rules of procedure, and as everybody was absolutely ignorant of what the rules of procedure of a congress were, the late Dr. Joaquin Gonzalez and I were appointed to draft such rules. We considered it the most advisable at that time, as a provisional measure, to adopt the rules of the Spanish Congress, with slight variations, and this was actually done. Upon the approval of the rules which I drafted on the
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES model of the rules of the Spanish Congress, with a few small modifications, the several committees were appointed, I and several others being appointed members of the Committee for Drafting the Constitution. I remember perfectly well that at the first meeting of that committee I realized that we were completely ignorant of everything relative to political and constitutional law, and I then firmly resolved that if I had my opportunity, I would make it my business to teach and spread the knowledge of constitutional and political law in my country. Mabini had drafted a proposed constitution based on the constitution of the Spanish Republic, with very insignificant variations, and after studying that constitution, I became convinced that it was not the most suitable for our country. Pedro Paterno, on his part, had also given me a proposed constitution of 1868, with very insignificant small modifications. Inasmuch as that draft was as little satisfactory to me as Mabini's because both sprang from the same source, to wit, the Spanish constitution of 1868, I attempted to prepare another draft which was to be eclectic. Having perceived that in the Congress a large majority was on Paterno's side, because Mabini, with his intransient disposition, lost ground- from the very beginning, I said was going to introduce the constitution drafted by Pedro Paterno, and I so told Pedro Paterno himself. The latter, in order to assist me, made me have a talk with Rosauro de Guzman, and one night I slept in his house, in order that he might also help me with the draft of Ricardo Regidor who, as I learned subsequently, was the real author of the draft introduced by Paterno. My situation was a somewhat difficult one, and if I desired to see my ideals prosper, I had to satisfy the vanity of some and at the same time display considerable skill, so that, while I really submitted a draft of my own they should not perceive that I had disregarded the one given me by Pedro Paterno. In fact, I told everybody I was going to make only a few small corrections in Pedro Paterno's draft, and spent several days studying the constitutions of all countries, a subject-matter, on the other hand, with which I was familiar, because since I had completed my law studies, I had never practised except during a short period in the year 1894, but had studied constitutional law, history, and political economy. Taking as a basis, in the part relative to the organization of the government, the constitutions of the South American republics and especially, with respect to the legislative power, the constitution of Costa Rica, I prepared my draft. As I was even without a clerk in Barasoain, I came to Manila, and one day, in Juan Cuadra's pharmacy in Ermita, a fair 518
HISTORY copy of notes I had all"eady prepared for the proposed constitution was made by three copyists who, I remember correct were Don Mariano lcasiano, Don Hugo Aunario and another whose name I do not recollect. When the draft was submitted to the committee, the latter approved it, with small modifications; but we encountered opposition on the part of Mabini's followers who voted for the passage of the draft prepared by the latter. Another member who objected to the second title of the draft, relative to the religion of the State, was Tomas del Rosario, who states he would introduce an amendment when the Congr-ess took up the discussion of the draft as a whole. The draft having been approved by the committee, copies were printed of it and distributed among the representatives, and the draft was discussed from the end of Octaber until November when it was passed by the Congress. It was then submitted to Aguinaldo for his approval, but Mabini, who did not like to see his draft relegated to the background, proposed certain amendments, some of which were of such a nature that they converted the Congress into a purely advisory body and gave the president of the republic the discretionary power to dissolve the Congress whenever he saw fit to do so. In order to reply to tHese amendments, a committee was appointed composed, if I remember correctly, of the late Joaquin Gonzalez, Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Alberto Barretto, Jose Ma. de la Vifia, and others. All unanimously resolved to entrust me with the drafting of the reply to the amendment and this reply, prepared by me in one night, was signed by the Congressmen and presented to Aguinaldo. After considerable delay, and after several conferences that have been held in order to arrive at a solution, because Mabini was determined to sustain his amendments and the congressional committee desired that the constitution approved by that legislative body should prevail, an understanding was reached, and the constitution was finally proclaimed at Malolos on路 January 25, 1899. It must be remembered that the constitution was approved by the revolutionary congress about th~ first days of the month of N 0vember and that the members of the congress were especially anxious that the constitution should be approved before the Treaty of Paris, in order that when the Spanish and North-Amrican commissioners should meet in Paris, the fact could be argued in favor of the independence of our country that it had, in a short time, been able to organize into a state, with a constitution and organic laws. Mabini's uncompromising attitude, however, resulted in the failure of all these good intentions, and the constitution was not ap519
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES proved until after General Otis had already proclaimed in Manila that the Philippine Islands were under American sovereignty, and after the cession of our country by Spain to the United States had already been consummated. I think Mabini contracted a tremendous responsibility when he refused to budge from his attitude and to approve the constitution as soon as the congress had submitted it to the president of the revolutionary government for his sanction. I am now going to make a slight analysis of the constitution and te explain, without resorting to scientific 'a rguments, the causes of a purely local order which impelled me to draft the constitution in the terms in which I wrote it. I remember perfectly well that one day after the session of the congress my friend, Dr. Gonzales and I were together at the door of the church of Barasoain, and he informed me that the representatives had just passed the real foundation of the constitution without understanding its transcendency. (I must state here that one of the few persons who knew anything 路 about constitutional matters in that congress and who worked with real faith and real constancy was the late Dr. Gonzales who, full of affection towards me, used to call me the chief gallo, because, as he said to his friends, I was the gallego of the congress for the reason that I bore the burden of the work of that legislative body, and he was the second gallego). Dr. Gonzales was right in telling me that nobody had paid attention to the most important features of the constitution and that the same had been approved without debate. In fact, the legislative power, although I proclaimed at the beginning the separation of the three powers, had been vested with such ample powers in the proposed constitution that it controlled the executive and judicial powers in all their acts, and in order to make this control a constant one, the same as in the constitution of Cosa Rica, I had esablished a socalled permanent committee, that is, a committee composed of members of the congress which, during the recess of the congress assumed all the powers of the same, with full authority to adopt emergency measures. In one word, it may be affirmed that the congress of the republic was the omnipotent power of the entire nation. In proceeding in this manner, I remembered that the insurrection had been organized but the most ignorant element of the people and that for a long time we were going to have a very great predominance of the military element, whose ignorance was undisputable, to such an extent that General Luna himself, as soon as he took charge of the direction of the war, organized academies in order 520
HISTORY that the officers might acquire some knowledge of military tactics of a scientific nature. The fact that the insurgent army was completely ignorant is not at all strange, because any person who knows how the insurrection was organized is well aware of the fact that Andres Bonifacio recruited his men from among the most ignorant classes. Being fully convinced, therefore, that in case of obtaining our independence, we were for a long time going to have a really oligarchic republic in which the military element, which was ignorant in almost its entirety, would predominate, preferred to see that oligarchy neutralized by the oligarchy of intelligence, seeing that the congress would be composed of the most intelligent elements of the nation. This is the principal reason why I vested the congress with such ample powers, not only within the legislative sphere, but also in its control of the executive and judicial branches. In o:ne word, where oligarchies were concerned, I preferred the oligarchy of the intelligence of many to an ignorant oligarchy. Besides the national assembly of one house, with legislative functions, I established, in imitation of some South American republics, the so-called permanent commission, composed of seven members of the assembly, which was to aSsume the powers of the assembly during the recess of that body. I must explain the reason why I chose the unicameral system, which is very little used, instead of the bicameral system, which has been accepted by nearly all civilized countries. The reasons which impelled me to do so are of a purely local order and may be reduced to the following: 1st.---trhat in the Philippines there are not different interests which have to compete and be heard in the formation of the law, as in the European monarchies, where there is an aristocracy of birth, money, or intellect, opposed to the interests of the people, or as in the United States, where the Senate represents the interests of the federation, while the House of Representatives represents the interests of each of the States. Nothing of that kind exists in our country, and for this reason I did not consider it necessary that there should be two houses. 2nd.-A country in its period of formation like ours, was sure to encounter insurmountable obstacles, and if there were two houses, the administration of the affairs of the country would be somewhat delayed, while with one house only, many of the obstacles would disappear. 521
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES 3rd.-The lack of personnel, which caused me to fear that in case we had two houses, we would not be able to find a sufficient number of persons to occupy all the seats in them. Another of the most debated points in that assembly was the one respecting religion. Title 3 of the proposed constitution reads as follows: Article 5. The nation protects the worship and the ministers of the Roman Catholic Apostolic religion, which is the religion of the State, and does not contribute out of its revenues to the expense of any other form of worship. Article 6. Any other form of worship may be practiced privately, provided the same is not against morality and good custom and does not imperil the safety of the nation. Article 7. The appointment to and performance of all offices and employment of the republic, as well as the payments of civil and political dues, are independent of the religion of the Filipinos. I knew fully well that Masonry had played a very important part in the insurrection; but I was also convinced that Masonry, such as has developed in the Philippines, was, more than an antiCatholic sect, a society for the purpose of counteracting the power of the friars, not so much as ministers of a religion, but as agents of a political character, or, rather as a manifestation of the Spanish political colonizing power, I did not overlook, however, that this same Masonry, sadly confounding things, believed that the abuses of the friars were defects of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Church. In the face of these considerations I took into account that all the Filipinos, even those who boasted they were Masons and sectarians, were Catholics, and that it was extremely dangerous at that time to do sudden violence to the consciences and establish liberty of worship, with its sequel, the separation of Church and State, not only because it outraged the consciences of nearly all, but also, because it cleated great dissension among the Filipinos, who were divided enough as it was in those moments, while what we really needed the most was to find all possible means of cohesion between the different elements here. Moreover, everybody is fully aware of the power of the native priests, and to proclaim the separation of Church and State at that time meant to remove that valuable element of our people. In addition to these reasons, I was influenced in my choice of the establishment of an official church, which was of course, the Catholic, by the consideration that in case of a separation between Church and State, Rome could very well appoint foreign bishops and ecclesiastic authorities and absolutely disregarded the native
522
HISTORY clergy which since the beginning of the revolution and a long time before, had been the principal authors of the reform movement in the Philippines. On the other hand, the question of the ecclesiastic property was a problem of the most vital importance which could not, in my opinion, be solved but in one of these two manners: either by entering into a concorda with Rome, for which purpose it was indispensable for us to have an official religion, or by indemnifying the religious corporation for the value of their property which, thotlgh admitting their acquisition may have been vicious in its origin, had, in the course of the years been redeemed by the acceptance of the tenants occupying the same. If the religious corporations were paid the value of their property holdings, all that wealth would leave the Philippines instead of remaining here and being used for the Catholic worship. These fundamental reasons moved me to ardently defend articles of the proposed constitution against the opposition, headed by Tomas G. del Rosario, whQ defended the separation. It was one of the problems that were the most debated in the assembly and after lengthy discussions the title would have prospered as it was in the draft had it not been for the fact that on the day when it was put to a vote, many of the representatives who never attended the sessions came, and, remaining concealed from the partisans of the title as included in the draft, appeared at the moment that the vote was taken. A tie vote was the result, which could have been decided by the vote of the president, Pedro Paterno, if he had decided to cast it. As he failed to do so, another vote was had, and Pablo Tecson, who had abstained from voting the first time, cast his vote the second time and the amendment was carried by one vote, which was that of Pablo Tecson. The religious problem was of such great importance that Mabini himself, a red-hot sectarian and Mason and seriously compromised, did not dare to accept it as proposed by the congress, in view of the favorable result of the amendment and in the amendment which he proposed to the constitution, as already adopted by the congress, he added an additional article, as follows: "The execution of Article 5, Title 3, is suspended until the meeting of the constitutional assembly. . "In the meantime the municipalities of the pueblos reqUIring the spiritual assistance of any priest shall provide for the necessary maintenance of the same." This attitude of those who voted for the absolute separation of Church and State gave rise to much displeasure among the Fili-
523
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES pino clergy and I then began to notice among them a certain reluctance to take any part in the public affairs, but the ardent minds of our priests caused them to publish a newspaper entitled El Catolico Filipino, which continued the work of the periodical published in Manila by Father Pelaez in defense of the interests of the Filipino clergy. But as is wont to happen, the plan was carried into practice, and owing to the lack of unity among the members of our clergy, they did not succeed in collecting sufficient money to maintain the publication for any length of time and it lasted no longer than the month of December, 1898. That newspaper was directed by myself. The discussion of the religious question being concluded, the constitution was passed by the Congress. Having completed my work and being anxious on the other hand to leave Malolos, as I noticed that the animosity between Americans and Filipinos was increasing from day to day, and foresaw that hostiliti~s between the two were liable to break out at any moment, I returned to Batangas, where I was when the hostilities began, on February 4, 1899. With this I conclude the first period of these Memoirs; the second begins with my return from Batangas, in May, 1899.
SECOND PERIOD (From May, 1899, till 1901)
The second part of these Memoirs covers the period from May, 1899, when I returned from Batangas, until the complete restoration of peace and the present time; during the same I took a direct part in political and social events of exceptional importance. As I have already said, in the latter half of January, 1899, I was for the reasons already stated, obliged to go to Batangas Province. While I was at the pueblo of Lipa, where I had gone with Colonel Martin Cabrera of the Insurgent Army, to attend the ceremony of the taking of the oath to the revolutionary flag of the new levies of a battalion being organized under the orders of General Miguel Malvar, we received the news of the outbreak of hostilities in Manila, on February 4th. I have no idea how it developed and what was the immediate cause of that outbreak, but subsequently I learned a few details which clearly show that the provocation came from the Americans. I repeat again that whatever information I am now giving is hearsay only, but was received from absolutely trustworthy persons; moreover, all the precedents show that 524
HISTORY such a rupture of hostilities between Americans and Filipinos was bound to come sooner or later. While it is true that since the end of November, 1899, both Americans and Filipinos were seen to be making preparations for a struggle that had to come sooner or later, yet the Filipinos did not believe that it would come so soon. The fact that both General Ricarte and General San Miguel, who were commanding the Santa Ana line, beginning at the bridge of that same name, were absent from their posts on the night when the hostilities began, is a good proof of what we have said. General Aguinaldo, in his report, above referred to, published in the review Filipinas ante Europa, in speaking of the beginning of the battle on February 4, 1899, says the following: "And while I, the Government, the Congress, and the entire people were waiting for that longed-for answer, most of us being very hopeful, there came that fatal 4th of February in the night of which the American troops suddenly attacked all along our lines which were practically deserted, because it being Saturday, the eve of a holiday, our generals and some of the principal officers had asked leave to join their families." General Pantaleon Garcia was the only one who, at that crit~c足 al moment, was at his post at Maypajo, to the north of Manila, Generals Noriel, Rizal and Ricarte, and Colonels San Miguel, Cailles, and others being absent on leave. According to trustworthy information, General Otis cabled to Washington that the Filipinos had attacked the American army. President McKinley read the cablegram to the Senate, where the ratification of the Treaty of Paris, of December 10, 1898, was up for discussion, so far as the annexation of the Philippines was concerned, and by this criminal means he obtained the full ratification of the treaty mentioned by three votes only, which were given in consideration of the state of war existing in these Islands. That strange comedy could not last very long, because it was not possible that we Filipinos should ever attack the American troops, to whom we had sworn friendship and to whose power we looked for the necessary protection in order to request of the other nations the official recognition of our independence. The obfuscation of the first moments was great, but subsequently mature reflection prevailed and the truth became known. When the sensible people reviewed Mr. McKinley's action in sending troops after troops to Manila after the conclusion of the armistice and even after peace with Spain; when they reflected that he had retarted the sending of the civil commission which was to 525
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES establish friendly relations with the Filipinos; when they became acquainted with the antecedents of my alliance with Admiral Dewey, prepared and arranged by Consuls Pratt and Wildam, of Singapore and Hongkong; when they were informed of the true state of affairs in the Philippines on Februal'Y 4th and knew that the Filipinos were waiting for Mr. McKinley's answer to General Otis' telegram, transmitting the peaceful desires of the Filipino people to live as an independent nation; when, finally, they took note of the terms of the Paris treaty, the approval of which, so far as the annexation of the Philippines was concerned, was greeted with cheers by the Imperialist Party of which Mr. McKinley was the head, their eyes became open to the truth and they clearly perceived the low, selfish, and inhumane policy of Mr. McKinley towards us Filipinos, in unfeelingly sacrificing the honor of Admiral Dewey and exposing that worthy gentleman, the illustrious victor of Manila Bay, to universal ridicule, because no other deduction can be drawn from the fact that about the middle of the month of May, 1889, the MacCullough, a United States ship of war, brought me and my fellowrevolutionists from lIongkong, by order of that admiral and that same ship is now eng,aged in shelling ports and towns, in fighting that same revolution, the motto of which is Liberty and Independence. Upon leal'ning of the rupture of hostilities between Americans and Filipinos which, though I had expected it, I had not believed to be so imminent, I immediately recollected what I had said to Aguinaldo in our first interview when I had suggested to him that he obtain at all events a regular treaty with Admiral Dewey, as representative, with sufficient powers from the Congress of the United States to stipulate with us concerning the future of our country. I noted a general movement of patl'iotic exaltation throughout the pl'ovince of Batangas, where all were getting ready to fight the common enemy. Two days after having received the tidings at Lipa, I returned to Bauang and immediately took steps to have my wife and children remove with me to the barrio of Alitagtag, approximately a league from the seashore, and there I stayed in the hills, in the country house owned by the Jesuit Fathers, during the months of Februal'y, March, and April, until the first half of May, when, tired of the false news that were being received throughout the province of Batangas, and anxious to learn the truth, I determined to go personally to Manila. I started out by way of Mataasna-Kahoy and Baiiadero, two barrios belonging to the pueblo of Lipa, and Tanawan, and arrived at Talisay at noon, having left the barrio of Alitagtag at 4 a. m. on that same day on horse-back, accompanied by 526
HISTORY two men in whom I had absolute confidence. After scarcely an hour's rest at Talisay, we climbed the Sungay mountains on the Paliparan side and, traversing that entire slope of the range we arrived at Silang between seven and eight o'clock in the evening. There we put up at the convent, where the parish priest, a Filipino clergyman whose name I do not recollect at this moment, received me very affectionately. As I was talking with him, he told me that he had noticed that the people were rather discouraged and that our army did not exhibit the energy and fortitude with which the first insurgents had fought the Spaniards. I left Silang with my companions early in the morning of the next day, and we crossed the remainder of the Paliparan desert, also on horseback, and, after passing through Fuerte Quintana, we arrived at Imus by way of the barrio of Malagasan. I went to the house of my friend Topacio, and there I exchanged impressions with the latter and other residents of that pueblo, who, I observed, were all very much discouraged, a condition that was certainly different from the one that prevailed on occasion of the struggle against Spain, in May, 1898, and whica I understood to be the result of the molestations, outrages, and acts of injustice committed against mahy honorable men by some of the officers of the insurrection. I took the necessary steps in order to be able to get to Manila, and after many efforts and considerable trouble, I succeeded in securing a passage on one of the bancas plying between Manila, Cavite, and other coast pueblos, with merchandise. For this purpose I was compelled to leave Imus by carromata and apply for a pass to General N oriel, who was then at Bacoor. They put a good many obstacles in my way at Bacoor, those who objected the most to my being given a pass being persons who owed me many favors. At Bacoor I heard of the proclamation addressed by the Schurman Commission to the Filipino people, inviting them to come to an understanding with that commission; I also learned that the beginning of an autonomist party had been started in Manila. I finally succeeded in getting the pass, and traveling behind the general wagon road from Bacoor to Parafiaque, for the reason that it was impossible to go by the general road, because a monitor stationed in Bacoor bight, between Bacoor and Parafiaque, was constantly watching the road and fired with its rapid-firing gun the moment it saw any person on it. From Parafiaque we went to Malibay, and there, in the barrio of Bac]aran, I embarked in a banca which took us to the Ermita beach. Upon my arrival in Manila, I was informed of the real situation of the country and realized that the American army was destroying the Filipino army, which was demoralized 527
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES throughout. The persons principally responsible for this demoralization were some of the generals and other officers themselves, who, as the priest at Silang had very well said, were only worrying about the safety of their own lives and the wealth which they had accumulated, often by foul means. Shortly after my arrival I had a talk with my relative by marriage and friend, Dr. Pardo de Tavera, who introduced me to Dr. Bourns, then in charge of the health department of the Provost Marshal's Office. I also had a talk with Father McKinnon, a Catholic chaplain of the United States Army. We exchanged views, and Dr. Pardo advised me to see also Don Cayetano Arellano, who had at that time charge of the organization of the Supreme Court and the judiciary, in order to see whether he would not give me some official appointment. To this I objected, because I have never even thought of accepting any appointive public office from the Government of the United States. At that time, while I was at home one afternoon, after luncheon, an American visitor was announced and I was handed the card of Professor Dean C. W' orcester. I received him and found myself face to face with a big man, quite a few feet in height and of more than ordinary gil'th, who spoke Spanish with considerable fluency. We exchanged views on the situation and he finally told me that he would be especially pleased to see me aid in the work of pacification and of the establishment of the United States Government in the Philippine Islands, promising me at the same time a recompense in the shape of a government position. I made an objection to this proposal, telling him that I realized that it was necessary to have peace and stop all that bloodshed; but that he must understand that if I assisted in bringing about peace, it was not out of consideration for the American Government, to which I was not bound by any tie, but which I rather regarded with distrust, because the attitude and conduct of its representatives in the Philippines had been one of deceit and lies throughout, and that what I needed the most was to return to Batangas Province and see how my family was getting along. I left for Batangas four or five days after the events I have related, making the journey as follows: I left Manila in a banca which I took on the beach at Ermita, where the boats carrying merchandise and other articles generally left. With me there was a lady from San Fernando, a sinamay merchant, who carried a large amount of merchandise and among it a box of crude opium. We arrived at the sitio of Baclaran between 8 and 9 p. m. and the first
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THE CHURCH OF BARASOAIN, MALOLOS, BULACAN, WHERE THE FU.IPINO CONGRESS ASSEMBLED, SEPTEMBER
15, 1898
HISTORY thing to which we had to submit was a careful search by the guard of Filipino soldiers stationed there. We spent the night at Baclaran, and early the next morning we went to Parafiaque, not without being stopped by an outpost at the entrance of the pueblo, who submitted us to an interrogatory from which I saved us by making myself known to the commanding officer of the detachment stationed in the trench there. At Paraiiaque we took a carromata on which we went as far as Muntinlupa. There I found General Paua, as officer in command. Without any mishap, we continued our journey by carromata to Lipa, where we arrived that night, and where I put up at the house of a relative of my companion Pedro Palacios, who is a friend of mine. That same evening I went to the Rizal Club at the pueblo of Lipa, of which my friend Gregorio Aguilera was thlf President, if I remember correctly. While exchanging views there with some of the persons present, among them Gregorio Aguilera, Bernardo Solis, Katigbak, and others, I represented the impossibility of a victory against the Americans, owing, more than anything else, to two principal causes; first, the immorality and lack of discipline of the Filipino troops, due to the fact that some of the officers looked out for their own interests more than anything else, and, secondly, the discontent which prevailed in many pueblos on account of the outrages committed by certain detachment commanders and other military authorities. We conversed thus fOl' a long time, and I informed all of my opinion that we must at all events endeavor to come to an understanding with the Americans in order to put a stop to all that bloodshed in an absolutely useless struggle. My words, uttered with sincerity and conviction, as I had been a close observer of things not only in Manila, but all the way from Batangas to Manila, on my journey to Manila and back, were immediately communicated to General Malvar, as I learned afterwards. On the next day I returned by cal'romata to Alitagtag, where I joined my family, and as preparations were being made for the barrio fiesta, I deemed it wise to remain until I had made up my mind about the manner in which to return to Manila as quickly as possible after the fiesta. On the eve of the barrio fiesta, which was about the 20th of May, I received a telegram from General Malvar, who was with the Maibun detachment, between Muntinlupa and Taguig, urgently requesting me to present myself before him. In view of the private information I had received, this telegram meant to me that I would be arrested at the place mentioned by General Malvar, who considered me a partisan of the Americans on account of the statements
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES I had made at the Club in Lipa, which had been reported to him by the persons present there, I replied to Malvar's telegram, telling him that I would come as soon as the Alitagtag fiesta was over; but he would not allow this delay and telegraphed again. I therefore made up my mind to start on my journey, accompanied by my two children, one of whom was ill, not to see Malver, but to return to Manila. However, I told everybody along the way that I was going to Maibun by request of General Malvar, whose telegram I showed to everybody. I left Alitagtag at noon; and between t;ix and seven o'clock in the afternoon I arrived at Tanauan, from where I telegraphed to General Malvar, informing him that I was coming to Maibun, but that it would be necessary to have a banca ready for me at Bifiang as my son was ill. Malvar and I communicated by telegraph and it was agreed that he would have a banca ready for me at Calamba, from where I was to go by the Laguna de Bay to the place to which he had summoned me. On the following day I arrived at Calamba, where I again telegraphed to Malvar, telling him that according to Father Valentin Tafiag, who was then parish priest of Calamba, it was dangerous to travel by banca, because the American gunboats watching the lake were in the habit of firing upon the bancas they encountered in their way. From Calamba I went by carromata to Muntinlupa, of which fact I informed General Malvar by telegraph; arrived there at noon and put up at the house of Father Eulalio Almeida, the parish priest of that pueblo. Between three and four o'clock in the afternoon I started from Muntinlupa, leaving a letter, which was immediately taken to Malvar, in which I informed him that the condition of my sick son prevented me from proceeding to Maibun. From Muntinlupa I went to Malibay; I on horseback and my two children in a hammock, and at twelve o'clock that same night I embarked in a banca, arriving at Manila at eight o'clock in the morning. Thanks to these stratagems I avoided being arrested by Malvar for the opinions I had expressed at the Club in Lipa. R ardly had I arrived at Manila, when I went to see Professor Worcester, who invited me to have a conference in the next few days with the members of the Commission, to whom he introduced me. This Commission was composed of Professor Schurman, Colonel Denby, Professor Worcester, General Otis, and Admiral Dewey, Mr. MacArthur acting as secretary. The commissioners lived in Inchausti's house on Calle Real, Malate, and there Professor Worcester introduced me to them and it was agreed that my conference with the Commission was to take place in the next few days. An account 530
HISTORY of this conference has been published in the report of the Commission referred to. I do not remember very well who introduced me to General Otis; but the fact. of the matter is that I had many conferences with him, and in one of these I asked him for permission, or rather, I asked him to furnish me a pass allowing me to travel through the pueblo of Parafiaque and pueblos in the provinces of Cavite, in order to see how matters stood there. One of these excursions I made with Professor Worcester, and I still have some photographs taken on t.hem; on other's I was accompanied by Don Angel Fabie. My purpose in making these excursions was to see how municipal governments could be established in the pueblos already under American control, and I so informed General Otis and Professor Worcester. In this work I was impelled by the consideration that the lack of municipal governments in the pueblos, which were then under the sole and exclusive direction and government of the detachment commanders, had resulted in bringing about a regular state of anarchy in those pueblos, to the peril of their inhabitants who were often entirely at t.he mercy' of the craftier elements in the pueblos and of adventurers, either Filipinos or A ericans who knew Spanish, who acted as advisers of the detachme~t commanders. I remember traveling through the pueblos of Parafiaque, Las Pifias, Bacoor, and Imus, in all of which I found the ground well prepared for the organization of municipal governments. Professor Worcester, who was much pleased with my idea, introduced me to General Lawton, in command of the District of Northern Luzon. At that time 'the relations between the members of the Schurman Commission and General Otis were not very cordial, and the same could be said of the relations between General Otis and General Lawton. Professor Worcester, who had more of a liking for General Lawton, found it more feasible to establish municipal governments in the pueblos under General's Lawton command than to discuss the matter with General Otis, who, by the way, was an extremely exclusive man. Worcester and I had a talk with Lawton, and we agreed that I should draft a few simple regulations for the municipal government of the pueblos. This I did, preparing a draft of regulations based on Mauras's municipal regime and the regulations issued by the revolutionary government. I handed this draft to Worcester, who, as he told me afterwards, showed it to Don Cayetano Arellano. The latter, if I remember correctly, in speaking of the municipal taxes which, according to my draft, were to be all those prescribed by the Maura Law, added the proviso that the taxes strictly neces-
531
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES sary for the maintenance of the municipal government would be collected. These municipal government regulations were submitted by Worcester and myself to General Lawton, who translated them into English and issued a military order making them effective in the pueblos under his command in which we were organizing municipal governments. The first pueblo in which we organized municipal government under this regime was Parafiaque, where President, Vice-President and Councilors were elected by universal suffrage. From Parafiaque we went to Bacoor, where we organized a municipal government in the same form and manner as in Parafiaque, Don Felix Cuenca being elected President. From Bacoor election was held in the parish house, graciously ceded to us for that purpose by Don Gabino Lizo, the parish priest of that pueblo. I do not recollect who was elected President at Las Pifias. From Las Pinas we went to Imus and there proceeded to the election of a President. It was the common idea of the entire popu ation that Juan Castaneda, since deceased, should be the President. Castaneda was at that time a prisoner at the calle Anda station, ahd General Lawton, who was with us, promised the people that Juan Castaneda would soon be released in order to be President of the pueblo of Imus. So it happened, in fact; we had barely arrived at Manila, when I called on Juan Castaneda and sounded him, and in view of the conference I had with him I suggested to Lawton the advisability of releasing the man, Juan Castaneda, who had just returned from Spain, having had the sentence of imprisonment imposed upon him in 1896 by a Spanish military court for rebellion and sedition, remitted by way of clemency, and was confined at Calle Anda station, was released on account of his ha ving been elected President of the pueblo of Imus and returned to that pueblo to assume his office. I will not say anything with regard to the subsequent conduct of Juan Castaneda, after the treatment accorded to him, but can not but state that barely two months after his release he deserted his post as President and went over to the insurgents. The man is dead and I do not wish to say more on this particular. Later we organized municipal governments at Santa Ana and Pandacan. In view of the good results of the propel' organization of municipal governments, General Otis adopted the same system for the pueblos along the railroad and published a military order for the same, promulgating the regulations drafted by me, with a few slight modifications, as basis for the organization of municipal government for those pueblos. Upon the invitation of Professor Wor-
a.
532
HISTORY cester and Colonel Cob be, I went to Malabon, where we also organized a municipal government. Thus the days passed as far as I was concerned; but I was much worried about my wife and infant daughter whom I had left in Batangas, and all my efforts were directed towards securing their return to Manila. About the end of June, they finally arrived, after a difficult journey across the Sungay range on horseback during the rainy season, with a girl little over a year old. My wife told me that immediately after my departure she had been made the victim of the persecutions of General Malvar, who went so far as to put sentries in her own house and even wanted to have her taken away a prisoner, together with the Spaniards. She found it necessary to flee from Batangas. She went by way of Lemery and Bayuyufigan, arriving at the Indang slope of the Sungay range after two days of hard travel on horseback, and often spending the night in huts in the woods. From Indang she went by carromata to Bacoor, without ever saying anywhere on the road that she was going to Manila. Fr0m Bacoor she came to Manila by boat. I had already installed myself in the capital; the first house in which I lived with my family upon their return from Batangas was on Calle San Jose, corner of Isaac Peral, opposite the beach where I had started on my return trip to Batangas and where I had landed upon my return from that province with my children. The Supreme Court and the Courts of the capital were organized in May, 1899, with the following personnel: President of the Supreme Court, Don Cayetano Arellano; President of the Civil Branch, Don Manuel Araullo, and magistrates of the same, Colonel Crowder, of the Judge Advocate's Department of the Army, and Gregorio Araneta; and President of the Criminal Branch Don Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, who did not assume office for the reason that he was with the insurgents in Tarlac, and who was replaced by Don Julio Llorente; the magistrate of the Criminal Branch were Major Young, of the Artillery, and Don Dionisio Chanco. The Attorney General's Department was composed of the following personnel: Don Florentino Torres, Attorney General; and Tomas G. del Rosario and Antonio Constantino, Assistant attorneys. The Courts of First Instance of the capital were also organized, the judges being, for Intramuros, Don Jose Basa Enriquez, for Quiapo, Don Basilio Regalado Mapa, for Binondo, Don Antonio Majarreis, and for Tondo, Don Hipolito Magsalin. The prosecuting attorneys were: for Intramuros, Lucio Villareal, for Quiapo, Don Jose Rodriguez, for Binondo, Don Perfecto Gabriel, and for Tondo, Don Jose N er. 533
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Upon the completion of tEe organization of the judiciary I, who had not practised law since I had completed my studies in March, 1893, with the exception of a short period in 1895, during which I practised for a few months in Cavite Province, took up the practise of law, because there were but few practising attorneys in the city at that time and I desired to aid as much as possible in the administration of justice in the Philippines under American sovereingty, which was then in its infancy. The first thing I did was to organize the bar association, in order to request the United States military government not to admit to the bar the many Spanish adventurers who had remained in the city and who, without having renounced their Spanish nationality in accordance with the Spanish treaty, wanted to engage in the practice of law. The bar association having been organized, through my initiative, and I having been appointed its dean, I brought up, at one of the first meetings, held in a room of the Supreme Court and attended by many Filipino lawyers, the question who should practice law in these Islands. The majority held that only Filipinos, or persons having the rights of such under the Paris Treaty, should be allowed to practice. I had a very heated discussion with Don Jose Moreno Localle, a lawyer who had been my teacher and who ~s now dead, in the course of which he allowed his anger to carry him so far as to utter the saying "Breed crows and they will tear out your eyes," referring to me, who was objecting strenuously te the admission to the bar of Spanish nationality and acquired the rights of Filipinos. The result of all this was a military order on the practice of law, of July 19, 1899, in which Philippine citizenship, under the provisions of the Paris Treaty, was required as an essential condition for the practice of law. Since then I have been regarded with great anjmosity by the Spaniards and by many of the so-called Spanish Filipinos, who called me an enemy of the Spaniards, simply because I had defended a legitimate right of the Filipinos. Upon the organization of the Bar Association, being anxious to have the study of law properly organized, I invited several friends who were lawyers and whom I found willing to organize a law school, which was to be an integral part of the Bar Association. This school was organized, the first professors being Don Catalino Arevalo, Don Bartolome Revilla, and others. The curriculum was, with a few modifications, the same as the one existing in the last days of the Spanish sovereignty. I then had the intention of introducing the study of constitutional law; but being overwhelmed with work in other chairs, I postponed the execution of this plan, 534
HISTORY intending to introduce it the next school year. I shall explain why I was so anxious to introduce the study of constitutional law. At the Malolos Congress, although the highest judicial talents of the country were assembled there I found that nobody had any idea of constitutional law and only few of the representatives at that Congress-three or four, if I remember correctly-had even a notion of the Spanish constitution and the constitutions of the other countries, with which, I may affirm, none of those present was really acquainted. When a search was made for copies of the constitutions of other countries and of the Spanish constitution, only two copies of the Spanish constitution of 1869 could be found, and the complete set of Heredia-which I had-of the constitutions of all countries. I then firmly resolved that at the first opportunity offering itself I would introduce in the Philippine Islands the study of constitutional law, a branch completely unknown in our country, because although the curriculum of the University of Santo Tomas includes political and administrative law, that subject was never studied and the grading in it in the examinations was purely nominal. In fact, in the second year of the operation of the Escuela de Derecho I introduced the study of constitutional law, on which I first lectured and, if I remember correctly, in 1961 the first students who had taken up that subject gave a series of lectures on it, under my direction, in the Club International. It was 路one of my ideals to introduce also the subjects of political economy and finance in the school; but I found nobody who wanted, or rather dared, to lecture on that subject, and I, who had some preparation in it, was too busy with other subjects. I then determined to look for some person to replace me as lecturer on constitutional law, and found one in Mr. Sumulong, who took my place after due preparation, for which purpose I furnished him with all the books I had on constitutional law. Having been relieved of this subject, I introduced for the first time in a serious manner and took charge of the studies of political economy and public finance. To give the truth is due, I must say that the first colleagues who organized the Escuela de Derecho worked gratis for over two years, and the result of their labors is the Escuela de Derecho as it now exists. Having started without funds, without a place, and without material, it has now its own quarters and material and a well stocked library containing a considerable number of books on various SUbjects. At that time, and inasmuch as the commanding officer of the Department of Southern Luzon was at that time General Lawton, who
535
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES had great confidence in me, I had become something in the nature of a supervising intermediary, or whatever you may wish to call it, between the municipal governments that had been organized, the military commander of the district. At that time a considerable amount of rice was being sent from Manila to the several pueblos of the South, and inasmuch as a large part of this rice found its way to the insurgents camps, General Lawton charged me with the delicate mission of issuing passes to the persons taking rice to the organized municipalities. All the outposts outside of the city of Manila had received instructions not to let a grain of rice leave unless the person conveying the same produced a pass signed by me, written on paper with the letter-head of the General Headquarters of the Department of Southern Luzon. I need not enlarge upon the perilous and responsible nature of my position, as there were persons who offered me as high as one peso for each cavan of rice that I would permit to leave in addition to the regular allowance for consumption in the pueblos organized under the U. S. military government. On July 24th of that year, General Lawton and Professor Worcester invited me to a launch excursion on the Laguna de Bay. We left Manila, the launch starting from General Lawton's house, opposite the Germinal factor y. I knew nothing of the purpose of the expedition until we arrived opposite San Pedro Macati, where General J ul ( ?) resided and had his headquarters, and I then learned that the object of the expedition was none other than to attack Calamba. On the launch there were General Lawton, with his wife and son, Lieutenant King, the general's adjutant, Professor W orcester and his private secretary, Mr. Sherman, Benito Legarda, and I. We had provisions for the whole day. I do not know what was the reason, but the fact is that when we arrived opposite the Island of Talim, we found that the troops that were to make the attack had not yet arrived, and we were compelled to cruise about the whole lake and spend the night on board, without mats nor pillows, exposed to the frequent showers. This was not the worst, however. The provisions having run out, we had nothing for breakfast but a little coffee with milk which Mrs. Lawton had prepared herself on the boiler of the launch. We had no provisions for the rest of the day, but expected to get some from the troops that were going to make the attack on the town, as soon as they would arrive. The hours went by, and as the boats with the troops did not appear, we proceeded to the Island of Talim, where General and Mrs. Lawton, Professor Worcester and myself committed the imprudence of landing completely unarmed. We bought some chickens, corn, and ba-
536
HISTORY nanas there, and on these provisions and a cheese that we had on board we subsisted until the evening, when we received the necessary supplies from the troops upon their arrival. We committed another imprudence that day, when Lawton, Worcester and I disembarked at the pueblo of Binafigonan again completely unarmed. The attack on the pueblos of Calamba began at four o'clock in the afternoon. Our launch, which was anchored near the beach, was fired upon by the insurgents. Two or three rifle bullets fell among the group formed on the launch by Worcester, Legarda, myself, and General and Mrs. Lawton, ;lnd later a whole volley was fired at us and we found it necessary to get under cover in various parts of the boat. During the attack we noticed only one regular volley fired by the insurgent army upon the American troops, and it was already night when the pueblo was occupied. We stayed that night in the launch and early the next morning we went in a banca to the pueblo, where we found but few inhabitants and many people from Manila who were there. General Lawton asked me to induce the people to return to their pueblo, and this I did. I also prevented the looking of the house by the soldiers, whom General Lawton ordered, at my suggestion, to return to the houses th,e mats, pillows, and other articles they had taken during the night. We had breakfast at the house of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. and there Professor Sherman took a group picture of Lawton, myself, Worcester, Legarda, and Lawton's wife and son. On this photograph I wear a cap which Legarda lent me, my hat having fallen into the lake. In the afternoon of that day we returned to Manila. At the end of July or the beginning of August, I received a letter from General Lawton, which was brought to my house by his aid, the first pockmarked American whom I have ever seen. His name was Maximiliano Luna, and, being a native of New Mexico, he spoke Spanish correctly. The letter which this gentleman brought me was written by General Lawton in Nueva Ecija, where he was at the time, and in it he asked me to come to the province referred to, for which purpose he had detailed a sergeant to assist me. Having made my preparations for the journey, I saw Major Edwards, General Lawton's chief of staff, who gave me a pass, and, accompanied by the sergeant, I took the train as far as Cal urn pit. We stayed over night there in the house and store of the quartermaster of that pueblo, Major Lee, now a general, a very simple man who was always in good humor. He received me at the train and treated me very nicely during the two days that I was there, waiting for the launch that was to convey me to San Isidro. I made the trip by 537
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES launch, which was certainly dangerous in those days. Only four or five days previously, General Lawton's quartermaster, a major by the name of George H.ardward, I believe, had been killed on that same launch. I went by launch as far as Arayat and from there I went with two regiments that had to go to San Isidro. I arrived at four o'clock in the afternoon of the third day after my departure from Calumpit. General Lawton was very glad to see me and told me, through Maximiliano Luna, that the purpose of his inviting me was to have me induce the people to return to the pueblo and to organize a municipal government there. General Lawton introduced me to Colonel Kennon, who spoke Spanish correctly because, as he told me, he had spent considerable time in the South-American republics. This colonel was the commanding officer of the regiment garrisoning the place. While at San Isidro, I succeeded not only in preventing the cutting of the rice in the fields, which was then beginning to form grains, but also in obtaining the rice to be fed to the horses to the profanation of the graves in the cemetery of which some of the soldiers had been guilty. About that time, while out for a walk, I met a group of Filipinos who were being maltreated by some Macabebe scouts that were taking them towards the other ~ide of the river. I asked why they were maltreating those persons, of whom there were more than twenty, and received a gruff answer. I therefore went immediately in search of Captain Maximiliano Luna, through whom I explained to General Lawton what was taking place. He immediately directed Luna to bring the alleged insurgent prisoners into our presence. When Luna arrive, the Macabebes were maltreating the prisoners, and he got there just in time to prevent their being shot. They were brought before General Lawton, and after the proper investigation I became convinced that those men were innocent and told General Lawton that they ought to be released, especially in view of the fact that many of them were not from Nueva Ecija, some of them being from Manila. Among these latter one is now a streetconductor, who, every time he sees me, reminds me that he owes his life to me, as the Macabebes intended to shoot them all. I remained seven days in Nueva Ecija. After organizing the municipality of San Isidro, I went with General Lawton to Cabanatuan, making the journey by land from town to town. From Cabanatuan, I returned to Manila, embarking on a casco in the Rio Grande, and making the trip to Calumpit in two days and a night; from Calumpit I went to Manila. During all that time General Lawton, before releasing the many prisoners confined at Fort San-
538
HISTORY tiago and elsewhere, consulted me regarding the antecedents of each and had me make an investigation of all cases, and it gives me satisfaction to say that through my mediation over one thousand prisoners of war were released. I succeeded in convincing General Lawton that every person held a prisoner merely because he had offered armed resistance to the sovereignty of the United States and who was not guilty of common crimes, such as robbery, rape, etc., should be released. That worthy general agreed with me and thus many persons improperly confined were given their liberty. In September or October of that year the Schurman Commission was recalled to the United States and Mr. Worcester went with it. A few days prior to their return, General Lawton requested of me that in view of the services rendered by Commissioner Worcester in the organization of the first municipal governments in these Islands under the American sovereignty, a letter be prepared, addressed to President McKinley, in which the members of the municipalities organized by General Lawton with the aid of Professor W Ol'cester were to state the work done by that gentleman and ask that, in case his ' service should at any time be required in this country, he be given an importan,t office. This I did, and after I had myself prepared the letter of recommendation, with the request referred to, the same was signed by the President and Councilors, if I remember correctly, of the organized municipalties of Pasay, Paranaque, Bacoor, Las Pinas, Santa Ana, Pandacan, and Imus. This document, duly authenticated by General Lawton himself and signed also by me, was handed. to Major Edwards, now General Edwards, chief of the Bureau of Insular Affairs of the War Department. In the latter half of December, General Lawton went to San Mateo, in connection with some attacks made by the insurgent forces upon the United States troops in the vicinity of San Mateo and Mariquina. Fortunately I had fever that day and it was raining, for which reason I was unable to accompany him; had it not been for these obstacles, I might have died with him, who died from a bullet he received in the heart at the sitio of Nanka, of the pueblo of Mariquina. General Lawton's body was brought to Manila, and I was present when it was taken to the Paco cemetery and, a few days later, to the ship that carried the remains to the United States. Don Mariano Limjap, who was a prisoner because he was held to be largely responsible for the destruction of railroad stations, as inspector of railroads of the Insurgent Government, applied to me through his wife, in order to secure his release. This was the first 539
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES and last favor a Filipino ever asked of Mrs. Lawton, who requested Mr. Edwards to see Genel'al Otis about the release of the gentleman mentioned, and, in fact, two days after I had spoken to Major Edwards about Limjap's release, the request was granted. The municipal Presidents and the municipalities organized by Genel'al Lawton sent two wreaths of flowers to the funeral and a letter of condolence to the widow. In 1899 the anniversary of the death of Rizal was celebrated for the first time in Manila, after the commemoration of 1898, by a memorial service held in the Rizal Theater, with an exclusiveness which I have not yet been able to explain. This memorial service was given an exclusive and sectarian character instead of being an all-Filipino affair. These differences are now a thing of the past and the anniversary of the execution of Rizal is at present not celebrated by any class or group of Filipinos, but by all. One of the most important events of the year 1900 was the arrival in these Islands of the apostolic delegate, Monseigneur Placido L. Chapelle, whose lack of tact and partiality for the friars resulted in the formation of the Aglipayan Church, founded by the priest, Gregorio Aglipay, who was then under ecclesiastic censure. This being a matter intimately related with the history of our country, it will be opportune to relate some of the events that led up to it. It is not a secret to any person that one of the causes of the Philippine insurrection against Spain, and even of that against America, was the animosity of the people-whether justified or not, this is not the time to discuss-against the religious corporations, that is, the Dominican, Augustinian, Recollect, and Franciscan orders, which animosity was manifested on several occasions, not only during the insurrection of 1896, when the only Spanish prisoners who were shot were the three friars Antonio Piernavieja, Agapito Echegoyen, and Domingo Candenas. This animosity also extended to the Archbishop of Manila, who was accused of things with reference to the prisoners and arrests made during the insurrection of 18961897 and was considered as the instigator of many of these arrests. As a result of this animosity against the religious corporations, a tendency which we might call anti-Catholic developed in certain organizations and individuals of the revolution so that Masonry considered the insurrection, and therefore also the revolution, as its own work and even put the triangle in the Filipino flag. As I have already said, this was an evil that had a noxious influence upon the entire body of the revolution, because Mabini and his followers con-
540
HISTORY sidered every Mason as qualified to carry out any undertaking, and at that time membership in a masonic lodge was the best recommendation a man could possess. Gregorio Aglipay, an Ilocano by birth, was a prisoner in Bilibid during the insurrection of 1896. At the beginning of the revolution of 1898, he was commissioned by Archbishop Nozaleda to calm the people and while exercising the duties of priest-hood, to endeavor to attract some of the pueblos in Tarlac and Zambales towards the cause of Spain. At the end of May, however, when the revolution had fully developed, Aglipay saw that he would be unable to check that avalanche and, with a view of defending the ecclesiastic and Catholic interests, he obtained from Emilio Aguinaldo an appointment as assistant chief chaplain. After the dictatorial government had been organized, the secular priests who had taken the places of the friars in the pueblos were unable, owing to the general antagonism against Archbishop Nozaleda, to assume their duties without the previous approval by the dictatorial government of the appointments made by the Archbishop. This situation which was rather acute in the beginning, was smoothened over by the skill of Don Leandro Ibarra, the Secretary of Finance, and, more than by anything, by the efforts of the penitentiary, the venerable aged Don Vicente Garcia, and of Father Manuel Roxas, whom the revolution had found away from Manila. Aglipay, who was in Ilocos when the Bisnop of Vigan, Don Jose Hevia Campomanes, was made a prisoner, was appointed by the latter as his vicar and as such had jurisdiction over the Ilocano, region. However, after the bishop referred to had been released and returned to the capital, he withdrew the authority granted, I believe, and as Aglipay continued to exercise the powers which the bishop of the diocese of Vigan had conferred upon him while a prisoner, canonical proceedings were begun against Aglipay. The latter, however, failed to respond to the summons issued and was declared guilty by default and suspended from the ministry. Similar proceedings were instituted against the priest Don Manuel Roxas, who had remained away from Manila, abandoning his post as canon of the Cathedral, and had accepted the office of Director of Worship under the Revolutionary Government. In this case, the proceedings were dismissed and the sentence revoked after Father Roxas had been convicted by default. The same was not done in the case of Aglipay, however, who was wrought up considerably and who, being assistant chief chaplain of the revolutionary army, not only continued to exercise the priest-hood but usurped certain powers on the strength of the delegation confened upon him by the Bishop of Vigan. On the other
541
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES hand, Isabelo de los Reyes, who was then in Spain as editor of the periodical Filipinas ante EtÂŁropa, and who was an Ilocano like Aglipay, began to publish a series of articles urging the organization of a Philippine Church. Several Ilocano priests flocked to the standard of Aglipay, whose pride had been awakened and who continued to act as a priest, though under ecclesiastic censure. Matters stood thus when the apostolic delegate, Placido L. Chapelle, arrived, and the Filipino clergy, who were almost without exception not in favor of Aglipay's plans, but hoped that Mr. Chapelle, as delegate of His Holiness, would adopt measures favoring, or, rather, recognizing, the rights of the Filipino clergy, upon seeing that Mr. Chapelle sided with the religious orders and most especially with Archbishop Nozaleda, became very mnch wrought up. There are two incidents which portray this excit ement among the Filipino clergy. The first was as follows: We had, together with the apostolic delegate, a reception in one of the houses of the Calzada, de San Miguel, I being a member of the committee on arrangements for that function. The house was sumptuously decorated and illuminated; among the decorations there were several transparencies with the names of Filipino bishops and pro~inent Filipino priests, and on the front of the house there appeared, between lights, the names of Burgos, Gomez, and Zamora. This reception was attended by large crowds, among them the Archbishop of Manila and the provincial of nearly all the religious corporations, some of whom, by the way, carried big rattan canes, although they had come to a peaceful reception. After the reception, a group of residents of Tondo asked the Delegate to listen to an address of welcome to be pronounced by a young lady on behalf of the residents mentioned. Almost at the very beginning of the address, reference was made to the animosity of the Filipinos against the religious corporations, whereupon Mr. Chapelle told the young lady to stop. The people present became very excited, and shortly afterwards, without my knowing how it started, shouts of "Away with the friars" and "Death to Nozaleda" resounded throughout the room, to such an extent that General Otis, who was among the crowd, began to calm everybody. This was not all; when Mr. N ozaleda left the place a number of people pursued him and several stones struck his carriage. The other incident occurred at a meeting of Filipino priests held at the residence of the Delegate, Mr. Chapelle, at which meeting the priests requested that their legitimate rights be recognized and that with regard to the matter of the parish priests, the common canonical law govern in the Philippine Islands, and not special laws by virtue of which the parishes in the Philippines are
542
HISTORY administered by members of the regular clergy. Mr. Chapelle disbanded the meeting in a manner anything but prudent and informed those present that he could not tolerate that such requests be made. In view of all these things and of the attitude of the apostolic delegate, who showed marked preference for the religious corporations, great excitement prevailed not only among the Filipino clergy, but also among the other Catholics, who saw that a break between the Delegate and the Archbishop on one side, and the people and the clergy on the other was imminent. Matters being thus, I in agreement with several persons of acknowledged Catholic sentiments and in conformity with the aspirations of the Filipino clergy, addressed, in the name of the Filipino Catholics, two cablegrams to His Holiness, Leo XIII, representing the precarious situation of the Church in these Islands and the imminence of a schism, and announcing at the same time, that soon a memorial would be forwarded to His Holiness, petitioning that Filipinos be appointed as auxiliary bishops, with the right to succeed the bishops. This memorial, drafted by myself and revised by Don Flo'l"entino Torres, was signed by a large number of persons in the several provinces of the Archipelago and forwarded to His Holiness. Notwithstanding the attempts made in order to arrive at a peaceful solution, the canonical proceedings instituted against Aglipay were continued, and in addition to the censures already pronounced against him, Aglipay was finally sentenced to special ex-communication. In view of all these happenings and circumstances and of the state of mind of the people, the Independent Filipino Church, called by some the Aglipayan Church after its founder, the priest Mgr. Aglipay, was proclaimed and organized during the month of December of the year 1900. Such being the situation, and the state of mind of the people becoming more excited every day, other imprudent acts on the part of Chapelle hastened the schism. The parish priest of Dagupan, a priest by the name of Garces, loved and revered by his entire flock, was, for reasons still absolutely unknown to me, deposed by Chapelle and replaced by another priest, who was closely in accord with the Dominican friars. The people of Pangasinan were very much wrought up about this matter and endeavored to defend their rights by appealing to the Delegate; but he paid no attention to their arguments and maintained the appointment made by him. The result was that the Aglipayan Church was founded in Dagupan, the people themselves building a chapel of which Garces, who had their sympathy, was made the priest. It is therefore the unwise and imprudent acts of Monsignor Chapelle which precipitated events in the
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Philippine Islands and brought about the Aglipayan schism, already announced to His Holiness, Leo XIII. That same year, on December 23, 1901, the Federal Party was organized. This party, which, I am told, was gotten up by Felipe Buencamino, Tomas del Rosario, and some other persons, had a program of which the principal bases were the following: First, to work for peace and the deposition (?) of the wellknown Filipinos, and, second, to obtain, as final aim, the annexation of this territory to the United States. When the voting for the Board of Directors of the party was going on, my friends were working to have me elected to that board, while I made all efforts to dissuade them from voting for me, because while I was agreeable to the first plank in the platform, this was not the case with regard to the second, that is, the annexation of this territory to the United States. When the election took place, I was not chosen as a member of the Board of Directors. On the following day, which was Christmas, Commissioner Worcester came to my house and expressed his astonishment at my not having been elected as a member of the Board of Directors. I replied that this must not astonish him as I did not agree with the second plank of the platform of the Federal Party. Efforts were made to have me accept the directors' ip of the newspaper La Democracia, which was to be resuscitated a:liter having ceased to be published on account of some arbitrary action of the Provost Marshal of this city during the military regime; but as I did not agree with the second plan of the platform of the party, I did not think I could conscientiously accept the directorship of La Democ?'acia, its organ. As the members of the Federal Party saw that they were not able to induce me to accept the directorship of the paper, Commissioner Worcester came to my house one day and invited me to have supper with him, and after supper he again tried to get me to accept the dir'ectorship of the paper, which I, again, steadfastly refused to do. I remember that one day Major Bourns, who was a member of the Board of Directors of the Federal Party, mentioned the matter to me at the Ayuntamiento Building, and then, in the course of a conference which lasted over an hour, I informed him that I could not, under any consideration, accept the directorship of the paper La Democracia, because it was the organ of the party and I should have to defend the ideal of the same, namely the annexation of this territory to the United States. When he asked me why I did not subscribe to that ideal, I told him that even supposing we Filipinos wished for annexation, the States of the Union would doubtless refuse to permit the admission of this country to statehood in the Union, because
544
HISTORY owing to ethnical conditions, distance, language, customs, and usages, we could not even form a unit in the federation. After considerable discussion, Dr. Bourns finally told me that, as a whole he was in agreement with what I had stated, that he, of course, did not believe the Philippine Islands would ever become a state of the Union, and that he thought the final fate of this country would be its organization as a colony similar to Canada or Australia. Subsequent events have convinced me that my theories were correct, because the annexation plan has been eliminated from the platform of the Federal Party, seeing that the United States Supreme Court has said the last word on the subject, aside from the fact that the plank referred to is altogether contrary to the aspirations of the Filipino people. It was at that time that the famous San Jose College case came up; all that I have done in this case is well known to the public. However, only a few persons have known about a conference that I had with Mgr. Chapelle, the apostolic delegate, on the same subject. He had invited me, through the priest, Mariano Sevilla, to a conference for the purpose of settling the matter and of putting a stop to the scandal caused by the petition submitted by me to the Commission, on behalf of th,e F'ilipino physicians and pharmacists. I shall never forget the comical scene that took place between Mgr. Chapelle and myself on that occasion. I came with the priest, Mariano Sevilla, and after the usual exchange of courtesies we began to speak of religious questions, then of the greatest interest. I tried to communicate to the good Delegate my ideas and opinions on the subject, and inasmuch as about that time the Augustinian friar, Fidel Larrinaga, who had been rector of the Vigan seminary in 1896 and 1897, when several of the seminaries were arrested and punished, had been sent to Vigan as ecclesiastic governor of the diocese, which position was vacant on account of the absence of Bishop Hevia Campomanes, I stated to Mgr. Chapelle my sincere opinion that it was unwise to confirm precisely the Augustinian, Fidel Larrinaga, in the office of ecclesiastic governor of that diocese. Mgr. Chapelle, who was evidently already annoyed by my opinions about the friars, then expressed in a ratner incorrect manner his vexation at my sincere expression of opinion concerning the mistake made in appointing Fidel Larrinaga as ecclesiastic governor of Vigan. He rose in what I would call a fit of temper and, with angry mien, said to me: "MI'. Calderon, we know each other!" to which I replied: "Indeed, Mr. Chapelle, we know each other, but"-I added-"I want you to remember that I have not come of my own accord, but you invited me to
545
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES a conference." Thus, that comical, stormy conference ended without anything being done concerning the San Jose College case. As regards this case, there were persons of the kind who judge everything a priori, who believed all the arguments and documents submitted by me were furnished by the Jesuits; but I must state th,at all that time I did not frequent the very intimate friends I have among the Jesuits, nor did I put my foot in either the Ateneo or the Normal School. Another matter that began to come up at that time was that of the estates of the religious corporations. This question was doubtless one of the causes of the revolution, and, as Governor Taft said in one of his reports, the return of the religious corporations to the friar estates would be like a return of Weyler to Cuba. There is no doubt, either, that while from a moral point of view the friar estates question is open to considerable discussion, it is impossible, from a legal point of view, to dispute the title of the religious corporations to those es ates, which title is not only based on prescription, but also on the acceptance and recognition by all the tenants. Under these circumstances, something had to be done to calm the people, because otherwise serious disturbance/> might have taken place that would have endangered the public order, especially, in view of the fact that the religious corporations, regardless of the public opinion, insisted upon taking possession of their property. At that time agrarian leagues were being organized in the pueblos where the estates were situated, for the purpose of creating an opinion in favor of a solution that I considered satisfactory and the only one possible in view of the status of the country, namely, the purchase of said estates by the Government and the subsequent sale thereof to the tenants in small parcels and on easy terms. I endeavored to convince the people who had already accepted that solution in principle, while, on the other hand, I tried to win Governor Taft over to it, as a means of avoiding further conflicts. In order to settle this matter of the estates, Governor Taft, together with Judge Smith, who later became Governor-General, and several American bishops, went to Rome, where this most important matter was settled. The fact of the matter is that, while the tranquillity of the Filipino people has to some extent been safeguarded, a large amount of money has left the Philippine Islands and gone into the treasury of the religious corporations, instead of remaining in the possession and being expended for the benefit of the Apostolic Catholic Roman Church.
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THE TREATY OF PARIS The United States of America and Her Majesty, the Queen Regent of Spain, in the name of her august son, Don Alfonso XIII, desiring to end the state of war now existing between the two countries, have for that purpose appointed as plenipotentiaries:
The President of the United States, William R. Day, Cushman K. Davis, William P. Frye, George Gray, and Whitelaw Reid, citizens of the United States; And He?' Majesty, the Queen Regent of Spain, Don Eugenio Montero Rios, President of the Senate; Don Buenaventura de Abarzuza, Senator of the Kingdom and ex-Minister of the Crown; Don Jose de Garnica, Deputy to the Cortes and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court; Don Wenceslao Ramirez de Villa Urrutia, Envoy Extr~0rdinary and Minister Plenipotentiary at Brussels; and Don Rafael Cerrero, General of Division; Who, having assembled in Paris and having exchanged their full powers, which were fo'und to be in due and proper form, have, after discussion of the matters before them, agreed upon the following articles: Article I. Spain relinquishes all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba. And as the island is, upon its evacuation by Spain, to be occupied by the United States, the United States will, so long as such occupation shall last, assume and discharge the obligations that may under international law result from the act of its occupation for the protection of life and property. Article II. Spain cedes to the United States the islands of Porto Rico and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies, and the island of Guam, in the Marianas or Ladrones. Article III. Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands lying within the following lines: A line running from west to east along or near the twenti'e th parallel of north latitude, and through the middle of the navigable channel of Bachi, from the one hundred and eighteenth (118th) to the one hundred and twenty-seventh (127th) degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich, thence along the one hundred and twentyseventh (127th) degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich to
547
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the parallel of four degrees and forty-five minutes (4 945') north latitude, thence along the parallel of four degrees and forty-five minutes (4 9 45') north latitude to its intersection with the meridian of longitude one hundred and nineteen degrees and thirty-five minutes (119 9 35') east of Greenwich, thence along the meridian of longitude one hundred and nineteen degrees and thirty-five minutes (119 9 35') east of Greenwich to the parallel of latitude seven degrees and forty minutes (7 9 40') north, thence along the parallel of latitude seven degrees and forty minutes (7 9 40') north, to its intersection with the one hundred and sixteenth (116th) degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich thence by a direct line of the intersection of the tenth (lOth) degree parallel of north latitude with the one hundred and eighteenth (118th) degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich, and thence along the one hundred and eighteenth (118th) degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich to the point of beginning. The United States will pay to Spain the sum of twenty million dollars ($20,000,000) within three months after the exchange of the ratification of the present treaty. Article IV. The United States will for the term of ten years from the date of exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty admit Spanish ships and mercha~dise to the ports of the Philippine Islands on the same terms as ships and merchandise of the United States. Article V. The United States will, upon the signature of the present treaty, send back to Spain, at its own cost, the Spanish soldiers taken as prisoners of war on the capture of Manila by the American forces. The arms of the soldiers in question shall be restored to them. Spain will, upon the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty, proceed to evacuate the Philippines, as well as the island of Guam, on terms similar to those agreed upon by the Commissioners appointed to arrange for the evacuation of Porto Rico and other islands in the West Indies under the protocol of August twelfth, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight, which is to continue in force till its provisions are completely executed. The time within which the evacuation of the Philippine Islands and Guam shall be completed shall be fixed by the two Governments. Stands of colors, uncaptured war-vessels, small arms, guns of all calibers, with their carriages and accessories, powder ammunition, live stock, and materials and supplies of all kinds belonging to the land and naval forces of Spain in the Philippines and Guam remain the property of Spain. Pieces of heavy ordnance, exclusive of field 548
FACSIMILE OF THE TREATY OF PARIS,
1898, SPAIN CEDING THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS TO THE UNITED STATES
HISTORY artillery, in the fortifications and coast defenses, shall remain in their emplacements for the term of six months, to be reckoned from the exchange of ratifications of the treaty; and the United States may in the meantime purchase such material from Spain, if a sat.isfactory agreement between the two Governments on the subject shall be reached. Article VI. Spain will, upon the signature of the present treaty, release all prisoners of war and all persons detained or imprisoned for political offenses in connection with insurrections in Cuba and the Philippines and the war with the United States. Reciprocally the United States will release all persons made prisoners of war by the American forces, and will undertake to obtain the release of all Spanish prisoners in the hands of the insurgents in Cuba and the Philippines. The Government of the United States will at its own cost return to Spain and the government of Spain will at its own cost, return to the United States, Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, according to the situation of their respective homes, prisoners released or caused to be released by them, respectively, under this article. Article VII. The United States and Spain mutually relinquish all claims for indemnity, national and individual, of every kind, of either Government, or of its citizens or subjects, against the other Government, that may have arisen since the beginning of the late insurrection in Cuba and prior to the exchange of ratifications of the present treaty, including all claims for indemnity for the cost of the war. The United States will adjudicate and settle the claims of its citizens against Spain relinquished in this article. Article VIII. In conformity with the provisions of Article I, II, and III of this treaty, Spain relinquishes in Cuba and cedes in Porto Rico and other islands of the West Indies in the island of Guam, and in the Philippine Archipelago, all the buildings, wharves, barracks, forts, structures, public highways, and other immovable property which, in conformity with law belong to the public domain and as such belong to the Crown of Spain. And it is hereby declared that the relinquishment or cession, as the case may be, to which the preceding paragraph refers, cannot in any respect impair the property or rights which by law belong to the peaceful possession of property of all kinds of provinces, municipalities, public or private establishments, ecclesiastical or civic bodies, or any other associations having legal capacity to acquire 549
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES and possess property in the aforesaid territories renounce or ceded, or of private individuals, of whatsoever nationality such individuals may be. The aforesaid relinquishment or cession, as the case may be, includes all documents exclusively referring to the sovereignty relinquished or ceded that may exist in the archives of the Peninsula. Where any document in such archives only in part relates to said sovereignty a copy of such part will be furnished whenever it shall be requested. Like rules shall be reciprocally observed in favor of Spain in respect of documents in the archives of the islands above referred to. In the aforesaid relinquishment or cession, as the case may be, are also including such right as the Crown of Spain and its authorities possess in respect of the official archives and records, executive as well as judicial, in the islands above referred to, which relate to said islands or the rights and property of their inhabitants. Such archives and records shall be careful1y preserved, and private persons shall, without distinction, have the right to require, in accordance with law, authenticated copies of the contracts, wills, and other instruments forming \>art of notarial protocols or files, or which may be contained in the executive or judicial archives, be the latter in Spain or in the islands aforesaid. Article IX. Spanish subjects, natives of the Peninsula, residing in the territory over which Spain by the present treaty relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty, may remain in such territory or may remove therefrom, retaining in either event all their rights of property, including the right to sell or dispose of such property, or of its proceeds; and they shall also have the right to carryon their industry, commerce, and professions, being subject in respect thereof to such laws as are applicable to other foreigners. In case they remain in the territory they may preserve their allegiance to the Crown of Spain by makIng, before a COUl路t of record, within a year from the date of the exchange of ratifications of this treaty, a declaration of their decision to preserve such allegiance; in default of which declaration they shall be held to have renounced it and to have adopted the nationality of the territory in which they may reside. The civil rights and political status of the native inhabitants of the territories hereby ceded to the United States shall be determined by the Congress. 550
HISTORY Article X. The inhabitants of the territories over which Spain relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty shall be secured in the free exercise of their religion. Article XI. The Spaniards residing in the territories over which Spain by this treaty cedes or relinquishes her sovereignty shall be subject in matters civil as well as criminal to the jurisdiction of the courts of the country wherein they reside pursuant to the ordinary laws governing the same; and they shall have the right to appear before such courts and to pursue the same course as citizens of the country to which the courts belong. Article XII. Judicial proceedings pending at the time of the exchange of ratifications of this treaty in the territories over which Spain relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty shall be determined according to the following rules: First. Judgments rendered either in civil suits between private individuals or in criminal matters, before the date mentioned, and with respect to which there is no recourse or right of review under the Spanish law, shall be deemed to be final, and shall be executed in due form by competent authority in the territory within which such judgments should be carried out. Second. Civil suits between private individuals which may on the date mentioned be undetermined shall be prosecuted to judgment before the court in which they may then be pending, or in the court that may be substituted therefor. Third. Criminal actions pending on the date mentioned before the Supreme Court of Spain against citizens of the territory which by this treaty ceases to be Spanish shall continue under its jurisdiction until final judgment; but such judgment having been rendered the execution thereof shall be committed to the competent authority of the place in which the case arose. Article XIII. The rights of property secured by copyrights and patents acquired by Spaniards in the Island of Cuba, and in Porto Rico, the Philippines, and other ceded territories, at the time of the exchange of the ratifications of this treaty, shall continue to be respected. Spanish scientific, literary, and artistic works not subversive of public order in the territories in question shall continue to be admitted free of duty into such territories for the period of ten years, to be reckoned from the date of the exchange of the ratifications of this treaty. Article XIV. Spain shall have the power to establish consular offices in the ports and places of the territories the sovereignty over which has either been relinquished or ceded by the present treaty.
551
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Article XV. The Government of each country will, for the term of ten years, accord to the merchant-vessels of the other country the same treatment in respect to all port charges, including entrance and clearance dues, light dues and tonnage duties, as it accords to its own merchant-vessels not engaged in the coastwise trade. This article may at any time be terminated on six months' notice given by either Government to the other. Article XVI. It is understood that any obligations assumed in this treaty by the United States with respect to Cuba are limited to the time of its occupancy thereof; but it will, upon the termination of such occupancy, advise any Government established in the island to assume the same obligations. Article XVII. The present treaty shall be ratified by the President of the United States, by and with the advise and consent of the Senate thereof, and by Her Majesty, the Queen Regent of Spain; and the ratifications shall be exchanged at Washington within six months from the date hereof, or earlier if possible. In faith whereof we, the respective plenipotentiaries, have signed this treaty and have hereunto affixed our seals. Done in duplicate at Paris, the tenth day of December, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight. (Seal) (Seal) (Seal) (Seal) (Seal) (Seal) (Seal) (Seal) ( Seal) (Seal)
William R. Day Cushman K. Davis William P. Frye George Gray Whitelaw Reid Eugenio Montero Rios B. de Abarzuza J. de Garnica W. R. de Villa Urrutia Rafael Cerrero
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THE LAMP OF HISTORY By
CAMILO OSIAS
Editor amd Publisher of "The Philippine Forum"
History is the record of human experience. It is the branch of science which has for its business the recording of facts that accurately portray life in its social, political, economic, intellectual, and spiritual phases. The history of mankind is still very imperfect and incomplete. It is being continually enriched but, of course, it will never be quite perfect and complete. Much of the past has been written that is illuminating. Each generation should zealously know what has happened before and use the lamp of the past as its guide in meeting the present and contributing to the betterment of the future. In so far as our nation is concerned, Philippine history is as yet unwritten. True, the story of the Spanish regime in the Philippines portraying the good that Spain has wrought and the work of Spaniards has been largely written. The story of America's administration of Philippine affairs for the most part has likewise been written. But the real history of the Philippines portraying not only what rulers and foreigners have done but what the Filipino people themselves have been and what they had achieved-their social, political, economic, intellectual, and spiritual life throughout the vicissitudes of time and circumstances-this kind of history has yet to be written. This situation constitutes a challenge. It is a call to scholars, following the method of scientific history, to discover what our social past has really been and make the facts available to the reading public. It is a challenge to thinkers in public affairs to know what had gone before and interpret the pertinent facts and translate them into the life of the nation. It is an urge to citizens to know their rich heritage and to play their full part in the task of making and enriching history. It is sheer myopia to imagine that we are in no way bound by the trammels of past events, that we are uninfluenced by what has been done before, and that we may go on in our even tenor of life individually and collectively without regard to what others have thought and achieved. "The wise man," wrote Butler, "will search the records of the past for their lessons, in order that he may be spared from trying to do again what has been once proved useless, 553
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES wasteful, or wrong. He will watch the rise and fall of peoples; the struggle of human ambition, greed and thirst for power; the loves and hates of men and women as these have affected the march of events; the migration of people; the birth, development, and application of ideas; the records of human achievements in letters, in the arts, and in science: the speculations and the beliefs of men as to what lies beyond the horizon of sense, with a view to seeking a firm foundation for the fabric of his own knowledge and of his own belief." Our own Rizal is an example of a man who has made use of the lamp of history. Steeped in the knowledge of the past of men and races his life was piloted by a philosophic system. His existence and his plan for his country's growth were governed by integrated ideas, ideals, and principles. Imbued with the spirit of the scientific historian, he saw the image of his fatherland in its true light. Comparing it with other countries, he saw its virtues and weaknesses. He wrote with impartiality "sacrificing to truth everything, even amor propio itself." Like Herodotus and Thycidides, Livy and Tacitus, Gibbon and Macaulay, von Ranke and Mommsen, Rizal thought and wrote not only as a real historian but as a true man of letters. We would do well to follow in the foot steps of him who was "guided by a study of history through the gates that lead to literature." Charged with the responsibility of self-direction, it is all the more incumbent upon us as a people and upon those in positions of leadership to be guided by the light that the lamp of history sheds. History is important as a science of verified and verifiable facts. We must have the patience to ascertain the facts and the courage to follow where the facts lead us. As a record of assured knowledge and proven happenings, history should give us the humility not to pit our pet notions against established realities in the experience of the race; it should furnish us with the wisdom to dispossess ourselves with unreasoning prejudices and follow the gleam radiated by the accumulated knowledge of the sages and the ages. It is essential to realize that real progress is slow; that evolution moves not in spots or sporadically but as a stream; that social events of moment are a series of causations. What we are and what we have now resulted from the ventures and adventures of well-nigh countless generations of ancestors. It is not possible to have anything really isolated in history. The delicious fruits that we relish today have been the outgrowth of much trial and error of primitive agricultul路ists and a long process of ~eed selection by horticulturists. Many of the practices now deemed the earmarks of refinement go back to the customs of a much earlier century. Sev-
554
HISTORY eral institutions are traceable to primitive society. Some traditions that we cherish developed from the mores of folks hardly remembered. Our present religious faiths are rooted in the anitism of our old ancestry. Many of our laws emanated from the codes of antiquity. It is well to look back in retrospect from time to time. It pays to know the past of our people and other peoples. Much that we think of as new are really old. Methods we call modern or deem originai often have really been inaugurated long ago or followed elsewhere. History is a stream. The lamp of history must be made to shine brightly upon the formulation and execution of policies. This is important in the administration of social institutions or of the affairs of the nations. Administrators must be endowed with vision to see large wholes and to see things in their historic perspective. And high executives should be surrounded not by men who kalsomine their vices and pettinesses but by men who are intellectually honest and are in the habit of recognizing virtues as virtues and frailties as frailties. The weakness of a dictatorship lies ]lrincipally in its tendency to place a premium upon blind conformity and to encourage mediocrity and sycophancy, not to say ypocrisy, in the rank and file of the citizenry. An example of the value and importance of being guided by history is found in the framing of the Constitution of the Philippines. The delegates chosen by the people to draft and formulate that state document did not deem themselves all-sufficient. They put away false pride and did not hesitate to follow the good in other constitutions adapted to the genius of our people. This is proven, for example, by the adoption of the presidential system of government patterned after that of the United States with its system of checks and balances. And they were not slaves to tradition 01' custom as exemplified by the adoption of the unicameral system despite the popularity of the bi-cameral system among the governments of the world. The delegates sought the lamp of constitutional history. Its light shone on their labors with the result that they evolved a constitution that will serve both for the Commonwealth and the Philippine Republic to supersede it; a document which the President of the United States and the Filipino people deemed adequate in the difficult and delicate task "to establish a government that shall embody their ideals, conserve and develop the patrimony of the nation, promote the general welfare, and secure to themselves and their posterity the blessings of independence under a regime of justice, liberty, and democracy."
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Among the first serious concerns of the Filipino people under the new order was the establishment of a good, strong, and independent judiciary. The makers of the Constitution labored to this end. The President and the National Assembly at its inaugural session cooperated in the enactment of a law reorganizing the Supreme Court reducing its membership to seven and creating the Court of Appeals. The Constitution provides that "the members of the Supreme Court and all judges of inferior courts shall be appointed by the President with the consent of the Commission on Appointments of the National Assembly." The appointment by the Chief Executive follows precedents tried and tested. The intervention of the Commission on Appointments preserves the essence of democratic practice. The Constitution also provides as follows: "The members of the Supreme Court and all judges of inferior courts shall hold office during good behavior, until they reach the age of seventy years, or become incapacitated to discharge the duties of their office. They shall receive such compensation as may be fixed by law, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office." This provision aids to insure judicial efficiency and independence by the safety of the judges' tenure of office and the fixity of their compensation during their incumbency. Commonwealth Act No. 3 and the Constitution are calculated to gliarantee the proper administration of justice to rich and poor alike without fear or favor. The lamp of history has been availed of in the steps taken to insure the existence of a judiciary, impartial and independent, deemed essential to good government in every civilized country. In the organization and reorganization of the new government it is especially important to bear in mind the lessons of political history here and abroad. The deman(is of common honesty, economy, and efficiency in matters governmental must be satisfied at every turn. The natural desire for changes or innovations must be limited by the consideration of what we and others have found successful. From past practices, we must take our social cautions and social courages. Sane conservatism should be observed in developing the institutional agencies with which to control our national life. Healthy liberalism may well be followed in "the promotion of social justice to insure the well-being and economic security of all the people" as contemplated by the Constitution. We must make haste slowly in our evolutionary processes to avoid social unrests, bloody revolutions, and tragic civil wars which have entailed incalculable losses on the part of many nations in the history of the world. Statesmanship 556
HISTORY of a high order is required to habituate our citizens to follow and not to leave the ways of order and the paths of peace. The National Assembly must demonstrate in the concrete that, as a representative and popular body, it is the policy-determining entity in our democracy. It can not abdicate such a role or relinquish this obligation without jeopardizing the foundations of our social order. The parliamentary history of our land and other lands should illumine the minds and consciences of law makers. There is no excuse for obsolete laws or legislative experimentations which have been known to be futile. The members of the National Assembly have the decided advantage of having at their command the legislative experience of other law-making bodies. They may, if they so will, avoid many pitfalls and steet' their course along pathways that lead to the harbor of safety. The history and philosophy of laws should be carefully studied. The fact of unicameral ism should be always borne in mind for this entails careful study and imposes weighty responsibiEty. Legislatively speaking the Assembly's action is final. No other body acts as a check as in the case of a bicameral parliament or legislature. It behooves the National Assembly to be guided by the lamp of legislative history and with caution and deliberation determine poljcies and enact laws that facilitate the realization of those policies. The mass of our citizenship, of course, must remember always that Rome was not built in a day and that national progress is achieved slowly and gradually. In no field is the light of history more needed than in the field of economics and finance. The years ahead will tax the ingenuity of our best minds to maintain the stability of the peso and prevent disturbance of our currency. The financial minds within and without the government should work in cooperation to forestall bankruptcy in government and in business. All should ever be on the qui vive to ward off extreme deflationary and inflationary measures. The financial history of the United States especially during the years immediately following the War of Independence and the Civil War should prove enlightening. Hamilton's brilliant projects in his time and England's financial policies especially in periods of trial and stress should prove eminently instructive and suggestive in strengthening our financial structure. The close relationship between the political machinery and the economic machinery should make leaders of the government and leaders of finance and business labor together in all reforms of the revenue system, and in meeting the recurring problems of credits and loans, banking and taxation, currency and tariff.
557
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The new Government of the Philippines has come to grips with pressing economIC Issues. The Rice Commission has been formed consisting of members engaged in the government and in private business. A Rice and Corn Corporation was formed as one of the results of the recommendations of the Rice Commission. An Act (Commonwealth Act No.2) was passed "creating the National Economic Council prescribing its powers and duties, appropriating funds therefor, and for other purposes." The President promptly appointed the members to serve with the Secretary of Finance as ex-officio chairman in the Council. The action of the President and the N ational Assembly follows precedents of many nations who have established economic agencies to tackle the problem of economic planning and coordinate activities designed to foster economic advancement. The new epoch of Philippine history distinctive for its increased scientific spirit and greater economic mindedness has begun. It is the duty and privilege of citizens of this generation and future generations to contribute to this epoch. It is their responsibility and opportunity to help unloose the chained up forces of production and develop untapped re~;ources of wealth. But social and economic development-the devel0pment of our agricultural, forestal, mineral, marine, and human resources-must be done with a view to the general welfare. The conservation and development of the patrimony of the nation should be carried on with due regard to the well-being, the common weal of the present generation and posterity. In the improvement and modernization of agriculture let our scientific farmers blaze the way. Primitive methods must give way to the modern. Marginal and sub-marginal lands had better be abandoned or put to some other use while we have plenty of .s uitable and fertile lands for cultivation. Our soils must be protected and enriched. Production of food stuffs must be encouraged. Export crops must be produced in greater quantities. We must more and more adopt cooperative practices and approximate mass production and mass consumption undertaken economically and scientifically. The industrialization of the Philippines has to be hastened. The history of agriculture and the history of industrialization process in other countries have to be studied and adapted to our needs. Improving old industries and developing new ones are in order. Governmental and private instrumentalities must work in coordination especially in a country like ours where the political structure and the economic structure are and, for a long time to come, will be interrelated and interbound.
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HISTORY Our commerce has much to be desired. We may learn considerably from the experience of the United States during the colonial era and the early life of its independence. The prosperity of colonial America was dependent largely upon commerce. Their products had a ready market across the Atlantic. Much of that old prosperity was disrupted by the American Revolution. Independent America was confronted with the problem of winning back some measure of prosperity by securing the opening of some of the old markets lost or discovering new ones and by lessening the consumption of foreign commodities and producing as many as possible of them and other needs at home. The lesson of American history in this respect is obvious. The whole field of economics has to be explored. We should with zeal and enthusiasm discover fTom the experience of the past not only here but in other lands what would be helpful to OUT national economy in all its ramifications including our fisheries, our labor and labor problems, the conservation and replenishment of our forestal wealth, the exploitation of our mines, and the like. The conservation and utilization of natural resources should be attended to in the spirit of Article XII of the Constitution of the Philippines. The letter and spirit of the different sections of this article of our Constitution have been conceived and devised with due regard to sane nationalism and proper internationalism. It is opportune to stress at this juncture the idea of the Philippines as a nation in a family of nations. This concept must take deep root in the consciousness of our people. They must learn to shape their life on the basis of their domestic concerns and their relations with other peoples. In future considerations of tariff problems, tariff justice and not tariff discrimination nor tariff warfare should be sought. The time for thinking not only of independence but interdependence is upon us. The Independence Act introduces us into the experience of trade conference. Section 13 of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act and the McDuffie-Tydings Act in identical language provides for holding a conference among representatives chosen by the President of the United States and representatives chosen by the President of the Philippines "for the purpose of formulating recommendations as to future trade relations between the Government of the United States and the independent Government of the Philippines." This may be the prelude to the consid'eration of commercial treaties and other treaties that will inevitably have to be concluded with nations with which an independent Philippine Republic will have dealings. A study of treaties and treaty negotiations
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES is of imperative necessity if our leaders are to secure just and favorable terms for this nation. The same spirit of knowing facts and acting in the light of knowledge should govern our conduct in all other affairs. In our cultural and spiritual problems-art, science, literature, religion, and education-we shall benefit most and progress best by allowing ourselves to be directed by the lamp of experience. Fortunately, the literature on these subjects are not scanty. With proper discrimination we may effect our future cultural orientation. Hospitable to good ideas irrespective of source, we have an unrivalled opportunity to evolve a civilization that shall represent a happy and harmonious blending of the best in the Orient and in the Occident. The Philippines lies at the crossroads not only of the highways of commerce but of the currents of cultures and faiths. The greatest civilizations have had their impacts upon ours. Oriental in our setting we have had not only trade relations but intellectual and spiritual relations with our Oriental neighbors. Through Spanish rule we have had the influence of European, especially Latin, civilization. Through our contact with America we have been influenced by Anglo-Saxon civilization. Philippine religious life has been influenced by Brahmanism, Buddhism, Mohammedanism, and Christianity. There is ground to hope that in God's appointed time we shall succeed in grafting the best that we may get from what is foreign upon the best that is Philippine. This optimism is neither unreasonable nor baseless. From a long past that has been characterized by want and war with little release, from centuries wherein we received a baptism of fire and blood, from years of subjection and dependency, we have emerged into an enjoyment of relative autonomy, then semi-sovereignty and semi-independence, soon ~o be superseded by complete sovereignty and independence. And throughout all the years our progress has been continuous and unceasing. Now that we have, by our own choice, joined the resistless current of the stream of world progress we should have confidence and determination-eonfidence in our own potentialities, determination to contribute to the common fund of wealth, material and spiritual, of humanity itself. The Filipino people have shown a commendable love of and devotion to education. The parents have evinced readiness and willingness to make sacrifices for the training of their children. This trait is a capital insurance against stagnation and a positive guarantee of progress. The government has been generous within the limitation of its resources in its support of the educational system.
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HISTORY With a proper philosophy of life, the officials will continue to provide for the improvement and expansion of educational facilities until every child of elementary school age will be accommodated in our elementary schools. This is basic in a democracy. Republican institutions thrive on the enlightenment of the masses. The Constitution enjoins the state to "establish and maintain a complete and adequate system of public education." It defines the objectives of educational endeavor (Article XIII, Section 5) among which are moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, vocational efficiency, and good citizenship. The report of the Monroe Educational Survey Board, the Joint Legislative Committee Report on Education, the findings of the Quezon Survey Committee and the National Council of Education, the works on education and religion in the Philippines, and the history of education are ample guides to the officials of the Department of Public Instruction and those in charge of private educational institutions to adopt a proper educational philosophy, define educational objectives, frame suitable curricula, and shape teaching methods to insure that education shall be an efficacious means of social reconstruction in a democracy. And we emphasi~e democracy and democratic ideals for our country despite certain weaknesses of democratically organized society. It must be our determination to make our government and other social institutions republican in form and democratic in character. Philippine democracy should at all times make education and science its constant allies. Democracy in the Lincolnian sense means a government of the people, by the people and for the people. Bryce expresses it a little differently saying that it "really means nothing more nor less than the rule of the whole people expressing their sovereign will by their votes." Toward the close of his monumental study of modern democracies Bryce confidently says: "Yet the rule of Many is safer than the rule of One,-as Cavour said that however faulty a legislative chamber may be, an ante-chamber is worsethe rule of the multitude is gentler than the rule of a class. However grave the indictment that may be brought against democracy, its friends can answer, 'What better alternative do you offer?'" Further he says: "No government demands so much from the citizen as Democracy, and none gives so much back. Any free people that has responded to the call of duty and come out of a terrible ordeal unshaken in courage, undimmed in vision, with its vital force still fresh and strong, need not fear to face the future." We have chosen to be free and independent. Such has been the Filipinos' unbroken determination since our Malayan forefathers
561
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES resisted valiantly even heroically the life of dependency at the early part of the sixteenth century. Our population has steadily grown. At the time of Spanish conquest our population probably did not exceed 500,000. In the first half of the eighteenth century the Christian population numbered some 830,000. At the commencement of the nineteenth century, the estimafed total was 1,500,000. In 1P19, the popUlation was officially estimated to be about 2,600,000. By 1845 the number was calculated to be a little short of 4,000,000. The 1903 Census reported a population of over 7,635,000 while the Census of 1D18 showed a total population of more than 10,314,000. Now it is roughly estimated at about 14,000,000. With the area of the Philippines of about 115,000 square miles, and its resources, this country, on the basis of Japan's density of population, could comfol路tably be the home of over 51,000,000, while on the basis of Belgium's population, it could accommodate 80,500,060. The future will witness increase and betterment of our population. Through the application of a forward-looking migration policy and the observance of genetical and eugenic knowledge, there should be not only augmentation in nu'mber but improvement in quality. Our human resources, despite the importance of our other resources, are in the last analysis the most priceless. While helping in the fight for Philippine independence, the writer voiced the belief, on the floor of the Congress of the United States, that this country under an independent status shall witness a renaissance of progress. That belief has ripened into a conviction. The future is bright with promise. The new ship of state will sail on through calm and storm. The Filipino people will achieve social, political, economic, intellectual, and spiritual progress. The nation shall prove herself worthy in the sisterhood of nations. . Perchance some inspired artist will objectify the future of mother Filipinas in a majestic image of a woman typifying her, standing on a high pedestal holding aloft in her right hand a lamp symbolic of the lamp of history that shall shed a brilliant light upon the path of her children as they wind their way through the labyrinth of progress toward the summit of their allotted destiny.
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