Encyclopedia of the Philippines [Volume 10 : General Information and Index - Part 1 of 2 by Filipiniana Online

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Encyclopedia of the Philippines

E"N eye LOP E 0 I A ( THE

PHILIPPINES THE LIBRARY OF PHILIPPINE LITERATURE ART AND SCIENCE ZOlLO M. GALANG Author of "Heart Throbs," "Diary 'and Letters," "Dramatic Works," "Business, Success and Happiness"

Editor CAMILO OSIAS President, National University

Consulting Editor Assisted by NATIONAU LIBRARY OF TilE PHILIPPINES NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF THE PHILIPPINES STATISTICS DIVISION, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COMMERCE SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY AND

OTHERS

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VOLUME TEN

GENERAL INFORMATJ0~AND INDEX

j) " --.:---

ILLUSTRATED

PUBLISHED BY

P. VERA

SONS COMPANY

(VERSONCO)

Manila, Philippine Islands

1936

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2fj9~ . ,/.10

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COPYlf'ight, 1936 and ZOlLO M. GALANG All Rights Reserve(l

PEDRO VERA

FIRST EDITION

36, (--:::; ( 2; )

PREFACE To the contributors of Volume X and of the whole publication, Maraming Salamat Pol-many l'eiterated thanks. We wish we could find more expressive words to express our gratitude to all those who helped build the ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES. Grateful acknowledgments to those who have cooperated also in the work from Volumes I to X are specially printed on another page of this volume. Volume X is General Information and Index, or the miscellany section of the Encyclopedia. It endeavors to cover other subjects or matters not included or printed in the preceding volumes; to give a brief summary of things Philippine for ready reference, and to offer the reader a brief compendium of useful knowledge. Before closing Volume X, the last book of the set, it was discovered that there are other important materials which cannot be included in the book, but which may be published in some future supplement or edition of this Encyclopedia. It would be greatly appreciated if errors in this set of books could be corrected by better informed persons. Errare humanum est. The Editor takes this opportunity to record his undying gratitude to those who assisted him in the completion of this enterprise; first to his publisher, Hon. Pedro Vera, and his consulting editor, Dr. Camilo Osias, and secondly to the institutions that aided him, especially the National Library of the Philippines, the National Research Council of 7

the Philippine Islands, the Statistics Division of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, the Scientific Library-in fact, the Government of the Philippines, in furnishing him with the data which he sought and was supplied, and in pointing out also to him other pertinent material which ought to find inclusion in this series. The whole body of information contained within the covers of this ten-volume set is made available by the comprehensive Index which enables the reader to obtain information with speed and precision. This comprehensive index which is found in the second part of this volume furnishes the reader with the master key to unlock the treasures of human knowledge c~ncealed within the pages of this series of books and to make efficient use of the modern Encyclopedia and Library of Philippine Literature, Art and Science, for daily reference, for self-i~struction, and for general culture. ZOlLO

Manila, December, 1936

GALANG

TABLE OF CONTENTS PART ONE

GENERAL INFORMATION

Page PREFACE .,. .................................... .

CULTURAL

The Philippines in a Nutshell. . . . . . . . . . . . National Symbols ...................... Catholicism in the Philippines ........... Selections from Philippine Editorials A. V. H. Ha'rtendorp Rizal's Last Farewell ..................

II.

17 32 33

41 68

HISTORICAL

Ancient Philippine Civilization Greg-orio F. Z aide The Filipino Conception of an Educated Man in Ancient Tim.es .. Eulogio B. Rodriguez Masonry in the Philippines .... Leo Fischer Kartilla of the Katipunan ... Emilio Jacinto The Filipino National Flag Eman'uel A. Baja Thirty Most Important Documents on the Philippine Revolution Teodoro M. Kalaw

III.

71 113 127 134 138

145

GOVERNMENT

The Revolutionary Government of Biak-naBato in 1897 ........................ 149 Members Composing the National Assem.bly which Decreed the State Constitution of the Philippine Republic, 1899 ......... 151 Delegates to the Constitutional Convention 154 The Philippine Assemblies and Legislatures 160 The Commonwealth Government of the Philippines .............................. 202 Territory and Population of the Philippines ................... Vicente Mills 205 9

IV. ECONOMIC Banking, Currency and Finance ......... The Mining Industry ................... Minor Industries in the Philippines ...... Weights and Measures .................. Values of Foreign Moneys .............. Schedule of Postage Rates and Conditions. Schedule of Telegraph Zone Rates on Domestic Telegrams .................... Cablegram Rates to All the World ....... The N epa .................. Benito Razon

227 232 247 259 268 274 284 286 289

TRAVEL

Travel in the Philippines ............... Cities and Municipalities ............... The 33rd Eucharistic Congress in Manila

299 317

. First Facts About the Philippines .......

323 342

A. N. Hannon, M. M.

VI. MISCELLANEA Sports (" I. Health and Physical Education in Philippine Schools, Colleges and Universities . Dr. Regino R. Yw,nan 381 II. Athletic Progres1s in the Philippines Jorge B. Vargas 386 Typhoon Signals ....................... 410 Holidays .............................. 414 Foreign Commerce of the Philippines ..... 416 Evangelical (Protestant) Churches in the Philippines .......................... 418 Supplement ............................ 435 Errata ................................ 440 PART

Two

GENERAL INDEX From page 443 to page 546

ILLUSTRATIONS Frontispiece Facing Page Mount Mayon ............................... . . . 32 The Baguio Zigzag ............................. 64 Pre-Spanish Filipino Alphabets .................. 96 Monuments to Age ............................ . 192 Benguet Consolidated Mining Company. . .. . . . . . .. 240 Balatoc Mining Company ....................... 240 The World-Famous Ifugao Terraces .............. 304 The Luneta .................................... 304 The Manila Stage for the 33rd International Eucharistic Congress . .............................. 368 Union Seminary Building ....................... 432 United Church of Manila. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 432 THE FILIPINO FLAG (In Color) ..........

SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT To Hon. Maximo M. Kalaw in making liberal use of his books, especially the Philippine Social Science and The Development of Ph~:lippine Politics. To Prof. Jesus Z. Valenzuela in making liberal reference to his book, History of Journalism in the Philippine Islands. To the Bureau of Education for its valuable suggestions. To the Philippines Free PresS! for the use of Jose Garcia Villa's Mir-I-Nisa. To the Editor's various co-workers in Volume I I Messrs. Teofilo del Castillo, Jose R. Calip, and EU'sebio Cunanan. To Mr. Teodoro Arceo. To Mrs. Felicidad Galang-J oven. To his office staff: Messrs. Ricardo A. Arcilla and Rodolfo M. de Juan and Miss Rosario Perez. To Mr. Jose Ma. Rivera. And to numerous other friends who prefer not to be mentioned here. Z. M. G.

GENERAL INFORMATION AND INDEX

路 PART ONE

GENERAL INFORMATION 1. CULTURAL

The Philippines In A Nutshell ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, POLITICAL I

MEMORABLE DATES 1209-1214-The Philippines was mentioned in Chao-JuKua's Chu Fan Chih, a Chinese book of travel. 1380-1475-Islam was introduced into Sulu and Mindanao. 1433-Penal Code was Wlritten by Kalantiaw, third chief of Panay. 1521-Discovery of the Philippines by Ferdinand Magellan. 1543-Villalobos named Islands "Las Filipinas." 1565-The first Spanish settlement was founded in Cebu. 1571-Founding of the Spanish City of Manila by Legaspi. 1585-First Philippine revolt by Pampangans. 1588-Chiefs of Manila attempted to overthrow Spanish authority. 1590-Early elementary schools established in Laguna by Plasencia. 1649-0utbreak of the Sumoroy rebellion. 1660-Malong's rebellion in Pangasinan. 1762-Manila was occupied by the British. 1763-Rebellion of Diego Silang. 1789-First scientific survey of the Philippines was made by Malaspina. 1810-Beginning of Filipino representation in the Spanish Cortes. 17

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES 1811-First newspaper in Manila, Del Superior Gobierno. 1830-Port of Manila was opened to foreign trade. 1841-Revolt in Tayabas under Apolinario de la Cruz. 1848-First steamers arrived in Manila. 1849-Surnames were given to Filipinos by Claveria. 1851-First bank was established. 1863-Public primary school system established. 1869-Beginning of liberal agitation in Manila. 1872-Cavite Revolt; Burgos, Gomez and Zamora executed. 1887-Spanish Penal Code was introduced into the Philippines. 1888-Spanish-Filipino Association and Solidaridad founded in Spain. 1892-Katipunan founded by Andres Bonifacio. 1896-The Cry of Balintawak, Aug~st 25. 1896-Execution of Rizal, December 30. 1898-Revolutionary Government was established, June 23. 1898-Battle of Manila Bay; Treaty of Paris signed, December 10, Spain ceding the Philippine Islands to the United States. 1899-Philippine Republic was established, January 21. 1901-Inauguration of Civil Government under William H. Taft. 1907-Inauguration of first Philippine Assembly, October 16. 1916-Jones Act passed, August 29, giving Islands autonomous form of government. 1916-First Filipino Legislature inaugurated. 1919路-First Philippine Independence Mission to the United States. 1921-1931-Eight Independence Missions to Washington, D. C. 1933-Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act rejected by Philippine Legislature. 18

GENERAL INFORMATION 1934-Tydings-McDuffie Act passed and accepted by Philippine Legislature. 1934-Constitutional Assembly convened. 1935-Constitution approved by President Roosevelt. 1935-Plebiscite approved the Constitution. 1935-Commonwealth election, September 17, Manuel L. Quezon, President. 1935·-Inauguration of the Commonwealth, November 15. 1935-Commonwealth Assembly passed the first National Defense Law of the Philippines. II GEOGRAPHY The Philippines, "the magnificent glossary of glowing islands," lies between 5° and 22 0 north latitude and 117° and 1270 east longitude, boundeq by the Pacific Ocean on the east and the China Sea on the west. Composed of over 7,083 islands, it is commonly divided into three main parts, namely Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao, which contain an approximate area of 114,400 square miles, and an assessed real estate value in 1934 of P2,278,312,361, or a real estate assessment of P173.92 per capita. These Islands were discovered by Ferdinand Magellan, the first circumnavigator of the globe, on March 16, 1521, and occupied by the Spaniards from 1521 to 1898, and taken over by the United States of America since 1898. Manila is the capital and Baguio the summer capital. The principal ports and cities are Manila, Iloilo, Cebu, Zamboanga and Davao. The highest peak is Mt. Apo in Mindanao; the most beautiful volcano is Mt. Mayon in Albay; while the deepest water depression is in southern Mindanao. Its mineral resources are potentially rich. The Islands are now among the largest gold-producing regions in the world. 19

III PEOPLE The aboriginal people of the Philippine Islands are the Aetas and the civilized tribes, the blending of the Hindus, the Moros and the Indo-Malayan peoples, together with the Chinese, Spanish, and American and other immigrants, have produced the present people known as the Filipino People-the Bisayans, Tagalogs, Ilocanos, Bicols, Pampangans, Pangasinans, Cagayanes and Zambals. The present population of the Philippines, estimated from the growth of population according to the Censuses from 1903 to 1918, is 13,500,000, but estimated today as based on the recent military conscription is 15,000,000. Ninety per cent of this population of the Islands is Christian and the rest Non-Christian. IV CIVILIZATION Before Magellan or the Spaniards came, the Philippines had a civilization as well as a culture of her own, evidenced by the existence of the ancient Filipino alphabets and their own calendar and the Penal Code of Kalantiaw, third Chief of Panay, in 1433, that demonstrate beyond any reasonable doubt that the Filipinos had formed long ago their own civilization, having their own awit and talimhaga, sabi and other literature, and their God- Bath ala. The people believed in a future world like the Malays when the Madjapahit Empire was jn flower. The prehistoric Ifugao terraces of Northern Luzon are the masterpiece of ancient Filipino engineering, classed among the wonders of the world. As the Spaniards colonized the islands and introduced the Roman Catholic religjon, there sprang that historic institution of learning, the first of its kind in the Far East, and the oldest under the American flag-the University 20

GENERAL INFORMATION of Santo Tomas, founded in 1611, by Miguel de Benavides, a Dominican priest. The Filipinos had their own herbolal.rios for a long, long time ago, and knew the medicinal value of their tropical plants. The first printer was Tomas Pinpin, his first book was Librong PtLgaroral(lIlt nang Manga Tagalog nang Uicang Castilla, printed in Bataan in 1610. Some of the epics are Lam-Ang by P. Bukaneg (?) and Florante at LaurGJ by Francisco Balagtas, and Gonzalo de Cordoba,. by P. Fajardo. There are many more writings graphically recorded in W. E. Retana's unique work, Aparato Bibliografico de lOJ Historia General de las Islas Filipines, 1906, in Blair and Robertson's The Philippine Islands, 1903-1909, and in this set, Encyclopedia of the Philippines, 1934-1936. The Filipinos who were educated in Europe have started the struggle for freedom during the last part of the nineteenth century and those who were educated abroad, especially in America, are now practically running the Philippine government. V COMMERCE Our commerce of long ago was done mostly by barter, using such articles as rice, shells and metals as media of exchange; transportation was mainly by land and water; trading was done among the people themselves and with merchants from the East Indies, China, Japan and other countries. Commerce in big scale was carried on during the galleon trade with Mexico, after Legaspi's conquest of Manila in 1571, to its suppression in, 1815. What stimulated more our trade was the establishment in 1781 of the Economic Society of Friends of the Country by Governor Basco. The English encouraged our sugar industry. They built the Manila-Dagupan Railroad. In 1863 we were al21

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ready exporting sugar to foreign countries amounting to 170,832 piculs of sugar, worth one million pesos. The foreign commerce of the Philippines, according to the Manila Harbor Board, from 1855 to 1922, amounted to nearly three billion pesos, U. S., 53 70 , u. K., 15 %, France 670 , Japan 5 %, Hongkong 41;2 % , Spain 470, China 31;2 70, Netherlands 2 %, British East Indies 270 , Germany 11;2 70 , and all other countries 31j2 %. With the opening of Manila to foreign trade, coupled with the occupation of the Islands by the Americans, since 1898, the Philippines, through all the modern modes of transportation and communication plus the present methods of agriculture and manufacture, has progressively advanced by leaps and bounds from an insignificant trading post, to the center of Pacific trade--with its sugar, copra, hemp and lumber, having a foreign trade in 1928 worth $289,711,444, divided into ~xports $155,054,546 and imports $134,656,898. In 1934 the value of production of the 41 leading crops was P347,574,170, with eleven banks operating in the Islands, namely, Bank of the Philippine Islands, Philippine National Bank, Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, Yokohama Specie Bank, Ltd., China Banking Corporation, Monte de Piedad, Philippine Trust Co., Peoples Bank and Trust Co., Philippine Postal Savings Bank, and National City Bank of New York. VI GOVERNMENT The Philippines has, under its own Constitution, a republican form of government, known as the Commonwealth of the Philippines, with Manuel L. Quezon as President and Sergio Osmefia as Vice-President of the Philippines, and Frank Murphy as representative of the United States, during the ten-year transition period. 22

GENERAL INFORMATION The government is administered through three separate but coordinate bodies or departments-Executive, Legislative and Judicial. The Executive is composed of the President of the Gommol1wealth, the department secretaries, commissioners, burell,u directors, provincial governors, and municipal presidents. The different departments are-Interior, Finance, Justice, Agriculture and Commerce, Public Works and Communications, Public Instruction, and Labor. The National Assembly is unicameral with elective members from the representative districts of the different provinces, with Gil Montilla from Negros as Speaker. The Judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court, headed by Ramon A vancefia, the Court of Appeals presided by Pedro Concepcion, the courts of first instances and the justice of the peace courts. The cities of Manila and Baguio are, however, operated by special charters and managed by appointive mayors. VII CLIMATE Father Algue, the world-famous Director of the Weather Bureau, divided the climate into three types, the classification being based on distance above sea level and .exposure to ocean breezes. "November, December, January, and February are the temperate months. The mean average temperature at this season is about 77 to 79 Fahrenheit. In April, May, and June, the hot months, the mean average is between 83° and 840 • In other months it is about 80 The nights are seldom unpleasantly hot even in the hot season, and a temperature of 1000 is a rarity in Manila. The mountain regions of the north are cool as September in the temperate zone. The mean average maximum for Baguio is 800 and the minimum 53 p • Far south, nearer the equator, in some 0

•

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES localities it is hotter; but Zamboanga and the provinces of Bukidnon and Lanao boast a most agreeable and healthful climate." VIII THE PEARL OF THE ORIENT Manila, as the trade center of the Pacific, is separated from the different cities of the world by the shortest navigable routes in nautical miles as follows: Amoy Auckland Bangkok Batavia Calcutta Colombo Guam Hongkong Honolulu London via Suez Los Angeles Melbourne Nagasaki New York via Panama

675 4866 1430 1559 2990 2952 1501 631 4767 9Q.56

6588 4528 1306 11364

New York via Suez Panama Shanghai Saigon Sandakan San Francisco Seattle Singapore Surabaya Sydney Tsingtau Victoria Vladivostok Yokohama

11521 9347 1162 907 573 6221 6012 1370 1663 3967 1420 5950 1912 1757

Manila has become geographically the commercial and shipping center of the Pacific-the Bmporium of the Far East-and historically the Pearl of the Orient! IX PROMINENT PERSONAGES ABELARDO, NICANOR

Composer and musician, author of beautiful kundimans; Nasaan ka /rog, Panorama, etc. AGUINALDO, EMILIO

President of the Philippine Republic, Malolos, Bulacan, 1899. ALGUE, JOSE

Jesuit scientist, inventor of barocyclonometer. 24

GENERAL INFORMATION ANDA, SIMON DE

Spanish governor who successfully opposed the British occupation in 1762 and who received the keys to the City of Manila from the British in 1764. ARELLANO, CAYETANO

Filipino jurist, first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines under the American regime. BALAGTAS, FRANCISCO

Prince of Tagalog poets, author of Florante at. Laura. BANCAO

Chief of Limasawa and leader of the Leyte Revolt in 1622 against the conversion of his people to the Christian religion. BASCO Y VARGAS, JOSE

Spanish governor and founder of the Economic Society of the Friends of the People, the Royal Company of the Philippines, and the Tobacco Monopoly, which led to the economic prosperity of the country. BLANOO, MANUEL, O.S.A.

Famous Augustinian botanist, author of Flor(/; de Filipi?W1s. BLUMENTRITT, FERDINAND

European scholar, friend of Rizal and others, author of Vademecum Etnografico de Filipinas and Dictionary of Filipino Mythology. BONIFACIO, ANDRES

The founder of the (K. K. K.) Katipunan. BUKAN~G, PEDRO

The earliest Ilocano poet on record, collaborator in Padre Lopez's book Libro A Naisuratan Amin Ti Bagas Ti Dotrina Cristvana. BURGOS, JOSE

One of the wisest of Filipino priests executed during the Cavite Revolt of 1872. 25

ENCY CLOP EDIA OF THE PHIL IPPIN ES CALDERON, FELIP E G.

Autho r of the Malolos Const itution . CANO, JUAN SEBAS TIAN DEL

Circu mnavi gator of the globe with the Victoria. CASTRO, MODESTO DE

Autho r of the finest piece of Tagal og prose, Urbana at Feliza. CHAO -Ju-Ku A

Chinese histor ian descri bing the Philip pines in his book of travel s, Chu Fan Chih. CHlRlN O, PEDRO, S. J.

One of the early Spani sh priest s who wrote on Filipi no cultur e, Relacion de las Islas Filipin as, first printe d ecclessiastic al histor y, Rome, 1604. CLAVERlA, NARCISO

Spani sh gover or who gave surna mes to the Filipin os. CORN-ISH, SAMU EL

Britis h Admi ral who occupied the City of Manil a in 1762. DAGOHOY, FRANC ISCO

Leade r of the revolt in Bohol of 1827-1828. DASM ARINA S, GOME Z PEREZ

Spani sh gover nor who fortifi ed and impro ved the walls of the city of Manil a. DEWE Y, GEORGE

Amer ican admir al who won the battle of Manil a Bay, May 1, 1898. ESPEL ETA, MIGUE L LINO DE

First Filipi no Gover nor Gener al durin g the Spani sh regim e. EVANG ELISTA , EDILB ERTO

Filipi no engin eer, builde r of trench es and direct orgener al of the Engin eering Corps, Philip pine Revolution. 26

GENERAL INFORMATION FAURA, FEDERICO, S.J.

Spanish Jesuit who founded the Manila Observatory. FELIPE, JULIAN

Composer of the Phililppine National Hymn with words by Jose Palma, brother of Dr. Rafael Palma. GUERRERO, FERNANDO MA.

Greatest Filipino poet in Spanish, author of Crisalidas. GUERRERO, MANUEL

Filipino Doctor, discoverer of the cure for Taol (Tikitiki), the children's benefactor. HIDALGO, FELIX RESURRECCION

Celeorated painter; J ovenes Gristianas Expuestas al Populacho is considered his best work. HUMABON OF CEBU

First Filipino to accept Christianity from Magellan. JACINTO, EMILIO

Brain of the Katipunan, author of KartiUa ng Katipunan. JUGO, JOSE M.

Progressive economist of the Economic Society, advocate of scientific agriculture. KALANTIAW

Third Chief of Panay. Code of 1433.

Author of the famous Penal

KUDRAT

Ancient Sultan of Mindanao, pow:erful chief unconquered by the Spaniards. LAPU-LAPU

Chief of Mactan, the first Filipino ruler to resist Spanish invasion during the latter's first conquest of the Islands. 27

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES LEGASPI, MIGUEL LOPEZ DE

First Spanish Governor and conqueror of the Philippines. LoPEZ-JAENA, GRACIANO

Notable Filipino patriot and eloquent orator in Spanish. Founder of La Solidaridad and leader of the Reform Movement in Spain. LUNA, ANTONIO

Greatest military genius of the Philippine Revolution. LUNA, JUAN

Celebrated Filipino painter. terpiece.

Spoliarium is his mas-

MABINI, ApOLINARIO

The Sublime Paralytic and Brain of the Philippine Revolution. MAGALAT

Brave Cagayan chlef and leader unconquered by the Spaniards. MAGAT SALAMAT

Ancient Filipino martyr who said, "The Spaniards came as friends but did not behave like friends." Leader of the Tondo Revolt, 1587-1588. MAGELLAN, FERDINAND

Discoverer of the Philippines and first circumnavigator of the globe. MALASPINA, ALEJANDRO

Spanish scientist who made a complete scientific survey of the Islands. MALONG, ANDRES

Leader of the Revolt in Pangasinan, 1660-1661. MATANDA

Filipino rajah, the last of the Tondo Kings. 28

GENERAL INFORMATION MERRITT, WESLEY

American general and first military governor of the Islands. MORGA, ANTONIO DE

Spanish historian, author of the first secular history of the Philippines, Sucesos de las Islas Filipirws, 1609. MORAYTA, MIGUEL

Spanish historian and mason who helped in the liberal reforms in the Islands. MUDIN, ALI

Sultan of J 010, in 1748, who fought side by side with the Filipinos when the British came here in 1762. MURPHY, FRANK

Last American governor and first United States High Commissioner in the Philippine Islands. OSMENA, SERGIO

The first speaker of the Philippine Assembly of 1907. PANDAY PIRA

The cannon maker of Pampanga. PATERNO, PEDRO A.

Historian and negotiator of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. PELAEZ, PEDRO

Theologian, writer and champion of the Filipino cause. PEN-ARANDA, JOSE MARIA

Military engineer and builder of many highways in Luzon. PIGAFETTA, ANTONIO DE

Member of Magellan's crew and author of Filrst Voyage Around the World. PILAR, GREGORIO DEL

The bravest Filipino general during the Revolution. 29

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES PILAR, MARCELO H. DEL

Intelligent leader of the liberal movem€nt abroad and ardent patriot and masonic writer during the Philippine Revolution. Founder of Philippine Masonry. PINPIN, TOMAS

The prince of Filipino printers. PLASENCIA, JUAN DE

Franciscan priest, educator and PhiIippin€ researcher, the first to establish primary schools in the Islands. QUEWN, MANUEL L. The first President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. RETANA, WENCESLAO E. The great Filipinologist, author of Aparato Bibliografico de la Historia General de Filipinas. RElfES, BENTURA DE DOS

Filipino Deputy to the Spanish Cortes. RIZAL, JOSE

Filipino Nationalll Hero. Me Tangere.

Author of the famous

Nol~

ROOSEVELT, FRANKLIN D.

President of the United States of America when the Commonw€alth was established. ROSARIO, ANACLETO DEL

Famous Filipino chemist. ROXAS, MARGARITA

First Filipino businesswoman and founder of La Concordia College.

philanthropist,

SALAZAR, DOMINGO DE, O.P.

First bishop of the Philippines. SEDENO, ANTONIO, S.J.

Spanish priest and architect, the first to construct the wall of Manila (Guia). 30

GENERAL INFORMATION SILANG, DIEGO DE

Leader of the Ilocos Revolt, protesting against too much tribute and no protection. SOLIMAN

Filipino rajah, last king of Maynila. SUMOROY

Leader of the Visayan Revolt, 1649, against enforcement of labor. TAFT, WILLIAM H.

First American civil governor in the Philippines. TAMBLOT

Leader of the Bohol Revolt in 1622, against the oppression of friars. TANDANG SORA

A heroine and patriot, the first Filipino woman to revolt against Spain, helper of the Katipuneros. T AVERA, TRINIDAD H. PARDO DE

Most famous Filipino botanist, author of Plantas M edicinales de Fililpinas; leader of the Filipino participation in the government during the first years of the American regime. TUPAS

Greatest chief of Cebu in Legaspi's time. URDUJA

The wise princess and ruler of the ancient kingdom of Pangasinan. YANGCO, LUIS R. First Filipino shipping magnate.

â&#x20AC;˘

National Symbols

The symbols of the Philippines consist of a Flower, Leaf, Tree, and Bird. The National Flower is the Sampaguita, a local white fragrant blossom, with the scientific name of J asminum Sambac (Linn.). The National Leaf is the Anahano, a palm leaf, with the scientific name of Vitex Pubescens. .~ The National Tree is the Molave, belonging to the first group of Philippine lumber, with the scientific name of Vitex Celebica, Vitex Parviflor(J; and Vitex Pubescens. The N atio:o.al Bird is the Maya. The Maya is known with three diffe ent names. The Mayang Paking (Tagalog), Denas Poking (Pampango), with the scientific name of Munia Cabanisi' the M aY(J;nJg Pula (Tagalog), Denas Maluto (Pampango\, with the scientific name of MunitL Jagori; and the Maryang Bato (Tagalog), with the scientific name of ]Jasser Montanus.

Catholicism In The Philippines * THE ARCHBISHOPRIC OF MANILA

This Archbishopric was established in 1585, in which, by decree of His Holiness, Clemente VIII, the Episcopal See, founded in 1578 by Gregorio XIII, was elevated to a metropolitan seat. The Archdiocese comprises Manila, the provinces of Bataan, Bulacan, Cavite, Rizal, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga and a portion of Tarlac, and Zambales. The Apostolic Delegate of the Roman Catholic Church in the Philippines is His Grace, the Most Reverend William Piani, D.D., with Rev. Louis La Ravoire Morrow, Secretary, and the Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Manila ' is His Grace, the Most Rev. Michael J. O'Doherty, D.D., with Most Rev. William Finnemann, D.D., Auxiliary Bishop of Manila. THE ARCHDIOCESE OF CEBU

The Archdiocese of Cebu comprises the provinces and districts of Cebu and Bohol. While the diocese of Cebu was erected at the same time as the bishopric of Nueva Segovia in 1599 by a decree of His Holiness, Clemente VIII, this archdiocese was organized only in 1934. Most Rev. Gabriel M. Reyes, D.D., is the Archbishop of Cebu. DIOCESE OF NUEVA SEGOVIA

The diocese of Nueva Segovia was erected on the 14th of August, 1599, by a decree of Clemente VIII. In the beginning this seat was established in Lal-Io (Cagayan), but in 1758, owing to the difficulty of communication, the diocese was transferred to Vigan. It includes the provinces and districts of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, and Abra.

* Read and revised by the Archbishop's Office, Manila. Report of the Philippine Commission, Vol. I, 1900. 33

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Most Rev. Santiago Sancho, D.D., is the Bishop of Nueva Segovia, Vigan, Ilocos Sur. DIOCESE OF NUEVA CACERES

This diocese was also established in 1585 by His Holiness, Clemente VIII. It comprehends the provinces and districts of Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Albay, Sorsogon, and Masbate, sub-province of Catanduanes, and the island of Burias. Most Rev. Francisco Reyes, D.D., is the Bishop of Nueva Caceres, Naga, Camarines Sur. DIOCESE OF JARO

-rhe diocese of J aro was established in 1865 by a bull of His Holiness, Pius IX. This diocese embraces the provinces and districts of Iloilo, Capiz, Antique, and Romblon. Most Rev. James P. McCloskey, D.D., is the present Bishop of J aro, Iloilo. DIOCESE OF BACOLOD

The diocese of Bacolod, recently erected, like the followfug dioceses, comprises the provinces of N egros Occidental, Negros Oriental, and the island of Siquijor. Most Rev. Casimiro Lladoc, D.D., is the present Bishop of Bacolod, N egros Occidental. DIOCESE OF CAGAYAN

The diocese of Cagayan comprises the provinces of Agusan, Bukidnon, a portion of Lanao, Misamis Occidental and Misamis Oriental. Most Rev. James T. G. Hayes, S.J., D.D., is the Bishop of Cagayan, Misamis Oriental. DIOCESE OF CALBAYOG

The diocese of Calbayog comprises the islands of Samar and Leyte. Most Rev. Sofronio Hacbang, D.D., is the Bishop of Calbayog, Samar. 34

GENERAL INFORMATION DIOCESE OF LINGAYEN

The diocese of Lingayen comprises the province of Pangasinan, and part of the provinces of Nueva Ecija, Tarlac and Zamb-ales. Most Reverend Cesar Maria Guerrero, D.D., is the present Bishop of Lingayen, Pangasinan. DIOCESE OF LIP A

The diocese of Lipa comprises the provinces of Batangas, Laguna and Tayabas and the districts of Infanta and Principe, and the province of Mindoro. Right Reverend Mons. Alfredo Verzosa, D.D., is the present Bishop of Lipa, Batangas. DIOCESE OF TUGUEGARAO

The diocese of Tuguegarao comprises the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya and Batanes. Most Reverend Constant JUt'gens, D.D., is the present Bishop of Tuguega ao, Cagayan. DIOCESE OF ZAMBOANGA

The diocese of Zamboanga comprises the provinces of Cotabato, Davao, Sulu, Zamboanga, and a portion of Lanao. Most Reverend Luis del Rosario, S.J., D.D., is the present Bishop of Zamboanga. PREFECTURE-ApoSTOLIC OF PALAWAN

This comprises the island of Palawan, Iwahig Penal Colony, Culion Leper Colony, Cuyo, Calamianes, Aborlan and settlements. Right Reverend Father Victoriano Roman is the Prefect Apostolic at Puerto Princes a, Palawan. ApOSTOLIC PREFECTURE OF THE MOUNTAIN PROVINCE

Right Reverend Joseph Billiet is the Prefect Apostolic of Baguio, Mountain Province.

RELIGIOUS CORPORATIONS There have been established in the Archipelago the religious orders of the Augustinians, the Recoletos, the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Capuchins, the Benedictines, the Society of Jesus, the Congregation of St. Vincent de Paul, and the Congregation of the Daughters of Charity. The four first were constituted in the provinces, at the head of which was a Provincial, who exercised the authority of prelate over all the religious bodies of the same class, having reference to the especial constitution of each corporation Which was approved by the Supreme Pontiff. The Capuchins held a mission, which has its seat of government in Spain. The Jesuits and the Paulists have also two missions, which always depend on the respective Provincials resident in the Peninsula. THE AUGUSTINIANS

The Augustinians established themselves in the archipelago in 1565. The Provincial resides in Manila. The order administers the care of souls in the provinces and districts of Manila, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, in the Archdiocese of Manila; in the bishopric of Nueva Segovia; Cebu, in that of Cebu; Iloilo, in that of J aro. This order has a mission in Hunan, China. It has a convent in Manila, one in Cebu; the Colegio de la Consolacion; the College of Valladolid, in Spain; the College of Sta. Maria de la Vid, in Spain; the Royal Monastery of Escorial; the Royal College of Escorial; the hospital in Barcelona; the College of Palma de Mallorca, in the Baleares Islands; a representative at Madrid and at Rome. THE DOMINICANS

The Dominicans arrived in the Islands in June, 1587. The Provincial has his residence in Manila. 36

GENERAL INFORMATION The order administers the cure of souls in the provinces and districts of Manila, Laguna, and Bataan, in the archbishopric of Manila, Pangasinan, Tarlac, and Cagayan de Luzon. The corporation has establishments in China, Formosa, and Tonquin. It has in the Islands and in the Peninsula the following convents and colleges: The Convent of Sto. Domingo, in Manila; the Royal and Pontifical Convent of Sto. Tomas, at Manila; the Convent of San Jose, at Manila; the College of San Juan de Letran, at Manila; the College of St. Alberto Magno, in Dagupan; the vicarship of San Juan del Monte, at Manila; the vicarship of San Telmo, in Cavite: the College of Sta. Catalina de Sena, in Manila; the College of Our Lady de Rosario, in Lingayen; the College of Sta. Imelda, in Tuguegarao; the College of Our Lady de Rosario in Vigan; the College of Sto. Domingo, in Ocana, Spain; the College of Sto. Tomas, in Avila, and a Provincial at Madrid. Pope Pius X said about this order: "The Dominicans have carried out the best intentions of their most illustrious Brother, Friar Miguel Benavides, Archbishop of Manila, founder of this University (Sto. Tomas), and by their ceaseless care, it has constantly progressed to the point of being in all justice the most advanced of all centers of Catholic instruction." THE RECOLETOS

The Recoletos came to the islands in 1606. The Provincial has his residence at Manila. They exercise the cure of souls in the provinces and districts of Manila, Rizal, Cavite, Laguna, and Mindoro, of the archbishopric of Manila; Romblon, N egros Oriental, N egros Occidental, in the bishopric of J aro, and Cebu, Bohol, in that of Cebu, and the prefecture of Palawan. The order has the following convents and colleges: 37

路 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The convents of Manila, Cavite, Cebu, and three colleges in Spain, and an apostolic commissary-general at Madrid and Rome. They have San Nicolas Church, San Sebastian Church and Colegio de Sta. Rita in Manila. THE FRANCISCANS

The Franciscans established themselves in the Archipelago in 1577. The Provincial resides at Manila. The order exercises the cure of souls in the provinces and districts of Manila, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Rizal, Laguna, Tayabas, Ambos Camarines, Albay, in the diocese of Nueva Caceres; Samar and Leyte. The order has in the Archipelago, the Peninsula, and Italy the following convents, colleges, hospitals, and residences: The Convent Qf Manila, the Convent of San Francisco del Monte, at Man 'la; the Royal Hospital of St. Lazaro, in Manila; a residence and church at Sampaloc; a residence and church at Manila; the Hospital of the Lazarinos, in Ambos Camarines; the Monastery of Santa Clara, in Manila; the College of Guinobatan, Albay; in the Peninsula, colleges at Toledo, Avila, Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Rome, and a residence outside of Madrid. THE CAPUCHINS

This order came to the islands in 1886, and established its central mission at Manila. The Provincial Superior resides in Spain, a1:d administers the three provinces of Toledo, Aragon, and Castille. In the Archipelago there is a Superior who has charge of the mission house of Manila, and the missions of beth Carolinas and Palaos, which is where the ministry of the order is exercised. The established missions are the following: The central mission at Manila; the mission at Yap, in the eastern Carolinas, with residence, church, and school 38

GENERAL INFORMATION in the town of Sta. Cristina, San Francisco de Qnrer, Toru, and Sta. Cruz; and with visiting missions in Malay, Fara and Aringel. The corporation has a Procurador-General. THE BENEDICTINES

The Benedictines came to these islands in September, 1895. They have a central mission in Manila; the Provincial resides in Spain. In the Archipelago they have a Superior, who has charge of the central mission at Manila. They have St. Scholastica's College and San Beda College, of Manila. They also have a college in Catalonia. THE SOCIETY OF JESUS

This society first came to the Philippines in 1581 and remained until the year 1768. After an interregnum of ninety-one years, in 1859 the society returned to the Archipelago and founded a central mission at Manila, and took charge of the care of souls in the districts of Zamboanga, Surigao, Davao, Cotabato, Basilan, part of Misamis and Jolo. The society has under its charge the following establishments: The Central Mission of Manila, the Ateneo of Manila, the St. Ignatius Church, and the Observatory of Manila. THE PAULISTS

The Paulists came to the Islands III 1862 and established a mission of Filipino women, depending on the Congregation of St. Vincent de Paul of Spain. They have establishments in Manila and colleges in Nueva Caceres, Cebu, and J aro. They also exercise the direction of the society of the Sisters of Charity at Manila, and at various other places. SISTERS OF CHARITY

The Sisters of Charity arrived in the Archipelago in 1862, and took charge of education in various colleges for 39

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES girls, and controlled the assistance of the sick in the greater part of the hospitals of the Islands. They now control the following establishments: The College of Concordia, the College of Sta. Isabel, the Convent of Sta. Rosa, the Asylum of St. Vincent de Paul at Manila, the College of Sta. Isabel in Nueva Caceres, the College of San Jose of Jaro, the hospital of San Jose, the hospital of San Juan de Dios, and the House of Charity in Cebu. There are some other corporations of a charitable and religious character which do a great deal of charitable work, but it is not necessary to enumerate them here, as they are not considered to be of the same character as the religious orders above mentioned.

Selections From Philippine Editorials By A. V. H. HARTENDORP Editor of Philippine Magazine I

CHRISTIANITY IN THE FAR EAST Thomas de Quincey wrote of Southern Asia as the seat of ancient and cruel religions, of awful images and associations, of chasms and sunless abysses of the spirit from which it seemed hopeless that man could ever ascend. Into this world came Saint Francis Xavier (15061552), "Apostle to the Indies", and this great Jesuit and other men of the Jesuit, Franciscan, and Dominican orders made mighty. gains for their faith, although no such gains anywhere in Asia as in the Philippine Islands. It was during the lifetime of Xavier that Magellan discovered the Philippines-1521-and celebrated the first mass there on the small island of Limasawa, near Leyie. The first two expeditions sent by Spain to the Philippines ended in disaster, Villalobos, the leader of the second, dying in the Moluccas, under the ministrations of Xavier who was there at the time. A member of the first expedition was Andres de Urdaneta, who later renounced military life, became an Augustinian friar, and with four other Augustinians accompanied the third Spanish expedition, under Legaspi, which finally effected a settlement of the Philippines at Cebu in 1565, thirteen years after the death of Xavier. The Augustinians assisted in founding towns and building roads in the Bisayas, erected churches and schools, and also built the first church in Manila in 1571, the year that Legaspi founded that "ancient and ever-loyal" city, now the heart of Christendom in the Far East. The Franciscans came to the Philippines in 1577, and it was one of their number, Fr. Fernando de Morga, who, 41

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES three times prevented by the sea from returning to Europe, walked bare-foot through India, Persia, Arabia, and Syria, preaching as he went, and finally reached the court of Philip III where he fell on his knees and obtained the revocation of the decree which had ordered the abandonment of the Islands. The present is not the first time that there has been talk of abandoning the Philippines. The Jesuits came to the Archipelago in 1581 and established churches and schools in many places. The Dominicans came in 1586 and founded the first printing press -1602-and the oldest university in the Far East, the University of Santo Tomas, in 1611. The Recollects came in 1606, and members of other orders followed, and for over three hundred years the gospel of Christ was preached throughout the Philippines, brave and zealous men penetrating into the remotest mountain and jungle fastnesses. For the most part these preachers and teachers were eagerly received by the people-during centuries when in other parts of Asia missionaries pursued their labors in defiance of every menace of persecution and torture, and when the servants of the Lord were cruelly executed in many cities in Asia, as in 1597, twenty-three Franciscans were horribly crucified in the port of Nagasaki. Early during the American occupation, the Episcopalian Peyton was able to write of the six million Christian Malays in a report of the Philippine Commission: "I found in all the towns a magnificent church. I attended mass several times, and the churches were always full of natives, even under unfavorable circumstances on account of the military occupation. There are almost no seats in those churches, the services lasting from an hour to an hour and a half. Never in my life have I observed more evident signs of deep devotion than those I witnessed there-the men kneeling or prostrated before the altar, and the women on their knees or seated on the floor. Nobody left the church during the services, nor spoke to any 42

GENERAL INFORMATION one. There is no sectarian spirit there. All have been instructed in the creed, in prayer, in the ten commandments, and in the catechism. . All have been baptized in infancy. I do not know that there exists in the world a people as pure, as moral, and as devout as the Filipino people." Subsequent to the American occupation, other denominations extended their activities to the Philippines, among them the Episcopalians, the Methodists, the Congregationalists, the Baptists, the Presbyterians, the United Brethren, the Seventh-day Adventists, and the Christian Scientists. A schismatic organization, called the Independent Catholic Church, headed by the Rev. Gregorio Aglipay, is also in existence. When, in 1898, the United States imposed its sovereignty over the Philippines, it thereby assumed an obligation as regards the protection of Christianity in the Far East, which it can not lightly shake off. This is generally recognized even by lay writers. Nicholas Roosevelt, in his book, The Restless Paci fic, (1928) declared: "As the protector of the Philippine Islands, the United States has become the overlord of the only large body of Christians in the East. There are, all told, about 10,000,000 Christian Filipinos, nearly all of whom have been brought up in the faith of the Catholic Church. THe Spaniards, who did little to care for the material wellbeing of the Filipino people, spent three hundred years in converting them to Christianity. The impress of Spanish Catholicism is deep and the devotion of the people beyond question. Although the American Government in the Philippines has nothing to do with the perpetuation of religion, it stands to reason that as trustee of the Islands it is morally bound to protect the spiritual wellbeing of the people in the event that they are threatened b~ external forces hostile to Christianity." The preoccupation of the Spanish Government and the Spanish authorities with matters of the faith is indicated 43

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES even in the Articles of Capitulation of the City of Manila, dated August 14, 1898. The religious interests of the people came next after their lives. The seventh and final article of the Capitulation stated: "This city, its inhabitants, its churches and relig. ious worship, its educational establishments, and its private property of all descriptions are placed under the special safeguard of the faith and honor of the American army." Article X of the Treaty of Peace between the United States and Spain, signed in Paris on December 10, 1898, stated: "The inhabitants of the territories over which Spain relinquishes or cedes sovereignty shall be se路 cured in the free exercise of their religion." ROMAN CATHOfIC CHURCH-Arch-bishop 1; bishops including Guam 15; secular priests over 1000; religious priests 650 (Augustinians, Belgian' Fathers, Benedictines of Monserrat, Benedictine Missionaries, Capuchins, Columban Fathers, Fathers of the Society of the Divine Word, Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuit Fathers, Obletos de San Jose, Maryknoll Fathers, Mill Hill Fathers, Pauline Fathers, Recollect Fathers, Redemptorist Fathers, Australian Province, Redemptorist Fathers, Irish Province, Sacred Heart Missionaries, and Christian Brothers) ; religious sisters devoted to teaching, nursing, etc., 1500 (Agustinas Terciarias de Filipinas, Agustinas Terciarias Recoletas, Benedictine Sisters of St. Otilia, Congregacion de las Hijas de la Caridad 0 de S. Vicente, Compania de Beatas de la Virgen Maria, Dominican Mothers; Assumption Sisters, Belgian Sh:ters, Missionary Sisters, Servants of the Holy Ghost, Maryknoll Sisters, Franciscan Sisters, Good Shepherd Sisters, Missionary Sisters of the Immaculate Conception, Oblates Franciscan Missionaries of Mary, Sisters of St. Paul de Chartres, Madres Clarisas, Carmelite Sisters, Sisters of the Holy Ghost, Benedictines of the Eucharistic King); religious lay brothers 100; churches not less than 1400; chapels about 4500; Santo Tomas University about 3,000 students; colleges and higher schools 103; primary and intermediate schools 600; pupils attending Catholic schools (recognized and unrecognized by the Government) over 100,000; hospitals and orphanages 26; seminaries 15; students attending seminaries 950. 44

GENERAL INFORMATION "Shall be secured in the free exercise of their religion," may be variously interpreted. It probably did not even occur to the Spanish plenipotentiaries that the United States could ever abandon the people of the Philippines to "external forces hostile to Christianity." What are these external forces hostile to Christianity? Spiritually speaking, the Philippines is an island of light in a vast gulf of fetichism, animism, ancestor-worship, and polytheism; of magic, divination, sorcery, idolatry, and priestly trickery; of amUlets, talismans, hideous idols, and temples to beast gods and demons and gods of destruction. Not that the East does not have its great religions. Much of Christianity it owes to the Orient. But generally speaking, the people of Asia are sunk in mass misery and IGLESIA CAToLICA APOSToLICA FILIPINA (Aglipayanos) -Bishops 9; priests 200; parishes 200; primary schools 200 (with about 6,000 pupils); seminaries 3; number of members estimated at 2,000,000. METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSION-Membership 79,000; church buildings 293; parsonages 116; value of church buildings P962,000; pastors 89, probationers 23, local preachers 119; deaconesses 101; Bible women 50; women missionaries (WGman's Foreign Missionary Society) 14; missionary families (Board of Foreign Missions) 5. UNITED EVANGELICAL CHURCH (Presbyterians, Congregationalists, United Brethren) -Membership 41,000; churches 302; other groups 268; Filipino pastors 101; other evangelistic workers 130; Sunday schools 531 (enrolment 23,400) ; hospitals 4; dormitories 6; student centers 6; schools (Union High School, Ellinwood Girls School, Silliman Bible School, Silliman Institute) 4; seminaries (Union Theological Seminary) 1. EPISCOP AL MISSION-Baptized persons approximately 20,000; bishop 1; priests 18; property valued at $627,522, of which $212,325 is used for educational work and $246,450 for medical work; contributions $8,905; educational fees $34,933; medical fees $75,916; work is carried on among non-Christians in the Mountain Province and in Cotabato and among Chinese and Mohammedans as well as among the American-British-European groups. 45

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES mass poverty, and far from being encouraged and uplifted by their religions, they are still deeper oppressed. The natural development of religion is from fetichism and animism to ancestor-worship, to polytheism, to monotheism. Hundreds of millions of Asiatics still live in the animistic stage of religious development, and hundreds of millions more have advanced no further than to the stage of ancestor-worship. The latter represents a considerable and significant advance over the former, for it humanizes religious concepts, but still it stands for the rule of the dead over the living, for dead tradition, for enfettering conservatism. Taoism, originating in primitive magic practices, developed into something like Buddhism, and was not so much a religion as a philosophy understood only by the few. Lao-tse taught stoical indifference and advocated a return to the supposedly more simple life of the pastideas that held out no hope for the people. Confucius, though personally one of the noblest .of men, also stood for the perpetuation of the ceremonies of antiquity and Comparative data on the other churches in the Philippines could not be obtained in the time available, but the following table of local receipts of and United States grants to various denominations was obtained from the National Christian Council of the Philippine Islands: Denomination

Local Receipt&

Disciples of Christ .................. . Presbyterian ........................ . Methodist Episcopal ................. . Congregational .......... ~ .......... . Independent Baptists ................ . Christian and Missionary Alliance .... . Baptists ............................ . United Brethren in Christ .......... . Independent Filipino ChurchE's ....... . Total

1'129,880.00 225,000.00 165,325.00 24,135.00 3,500.00 241,520.00 42,540.00 *100,000.00 P931,900.00

United State8 Grants

P 40,000.00 153,990.00 154,350.00 32,355.00 60,000.00 2,185.00 50,000.00 21,100.00 1'513,980.00

GENERAL INFORMATION especially for loyalty to the family relationship. He was a teacher in decorum rather than a religious leader. His was not a stimulating gospel. Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was one of the greatest thinkers of all time. Without the help of science, he was a man of almost scientific insight. Yet his attitude toward life was also a negative one. He taught the suppression of desire, the extinction of all personal aims. the merging of the personality into the All. This was, again, rather a philosophy than a religion, misunderstood from the beginning, and soon distorted by monstrous legends. No more than Taoism or Confucianism in China, could Buddhism overcome the superstitious and often vile practices of India, the weird and horrible polytheism of Brahmanism, the sex-worship, the snake-worship, the worship of gods of death and destruction. Unhappy people conti':'Estimated: Local receipts include not only contributions to the support of the churches (salaries for pastors, deaconesses, Bible women; contributions for the erection and repair of church buildings and parsonages; gifts to domestic missions and other benevolences) but also fees collected in dormitories, hospitals, and schools. The grants from the United States are not only for the churches, but also for schools and other institutions. The above figures do not include the amount sent from the United States for missionary salaries; medical, vacation, children, travel and other allowances; and house rent. It is approximately as follows: 75 missionary families at P7,600 .................. . 72 single missionaries at P3,000 ................... .

P 570,000 216,000

Total missionary budget .................. . Total grants ............................. .

786,000 513,980

Total from U. S. . ........................ . Total raised locally ....................... .

P1,299,980 931,900

Grand Total

P2,231,880

April, 1934 47

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES nued to throw themselves under the crushing wheels of the Juggernaut of Siva. As for Mohammedanism, nearly all that is good in it-and there is much good-was derived from Judaism and Christianity. Its founder was an unprincipled and lustful man, not worthy to be compared with such men as Gautama, Lao-tse, or Confucius. The Koran, which he concocted, is immensurably inferior to the sacred literature of the Indians and the Jews. His life was one of intrigue and treachery and stained by blood; and fire, murder, and rapine has marked the progress of Islam almost everywhere. Fanaticism has vitiated the general simplicity and broad democracy of Islam's fundamental principles. Of modern Shintoism it is hardly worth while to speak as a religion. 0riginally a primitive nature worship, it was greatly influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism, but it is now a nar~owly nationalistic, propagandized state religion culminating in the Wlorship of the Emperor as the "Visible Deity." As opposed to all these religions stands Christianity, which had its origin also in the East, but was developed by the West. The Jews gave the world the idea of one god and also developed a code of social justice in the Mosaic laws which became a powerful lever in the progress of civilization. Then Christ, mankind's greatest and most beloved teacher, appeared, and made it clear that the one god of the Jews was God of all mankind, and a loving Father. Christ's moral idealism, his love for the poor and the miserable, his gentleness to women and children, his disregard for tradition, his dislike of formalism, the emphasis he placed on the importance of the individual and on the value of works rather than long prayers-these conceptions are the greatest contributions ever made to the civilization of mankind. Christianity itself is not yet wholly christianized, and the West is still far from being Christian. But Christian48

GENERAL INFORMATION ity is working like a leaven throughout the world. It is a simple, understandable religion, clear to the humblest and the most ignorant. It is a religion of brotherhood, of love, faith, and hope. It is untainted by lUxury or sensual imagmmgs. It stands clear from resignation, despair, and all of those negative qualities so evident in other religious systems. Interest in the dogma of Christianity, for which the Greek-trained Paul, the Apostle, and not Christ himself, was chiefly responsible, may be weakening, but Christianity as a way of life is a living and vigorous evangel. Christian ethics and the Christian outlook must prevail if the world is not to slip back into barbarism. Christianity in the Philippines, especially, must not be abandoned and left to the scant mercies of the hostile forces which surround it. The grant of political "independence" to the Philippines, if this also implies the withdrawal of American protection, would amount to nothing more than turning this great Christian Archipelago over to Japan and to heathenism. Even if there were no immediate military aggressionand this is not at all to be taken for granted-a Japanese influx would set in which the Filipinos would not be strong enough to check, and the general economic domination that would ensue would before long become political. Japan would tire of indirect control, and the Philippines would become a colony of Dai Nippon, ruled from and for Japan. The Christian churches might not at once be directly interfered with, but Christian thought and ethics stands in direct opposition to the Japanese system, and Japan would be forced by its own inner spirit and without any special malevolence, to carry out a program of Japanization through the schools, as in the schools of Korea where "the Korean language, the history of Korea and of Western nations, political economy, or any subject that would stimulate patriotism are prohibited" (Encyclopedia Britannica, 49

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES article "Korea H ) ; and emperor-worship would be inculcated as it is in Japan itself, in Korea, and even in the Pacific islands mandated to Japan, where today the school children are made to genuflect several times a day before shrines containing pictures or jmages of the Sun-God Emperor. And this, too, would come to pass in the Philippines, while fathers and mothers wept at home and called to a God whom it would seem had forsaken them because the Christian world forsook them. But the God of All Nations works in the hearts of men and it may become clear to Christian America that the glorious labors of many thousands of devout men during the past three hundred years and the faith of a whole people can not be so betrayed, and that it is the obligation of the United States of America to continue to uphold the illuminating torch of Christianity in Asia. II THE MEANING OF MUSIC Of all the arts, music exercises the most universal and profound appeal. Other arts, like painting, sculpture, and literature, are representative in nature and indirect in their appeal. Music, on the contrary, is the direct expression of emotion itself. MUSIC AND THE OTHER ARTS

The painter works with light and shade and color, and produces, it is true, not only a simple representation, but a work which interprets his ideas and communicates his mood, but does so indirectly and not always unambiguously. The sculptor, working with mass and form, and the writer, working with ideas-words, also achieve their expression and their effect indirectly. Only the art of the poet comes close to that of the musician because he works to a certain extent with tones. But the musician works entirely with tones, and these in themselves immediately and directly express and affect the emotions. 50

GENERAL INFORMATION In music there are, of course, more or less approximate imitations of sounds in nature, as of a laughing brook, the song of a bird, or the roll of thunder, but these come under the category of special effects. Music itself is something in itself-elemental. EARLY EXPRESSION AND COMMUNICATION OF EMOTION BY MEANS OF SOUND

The earliest form of expression and communication in the animal world, after purely physical movements and contacts, was by means of sound. Most animals, other than denizens of the water have learned to express themselves and to communicate by means of sounds varying in pitch, force, timbre, and duration-many thousands of species of insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. They can not speak, have no words, but they can express and communicate a wide range of feelings, emotions, and meanings by sound. The various crowings, cacklings, and cluckings of the chicken, and the baying, barking, howling, and whining, of the dog, are familiar examples. THE WORDLESS LANGUAGE OF THE EMOTIONS

Before man learned to speak, (and after) he, too, made sounds in his throat-growled, roared, laughed, screamed. Characteristic were, and still are, the booming tones of a challenge to comhat, the high-pitched cry of fear, the thin wail of a hungry child, the low, crooning tones of the mother; also the chuckle of amusement, the soft sigh of happiness, the glad shout of delight. All these sounds were used by our early ancestors thousands of generations before language in the present sense was evolved. Sounds made up the wordless language of the emotions for hundreds of thousands of years. Hence, the primitive, elemental, profound, and massive appeal of music; hence its intense emotional effect, ranging from the often almost unbearable poignancy of the notes 51

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES of a violin to the body-shaking tones of the organ; hence the reason that music transcends language, expressing and evoking feeling states for which yet we have no words or other adequate expression. MUSIC DOES NOT EXPRESS THE PRECISE TRIVIALITIES OF SPOKEN WORDS

People at a concert sometimes ask each other: ''What does that 'piece' say?" or "What did the composer 'mean' when he wrote that .?" As if music deals with such precise trivialities as "Good night," or "I hate the Duke," or "I love Marianne." No great musician ever attempted to say anything in his music that he could have more easily and more clearly expressed in words. The musician does, however, give a natural expression embellished by art and the resources sometimes of many instruments, to a feeling or emotion, and when this expression is spontaneous and sincere, it directly arouses a similar feeling state in those who hear his music. Such a musical expression may be that of a relatively simple and personal emotion. The musician, in composing a love song, may have his own lady-fair in mind. But the language of music is so elemental, so all-embracing, that the composer's song to his own mistress stands forever as a Song of Love. Into what might be called the abstractness or generality of music, every man can ' fit his own mood. Hence its universal appeal. The music induces the same general mood in different people, but under the different guises determined by their individual experience. To some extent, this is true of all art. A painting of a little girl becomes the symbol of Innocence; a marble figure becomes the type of Divine Beauty. MUSIC-THE LANGUAGE OF THE RACE AND OF LIFE ITSELF

But music is of all arts, the most effective because it is the most direct, the most natural expression of emotion. 52

GENERAL INFORMATION Hence its use in religious worship, in war, and generally in ordinary social intercourse. Music binds the most variegated people into a company that for the moment feels only a common emotion, a common desire, and, in music's higher manifestations, a common humanity. In music the race speaks to the individual. In music life expresses its very self in all its pitiful passion, its melancholy pride, its despairing hopefulness. In music we hear most clearly the questioning, challenging, aspiring human soul. rn music, more than in philosophy, do we sense not only humanity's weakness, but also its underlying sanity and strength, for, offsetting the changeful moods of grief and doubt and despair, are gaiety and passion and confidence,-and, underlying them all, like hass notes, the fundamental, steadying tones of calmness and serenity.

III ENGLISH IN THE PHILIPPINES Vice-Governor Butte's ill-advised address advocating the use of the vernacular in the schools-which would revolutionize the entire school system under which the people of the Philippines have made such amazing progress during the past three decades-has resulted, as was to have been expected, only in confusion, not only in the halls of the Legislature, where a number of bills on the subject have been introduced, but in the public mind. Reactionaries and idealists, patriots and professors, scholars and politicians have all held forth on the question. Learned dissertations, quoting foreign authorities on linguistics, have appeared in the newspapers; history has been appealed to. The welkin has been made to ringand, oddly enough, by speakers who, regardless of the side they championed, nearly all used English! Through it all, it has been overlooked that the Philippines, especially in so far as the language question is concerned, stands in a class by itself, both as concerns 53

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES underlying and existing conditions, and governmental and educational policy. Historical analogies, therefore, for the most part, do not apply, and the opinions of linguists unfamiliar with the Philippines, are of very little value. In the first place, the insularity of the country, the successive waves of immigration, differing in race, and the isolation in which numerous groups developed, resulted in the formation of an exceptionally large number of languages and dialects for such a small region and such a limited population. Professor H. O. Beyer in 1916 recognized 87 separate languages and dialects spoken by some nine and a half million people, with less than two million people in the largest language group-Cebuan Bisayan. In the second place, there is probably no other country in the world where so little of the characteristicallyand narrowly-native has been preserved. Due chiefly to three centuries of Spanish rule, the old religions, the old customs, the old laws are all gone except in some of the few remaining pagan and Mohammedan communities. There is no great body of native classic literature, as for instance, in India. The race, though largely Oriental in blood is, in the main, Occidental in culture. The Filipinos are a far more eclectic people even than the modern Japanese-and are, or easily might be, true cosmopolitans. It is safe to say that there is no strong feeling and certainly no unanimous feeling for the preservation of any vernacular language. In the third place, no other government has ever undertaken in any dependency such a program as that projected by the United States in the Philippines, nor has any other government ever organized a school system for the education of the masses in a dependency on such a scale as in this country. The Philippine school system is not by any means beyond criticism in many respects, but its success in teach54

GENERAL INFORMATION ing English, even under serious handicaps, and in promoting the general use of the language, has been so great that it is not even warranted any longer to speak of it as an "experiment." Two years ago, Mr. Butte's predecessor, Vice-Governor Eugene A. Gilmore, stated: "Despite the criticisms that are sometimes made concerning the teaching of English, and despite certain unnecessary obstacles, official and otherwise, to the English-speaking program, the use of English is extending throughout the Archipelago and is becoming the common medium of communication." A Spanish scholar, C. Villalobos Dominguez, of Buenos Aires, was quoted in this magazine some years ago as saying: "It is already apparent that forced development of local dialects is reactionary, dangerous, and vain, and the time will soon come when it will be equally dangerous to maintain national languages by artificial means. In some respects there are already obvious evidences of an attempt toward internationalization, such as the steady substitution of Roman characters for Gothic characters and Japanese ideograms" and more recently for Arabic and Chinese. Sr. Dominguez even stated that he saw no reason to expect any expansion of German, French, Italian, Danish, and other languages spoken by relatively few people living in relatively small areas, and arrived at the conclusion, as others have done, that only English and Spanish have any likelihood of overcoming the others in the struggle. They are in direct line of descent from the Greco-Latin culture, and are already spoken by many millions of people in every large and scattered territories. There is certainly now no reason for us in the Philippines to turn backward because a gentleman from Oklahoma, here for less than a year, and himself neither an educator nor a linguist, has seen,fit to agitate the matter before a woman's club. If he occupied a position other 55

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES than that of Secretary of Public Instruction, his remarks would have created no more comment than those of various officials from the Dutch East Indies who have visited Manila and told us that what we were obviously doing in the Philippines, "could not be done."

IV WHAT IS A NATIONAL LITERATURE President Rafael Palma of the University of Philippines recently stated in an address that to adopt Tagalog as a national language would isolate the Philippines from the rest of the world, and advocated the continued use of English. He held that Filipinos could express their ideas and ideals in English as well as in the native vernacular. In this connection, an opinion on "national literature," expressed by Mary M. Colum in Scribner's magazine for February, is of great interest. "The question of what constitutes a distinct national literature is decided according as one lays stress on the language in which a literature is written or on the contents of that literature. For those who are convinced that language is the deciding ,test, then all that America can ever produce belongs to English literature, but for those who believe, as I do, that it is the content and character of a literature that decide its nationality, then there is a distinct American literature in the English language as there is a distinct Irish literature." . This opinion appears to be entirely sound. Even with the continued use of English in the Philippines, Filipino writers will be as individual and as characteristic of the race and country as American writers are characteristic of America and different from the writers of England. A study of the writing in English now being done in the Philippines already shows the interesting and important possibilities. A perusal of the short stories and poems by Filipino authors published in this magazine from month to 56

GENERAL INFORMATION month, and some of the better work in the Sunday newspapers, will impress the .reader with their originality. It could not, as a matter of fact, be otherwise. Much of the writing now being done may be imitative and superficial, but the very choice of models is significant, and the superficiality will pass with greater command of the medium and an understanding of the large resources and the great adaptability of the English language. From the point of view of artistic expression, the Philippines is one of the most promising countries in the world. The racial and cultural make-up is exceedingly rich and complex-Malay, Indian, Chinese, European, American. All stages of civilization are represented, from the N egrito bow-and-arrow men in the jungles, through the sturdy pagan mountain tribes, the agricultural people of the interiors, the fishing people along the coasts, and the recently piratical Moros of the South, to the sophisticated cosmopolitan populations of Manila, Cebu, Iloilo, and other centers. And the important point is that all these people are no longer isolated from each other and classes strongly stratified, but that, through the introduction of a democratic form of government and public schools by the Americans, there is a continuous rising of individuals from lower cultural and class levels to the higher. A naked young Bontok today may in a few years from now be the director of a large hospital, a business man, a member of the legislature, or an artist, and the same is true of the son of a Siasi pirate and of a Bulacan peasant boy. The people of the Philippines, too, are the first tropical peoples and the first Asiatics to use English as the common medium of expression. No one can doubt that such people can be depended upon to have something to say, and that what they will say, will be certain to interest the world. 57

V BUILDING A NATIONAL LITERATURE Mr. Daguio's "The Malayan Spell and the Creation of a Literature" may well be read in connection with Mr. Uy's "Thirty Days in Java," both published in this issue of the Philippine Magazine. Mr. Daguio, believing-as is truethat the founding of a national written literature is our responsibility, urges "an understanding and passionate evaluation of our own national and racial life deeply rooted in the mystery and glamour, even the somberness of the past," and holds that success can come only through "national consciousness and national individuality." He is entirely right, but his view is easily misunderstood. He does not advocate a return, for instance, but a moving forward.. He advocates that such scanty foundations as have been laid in the past be utilized, but the building must be new. This applies to Jife in ali its aspects, as well as to literature. Mr. Uy draws a depressing picture of the people in Java who, in a region of overflowing natural richness, live lives of abject poverty. Modern civilization has scarcely touched them, at least individually, and ignorance and superstition as well as foreign masters rule them. Mr. Uy ascribes to this lack of enlightenment the fact that they have won no important political concessions from the ruling power. Nevertheless, in his last paragraph, he turns sentimental, and declares: "But it is not the material things that impressed me most in Java. It is the spiritual: the beautiful traditions preserved from generation to generation without substantial damage. . . . It is due to this spiritual and psychological attitude that the Javanese are still possessed of an inordinate love for things Javanese. He wears clothes of his own weaving and design. . . . He prefers the Javanese shows, where his own traditions and virtues are dramatically portrayed, to the foreign cinema 58

GENERAL INFORMATION plays. Unlike their Filipino brethren who have developed a taste for jazz, the Javanese find delight in their own native songs and music, and they still dance their own dances." It is no doubt this very clinging (largely through ignorance and poverty) to the past, inevitably bygone, which has kept the Javanese in subjection-enthralled by their own minds as much as by the Dutch. "Beautiful traditions" are too often chains about men's ankles, outlandish costumes the mark of an isolated provincialism, delight in simple songs the evidence of simple minds. If we are ambitious, as we should be, to playa part in the world today, we must be modern. We must remain Filipinos. If we are to create a literature or anything else, we must create ill the present, for the present. To create a national literature, we do not have to write stories about the past, about datus and rajahs and diwatas, and gods whose names no one remembers. All that is the worst of artificially and insincerity. Neither is it necessary to be narrowly and exaggeratedly "patriotic." All we need to do is to write about our own selves, our own lives, our own scene. Then what we write will inevitably, almost automatically, be Filipino. "Creative work," said the great Irish writer and leader, 'William Butler Yeats, "has always a fatherland . . . . To the greater poets everything they see has its relation to the national life, and through that to the universal and divine life. . . . This universalism, this seeing of unity everywhere, you can only attain through what is near you, your nation, or, if you be no traveler, your village and the cobwebs on your walls. . . ." All this was summarized by Padraic Colum in a recent issue of the Saturday Review of Liter'at1f,re in the words: "Local life seen in some compre59

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES hensive way is the foundation of every national literature" -and, it might be added, of all universal literature. Literature has nothing to do with the dead past. Let us take of the past only what is still alive, and all that lives around us, and make a Jiving literature of that. It is, in fact, impossible to go back. Imagination does not suffice. Since we have no literature dating back a few centuries, we can not now create it. There are no retrospective Shakespeares. It is true that Shakespeare wrote of Antony and Caesar and Brutus and Cleopatra, but he made them aU English and all human. And of England itself, Shakespeare, that universal genius, wrote what still today is true fol' every Englishman and for every man about his own land: "This other Eden, demi-paradise, This fortress built by Nature for herself Against infection and the hand of war, This happy breed of men, this little world, This precious stone set in a silver sea . This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England !"

VI THE PHILIPPINES OR THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS? The official designation of the country which we inhabit is "The Philippine Islands," and the Government is referred to as "The Government of the Philippine Islands." The draft of the Commonwealth Constitution released for publication last month also uses the term "The Philippine Islands." We may, however, at this time well consider whether the country should continue to be called "The Philippine Islands" or simply "The Philippines." Although there are very large islands, the term "island" generally suggests a small "tract of land sur60

GENERAL INFORMATION rounded by water," and the idea of a group of islands does not produce a much more imposing conception. Ceylon, Ireland, Cuba, Java, Celebes, and New Zealand, all smaller than the Philippines, are not usually referred to as islands. Although the term "British Isles" is sometimes used poetically, the official name is "Great Britain," and no one speaks of the "Japanese Islands." Yet Japan, not including its possessions, is only slightly larger than the Philippines-147,440 square miles to our 114,360 square miles, while Great Britain, not including Ireland, is smaller -88,745 square miles. "Isle," "island," "islanders," "insular," "insularism," "insularity," are often used in a minimizing and derogatory sense-the latter terms sometimes meaning "characteristic of insulated or isolated persons; hence narrow, contracted: as insular prejudices;" "the quality of being insular in personal character, narrowness of opinion or conception, mental insularity;" "(with reference to the results of comparative isolation) narrow, circumscribed, illiberal, constricted; narrowness or illiberality of opinion or custom." While the "great" in "Great Britain" is probably of geographical origin, as we speak of "Greater New York" today and the "dai" (great) in "Dai Nippon" is probably also geographical in meaning, these prefixes no doubt are flattering to many individual inhabitants of the British and Japanese islands even today and may in fact have been adopted in part as compensation for a feeling of insular inferiority. Although it would be silly to adopt the name "Great Philippines," we need not continue to belittle this country in effect by always dragging along behind us the word "Islands" and grouping ourselves with the Polynesian and Melanesian "kanakasf> of the distant islands of the South Seas. 61

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

VII MALAY NATIONS "N 0 Malay nation has ever emerged from the hordes of that race which have spread over the islands of the Pacific," says a recent writer. "Wherever they are found they have certain marked characteristics, and of these the most remarkable is their lack of that spirit which goes to form a homogeneous people, to weld them together. The Malay is always a provincial; more, he rarely rises outside the interests of his town or village. . . . The two points which are most inimicable to progress are, as already mentioned, the lack of unity and the lack of persistence. The Malay, in short, is a creature of limitations." This is the kind of psychologizing on racial traits which finds favor among those who seek to replace scientific observation and historical research by intuition, and information by inspiration. The French have written about the psychology of the Germans in this way, and the Germans about the French, with scientifically worthless and otherwise unedifying results. As a matter of fact, besides the scores of important Buddhist, Branma, and Mohammedan states in Malaysia, some of which were ruled for centuries under one dynasty, there were two great empires which united the entire Malaysian world. The first was the Buddhist Sri-Vishayan Empire which at its height (about 1180) included part of Formosa, the Philippines, the Moluccas, Celebes, Borneo, a part of Java, Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and Ceylon. The capital was at Palembang, in Sumatra. The second was the Madjapahit Empire, which was Brahman, and had its seat in Java. At the time of its greatest extent (about 1400) it embraced part of Formosa, the Philippines, all of the Malay archipelago except parts of New Guinea, the Malay Peninsula, what is now Siam 62

GENERAL INFORMATION and French Indo-China, and southern China, including the island of Hainan. This was "the greatest combination of Malay peoples into a single political unit that has yet existed." The quotation is from "A History of the Orient," a book recently published, the authors of which are G. Nye Steiger, H. Otley Beyer, and Conrado Benitez. That these facts have a bearing on modern political problems, as well as on the statement that "no Malay nation has ever emerged," etc., no one can doubt.

VIII THE ECLECTICISM OF THE FILIPINO Granted that three hundred years of Spanish domination and thirty of American, have eradicated much that was native in the Philippines,-native dynasties, native customs, native gods. What of it, if in their stead the Filipino has obtained the boon of individual liberty, freedom to choose, the opportunity to make his own way? It is true that the Filipino, in the words of Mr. Hammon H. Buck, one of our contributors this month, "absorbs with amazing facility foreign civilization as the very breath of life." It is this very eclecticism in which the Filipino will find his strength. It is this spirit which has helped to make America on one side of the world, and Japan on the other, the great nations they are. In the case of every people, the world over, ancient beliefs and ancient manners are handicaps rather than helps. Civilized peoples are rapidly divesting themselves of these accretions of the centuries which only retard progress, like the barnacles on the keel of a vessel. A people are all the better off if at this time they have few such impediments of which to rid themselves. The modern spirit looks not backward, but forward. The modern mind is open, inquisitive, receptive. It proves all things and takes what is good. 63

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES It is only the sentimentalist among us who harks back with fatuous fondness to the superstitious ignorance or the barbarous cruelty of ancient religions, to the rule-of-thumb activities, to the uncouth dialects, to the rude manners, to the crude art and music, to the uncomfortable households, and even to the stiff or over-foppish costumes of our forefathers. These things form a proper subject of study for our archeologists and historians. What remains of them belongs in our museums. We may let them go without regret. As for the national soul of the Filipino or any people, that will take care of itself. This soul, or spirit, or attitude, whatever it may be is a product of ourselves and our environment. It is inevitably individualistic, because no matter how universal civilization may become, racial, geographic, social, and other factors will continue to produce local differences in culture vvhich are of real value in mutual stimulation toward still higher development. We need not depend upon the antediluvian and the outworn for our distinctions. Let such distinction as we are capable of come from our own, present contributions to the life of the world. Some years ago, a number of Filipino government officials and professional men attended a scientific congress in Java. While there they visited a number of native Malay sultanates and saw their hereditary rulers in all their splendor, on gold and ivory thrones, surrounded by salaaming nobles and cringing slaves. In one of these courts they saw a subject crawling on his belly the entire length of the hall to kiss the fOBt of his master. The Filipinos stared at this show aghast and then looked at each other, thinking of their own country, a part of Malaysia, and of their own people, Malays like these, and yet how different! 64

THE BAGUIO ZIGZAG

GENERAL INFORMATION They thought of the Philippines, where no man IS III absolute authority, where caste distinctions are unknown, where an men are equal before the law, may speak their mind freely, and act as seems good to them within liberal laws. IX CHRISTMAS The birthday of the Christ Child has become the great childrp.n's festival of civilization. The "mother's deep prayer and a haby's low cry" has acquired a new significance. Not only Mary, the mother of Jesus, but every mother can say in the words of Richard Rowland's "Our Blessed Lady's Lullaby": "Upon my lap my Sovereign sits." To every mother her babe is her Lord. And the world joins in the adoration as once did the shepherds and the wise men who came to the manger in the stable at Bethlehem . .

o o

Child, whose glory fi!lls the earth! little Child of lowly birth! The shepherds, guided from afar, Stood worshipping beneath the star, And wise-m.e n fell on bended knee And homage offered unto Thee. The world realizes more clearly as the years pass that without the child there is no progress, no immortality, no hope. Dimly this has been seen for ages. Who that has heard it in the peril of shipwreck, can ever forget the heart-moving cry: "Women and children first!" All personal danger is forgotten when appeal is made to that deep instinct in all of us to guard and preserve the young. Yet never so clearly as to-day do we understand the truth of the hope of the child. 65

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

Not in entitre forgetfulness, And not in utter nakedness, But wailing clouds of glory do we come From God who is our home. That is the child, according to Wordsworth. What of the youth? What of the man? The poet sadly continues:

Shades of the prison-house begin to close Upon the growitng boy, But he beholds the l~ght, and whence it flows, He sees # in his joy; The youth, who daily farther from the east Must travel, still is Nature's priest, A nd by the vis'Eon splendid Is on his way attended; At length the man perceives it die away, And fade int@ the light of common day. We teach the young; it were better if we learned from them. We are closest to heaven, to Nature, in our infancy. As we grow older we wander farther and farther away. We lose our vision, our idealism, our enthusiasm, our vigor. We become suspicious, disillusioned, bitter, sceptic, apathetic ;-the only good in us being our love for our offspring, a sorrowful realization of what we were and what we have become, a prayerful hope in the future of our children and our children,'s children. Christmas is of all days the day which makes the deepest impression in childhood.

Out I)f the mi.'ds of childhood, Steeped in a {lolden glory,' Come dreamy forms and fOJces, Snatches of song and story; Wh~spers of s~veet, still faces, Rays of ethereal glimmer, 66

GENERAL INFORMATION

That gleam like sunny heavens, N e' er to grow colder or dimmer. Aglow in the Christmas halo, Shining with heavenly lustre, These are the fairy faces That round the hearthstone cluster. These the deep, tender records, SaÂˇcred in all their meetness, Thwt, wakening p~trest fancies, Soften us with their sweetness; As, gathered where flickering fagots burn, We welcome the holy sea;son's return. So let us with our children be children again-if just for that night!

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Rizal's Last Farewell Written before his execution, Rizal's Ultimo Adios is the epitome of his life and labors-"thoughts poured from the soul . . . on that ~wful night as he sat alone amidst silence unbroken save by the rustling of the black plumes of the death angel at his side." It was the "There is something inside" which Rizal said to his sister Trinidad on the afternoon of December 29, 1896. This poem was concealed in an akohol lamp which Rizal used in a dark cell in Fort Santiago. This lamp was a gift from Mrs. Tavera. Said Rizal to Trining, "Keep this lamp as a souvenir from me." Josefina too~this manuscript poem with her to Hongkong and sold it to the American consul at Singapore for 1'600.00. This document was later brought to the United States through the intervention of Mr. McYntire. A copy of this poem was published in La! Independencia. The National Library of the Philippines has acquired this priceless manuscript which is now locked in one of its safes. It has been translated into many dialects and languages of the world. Had Jose Rizal written nothing but this poem he would still be one of the foremost poets of the Philippines. The English version is found on pages 312-314, Volume I of this Encyclopedia. The following is a facsimile of this immortal poem:

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GENE RAL INFORMATION

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

II. HISTORICAL

Ancient Philippine Civilization By

GREOORIO

ZAIDE

Professor of History, Far Eastern University

I Before the Spaniards came, the Filipinos had their own civilization. 1 The fragments of this civilization were of Asiatic origins. They came from Malaysia, India, China, and Arabia. They had been brought to the Philippine shores by the winds of fate and were harmonized together by the fingers of the ages. In the course of time, these civilizational fragments became the culture of the pre-Spanish Filipinos. The Filipinos, truly, owe a great cultural debt to their Asiatic neighbors. There is no dogmatic definition for civilization. For men have different notions of this term. In fact, civilization is a relative term. What is civilized to some, may not be civilized to others. Thus Dr. A. Goldenweiser remarked: "Man is one, civilizations are many." 2 We have, therefore, so many civilizations in history, such as the Chinese civilization, the Egyptian civilization, the Greek civilization, the Roman civilization, the Hindu civilization, and others. One of the best definitions of civilization is given by Dr. Edward B. Tylor of Oxford University, as follows: "Civilization or culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and "habits acquired by man as a mem1 "The inhabitants of the Philippines," said Justice George A. Malcolm, American jurist-historian, "possessed a culture of their own prior to the coming of the Spaniards to the Islands." (The Government of the Philippine Islands, N. Y., 1916, p. 27). 2 Early Civilization. London, 1921, p. 1.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES ber of society." 1 Judging from this definition, we can say that the pre-Spanish Filipinos were already civilized. Sources of Filipino Civilization.-The ancient civilization of the Filipinos originated from Asiatic sources. Parts of it came from India, China, and Arabia. The Filipinos were fortunate that their country lies within the parts of the cultural expansion of these three cultural pockets of Asia. The Vedic culture of India spread to Malaysia, and from here it was carried to the Philippines by Hinduized Malays, the conquering navigators and settlers of the Pacific world. The cultural legacies of China were introduced into the Islands by pioneering junk-merchants and warriors. And the civilization of Arabia reached the Philippines, because it was carried by Arabic missionaries and Islamized Malays from Malaysia. Cultural Legacies of India.-India has profoundly affected the early Filipino civilization. "There is no tribe in the Philippines," said Dr. A. L. Kroeber, noted American anthropologist, "no matter how primitive and remote, in whose culture of today elements of Indian origin cannot be traced." 2 India's cultural legacies to the Filipinos were more political, social, and intellectual rather than economic or material. Political titles in ancient Philippines, such as hari (king), raja (ruler), and maharlika (noble) were of Indian origin. The Filipino word Bathala, meaning Supreme God, came from the Hindu word Avatar, meaning "descent." Some of the Moro deities, for instance, Bantugun (Mindanao hero-god), [ndra (sky god of Sulu) , Surya (sun deity of Sulu), and Agni (fire god of Sulu) came Primitive Culture. N. Y., 1924, 7th Ed., Vol. 1, p. 1. The Peoples of the Philippines. N. Y., 1928, p. 11. "With the exception of recent European culture," stated Prof. H. O. Beyer, "the Indian influences are on the whole the most profound that have affected Philippine civilization." (Steiger, Beyer & Benitez, A History of the Orient. Boston, 1926, p. 200). 72 1 2

GENERAL INFORMATION from India. Several tales and myths ip. Filipino literature, such as the legend of Manubo Ango in Agusan and the story of Balituk in Ifugao, were Hindu in their origin. The decorative art of the Moros and the pagan tribes, particularly, the use of the lotus design on bolo handles, shows another influence of India. In the mode of dressing of the early Filipinos, we see the effect of Indian culture. The use of the potong (head-gear) and the sarong, and the use of bronze ornaments are said to be of Hindu origin. The ancient Filipino writing had certain similarities with Sanskrit, the writing of the Hindus. Furthermore, in the present-day Filipino languages, there are many Sanskrit words pertaining to law, mathematics, botany, science, fortifications, agriculture, and industries. 1 Cultural Legacies of Ckitna.-The contributions of China to Filipino civilization were not as profound as those of India. As Professor Beyer said, the Chinese merely scratched the surface of Filipino social and mental life, unlike that of India before her. 2 The Chinese taught the Filipinos how to use such com路路 mercial products as porcelain, silk clothes, musical gongs, silver, lead, and others. The Filipinos also learned from . them the old mining methods, the art of metallurgy, and manufacture of firearms. The use of white color for mourning among the early Visayans and Mindanao tribes was of Chinese origin. Likewise, the use of umbrellas and glass beads, the wearing of yellow garb by the aristocrats and the blue dress by the commoners, and the use of the loose trousers and sleeved jackets by the Moro women are of Chinese influence. In the old customary laws of the Filipinos, we see the cultural contributions of China, such as the practice of having a go-between between the groom's 1 Vide G. F. ZaidE:", Philippine Civilization. MS., Manila, 1934. A doctoral thesis in the University of Santo Tomas. Pp. 68-71. 2 See "The Philippines Before Magellan," Asia Magazine, October, 1921. 73

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES family and the bride's family; the arrangement of marriage between children by their parents; and the great respect accorded to the elders and ancestors. China had also left her footprints on the languages of the Filipinos. Some Chinese words in Filipino language are: tinghoy (oil lamp), s'll,Si (key), ma;ngkok (saucer), tiani (pincer), tsa (tea), and ditche (elder sister).l Why China's Influences Not Deep.-We have said before that China's cultural influences on Filipino civilization were not profound or deep. It is surprIsing that the centuries of Chinese contact with the Filipinos have produced little effect on the culture of the Philippine inhabitants. The reasons for this are as follows: First, the Chinese who came to the Philippines were from Southern China. This part of China lacked the missionary spirit of Northern China. The Chinese civilization developed in Northern China whose people spread it to Korea and Japan. Second, the Southern Chinese who reached the Philippines came as traders and colonists, not as civilizers. Their main purpose of coming to the Islands was to transact business, and not to impart Chinese civilization. Cultural Legades of Arabia.-The greatest contribution of Arabia to the Philippines is Islam or Mohammedanism. About one-half million Filipinos today are Mohammedans. They are the Moros of Mindanao and Sulu. Another Arabic legacy was the sultanate, a form of political organization, which was superior to the haranganic government of the pre-Spanish Tagalogs, Visayans, Bicols, and Ilocanos. There are several sultanates in Southern Philippines, but the most important one is the Sultanate of J 010, lately under Sultan J amalul Kiram. These sultanates originated before the arrival of the Spaniards. According to Dr. N. Saleeby, the Arabic culture was introduced into the Philippines by the Mohammedan set1

Zaide, Philippine Civilization, pp. 77-79. 74

GENERAL INFORMATION tIers from Malaysia. 1 The Moro writing is Arabic in origin. The laws of the Moros also show the influence of Arabia, because these laws are based on the Koran. The Koran is the bible of Mohammedanism. The literature of the Mohammedan Filipinos manifests the influence of Arabia. Many of the Moro tales, poems, legends, and myths are taken from the Arabic sources. Like the Arabs, the Moros do not eat pork, do not drink wines, pray six times a day, and marry many women at the same time. Lastly, many words in Filipino languages are Arabic words. For instance, the word sulat (letter) and pilat (scar) in the Tagalog language are Arabic terms. Most words in the Moro languages are Arabic in origin. Among them are: nabi (prophet), kali (judge), sha1'a (law), akal (mind), kitab ~book), and dunga (world).2 Rise of PTe-Spanish Civilization.-The cultural legacieS of India, China, and Arabia that we have discussed above intermingled with whatever civilization was found in the Philippines. Out of this mingling arose a new type of civilization-the pre-Spanish civilization of the Filipinos. This civilization was a composite one. It was woven out of the cultural fragments of the Indonesians, Malays, Hindus, Chinese, and Arabs. It was Asiatic in origin. Hence, it was truly an Asiatic civilization-a civilization for the Asiatics, of the Asiatics, and by the Asiatics. This civilization was in the process of development in the Philippines when the Spaniards came. Over this, as foundation, they imposed a new civilization which was the Latin civilization. II

The Spanish conquistadores and mISSIOnaries found the Filipinos already on the road to civilization. The Fili1 Studies in Moro History, Law, and Religion. passim. 2 Zaide, op. cit., pp. 86-89.

'i5

Manila, 1905,

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES pinos were not naked savages nor untutored barbarians. They lived in organized communities, cooked foods and distilled wines, and had their own society, government, laws, languages, writing, literature, music, arts, sciences, morals, education, religion, and other things. Many foreign writers harshly considered them as uncivilized, because these writers judged them from Western cultural standard which should not be the case, for the Asiatic standard of civilization is different from 路 that of Europe. Filipino D1uellings.-Tlie pre-Magellanic Filipinos lived in fixed houses in the barangays. They were not wandering nomads of the jungles. Their houses were constructed in the customary tropical architecture, simple and small, but cool and cozy. These were made of bamboo, nipa, wood, and palm leaves. An old Spanish historian, Dr. Antonio de Morga, described these houses for us. He said: 1 "The houses and d\vellings of all these natives are universally set upon stakes and ar~gues (columns) high above the ground. The rooms are small and the roofs low. They are constructed and tiled with wood and bamboos, and covered and roofed with nipa-palm leaves. Each house is separated and is not built adjoining another. In the lower part are enclosures made by stakes and bamboos where their chicken and cattle are kept, and the rice pounded and cleaned. One enters the house by means of ladders that can be drawn up and they are made of two bamboos. Above are their open bGJtalanes (galleries) used for domestic purposes. The parents and children live together. 1 Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. Mexico, 1609. Retana Edition. Madrid, 1910, p. 190. For other accounts on the houses of the early Filipinos, see Pigafetta, Magellan's Voyage Around the World, Vol. I, p. 149; Fr. Francisco de Santa Ines, Cronica de la Provincia de S. G1'egorio Mag'IW de Religiosos Descalsos de N. S. P. San Francisco en las Islas Filipinas, China, Japon, etc., 1676. Manila. Published by the Biblioteca Historica Filipina. 1892, p. 34; and Fr. Francisco Combes, Hist01'ia de Mindanao y Jolo. Pastells-Retana Edition, Madrid, 1897, p. 53.

GENERAL INFORMATION There is little adornment and furniture in the houses which are called banhandin." Some of the early Filipino tribes lived in tree-houses. Until the present time, the Kalingas and the Ilongots of Northern Luzon, and the Bagobos, Mandayas, and other pagan tribes of Mindanao continue to build their houses on the trees. 2 A relatively small portion of the Philippine population are boat-dwellers. They are the Bajaos or Lutaos of the Sulu seas. They live in their boats, which are strongly built and fancifully decorated. Due to their maritime life, they are called the "Sea-Gypsies of the Sulu Seas." S Clothes.-The ancient FIlipinos were clothed with their native garments and bedecked with valuable ornaments. The characteristic dress of the men consisted of two parts. The upper part was a short loose jacket of fine linen, which barely reached the waist without collar. The lower part was a breeches, consisting of a strip of cloth wound about the waist and between the legs. The clothes of the chiefs were of richer materials and of brighter colors. "Among the chiefs," thus wrote Father Colin, famous Jesuit historian, "these jackets were of a scarlet color, and were made of fine Indian muslin. For breeches they wore a richly colored cloth which was naturally embroidered with gold." 4 The typical attire of the women also consisted of two parts. The upper part was called varo or camisa, which was a small jacket with sleeves. The lower part was the 2 Vide Dean Worcester, "The Non-Christian Peoples of the Phil路 ippine Islands," National Geographic Magazine. November, 1913, pp. 1217 ff. S Carl N. Taylor, "The Bajaos----<Children of the Sea," Phili ppin e Magazine. Manila, August, 1930, pp. 158 ff. It is interesting to n0te that the survivors of the Magellan expedition saw these Sea路 Gypsies in 1521 between Sulu and Mindanao. See Antonio de Pi路 gafetta, Magellan's Voyage Around the World. Translated by Dr. J. A. Robertston. Cleveland, 1906. Vol. II, p. 53. 4 Labor Evangelica, Vol I, p. 61.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES short loose skirt called saya in Luzon and patadyong in the Visayas. Usually, the women wore an outer garment, wrapped around their waists over the regular skirt; this was a white cotton cloth for commoners and a crimson finer cloth with fringes and adornments for the women of the nobility. The ancient Filipinos were barefooted, having no shoes nor slippers. They had a headgear called potong, which was a piece of cloth wound around the head like a turban. Only persons, who had killed at least one man could wear a red potong, and those who had already killed seven or more men were privileged to wear it "embroidered with certain borders" like a crown. I) Ornaments and Tattooes.-The Filipinos possess.ed precious ornaments. According to Legaspi, in his report to the Spanish king in 1565, they "wear gold earrings, bracelets, and necklets." 6 Dr. Morga described the men's ornaments as follows: "About their necks they wear gold necklaces, wrought like spun wax, and with links in our fashion, some larger than others. On their arms, they wear armlets of fashioned gold which they call calombigas, which are very large and made in different patterns. Some wear string of precious stones--cornelians and agates and other blue and white stones which they esteem highly. They wear around the legs some strings of these stones, and certain cords covered with black pitch in many foldings as garters." 7 The women were equally bejeweled as the men. According to Dr. Morga, "they wear many gold necklaces about the necks, calombigas on the wrists, large earrings 5 Ibid., Vol. I, p. 60. See also "Relacion de la Conquista de la Isla de Luzon," Retana, Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino. Madrid, 1906, Vol. IV, p. 27. 6 See "Relation of thE:' Voyage to the Philippine Islands," Blair & Robertson, The Philippine Islands. Cleveland, 1907, Vol. V, p. 117. 7 Suceso8, p. 173.

GENERAL INll'ORMATION of wrought gold in the ears, and rings of gold and precious stones." 8 The pre-Spanish Filipinos, especially the Visayans, tattooed their bodies with various designs. "The men," wrote Father Colin, "tattooed even their chins and about the eyes so that they appeared to be masked. Children were .not tattooed, and the women only on one arm and part of the other." 9 The Filipinos tattooed themselves for two reasons: first, to enhance their bodily beauty, and secon4, to show their war record. The more tattooed a man was, the more men had he killed in battIe. The Visayans were the most tattooed tribe in ancient Philippines. For this reason, they were called the Pintados, meaning the "painted people"; and their islands were often referred to as the I SlM de los Pintados (Islands of the Painted People) . Foods and Drinks.-As to foods, the ancient Filipinos ate cooked rice, meat of edible animals and birds, fish, vegetables, herbs, tubers, and fruits. Rice was the national bread of the Filipinos as it is at the present time. Pigafetta, historian of the Magellan expedition, related to us that the early Filipinos ate "rice, millet, pacicum, sorgo, ginger, coconuts, figs (bananas), oranges, lemons, sugar cane, garlic, honey, nangcas, gourds, flesh of many kinds, palm wine" and others. 10 The Filipinos drank many kinds of wine which they manufactured from rice, sugar cane, nipa, coconut palms, and other plants. Their most popular drink or wine was the tuba which came from coconut palm. This was the champagne of ancient Philippines. Other popular wines 8 Ibid., p. 173. For other accounts of the early Filipino ornaments, see Fr. Pedro Chirino, Relacion de las Islas Filipinas. Rome, 1604. Another edition in Manila, 1890. Chapter IV, and Colin, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 61. 9 Op. cit., Vol. I, p. 61. 10 Magellan's Voyage Around the World, Vol. I, p. 183.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES were the basi of the Ilocanos, distilled from sugar; the Visayan quilang, fermented from sugar cane; and the Igorot tatp1-lY, taken from rice. The early Filipinos were heavy drinkers, but they seldom lose their senses when drunk. After a night's carousal, they grew loquacious and witty. But they never become angry or crazy; they could find their way home; and they could buy and sell things aright, and "weigh the gold or silver for the price with such accuracy that their hand never tremble, and there is no error in the weighing." 11 Family and Family Relations.-The Filipino family during prehispanic times had reached a high degree of development. It was composed of the ancestors, parents, children, and relatives. The father was the head of the family group. The mother had her own rights, particularly the right to name the child.12 Both father and mother were jointly responsible for the welfare and happiness of their children. The children respected their parents. There was no discrimination against the women of the family. The wife was not a slave of the husband as was the case among the Hindus, Babylonians, and other ancient nations. She could own property and engage in trade and industry. The 路 daughter of the family could inherit equally with the son. If the father was a datu and he died without a male heir, she could succeed him as ruler of the barangay.

See Chirino, op. cit., pp. 112-113. The mother named the child immediately after birth. Usually, the name was taken from the peculiar circumstances occurring during the birth of the child or from some other sources. Thus, if the delivery of the child was slow, he was called Maliuag, meaning "slow." If the child gave promise of being strong, he was named Malakas, meaning "strong." And if the child was a baby-girl and she was pretty, she was named Maganda, meaning "beautiful." The parents were ordinarily called after their children. Thus the father of Malakas was called Ama-ni-Malakas, meaning "Father-of-Malakas." And the mother of Maganda was called Ina-ni-Maganda. meaning "Mother-of-Maganda." (Chirino, op. cit., p. 263) 11 12

GENERAL INFORMATION I

Adoption was practiced by the early Filipinos. The adopted child paid his foster parents a certain sum of money. When these parents died, the adopted child inherited twice the amount he paid them. Marriage Customs.-The prevailing practice among the pre-Spanish Filipinos was to marry only one woman. This practice is called monogamy. But tribal customs permitted a man to have more than one wife. This practice of having several wives is called polygamy or polygyny. Writing in 1569 to the Spanish king, Legaspi said: "-The men are permitted to have two or three wives, if they have enough money to buy and support them." 13 Before a man could marry, he was forced by the unwritten customs to render personal services to the family of his future wife. These services were called silve by the Tagalogs and pamgagar by the Visayans. The groom worked like a common servant in the family. He brings water and firewood to the bride's house. He helped his future father-in-law in cultivating the field, harvesting the crops, and building the house. Besides the services, the groom must give a dowry to the girl's family. The dowry was called bigaykaya by the Tagalogs, bugay by the Visayans, and sab-ong by the Ilocanos. It was a sum of money, land, slaves, or some property. Besides the regular dowry, he gave special dowries which virtually increased the price of the girl. These special dowries were: (a) the panghimuyat, a sum of money equivalent to one-fifth of the regular dowry given to the bride's mother for nursing her since infancy; (b) the bigaysusu, another sum of money given to the wet-nurse for feeding the bride during babyhood with her own milk; (c) the himarao, another sum of money to reimburse the bride's parents for the expenses of the milk which she 13 Vide "Relation of the Filipinas Islands," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 169.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES had consumed during' girlhood; and (d) the sambon, representing various gifts which the Zambal groom gave to the bride's relatives.14 Customarily, there was a marriage contract, wherein the man promises to marry the girl, with certain provisions regarding the amount of the dowry. In many cases, this contract 'was made by the parents during the minority of the children. A man, who was pledged to marry a certain girl, could not violate the contract, although it was orally made by his father during his infancy. Any violation of the marriage contract was penalized by heavy fines. I5 The marriage ceremony varied according to social classes. The marriage of the datus was, of course, more elaborate than that of the slaves. The typical ceremony was to place the hands of the groom and bride over a plate of uncooked rice. An old woman (priestess) joined their hands and threw rice over all the guests. The guests shouted with glee, and then the wedding was over. Divorce.-Divorce existed among ancient Filipinos. Marriage ties could be broken. Thus wrote Dr. Morga: 16 "These marriages were annulled and dissolved for slight cause with the examination and judgment of the relatives of both parties, and of the old men, who acted as mediators in the affairs." The grounds or causes for divorce were: (a) adultery, (b) desertion, (c) loss of affection, (d) cruelty, (e) insanity, and (f) childlessness. 14 Zaide, Philippine Civilization, pp. 219-220. It is interesting to note that when the bride's father asked too large a dowry for his daughter, he gave her certain gifts called pasonod. This was in the form of slaves, gold chain, 01' anything of value. (See Colin, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 77). 15 Yide Fr. Juan de Plasencia, "Costumbres de los Tagalogs," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. VII, p. 184. See also Colin, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 73. 16 Sucesos, p. 194.

GENERAL INFORMATION In case of divorce, the husband and the wife divided equally their children and slaves and their conjugal property (property acquired during their wedded life). The dowry was returned to the husband if the wife was to be blamed for the divorce; but if the husband was at fault, the wife retained the dowry. The divorced husband and wife could remarry if they so desired. When this happened, the husband usually gave a new dowry to his wife "just as if it were a new marriage." 17 Social Classes.-The ancient Filipino society was divided into social classes. These classes were: (a) the nobility, (b) the freemen, and (c) the slaves. The nobility consisted of the datu, his family, and relatives. The freemen were persons who were born free, or who were emancipated slaves. They were called rnaharlikas or timagutLS. The slaves were of two kinds among the ancient Tagalogs, such as, the aliping nAJmamahays and the aliping saguiguilirs. The ali ping namamahays were not exactly slaves; they were serfs. They could own their own property; they Ii ved in their own houses; and they could not be sold. While the aliping saguiguilirs, the real slaves, could be sold and had no property of their own.lS Among the early Visayans, the slaves were of three kinds, namely: the tumatabans, who worked in their master's house only when summoned to do so; the tumaranpuks, who worked one day for their master and three days for themselves; and the ayueys, who worked three days for their master and only one day for themselves. 19 There was no caste system in ancient Philippines like that which flourished in India. A man who was born a slave could rise up in the social scale. He could be a freeChirino, Relacion, p. 100. See Plasencia, "Costumbres," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. VII, pp. 176 ff. 19 See Loarca, "Relacion de las Islas Filipinas," Blair & Robertson, op. oit., Vol. V, p. 143 ff. 17

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES man, even a datu. And the datus and freemen could become slaves. The causes of slavery were as follows: by inheritance or birth, captivity in wars, penalty for crimes committed, failure to pay debts, and by purchase. 20 Women in Society.-The women occupied a high place in prehispanic Filipino society. They were respected and treated well by the men. The tribal laws recognized their social and political rights. They could own and inherit property. They could engage in trade and industry. Insult or other crimes committed against noble women was punishable with death or slavery. Lastly, the women could rule also. In the absence of male heirs, the daughter of the datu could take the reigns of government. Many famous women had flashed like flaming meteors across the screen of our history. Some of them were: Princess Kalangitan, the Lady of the Pasig and grandmother of Rajah nfl,kandola of '!rondo; Lubluban, Visayan female law-giver, who was said to be the granddaughter of the first man and woman; Queen SimOJ, ruler of Cotabato in the 7th century; Princess Urduja, fighting queen of the Pangasinan people during the first half of the 14th century; and Queen Johanna, wife of Rajah Humab<>n of Cebu and first Filipino queen to become Catholic. Government and Politics.-The unit of government in pre-Spanish Philippines was the barangay. The barangay, according to Fr. Plasencia, Franciscan historian, was a settlement consisting of from 30 to 100 families. 21 The name barangay came from the Malay boat which carried the immigrants to the Islands. To preserve the memory of their sailing days, they applied the name of this boat to their new settlement. 20 See Letter of Don Melchor Davalos, Member of the Royal Audiencia, to Philip II of Spain, dated in Manila, 1584. Text in Blair & Robertson, op. cit.., Vol. VI, p. 61. 21 Vide "Costumbres," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. VII, pp. 173-174.

GENERAL INFORMATION There were many barangays before the arrival of the Spaniards. These barangays were independent from one another like the warring city-states of ancient Greece. Each of them was ruled by a petty king, called rajah or datu. There was no national government, for there was no national king. The early Filipino government was an aristocracy because the people were ruled by many petty aristocrats or kings, called datus. The Moros of Mindanao and Sulu, however, had a larger political organization called sultanate. This sultanate was practically a monarchy, with the sultan as the monarch. It is interesting to note that the Sultanate of Jolo was older than Spanish rule in the Philippines, and it was able to resist the encroachment of Spanish power for over three centuries. The baranganic datus were supreme rulers within their respective 'barangays. They were the lawmakers and judges in times of peace, and commanders of the warriors in times of war. The people obeyed and respected them. They rendered personal services and paid tributes to them. These datus obtained their power by inheritance. Other datus, however, assumed their position by other means, such as, wealth, intelligence, cunning, or military prowess. Titles of nobility existed in ancient Philippines. Gat or Lakan was the title given to noblemen; this is equivalent to the Spanish Don. The title of noble-born women was Dayang, which was equivalent to the Spanish Dona. Among the Tagalogs, the daughter of a datu was-usually called Lakambini, meaning princess. The Moros still retain their ancient titles of nobility. Among these titles are: Sultan (monarch), Rajah Muda (crown prince), Guata Mansa (second prince), Datu (petty ruler or duke), MantVri (lesser prince or marquis), Panguian (queen), and Putli (princess, whose parents are both of datu rank). Interbaranganic Relations.-The relations between barangays depended upon the vagaries of war and peace. 85

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Some barangays were knitted together by friendly bonds due to intermarriages of their rulers and inhabitants and mutual treaties of peace. Barangays, which were at peace, carried on friendly intercourse and commerce between them. The symbol of friendship and alliance among the ancient Filipinos was the "blood compact" which was immortalized by Legaspi and King Sikatuna of Bohol. This compact was called sandugo, because the parties to the ceremony drank each other's blood mixed in wine, thus becoming "blood-brothers." At times, barangays fought with one another. Thus Dr. Morga said: "Some chiefs had friendship and communications with others, and at times war and quarrels." 22 The ancient Filipino waged just wars among themselves. Father Martin de Rada wrote that "some villages have just wars against others because the others have shown them some act of treachery under the guise of friendship." 23 Loarca related the causes of these just wars in the following: "There are three cases in which these natives (Filipinos) regard war as just. The first is when an Indian goes to another village and is there put to death without ca.use; the second, when their wives are stolen from them; and the third is when they go in friendly manner to any village and there, under the appearance of friendship, are wronged or maltreated." 24 Baranganic Confederations.-Ordinarily, the barangays were independent under the rule of their respecti ve datus. But, in certain cases, some barangays were grouped together to form a confederation. This grouping of barangays might be the result of conquest; one of Sucesos, p. 191. See "Letter of Father Rada to Viceroy of Mexico, 1574," in Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. XXXIV, p. 292. 24 Vide "Relacion de las Islas Filipinas," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. V, p. 141. 22

GENERAL INFORMATION the datus might have conquered the other barangays by force of arms, forcing them to accept his rule. Another probable cause for the formation of the confederation was by treaty or alliance; the barangays might have been led to live together under one large organization for mutual help and cooperation against a common enemy. The confederation of barangays was called village. The datu of the strongest barangay became the ruler of the village or confederation. He was called the superior chief. And the datus of the other barangays became the lesser datus. 25 We have classic examples of baranganic confederations in our history. One of these was the Kingdom of Cebu. At the time of the arrival of Magellan, Rajah Humabon (Hamabar) was the supreme ruler of all the barangays in the island of Cebu. Likewise, King Tupas was the supreme ruler of the island when Legaspi arrived there in 1565. Rajah Soliman was not only king of Manila, but he was also overlord of other barangays as far as Pampanga. III In the previous chapter, we have explained the dwellings, clothes. ornaments, foods and drinks, family and family relations, marriage customs, society, and government of the pre-Spanish Filipinos. We wflI continue the discussion of Filipino civilization in this chapter by explaining the laws, judicial systems, religion, mourning customs, magic and superstitions, music, languages, writing, and literature. It is remarkably astounding to know how far advanced were the ancient Filipinos in most of these things. Filipino Laws.-The pre-Spanish Filipinos had both oral and written laws. The earliest laws, according to Visayan traditions, were made by a woman lawgiver named 25 See Loarca, "Relacion de las Islas Filipinas," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. V, pp. 175-177.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Lubluban, who was a granddaughter of Sikalak and Sikabay, first man and woman In the world. The oral laws were the customs of the people that were preserved from generation to generation. Some of them are still existing today in the Philippines. The written laws have been lost due to the loss of the ancient Filipino writings. The only relic of our pre-Spanish written laws that is preserved for us is the famous Code of Calantiao, third chief of Panay. This Code was written in 1433, and it contained eighteen parts. 1 Contents of Filipitno Laws.-The ancient laws of the Filipinos "covered many of the subjects which we find in the modern codes." 2 Among these subjects were, family relations, property rights, divorce, inheritance, adoption, usury and loans, contracts and partnerships, and crimes and their penalties. The laws perta路ning to crimes wer,e very interesting. Crimes of a serious nature were given severer punishments than crimes of a minor character. The serious crimes were: insult, murder, incest, sorcery, sacrilege, larceny, and trespassing in the datu's house at night. These were punishable with heavy gold fine, slavery, or death. The minor crimes were: petty theft, perjury, cheating in business transaction, singing at night when people were sleep~ ing, and destroying documents belonging to the datus. These minor crimes were penalized by flogging, mutilation of finger~ exposure to ants, swimming continuously for hours, and fines. The early Filipino laws could be compared favorably with the laws of the ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, 1 For complete text of the Calantiao Code, see Zaide, Philippine Civilization, pp. 184-187; also Vol. VI, pp. 64-67, Encyclopedia of the Philippines, 1935. 2 George A. Malcolm, "The Pre-Spanish Government of the Philippines," Philippine Review, February, 1916. 88

GENERAL INFORMATION Greeks, and Romans. As Hon. Gregorio Araneta, eminent Filipino lawyer, said: "These primitive laws could be compared very favorably to those of the Greeks and Romans." 3 Legislative Proeedure.-The laws were enacted by the datus. The method of making the laws was clearly described by Loarca in the following: .. ''When laws were to be enacted for governing the commonwealth, the greatest chief, whom all the rest obeyed, assembled in his own house all the oth:er chiefs of the village; and when they had come, he made a speech, declaring that, to correct the many criminal acts which were being committed, it was necessary that they imposed penalties and enact ordinances, so that these evils might be remedied and that all might live in peace . . . Then the other chiefs replied that this seemed good to them; and that, since he was the greatest chief of all, he might do whatever appeared to him just, and they would approve it. Accordingly, that chief made such regulations as he deemed necessary . . . The other chiefs approved what he ordained. Immediately came a public crier, whom they call umalahoCflln, who is properly a mayor-domo, or steward; he took a bell and went through the village, announcing in each district the regulations which had been made. The people replied that they would obey. Thus the umalahocan went from village to village, through the whole district of this chief; and from that time on he who incurred the penalties of law was taken to the chief, who sentenced him accordingly." Judicial System.-J ustice was ordinarily administered by the datus of the barangays, with the aid of some old men. In both civil and criminal cases, the parties to a suit 3 See "Penal Legislation of the Philippine Islands," Philippine Law Review, Manila, February, 1914. 4 Vide "Relacion," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. V, pp. 175-177. 89

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES pleaded in open court.5 The datu heard them and rendered his decision. If one of the parties was not satisfied with the datu's decision, the case might be brought before the datu of another barangay. The early Filipinos used arbitration, or peaceful settlement of quarrel, in their judicial litigation. Cases between datus or natives of two different barangays were tried by a board of arbiters. In this way, war was prevented between the two barangays. The witnesses took an oath before testifying in the tribal court. They swore by the sun, the crocodile, the lightning, and other objects of worship. The oaths were as follows: "May the lightning strike me," "May the crocodpe eat me," or "May I die." Trial by Ordeals.-In civil cases, the court gave the decision in favor of the party who presented more proofs than the other. The criminal cases were ordinarily tried by ordeal. For instance, when robbery was committed and several persons were suspected of the crime, the real criminal was determined by the following ordeals: First, the suspected persons were each given a spear and they were told to plunge into a river; he who first rises above the water was guilty. Second, the suspected persons were ordered to take out a stone which was placed in a vessel of boiling water; he who refuses to take it out or whose hand was burned the most was believed to be guilty. And third, each of the suspected persons was given a candle of equal size and weight; the candles were lighted at the same time; and he whose candle dies out first was the guilty person. 6 Filipino Religion.-The pre-Spanish Filipino religion was a mixture of monotheism, polytheism, ancestor wor5 "For the detennination of their suits, both civil and criminal," wrote Father Colin, "there was no other judge than the said chief . with the assistance of some old men of the same barangay." (Labor Evangelica, Vol. I, p. 71). 6 Colin, Labor Evangelica, Vol. I, p. 71. 90

GENERAL INFORMATION ship, and animism. 7 As the early historical records attest, the ancient Filipinos believed in a Supreme God, "the Lord of all," the Creator of the universe, and the maker of all men and villages. He was called Bathala by the Tagalogs, AbbC1! or Laon by the Visayan, Akasi by the Zambals, Gugurang by the Bicols, and Cabuniam by the Igorots. The Supreme God of the Moros was Allah. The ancient Filipinos also believed in the existence of various gods and goddesses. Dian Masalanta was the Tagalog deity of love and generations. Agni was the Sulu fire god. DOJrago was the war god of the Bagobos. Balituk was the Ifugao god of gold. The Visayan divinities were: Sidapa, god of life, who measures the life of a man by placing a mark on a tree growing at Mount Mayas (in Panay); Lalahon, goddess of agriculture; Vwrang1ao, the rainbow god; Simuran and Siguinarugan, gods of the Inferno; and Maguayen, the god who ferries the souls of the dead from the land of the living to the land of the dead. The Filipinos worshipped the spirits, called anitos or diwatas. There were good anitos and bad anitos. The good anitos were believed to be the spirits of the ancestors; and the bad anitos were the spirits of the enemies. To ask certain favors from the good anitos or to placate the wrath of the bad anitos, the ancient Filipinos offered religious sacrifices. The priests and priestesses, called ba;ylanas or catalonas, performed the ceremony of the sacrifice. The world was believed to be a theatre of benevolent and malevolent forces. Every cave, mountain, river, sea, tree, rock, vale, and field was believed to be inhabited by 7 For good references on the pre-Spanish religion of the Filipinos, see Pigafetta, Magellan's Voyage Around the World (Cleveland, 1906, Vol. I, pp. 163 ff) ; Chirino, Relacion (Rome, 1604, pp. 75 ff) ; Morga, Sucesos (Retana Edition, Madrid, 1916, pp. 196 ff) ; Santa Ines, Cronica (Written in 1676 and published in Manila, 1892, pp. 49 ff); Edmunde Delbeke, Religion and Morals of the Early Filipinos (Manila, 1928); and G. F. Zaide, Ancient Religion of the Filipinos (Manila, U. P. Press, 1932). 91

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES spirits whose favor must be sought by prayer and sacrifice. Certain birds and animals were believed to be sacred for the spirits lived in them. Ancestor worship flourished in ancient Philippines. Most probably, this was stimulated by Chinese influence. Like the Chinese, the early Filipinos worshipped the memory of their departed ancestors by offering sacrifices to them and by making idols, called laraU(l)n or la.gdong, in their honor. Immortality of the Soul.-A significant highlight of the prehispanic Filipino religion was the belief in the immortality of the human soul. The ancient Filipinos, like the modern Christians, believed that man is composed of ethereal body and eternal soul. After death, the soul separates from the body and travels to the next world for its reward or punishment. It was the prevailing belief that the souls of the good and brave men went to heaven, a region of eternal joy and happiness, while the souls of the evil men went to hell, a region of perpetual sorrow and pain. Heaven was called Kalurolhatian or Maca by the Tagalogs, Ologan by the Visayans, and Camurauayan by the Bicols. Hell was called Catanaan by' the Tagalogs, Solad by the Visayans, and Groga;mban by the Bicols. 8 Mourning Customs.-Because of the belief that the soul of the dead is immortal, the ancient Filipinos took great care in the burial of their dead. Like the ancient Egyptianlll, they embalmed the corpse and placed perfumes, foods, drinks, clothes) weapons, tools, and even slaves in 8 For additional information on the next world beliefs of the ancient Filipinos, see Fr. Jose Castano, "Breve Noticia del Origen, Religion, Creencias y Supersticiones de los 'Antiguos Indios del Bicol," Retana, Archi1!0, Vol. I, pp. 348 ff.; Santa Ines, Cronica, pp. 50 ff.; San Antonio, Chronic as de la Apostolica Provincia de N. S. P. San F?'ancisco en Filipinas, China, Japon, etc., Sampaloc, 1738-1744, Vol. I, pp. 154 ff.; Delbeke, Religion and Morals of the Early Filipinos, pp. 135 ff.; and Zaide, Philippine Civilization, pp. 278-281.

GENERAL INFORMATION his grave. They believed that the dead person needed all these things in the next world. Gold was also placed in the coffin to pay his passage to the land of the dead. The dead was buried with much weepings and sorrow. His family and relatives mourned for him. Among the ancient Visayans and Moros, white was the color of mourning. Besides wearing the mourning raiments, the mourners abstained from eating meat and drinking wines and wore rattan on their necks, arms, and legs. To appease their sorrow, they killed other people from other barangays. The ancient Visayans, according to Loarca, had certain interesting mourning customs, such as, maglahe, the mourning custom for men; morotal, the mourning custom for women; and larao, the mourning custom for the dead datu. The larao was a very unique custom. Its observance was as follows: When the datu died, the whole baran gay went into mourning. A timagua announced his death so that everybody should mourn. While the mourning lasted, no colored dress was worn; all quarrels and wars stopped; spears were carried with points downward, and daggers with hilts reversed; and singing in the boats returning from the sea was prohibited. An inclosure surrounded the house of the dead datu. Any person who violated the rules of mourning was punished heavily, such as, heavy fines, slavery, or death. M1flhology.-Like the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Norsemen, the early Filipinos had a rich and imaginative mythology. There was an abundant lore of myths and tales about the deities and the origin of things. Many of these myths are being collected now by trained folklorists. Bathala was the Filipino Zeus. Lalahon was the Filipino Ceres. The deities of the Inferno were Simuran and Siguinarugan, who were similar to Pluto and Proserpine of Grecian mythology. Darago was the Filipino Mars. And Maguayen was the Filipino Acheron, ferryman of the gods. 93

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES In the Filipino mythology, there were stories of the origin of the world, the genesis of man and woman, the beginnings of social classes, the origin of war, animals, birds, plants, and myriad of other things. 9 Magic and Superstitions.-The ancient Filipinos believed in dreams, in omens, in the gift of supernatural endowments, and in black magic. Dreams were considered as omens. They were usually interpreted in the reverse order. Thus if a man dreams that his friends are eaten by the crocodile, this means that they are well. The ancient Filipinos read their future in their dreams. According to them, if one dreams of many fishes entering his net, he will win in gambling; if one dreams that one of his teeth falls out, one of his parents will die; and if one dreams that his clothes are on fire, he will die. Omens were taken out of unusual occurrences. Some of the ill omens were the following: an old tree crashing to earth at night; a midnight owl screeching when people are sleeping; a snake crawling across the path; and sneezing before going on a journey. Peals of thunder, howlings of dogs at night, and death of domestic animals were believed to be omens of death. The pre-Spanish Filipinos practiced divination to foretell the future. They read future events in the flight and songs of certain birds, in the direction of smokes, in the casting of lots, and in the entrails of chicken and other animals. The early Filipinos also believed in magic charms and amulets. The anting-anting was believed to have a magic 9 Many of the ancient Filipino myths can be read in Fr. Jose Ma. Pavon, Las Antiguas Leyendas de la Isla de Negros. MS. (Jimamaylan, Occidental Negros, 1839); Dean S. Fansler, Filipino Popular Tales (N. Y., 1921); H. Otley Beyer, "Origin Myths Among the Mountain Peoples of the Philippines," Philippine Journal of Science (Manila, 1913, Vol. VIII); and Maurice Miller, Philippine Folklore Stories (N. Y., 1904).

GENERAL INFORMATION power which made its possessor invulnerable to all weapons. Other charms and amulets were: the tagiroot, which the Ilocanos used to make women love them; the tagahopa, which the Bicols used to bring other people under their power; the tigadlom, which the Visayans used to make them invisible to human eyes; and the uiga, another Visayan charm which prevents its owner from being wet while swimming across a river. Supernatural Be'ings and Sorcerers.-The early Filipinos believed in sorcery and in supernatural beings. Some of these supernatural beings were the mangagaway, who causes people to be sick or to die by binding a living serpent around his waist; the mangkukulam, who inflicts pain or death to any person by pricking a magic doll with a pin; the mangagayuma, who injures other people by means of his diabolical ceremonies; the tigbalang, who makes people crazy by appearing to them in frightful forms; the asuang, who can change himself or herself into a pig or dog, and harm the pregnant women; the t.ianac or patiana.c, who kills babies by sucking their entrails; and the magtatangal, whose head separates from the body at night and floats through the air, and returns once more to the body when morning comes. Superstitious Beliefs.-The ancient Filipinos had many superstitious belIefs. Most of these beliefs are still preserved to the present time. Among these beliefs are the following: When a girls sings before the fire, she will marry an old widower; when a hen cackles at midnight, an unmarried woman is giving birth to a bastard child; a pregnant woman must not cut her hair, otherwise she will give birth to a hairless baby; when the moon is new, one must go fishing for he will catch many fishes; when a person destroys the eggs of a lizard, he will break a plate or a piece of furniture; and when white mists appear in both sea and sky, an earthquake is coming. 95

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

Music.-The Filipinos since prehistoric times are great lovers of music. They are born musicians. The melody of the seas, the beauty of the landscapes, the grace of the breezes, the rhythm of swaying palms, and the witchery of sparkling stars and lambent moon have doubtless instilled music in their blood. Pigafetta saw in Cebu in 1521 the graceful dances and heard the musical instruments of the Vi sayans. He was the first European to give us a historical account of the ancient music of the Filipinos. 10 The most popular musical instrument of the ancient Filipinos was the kudyapi, the symbol of lyric poetry and romance. It was a guitar like instrument with metallic strings. According to Father Chirino, the Filipinos played it "with such vivacity and skill that they apparently make its metallic strings talk like human voices." 11 Other native musical instruments were: the bansic, the Jew's harp of the Negritos; the kalaleng, the nose~flute of the Tinguians; the gangsas, the bronze gongs of the Igorots; the tultogam, the Visayan bamboo drum; the suracan, the Subanun cymbal; the kolintang, the Moro xylophone; the pulala, the Bukidnon bamboo clarinet; and the barimbaw, the Tagalog pipe. The prehispanic Filipinos had dances for all occasions. They hold religious dances, war dances, love dances, duel dances, festival dances, the pantomimic dances to stimulate daily activities of life. The b..alitao and the kumintang were the two most popular dances of ancient Filipinos. These were graceful and rhythmic dances of love. Fortunately, they are still pre10 Pigafetta tells us that the Cebuans had drums, subin (pipes), and platilles, or two metal plates played by striking one another. (See Magellan's Voyage Around the World, Vol. I, pp. 145-147). 11 Relacion, Chapter XVI. What the lyre was to classical Greece and . Rome, so was the kudyapi to ancient Philippines. Now the kudyapi remains merely as a historic symbol of Filipino poetry and song like the lyre to Greco-Roman poetry and song.

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GENERAL INFORMATION . served to the present day. Other native dances were: the tadek, a Tinguian love dance, performed by a man and a woman, each holding a piece of cloth; the kino tan, the ants' dance of the Ilocanos; the paujalaly, the Moro wedding dance; the moro-m01'O, war dance of the Moro warriors; dandansoy, the tuba dance of the Visayans; the maramion, the Visayan dance of courtship; the salampate, the sprightly dance of the Bicols; and the mahinhin, the love dance of

the Tagalogs. The Philippines is a land of songs. Every Filipino tribe has its song lore. Since prehistoric ages, the Filipinos warbled their emotions and sentiments in songs. They had songs for all occasions. The songs were of love, of hate, of battle, of starlit nights, of sacrificial offerings, of planting, of harvesting, of marriage, and of other things. The national song of the Filipinos was the kundiman. This was a beautiful, yearning, and lingering song of love, woman, and fatherland. It is of fragile tenderness and plaintive tempo, because it expresses the longing desire of the race for liberty, the romantic call of singing lovers, and the effusive glorification of the grandeur that was Malaysia. Besides the kundiman, there were other native songs, such as: the dallu, the religious song of the N egritos ; the ayeg-klu, the Igorot serenade song; the kuilaykuilay, the Tinguian wine song; the panambitan, the Tagalog song of death; the tagumpay, the Tagalog victory song; the dalot, the !locano ballad song, recounting the epic exploits of Lam-ang, mighty hero of Ilocandia; the saloma, the boat song of the Visayans; the bactal, the necrological song of the Tagbanuas of Palawan; and the tudob, the harvest song of the Agusan tribe. 12 12 Vide Manuel Walls y Merino, La Musica Popular de Filipinas (Madrid, 1892); Norberto Romualdez, Filipino Musical Instruments and Airs of Long Ago (Manila, 1932); Francisco Santiago, Development of Music in the Philippines (Manila, 1932); and G. F. Zaide, "The Music of the Ancient Filipinos," Unitas (University of Santo Tomas Faculty Organ, Manila, July, 1932). 97

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

Lang'lÂŁages.-There was no national or common language in ancient Philippines. 13 This is true to the present time. There were as many languages or dialects as there were tribes. The ethnological researches of Professor Beyer revealed that there are about eighty-seven major languages in the Islands corresponding to eighty-seven main ethnological divisions of the Filipino people.1-l The principal languages are the Tagalog, the Visayan, the Ilocano, the Bicol, the Pampango, the Pangasinan, and the Ibanag (Cagayan). Both philologists and historians pick out the Tagalog as the best Filipino language due to its richness, elegance, variety, and refinement. Father Chirino found in it the four qualities of the four great languages of the world. "Of them all," remarked Father Chirino, speaking of the Filipino languages, "the one which pleased me most and filled me with admiration was the Tagalog. As I have said to the Bishop and, later, to other distinguished persons in the Islands and in Europe, I found in this language four qualities of the four greatest languages of the worldHebrew, Greek, Latin, and Spanish. It has the mystery and obscurities of the Hebrew; the articles and precision of the Greek; the fullness and elegance of the Latin; and the refinement, polish. and courtesy of the Spanish." Ii. Because of the great qualities of the Tagalog language, many scholars and writers in the Philippines advocate its adoption as the national language of the Filipinos. 13 "There is no single or common language throughout the islands," wrote Father Chirino in 1604. (Relacion, p. 52). 14 Population of the Philippine Islands in 1916 (Manila, 1917, p. 26). Other authorities differ with Professor Beyer in approximating the number of Philippine languages and dialects. According to Professor F. Blumentritt, there are about 30 languages (List of Native Tribes of the Philippines and the Languages Spoken by Them. Washington, 1901, pp. 527-547), and Senor W. E. Retana mentioned only 24 languages (Catalogo Abreviado de Biblioteca Filipina. Madrid, 1898). 16 See Relacion, Chapter XV.

GENERAL INFORMATION All the Malayan Filipino languages originated from the same parent stock, called the Mwlayo-Polynesian language, the mother tongue of all Pacific races. Because of this common origin, anyone who knows one Filipino language can easily learn the other languages or dialects. Writing.-Writing existed among the pre-Magellanic Filipinos. According to Dr. Morga, "almost all the natives, both men and women, write" in their own dialects. 16 Relics of the early Filipino writing nave been gathered and studied by Father Chirino, Dr. Morga, Father San Agustin, Father Marcilla, Dr. Tavera, Don N orberto Romualdez, and others. Several interesting old documents written in the ancient Filipino alphabets are still preserved in the Dominican Archives at Manila. 11 It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the pre-Spanish Filipino writing. Most authorities claim that this writing came either from India or Malaysia. There were three vowels and fourteen consonants in the early Filipino writing. The vowels were a, e (or i), and 0 (or 1,(,). The consonants were b, d, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, s, t, v, y, and Jig. As to the direction of the Filipino writing, our philological authorities do not agree in their opinions. It is, however, the p,r edominant theory that the ancient Filipinos wrote horizontally from left to right in the same way as we do write now. 18 The ancient Filipinos had their own writing materials. For pen, they used a sharp-pointed piece of iron called sip'Ol or the tip of their daggers; for ink, they used the black resins or colored saps of plants and trees; and for paper, Sucesos, p. 190. See also Chirino, Relacion, p. 58. I have carefully perused over these old native documents through the courtesy of Rev. Dr. Juan Labrador, O. P., General Secretary of the University of Santo Tomas, and Rev. Alberto Santamaria, O. P., ArchIvist of the Dominican Order. 18 Justice Ignacio Villamor, The Ancient Filipino Writing. Spanish & English texts. Manila, 1917, pp. 40-42. 99 16

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES they used the bamboo canes, wood, barks of trees, and leaves of plants and palms. Literature.-The early Filipinos had both oral and written literature. The written literature was lost because of the loss of the early writings. The oral literature was, however, preserved. The pre-Spanish literature of the Filipinos consisted of epic and lyric poetry; of tribal sagas and songs; of mythological stories about the origin of the world, man, woman, birds, plants, animals, and other things; of hero-tales and fables; and of proverbs, conundrums, and sayings. The beginnings of the drama were found in the preSpanish Filipino literature. It should be noted that the sacrificial rites performed by the priests or priestesses were featured by ritualistic dances, prayers, and songs. Manifestations of the theatrical art could be seen in the dancing antics of the priests or priestesses to the tempo of the songs and music. The folkdances of the Filipinos revealed the beginnings of dramatic art. These dances, associated with music and poetry, had movements that showed a story. Thus wrote Don Epifanio de los Santos, famed Filipinologist, on pre-Spanish Tagalog drama: "The Tagalog theatre before the Conquest was reduced to the dance associated with music and poetry. The gestures to shnw the story of love as those of the kumintang formed all the motif of the dramatic performance:' 19

IV More facets of the ancient civilization of the Filipinos will be recast in this chapter. From the old historical sources and material relics of the past, we obtain the valuable information on the pre-Spanish Filipino arts, sciences, mathematics, education, morals, good manners and sanitation, agriculture, industries, domestic and foreign trade, . 19 Vide HEl Teatro Tagalo," 1911, p. 149.

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GENERAL INFORMATION weights and measures, time reckoning, and calendars. Invariably, a people having these things are surely above the abysmal level of barbarism. FiUpino Arts.-The ancient Filipinos had their own art.l Their architectural art was far from being monumental and artistic, but it was simple and practical. They constructed houses of nipa, bamboo, palm, and wood which, though not as enduring as the mighty pyramids of Egypt nor as magnificent as the colossal temples of Greece, were so well suited to the tropic conditions of the Islands. It was in naval architecture where the Filipinos excelled. Being born navigators, they were expert boat-builders. Their boats, especially the Moro vintas, could outsail the European vessels of the age. It is a fact of history that the Moro vintas had written their names in letters of fire and blood in the hi~tory of Oriental piracy. The pre-Spanish sculpture of the Filipinos was revealed in the crude idoJs of their gods and anitos which were carved by tribal sculptors from wood, gold, stone, ivory, and crocodile teeth. The handles of their knives, daggers, krises, bolos, and other weapons were also fancifully carved to represent the flowers, the stars, the sun, the human hand and face, and other objects. Painting was shown in the early tattooes. The ancient Filipinos were skilful tattoo artists. With the human bodies as canvas, a sharp-pointed piece of iron as brush, and the black soot and the jungle saps as colors, the ba1 For further references on the ancient arts of the Filipinos, see Fabian de la Rosa, A Brief Sketch of the History of PlasticGraphic Arts in the Philippines (Manila, 1931); A. V. H. Hartendorp, "The Applied Art of the Lanao Moros," Philippine Magazine (Manila, May, 1933); Eugenio Ealdarna & Ricardo E. Galang, "Decorative Art in the Philippines and the Influences of Foreign Cultures," Philippine Prose and Poetry (Manila, 1933, Vol. II); and G. F. Zaide, Philippine Civilization (Manila, 1934, MS., pp. 456 ff. 101

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES rangay artists painted gorgeous designs. 2 These tattoo designs represented the figures of geometrical symbolisms, sun, stars, flowers, plants, trees, reptiles, animals, and birds. The native artists, to the present day, were great mixers of colors. In their decorative art, they used various blends of colors that are pleasing to the eye. Speaking of the Moros and their art, Mr. A. V. H. Hartendorp wrote: "Their sensitivity to color is perhaps their outstanding characteristic. They are both hold and delicate in their use of colors-bold in their contrasts and delicate in their color harmonies, and their use of black and white, for the sake of additional emphasis, is almost uncannily skilful." 3 Sciences.-The ancient Filipinos knew medicine, astronomy, and engineering. Although their medical lore was associated with religion and magic, they knew the value of certain medicinal herbs. As Loarca observed among the early Visayans, there were excellent herbalists or physicians "who cure diseases with medicinal herbs; espedally they have a remedy for every kind of poison, for there are most wonderful anti-dotal herbs." 4 Astronomy was known to the ancient Filipinos. The flashing constellations of heavens and the unfathomable mysteries of the cosmos stirred the inquisitive minds of our anscestors. They fabricate bizarre, 'god-like attributes for the various astronomical bodies. Like the Assyrians, they adored the sun, the moon, and the stars believing them to be sacred objects. They considered the rainbow as god Varangao. The Pleiades were known to them. The Bagobos called these constellations Poyo-poyo. The ancient 2 Loarca spoke highly of the tattoo art of the ancient Visayans. He said: "The men tattoo their entire bodies with very beautiful figures." (See "Relaeion," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. V, pp.

116-117) â&#x20AC;˘ 3

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See "The Applied Art of the Lanao Moros," Philippine MagManila, May, 1933, p. 529. See "Relacion," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. V, p. 163.

102

GENERAL INFORMATION Visayans, according to Loarca, reckoned their first month of the year with the appearance of the Pleiades. 5 The Bagobos called the Orion-BCklatik. The pagan Filipinos of Northern Luzon still have native names for other heavenly bodies, such as Monb'unkol for the Dipper, Monbatang for the Twin Stars, Pauwit for the Blaster, KU1nalit for the Shooting Stars, and Balalahi for the Comet. The engineering knowledge of the Filipinos was practical, but astounding. Long before the arrival of the white men, they were already building irrigation ditches and canals. The masterpiece of the ancient Filipino engineering science are the famous rice terraces and irrigation works in the Ifugaoland, Northern Luzon. World engineers today admire these rice terraces which extend thousands of miles above sea-level. It is estimated that if these terraces are placed end to end, they can encircle one-half the entire circumfe'rence of the globe. Ma.the11tatic'S.-The pre-Spanish Filipinos knew the fundamentals of mathematics. They could add, subtract, multiply, and divide. They applied these arithmetical operations in thejr business transactions. They could count up to 100,000,000. Their languages and dialects contained names of numerals from one to one hundred million. For instance, in Tagalog one is isa, ten is puo, 100 is daan, 1,000 is libo, 10,000 is laksa, 100,000 is yuta, 1,000,000 is aiigao or gatos, 10,000,000 is kati, and 100,000,000 is bahala. Education.-There was education in pre-Spanish Philippines. The early Filipinos, according to Father Chirino, "are much devoted to reading and writing, and there is hardly a man, much less a woman, who does not know how to read and write the letters used in the island of Manila." 6 In prehistoric Panay, there had been regular schools under trained teachers. These schools were called bot/wan. The 5 6

Ibid., Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. V, p. 165. See Relacion, p. 58.

103

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES subjects taught in these schools were reading, writing, arithmetic, religion, swordsmanship, and lubus (art of acquiring charms and amulets).7 From the old writings of the early Spanish historians, we learn that the early Filipino boys were taught not only reading, writing, and arithmetic, but also music, warfare, the traditions and customs, religion, and various vocations, such as farming, hunting, fishing, mining, shipbuilding, and navigation; and the girls were trained in sewing, weaving, cooking, poultry, and other domestic work. Morals.-The pre-Spanish Filipinos had their morals. They had their "notion of right and wrong, of what was just and unjust." 8 They were obedient to their datus, respectful to their elders and parents, chivalrous to women, and true to the traditions of their race. Their sexual relations were, however, loose. Adultery and concubinage were allowed if the culprits could pay the offended party a certain sum of gold. Thus wrote Father San Antonio, Franciscan historian: "Adultery was not punished corporally, but the adulterer paid a certain sum to the aggrieved party; and that was sufficient so that the honor of the latter was restored and his anger removed. They paid no attention to concubinage, rape, and incest, unless the crime were committed by a timagua on a woman of rank." 9 Good Manners a,n d Sanitation.-As a people, the ancient Filipinos were courteous, polite, hospitable, and clean. According to Father Chirino, ;'they have their politeness and good breeding, especially the Tagalogs, who are very civil and courteous in word and action." 10 They were also clean and hygienic in their habits. They bathed regularly, 7 Josue Soncuya, Historia Prehispana de Filipinas. Manila, 1917, p. 22. 8 Romualdez, Psychology of the Filipino, p. 19. See also Delbeke, Religion and Morals of the Early Filipinos, p. 41. 9 See Chronicas, Vol. 1, p. 164. 10 See Relacion, p. 56. 104

GENERAL INFORMATION rinsed out their mouths, and cleaned their teeth. They also washed their hair with water and gogo, and anointed it with fragrant oils and lotions. Father Chirino further stated that "They keep a vessel full of water at the door of every house; every person, belonging to the house or not, upon entering takes water from this vessel and washes his feet, especially during the muddy season." 11 Agricultu1路e.-Long before Magellan came, the Filipinos were already actively cultivating their fields. Pigafetta, Captain Juan de la Isla, Loarca, Legaspi, Father Chirino, Dr. Morga, and other old Spanish writers tell us that the early Filipinos raised large quantities of rice, coconuts, native cotton, ginger, bananas, lemons, oranges, vegetables, edible roots, and fruits. Irrigation was known to the ancient FilipinoS'. According to Father Plasencia, who wrote in 1589, the irrigated lands were divided among the inhabitants of the barangay. The most eloquent proof of the existence of irrigation 12 in pre-Spanish Philippines are the Ifugao rice-terraces and irrigation works which had been constructed during prehistoric times. lndustries.-The ancient Filipinos supplemented their farming by stock-raising and poultry.13 They raised chicken, pigs, goats, carabaos, and various kinds of edible birds, such as ducks, geese, pigeons, and swans. Dogs were their common domesticated animals. Lumbering and shipbuilding were two major industries in ancient Philippines. Plenty of timber were cut in the forests and mountains for the construction of houses, palisades, ships, and furniture. The ancient Filipinos were expert boat-builders. They built various types of 11 Ibid., p. 35. See also Colin, op cit., Vol. I, pp. 63-64 and Santa Ines, Cronica, p. 47. 12 See "Costumbres," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. VII, p. 174. 13 Pigafetta noticed that the ancient Visayans raised chicken, pigs, and goats beneath their houses. (Magellan's Voyage Around the World, Vol. I, p. 149).

105

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES boats-for war, for travel, for commerce, and other purposes. The vintas and the vireys were their famous warboats. The boats used for travel and commerce were the caracoas, the lapis, the tapaques, the bancas, and the praus. Fishing was another important industry among preSpanish Filipinos. According to Dr. Morga, their "fisheries of the seas and rivers are most abundant, and include all kinds of fish, both fresh and salty." 14 The ancient Filipino fishermen fished with hook and line, various kinds of fish nets, and corrals. They also used certain kinds of fish-poisons, especially the tuba and the bayate. The artificial method of fish breeding was known to the early Filipinos. They learned this, according to A. M. R~gidor and J. W. Mason, from the Japanese. 15 The Filipinos also fished for pearls. Guido de Lavezares related to the Mexican Viceroy in 1570 the existence of pearl fishing in the Islands. He said: "Between this island of Panae and that of Cebu, we found a pearl fishery where the natives obtained their supply of pearls. . . . Many fisheries of a similar kind are to be found elsewhere in these islands." 16 The richest pearl beds in the Orient are those of the Sulu Seas where the Moros used to dive for great pearls since prehistoric epochs. The ancient Filipinos were miners. They mined precious metals, especially gold. "More or less gold," wrote Legaspi to the Marquis of Falces in 1569, "is found in all these islands; it is obtained from the rivers, and, in some places, from the mines which the natives work." 17 The richest gold mines in ancient Philippines were the placer 14 See Sucesos, p. 179. See also Loarca, "Relacion," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. V, pp. 45 ff. 16 Comme?'cial Progress in the Philippine Islands. London, 1905,

p.9. 16 Vide "Letter of Guido de Lavezares to the Viceroy of Mexico, July, 1570," Retana, Archivo, Vol. V, p. 435. 17 See "Letter of Legaspi to the Marques de Falces. Cebu, July 7, 1569," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 54. 106

GENERAL INFORMATION mines of Paracale (in Camarines region). Captain Salcedo, dashing grandson of Legaspi, saw them in 1572. Weaving was another important industry among the early Filipinos. The women wove various kinds of cloths, such as sinamay from hemp, 1'ned'rinaque from banana, silk from silk fibers, and cotton cloth from cotton. They were also clever sewers and embroiders. 18 Other industries of the pre-Spanish Filipinos were the manufacture of wines, such as basi, tuba, pangasi, quilang, and others; the making of weapons, such as lantakas (small cannons), daggers, spears, barongs or bolos, krises, knives, and shields; hunting for wild birds and animals; tanning or preparation of animals' hides for exportation; and metal work. The ancient Bicols, according to a report of Lavezares to the Spanish king in 1574, were "the best and most skilful artificers in jewels and gold." 19 Another old Spanish document related that the inhabitants of Mindoro "possess great skill in mixing it (gold) with other metals. They give it an outside appearance so natural and perfect, and so fine a ring, that unless it is melted they can deceive all men even the best of silversmiths." 20 Industries and Culture.-The existence of industries in ancient Philippines is one strong proof that the Filipinos were already civilized before the arrival of the Spaniards. Thus remarked Dr. Jose Rizal: "All the histories of those first years, in short, abound in long accounts about the industry and agriculture of the natives: mines, gold-washings, looms, farms, barter, naval construction, raising of poultry and stock, weaving of silk and cotton, distilleries, manufactures of arms, pearl fisheries, the civet industry, the horn and hide industry, etc., are things encountered at 18 "The women," wrote Dr. Morga, "have needlework as their employment and occupation, and they are very clever at it, and at all kinds of sewing." (Sucesos, p. 174). 19 See "Letter of Guido de Lavezares to Philip II, Manila, July 17, 1574," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 273. 20 See Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 81. 107

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES every step, and, considering the time and the conditions in the islands, prove that there was life, there was activity, there was movement.":n Foreign Trade.-Before the arrival of the white men, the Filipinos were having commercial relations with foreign nations. Ancient Chinese records show that junkmerchants from China traded with the Filipinos as far back as one thousand years ago. The earliest recorded date of this Sino-Philippine trade was 982 A.D.22 Other references of t.his trade were found in "documents written during the Yuan dynasty, 656 years ago, and also during the Ming dynasty, 591 years ago." 23 The early Chinese traders bronght porcelain, pottery, commercial gold, iron vases for perfumes, leaden objects, glass, pearls of all colors, iron needles, and other exports of China. In exchange for these things, the Filipinos gave their native products, such as cotton, yellow wax, sinamay, coconuts, fine mats, birds' nests, and others. According to Wang Ta-yuan, Chinese writer in 1349, the Filipinos were honest in their commercial dealings. He wrote: "The natives and traders, having agreed on the prices, they let the former carry off the goods and later on they bring the amount of native products agreed upon. The traders trust them for they never fail to keep their bargains." 24 The ancient Filipinos also traded with Japan. "Every year," wrote .Juan Pacheco de Maldonado, Legaspi's com21 See The Indolence of the Filipinos. Originally published in "La Solidaridad," Madrid, 1890. English translation by Charles Derbyshire, published by Austin Craig in 1913, Philippine Education Company, Manila. 22 See St. Denis, Ethnographie, Vol. II, p. 502. Cited by Austin Craig, A Thousand Yea1'S of Philippine History Before the Comillg of the Spania1'ds, pp. 6-7. 23 Hon. H. H. Kwong, "Ties Across the Sea," The Fookien Times. Commonwealth-Christmas Edition. Manila, December 24, 1935. Honorable Kwong- is Minister of Finance and Acting President of the Executive Yuan, Republic of China. 24 See Rockhill's translation of Wang Ta-yuan's manuscript, quoted by Craig, op. cit., passim. 108

GENERAL INFORMATION pan ion, to the Spanish king in 1572, "Japanese ships come to this island (of Luzon) laden with merchandise; their principal trade being to exchange gold with silver." 25 Down to the early years of the Spanish regime, the Philippine-Japanese' trade flourished. Ships from Nagasaki, according to Dr. Morga, visited Manila annually bringing exc.ellent wheat flour, salt meats, woven silk cloths, all kinds of c.utlery, armor suits, weapons, singing birds, cotton, domestic. utensils, and other Japanese exports. In exchange for these, the Filipinos offered gold dusts, earthen jars, animal hides, wines, wax, and other commodities. 26 The early Filipinos also carried commercial relations with Siam, Cambodia, Malay Peninsula, India, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Moluccas, and other Malaysian islands. An interesting Spanish document of 1586, written by an unknown writer, stated that" they "are keen traders and have traded with China for many years, and before the advent of the Spaniards they sailed to Maluco, Malaca, Hazian (probably Achen, Sumatra), Parani, Burnei, and other kingdoms." 27 History shows that Magellan found Siamese traders in Cebu in 1521 and that in 1565 Legaspi captured a Bornean trading ship off the coast of Bohol and another one in Butuan, both ships being laden with commodities from China, India, and Borneo. Domestic Trade.-There was domestic trade in ancient Philippines. Barangay traded with barangay, and island with island. When Legaspi was in Cebu, there arrived several boats from Luzon to trade. Filipino traders from Luzon, J 010, and other islands, according to Father Rada, frequently traveled extensively throughout the archipelago 25 See "Letter of Juan Pacheco de Maldonado to Philip II, 1572," Retana, Archivo, Vol. V, p. 452. 26 Sucesos, p. 219. See also Chirino, Relacion, Chapter IV and Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia General de Filvpinas. Madrid, 1887, Vol. I, pp. 64-66. 27 See "Relation of the Philippine Islands. Unsigned, 1586," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. XXXIV, p. 377. 109

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES in search of slaves and gold. 28 The medium of trade used between Filipinos was mostly by barter. "The inhabitants of the coast," said Captain Diego de Artieda, "are fishermen who barter their fish and buy from those living inland, who till the soi1. 29 Weights and Measures.-In their business transactions, the ancient Filipinos used their native system of weights and measures. 30 For weighing goods, they had a kind of balance with scales, called talaro. The units of weight were the tahel, equivalent to one Spanish escudo; the titnga, equivalent to one-half tahel; and the sapaha, equivalent to one-fourth tahel. For weighing bulkier things, like meat, cloths, wax, etc., they used a kind of steel-yard, called sir nantan, which was equivalent to ten cates of 20 ounces each. One-half of this sinantan was called banal, equivalent to five cates, and one-half of the cate was called the SOCO. 31

For measures of capacity, the ancient Filipinos used the caban, the salop (gantang in Visayan), the pititis or kaguitna (one-half ganta), and the gatang (one chupa).32 And for measuring length, they used the Tagalog dipa (dupa in Visayan), which was equivalent to the English fathom: the dangkal (dagaw in Visayan), which was the length between the tip of the thumb and that of the middle finger when extended; the tJumuro (ba;rangit in Visayan), which was the length between the tip of the thumb and that of the forefinger when extended; the sangdamOJk, the 28 Vide "Letter of Father Rada to the Marques de Falces, Cebu, July 8, 1569," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. XXXIV, p. 224. 29 See "Relation of the Western Islands called Filipinas, 1565," Blair & Robertson, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 202. 30 "These people," said Pigafetta of the Cebuans, "have weights and measures." (Op. cit., Vol. I, p. 147). 31 San Antonio, Chronicas, Vol. I, p. 166. 32 Ibid., Vol. I, p. 166. 110

GENERAL INFORMATION whole width of the hand with the five fingers pressed together; and the sangdali, the width of only one finger. ss Reckoning Time.-The prehispanic Filipinos had no time-pieces, clocks, or watches. But they reckoned time for their daily activities. Nature, with her varying moods, was their clock. The ancient Visayans, for instance, reckoned time as follow~: tigburu.gta'W, about 4 :00 a. m., time to wake up for the sun is about to rise; paranugpu" about 6 :00 a. m., when the chicken flap their wings and the dawn is breaking; tig-ilitlog, nearing noon when the hens lay their eggs; tupnng-tupong, noon; huyug adlaw, about 2 :00 p. m.; tigbalahug, about 4 :00 p. m., time to feed the pigs; masirum, about 6 :00 p. m., time when the sun sets; tig-uJapun, about 8 :00 p. m., time for supper; tigbaranig, about 10 :00 p. m., time to spread the mats; and unang pamalu, midnight.3d The other Filipino tribes followed the same method of reckoning time. The time for dawn, for meals, for the feeding of chicken and pigs, for going to the fields, for stopping work, for going home, for sleeping, and for waking up was universally the same throughout the Islands. Calendmrs.-The pre-Spanish Filipinos had their own calendars. The Visayan calendar, for instance, contained 12 months and 356 days in a year. The days were called adlaw; the months, bulan; and the years, tuig. The names of the days were: Tigburukad (Monday), Dumasun (Tuesday), Dukutd~tkot (Wednesday), Baylobaylo (Thursday), Dangli:u8 (Friday), Hinguthingot (Saturday), and Ligidligid (Sunday). The Visayan names for the months were: Ulalong (January), Dagangkahuy (February), Dagangbu.lan (March), Kiling (April), Himab~lyan (May), Kabay (June), Hidapdapun (July), Lubadlub(J)q, (August), KaSan Antonio, Ch1'onicas, Vol. I, p. 164. Vide Pedro A. Monteclaro, Maragtas. Iloilo, 1907. Panayan Visayan Text. Translated into English by G. F. Zaide and C. Dolar. Manuscript, 1934. 33 34

111

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES rigurulsol (September), BCLgyobagyo (October), Panglot riga d?:utay (November), and Panglot riga. daku (Decem-

ber) . Each of these months had 30 days, except the last, which had only 28 days, thus totalling 356 days a year.8S The Ifugao calendar antedates our history. It is still used today by various tribes of Ifugaoland. It has 13 months in a year. These months are represented by 13 strings. The Ifugaos tie knots in these strings to represent the days. When there are already 28 knots (days) on a string, it means a month has passed. Each of the 13 strings contain 28 knots, for there are 28 days a month. To make a leap year, the Ifugaos add one day to the 13th string by tying the 29th knot. The Ifugao native calendar thus contains 364 (in case of leap year, 365) days a year. 3G The Moros in Mindanao and Sulu have their own calendars which are ba$ed upon Mohammedan calendar. These Moro calendars cohtain 12 lunar months a year and seven days a week. 37 35 Monteclaro, Maragtas, p. 40. See also Fr. Pavon, Las Antiguas Leyendas de la Isla de Neg7'os, MS., 1839. . 36 See H. Otley Beyer, "Ifugaos . Using World's Most Perfect Calendar," Philippines Free Press. Manila, July 26, 1924. 37 Vide Sixto Y. Orosa, The 8ulu Archipelago. N. Y., 1923, p. 95.

112

The Filipino Conception of an Educated Man in Ancient Times By

EULOGIO

RODRIGUEZ

Assistant Director, National Library

When a child was born it had been the practice of our forebears in ancient days to forecast his future--to determine or anticipate what would be his lot in life. From this practice originated the word kapa:lararn (fate) which is derived from the word palad (hand) as they were wont to read the lines of his hands to determine his fortune-his hands being the clue and index that unravel his fate in this grim and sturdy world. From hand-reading originated the phrase mabuting palad (good 'hand' luck), masamang palad (hard luck), sawing palad (unlucky). These customs were not peculiar to the Philippines but are common to the whole human race. It was the Filipinos' invariable wish for the first offspring to be a boy-a wish which is almost universally true even to-day. Then comes the tag~~rb of his parents or what they hope and wish him to be. The saying goes "Kung ano ang taguri ay siyang datrating." Again in this the feeling was common to father-right or patriarchal land. Sometimes early Spanish writers noted a wish for girls in some parts of the Philippines and mistakenly attributed it to covetousness or greed for the settlement made by the sister upon his bride. The fact was that the matriarchal or ancient mother-right idea was here at work. England has the same thing in settlements made upon the bride while continental Europe has the other practice of the bride bringing a dowry to her husband. This taguri is sang in lullaby or told to their close relatives and intimate friends-that it is their wish for him to be a (1) paham (sage) or (2) pantas (wise), or (3) dalubhasa (proficient) or (4) matwlino (intelligent) 113

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES all of which, means of course, that he should be marunong (learned) as this wish presupposes that while he grows to a ripe manhood no efforts and sacrifices would be spared for and by him to achieve all the karunungan (learning) which this world has to offer. (Later, during the Spanish regime, their taguri to their son was to become a priest, or a doctor of medicine, or a lawyer, or an engineer; and for a girl to become a pharmacist). To the ancient Filipinos an educated man was a cultured and learned person (marunong) and his karunungan (learning) may be acquired from three sources: (1) personal experience (karanasan) because of age; (2) travels to foreign countries (naglayag) and (3) book-learning or education through printed pages (natutuhan sa aklat). With them these words or expressions are used: Tinuruan; may-turo (instructed); mabait (prudent) ; tinuruan ng kabaitan (cultured or well-mannered man) ; may pinagaralan (educated); maOJlam (learned); matalisik (erudite); marunong (wise); sanay, bihasa (experienced); mapagmalas, mapagmasid (observer); mapagsuri (keen sense of judgment or analytic judgment) ; matalas ang isitp 'pOirang labaka' (bright or mentally sharp like a razor); matalan (fluent in expression); katalinuhan (intelligence); isip, pagiisip (thought); hatol (judgment); pagkOJbatid, gunita (concept); matandain (retentive memory). (In later days to them the expression "he is an educated man" means he is a man of culture. Education to them means culture, or ethics or good manners and not necessarily schooling). Education historically, therefore, in the Philippines as elsewhere has gone through three stages: (1) personal experience; (2) travels; (3) book learning or education through printed matters. 114

GENERAL INFORMATION 1

Personal Experience Personal experience made men wise and he who had lived longest was wisest. The ancient Filipinos had in eminent degree that respect for age and its accompanying wisdom. The village people use still, as did our remote ancestors-even to-day some people use the term apo or grandfather for the very venerable man Who was the puna (chief) . Even the Deity's all-wisdom was thought due to His very great age, for as the Jews who called Him "The Ancient of Days" so the pre-Spanish Filipinos spoke of their greatest Deity as Laong-laan which might almost have the same translation for it expresses the idea of coming from very great antiquity. The idea Of he who had lived longest is the wisest is not only confined among the ancient Filipinos. The English still use aldermen, really elder men where we say City Fathers or municipal councilors, and the Roman Senate and the Jewish Council of the elders alike were made up of aged men as the wise men. That practice is followed in the upper house of Congress and the Philippine Legislature. Just recently th~ returned Filipino students from American and European universities, a great majority of whom are professional men, have organized a society entitled "The Barangay" and whose elected officer, instead of being called president is named Ap'o, a commendable practice in injecting historical names into our present organization-a practice which speaks well of our desire to preserve venerable names of ancient days. Of course, to be historically correct, instead of calling him Apo he should be called Punong Balangay (Cabeza de Barangay). How they admire and appreciate experienced persons may be seen in the following Filipino proverbs: lUi

ENCYCLOPEDIA Or? THE PHILIPPINES Ang karunungan, daig ang kabatiram.

* * * * * Ang ka'f ununga'y sa kabihasnan.

* *

:\<

* *

Pantas ma'y dapat magtOlnong.

That ethics or culture is indispensable in the life of man is gleaned from the following: Magmoo man kung twram At walang magandang asal, Ay parang tae ng bakal, Ginoo sa Don-don lamang.

* * *

:j;

Ang ka:rununga'y sa pag-OJaral, At ang kabaita'y sa katandaan.

2 Travel

The next advance in learning was by travel for the traveler added the wisdom of foreign lands to what he could learn at home. An ancient Chinese account of the Philippines tells how the Filipinos of northern Luzon of half a dozen centuries ago were in the habit of visiting China on the Chinese trading vessels calling here and upon their return were, according to their account, reverenced by their neighbors and even their parents paid them honor. It may not be out of place for me to remind that this practice was still in vogue some twenty-five years ago when our first government pensionados returned from America to the Philippines after an absence of four or five years their countrymen received them as if they were a Moses who was to lead the people to the promised land. It is the one great wish in life of our brothers in the South to travel to Mecca, for the sake of education-and, of course, religion-they acquire from contact with foreign peoples and for the distinction and respect they re116

GENERAL INFORMATION ceive from their own people upon their return. Hadji is the title given to those who have made a pilgrimage to Mecca and returned to their home. A great many of the ancient Filipinos were muchtraveled, long before Spain had even dreamed of discovering unknown seas and unknown lan41s. As the Philippines is located at the intersection of the principal natural commercial routes in the Orient, its people were already traveling back and forth to these countries for the purpose of trade, long before the western coast of Africa had been discovered by the Portuguese. The Malays were muchtraveled and were a people of great experience. In the latter part of the nineteenth century Padre Burgos, a great believer in education, advised his countrymen to travel. Before he was garroted he made the following farewell to his students: "Get educated. Use the schools of our country for as much as they can give. Learn from our older men what they know. Then go abroad. "Be a Filipino always, but an educated Filipino." 3

Book Education or Education Through Printed Pages About book-education or education through printed pages, we have the testimony of the Jesuit chronicler Father Pedro Chifino that there were books and book-educated Filipinos when the Spaniards arrived here and that the missionary zeal led to the wholesale destruction of the former and the vanishing of the latter who were ministers of the old pagan faith. With respect to their literacy, Father ChirinQ also states that "Hardly can you find a man much less a woman who can not read or write." The Tagalog cvbakada, baybayin or alibata (alphabet) was the one most generally used in the Islands with the possibility that it was the 117

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES only one used by all Filipinos throughout the archipelago, though perhaps with slight modifications. Their method of writing has been ably described by Father Juan Delgado who says: "Almost all the people in the Visayan Islands know how to write in their own characters, which they engrave on a big piece of green bamboo from top to bottom; and they write their lines beginning from left to right. They also write on leaves, on banana plants, and other trees with much curiosity and polish, using for a pen a knife, large or small, known as sipol among the Visayans, and this mode of writing upon leaves was natural and primitive." Fray Juan de Plasencia (one of the first missionaries of the Franciscan Order who came to the Philippines in 1577, noted for establishing numerous primary schools as well as for his linguistic abilities) gave credit to the preSpanish Filipinos for the school system with which he is credited and that lasted till the middle of the last century. Book education was very well emphasized during the Spanish regime when the public school system (although limited) was organized in 1600 and the University of Sto. Tomas established. Rizal described the educational reaction of the Filipinos as "urged by the electric shock produced by contact with the occidental peoples, and begs for light, life, and the civilization that once might have been its heritage, thus conforming to the eternal laws of constant evolution, of transformation, of recurring phenomena, of progress." When.. a person is studious he is characterized as mags'tu;uno{! n,q kilay (burning the midnight oil). We have a song which says: M asarap ang karunufigan N guni't hira.p fig magaral, Nangasusunog ang kilay Sa pagbasa'y nafiga1igailay. 118

GENERAL INFORMATION An expression of the idea that the man while young should take advantage of his opportunity for it may not return in his old age is shown in this proverb: Kung ibig ang karunungan Hanggang bata ay mag-aral Kung tumandalt mag-aral man, Mahirap nang makaalam.

Our forefathers also realized that to send their children to school meant continuous expense for they used to quote this verse: Ang mamamaril ng ibon, Pulbura (Lng itinatapon; At ang naghahamgad ng dunong Salapi ang ginugugol.

That our present government spends one fourth of its total yearly appropriation for the education of our youth is a testimony that the Filipinos are lovers of education, as they always have been and ever will be. Summwry Paham, Pantas, Dalubhasa, Marunong, Bihasa, Maalam, Matalino, Matalisik, Matalan, May-pinag-atralan,-

these were the persons schooled through personal experience because of age--as personal experience made men wise and he who had lived longest was wisest; or schooled by travel for the traveler added the wisdom of foreign lands to what he could learn at home; or schooled by booklearning as printed pages are the repository of recorded experience. Such persons occupy a distinct position in, and are highly respected by, the community. Their lives are rich in human experiences. Problems of whatsoever nature affecting individuals or the community are submitted (isi119

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES nasangguni) to them for their pasya or hatol (advice or counsel). Their opinion is invariably followed; their advice heeded. They spoke in parables. They are adept in narrating appropriate stories on the matter at issue with a moral lesson, or quoting a proverb (salawikain) or sayings (kawikaan) to carry home clearly their points. They are particularly strong on (using the modern social term) humanities. They are not altogether serious for at times they display their sense of humor in dealing with, and dismissing, trivial things. Hence at times their advice is seasoned with intellectual tonic or refreshing mental recreations. These paham are also called Gat-a title given to persons in consideration to their learning or power or social position. We often read in our history such famous Filipino characters in ancient times as Gat-Dula, Gat-Maytan, Gat-Dakil, Gat-SugOlJlan. The highest chief belongs to this intellectual or aristocratic class who is called Rajah (king), the Indian-type or Hindu ruler, Sultan, the Arab or Mohammedan-type ruler, Lakan (p;rince). We are all familiar with the great Rajah Matanda who, in 1570, had jurisdiction over the territory of the northern bank of the Pasig River. And this highest chief was vested with legislative, executive and judicial powers. "He made laws, by and with the advice and consent of the datus and eldermen who also acted as delegates, especially in the Hukuman (judiciary) where they perform the functions of hukom (judges)." These eldermen are also known in such phrase as 째m atanda sa nayon (old men of the place) or M aginoo sa bayan (dignified persons of the town) . The priests and priestesses who interpret phenomena were learned and old. PO is a word without which in conversation one goes down to the lowest level of etiquette. It is a term which in conversation with the elders or the Maginoos or the Parents is never omitted. It is an expression of reverence, re120

GENERAL INFORMATION spect, courtesy, the use of which essentially reflects the refinement and culture of the person who speaks. The elders are persons of good breeding, fountains of good manners, of ethics and of right conduct, who were usually jealous of their ways, lest they might be degraded in the eyes of the youth. Hence the proverbs: Ang bait fig bata, nasa matanda.

* *

:I:

* *

Ang bata ay bata hang gang sa tumanda Kung ang matatamda ay magpakabata. Ang bata'y tatanda mulang pagkabata Kung ang matatanda ay magpapakwtanda.

These are the educated men in the conception of the Filipinos in ancient days. A TEACHER IN 1895 Maria C. Rodriguez, 72, of Bataan, said, "Education in those day was more than instruction, because while education makes a man human, instruction makes him civilized." In her notebook are subjects treated in the didactic or the Socratic method of instruction consisting "of a series of questioning, the object of which is to elicit point by point, concessions or expressions of opinion eventually establishing the general truth which is the object of the inquiry"-a method of instruction in vogue during the Spanish regime. DUTIES OF A LADY TEACHER What are the dutie.<; of a lady teacher?

(Cuales son

los deberes de una maestra?) The duties of a lady teacher are five in number: duties to herself, duties to the pupils, duties to the parents of these pupils, duties toward the authorities, and those to society. 121

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

What are the duties of a lady teacher to herself? A lady teacher is under obligation not only to preserve a pure life, but also to preserve untarnished her reputation. What are the duties of a lady teacher toward the pupils? A lady teacher shall have the duty to look after the health of the pupils, to develop their intelligence and to direct their growing morality. What are the duties of a lady teacher toward the parents of the pupils? A lady teacher ought to have frequent intercourse with the parents of the pupils, expose to them the children's defects so that they, too, can correct them. What are the duties of a lady teacher toward the authorities? A lady teacher ought to have respectful relations with the authorities of the district where she resides; she should not lose respect for them; the authorities are not the men but the laws. What are the duties of a lady teacher toward society? These are even more austere than all other duties in relation to our neighbors. A lady teacher should respect life, property and the reputation of other people. MORAL

Q. What is meamt by moral? A. It is the science which treats of customs, or rather it is the science which studies the duties of man in general and in particular according to his different relations in order t~ achieve happiness in this life and in the next. Q. How do we divide moral? A. In general and in particular. Q. What is general moral? A. That which considers the duties of man in genera!. Q. And pa1路ticular? 122

GENERAL INFORMATION A. That which considers the various relations and conditions of man. Q. What is morality? A. It is the same as the goodness or badness of actions which are either moral or immoral, according as they are good or bad. Q. Wha1t constitute good acts? A. Those which are in accordance with the will of God who wishes that a man should practice aU that which is proper of an intelligent and rational being. Q. What constit7.ÂŁte bad acts? A. Those which are contrary to the will of God. Q. A re the acts essentially good or bad? A. Yes, madam: Because they either conform or not to the divine will which is absolutely upright and immutable. Q. What are laws? A. They are the rules prescribed by superior authority to govern our actions. Q. How many kinds of laws are there? A. Divine or human, depending upon whether they proceed from God or man. Q. How is the divine law divided? A. It is divided into eternal, natural and positive. Q. What is meatnt by eternOJl law? A. It is the general plan of the universe in relation to man, in other words, it is the will of God transmitted to man through the use of upright reasoning. Q. Does the natural law exist? A. Yes, madam, because there is in us a light that guides us to know what is good and to distinguish it from what is bad. Q. How dixl God intimate this natural law? A. By means of the use of the correct reasoning, so that one thing that is done in accordance with the natural law, is the same as that done in accordance with reason. 123

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Q. Is it enough for a, m01"al and religious man to obey the laws through fear? A. No, madam. It is necessary that in conscience we should feel subject to the authorities- that dictate them, because this is what Christ taught us by his own examples as preached by his apostles. Q. WhC1!t is penalty? A. It is a suffering imposed upon the violator of the laws. Q. What is meant by prize? A. It is the compensation given to one who does well. Q. How many kinds of prizes and penalties are there? A. Two-natural and positive. Q. What, is cOn8'cience? A. It is a reasoning relative to what is good or bad about our acts. Q. WhC1!t then is the office of consdence? A. It is the internal rule of all our activities, and it manifests itself in its conformity to, or repugnance against, the law. In the first case, it approves and soothes, and in the second case, it reproves and removes. Q. In how many ways is conscience manifested? A. Antecedent and consequent, upright and erroneous, certain and probable, doubtful and scrupulous. Q. What is meant by antecedent conscience? A. That which reasons out the morality of acts after these have been committed. Q. Which of these two should we use? A. Either one or the other-the first is indispensable so as not to expose to too much risk an important business; and the second to greatly insure success. Q. What is an upright conscience? A. That which presents the good as good, and the bad as bad. Q. What is an erroneous conscience? 124

GENERAL INFORMATION A. That which presents the good as bad, and the bad as good. Q. What conscience would be the norm of our conduct? â&#x20AC;˘ A. The upright. Q. What should a man do with an erroneous consc~ence?

A. He should educate himself, placing all means at his disposal in order to prevent the commission of an error. This can be accomplished by study, or by consulting those persons who are virtuous and well informed. Q. What is meant by sure conscience? A. That which subjects to the tests of reason the morality of the acts in order to completely insure against error. Q. When is conscience probable? A. That which argues certain fundamentals which cause it to incline to one side, but which do not exclude all fear from error. Q. What is a doubtful conscience? A. That which hangs from the morality of an action without being able to qualify it as either good or bad. Q. What is meant \b1J scrupulous conscience? A. That which is founded on frivolous reasonings, thus causing doubt as to whether certain actions which are good are bad. Q. What should one do if he h(1)s a probable conscience? A. He should secure, if he can, certainty and evidence, or in its absence, never to give way until greater certainty is secured. VIRTUE

What is virtue? A. It is the habit of adjusting our acts to the law. Q. Is virtue the same as a good act? Q.

125

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES A. No, because virtue is the result of the repetition of good acts, that is why we have said it is a habit. Q. What is V'lce? A. It is the habit of doing that Which is contrary to law-it is merely a repetition of bad acts. Q. What is the general effect of virtue? A. The tranquility of the soul. Q. What is the general consequence of vice? A. The uneasiness of the soul produced by the repentance of the conscience. Q. A man that pr(1)ctices virtue, what does he achieve? A. Happiness. Q. What is happiness? A. The best situation that a man can have in this life and in the next. Q. What are the duties 0/1 man to God? A. Adoration, gratitude, fear, confidence, love, faith, etc. Q. What is the immediate origin of the duties of matn to himself? A. The love that nature inspires in us. Q. What are the duties of man to himself? A. The care of the body and soul, and the choice of that state which is most convenient in society. Q. What are his duties to his neighbors? A. The same as those to himself., hence, this great precept of the divine law: "Love they neighbor as thyself/' Q. Why? A. Because all men are the same in nature, all have a rational soul and an organized body, all aclrnowledge the same origin, all are subject to God's Kingdom and to the natural laws, all are marching toward the same end, and all will pay their tribute upon death and will be judged by the creator in accordance with their acts. 126

Masonry in the Philippines By LEO

FISCHER

Editor, The . Cabletow and Far Eastern Freemason

Few institutions in the world have been as much and widely misunderstood and misrepresented as Masonry. Compelled as it was until thirty-five years ago to work in secrecy in the Philippine Islands, it had to suffer the people to develop the unfavorable opinion of it which organizations so working and condemned by both the State and the Church of the land generally merit from the masses, and the stigma of clandestinism, plotting and irreligion still undeservedly attached to Masonry in this country, fo a certain extent, at least, as far as the masses are concerned. We shall explain what Masonry is not before stating what it is. Masonry is not, as its enemies allege, a secret society or sect whose members are hostile to religion and are engaged in politicS and in conspiracies against the government; nor is it, as some believe, a mutual benefit and insurance association. It is not a secret society because, although it has secret modes of recognition and holds its meetings behind closed doors, its aims and purposes are openly announced to the world and its places and times of meeting and the names of its members are not concealed. It is not atheistic or irreligious, because no man can become a Mason unless he expresses a belief in ~d and a future existence. Masonic Lodge meetings are opened and closed with prayer and the Holy Bible lies open upon the altar while the Lodge is in session. It is not a sect or religion, because it permits and expects each of its members to profess and practice the religion of his choice, hence it cannot be the enemy of any church or religion. 127

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES It is not a political society because the discussion of

political subjects is strictly prohibited within the Lodge and Masons are not allowed to mix Masonry and politics. It is not engaged in plots and conspiracies because Masons are enjoined to abide by the law of the land and to be loyal to their country and to the constituted authorities. It is not a mutual aid, sick benefit or insurance society of which the members and their dependents can demand relief as a right; but charity is taught in the Lodges and is practised extensively by them and by their individual members. What, then, is Masonry? An American Mason has defined it as follows: "Masonry i~ a system of morality teaching a man that in order to live a wiser, better, happier life, he must first develop his own mental, moral and physical faculties before he can adequately discharge his duties to God and his fellow man. "By using the tools and implements of architecture as symools, it teaches him to utilize his time, to cultivate the cardinal virtues, to develop his intellect by education, to exercise those excellent tenets of Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth, in order to approach more nearly the perfect man, as revealed in the light of the Holy Scriptures." There are many theories regarding the origin of Masonry. According to some authors, it is a direct descendant of the ancient "Mysteries" of India, Persia, Egypt, and Greece. Others believe that it sprang from the Roman collegia or guilds of artisans. The most reasonable supposition is, perhaps, that it originated among the monks and lay brothers who during the middle ages, built many beautiful abbeys and cathedrals in Germany, France, England, and other countries. Its present organization into Grand Lodges only dates back as far as the early part of the 18th century. In the 128

GENERAL INFORMATION countries where it has kept out of politics and is not frowned upon by the predominant church, Masonry has grown and prospered exceedingly. In Great Britain and her dominions and in the United States, it is held in high esteem. In England and Scotland, princes of the royal blood generally head the Order; in Denmark and Sweden, the king is its head. In countries where the Catholic religion prevails, Masonry is less fortunate. The Vatican put Masonry under the ban two centuries ago and it is still considered a sin for a Roman Catholic to be a Mason. Consequently, the path of Masonry in the Philippine Islands has been one beset with thorns. The first Lodges, founded in the Islands about a century ago, were not of an enduring nature. During the last two decades of the nineteenth century, however, with eminent Filipinos like M. H. del Pilar, Apolinario Mabini, Jose Rizal, and others active in the institution, the Lodges multiplied until 1896, when most bloody and relentless persecution of the Masons was initiated. In 1897, Masonry became practically extinct in the Philippines. With the advent of the American regIme, the situation changed completely. An American Military lodge operated for a while in Manila, then from 1901 to 1912, the Grand Lodges of California and Scotland and the Grand Orients of Spain, Portugal and France organized and maintained Lodges in the Philippines. In 1912, the three Lodges which the Grand Lodge of California has chartered in the Islands formed what is now the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of the Philippine Islands, and in 1917, the remaining Lodges of the Spanish and Portuguese Grand Orients joined the new Grand Lodge. The Grand Lodge of the Philippine Islands is an independent and sovereign body; it makes its own laws, bound only by the basic law of Masonry, the so-called Ancient 129

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Landmarks and Charges and the general regulations of Freemasonry. The Masonry it practises is of the AngloSaxon type; only men of good repute who express a belief in God and a future existence are accepted as members, and discussions of religious and political matters are strictly prohibited in the Lodge. Its Lodges recognize and confer only the three Symbolic or Blue Degrees, that is, the degrees of Entered Apprentice, Fellow Craft, and Master Mason. However, there are several important bodies of organizations outside of the Grand Lodge whose membership consists of Masons. The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry, which has jurisdiction over the socalled "higher degrees," from the 4th to the 33rd, has established lodges, chapters, councils and consistories in the cities of Manila, Iloilo, and Cebu; these bodies are subordinate to the Supreme Council for the Southern Jurisdiction of the United States in Washington, D. C. Besides, there are in Manila the so-called York Rite Bodies, that is, the Masonry of the Royal Arch and Knights Templar, to which only Masons professing the Christian religion are admitted. Worthy of mention are also the National Sojourners, a patriotic organization of Masons who are, or have been, commissioned officers in the uniformed forces of the United States, ,vhich has chapters at Manila, Cor" regidor, and Fort Stotsenburg, and the Eastern Star, a charitable and social society for the wives, widows, mothers, and sisters of Masons, which has a chapter in Manila. But we are chiefly concerned here with Symbolic Masonry in these Islands, that is, with the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of the Philippine Islands and its subordinate Lodges. This Body has in all 102 subordinate Lodges, of which 23 are in the city of Manila, 74 in in other places in the Philippines, 1 on the island of Guam (Marianas), and 4 in China. The highest officer of the 130

GENERAL INFORMATION . Grand Lodge, the Grand Master, is elected yearly; since 1917, this office has been occupied by an American every odd year and a Filipino every even year. Men of many different races and varying religious and political beliefs work side by side in peace and harmony in the Masonic Lodges of the Philippine Islands. Of the 5,400 members of these Lodges, approximately one half are Filipinos; the other half are Americans, Chinese, and other nationals. The Masonic Lodges in the Philippines occupy in many places buildings of their own. There is the monumental Masonic Temple on the Escolta, in which the Grand Lodge has established its offices, the Plaridel Masonic Temple, also in Manila, the Masonic Temples of Iloilo and Cebu, and other structures, both solid and ornamental in other parts of the Islands. Masonic cemeteries have been established in several places. Inspired by the lessons of charity and good will toward all mankind they receive in their Lodges, Masons here and elsewhere have always been liberal in supporting beneficent institutions and enterprises. As far as organized charities of Philippine Masonry are 路 concerned, there is the Masonic Hospital for Crippled Children, a corporation organized in 1924, which has for the last ten years been maintaining a ward for poor crippled children in the Mary J. Johnston Hospital in Tondo and which plans to build a hospital of its own when sufficient funds shall be available for that purpose. This work is for the benefit of all poor crippled children, regardless of race, nationality or creed. The foundation of a Masonic Home for the care of the widows and orphans of Masons is also contemplated but the fund so far accumulated, although large, is not yet sufficient to undertake this work. Classes for the illiterate, free clinics, and other beneficent activities have been organized and carried on here and there by individual Lodges. 131

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Masonry has always attracted the most enlightened and progressive men of the communities where it has been established, and especially, the champions of liberty and the rights of men. In the United States of America, practically every general of the war of Independence was a member of the Fraternity, and of the Presidents of the United States, eleven are positively known to have been Masons. The present President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, is an active Mason. Among the world's outstanding men who were Masons we will mention liberators such as Bolivar, Mazzini, and Kosciusko; military leaders, such as Wellington, Bluecher, Garibaldi, Lord Roberts, Joffre, and Pershing; naval officers, such as John Paul Jones, Decatur, Farragut, Schley, and Jellicoe; authors, such as Count Tolstoy, Goethe, and Scott; poets, such as Burns, Kipling, and Markham; composers, such as Mozart, and Liszt; monarchs, such as Frederick the Great, King George IV, King Edward VII, and King Edward VIII, present King of Great Britain. In the Philippines, many men of note have been, and many still are, members of the Masonic Fraternity. M. H. del Pilar, Mabini, Rizal, Antonio Luna, Bonifacio, and numerous other outstanding Filipinos w~re active in the Lodges during the last years of the Spanish regime, and a number of them suffered martyrdom because they were Masons. At present, the Lodges are largely composed of government officials and employees, Constabulary officers, teachers, professional men, businessmen and other persons of standing in the community. As a result of the frank and considerate attitude maintained by Philippine Masonry toward its opponents, the violent attacks of old, to which it replied with a dignified silence, have ceased. The Masonic press, which consists in . the Philippines of The Cabletow, organ of the Grand Lodge, and the Far Eastern Freemason, official organ of 132

GENERAL INFORMATION

the Manila Scottish Rite Bodies, and of a number of monthly Lodge bulletin, has always been guarded and courteous in its utterances and comments. There is no doubt that so long as Masonry will adhere to the principles by which its conduct is now guided, keeping clear o~ political and religious controversies and insisting upon a high standard of membership, it will keep the respect of the world and will continue to be considered as an important factor for the stability of our government.

133

Kartilla Of The Katipunan By

EMILIO JACINTO

To those who may desire to affiliate with this Association (Asociacion de los Hijos del Pueblo). In order that those who wish to join this Association may have a thorough knowledge of its purposes and of its existing regulations, it is necessary that these be published, to the end that they may not tomorrow or the day after repent, and that they may perform their duties cheerfully. This Association pursues a very high and great object; the union in ideas and purpose of the Filipinos, by means of a strong oath, in order that this union may become the force that shall tear the dense veil which obscures intelligence, and may find the path of Reason and Light. One of the first rules here is: true patriotism and genuine mutual aid. Poor, rich, ignorant, wise: all are equal and are true brethren. Once in the Association, the member will abandon all disorderly life and place himself under the orders and rules of the Association. All acts incompatible with dignity and involving moral turpitude are repugnant here, hence the antecedents of the applicant will first be submitted to a searching investigation. If the applicant merely wishes to know the secrets of the Association, or joins from personal bravado or in order to become acquainted with the members and sell them for a mess of pottage, he will not prosper; the mere attempt at treachery will be frustrated by the many who are watching him, and he will immediately receive the deserved punishment meted out to traitors. 134

GENERAL INFORMATION Here only acts are demanded and taken into account, hence no one must join who is not willing to act, however willing he may be to talk. It is also announced that the duties to be performed by the members are exceedingly hard, especially if one remembers that their performance can not be evaded and that there will be no violation, knowingly committed, to which a rigorous penalty will not be applied. If the applicant merely desires relief or wishes to lead an easy life, let him desist, because he will encounter very exacting duties, such as the protection and defense of the oppressed and the most tenacious effort to investigate and prosecute all that is evil: for this he will lead a life of hard work and constant worry and distress. Nobody is unaware of the evils with which are threatened the Filipinos who thought out things so sacred (and even those that are not), and the suffering prepared for them by the predominating cruelty, error, and criminality. A matter of public knowledge is also the need of ready money, in our days the principal factor of general prosperity; for this reason the punctual payment of the dues is required: one peso as admission fee and twelve and a half centimos monthly dues. The custodian of the funds will from time to time rendEr an account to the members, besides the right of each memoer to examine and revise the accounts, should he so desire at any moment. These funds can be expended only by resolution of the majority. All this must be considered and thought over well, as it can not be performed or patiently borne. by any person not a true patriot and a real defender of the Good. And for a better understanding, read the following RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION OF THE SONS OF THE PEOPLE

The life that is not consecrated to a lofty and reasonable purpose is a tree without shade, if not a poisonous weed. 135

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES To do good for personal gain and not for its own sake is not virtue. It is rational to be charitable and love one's fellowcreature, and to adjust one's conduct, acts, and words to what is in itself reasonable. Whether our skin be black or white, we are all born equal: superiority in knowledge, wealth, and beauty are to be understood, but not superiority by nature. The honorable man prefers honor to personal gain, the scoundrel gain to honor. To the honorable man his word is sacred. Do not waste thy time: wealth can be recovered, but not the time lost. Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor before the law or in the field. The prudent man is sparing in words and faithful in keeping secrets. On the thorny path of life, man is the guide of woman and of the children, and if the guide leads to precipices, those whom he guides will also go there. Thou must not look upon woman as a mere plaything, but as a faithful companion who will share with thee the penalties of life; her weakness will increase thy interest in her and she will remind thee of the mother who bore thee and reared thee. What thou dost not desire done unto thy wife, children, brothers and sisters, that do not unto the wife, children, brothers and sisters of thy neighbor. Man is not worth more because he is a king, because his nose is aquiline and his color white, nor because he is a priest, a servant of God, nor because of the high prerogative that he enjoys upon earth, but he is worth most a man of proven and real value, who does good, keeps his word, is worthy and honest; he who does not oppress, nor consent to being oppressed, he who loves and cherishes his father136

GENERAL INFORMATION land, though he be born in the wilderness and know no tongue but his own. When these rules of conduct shall be known to all and the longed-for sun of Liberty shall rise brilliant over this most unhappy portion of the globe and its rays shall diffuse everlasting joy among the confederated brethren of the same race, the lives of those who have gone before, the fatigues, and the well-paid suffering will remain. If he who desires to enter has informed himself of all this and believes he will be able to perform what will b~ his duties, he may fill out the application for admission.

137

The Filipino National Flag By MAJOR EMANUEL

BAJA

Philippine Army

The history of the Filipino National Flag is the account of the long struggle of the Filipino people to build a nation or their own. That record of blood and fire in seven years war against two occidental powers describes how the present national colors originated from the red pennant of the Katipunan secret society. In the early revolts of the 17th and 18th centuries against Spanish sovereignty, the flags used by the Filipinos were without definite political significance, although many of them were already associated with positive, well-defined racial sentiments. Towards the closing of the 19th century, however, these flags acquired political significance with some semblance of tangible nationalism. The red pennant of the Katipunan secret society possessing this characteristic came into being in 18"92 and became the Katipunan War Standard. The device of that flag consisting of the letters K. K. K.- from the Tagalog words Kataasta'asan Kagalanggalang Katipunan--sometimes in a row and at other times arranged so as to form an equilateral triangle, were placed in the center of the red field. Various changes and modifications in the device were introduced, such as the use of skulls, daggers and crown below the letter insignia; but the red rectangular field remained unchanged. The first alteration to the Katipunan War Standard was brought about as a result of the Spanish declaration of martial law on August 30, 1896, in the eight provinces of Manila, Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, Laguna, Cavite and Batangas. To perpetuate their belligerency, and to show that the revolutionary standard ceased to be such and had become the flag of the whole country, the 138

GENERAL INFORMATION three K's on the red field were replaced by the Tagalog alphabet I with eight radiating rays, the former retaining its original meaning of Katipunan and the latter emblematic of the first eight provinces to revolt. The rapidity with which the Katipunan enlisted the services of old and. young men for active field duty proved the unifying influence o:i this flag; and the acceptance of the people that "It stands for Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity" was an unmistakable sign that it waved a unified sense of nationalism. The military authorities in conference at Naic, Cavite, on March 17, 1897, authorized a further modification by substituting a mythological sun with two eyes, nose and mouth in place of the Tagalog alphabet K, a change influenced by the Katipunan ritual which mentions the sun as the symbol of liberty. This was the First Philippine Flag proper, which 'the Filipino military government referred to, when it announced in July, 1897, that "Order and justice will be strictly observed under our Flag." Daughter of the war of 1896-1897, and hoisted at a priceless cost of lives, it did not wave long; for it was hauled down after the signing of the treaty of peace at Biaknabato on December 27, 1897. The First Philippine Flag was a fitting symbol of the country with a very significant epoch-making history, but in spite of that history, which any people could justly be . proud of, it failed to become the national colors of the Filipino Republic; not because it lacked the symbolism of the heroic struggle for emancipation, but because historical events created and imposed another which interpreted in a better allegorical sense the new political thought and the newly conceived idealism of the people. Under these considerations, the exiled military leaders at Hongkong devised the present design: at the left, next the staff, the coat-ofarms, consisting of a white equilateral triangle with a sun139

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES burst of eight rays at the center and a five-pointed star in each angle; an upper stripe of blue; and a lower stripe of red. The golden sun symbolizes Liberty; the eight rays, the first eight provinces to rise in arms; and the three five-pojnted stars, dominion over the three geographical divisions of the Philippines-Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The blue is allegorical of the high political purposes and noble ideals; the red, of courage, bravery and heroism; and the white, of purity and peace. The creation of this allegorical design, once a much-debated question, unimportant in itself, however, was not the pr.oduct of an individual but of the public mind-a correct interpretation of the new collective political ideas of the times. The war history 6r the new flag began on May 28, 1898, when in three victorious battles fought in the province of Cavite, on the eastern shores of Manila Bay, it received its first baptism of blood and fire. That date, the true Philippine Fla,g Day, thus holds a most significant military achievement, the birth of a new nation on the Pacific. So on June 12, 1898, upon the proclamation of statehood, and after it was announced as the National Flag of the Republic, the signers of the Declaration of Independence took this oath: "The undersigned solemnly swear allegiance to the Flag and will defend it to the last drop of their blood." The fortunes of war favored the Filipino arms, and the "Sun and Stars"-the popular name by which the new flag came to be known-replaced the Spanish colors in all the provinces. Its glorious birth was, however, followed by a second war against another mightier nation. The Filipino hosts, battered and greatly worn out by the previous conflict, took the field anew; and after three more years of struggle, lost again the political liberty they just had won so honorably. The last flicker of statehood was put out at Palanan, in the province of Isabela, on March 23, 1901, and the dominion 140

GENERAL INFORMATION of the victorious eagle was inaugurated; but the hope of the Filipino .Flag is still kept alive and the lustre of its Sun and Stars remains yet undimmed in the very face of a stern political reality, that of a subject people. The spirit of this national hope is recognized even by the conquerors themselves, not a few of whom openly and publicly share the political view that: "The destiny of the Philippine Islands is not to be a state or territory in the United States of America, but a daughter republic of ours-a new birth of liberty on the other side of the Pacific, which shall animate and energize those lovely islands of the tropical seas, and rearing its head aloft, stand as a monument of progress and a beacon of hope to all the oppressed and benighted millions of the Asiatic co~tinent." 1 The "Sun and Stars" has lost its significance of sovereignty and has, therefore, ceased to be the symbol of what was once the Filipino Republic. Recognized, however, as the flag of a united people, its use to represent a cherished ideal is tolerated. It was proscribed from public display in 1907 but its present use as the "Official Flag of the Philippine Government" has been 's anctioned by law since 1919. The fact that it is not enjoying the recognition accorded the flags of free and independent states does not mean that it lacks national attribute. It is true that it is without international personality and has neither sailed the high seas of the world nor has it flown in the four winds of heaven; but its war-history, whence it acquired its national significance, and the recognition accorded it by the entire Filipino people, whereof its national personality was established, made possible the birth of a nation, 1 Jacob Gould Schurman, President of the First Philippine Commission. .

141

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES the first republic in the family of oriental states. It is therefore entitled to the honor of being our national flag; and as such, it keeps inviolate the principles of political freedom for which it stands, links the travail of the past with the undertaking of the present, and spans the desperate struggle of men long since dead with the peace and liberty of future generations. Constitutional Provisions On The Flag.-The change of Philippine political status into a Commonwealth as provided in the Tydings-McDuffie Law, evoked a new constitution for the Philippines, March, 1935. In framing up this fundamental law of the land, the delegates to the Constitutional Convention thought it fit, proper and meritorious to insert the following provisions on the national colors, (Section 1, Article XIII) : '' 'The flag of t he Philippines shall be red, white, and blue, with a sun and three stars, as consecrated and honored by the people and recognized by law."

The insertion of the above provisions in the Commonwealth Constitution upholds once more the national flag of the country, recognizes its historical evolution since it was adopted in 1898, and sanctions, for all time to come, the political ideology which it has developed since the first revolutionary movement of 1892. As a general rule, it is not necessary to mention the adoption of a flag in a constitution, although many modern constitutions do include such provisions. Political considerations do not usually demand its inclusion; but exceptions may be made when two or more states, having different flags, merge into one political state and adopt one of their flags or another new flag designed out of them all. The case of the Filipino Flag does not come within this category; for all that the Constitutional Convention 142

GENERAL INFORMATION did was to assure the ' continuance of the use of the already-adopted flag as designed in 1898. Whether or not such inclusion, in so fundamental a document as that of the Constitution of the country, was a proper political or patriotic gesture, is a question of taste or point of view. Even the Malolos Constitution, under which the present Flag was born did not provide for its adoption. Those responsible for its inclusion in the present Constitution must have based their decision on the idea of assuring the permanency of the Flag whose historical and sentimental value they wished to preserve in the Constitution. In their fruitful gesture, they performed a patriotic act and preserved for posterity an evidence of their loyalty to the spirit of t he struggle for independence. If these were the true intention of the framers of the Constitution-as undoubtedly they were-the flag provisions are not and will not be in vain. What . Interna'tional Recognition If Any?-In so far as the United States is concerned, the Philippine Flag is tIle national emblem of a semi-independent state-a sort of a de facto "protectorate" of America, not a real protectorate in the international sense, but more like a free state under the protection of another sovereign state; not like the regular states within the Federal Union, but a little bit more, enjoying and exercising all the ordinary prerogatives of a free state, excepting in matters of foreign relations. So that, although the Philippine Flag does not yet have complâ&#x201A;Źte international significance, it is nevertheless already recognized as the Flag of a people, of a 'c ountry with only one political identity, all separate from, yet under the protection of, the sovereign nation. The United States has vouchsafed this international meaning in the Philippine Flag since the birth of the Commonwealth on November 15, 1935, when her Men-of-War, riding at anchor in Manila Bay, thundered the national salute to the new nation: 143

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES From the international standpoint, however, it is not a salute to the Philippine Flag. Under the Philippine Commonwealth, the National Flag cannot yet be set up in its former place of honor; but under this government, it will regain the greater part of its lost political significance. In the meantime, its display before the world remains under the protecting wings of the American Eagle. However, in the case of a new recognized political status, foreign powers desiring to hold relation with this semi-independent state cannot but, out of courtesy, recognize its flag in terms no less than those "accorded to it by the sovereign state. It may not be an "international recognition" in the fullest sense of international law; but it must perforce be some kind of international recognition for the sake of community and good will, if for no other purpose. THE FILIPINO'S CREED TO FLAG AND COUNTRY Upholding the heritage and the traditions which made possible the birth of the Philippine Commonwealth, I believe in the political unity of my people, a nation, indivisible and inseparable. Born of two wars, it was founded upon those principles of democracy which recognize freedom, equality, justice and humanity as the basis of popular government. In defense of those principles, and consecrating their lives for the common legacy, thousands of Filipino patriots died for their country. The Filipino citizens of all times must, therefore, be ever dedicated to that same cause. Wherefore, it is my duty to love my country, her people and her institutions; to support its government and obey its laws; to respect, uphold and protect its Flag, the symbol of the Filip,ino nation, the soul-stirring embodiment of all that is great in political life, liberty and freedom. 144

Thirty Most Important Documents on the Philippine Revolution By TEODORO M. KALA W Director, National Ubrary of the Philippines

2. 3.

5. 6.

THE KARTILLA 'OF THE KATIPUNAN, because it reveals the humanitarian and patriotic purposes of the Vene1路anda Asociacion de los Hijos del Pueblo (Venerable Association of the Sons of the People). THE NEWSPAPER. KALAYAAN, founded on January 1, 1896, for being the mouthpiece of the Association. THE MINUTES OF THE KATIPUNAN, which are preserved in the National Library of the Philippines, because they demonstrate the activities of the society, the number of its associates and the contributions received to support the Revolution. They also demonstrate that the motive of the Katipunan was to obtain independence. THE BY-LAWS OF THE KATIPUNAN, written in Spanish by Mabini and translated into Tagalog by Jacinto, because they expound the organization of the Katipunan, its rules and procedure. PROCLAMATION OF ANDRES BONIFACIO, ordering the general uprising for the 29th of August, 1896. MANIFEST OF AGUINALDO of the 31st of October, 1896, from Magdalo, Kawit, because it confirms that the Revolution, already begun, had for its object the freedom of the Philippines, under the famous slogan "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity." MINUTES OF THE PROCEEDINGS (still unfound) OF THE TEJEROS ASSEMBLY, of March 22, 1897, when Aguinaldo was elected president of the Revolutionay Government. Here began the leadership of Aguinaldo. THE SENSATIONAL MEMORIAL of Isabelo de los Reyes of April 25, 1897, because it embodies the charges 145

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

10. 11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

which, in the judgment of an eminent writer, existed against the Spanish government. THE CONSTITUTl{)N OF BIAK-NA-BATO, November 1, 1897, because it reveals the elevated and democratic principles of government which inspired the Revolutionists. THE PACT OF BIAK-NA-BATO, December 14, 1897, a political triumph of the leaders of the Katipunan. MANIFEST-PROGRAM of the Reformist Filipino Colony of Madrid (February 10, 1898). It was the pacifist program of Philippine intelligence abroad. REVOLUTIONARY ASSEMBLY IN HONGKONG, discussing the invitation to the Americans to renew the war against Spain. It decided the return of Aguinaldo (May 4, 1898). ORDINANCES OF THE REVOLUTION with its Manifest (April, 1898) . Published by Mabini, who, recently coming out from the San Juan de Dios Hospital where he was treated and confined, suggested to the Revolutionists a plan of organization and recommended that in the Hispano-American War they should neither help Spain nor the United States, but take advantage of the conflict in order to struggle for the liberty of the Islands. This work contributed to the political orientation in the camps of the Revolution in those days of doubts and questionings. MANIFEST OF AGUINALDO released on the same day of his arrival in Cavite, May 19, designating the 31st day for the new general revolt against Spain. MANIFEST OF AGUINALDO of May 23, declaring that he returned to the Islands to assume the command of the Revolutionary movements. CONSTITUTl{)NAL PROGRAM of Mabini and the True Decalogue, because they represent the character146

GENERAL INFORMATION

17.

18.

19.

20. 21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

istics, ideals, and tendencies of the first few months of the Philippine Revolution. PROCLAMATION OF INDEPENDENCE IN KAWIT, as the national aspiration of the Revolution (June 12, 1898) . MANIFEST OF AGUINALDO (July 15, 1898) inviting all the old members of the Katipunan to join the new Revolution. RATIFICATION OF INDEPENDENCE (August 18, 1898) by the municipal presidents elected in accordance with the decree of the Government, inasmuch as this was a confirmation by the representative of each locality of the ideal of the Revolution proclaimed on the 12th of June. RATIFICATION OF INDEPENDENCE by the Revolutionary Congress (September 29). THE MALOLOS CONSTITUTION. The fundamental docu路 ment which expresses authoritatively the) synthesis of Filipino aspirations. THE PROTEST OF AGUINALDO against the Treaty of Paris, for having been celebrated secretly and without hearing the representation of the Filipino Government (December 12, 1898). PROTEST OF AGUINALDO, in representation of the FiJi路 pino Government, against the proclamation of General Otis announcing that he had assumed the office of Governor of the Philippines. The public opinion in the Archipelago rose high. So the protest was sent to the Consuls (January 5, 1899). MANIFEST OF AGUINALDO denouncing to the world the conduct of the United States in the Philippines (January 8, 1899). DECLARATION OF WAR against the United States. Or路 der of Aguinaldo promulgated on the night of Feb147

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

26.

27.

28.

29. 30.

ruary 4, with the explanatory Manifest of the following day. MANIFEST OF APACIBLE, President of the Diplomatic Committee, to the American people, published in Toronto in June, 1900. DAIRY OF DR. VILLA, because it relates officially the odyssey of Aguinaldo, persecuted by the American troops. It was written by request of the same Aguinaldo. THE MEMORIAL OF INDEPENDENCE presented for the first time to the American authorities by neighbors of Manila and prepared by Aurelio Tolentino. There were more than two thousand signers, and this caused considerable unrest in Washington (July, 1900) . THE INDEPENDENCE MEMORIAL of the Cebuanos directed to Congress (October, 1900). MANIFEST OF AGUINALDO recommending peace (April 19, 1901).

148

III. GOVERNMENT

The Revolutionary Government of Biak-Na-Bato in 1897 COUNCIL OF STATE

President .................... Vice-President ............... Secretary of the Interior ..... Secretary of Foreign Relations . Secretary of War ............. Secretary of Agriculture .. . ... Under Secretary of the Interior . Under Secretary of Foreign Relations ............ . ....... Under Secretary of War ....... Under Secretary of Agriculture.

Emilio Aguinaldo Mariano Trias Isabelo Artacho Antonio Montenegro Emiliano Riego de Dios Baldomero Aguinaldo Lino Viola Escolastico Viola Vito Belarmino Paciano Rizal

MILITARY ARMY

Chief of Staff Lieutenant-General ........... Lieutenant-General ........... Lieutenant-General ........... Major General ................ Major General ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. Brigadier General ............ Brigadier General ............ Brigadier General ............ General (Estado Mayor) ...... Colonel (Estado Mayor) ...... Lieutenant-Colonel (Estado Mayor) ...................... Commandant (Estado Mayor) . Colonel ...................... 149

Artemio Ricarte Mariano Llanera Pio del Pilar Miguel Malvar Melecio Carlos Mariano Riego de Dios Jose Salvador Natividad Francisco Soliman Pantale6n Garcia Tomas Mascardo Wenceslao Viniegra Doroteo LOpez Benito Natividad Jose Ignacio

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Colonel Colonel Colonel Lieutenant-Colonel Lieutenant-Colonel Lieutenant-Colonel Lieutenant-Colonel Lieutenant-Colonel Commandant Commandant Commandant Commandant Commandant Commandant

Isidoro Torres Sinforoso de la Cruz Manuel Tinio Eduardo Llanera Ambrosio Mojica Marcelino Aure Jose Coronel Gregorio H. del Pilar Lazaro Makapagal Andres Presbitero Tiburcio de Leon Severino Taifio Agapito Bonson Teodoro Giner Cruz OFFICERS

Esteban Rabelo Apolonio Casaan Vicente Espada Esteban San Juan Silvestre Domingo Casimiro Viscaira Santos Nocon Pablo Kabling

Narciso Porciuncula Manuel Seneca Rufino Fallera Francisco Medina Ruperto Arce Macario Gregorio Lucas Camerino Hermogenes Bautista

CIVIL SERVICE

Licerio Topacio Eugenio Topacio Carlos Robquillo

Teodoro Legazpi Leon Novenario Maximo Kabigting SANITATION

Director, Anastacio Fra,ncisco (Licensed Doctor) Practitioners, Francisco Senson Eleuterio Francisco 150

Ponciano Garcia Pedro Esteban Manuel Jose Marcelo Kasampo -

Members Composing the National Assembly which Decreed the State Constitution of the Philippine Republic, Malolos, Bulacan, 1899 Aguedo Velarde Alberto Barretto Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista Antonio Luna Antonio Feliciano Arcadio del Rosario Ariston Bautista Ariston Gella Arsenio Cruz Herrera Basilio Teodoro Benito Legarda Ceferino de Leon Domingo Samson Esteban de la Rama Felipe Buencamino Felipe Calderon Felix Bautista Felix Ferrer Pascual Fernando Canon Graciano Cordero Gregorio Aguilera Gregorio Aglipay Higino Benitez Hipolito Magsalin Hugo Ilagan Ignacio Villamor Isidoro Torres Isidro Paredes Javier Gonzalez Salvador Joaquin Gonzalez Joaquin Luna

Jose Basa Jose Salamanca Jose R. Infante Jose F. Oliveros Jose Tuason Jose Santiago Jose M. de la Vifia Jose M. Lerma Jose Albert Jose Coronel Jose Alejandrino Jose Fernandez Jose Luna Juan Nepomuceno Juan Manday Juan Tuason Justo Lukban Leon Apacible Leon Guerrero Lorenzo del Rosario Lucas Gonzalez Maninang Manuel Xeres Burgos Manuel Gomez Martinez Marcial Calleja Mariano V. del Rosario Mariano Abella Mariano Lopez Mariano Crisostomo Martin Garcia Mateo Gutierrez Ubaldo Mateo del Rosario

151

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Melecio Figueroa Sebastian de Castro Mena Crisologo Simplicio del Rosario Miguel Zaragoza Sofio Alandi Narciso Hidalgo ResurreccionSotero Laurel Pablo Ocampo Telesforo Chuidian Pablo Tecson Roque Teodoro Sandiko Patricio Bailon Teodoro Gonzalez Pedro A. Paterno Tomas Arejola Perfecto Gabriel Tomas G. del Rosario Pio del Pilar Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera Vicente Foz Raymundo Alindada Vicente Guzman Pagulayan Ricardo Paras Vicente del Prado Salvador V. del Rosario Vicente Somoza Santiago Barcelona Vito Belarmino Santiagq Icasiano PERSONNEL OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT President of the Nation: Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy Department of War: Secretary of War, Baldomero Aguinaldo Baloy Director, Antonio Luna Department of Interior: Secretary, Leandro Ibarra Director, Severino de las Alas Department of Foreign Relations: Secretary, Cayetano Arellano Director, Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera Department of Finance: Secretary, Mariano Trias y Closas Director, Benito Legarda General Treasurer, Silvestre Legaspi Navy: Director, Pascual Ledesma Commerce: Director, Esteban de la Rama 152

GENERAL INFORMATION Department of Justice: Secretary, Gregorio Araneta Director, Jose M. Basa Enriquez Director of Registry, Juan Tongco Department of Natural Resources: Secretary, Felipe Buencamino Director of Public Instruction, Arsenio Cruz Herrera Public Works: Director, Fernando Canon Faustino Agriculture and Industry: Director, Jose Alejandrino Communications: Director, Jose Vales Hygiene: Director, Jose Albert

153

Delegates to the Constitutional Convention (July 14, 1934) Claro M. Recto, President Ruperto Montinola, First Vice-President Teodoro Sandiko, Second Vice-President Abaya, Artemio P., 2nd district, Ilocos Sur Abella, Manuel 1., 1st district, Camarines Sur Abordo, Gaudencio E., Palawan Abrigo, Felipe J., 3rd district, Samar Adduru, Marcelo, 1st district, Cagayan Aguilar, Amancio T., Masbate Albero, Manuel A., Romblon Aldeguer, Jose M., 5th district, Iloilo Alejandrino, J'ose, 2nd district, Pampanga Alkuino, Quiremon V., 2nd district, Leyte Alonto Alauya, Lanao Altavas, Jose C., ist district, Capiz Ancheta, Pio A., 1st district, La Union Araneta, Salvador Z., 2nd district, Manila Arcenas, Antonio A., 2nd district, Capiz Arellano, Francisco S., 2nd district, Sorsogon Arolas Tulawi, Sulu Artadi, Jose R., Misamis Oriental Arteche, Pedro R., 2nd district, Samar Aruego, Jose M., 4th district, Pangasinan Balili, Perfecto B., 2nd district, Bohol Baltao, Eugenio T., 1st district, Nueva Ecija Bafiaga, Gregorio M., 1st district, Tarlac Barrion, Antonio G., 1st district, Batangas Bautista, Felix B., 1st district, Pampanga Beltran, Pascual M., 3rd district, Pangasinan Benitez, Conrado F., 2nd district, Laguna Benito, Saturnino R., 2nd district, Albay 154

GENERAL INFORMATION Binag, Miguel B., Isabela Blah Sinsuat y Piiiagtayon, Cotabato Bocar, Juan L., 3rd district, Samar Bonto, Jose F., 1st district, Albay Borbon, Julio V., Abra Braganza, Enrique C., 1st district, Pangasinan Briones, Manuel C., 1st district, Cebu Buendia, Nicolas B., 1st district, Bl1lacan Bueno, Maximino G., 1st district, Ilocos Norte Buslon, Teofilo B., 3rd district, Bohol Cabarroguis, Leon C., Nueva Vizcaya Cabili, Tomas L., Lanao Calleja, Ambrosio A., 1st district, Albay Canonoy, Mateo M., 1st district, Leyte Caram, Fermin G., 2nd district, Iloilo Carin, Casiano S., 4th district, Cebu Carino, Jose 0., Bengllet Castillejos, .Tuan L., Batanes Castillo, Rafael S., Davao Castro, Servando G., 2nd district, Ilocos Norte Cea, Severo F., 2nd district, Camarines Sur Chioco, Florentino 0., 1st district, Nueva Ecija Cinco, Atilano R., 5th district, Leyte Clarin. Jose A" 2nd district, Bohol Claribel, Gaudencio F., 1st district, Bohol Conejero, Jose D., 3rd district, Albay Confesor, Tomas V., 3rd district, Iloilo Conol, Paulino A., Misamis Occidental Crespillo, Alberto P., Ifugao Cruz, Castor P., 1st district, Rizal Cruz, Roman A., Bataan Cuaderno, Miguel P., Bataan Cuenco, Miguel, 5th district, Cebu Curato, Apolonio D., Agusan Delgado, Jose Ma., 1st district, Laguna 155

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Diez, Clementino V., Surigao Dikit, Domingo T., 2nd district, Rizal Divinagracia, Tranquilino V., 4th district, Iloilo Duguiang, Max B., Kalinga Encarnacion, Demetrio B., Cavite Enriquez, Romualdo A., 2nd district, Tayabas Escareal, Agripino P., 1st district, Samar Esliza, Leoncio R., 5th district, Pangasinan Ezpeleta, Mariano B., 1st district, Iloilo Fakafigan, Jose C., Apayao Fernandez, Manuel B., Misamis Oriental Flores, Sofronio M., 1st district, Iloilo Francisco, Vicente J., Cavite Gaerlan, Sixto A., Baguio Galang, Alejandro A., 2nd district, Tarlac Ganzon, Jose C., 5th district, Iloilo Grafilo, Adolfo G., 1st district, Sorsogon Grageda, Exequiel S., 2nd district, Camarines Sur Guarifia, Mario G., 2nd district, Sorsogon Guevara, Pedro, 2nd district, Laguna Gullas, Paulino A., 2nd district, Cebu Gumangan, Miguel C., Ifugao Gumban, Delfin G., Agusan Gutierrez, Jose D., 2nd district, Pampanga Guzman, Alejandro F. de, 2nd district, La Union Guzman, Antonio G., 2nd district, Cagayan Guzman, Bernabe F. de, 5th district, Pangasinan Guzman, Jose L. de, 3rd district, Pangasinan Hernaez, Pedro C., 2nd district, Negros Occidental Hontiveros, Jose M., 3rd district, Capiz Inting, Bernardino, 1st district, Bohol Irving, Clement F., Bontoc Jose, Felipe E., Baguio Joven, Delfin H., 2nd district, Ilocos Sur Jumawan, Sergio B., 2nd district, Negros Oriental 156

GENERAL INFORMATION Kapunan, Ruperto, 3rd district, Leyte Kintanar, Cesar A., 4th district, Cebu Labrador, Alejo R., Zambales Lapak, Baldomero M., Camarines Norte Laurel, Jose P., 1st district, Batangas Ledesma, Juan J., 1st district, Negros Occidental Leonardo, Braulio V., 4th district, Albay Lesaca, Potenciano G., Zambales Liboro, Cipriano A., Mindoro Lim, Manuel M., Manila Lizardo, Mariano A., Batanes Lizares, Simplicio A., 2nd district, N egros Occidental Locsin, Jose C., 1st district, Negros Occidental Lopez, Eusebio M., 2nd district , Batangas Lopez, Vicente V., 1st district, N egros Oriental Lorenzana, Jose M., Bontoc Lorenzo, Pablo R., Zamboanga Lutero, Tiburcio A., 3rd district, Iloilo Maglanoc, Enrique N., 2nd district, Tarlac Mansueto, Antonio A., 1st district, Cebu Marabut, Serafin D., 2nd district, Samar Maramara, Juanito T., 7th district, Cebu Martinez, Manuel C., 2nd district, Leyte Martinez, Rafael C., 1st district, Leyte Maza, Ramon 0., Antique Melendez, Pedro B., Bukidnon Melendres, Mariano C., 2nd district, Rizal Menandang Piang y Mora, Cotabato Millar, Fabian R., 1st district, Tayabas Moldero, Saturnino, Kalinga Moncado, Hilario Camino, 7th district, Cebu Montano, Jose G., Sulu Montesa, Antonio M., Romblon Montilla, Enrique, 3rd district, Negros Occidental Morales, Luis, 1st di.strict, Tarlac 157

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Mumar, Anastacio A., 3rd district, Bohol Munoz, Francisco R., 3rd district, Albay Navarro, Juan R., Mindoro Nepomuceno, Juan P., 1st district, Pam pang-a N epomuceno, Ricardo L., Marinduque Nepomuceno, Vicente, Cagayan Niere, Dionisio V., 5th district, Cebu Ocampo, Elias, Isabela Orense, Eusebio N., 2nd district, Batangas Ortega, Juan, 1st district, Rizal Ortiz, Luciano J., 1st district, Samar Ortiz, Montano A., Surigao Osias, Camilo, 1st district, La Union Ozamis, Jose A., Misamis Occidental Palma, Rafael, 2nd district, Manila Paredes, Jesus V., Abra Pelayo, Pantaleon A., Davao Perez, Jesus G., 3rd district, Negros Occidental Perez, Toribio P., 2nd district, Albay Perfecto, Gregorio M., 1st district, Manila Pio, Miguel P., 2nd district, Cagayan Prieto, Gabriel P., 1st district, Camarines Sur Quirino, Demetrio N., Nueva Vizcaya Quirino, Elpidio R., 1st district, Ilocos Sur Rafols, Nicolas M., 6th district, Cebu Ramos, Anac1eto B., 1st district, Pangasinan Ranjo, Irineo, 1st district, Ilocos Norte Reyes, Godofredo R., 1st district, Tayabas Reyes, Jose S., 1st district, Sorsogon Ribo, Mamerto C., 5th district, Leyte Ricohermoso, Timoteo P., Marinduque Rivera, Felismeno V., 6th district, Cebu Romero, Jose E., 2nd district, Negros Oriental Romualdez, Norberto L., 4th district, Leyte Roxas, Manuel, 1st district, Capiz 158

GENERAL INFORMATION Saguin, Florentino A., Zamboanga Salazar, Angel A., Antique Salazar, Victorino S., 3rd district, Leyte Salumbides, Vicente A., 2nd district, Tayabas Sanchez, Conrado V., 1st district, Batangas Sandoval, Evaristo R., Palawan Santos, Exequiel M., 2nd district, Nueva Ecija Sanvictores, Jose S., Bukidnon Sevilla, Manuel, 2nd district, Bulacan Singson Encarnacion, Vicente, 1st district, Ilocos Sur Sison, Eusebio V., 4th district, Pangasinan Sobrepena, Enrique C., 2nd district, La Union Sotto, Filemon Y., 2nd district, Cebu Sotto, Vicente Y., 3rd district, Cebu Suner, Teodulfo S., 3rd district, Capiz Surban, Jesus B., 4th district, Albay Tanopo, N umeriano M., 2nd district, Pangasinan Velasco, Jose G., Benguet Ventanilla, Juan P., 2nd district, Pangasinan Ventura, Francisco R., 2nd district, Ilocos Norte Villamor, BIas B., Apayao Villanueva, Hermenegildo, 1st district, Negros Oriental Villarama, Antonio C., 2nd district, Bulacan Villareal, Cornelio T., 2nd district, Capiz Vinzons, Wenceslao Q., Camarines Norte Ybanez, Antonio B., 3rd district, Cebu Ysip, Bonifacio Z., 2nd district, Nueva Ecija Yusay, Matias P., 4th district, Iloilo Zavalla, Domingo T., 1st district, Laguna Zialcita, Francisco T., 3rd district, Leyte Zurhito. Jose C., Masbate

â&#x20AC;˘

159

The Philippine Assemblies and Legislatures MEMBERS OF THE FIRST PHILIPPINE ASSEMBLY (1907-1909) Sergio Osmefia, Speaker Adriatico, Macario, Mindoro Agoncillo, Felipe, 1st district, Batangas Aguas, Marcelino, 2nd district, Pampanga Alkuino, Quiremon, 1st district, Leyte Almonte, Tomas, 1st district, Albay Altavas, Jose, 2nd district, Capiz Alvarez, Francisco, 3rd district, Ambos Camarines Alvear, Juan, 3rd district, Pangasinan Arejola, Toma . 1st district, Ambos Camarines Asprer, Andres, 1st district, La Union A vancefia. Amando, 1st district, Iloilo Barretto, Alberto, Zambales Boyles, Eutiquio, 3rd district, Bohol Borja, Candelario, 1st district, Bohol Catigbac, Gregorio, 3rd district, Batangas Causin, Casiano, 6th district, Cebu Chavez, Pedro, 2nd district, Sorsogon Clarin, Jose, A., 2nd district, Bohol Cojuangco, Melecio, 1st district, Tarlac Corrales, Carlos, 1st district, Misamis Corrales, Manuel, 2nd district, Misamis Daza, Eugenio D., 3rd district, Samar Demeterio, Salvador K., 2nd district, Leyte Dorillo, Regino, 5tn district, Iloilo Fenoy, Lorenzo, 4th district, Pangasinan Gabaldon, Isauro, Nueva Ecija Gala, Emiliano A., 2nd district, Tayabas Galicano, Troadio, 5th district, Cebu Gonzalez, Matias, 5th district, Pangasinan 160

GENERAL INFORMATION Guerrero, Fernando Ma., 2nd district, Manila Guerrero, Leon Ma., 2nd district, Bulacan Guzman, Dimas, Isabela Guzman, Pablo, 1st district, Cagayan Hernandez, Adriano, 4th district, Iloilo Imperial, Carlos A., 2nd district, Albay Jalandoni, Nicolas, 2nd district, Iloilo Javier, Irineo, 1st district, Ilocos Norte J ayme, Antonio, 1st district, N egros Occidental Jimenez, Pedro V., Antique Laguda, Salvador, 3rd district, Iloilo Lasam, Gabriel, 2nd district, Cagayan Lerma, Jose M., Bataan Locsin, Vicente, 2nd district, Negros Oriental Lukban, Cayetano, 1st district, Rizal Lukban, Justo, 1st district, Manila Mapa, Dionisio, 2nd district, N egros Occidental Mercado, Monico R., 1st district, Pampanga Mina, Maximino, 2nd district, Ilocos Sur Mobo, Simeon, 3rd district, Capiz Montilla, Agustin, 3rd district, Negros Occidental Oben, Crispin, 2nd district, Laguna Orense, Eusebio, 2nd district, Batangas Osmefia, Sergio, 2nd district, Cebu Padilla, Nicanor, 1st district, Pangasinan Paterno, Pedro A., 1st district, Laguna Patero, Santiago M., Palawan Pefiaranda, Florentino, 3rd district, Leyte Picazo, Eugenio, 1st district, Capiz Pineda, Aurelio, 2nd district, Tarlac Pobre, Baldomero, 2nd district, Ilocos Norte Quezon, Manuel L., 1st district, Tayabas Revilla, Bartolome, 2nd district, Rizal Rey, Manuel, 2nd district, Ambos Camarines 161

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Reyes, Deogracias, 2nd district, Pangasinan Roco, Angel, 2nd district, Albay Rodriguez, Celestino, 1st district, Cebu Rodriguez, Pedro, 7th district, Cebu Rosales, Honorio, 1st district, Samar Rovira, Leopoldo, 1st district, N egros Oriental Ruiz, Alejandro, 4th district, Cebu Singson Encarnacion, Vicente, 1st district, Ilocos Sur Sinko, Luciano, 2nd district, Samar Soriano, Francisco, Surigao Sotto, Filemon, 3rd district, Cebu Velarde, Aguedo, 1st district, Bulacan Vera, Vicente de, 1st district, Sorsogon Veyra, Jaime C. de, 4th district, Leyte Villamor, Juan, 3rd district, !locos Sur Zandueta, Francisco, 2nd district, La Union MEMBERS OF THE SECOND PHILIPPINE ASSEMBLY (1909-1912) Sergio Osmena, Speaker Acuna, Rafael, 1st district, Capiz Adriatico, Macario, Mindoro Apacible, Galicano, 1st district, Batangas Arejola, Tomas, 1st district, Ambos Camarines Azanza, Benito, 2nd district, Samar Balmori, Joaquin, 4th district, Pangasinan Barrera, Marciano, 2nd district, Tarlac Barretto, Alberto, Zambales Barsana, Vicente, Batanes Borja, Candelario, 1st district, Bohol Borromeo, Leon, 1st district, Misamis Boyles, Eutiquio, 3rd district, Bohol Braganza, Cirilo, 1st district, Pangasinan Brimbuela, Silvino, 2nd district, Albay 162

GENERAL INFORMATION Caedo, Florencio R., 2nd district, Batangas Calleja, Marcial C., 1st district, Albay Capistrano, Nicolas, 2nd district, Misamis Causing, Eulalio, 7th district, Cebu Cinco, Eladio, 3rd district, Samar Claravall, Eliseo, Isabela Clarin, Jose A., 2nd district, Bohol Concepcion, Venancio, 1st district, Cagayan Contreras, Fulgencio, 2nd district, Ambos Camarines Diaz, Anac1eto, 2nd district, La Union Fajardo, Jacobo, 2nd district, Pampanga Fernandez Yanson, Manuel, 2nd district, N egros Occidental Fonacier, Leoncio, 2nd district, Cagayan Fuentebella, Jose, 3rd district, Ambos Camarines Gabaldon, Isauro, Nueva Ecija Galicano, Troadio, 5th district, Cebu Gavieres, Manuel G., Surigao Gomez, Dotninador, 1st district, Manila Grajo, Leoncio, 1st district, Sorsogon Granados, Estanislao, 1st district, Leyte Guanco, Esperidion, 4th district, Iloilo Guevara, Pedro, 2nd district, Laguna Guingona, Topisto, 2nd aistrict, Negros Oriental Ilagan, Mauricio, 1st district, Tarlac Javier, Irineo, 1st district, Ilocos Norte Kalaw, Teodoro M., 3rd district, Batangas Ledesma, Carlos, 2nd district, Iloilo Lopez, Ramon, 5th district, Iloilo Lopez Villanueva, Jose, 1st district, Negros Occidental Lopez Vito, Jose, 3rd district, Iloilo Lozada, Vicente, 6th district, Cebu Luna, Joaquin D., 1st district, La Union Luna, Jose Lino, 1st district, Rizal Malvar, Potenciano, 1st district, Laguna 163

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Manikan, Braulio C., 3rd district, Capiz Marchadesch, Abdon, 3rd district, Leyte Mercado, Monico R., 1st district, Pampanga Nieva, Gregorio, 2nd district, Tayabas Obieta, Vicente M., 1st district, Samar Ocampo, Pablo, 2nd district, Manila Osmeiia, Sergio, 2nd district, Cebu Padilla, Mariano, 2nd district, Pangasinan Pajal'illo, Leocadio, 2nd district, Capiz Paredes, Lucas, 2nd district, Ilocos Norte Patajo, Domingo, 5th district, Pangasinan Pecson, Jose T., 3rd district, Pangasinan Perez, Filemon, 1st district, Tayabas Ponce, Mariano, 2nd district, Bulacan Ramos, Rafael, 3rd district, Negros Occidental Reyes, Hermogenes, 1st district, Bulacan Rodriguez, Celestino, 1st district, Cebu Rosario, Tomas G. del, Bataan Ruiz, Alejandro, 4th district, Cebu Salazar, Angel, Antique Samson, Felix, 3rd district, Albay Sandoval, Manuel, Palawan Singson Encarnacion, V., 1st district, Ilocos Sur Sotto, Filemon, 3rd district, Cebu Tirona, Emiliano Tria, Cavite Tupas, Jose, 2nd district, Rizal Valle, Jose Ma. del, 2nd district, Ilocos Sur Veyra, Jaime C. de, 4th district, Leyte Villamor, Juan, 3rd district, Ilocos Sur Villanueva, Francisco, 1st district, Iloilo Villanueva, Hermenegildo, 1st district, N egros Oriental Zialcita, Francisco, 2nd district, Leyte Zurbito, Jose, 2nd district, Sorsogon 164

GENERAL INFORMATION MEMBERS OF THE THIRD PHILIPPINE ASSEMBLY (1912-1916) Sergio Osmefia, Speaker Acuiia, Rafael, 1st district, Capiz Adriatico, Macario, Mindoro AIde, Mariano, 3rd district, Samar Alunan, Rafael, 2nd district, Negros Occidental Angeles, Sixto de los, 2nd district, Rizal Apacible, Galicano, 1st district, Batangas Avancefia, Amando, 4th district, Iloilo Baltazar, Florencio, 2nd district, La Union Barsana, Vicente, Batanes Borbon, Julio, 3rd district, Ilocos Sur Borja, Candelario, 1st district, Bohol Borromeo, Leon, 1st district, Misamis Capistrano, Nicolas, 2nd district, Misamis Caringal, Marcelo, 2nd district, Batangas Causing, Eulalio E., 7th district, Cebu Cecilio, Silverio, 1st district, Ambos Camarines Claravall, Eliseo, Isabela Clarin, Jose A., 2nd district, Bohol Corpus, Rafael, Zambales Cortes, Inocencio, Surigao Costas, Dalmacio, 2nd district, Leyte Cruz, Rufo, 3rd district, Pangasinan Cuenco, Mariano J., 5th district, Cebu Dadivas, Simeon, 2nd district, Capiz Diaz, Domingo, 1st district, Albay Enage, Francisco, 4th district, Leyte Espinosa, Jose, 2nd district, Tarlac Fonacier, Santiago A., 1st district, Ilocos Norte Fuentebella, Jose, 3rd district, Ambos Camarines Gomez, Tomas, 1st district, Samar Gonzales, Lucio, Nueva Ecija 165

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Grajo, Leoncio, 1st district, Sorsogon Granados, Estanislao, 1st district, Leyte Guevara, Pedro, 2nd district, Laguna Guingona, Teopisto, 2nd district, N egros Oriental Gustilo, Ernesto, 3rd district, Iloilo Gutierrez David, Eduardo, 1st district, Pampanga Herrera, Arsenio Cruz, 1st district, Rizal Joya, Florentino, Cavite Leon, Ceferino de, 2nd district, Bulacan Locsin, Mariano A., 2nd district, Albay Lozada, Vicente, 6th district, Cebu Luciano, Andres, 2nd district, Pampanga Luna, Joaquin D., 1st district, La Union Mapa, Cirilo, 5th district, Iloilo Masi.gan, Crescencio V., 1st district, Cagayan Montilla, Gil M., 3rd district, N egros Occidental Morales, Luis, 1st district, Tarlac Mundo, Bernardo del, 2nd district, Tayabas Ocampo, Julian, 2nd district, Ambos Camarines Osmefia, Sergio, 2nd district, Cebu Padilla, Gervasio, 1st district, Cebu Perez, Filemon, 1st district, 'fayabas Perez, Rodrigo D., 2nd district, Pangasinan Platon, Servillano, 1st district, Laguna Quiaoit, Teogenes, 2nd district, Ilocos Norte Quintos, Juan, 2nd district, Cagayan Reyes, Fidel A., 3rd district, Batangas Romualdez, Miguel, 3rd district, Leyte Rosa, Luciano de la, 2nd district, Manila Ruiz, Alejandro, 4th district, Cebu Sabarre, Jose, 2nd district, Samar Salas, Perfecto, 2nd district, Iloilo Salazar, Angel, Antique Sandoval, Manuel, Palawan Sansano, Hugo, 5th district, Pangasinan 166

GENERAL INFORMATION Santos, Isidoro de, 1st district, Manila Severino, Melecio, 1st district, N egros Occidental Singson Encarnacion, Vicente, 1st district, Ilocos Sur Sison, Pedro M., 4th district, Pangasinan Solis, Vicente, 1st district, Pangasinan Sotto, Filemon, 3rd district, Cebu Talavera, Gregorio, 2nd district, Ilocos Sur Tecson, Pablo, Bataan Tirol, Jose, 3rd district, Capiz Velarde, Aguedo, 1st district, Bulacan Villanueva, Francisco, 1st district, Iloilo Villanueva, Hermenegildo, 1st district, Negros Oriental Villareal, Ceferino, 3rd district, Albay Virtudes, Juan, 3rd district, Rohol Zurbito, Jose, 2nd district, Sorsogon ..

MEMBERS OF THE FOURTH PHILIPPINE LEGISLATURE (1916-1919) PHILIPPINE SENATE

Manuel L. Quezon, President First DiBtrict (Batanes, Cagayan, Isabela, Ilocos Norte, and Ilocos Sur) Singson Encarnacion, V. VilJamor, Juan Second District (La Union, Pangasinan, and Zambales) Sison, Pedro Ma. Gonzalez, Matias Thi1路d Distr-ict (Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Bulacan) Liongson, Francisco Gabaldon, Isauro 167

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

Fourth District (Bataan, Laguna, Manila, and Rizal) Palma, Rafael Guevara, Pedro Fifth District (Batangas, Mindoro, Tayabas, and Cavite) Quezon, Manuel L. Ilustre, Vicente Sixth District (Sorsogon, Albay, and Ambos Camarines) Imperial, Leoncio Guarifia, Mario Seventh Distric,t (Iloilo and Capiz) Altavas, Jose Villanueva, Francisco Eighth DVstrict (Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Antique, and Palawan) Guanco, Espiridion Lopez, Manuel Ninth District (Leyte and Samar) Singzon, Esteban Veloso, Jose Ma. Tenth District (Cebu) Sotto, Filemon Rodriguez, Celestino Eleventh District (Surigao, Misamis, and Bohol) Clarin, Jose A. Capistrano, Nicolas 168

GENERAL INFORMATION Twelfth Di8triCt

(Mountain Province, Baguio, Nueva Vizcaya, and Department of Mindanao and Sulu) Luna, Joaquin D. Hadji Butu HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Sergio Osmena, Speaker Abad Santos, Pedro, 2nd district, Pampanga Acuna Villaruz, Rafael, Mindanao and Sulu Aguilar, Amancio, 2nd district, Sorsogon Alba Mobo, Leopoldo, 2nd district, Capiz Alonso, Tomas, 7th district, Cebu Alunan, Rafael, 2nd district, N egros Occidental Apostol, Segundo, 3rd district, Leyte Arroyo, Jose M., 1st district, Iloilo Banaag, Aquilino, 2nd district, Pangasinan Belo y Villaruz, Antonio, 1st district, Capiz Borbon, Pablo, 2nd district, Batangas Borromeo, Gregorio, 1st district, Misamis Bulayungan, Rafael, Mountain Province Carino, Juan, Mountain Province Casenas Orbeta, Filomeno, 3rd district, Bohol Castillejos, Juan C., Batanes Cea, Sulpicio V., 3rd district, Ambos Camarines Concepcion N ava, Miguel, 2nd district, Cagayan Costas y Rojas, Dalmacio, 2nd district, Leyte Cuenco, Mariano Jesus, 5th district, Cebu Datu Benito, Mindanao and Sulu Datu Piang, Mindanao and Sulu Diaz, Domingo, 1st district, Albay Diokno, Ramon, 1st district, Batangas Escalante, Gonzalo S., 1st district, Ambos Camarines Escudero, Manuel, 1st district, Sorsogon Escueta, Mariano, 1st district, Bulacan 169

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Fernandez, Vicente T., 1st district, Cagayan Festin, Leonardo, 3rd district, Capiz Flor, Melchor, 2nd district, Iloeos Norte Fontanilla y Meneses, Valerio, 2nd district, La Union Gallares, Celestino, 1st district, Bohol Generoso, Jose G., 2nd district, Manila Gomez, Feliciano, 1st district, Laguna Gomez, Teodoro 1., 3rd ,district, Pangasinan Gonzalez, Isidoro, Nueva Ecija Gonzalez Lloret, Ricardo, 2nd district, Bulacan Gregorius, Nicanor, 3rd district, Iloilo Gutierrez David, Eduardo, 1st district, Pampanga Guysayko, Crisanto M., 2nd district, Laguna Guzman y Florendo, Alejandro, 4th district, Pangasinan Guzman, Bernabe de, 5th district, Pangasinan Hernaez, Jose, 1st district, Cebu Kapunan, Ruperto, 4th district , Leyte Leon, Juan de, 5th district, Iloilo Leuterio y Resurreccion, Mariano P., Mindoro Lorenzo, Pablo, Mindanao and Sulu Lozano, Crescenciano, 2nd district, Iloilo Lucero, Juan T., 1st district, La Union Lugay Raquel, Jose, 3rd district, Samar Lumain, Macario, 2nd district, Bohol Luna, Tomas, 3rd district, Albay Lutero, Tiburcio, 4th district, Iloilo Llanes, Vicente, 1st district, Ilocos Norte Manglapus, Valentin, Mountain Province Maza, Ramon, Antique Mendiola, Pedro, 1st district, Samar Montenegro, Antonio, 1st district, Manila Montilla, Gil, 3rd district, Negros Occidental Morales y Lopez, Luis, 1st district, Tarlac Morales, Ponciano, 2nd district, Ilocos Sur N eri, Ramon B., 2nd district, Misamis 170

GENERAL INFORMATION Nieva, Gregorio, 2nd district, Tayabas Osmefia, Sergio, 2nd district, Cebu Pablo, Guillermo F., Zambales Palma Gil, Teodoro, Mindanao and Sulu Purugganan, Eustaquio, 3rd district, Ilocos Sur Raffifian, Miguel, 6th district, Cebu Recto, Alfonso M., 1st district, Tayahas Rey, Manuel, 2nd district, Ambos Camarines Reyes, Alberto, 1st district, Ilocos Sur Reyes Catigbac, Benito, 3rd district, Batangas Reyes, Maximino de los, Bataan Rivera, Cayetano, 2nd district, Tarlac Ruiz, Alejandro, 4th district, Cebu Salazar y Dacutan, Pastor, 2nd district, Samar Sandoval y Manlave, Manuel, Palawan Santos, Arcadio, 1st district, Rizal Santos, Eugenio, 2nd district, Rizal Severino, Lope P., 1st district, N egros Occidental Sison, Modesto, 1st district, Pangasinan Tayko, Felipe, 2nd district, Negros Oriental Tionko, Eusebio, Surigao Tirona, Emiliano T., Cavite Urgello, Vicente, 3rd district, Cebu Valera, Wenceslao, Nueva Vizcaya Veloso, Manuel B., 1st district, Leyte Vera, Jose 0., 2nd district, Albay Verzosa, Mauro, Isabela Villegas, Restituto, 1st district, Negros Oriental MEMBERS OF THE FIFTH PHILIPPINE LEGISLATURE (1919-1922) PHILIPPINE SENATE

Manuel L. Quezon, President 171

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

First District (Batanes, Cagayan, Isabela, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and Abra) Fonacier, Santiago A. Singson Encarnacion, Vicente ~eco1Ut District (La Union, Pangasinan, and Zambales) Guzman, Bernabe de . Sison, Pedro Ma. Third District (Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Bulacan) Sandiko, Teodoro Leon, Ceferino de Fourth District (Bataan, Laguna, Manila, and Rizal) Guevara, Pedro Palma, Rafael Fifth Dwtrict (Batangas, Mindoro, Tayabas, and Cavite) Soriano, Antero Quezon, Manuel L. Sixth District (Sorsogon, Albay, and Ambos Camarines) Vera" Vicente de Imperial, Leoncio ~eventh District (Iloilo, Capiz, and Romblon) Arroyo, Jose Ma. Altavas, Jose Eighth District (Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Antique, and Palawa,n ) Villanueva, Hermenegildo Guanco, Espiridion 172

GENERAL INFORMATION

Ninth District (Leyte and Samar) Enage, Francisco Singzon, Esteban Tenth District (Cebu) Rodriguez, Celestino Sotto, Filemon Eleverbth District (Surigao, Misamis, and Bohol) Soriano, Francisco Clarin, Jose A. Twelfth District (Mountain Prov:ince, Baguio, Nueva Vizcaya, and Department of Mindanao and Sulu ) Guingona, Teopisto Santos, Lope K. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Sergio Osmefia, Speaker Abad Santos, Pedro, 2nd district, Pampanga Adiarte, Faustino, 2nd district, Ilocos Norte Agregado, Vicente,2nd district, Batangas Aldanese, Isidoro, 4th district, Cebu Alonso, Jose, 7th district, Cebu Alunan, Rafael R., 2nd district, Negros Occidental Angeles David, Pablo, 1st district, Pampanga Aquino, Benigno S., 2nd district, Tarlac Artadi, Jose, 1st district, Misamis Aunario, Pedro, Mountain Province Bengson, Antonio, 1st district, Pangasinan Benitez, Eulogio, 2nd district, Laguna Binag, Miguel, Isabela Briones, Manuel C., 1st district, Cebu Buenconsejo, Agapito, 1st district, Albay 173

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Bulayungan, Rafael, Mountain Province Camacho, Raymundo 0., 3rd district, Pangasinan Carino, Juan, Mountain Province Casenas Orbeta, FilomenQ, 3rd district, Bohol Castillejos, Claudio, Batanes' Cecilio, Silverio D., 1st district, Camarines Sur Clavano, Fortunato U., 2nd district, Misamis Concepcion N ava, Miguel, 1st district, Cagayan Cuenco, Mariano Jesus, 5th district, Cebu Datu Piang, Mindanao and Sulu Datu Tampugaw, Mindanao and Sulu Diaz, Felipe C., 2nd district, La Union Enage, Francisco D., 1st district, Leyte Evangelista, Daniel, 4th district, Iloilo Evangelista, Jose, 1st district, Iloilo Festin, Leonardo, Romblon Gallares, Celestino, 1st district, Bohol Generoso, Jose G., 2nd district, Manila Gonzalez, Ricardo, 5th district, Pangasinan Grajo, Leoncio, 1st district, Sorsogon Guzman, Alejandro de, 2nd district, Pangasinan Habana, Antonio, 1st district, Capiz Hernandez, Gabriel, Camarines Norte Ignacio, Agapito, 1st district, Rizal Jesus, Roman de, Palawan Kangleon, Ciriaco K., 2nd district, Leyte Kapunan, Ruperto, 4th district, Leyte Leuterio, Mariano P., Mindoro Llanes, Vicente, 2nd district, Ilocos Norte Locsin, Jose E., 3rd district, Iloilo Lontoc, Vicente, 1st district, Batangas Lorenzo, Pablo, Mindanao and Sulu Lozano, Crescenciano, 2nd district, Iloilo Lucero, Juan T., 1st district, La Union Lugay Raquel, Jose, 3rd district, Samar 174

GENERAL INFORMATION Lumain, Macario, 2nd district, Bohol Marbella, Mariano 0o, 3rd district, Albay Martinez Jimeno, Pedro, 2nd district, Albay Maza, Ramon, Antique Medina, Gaudencio, Nueva Ecija Melendres, Mariano, 2nd district, Rizal Mendiola, Pedro Ko, 1st district, Samar Mendoza, Alejandro Ro, 4th district, Pangasinan Millar, Fabian Ro, 1st district, Tayabas Morales, Luis, 1st district, Tarlac Morales, Ponciano, 2nd district, Ilocos Sur Nolasco, Juan, 1st district, Manila Obi as, Honesto Po, 2nd district, Camarines Sur Ocampo, Vicente, 1st district, Laguna Osmefia, Sergio, 2nd district, Cebu Pablo, Guillermo Fo, Zambales â&#x20AC;˘ Padilla, Jose, 1st district, Bulacan Palma Gil, Teodoro, Mindanao and Sulu Pafiganiban, Evaristo, Nueva Vizcaya Paras, Ricardo, 2nd district, Tayabas Pastrana, Gregorio, 3rd district, Capiz Purugganan, Eustaquio, Abra Quirino, Elpidio, 1st district, Ilocos Sur Raffifian, Miguel, 6th district, Cebu Recto, Claro Mo, 3rd district, Batangas Reyes, Maximino de los, Bataan Rosa, Pablo de la, Masbate Salazar y Dacutan, Pastor, 2nd district, Samar Salcedo, Victorino Mo, 5th district, Iloilo Santos, Cirilo B., 2nd district, Bulacan Schuck, Julius, Mindanao and Sulu Severino, Lope Po, 1st district, N egros Occidental Siayngco, Julio, 3rd district, Leyte Silverio, Tito, 3rd district, Negros Occidental Teves, Pedro, 2nd district, N egros Orient~l 175

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Tionko, Eusebio, Surigao Urgello, Vicente, 3rd district, Cebu Urquiola, Jose A., 2nd district, Capiz Villegas, Restituto, 1st district, N egros Oriental Virata, Emilio P., Cavite MEMBERS OF THE SIXTH PHILIPPINE LEGISLATURE (1922-1925) PHII,IPPINE SENATE

Manuel L. Quezon, President

First District (Batanes, Cagayan, Isabela, !locos Norte, !locos Sur, and Abra) Reyes, Isabelo de los Fonacier, Santiago A. Second District (La Union, Pangasinan, and Zambales) Mabanag, Alejo Guzman, Bernabe de Third District (Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Bulacan) Lucero, Santiago Sandiko, Teodoro Fou.rth District (Bataan, Laguna, Manila, and Rizal) Tirona, Emiliano Tria Fernandez, Ramon J. Fifth District (Batangas, Cavite, 'Marinduque, Mindoro, and Tayabas) Quezon, Manuel L. Soriano, Antero Sixth District (Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Albay, Masbate, and Sorsogon) 176

GENERAL INFORMATION Alegre, Juan B. Vera, Vicente de

Seventh District (Iloilo, Capiz, and Romblon) Hontiveros, Jose Arroyo, Jose Ma. Eighth District (Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Antique, and Palawan) Guanco, Espiridion Villanueva, Hermenegildo Ninth District (Leyte and Samar) Gomez, Tomas Enage, Franeisco Tenth District (Cebu) Osmen~. Sergio Rodriguez, Celestino Eleventh Dist'rict (Surigao, Misamis, and Bohol) Clarin, Jose A. Soriano, Francisco Twelfth District (Mountain Province, Nueva Vizcaya, and Mindanao and Sulu) Guingona, Teopisto Hadji Butu HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Manuel Roxas, Speaker Abenis, Ifiigo, 3rd district, Samar Abueva, Teodoro, 3rd district, Bohol Acuna y Villaruz, Rafael, Mindanao and Sulu Alas, Antonio de las, 1st district, Batangas 177

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Aldanese, Isidoro, 4th district, Cebu Aldea, Agustin, 2nd district, Capiz Alonso, Jose, 7th district, Cebu Alvarez, Agustin S., 1st district, Tayabas Ancheta y Amon Pio, 1st district, La Union Aquino, Benigno S., 2nd district, Tarlac Artadi, Jose, 1st district, Misamis Aunario, Pedro, Mountain Province A velino, Jose, 1st district, Samar Azanza, Pascual B., 2nd district, Samar Banaga, Gregorio M., 1st district, Tarlac Bernad, Anselmo, 2nd district, Misamis Biteng, Lupo, 2nd district, Ilocos Sur Brillantes, AdQ}fo, Abra Briones, Manuel C., 1st district, Cebu Buenconsejo, Agapito, 1st district, Albay Bulayungan, Rafael, Mountain Province Camacho, Raymundo, 3rd district, Pangasinan Campos, Roman, 2nd district, !locos Norte Carino, Juan, Mountain Province Castillejos, Claudio, Batanes Cea, Sulpicio V., ' 2nd district, Camarines Sur Concepcion, Hermogenes, Nueva Ecija Confesor, Tomas, 3rd district, Iloilo Cuenco, Mariano J., 5th district, Cebu Datu Tampugaw, Mindanao and Sulu Diez, Clementino V., Surigao Dizon, Tomas, 1st district, Laguna Espiritu, Pedro F., Cavite Evangelista, Jose, 1st district, Iloilo Felipe, Ramon B., 1st district, Camarines Sur Fernandez, Patricio, Palawan Festin, Leonardo, Romblon Gonzalez, Ricardo, 5th district, Pangasinan 178

GENERAL INFORMATION Hilado, Serafin P., 1st district, Negros Occidental Jimenez, Federico D., 2nd district, Sorsogon Jimenez Yanson, Vicente, 2nd district, Negros Occidental Labrador, Alejo, Zambales Limsiaco, Eliseo, 3rd district, N egros Occidental Lorenzo, Pablo, Mindanao and Sulu Lozano, Crescenciano, 2nd district, Iloilo Luna, Juan L., Mindoro Llamas, Antonio G., Bataan Manapat, Vicente E., 2nd district, Pampanga Manikis, N orberto C., 2nd district, Bulacan Martinez, Fermin, 2nd district, N egros Oriental Martinez Jimeno, Pedro, 2nd district, Albay Melendres, Mariano, 2nd district, Rizal Mendoza, Alfonso E., 2nd district, Manila Montejo, Filomeno, 4th district, Leyte Navarro, Mauro, 1st district, Pangasinan Nepomuceno, Ricardo, Marinduque Oppus, Tomas, 2nd district, Leyte Ortiz, Mauro, 2nd district, La Union Padilla, Jose, 1st district, Bulacan Palileo, Aurelio, 2nd district, Laguna Palma Gil, Teodoro, Mindanao and Sulu Paiiganiban, Evaristo, Nueva Vizcaya Pascual, Andres, 1st district, Rizal Perfecto, Gregorio, 1st district, Manila Ponce Enrile, Alfonso, 1st district, Cagayan Rafols, Nicolas, 6th district, Cebu Rama, Vicente, 3rd district, Cebu Ranjo, Irineo, 1st district, Ilocos Norte Recto, Claro M., 3rd district, Batangas Rocha, Antonio H., 1st district, Sorsogon Rosa, Pablo de la, Masbate Roxas, Manuel, 1st district, Capiz Sabido, Pedro, 3rd district, Albay 179

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Salazar, Angel, Antique Sarigumba, Cornelio G., 2nd district, Bohol Sebastian, Proceso, 2nd district, Cagayan Siguion Reyna, Lamberto, 2nd district, Pangasinan Singson Pablo, Vicente, 1st district, Ilocos Sur Sison, Eusebio V., 4th district, Pangasinan Sotto, Vicente, 2nd district, Cebu Tan, Carlos S., 1st district, Leyte Terencio, Manuel, 3rd district, Capiz Tirador, Federico R., 4th district, Iloilo Torralba, Fermin, 1st district, Bohol Ugalifigan Piang, Mindanao and Sulu Valdez Liongson, Pedro, 1st district, Pampanga Vargas, TomaS" 5th district, Iloilo Veloso, Jose Ma., 3rd district, Leyte Verzosa, Tolentino, Isabela Vilar, Rafael R., 2nd district, Tayabas Villanueva, Guillermo Z., 1st district, Negros Oriental Villanueva, Rafael, 2nd district. Batangas Zenarosa, Jose D., Camarines Norte MEMBERS OF THE SEVENTH PHILIPPINE LEGISLATURE (1925-1928) PHILIPPINE SENATE

Manuel L. Quezon, President First District (Batanes, Cagayan, Isabela, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and Abra) Quirino, Elpidio Reyes, Isabelo de los Second District (La Union, Pangasinan, and Zambales) Osias, Camilo Mahihag, Alejo 180

GENERAL INFORMATION

Third District (Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Bulacan) Sandiko, Teodoro Morales, Luis Fourth District (Bataan, Laguna, Manila, and Rizal) Sumulong, Juan Tirona, Emiliano Tria Fifth DisfJrict (Batangas, Cavite, Marinduque, Mindoro, and Tayabas) Laurel, Jose P. Quezon, Manuel L. Sixth District (Camarines No~te, Camarines Sur, Albay, Masbate. and Sorsogon) Vera, Jose O. Alegre, Juan B. Seventh District (Capiz, Iloilo, and Romblon) Arroyo, Jose Ma. Hontiveros, Jose M. Eig hth District (Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Antique, and Palawan) Villanueva, Hermenegildo Yulo, Mariano ~inth District (Leyte and Samar) Veloso, Jose Ma. Salazar, Pastor Tenth Disti'ict (Cebu) Rodriguez, Pedro Osmefia, Sergio 181

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

Ele'lJenth District (Bohol, Misamis, and Surigao) Galicano, Troadio Clarin, Jose A. T'welfth District (Mountain Province, Nueva Vizcaya, and Mindanao and Sulu) Hadji Butu Alejandrino, Jose HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Manuel Roxas, Speaker Abdullah Piang, Mindanao and Sulu Agan, Vicente, Batanes Agustin, Primitivo San, 1st district, Tayabas Alas, Antonio de las, 1st district, Batangas Alcazaren, Juan, 4th district, Cebu Almeida, Fausto, 1st district, La Union Altavas, Jose, 2nd district, Capiz Aquino, Benigno S., 2nd district, Tarlac AranciIIo, Asension, 4th district, Iloilo A velino, Jose, 1st district, Samar Azanza, Pascual B., 2nd district, Samar Banson, Manuel S., Bataan Bautista, Basilio, 1st district, Rizal Biteng, Lupo, 2nd district, Ilocos Sur Braganza, Enrique, 1st district, Pangasinan Briones, Manuel C., 1st district, Cebu Buendia, Andres, 2nd district, Batangas Cailles, Juan, Mountain Province Carranceja, Rafael, Camarines Norte Clarin, Olegario B., 2nd district, Bohol Codamon, Joaquin, Mountain Province Confesor, Tomas, 3rd district, Iloilo Cruz, Servi11ano de la, 3rd district, Pangasinan 182

GENERAL INFORMATION Cudilla, Venancio, 5th district, Iloilo Cuenco, Mariano J., 5th district Cebu Dacanay, Leoncio, 2nd district, La Union Dizon, Tomas, 1st district, Laguna Ealdama, Eugenio, 1st district, Iloilo Escamilla, Antonio G., Nueva Vizcaya Felipe, Ramon B., 1st district, Camarines Sur Fernandez, Patricio, Palawan Festin, Leonardo, Romblon Formoso, Vicente, 1st district, Cagayan Fuentebella, Manuel, 2nd district, Camarines Sur Garcia, Carlos P., 3rd district, Bohol Gaston, Segundo, 1st district, Misamis Guarifia, Mario~ 2nd district, Sorsogon Guinto, Leon G., 2nd district, Tayabas Gullas, Paulino, 2nd district, Cebu Guzman, Antonio, 2nd district, Cagayan Hernando, -Severo, 1st district, Ilocos Norte Hilado, Serafin P., 1st district, Negros Occidental Hilario, Ceferino, 2nd district, Pampanga Kamora, Henry A., Mountain Province Kapunan, Ruperto, 3rd district, Leyte Labrador, Alejo, Zambales Lacson, Isaac, 3rd district, Negros Occidental Laico, Ananias, 2nd district, Laguna Laserna, Manuel, 3rd district, Capiz Leuterio, Mariano P., Mindoro Llana, Pedro de la, Mindanao and Sulu Mercaida, Eduardo, Masbate Marcos, Mariano, 2nd district, Ilocos Norte Melencio, Jose P., Mindanao and Sulu Mendoza, Alfonso E., 2nd district, Manila Montejo, Filomeno, 4th district, Leyte Morrero, Gerardo, 3rd district, Samar 183

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Moscoso, Segundo, Antique Nepomuceno, Ricardo, Marinduque Nieto, Manuel, Isabela Noel, Pastor B., 6th district, Cebu Oppus, Tomas, 2nd district, Leyte Ortiz, Montano A., Surigao Padilla, Jose, 1st district, Bulacan Palarca, Sisenando, 1st district, Tarlac Paredes, Quintin, Abra Pena, Francisco B., 1st district, Albay Perfecto, Francisco A., 2nd district, Albay Perfecto, Gregorio, 1st district, Manila Rama, Vicente, 3rd district, Cebu Ramos, Simeon, 1st district, !locos Sur Ramoso, Feliciano, Nueva Ecij a Recto, Claro M., 3rd district, Batangas Reyes, Juan, 1st district, Sorsogon Rodriguez, Eulogio, 2nd district, Rizal Sabido, Pedro, 3rd district, A15ay Sanchez, Evaristo P., 5th district, Pangasinan Serapio, Jose, 2nd district, Bulacan Siapno, Isidoro, 2nd district, Pangasinan Sison, Eusebio V., 4th district, Pangasinan Soriano, Antero, Cavite Suazo, Arsenio, Mindanao and Sulu Torralba, Fermin, 1st district, Bohol Torres, Ramon, 2nd district, N egros Occidental Valdez Liongson, Pedro, 1st district, Pampanga Velez, Teogenes, 2nd district, Misamis Veloso, Juan, 1st district, Leyte Villanueva, Enrique C., 2nd district, Negros Oriental Villanueva, Guillermo Z., 1st district, Negros Oriental Ybanez, Paulino, 7th district, Cebu Ybiernas, Vicente R., 2nd district, Iloilo 184

GENERAL INFORMATION MEMBERS OF THE EIGHTH PHILIPPINE LEGISLATURE (1928-1931) PHILIPPINE SENATE

Manuel L. Quezon, President First District (Batanes, Cagayan, Isabela, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and Abra) Arranz, Melecio Quirino, Elpidio Second District (La Union, Pangasinan, and Zambales) Sison, Teofilo Osias, Camilo Third District (Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Bulacan) Aquino, Benigno S. Sandiko, Teodoro Fourth District (Bataan, Laguna, Manila, and Rizal) Generoso, Jose G. Sumulong, Juan Fifth District (Batangas, Cavite, Marinduque, Mindoro, and Tayabas) Quezon, Manuel L. Laurel, Jose P. Sixth District (Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Albay, Masbate, and Sorsogon) Fuâ&#x201A;Źntebella, Jose Vera, Jose O. Seventh District (Capiz, Iloilo, and Rcmblon) Belo, Antonio Ledesma, Jose B. 185

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

Eighth District (Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Antique, and Palawan) Yulo, Mariano Villanueva, Hermenegildo Ninth District (Leyte and Samar) Avelino, Jose Veloso, Jose Ma. Tenth District (Cebu) Osmeiia, Sergio Rodriguez, Pedro 8leventh District (Bohol, Misamis, and Surigao) Clarin, Jose A. Galicano, Troadio Twelfth District (Mountain Province, Nueva Vizcaya, and Mindanao and Sulu) Hadji Butu Camus, Manuel HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Manuel Roxas, Speaker Abaya, Gavino S., 2nd district, Batangas . Abogado, Gregorio B., 3rd district, Samar Alas, Antonio de las, 1st district, Batangas Alcazaren, Juan, 4th district, Cebu Alonso, Tomas, 5th district, Cebu Ancheta, Pio, 1st district, La Union Anonas, Gregorio, Zambales Arellano, Francisco, 2nd district, Sorsogon Artadi, Jose, Mindanao and Sulu Dufiaga, Gregorio M., 1st district, Tarlac 186

GENERAL INFORMATION Bayaya, Cirilo, 4th district, Leyte Belen, Julian E., 1st district, Albay Bernabe, Manuel C., 1st district, Rizal Boncan, Marcelo T., 2nd district, Tayabas Bonifacio, Arsenio, 2nd district, Laguna Briones, Manuel C., 1st district, Cebu Buenaflor, Tomas, 4th district, Iloilo Cabahug, Sotero B., 2nd district, Cebu Cailles, Juan, Mountain Province Camacho, Teodoro, Bataan Cecilio, Aurelio, 2nd district, Nueva Ecija Concepcion, Hermogenes, 1st district, Nueva Ecija Concon, Jose, 1st dif>trict, Bohol Confesor, Tomas, 3rd district, Iloilo Corpus, Pio V., Masbate Cruz, Rufo G., 3rd district, Pangasinan Cudilla, Venancio, 5th district, Iloilo Delgado, Jorge B., 3rd district, Leyte Dimayuga, Jose D.,' 3rd district, i3atangas Domingo, Jose G., 2nd district, Tarlac Dorado. Jose A., 2nd district, Capiz Encinas, Justino, 1st district, Sorsogon Fernandez, Patricio, Palawan Festin, Leonardo, Romblon Formoso, Vicente, 1st district, Cagayan Fuentebella, Manuel, 2nd district, Camarines Sur Garcia, Carlos P., 3rd district, Bohol Gesmundo, Roman, 1st district, Laguna Gil, Pedro, 2nd district, Manila Hernando, Severo, 1st district, Ilocos Norte Ibanez, Fidel, Cavite Irving, Clement, Mountain Province Jimenez Yanson, Vicente~ 2nd district, Negros Occidental Lizardo, Mariano, Batanes Locsin, Jose C., 1st district, Negros Occidental 187

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Lukban, Agustin, Camarines Norte Luna, Juan L., Mindoro Maestrado, Silvino, 1st district, Misamls Marabut, Serafin, 2nd district, Samar Marcos, Mariano, 2nd district, Ilocos Norte Melencio, Jose P., Mindanao and Sulu Mercado, Monico R., Mindanao and Sulu Millan, Juan G., 5th district, Pangasinan Millar, Fabian R., 1st district, Tayabas Moldero, Saturnino, Mountain Province Montilla, Emilio, 3rd district, N egros Occidental Moscos'o, Segundo C., Antique Nepomuceno, Ricardo, Marinduque Nieto, Manuel, Nueva Vizcaya Noel, Maximino, 3rd district, Cebu Ocampo, Macario P., 2nd district, Pampanga Oppus, Tomas, 2nd district, 17eyte Ortiz, Montano A., Surigao Padilla, Engracio, 2nd district, Iloilo Paguirigan, Pascual, Isabela Paredes, Quintin, Abra Paz, Fabian de la. 1st district, Pampanga Pecson, Potenciano, 1st district, Panga~inan Perez, Eugenio, 2nd district, Pangasinan Rafols, Nicolas, 6th district, r.ebu Ramirez, Marcelo S., 2nd district, Bohol Manuel Roxas, 1st district. Capiz Sabbun, Claro, 2nd district, Cagayan Sabido, Pedro, 3rd district, Albay Santiago, Luis, 2nd district, Rizal Santos, Cirilo B., 2nd district, Bulacan Sanvictores, Jose G., Mindanao and Sulu Sison, Eusebio V., 4th district, Pangasinan Soliven, Benito, 1st district, Ilocos Sur Suntay, Angel, 1st district, Bulacan 188

GENERAL INFORMATION Suner, Teodulfo, 3rd district, Capiz Tancinco, Tiburcio, 1st district, Samar Taupan, Tabujur, Mindanao and Sulu Torres, Bernardo, 1st district, Leyte Vamenta, Isidro, 2nd district, Misamis Varona, Francisco, 1st district, Manila Vera, Pedro, 2nd district, Albay Villafuerte, Mariano E., 1st district, Camarines Sur Villanueva, Enrique C., 2nd district, N egros Oriental Villanueva, Fidel, 2nd district, Ilocos Sur Villanueva. Guillermo Z., 1st district, N egros Oriental Villanueva, Mariano, 2nd district, La Union Ybanez, Paulino, 7th district, Cebu Zulueta, Jose C., 1st district, Iloilo I

MEMBERS OF THE NINTH PHILIPPINE LEGISLATURE (1931-1934) PHILIPPINE SENATE

Manuel L. Quezon, President

First District (Batanes, Cagayan, Isabela, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and Abra) Quirino, Elpidio Arranz, Melecio Second District (La Union, Pangasinan, and Zambales) Mabanag, Alejo Sison, Teofilo Third Distnct (Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Bulacan) Baluyot, Sotero Aquino, Benigno S. 189

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

FOUTth Distr'.zct (Bataan, Laguna, Manila, and Rizal) Nolasco, Juan Generoso, Jose G. Fifth District (Batangas, Cavite, Marinduque, Mindoro, and Tayabas) Recto, Claro M. Quezon, Manuel L. Sixth District (Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Albay, Masbate, and Sorsogon) Alegre, Juan B. Fuentebella, Jose S~venth District (Capiz, Iloilo, and Romblon) Montinola, Ruperto Belo, Antonio Eighth District (Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Antique, and Palawan) Montilla, Gil Zulueta, Francisco Ninth District (Leyte and Samar) Veloso, Jose Ma. Avelino, Jose Tenth District (Cebu) Briones, Manuel C. Osmeiia, Sergio Eleventh DistIrict (Bohol, Misamis, and Surigao) Torralba, Juan Clarin, Jose A. 190

GENERAL INFORMATION

Twelfth District (Mountain Province, Nueva Vizcaya, and Mindanao and Sulu) Hidrosollo, Ludovico Jamalul Kiram HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Manuel Roxas, Speaker Adduru, Marcelo, 1st district, Cagayan Alas, Antonio de las, 1st district, Batangas Alcazaren, Juan, 4th district, Cebu Alisangco, Mariano, 1st district, La Union Alvarez, Agustin, Mind'anao and Sulu Anonas, Gregorio, Zambales Baltasar, Rodolfo, 2nd district, La Union Bangoy, Francisco, Mindanao and Sulu Bayaya, Cirilo, 4th district, Leyte Boncan, Marcelo T., 2nd district, Tayabas Bonifacio, Arsenio, 2nd district, Laguna Buenaflor, Tomas, 4th district, Iloilo Buencamino, Jr., Felipe, 2nd district, Nueva Ecija Cabahug, Sotero B., 2nd district, Cebu Casefias Orbeta, Filomeno, 3rd district, Bohol Casibang, Sabas, 2nd district, Cagayan Cea, Severo, 2nd district, Camarines Sur Clapp, Hilary P., Mountain Province Concon, Jose, 1st district, Bohol Corpus, Pio V., Masbate Cudilla, Venancio, 5th district, Iloilo Cuenco, Miguel, 5th district, Cebu Datu Ibra Gundarangin, Mindanao and Sulu Datu Sinsuat, Mindanao and Sulu Delgado, Francisco A., 1st district, Bulacan Dimayuga, Jose D., 3rd district, Batangas Domingo, Jose G., 2nd district, Tarlac Dorado, Jose A., 2nd district, Capiz 191

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Duran, Fernando B., 2nd district, Sorsogon Farol, Meynardo M., 2nd district, Batangas Festin, Leonardo, Romblon Gaerlan, Juan, Mountain Province Gallego, Manuel V., 1st district, Nueva Ecija Garde, Rufino, 3rd district, Capiz Gerona, Adolfo, 1st district, Sorsogon Gomez, Feliciano, 1st district, Laguna Gonzaga, Vicente E., Surigao Hilario, Zoilo, 2nd district, Pampanga Kamora, Henry A., Mountain Province Kapunan, Ruperto, 5th district, Leyte Lazo, Vicente T., 1st district, Ilocos Norte Leon, Fortun~to de, Bataan Leon, Jr., Jose de, 2nd district, Bulacan Lizardo, Mariano, Batanes Locsin, Julian M., 1st district, Albay Lukban, Miguel, Camarines Norte Luna, Juan L., Mindoro Macutay, Silvestre B., Isabela Maddela, Domingo, Nueva Vizcaya Magalona, Enrique B., 1st district, N egros Occidental Magsalin, Pedro, 1st district, Rizal Marabut, Serafin, 2nd district, Samar Medina, Emilio L., 2nd district, Ilocos Norte Mejia, Antonio C., 3rd district, Pangasinan Millan, Juan G., 5th district, Pangasinan Millar, Fabian R., 1st district, Tayabas Morrero, Gerardo, 3rd district, Samar Moscoso, Segundo C., Antique Noel, Maximino, 3rd district, Cebu Oppus, Tomas, 3rd district, Leyte Ozamis, Jose A., Misamis Occidental Pablo, Alfonso A., 1st district, Tarlac 192

MONUMENTS TO AGE

Guadalupe Ruins, Santo Tomas University and Walls of Manila

GENERAL INFORMATION Paredes, Quintin, Abra Paz, Fabian de la, 1st district, Pampanga Pecson, Potenciano, 1st district, Pangasinan Perez, Eugenio, 2nd district, Pangasinan Raffinan, Miguel, 6th district, Cebu Ramirez, Mareelo So, 2nd district, Bohol Remigio, Prudencio Ao, 2nd district, Manila Rodriguez, Buenaventura, 1st district, Cebu Rodriguez, Eulogio, 2nd district, Rizal Romero, Jose E., 2nd district, Negros Occidental Roxas, Manuel, 1st district, Capiz Sabido, Pedro, 3rd district, Albay Sandoval, Claudio, Palawan Sanvictores, Jose Go, Mindanao and Sulu Singson Reyes, Pedro, 1st distr ict, !locos Sur Sison, Eusebio Vo, 4th district, Pangasinan Tan, Carlos So, 1st distr ict, Leyte Tancinco, Tiburcio, ,1st district, Samar Tirona, Emiliano To, Cavite Torres, Ramon, 2nd district, Negros Occidental Uy, Jose Ao, Marinduque Valenciano, Jose So, 2nd district, Albay Vamente, Isidro, Misamis Oriental Varona, Francisco, 1st district, Manila Vera, Pedro, 4th district, Albay Villa, Silvestre, 3rd distriet, Iloilo Villafuerte, Mariano E., 1st district, Camarines Sur Villanueva, Fidel, 2nd district, !locos Sur Villanueva, Guillermo Zo, 1st district, Negros Oriental Ybanez, Pacifico Po, 2nd district, Leyte Ybanez, Pulino, 7th district, Cebu Ybiernas, Vicente Ro, 2nd district, Iloilo Yulo, Emilio, 3rd district, Negros Occidental Zulueta, Jose Co, 1st district, Iloilo 193

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES MEMBERS OF THE TENTH PHILIPPINE LEGISLATURE (1934-1935) PHILIPPINE SENATE

Manuel L. Quezon, Pre8ident

First District (Batanes, Cagayan, Isabel a, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and Abra) Arranz, Melecio Quirino, Elipidio Second District (La Union, Pangasinan, and Zambales) Mabanag, Alejo Sison, Teofilo Third District (Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Bulacan) Baluyot, Sotero Concepcion, Hermogenes Fourth District (Bataan, Laguna, Manila, and Rizal) Nolasco, Juan Sumulong, Juan Fifth District (Batangas, Cavite, Marinduque, Mindoro, and Tayabas) Quezon, Manuel L. Recto, Claro M. Sixth District (Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Albay, Masbate, and Sorsogon) Imperial, Domingo Vera, Jose O. 194

GENERAL INFORMATION

Seventh District (Capiz, Iloilo, and Romblon) Montinola, Ruperto Trefias, Potenciano Eighth District (Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Antique, and Palawan) Lacson, Isaac Montilla, Gil Ninth IJiJstrict (Leyte and Samar) Avelino, Jose Veloso, Jose Ma. Tenth District (Cebu) Briones, Manuel C. Osmefia, Sergio Eleventh District (Bohol, Misamis, and Surigao) Clarin, .Tose A. Torralba, Juan Twelfth District (Mountain Province, Nueva Vizcaya, and Mindanao and Sulu) Gaerlan, Juan Datu Sinsuat HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Quintin Paredes, Speaker Abellana, Hilario, 2nd district, Cebu Agan, Vicente, Batanes Aguirre, Emiliano, Mountain Province Almazan, Aurelio, 1st district, Laguna Alonto Alauya, Lanao 195

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Ampig, Atanasio, 3rd district, Iloilo Angara, Jose, 1st district, Tayabas Area, Francisco, Cavite Argosino, Antonio, 2nd district, Tayabas Camacho, Teodoro, Bataan Carag, Nicanor, 1st district, Cagayan Caradag, Doroteo, Zamboanga Cea, Sulpicio, 3rd district, Albay Cojuangco, Jose, 1st district, Tarlac Cudilla, Venancio, 5th district, Iloilo Cuenco, Miguel, 5th district, Cebu Datu Ombra, Sulu Delgado, Francisco, 1st district, Bulacan Delgado, Jorge, 5th district, Leyte Diaz, Felix, Mountain Province Diokno, Ramon, 1st district, Batangas Dorado, Jose, 2nd district, Capiz Dosdos, Tereso, 1st district, Cebu Duran, Fernando, 2nd district, Sorsogon Espinosa, Emilio, Masbate Estella, Felipe, Zambales Falcon, Macario, 2nd district, Bohol Fausto, Jose P., 2nd district, Pampanga Festin, Leonardo, Romblon Fortich, Manuel, Mindanao and Sulu Francisco, Luis, 2nd district, Batangas Gabaldon, Isauro, 2nd district, Nueva Ecija Gardiner. Feliciano, 2nd district, Tarlac Gaston, Segundo, Oriental Misamis Gerona, Adolfo, 1st district, Sorsogon Gumpal, Silvino, Isabela Hernandez, Gabriel, Camarines Norte Hidalgo, Rodolfo, Mountain Province J osol, Bernardo, 1st district, Bohol Kare, Exequiel, 1st district, Albay 196

GENERAL INFORMATION Kintanar, Agustin, 4th district, Cebu Lagman, Eligio, 1st district, Pampanga Lazo, Vicente, 1st district, Ilocos Norte Leon, Luis de, 2nd district, Camarines Sur Leuterio, Raul, Mindoro Magalona, Enrique, 1st district, Negros Occidental Magsalin, Pedro, 1st district, Rizal Marabut, Serafin, 2nd district, Samar Maramba, Daniel, 3rd district, Pangasinan Marzan, Cosme, 2nd district, Cagayan Mayo, Emilio, 3rd district, Batangas Meliton, Ignacio, 1st district, Camarines Sur Mendoza, Alfonso, south district, Manila Morrero, Gerardo, 3rd district, Samar Nalundasan, Ju)io, 2nd district, Ilocos Norte Navarro, Ricardo, Surigao Nuyda, Justino, 2nd district, Albay Oppus, Tomas, 3rd district, Leyte Ortega, Francisco, 1st district, La Union Ozamis, Jose, Occidental Misamis Paredes, Quintin, Abra Payawal, Pablo, 2nd distrkt, Bulacan Pecson, Potenciano, 1st district, Pangasinan Perez, Eugenio, 2nd district, Pangasinan Primicias, Cipriano, 4th district, Pangasinan Purruganan, Severino, Nueva Vizcaya Rafols, Nicolas, 6th district, Cebu Rama, Vicente, 3rd district, Cebu Ramos, Agustin, 3rd district, N egros Occidental Ramos, Narciso, 5th district, Pangasinan Revilles, Margarito, 3rd district, Bohol Rimando, Enrique, 2nd district, La Union Robles, Jr., Jose, 1st district, Nueva Ecija Rodriguez, B., 7th district, Cebu Rodriguez, Eulogio, 2nd district, Rizal 197

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Rodriguez, Julian, Davao Romero, Jose, 2nd district, N egros Oriental Roxas, Manuel, 1st district, Capiz Sandoval, Claudio, Palawan . Sanidad, Prospero, 2nd district, Ilocos Sur Sevilla, Fortunato, 4th district, Leyte $ingson Reyes, Pedro, 1st district, Ilocos Sur Surtida, Jose, 4th district, AlOOy Tan, Antolin, 1st district, Samar Tan, Carlos, 1st district, Leyte . Tan, Dominador, 2nd district, Leyte Tirador, Federico, 4th district, Iloilo Torres, Ramon, 2nd district, N egros Occidental Tumbokon. Rafael, 3rd district, Capiz Untivero, Mariano, 2nd district, Laguna Uy, Jose A., Marinduque Varona, Francisco, north dist.rict, Manila Villanueva, G., 1st district, Negros Oriental Ybiernas, Vicente, 2nd district, Iloilo Zaldivar, Calixto, Antique Zulueta, Jose, 1st district, Iloilo MEMBERS OF THE FIRST NATIONAL ASSEMBLY OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF THE PHILIPPINES (1935-1938) Gil M. Montilla, Speaker Abellana, Hilario, 2nd aistrict, Cebu Adduru, Marcelo, 1st district, Cagayan Agan, Vicente, Batanes Alano, Juan S., Zamboanga Alzate, Manuel A., 1st district, Nueva Ecija Angara, J ase A., 1st district, Tayabas Aquino, Benigno S., 2nd district, Tarlac Arzadon, Ulpiano, 2nd district, Ilocos N arte 198

GENERAL INFORMATION Azanza, Pascual B., 2nd district, Samar Bocar, Juan, 3rd district, Samar Bonifacio, Arsenio, 2nd district, Laguna Bonto, Jose, 1st district, Albay Borromeo, Leon, Misamis Oriental Brillantes, Sixto, 2nd district, Ilocos Sur Buenafe, Bernardo L., Nueva Vizcaya Buenaflor, Tomas, 4th district, Iloilo Buencamino, Jr., Felipe, 2nd district Nueva Ecija Buendia, Nicolas, 1st district, Bulacan Cabili, Tomas L., Lanao Camacho, Teodoro, Bataan Celebrado, Francisco, 1st district, Camarines Sur Clarin, Olegario B., 2nd district, Bohol Clemente, Tomas S., 2nd district, Sorsogon Cojuangco, Jose, 1st district, Tarlac Confesor, Tomas, 3rd district, Iloilo Corpus, Pio V., Masnate Cuenco, Miguel, 5t:p. district, Cebu Curato, Apolonio D., Agusan Dizon, Tomas, 1st district, Laguna Dorado, Jose A., 2nd district, Capiz Fabella, Gabriel F., Romblon Fausto, Jose IJ., 2nd district, Pampanga Fortich, Manuel, Bukidnon Garduque, A., Abra Gil, Pedro, 2nd district, Manila Hernaez, Pedro C., 2nd district, Negros Occidental Jose, Felipe E., 2nd district, Mountain Province Kalaw, Maximo M., 3rd district, Batangas Kapunan, Ruperto, 5th district, Leyte Kintanar, Agustin Y., 3rd district, Cebu Lagman, Eligio G., 1st district, Pampanga Lavides, Francis-co, 1st district, Tayabas Lazo, Vicente T., 1st district, Ilocos Norte 199

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Leon, Luis N. de, 2nd district, Camarines Sur Lesaca, Potenciano, Zambales Lopez, Natalio, 1st district, Batangas Lukban, Cayetano, Camarines Norte Luna, Juan L., Mindoro Magalona, Enrique, 1st district, N egros Occidental Magsalin, Pedro, 1st district, Rizal Maneja ,Cecilio L., Marinduque Maramba, Daniel, 3rd district, Pangasinan Moldero, Saturnino, 1st district, Mountain Province Montano, Justiniano, Cavite Montilla, Gil M., 3rd district, N egros Occidental Montinola, Ruperto, 2nd district, Iloilo Nuyda, Justin,o, 2n,d district, Albay Ombra Amilbangsa, Sulu Oppus, Tomas, 3rd district, Leyte Orense, Eusebio, 2nd district, Batangas Osias, Camilo, 1st district, La Union Ozamis, Jose, Misamis Occidental Paz, Emilio de la, 2nd district, Rizal Perez, Eugenio, 2nd district, Pangasinan Perfecto, Gregorio, 1st district, Manila Quimpo, Romualdo C., Davao Rafols, Nicolas, 6th district, Cebu Rama, Vicente, 4th district, Cebu Ramos, Anacleto B., 1st district, Pangasinan Ramos, Narciso, 5th district, Pangasinan Revilles, Margarito E., 3rd district, Bohol Rodriguez, Buenaventura, 7th district, Cebu Rodriguez, Celestino, 1st district, Cebu Romero, Jose E., 2nd district, Negros Oriental Romualdez, Norberto, 4th district, Leyte Roque, N orberto A., 1st district, Sorsogon Roxas, Manuel, 1st district, Capiz ltupisan, N. T., 4th district, Pangasinan 200

GENERAL INFORMATION Sabido, Pedro, 3rd district, Albay Salcedo, Victorino M., 5th district, Iloilo Sandoval, Claudio, Palawan Sinsuat Balabaran, Cotabato Soliven, Benito, 1st district, Ilocos Sur Tait, George K., 3rd district, Mountain Province Tan, Antolin D., 1st district, Samar Tan, Dominador M., 2nd district, Leyte rorralba, Juan S., 1st district, Bohol rumbokon, Rafael, 3rd district, Capiz Veloso, Jose Ma., 1st district, Leyte Vera, Pedro, 4th district, Albay Veridiano, Regino, 2nd district, Cagayan Verzosa, Mauro, Isabela Villanueva, Guillermo, 1st district, Oriental N egros Villarama, Antonio, 2nd district, Bulacan Yaranon, Agaton R., 2nd district, La Union Zaldivar, Calixto 0., Antique Zulueta, Jose C., 1st district, Iloilo

201

The Commonwealth Government of the Philippines Established on November 15, 1935 As organized on October 1, 1936

I THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT

The President His Excellency, MANUEL LUIS QUEZON

The Vice President Honorable SERGIO OSMENA THE CABINET

Honorable ELPIDIO QUIRINO

Secretary of the Interior Honorable ANTONIO DE LAS ALAS

Secretary of Finance Honorable JOSE YULO

Secretary of Justice Honorable EULOGIO RODRIGUEZ

Secretary of Agriculture and Commerce (x)

Secretary of Public Works and Communications Honorable SERGIO OSMENA

Secretary of Public Instruction Honorable RAMON TORRES

Secretary of Labor Resident Commissioner of the Philippines to the United States Honorable QUINTIN PAREDES (x) Vacant. the meantime.

The President holds the portfolio of Secretary in

202

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

Secretary to the President Honorable JORGE B. V ARGAS UNDER SECRETARIES Honorable LEON G. GUINTO

Under Secretary of the Interior Honorable GUILLERMO GOMEZ

Under Secretary of Finance Honorable J 'OSE P. MELENCIO

Under Secretary of Justice Honorable JOSE S. CAMUS

Under Secretary of Agriculture and Commerce Honorable VICENTE DE LA CRUZ

Under Secretary of Public Works and Communications, Honorable GABRIEL MANALAC

Under Secretary of Public Instruction Honorable FAUSTINO AGUILAR

Under Secretary of Labor II THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

See list of Assemblymen on page 198. THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT

III SUPREME OOURT Ramon A vancefia, Chief Justice Antonio Villa-Real, Associate Justice Carlos A. Imperial, Associate Justice Jose Abad Santos, Associate Justice Anacleto Diaz, Associate Justice Claro M. Recto, Associate Justice Jose P. Laurel, Associate Justice 203

GENERAL INFORMATION OOURT OF APPEALS

Pedro Concepcion, Presiding Judge Antonio Horrilleno, Appellate Judge Manuel V. Moran, Appellate Judge Teofilo Sison, Appellate Judge Ricardo Paras, Appellate Judge Francisco Delgado, Appellate Judge Domingo Imperial, Appellate Judge Jose M. Hontiveros, Appellate Judge Mariano Albert, Appellate Judge Cezar Bengzon, Appellate Judge THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA REPRESENT ATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Frank Murphy ... . . .. United States High Commissioner J. Weldon Jones ..... Deputy Commissioner and Financial Adviser THE UNITED STATES ARMY PHILIPPINE DEPARTMENT

Major General Lucius R. Holbrook. Commanding THE UNITED STATES NAVY ASIATIC FLEET AND STATION

Admiral O. G. Murfin, U. S. Navy. Commander-in-Chief

204

Territory and Population of the Philippines By

VICENTE MILLS

When His Excellency, Manuel L. Quezon, took his oath of office on November 15, 1935, he became historically the First President of the Philippines. An illustrious line of Chief Executives had preceded him, beginning from Don Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1564-1572), the first, thru over three centuries, to Don Diego de los Rios (1898-1899), the last, of the Spanish Governors-General; from Major General Wesley Merritt (1898), the first, to Major General Arthur MacArthur (1900-1901), the last, of the American Military GovernorS; and from His Excellency, William H. Taft (1901), the first, to His Excellency, Frank Murphy (1933-1935), the last, of the American Governors-General. The First President stood then, at the parting of the ways. Theretofore-the Past (1564-1935). Thereafter, the Future (1935- ? ). The Day, November 15, 1935, initiated the decennial transition period preliminary to Independence. With the organization of the Commonwealth Government established by the Constitution of the Philippines, questions which during previous years were left in the background, assumed importance. Among these are national defense and economic development, to mention only two of many, which the government must attend to, during the decade. It is axiomatic that nations depend upon two essential elements for their existence. These are: Territory and Population. National policies in the last analysis, are intended for the solution of issues revolving around these two elements. If anyone of these should be disregarded or eliminated, the nation as a political entity ceases to exist. 205

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES I

The Constitution of the Philippines states in Article I, Section 1, that: "The Philippines comprises all the territory ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Paris concluded between the United States and Spain on the tenth day of December, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight, the limits of which are set forth in Article III of said treaty, together with all the islands embraced in the treaty concluded at Washington, between the United States and Spain on the seventh day of November, nineteen hundred, and in the treaty concluded between the Unitf:'d States and Great Britain on the second day of January, nineteen hundred and thirty, and all territory over which the present Government of the Philippine Islands exercises jurisdiction."

The preceding constitutional definition of territorial jurisdiction is not sufficient for a specific delimitation of the area occupied by the inhabitants of the Philippines. It mentions however the international treaties which so far have defined such jurisdiction. The Treaty of Paris defined in Article III, the territory ceded by Spa.in to the United States, known as the Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands lying within the following limits: "A line running from west to east along or near the twentieth parallel of north latitude, and through the middle of thf:' navigable channel of Bachi, from the one hundred and eighteenth to the one hundred and twenty-seventh degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich, thence along the one hundred and twenty-seventh degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich to the parallel of four degrees and forty-five minutes north latitude, thence along the parallel of four degrees and fortyfive minutes north latitude to its intersection with the meridian of longitude one hundred and nineteen degrees and thirty-five minutes east of Greenwich, thence along the meridian of longitude one hundred and nineteen degrees and thirty-five minutes east of Greenwich to the parallel of latitude seven degrees and forty minutes north, thf:'nce along the parallel of latitude seven de2'rees and forty minutes north to its intersection with the one hundred and sixteenth degree meridian of longitude east

206

GENERAL INFORMATION of Greenwich, thence by a direct line to the intersection of the tenth degree parallel of north latitude with the one hundred and eighteenth degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich, and thence along the one hundred and eighteenth degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich to the point of beginning."

Due to what was really an oversight at the time when the Treaty of Paris was drafted, the southwestern boundaries as delimited in Article III failed to include several Islands of the Sulu group. Another Treaty had to be concluded on November 7, 1900, to rectify the omission. By this Treaty: "Spain relinquishes to the United States all title and claim of title, which she may have had at the time of the conclusion of the Treaty of Peace of Paris, to any and all islands belonging to the PhIlippine Archipelago, lying outside the lines described in Article III of that Treaty and particularly to the islands of Ca2'ayan Sulu and Sibutu and their dependencies, and agrees that all such islands shall be comprehended in the cession-of the Archipelago as fully as if they had been expressly included within those lines."

Because of the numerous islets along the boundary between the Philippines and Borneo, another treaty had to be concluded between the United States and Great Britain. Considerable care was taken in framing the new definition of the boundary. But even so, because of inc,omplete surveys, part of the boundary thus defined is conditioned upon the results which future surveys may develop. On account of its national importance, the boundary as redefined in Article I of the Treaty concluded between the United States and Great Britain on January 2, 1930, is quoted in full herein: "It is hereby agreed and declared that the line separating the islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago on the one hand and the islands belonging to the State of North Borneo which is under British protection on the other hand shall be and is hereby established as follows:

207

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES "From the point of intersection of the parallel of four degrees fOl路ty-five minutes (4 9 45') north latitude and the meridian of longitude one hundred twenty degrees (120 9 0') east of Greenwich, (being a point on the boundary defined by the Treaty between the United States of America and Spain signed at Paris, December 10, 1898), a line due south along the meridian of longitude one hundred twenty degrees (120 9 0') east of Greenwich to its point of intersection with the parallel of foul' degrees twenty-three minutes (4 9 23') north latitude; "thence due west along the parallel of four degrees twenty-three minutes (4 9 23') north latitude to its intersection with the meridian of longitude one hundred nineteen degrees (119 9 0') east of Greenwich; "thence due north along the meridian of longitude one hundred nineteen degrees (119 9 0') east of Greenwich to its intersection with the parallel of four degrees forty-two minutes (4 9 42' ) north latitude; "thence in a straight line approximately 45 9 54' true (N 45 9 5-1' E) to t,he intersection of the parallel of five degrees sixteen minutes (5~ 16') north latitude and the meridian of longitude one hundred nineteen degrees t hirty-five minutes (119 9 35') east of Greenwich; "thence in a straight line approximately 314 9 19' true (N 9 45 41' W) to the intersection of the parallel of six degrees (6 9 0') north latitude and the meridian of longitude one hundred eighteen degrees fifty minutes (118 9 50') east of Greenwieh; "thence due west along the parallel of six degrees (6 9 0') north latitude to its intersection with the meridian of longitude one hundred eighteen degrees twenty minutes (118 9 20') east of Greenwich; "thence in a straight line approximately 307 9 40' true (N 52 9 20' W) passing between Little Bakkungaan Island and Great Bakkungaan Island to the intersection of the parallel of six degrees seventeen minutes (6 9 17') north latitude and the meridian of longitude one hundred seventeen degrees fiftyeight minutes (117 9 58') east of Greenwich; "thence due north along the meridian of longitude one hundred seventeen degrees fifty-eight minutes (117 9 58') east of Greenwich to its intersection with the parallel of six degrees fifty-two minutes (6 9 52') north latitude; "thence in a straight line approximately 315 9 16' true (N 44 9 44' W) to the intersection of the parallel of seven degrees 208

GENERAL INFORMATION twenty-four minutes forty-five seconds (7 9 24' 45") north latitude with the meridian of longitude one hundred seventeen degrees twenty-five minutes thirty seconds (117 9 25' 30") east of Greenwich; "thence in a straight line approximately 300 9 56' true (N 59 4' W) through the Mangsee Channel between Mangsee Great Reef and Mangsee Islands to the intersection of the parallel of seven degrees forty minutes (7 9 40') north latitude and the meridian of longitude one hundred seventeen degrees (117 9 0') east of Greenwich, the latter point being on the boundary defined by the Treaty between the United States of America and Spain signed at Paris, December 10, 1898." 9

As already stated, the boundary line thus defined may be subject to changes depending upon the results of future flurveys. Article II of the treaty provides further: "x x x x that if more accurate surveying and mapping of North Borneo, the Philippine Islands, and intervening islands shall in the future show that the line described above does not pass between Little Bakkungaan and Great Bakkungaan Islands, sUbstantiaily as indicated on Chart No. 4720, the boundary line shall be understood to be defined in that area as a Hne passing between Little Bakkungaan and Great Bakkungaan Islands as indicated on the chart, said portion of the line being a straight line approximately 307 9 40' true drawn from a point on the parallel of 69 0' north latitude to a point on the meridian of longitude of 1179 58' east of Greenwich. "It is likewise agreed that if more accurate surveying and mapping shall show that the line described above does not pass between the Mangsee Islands and Mangsee Great Reef as indicated on Chart No. 4720, the boundary shall be understood to be defined in that area as a straight line drawn from the intersection of the parallel of 79 24' 45" north latitude and the meridian of longitude of 1179 25' 30" east of Greenwich, passing through Mangsee Channel as indicated on attached Chart No. 4720 to a point on the parallel of 79 40' north latitude."

and Article III, definitely establishes that: 209

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES "All islands to' the nO'rth and east O'f the said line and all islands and rO'cks traversed by the said line, shO'uld there be any such, shall belO'ng to' the Philippine ArchipelagO' and all islands to' the SO'uth and west O'f the said line shall belong to' the State O'f NO'rth BorneO'."

It may be of interest to note here the fact that a confusing statement was made in the description of the northern boundary line as defined by the Treaty of Paris. Such boundary is described as: "A line running frO'm west to' east, along or nea1' the twentieth parallel of no'/'th latitude, and through the middle of the navigable channel of Bachi, from the one hundred and eighteenth to the one hundred and twenty seventh degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich â&#x20AC;˘ . . "

The first italicized description must have been due to an oversight when the draft of the Treaty of Paris was In course of preparation, For, if the boundary be taken Halong or near the twentieth parallel of north latitude," the islands of the province of Batanes would be outside Philippine jurisdiction. The second italicized description "through the middle of the navigable channel of Bachi" 1s probably the correct one as it establishes the boundary midway between the northernmost island of Y' Ami of the Philippines, and the island of Formosa of the Japanese Empire. In all nautical charts, the northern boundary line has thus been placed in the middle of the Bachi Channel located at 21 q 25' north latitude approximately. The territory defined by the treaties referred to comprises 7,083 islands actually counted within surveyed regions subject to increase after the survey of the unsurveyed land and water areas within the boundaries defined by the treaties, shall have been completed. The following table, from the Census of 1918, shows the principal islands over which the preponderant majority of the population lives, with their respective areas: 210

GENERAL INFORMATION Square Kilometers

Squaore Miles

Luzon Mindanao Samar Negros Palawan Panay Mindoro Leyte Cebu Bohol Masbate All other islands

105,708 95,587 13,271 12,699 11,655 11,520 9,827 7,249 4,390 3,973 3,250 17,167

40,814 36,906 5,124 4,903 4,500 4,448 3,794 2,799 1,695 1,534 1,255 6,628

Total land area of the Archipelago

296,296

114,400

Island

In all official ~tatistics, the total area of the Philippines has been taken at 114,400 square miles, equivalent to 296,296 square kilometers, or 29,629,600 hectares. This area may vary somewhat after all the islands within the boundaries ' set by the the treaties shall have been surveyed. It is doubtful, however, whether the variation will amount to a figures warranting a change in the officially accepted figure referred to herein. It may not be amiss to call attention here to the fact that of the 7,083 islands of the Philippines, eleven (11) islands as shown in the preceding table, namely: Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol, and Masbate, comprise an area of 279,129 square kilometers (107,772 square miles), representing 94.270 of the total area of the Philippines. It will thus be seen that if the eleven (11) islands named herein comprising such a preponderant area of the country (94.2%) are excluded, the remaining 5.8 % of the area or 17,167 square kilometers (6,628 square miles) represents the area of all the other 7,072 islands. 211

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES The following table shows the number of islands adjacent to the eleven (11) principal islands to which are also included the islands of the Romblon and Sulu Groups: Principal Island

Luzon Mindanao Samar Negros Palawan Panay Mindoro Leyte Cebu Bohol Masbate Sulu group Romblon group Total

Number of named Islands

Number of Unnamed Islands

Total Number of Islands

Area of one square mile (2.59 aquare kilometers) or over

406 420 266 21 619 132 42 52 56 80 50 272 25

1,050 634 437 147 1,149 500 109 80 195 50 59 176 56

1,456 1,054 703 168 1,768 632 151 132 251 130 109 448 81

80 72 46 5 82 26 9 8 14

2,441

4,642

7,083

463

9 92 9

The last column of the preceding table gives an idea of the number of islands adjacent to the principal islands including the Romblon and Sulu groups whose areas comprise 1 square mile (2.59 square kilometers) or over. It reveals the fact that of the 7,083 islands, only 463 comprise an area of 1 square mile (2.59 square kilometers) or over, thus leaving 6,620 islands or islets with areas less, than 1 square mile (2.59 square kilometers). To this group of 6,620 islets must be included all other islets, still unsurveyed, or unrecorded. It would be better for reasons of national policy to survey immediately all little islands, islets or coral reefs, unimportant though these may appear to be, which are along or near the boundary lines of the territorial j urisdiction of the Philippines as defined by the treaties. These islets or specks of dust on the surface of the ocean may 212

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES seem unimportant at present but with the developments of aviation for commercial or national defense purposes, no one may properly say that these scattered islets or coral reefs are unnecessary or that none of these may be of use in the future. There is also an advantage in delimiting these small areas in order to prevent encroachments of Philippine territory. A case in point is the small island of Palmas located south of the Gulf of Davao, near the southern boundary line of the Philippines. By its geographical position this small island is clearly within the boundaries as defined by the Treaty of Paris. However, because for years the entire island was used and occupied by subjects of the Netherlands East Indies, it became necessary for the Government of the United States and of the Netherlands to sign an agreement on January 23, 1925, for the arbitration of their differences arising on account of t he occupation of the island of Pa]mas. The differences were finally settled sometime later, awarding ownership of said island to the Netherlands. What has happened before may reasonably be expected to happen in the future. The map shows the territorial jurisdiction of the Philippines as defined by the treaties in force to date (1936), and also the small islands scattered on the Pacific east of the Philippines, which have been occupied by Japan and Australia by mandates from the League of Nations. Although Japan is no longer a member of the League, she continues exercising jurisdiction over s\)ch small islands and islets, most of which are so small that they may also De referred to as specks of dust on the surface of the ocean. In other words, these small islands are considered by Japan as sufficiently desirable to justify their acquisition, regardless of size or present economic usefulness. It should also be of some interest to note that the Guam group of islands which belong to the United States is sur214

GENERAL INFORMATION rounded by the islands occupied by Japan by virtue of the mandate of the League of Nations. Years ago (1925-1926), the Bureau of Lands undertook the cadastral survey of the islands comprising the Cagayan de Sulu group which lies near Borneo, to forestall occupation by aliens, and establish definitely the question of land ownership involved therein. Prompt action these days, on matters which are likely to lead to controversial issues in the future, will insure peaceful development years later. II

The population of the Philippines, as given by various authorities of the 18th and 19th centuries, was as follows: Year

Population

Authority

1799 1800 1808 1812 1815 1817 1819 1829 1840 1845 1848 1850 1858 1870 1876 1877 1879 1885 1887 1891 1893 1894 1899

1,502,574 1,561,251 1,741,234 1,933,331 2,052,994 2,062,805 2,106,230 2,593,287 3,096,031 3,434,007 3,745,603 3,857,424 4,290,381 4,712,006 5,501,356 5,567,685 5,487,218 5,839,383 5,984,727 6,252,957 6,333,584 6,490,584 6,703,311

Buzeta Zuniga Cedulas Cedulas Cedulas Cedulas Cedltlas Church Local officials Buzeta Arenas Buzeta Bowring Official Guide Church Census Official Guide Church Census Official Guide Official Guide Church Father Algue 215

Annual percentage of increase

3.9 1.4 2.6 2.0 0.2 2.1 2.1 1.6 2.1 2.9 1.5 1.8 0.8 2.6 1.6 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.8

2.5 0.7

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES It should be noted that of the foregoing data, only those of the years 1877 and 1887 were based upon census enumerations,-of the christian population. AU others were estimates based upon various sources of information. It was not until the advent of the American regime that a census in the modern sense, was ever made in the Philippines. So far only two have been taken,-in 1903, and 1918. A period of 15 years intervened between these censuses. A greater interval has already passed since 1918, to date, (1936), and so far there seems to be no chance for a new census to be taken. Any attempt at a study of population must therefore be based upon the results of the census of 1903, amI of 1918. An estimate was made as of July 1, 1935, by the Bureau of Health, which is also given here. According to th~se authorities, the population of the Philippines in 1903, 1918, and 1935, was as follows: Year

Census 1903 Census 1918 Bureau of Health 1935

Population

7,635,426 10,314,310 13,118,272

Incl'eaose

Average Annual Increase

........ 2,678,884 2,803,962

178,592 164,939

The last column shows the average annual increase during each census interval. It will be noted that there appears to be a diminution in the annual rate of increase during the interval from 1918 to 1935 as compared with the interval from 1903 to 1918. It is difficult to state what might be the cause of this apparent decrease. It is likely due to the possibility that the estimate of population for the year 1935 may not be as close to facts as might be desired. Until a census is taken, it would be speculative to endeavor to ascribe causes for this apparent decrease. On the basis of the total. area of the Philippines of 296,296 square kilometers, (114,400 square miles) the den216

GENERAL INFORMATION sity of population per square kilometer and per square mile has been calculated to be: Density of Population per Square Mile Square Kilometer

1903 1918 1935

25.8 34.8 44.3

66.7 90.2 114.7

The preceding population-density ratios represent the average for the entire country, and show that the Philippines is sparsely populated. It also shows a steady increase of 9 persons per square kilometer every 15 years. Within its territorial jurisdiction, the density of population is quite variable, as may be seen from the following data, for 1935: Province

Abra Agusan .............. . Albay â&#x20AC;˘................ Antique .............. . Bataan .............. . Batanes .............. . Batangas ............ . Bohol ................ . Bukidnon ............ . Bulacan .............. . Cagayan ............. . Camarines Norte ..... . Camarines Sur ....... . Capiz ................ . Cavite â&#x20AC;˘............... Cebu ................. . Cotabato ............. .. Davao ............... . llocos Norte .......... . llocos Sur ............ . lloilo ................ . Isabela .............. . Laguna .............. .

Population

94,484 65,416 410,542 178,702 70,380 8,214 426,159 451,303 45,271 275,918 226,153 64,119 240,384 357,214 180,881 1,064,880 220,017 152,750 260,954 252,014 599,486 15~,026

244,464 217

Area in Sq. K. Sq. M.

3,820 11,121 4,024 2,618 1,243 192 3,252 3,978 8,219 2,610 8,548 2,008 5,366 4,429 1,202 4,835 24,915 19,297 3,349 2,622 5,284 10,853 1,864

Density af Population per Sq. K. Sq. M.

1,475 24.7 64.1 4,294 5.9 15.2 1,554 102.0 264.2 68.3 176.8 1,011 480 56.6 146.6 74 42.8 111.0 1,255 131.0 339.6 1,536 113.4 293.8 3,173 5.5 14.3 1,008 105.7 273.7 3,300 26.5 68.5 775 31.9 82.7 2,072 44.8 116.0 1,710 80.7 208.9 464 150.5 389.8 1,867 220.2 570.4 9,620 8.8 22.9 7,450 7.9 20.5 1,293 77.9 201.8 1,012 96.1 249.0 2,040 113.5 293.9 4,190 13.9 36.0 720 131.1 339.5

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Province

Population

Area in Sq. K. Sq. M.

. 141,782 194,223 815,781 62,280 92,356 105,647 116,066 153,573 408,210 488,716 352,963 323,962 35,838 111,929 292,912 703,609 667,876 76,870 498,402 238,866 258,425 155,458 210,198 273,455 99,482 198,662

6,317 1,138 7,783 922 4,002 10,173 1,766 2,709 14,021 8,094 4,927 5,417 6,844 14,553 2,102 5,042 2,365 1,308 13,556 1,861 2,802 7,574 3,014 12,145 3,680 16,532

Total .............. 13,118,272 Average for the entire country

296,296

Lanao La Union ............ . Leyte ................ . Marinduque ........... . Masbate ............. . Mindoro Misamis Occidental ... . Misamis Oriental ..... . Mountain Province .... . Negros Occidental .... . Negros Oriental ...... . Nueva Ecija ......... . Nueva Vizcaya ....... . Palawan ............. . Pampanga ........... . Pangasinan ........... . Rizal and Manila ..... . Romblon ............. . Samar ..............â&#x20AC;˘. Sorsogon ............. . Sulu ................. . Surigao .............. . 'farlac ............... . Tayabas ............. . Zambales ............. . Zamboanga ........... .

Density of Population per Sq. K. Sq. M.

2,439 22.4 58.1 439 170.7 442.4 3,005 104.8 271.5 356 67.5 174.9 1,545 23.1 59.8 3,928 10.4 26.9 683 65.7 169.9 1,046 56.7 146.8 5,414 29.1 75.4 3,125 60.4 156.4 1,902 71.6 185.6 2,092 59.8 154.9 2,642 5.2 13.6 5,619 7.7 19.9 812 139.3 360.7 1,947 139.5 361.4 913 282.4 731.5 505 58.8 152.2 5,234 36.8 95.2 718 128.4 232.7 1,082 92.2 238.8 2,924 20.5 53.2 1,164 69.7 180.6 4,689 22.5 58.3 1,421 27.0 70.0 6,383 12.0 31.1 114,400 44.3

114.7

A systematic redistribution of the population, by government action, is in order if the density of population of the various provinces, as shown in the preceding table, be taken as index guide. The national government might consider a forward looking policy for the effective redistribution of the population from the densely to the sparsely populated regions. 218

GENERAL INFORMATION

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Thus a great deal of actual or eventual social unrest and discontent may be minimized, if not actually prevented. Furthermore, it would also solve many annoying issues arising from the uneven distribution or ownership of land, and counteract the gradual acquisition of extensive areas of the public domain by people who do not care to become citizens or who cannot, for various reasons, be assimilated here. The map portrays the "Distribution of Population in the Philippines" on the basis of the density of population of each province. It is suggestive of how an equitable distribution of the population, from the densely to the sparsely populated regions of the country, might be carried out.

III Because of its geographical position, the Philippines 1s in a peculiar situation. Looking over and beyond the insular horizon to which people have been used, thru centuries of Spanish, and decades of American, constructive administration, and protection, what panorama of facts become self-evident from neighboring countries? A brief view of the horizon beyond the coastlines, presents towards the north, Japan, and China, two of the oldest and most populated countries of Asia, and for that matter, of the world. Westward and down to the south follow Indo China, Siam, Malaya, the Netherlands East Indies, Australia, and New Zealand. Eastward lies the great Pacific Ocean. The latest information available from the Statesman's Year Book, 1936, on the countries just across the sea, reveal a density of population in China, and Japan, such that an overflow is bound to happen within the coming decades, and continue progressively during the twenty-first century, affecting the countries nearby which are comparatively less populated. These data show: 220

GENERAL INFORMATION Countries

Sq.K.

Population

Area in Sq.M.

Population per Sq. K. Sq.M.

Japan proper 69,251,265 382,266 147,593 181.2 469.0 675,068 260,644 144.7 374.8 Japanese Empire ... 97,694,628 503,144 24.0 62.3 Manchukwo Empire. 31,339,411 1,303,143 Japan - Manchukwo 763,788 65.2 168.9 Empires ........ 129,034,039 1,978',211 90.2 233.7 China ............ 454,169,427 5,034,211 1,943,711

The data for Japan proper, show a density of population of 181.2 per square kilometer. The corresponding data for the Japanese Empire, which comprises (1) Japan proper, (2) Korea, (3) Formosa, (4) Karafute, (5) Kwangtung, and (6) the Mandated Islands of the Pacific, -show a density of population of 144.7 per square kilometer. From the foregoing, it is evident that Japan proper, where the density of population is 181.2 per square kilometer, is under a pressure of population double that of China, where the density of population is 90.2 per square kilometer; The expansion of Japan proper towards Korea and Kwantung in the asiatic mainland, and the nearby islands of Formosa, Karafute, and the Mandated Islands of the Pacific, thus constituting the Japanese Empire as a whole, has reduced the population-density ratio from 181.2 (Japan proper) to 144.7 (Japanese Empire) per square kilometer. The westward advance of Japan, by the conquest of Manchukwo, may yet improve conditions, provided the trend of emigration should happen to be directed thereto. Beyond Manchukwo on the West lies Mongolia, under the Soviet sphere of influence, and on the North, lies Siberia of the Soviet Union. For the present, it seems any further advance northward or westward is at a standstill. According to the J apan-Manchukwo Year Book, 1936, the population of Manchukwo, on December, 1934, was 31,339,411, on a territory of 1,303,143 square kilometers 221

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES (503,144 square miles), representing a population.density ratio of 24.0 per square kilometer and 62.3 per square mile. Considering Japan and Manchukwo as a unit, and assuming the Japanese movement of population to be confined within, the resulting populationÂˇdensity ratio is 65.2 per square kilometer, or 168.9 per square mile. This ratio is lower than that of China (90.2 per square kilometer), but not. withstanding this fact the pressure of population in Japan . will not improve as much as might be desired until emigration to Manchukwo does actually take place. The population of Manchukwo reported to be 31,339,411, is distributed into various nationalities, as follows: Manchurians or Chinese ............ . Koreans ... . ... . ...... . ........... . Japanese .......................... . All others â&#x20AC;˘.............. . ..........

30,444,253 598,205 213,057 83,896

Emigration towards Manchukwo might be a relief to Japanese population pressure for a few decades. Due to the fact that the Japanese and the Manchurians or the Chinese, are very prolific, such relief might be for a brief period of time,-perhaps within fifty years only. The following territory and population data are of interest: Countries

Sq.K.

Population

Area in Sq.M.

Java and Madura 41,718,364 51,034 132,178 Bali and Lombok 1,802,683 10,290 3,973 Philippines ......... 13,118,272 296,296 114,400 Malaya .................... 4,496,073 133,323 51,476 French Indo China 21,652,000 738,150 285,000 Siam ...................... 13,206,000 513,307 198,188 Celebes ..................... 4,231,906 189,042 72,989 New Zealand ........... 1,485,046 267,832 103,410 Borneo .................... 2,438,884 620,046 239,400 Australia .................. 6,629,839 7,704,165 2,974,581

Population per Sq. K. Sq.M.

315.6 175.2 44.3 33.7 29.3 25.7 22.4 5.5 3.9 0.9

817.5 453.7 114.7 87.3 76.0 66.6 58.0 14.4 10.2

2.2

The population.density ratio of the island groups of Java and Madura, Bali and Lombok, are such that these 222

GENERAL INFORMATION

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES islands may be discarded as desirable for emigration purposes. The preceding table has been arranged in the order of population per unit of area, from the largest to the smallest ratio. It will be noted that with the exception of the islands of Java, Madura, Bali, and Lombok, all other countries, islands, etc. in the Orient, included in the table, are not relatively under a heavy pressure of population. This situation i~ graphically shown by the map entitled "Distribution of Population in the Orient." The maps entitled "Distribution of Population in the Philippines" and "Distribution of Population in the Orient" show by identical symbols the areas where the density of population is similar, so that at a glance the situation becomes self-evident. It is natural for the population of overcrowded countries to emigrate and select the less densely popUlated regions nearby, where conditions of nature may make the struggle for existence easier or more oearable. Many factors will bring about this situation, perhaps sooner than might ordinarily be expected. Among these, may be mentioned the greater facilities of communication obtaining now between countries either by land, sea, or air. Last, but not least, with regard to the Philippines, the active promotional efforts of the government and private organizations will naturally have its after effects. High pressure propaganda, trade missions, good-will envoys, parliamentary missions, etc., from or to the Philippines, will not fail to call attention to the desirability of the Philippines, and of the other nearby territories, either as a field for commercial enterprise or for economic development, including of course their suitability as areas for the domestic overflow of population. The admission of aliens in accordance with law is highly desirable. The national government might, having in 224

GENERAL INFORMATION view the continued predominance and existence of the native race, consider problems on population among those of the state. What decennial periods of time may be to the life of an individual centuries or even millennia will be to the life of a nation. Of many countries which flourished in the past, nothing but memories remain these days. Undoubtedly many causes have been responsible, among them, the movement of population from other countries. The American hemisphere comprising the northern and southern continents are the contemporary examples of this movement. The real native Indians of the United States are disappearing because of emigration from Europe. It should be noted that the thirteen original colonies declared their independence in 1776, and 160 years later (1936), these colonies, because of emigration and other causes, have expanded across the continent, covering a territory as large as Europe, and becoming in the meantime a world power. Likewise, as a result of emigration from Europe, the South American Republics have developed. The case of Malaya might also be cited, where the Malay population is gradually disappearing, with the continued increase of the Chinese and Indian popUlation therein. There is no need, therefore, to go back thousands of years to the Past, for corroborative evidence in support of the proposition that it is not enough for a people to possess territory, inhabited by its own native population. The possibility of eventual disappearance as a race, or merger with other conquering or emigrant peoples must be considered. While it might be possible to uphold a country's independence from a purely defensive point of view if under competent leadership, still, peaceful penetration systemat.ically carried out, might thwart the most 225

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES carefully laid out plans. Peaceful penetration is specially effective in democracies where methods of propaganda skilfully directed, may influence the trend of popular and government opinion in favor of policies, which are destructive in their ultimate effects. The danger of peaceful penetration may be negligible at present, but with the intensive propaganda being carried for commercial expansion, it is more real than imaginary, especially in a country like the Philippines, which consists of many islands, making it difficult to prevent encroachments upon the national territory, and rendering it a comparatively easy task for interested parties, to promote internal disagreements among various sections of the country and encourage, support, or develop separatist movements, more so when the discontented elements are thoroughly trained and well versed in military technique. There is, of course, no cause for undue pessimism, but certainly the outlook is not inviting for an exaggerated degree of optimism. A great deal will depend upon the statesmanship of those leading the destinies of the countries involved. Whether or not, centuries later, there will be a Philippine nation in the Orient, holding its own among other nations, will depend in a great measure upon the policies which the United States may carry forward in the Far East, and also upon the policies which the national leaders of the Philippines may pursue on the internal and external affairs of the country.

226

IV. ECONOMIC

Banking, Currency and Finance I BANKING The first bank established in the Philippine Islands was the Banco Espafiol-Filipino de Isabel II which began business in 1852, though originally granted charter by a royal decree from the King of Spain in 1828. There were also established in Manila two English banks-the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China in 1873 and the Hong-kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation in 1876. The only savings bank during the Spanish times was the Monte de Piedad, now the oldest of its kind in the Philippines, established by a royal decree in 1882. The Government Agricultural Bank was created in 1865, but commenced operations in 1908 and existed only for eight years. On February 4, 1916, the Philippine National Bank was created by Act 2612 of the Philippine Legislature and empowered to issue bank notes. At present the banks operating in the Islands are Philippine National Bank Bank of the Philippine Islands China Banking Corporation Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Monte de Piedad Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China Peoples Bank and Trust Company Philippine TruS't Company Yokohama Specie Bank . National City Bank of New York Philippine Postal Savings Bank.

II CURRENCYl Prior to American oecupation, the Mexican silver peso was the principal monetary unit in the Philippines. The 1

Commercial Handbook, 1924. 227

ENCYCLOPEDIA Of THE PHILIPPINES coin was introduced into this country on account of the Islands' trade relations with Mexico. There were also in circulation the Spanish gold peso and other coins of lesser denominations, besides the silver peso of various countries of South and Central America, and a number of British colonies. Added to these, were the copper coins of neighboring Oriental countries. In 1877 the importation of all kinds of foreign money into the Islands was prohibited as a result of the Mexican silver money's decline in "intrinsic value." Meanwhile, the continuation of the circulation of the Mexican silver coin then in the Islands was authorized until it could be recoined. In spite of this measure the rapid substitution of Mexican silver coin for gold continued until the Spanish gold pieces with the effigy of Alfonso XII, practically disappeared from the Islands. In 1897, 6,000,000 silver pesos bearing the word "Filipinas" were sent to the Islands from Spain. These coins, the Mexican silver pesos and minor coins, and the notes of the Banco Espafiol-Filipino, made up the bulk of Philippine money. During the early pad of the American occupation, gold, silver, nickel and copper coins and paper currency of the United States were added to the monetary circulation of the Islands. Marked depreciations and fluctuations in exchange of various currencies ensued. And it became necessary for the Government to change from time to time, by executive orders, the official ratios between the old and new currencies. This state of affairs led the Congress of the United States, on the recommendation of the Philippine Commission to pass on March 2, 1903, "An act to establish a standard of value and to provide for a coinage system in the Philippine Islands." A decimal currency system based on gold was adopted. The system was planned by Charles A. Conant, and the coins were designed by Melecio Figueroa, a Filipino engraver. The new Philippine peso was made equal in value to fifty cents, United 228

GENERAL INFORMATION States currency. This parity is maintained by cash deposits in the United States in accordance with the Gold Standard Act passed by the Philippine Commission on October 10, 1903. When the Americans took possession of the Islands, the notes in circulation therein were mostly those of the Banco Espanol-Filipino. These were of the denominations of five, ten, twenty, fifty, one hundred, and two hundred pesos. In 1912 the bank issued a new series of notes of five, ten, twenty, fifty, one hundred, and two hundred pesos. The Government, besides, issues notes of not exceeding the amount of metallic money in its vaults. The Philippine National Bank, created on February 4, 1916, issues one, two, five, ten and twenty-peso notes and higher denominations. To fill a shortage of fractional currency during the early part of the World War, the same bank issued notes of the denominations of one peso, fifty, twenty and ten centavos. All of these, except the one-peso notes, where subsequently withdrawn.

III FINANCE In the Islands there are at present nine commercial banks and two savings banks, and the export business of the country is largely financed by the Philippine National Bank, Bank of the Philippine Islands, Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, The National City Bank of New York, and the China Banking Corporation, which furnish from 21 to 32 per cent of the total banking resources of the country during the last twenty years.1 There are ten mutual bui~ding and loan associations in operation in the Islands with resources aggregating P22,666,349.73 in June, 1934. 1

Economic Problems of the Philippines, 1934, p. 215. 229

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Public revenues, according to budget classification, are (a) revenue from taxation, (b) incidental revenue, and (c) earning and other credits, aside from gifts to the government and 'receipts from commercial and industrial enterprises. Under the. Tydings-McDuffie Law, the public debt of the Philippines is limited to 10 per cent of the assessed value of the taxable real property in the country, and public credit or loans shall not be contracted in ~or,eign countries without the approval of the President of the United States. The government expenditures from 1916 to 1936 are, according to the various budgets, as follows: 1916 Actual Expenditures .... 1917 Actual Expenditures .... 1918 Budget................ 1919 Budget................ 1920 Budget ........ . ....... 1921 Budget ................ 1922 Budget................ 1923 Budget................ 1924 Budget................ 1925 Budget . ............... 1926 Budget................ 1927 Budget................ 1928 Budget 路 ....................... 1929 Budget ............................... 1930 Budget 路 ........................... 1931 Budget ......................... 1932 Budget ...................... 1933 Budget 路 ................ 1934 Budget 路 ................... 1935 Budget .................... 1936 Budget ..................... 230

P39,395,069.92 44,452,724.59 51,051,724.50 77,390,749.00 84,453,806.00 83,549,778.00 72,538,593.00 65,677,327.00 66,739,428.00 67,045,249.00 69,082,248.00 71,918,589.00 72,338,945.00 75,520,852.00 77,634,39'8.00 77,647,588.00 70,540,667.00 54,554,693.00 54,053,705.00 53,997,459.00 55,924,337.10

GENERAL INFORMATION The biggest estimated expenditure was in 1920 amounting to P84,453,806.00, but the biggest actual expenditure was in 1921 amounting to P101,329,609.87. The first budget submitted by President Quezon for the 1937 expenditures of the Commonwealth of the Philippines amounts to P64,767,138.00.

"Ilionl' d.IIIIII 24.7%

P1â&#x20AC;˘â&#x20AC;˘m.1OG

'nne ....IIH 24.6% P1i,nuu.

The sources of revenue for 1937 come chiefly from import duties, license and business tax, and excise tax. The purposes for which the expenditures are to be used are shown in the chart above, assigning 24.7ro for national defense and 24.6 % for public education. 231

The Mining Industry '* BENGUET CONSOLIDATED MINING COMPANY

This Company holds the proud distinction of heing the parent of present-day successful lode mining in the Philippines; and, including its subsidiary operations, of being the largest mining organization in the Islands. It blazed the trail in exhaustive tests and experiments to determine the best method of treating Philippine ores. During its initial operations, and continuing through many disastrous years, the Company met with heartbreaking difficulties and misfortunes. Except for desultory surface workings by Igorots, a primitive mountain people, the present flourishing gold minillg district of Benguet remained entirely unexplored prior to the advent of the Benguet Consolidated Mining Compan~its hidden treasures unsuspected. The Benguet Consolidated Mining Company was organized in 1903 by Metcalf A. Clarke, an energetic businessman of Manila, and associates who acquired a few mining claims in the Benguet district of the Mountain Province, only a short distance from the present beautiful mountain resort of Baguio. The Company began operations with a simple three-stam.p amalgamation mill. This was later enlarged and converted into a cyanide and sandleaching plant. In 1911, after the Company had completed its improved plant and appeared to have bright prospects ahead, a severe storm completely destroyed the plant and flooded the mine. Faced with the entire loss of capital invested, but far from being discouraged, the Company was reorganized with additional capital and a new mill was erected having a capacity of sixty tons daily. The Company paid its first dividend in 1916. From 1916 to 1935, inclusive, the mine has produced a gross of P59,500,000;

* From

the Port of Manila Yearbook, 1936, pp. 23-41. 232

GENERAL INFORMATION and, including profitable subsidiary operations, the Company has paid P30,500,000 in stockholders' dividends. The history of this pioneer gold mining company reads more like an imaginary tale than one of fact. Capital was repeatedly thrown into the venture for thirteen long years before it became a profitable mine. Many of the original investors lost their entire investment. Clarke, the organizor, lost his fortune and died a poor man without knowledge that the property in which he had staked his all was later to become one of the world's most profitable mines. Stockholders' shares, issued at ten centavos per share, were drugs on the market for many years-rarely salable at any price. Yet those much-despised shares were later eagerly bought on the market for as high as P37 per share. With a mill of 750 tons capacity per day, the mine is producing more gold today than ever in its history. The Company is capitalized at P6,000,000, represented by six million stockholders' shares at a par value of one peso per share. The capital stock was increased from P200,000 to P6,000,000 on December 1, 1934, by increasing the par value of shares from ten centavos to one peso, and by declaring a stock dividend of 200 per cent covered by accumulated surplus. The Company, in other words, operated the mine for twenty years on a capital of only P200,000. During this time, the capacity of the mill was increased from 100 to 600 tons per day; a total of P50,000,000 in bullion was recovered; P23,300,000 was paid as cash dividends to stockholders; and a large surplus of undivided profits was accumulated-truly a remarkable record. Since the Benguet Consolidated Mining Company's property is not only the oldest profitable lode mine but is also typical of the best proven system of mine development and ore treatment at present in the Philippines, a brief description of the Company's mine and mill follows: 233

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES' The Company owns sixty-seven full and partial lode claims situated in the Antamok district of Benguet. A lode claim is nine hectares or about twenty-two and onefourth acres in area. The mill is situated about fifteen kilometers from Baguio, and has a capacity of 750 tons per day. It is an all-sliming cyanide plant with a flotation system fo~ concentrating primary slimes, the concentrates then being returned to the main flow. The mine is worked through a I,IOO-foot shaft which is tapped at the 700-foot level by a drain-tunnel 7,000 feet in length. The total length of underground workings exceeds eighty miles. The mining system employed varies with the type of vein; but is usually either filled-in square sets or cut-and-fill rills. The mine is provided with electric haulage on' the 400- and 700-foot levels, \Vhich are m.ain gathering levels, and with electric fan ventilation and compressed air drills. Motive power is electrically generated by hydro-electric and Diesel engine plants which deliver a total of 4,400 kws. The generating system is also interconnected with that of the Balatoc Mining Company's Diesel plant which has a capacity of 3,200 kws. The plant is fully equipped with machine, carpenter, blacksmith and tinner shops, etc. About, 3,000 men are employed who, with their families, are housed by the Company at Antamok. No less than 10,000 people are dependent upon the Company's payroll. The Company maintains s路chools, hospitals, churches, stores, a moving picture theater and other recreation centers. Hospitals are maintained with resident physicians wlio are connected with Notre Dame Hospital at Baguio. BALATOC MINING COMPANY

With a steady monthly production of more than one m.illion pesos in value of gold and silver bullion, the Balatoc Mining Company is the largest producer in the Philippines. Based upon per ton value of ore, the Balatoc mine is rated as the best in the world; and the Company's 234

GENERAL INFORMATION mmmg and milling equipment, with a capacity of 1,200 tons per day, is the most complete and modern which present-day knowledge of mining and ore treatment by the allsliming cyanide process has devised. The Philippines can point with pride to the fact that the Balatoc property is one of the most outstanding and best managed gold mines in the whole world today. The history of this remarkable mine began some twenty years ago when a few resident Americans formed the Acupan Mining Company, and acquired rights to a group of mineral claims situated on Butwann Creek, about eight miles southeast of Baguio. Igorot tribesmen had been taking out gold from rich stringers in this district, but the actual richness and extent of the deposits in the Acupan claims was not even suspected at the time. Development of the property by the Acupan Mining Company was very slow during the first ten years due to lack of capital. The Company struggled along from year to year, its members contributing all they were able to and making up in persistence what they lacked in capital. If the entire story of the early struggles of the Company could be related here, it would reveal very interesting side-lights in the history of this truly great mine. In March, 1927, the management of the Benguet Consolidated Mining Company saw the possibilities of the Balatoc property, and entered into an agreement with the Balatoc Mining Company whereby the former paid P600,000 for a six-tenths interest in the Balatoc property; and also agreed to make such cash advances in the form of loans as might be necessary to develop the property and install a mill. Two years later, a cyanide plant of 100 tons capacity had been installed, and the mine and mill were ready for operation. During the first year of operation, the property paid the full indebtedness for loans made by the Benguet Consolidated Mining Company, and also paid P250,000 in 235

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES dividends to stockholders. From 1929 to 1935 inclusive, the mine produced a total of P40,676,250 in gold and silver; and, in addition to paying off the indebtedness and the cost of increasing the mill capacity to the present 1,200 tons per day, it has paid to the fortunate stockholders P17,900,000 in cash dividends and also a stock dividend of 100 per cent. ITOGON MINING COMPANY

The Itogon Mining Company was the second to enter into and continue profitable gold mining operations in Benguet" district. The Company was incorporated in J anuary, 1925, by Mr. and Mrs. J. H. Marsman as principal stockholders, and now has a paid-up capital of P1,981,122. The Company owns seventy-nine mineral claims situated at Itogon, sixteen kilometers southeast of Baguio. Milling operations were begun in September, 1926, with a 30-ton per day mill. The mill has been steadily enlarged and improved to the present all-sliming cyanide plant of 350 tons capacity. Additional equipment now being installed will increase the tonnage capacity early in 1936 to 500 tons per day. From 1926 to 1935 inclusive, a total of 481,709 tons of ore was milled, with a recovery of P10,121,463 in gold and silver bullion. The first dividend was paid to stockholders in 1932. Since then, the Company has paid regular quarterly dividends in the aggregate amount of about P2,400,000. Dividends for 1935 amounted to 32% per cent of the capital stock. In point of aggregate bullion recovery value and in dividends paid to stockholders, Itogon ranks fourth among the mines of the Philippines; being exceeded .only by the Benguet Consolidated, the Balatoc and the Panique Mines, the first and last of which have been in continuous operation since 1914. The ore reserves ha ve been increased each year in excess of the tonnage milled, and the ore reserves now in sight are sufficient for several years to come. In 1934, the management of the 236

GENERAL INFORMATION Itogon Mining Company was placed in the hands of Marsman & Company, Inc., a corporation having large and varied mining interests and activities which include transportation, mine and mill supplies, and staffs of examining and consulting engineers for service with other companies. Mar~man & Company also hold supervising-managing contracts with twelve mining companies other than the Itogon Mining Company. They are: Suyoc Consolidated Mining Company; United Paracale Mining Company; San Mauricio Mining Company; Coco Grove, Incorporated; N. E. Placer Mining Syndicate; North Mindanao Venture; Mindanao Mining Company, Inc.; Palidan Mining Association; Peris Associates Syndicate; Ambassador Gold Mining 'Company; King Solomon Mining Company; and Kipit River Mining Association. Of these several companies and associations, the Suyoc Consolidated Mining Company and the United Paracale Mining Company were in active production in 1935; and the San Mauricio Mining Company and Coco Grove, Inc., began production early in 1936. The other co~panies are more or less in the exploration stage. BRIEF OF OTHER PRODUCING GOLD MINING COl\IP ANIES

Antamok Goldfields Mining CompOJny: Based upon bullion value recovered, this Company ranked third among the producing mines of the Philippines in 1935. The Company owns a group of thirty-nine mineral claims situated at Itogon, Baguio district, which had been worked for many years by Igorots. With a capital of P1,375,000, the Company erected a mill of 150 tons capacity and began milling ore in July, 1933. Since then, the mill has been improved and its capacity increased to the present 400-ton all-sliming cyanide plant. Further increase in mill capacity will be accomplished in 1936 to 600 tons per day. The Company has a milling contract to handle the ore of the Gold Creek Mining Corporation, an adjoining mine, in addition to its' own ore. 237

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

Demonstration Gold Mines, Ltd.: This company ranked fifth in the value of gold and silver produced in 1935. The property of the company consists of a group of mineral clai~s situated four miles south of Baguio. It was first operated in 1917 and 1918 with a small stamp and simple amalgamation mill; but, due to the great amount of sulphides present in the ores, the amalgamation system did not prove successful and the mill was shut down. The company was reorganized in 1932, with a capital of 1>1,000,000, and a new modern cyanidation plant of 170 tons was erected, and milling operations began on January 1, 1935. The mill capacity will soon be increased to 200 tons per day. Suyoc Consolidated Mining Company: This Company was sixth in bullion production value for the year 1935. It owns seventy mineral claims situated at Suyoc, Mountain Province, fifty-five miles north of Baguio, where Igorots had been busily extracting gold from surface workings for centuries. With a paid capital of P850,000, the Company entered into a contract with Marsman & Company to erect a 100-ton flotation and cyanide mill, and to operate the property. Milling operation began in August, 1934. Mill capacity was shortly increased to 4,000 tons per month, and will be further increased to 5,000 tons per month in 1936. Baguio Gold Mining Company: The Baguio Gold Mining Company ranked seventh in production for 1935. The Company was organized in 1930 to take over the property of the Headwaters Mining Company. With a capital of P1,300,000, the Company erected an all-sliming cyanide mill of 150 tons daily capacity which began milling operations in October, 1933. With additional equipment including a flotation system, the mill capacity has since been increased to 225 tons per day. The Company now owns sixty-one mineral claims adjoining the City of Baguio on the east. 238

GENERAL INFORMATION

Gold Creek Mining Corporation: Property of the Gold Creek Mining Corporation consists of thirteen mineral claims adjoining those of the Antamok Goldfields Mining Company at Itogon. The Gold Creek Corporation entered into a mil.1ing contract with the Antamok Company for milling its ore in the latter Company's mill, the ore being hauled through a tunnel connecting the two mining properties. Milling operations commenced in April, 1935. The Gold Creek Corporation is capitalized at P700,000. Beng'Uet Exploration, Inc.: This Company was organized early in 1931 to explore and develop a group of twentyeight mineral claims in the Benguet district. Milling operations were begun in March, 1933, with a small 30-ton leaching plant. The plant has sincâ&#x201A;Ź! been enlarged and improved to its present capacity of 100 tons per day. Due to the fact that the ores thus far mined have been highly oxidized surface ores, th~ operation cost has been low, and ores of low value have been handled at a profit. Ores in the fissure veins at depth increase in values, but the proportion of sulphides also increases with depth. Masbate Consolidated Mining Company, Inc.: This Company was organized early in 1935 with a capital of P5,000,00~ with which to purchase and operate properties of the Panique Mines, Inc., and the Colorado Mining Company situated in Masbate, Masbate. The property of Panique Mines, Inc., formerly of the Syndicate Mining Company, has been worked successfully and continuously since 1914. The Colorado Mining Company had ceased operations in 1922, due to apparent ore depletion and loss of its mill by fire. The 200-ton cyanide plant of Panique Mines, Inc., which had been in operation since 1914, was enlarged in 1935 by the Masbate Consolidat~ Mining Company .to a capacity of 350 tons per day. Construction work is now under way to further enlarge the mill capacity to 3,000 239

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES tons per day early in 1936. When completed, this will be the largest gold recovery plant in the Philippines. Ore from the Colorado property will be hauled by railway to the central plant for milling. IXL Mining Company, Inc.: This Company was organized in 1932 to leas,e and operate mineral claims owned by the Argos Mining Company at Balete, Masbate. The Company began milling ore in 1932 with a small 30-ton amalgamation and cyanide plant which was later enlarged to 55 tons per day. After increasing its capital to Pl,OOO,OOO in April, 1935, the Company purchased the property from th~ Argos Mining Company. Plans were then made to increase the tonnage capacity of the mill to 150 tons per day. The enlarged plant was put in operation 011 January 1, 1936. The Company now owns a group of twenty-five mineral claims. United Paracale Mining Company: The property of the United Paracale Mining Company is situated in Camarines Norte, Luzon, and is operated by Marsman & Company as General Managers. The Company was organized late in 1933 with an authorized capital of Pl,OOO,OOO of which P600,000 has been issued and paid for. Milling operations were commenced in May, 1935, with a 110-ton flotation, amalgamation and smelting plant. The mill capacity was shortly increased to 125 tons per day; and plans have been made and machinery ordered for further enlargement to 200 tons per day. Exploration and development work already accomplished indicates that the Company has a promising future in a gold producing district whose history antedates Legaspi's time. Ipo Gold Mines, Inc.: This company was organized in 1932 to explore, develop and operate a group of eighty-five lode claims situated in the Norzagaray or Angat River district of Bulacan Province, Luzon, only a few miles outside 240

BENGUET CONSOLIDATED MINING COMPANY

(Top)

BALATOC MINING COMPANY (Bottom)

"Among the outstanding Gold Mines of the World"

GENERAL INFORMATION of the city of Manila. The Company was capitalized at P776,500; and after exploration work had developed ore bodies sufficient to warrant erection of a mill, a contract was made with the Benguet Consolidated Mining Company to erect a mill and operate the mine and mill on a profit sharing basis. A 150-ton cyanide mill was erected, and milling operations were commenced on March 1, 1934. Salacot Mining Company, Inc.: The property of this Company adjoins that of the Ipo Gold Mines, Inc., and consists of 116 mineral claims. Capitalized at P2,400,000, the Company first undertook extensive exploration and development work which was followed by the erection of cyanide plant with a capacity of 200 tons per day. The mill was finished and put into operation in October, 1935. The ore is found in fissure veins varying in width from two to as much as sixty feet. With large ore bodies available, the mill is expected to treat the low grade ores of the district at a profit. New 1936 Companies: To the sixteen companies which were in active production in 1935, there are to be added several new companies which will come into production in 1936. Among these are: Cal Hor Mining Company, Benguet district, operated by the Benguet Consolidated Mining Company with a 150-ton cyanide mill; Big Wedge Mining Company, Benguet district, operated by the Atok Gold Mining Company under contract with a 150-ton cyanide mill; San. Mauricio Mining Company, at Mambulao, Camarines Norte, operated by Marsman & Company with a 150ton flotation mill; and Coco Grove, Incorpora,ted, a placer mining company working deposits in the Paracale River, Camarines Norte, operated under contract with Marsman & Company. PHILIPPINE IRON ORE DEPOSITS

Since early history, iron ores have been known to exist in several parts of the Philippines, particularly in 241

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Bulacan and Camarines Norte Provinces, Luzon, and in Surigao Province, Mindanao. At Angat, Bulacan Province, the natives have mined the ores in a small way for many years and smelted them in crudely fashioned blast furnaces, the product being made into plough-shares, cooking utensils and other simple articles for domestic use. The quantity of iron produced in this way has necessarily been small-a few hundred tons per year at most--and the qualify such as might be used only for the most simple purposes. The largest iron deposits are those in Surigao and are said to be the largest in the world. In 1914, the Philippine Government set aside these deposits as a government reservation; and, in 1919, the Philippine Legislature passed an Act creating t he National Iron Company to develop and exploit them. But, until the present~ nothing further has been done to make use of this immense storehouse of iron ore. Geologists and mineralogists of the Bureau of Science have made extensive surveys of this deposit, and it was estimated that it contained from four to five hundred million tons of ore with an average assay of fifty-four per cent. The grade is low, but the ore may be mined inexpensively since the deposit is a surface-mantle from ten to twenty meters in thickness and is located immediately along the seacoast. PHILIPPINE IRON MINES, INC.

The Philippine Iron Mines, Inc., was organized in 1934 with a capital of P2,400,000 to develop and exploit the iron ores of Larap Peninsula, Camarines Norte, and of the adjacent Island of Calambayungan. These ore deposits had been the subject of some exploitation in 1918, by a Japanese firm, when 48,000 tons were shipped to Japan. No further exploitation was undertaken until the Philippine Iron Mines, Inc., took over the property in 1934. The new 242

GENERAL INFORMATION company secured contracts with a smelting firm in Japan, and ore shipments began in October, 1934. During 1935, 300,000 tons were exported of a value of P1,200,000 at shipside. Plans for 1936 call for an output of 450,000 tons. The company built a loading wharf at the Island, and a wooden bridge with narrow-gauge railroad connecting Larap Peninsula with the Island, the one wharf thus serving for shipments from both places. The ore bodies on both the Island and the Peninsula are of bench type, slightly above sea level, and the ores are easily and inexpensively mined and delivered for loading at the wharf. MANGANESE Deposits of manganese ores have been found in several parts of the Philippines, -chiefly in the form of nodules and pebbles in beds of from a few inches to two and more feet in thickness; and also as magniferous ore in association with gold ores. Of the several known deposits, only those found in Ilocos Norte Province in northwestern Luzon have thus far been given active attention. The Ilocos Norte deposits occur as veinlets in the agglomerates, and as beds or layers between limestone formations above and sandstone below; and also as residual deposits of small nodules on the surface or in beds of soil two to three feet in thickness. These deposits occur over an area of approximately sixty square miles of rolling country with a maximum elevation of 1,000 feet, only a few miles from the coast. The first active exploitation of these deposits was undertaken in 1917, when 3,000 tons of ore were shipped to Japan and sold at the very low price of P17 per ton. Due to the high ocean freight rates then prevailing and the lack of economical transportation on land to tide-water, Philippine manganese could not then compete in the ' open market and further exploitation was discontinued. Also, 243

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES there was not then a protective import duty on manganese imported into the United States from foreign countries. In 1934, the Ilocos Manganese Mining Company was formed, chiefly by Filipino and American capitalists, to exploit the Ilocos Norte deposits. With a capital of P300,000, the Company has accomplished considerable exploration and development work on its two groups of mineral claims, one of twenty-eight claims at Punta Negra, north of Burgos, and the other of eighteen claims south of the municipality. A preliminary shipment of ore has already been made to the United States. The Company is preparing to install washing and conditioning equipment to increase the manganese content to the commercial grade of fifty or more per cent. Good roads have been built from the mines to Port Dirique, and the Company will soon be prepared to make regular shipments of manganese to the most favorable markets. The quantity of manganese ore contained in the entire Ilocos Norte deposits has not been estimated or approximated; but the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, made an estimate in 1934 of the property of the Ilocos Manganese Mining Company and reported 99,175 tons of positive and probable ore, and 2,200,000 tons of prospective ore. With the estimated low cost of mining, conditioning and transporting the ore to tidewater, and with a customs import duty on foreign imJ)<>rts into the United States from which Philippine manganese will be exempt for several years to come, the Ilocos Norte deposits appear to have favorable and bright prospects ahead. CHROMIUM

Recent explorations have proven the presence of immense bodies of chromite ores in the Philippines, one of which is said to be the largest single mass of chromite ore known in the world today-more than ten million tons 244

GENERAL INFORMATION located on the top of a hill within fifteen miles of the seashore. Mining companies are already engaged in developing these deposits, and it is certain that the Philippines are destined to become the largest source of this valuable mineral which is so necessary in the rapidly growing electrometallurgical field as well as for increasing use in the stainless-steel industry. With such immense, bodies of chrome ores easily available at moderate production cost, the Philippines are in a position to supply the world market for this increasingly useful and valuable mineral. The Florannie Mining Company, with its chromite deposits situated in Camarines Sur, southeastern Luzon, was the pioneer company to engage in this new industry. The Company entered into contract with the Benguet Consolidated Mining Company to develop and operate its property on a profit-sharing basis. A preliminary shipment of ore has already been made; and, as soon as an aerial tramway system now under construction is completed, regular monthly shipments of 3,000 tons will be made to the Union Carbide Company, New York. The ~argest known deposits of chromite are situated in Zambales Province, Luzon, on properties of the Consolidated Mines, Inc., and the Luzon Consolidated Mining Company, Inc. There are also deposits on reservations made several years ago by the United States and the Philippine Governments in Zambales Province. It has been estimated by competent mining engineers that the mineral claims of the Consolidated Mines, Inc., contain a minimum of ten million tons of commercial chrome ore, this estimate having been arrived at by systematic test borings. At the present market price of P20 per ton delivered at tidewater, this deposit represents a gross value of P200,000,OOO. Consolidated Mines, Inc., has entered into a contract with Benguet Consolidated Mining Company to develop and operate its prop245

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES erty, and the contract company has already spent P210,000 on exploration and development work. It is planned to build a railway from the mines at Masinloc to tidewater fifteen miles distant. The estimated cost of mining and delivering the ore at tidewater will be only P4 a ton. The Luzon Consolidated Mining Company, Inc., have chromite deposits estimated at several hundred thousand tons, and is pushing exploration and development work on its property. Other bodies of chrome ores have been found in various parts of the Philippines, but the deposits in Zambales Province are not only the largest but are also the most advantageously situated for delivery at tidewater.

246

Minor Industries in the Philippines Aerated Water.-Aerated water manufacture was introduced into the Islands during the latter part of the Spanish regime, but the flavor mostly made then was lemonade. When the Americans came and the method of manufacture was improved, different varieties of soft drinks were introduced and the industry has been extended to the provinces. The total value of the production of aerated water in the Philippines is placed at about 2,500,000 pesos. There are about 160 factories scattered throughout the country, which are controlled by the Chinese and the Filipinos. The Philippines, being a warm country, the people have found the soft drink beverages best adopted to the country. Baking, Confec.tionery amd Candy-Making. The first bakery in Manila was owned by the government in 1631. Since then the number has gradually increased until at present there is a bakery in almost all towns and in most cases more than three or four compete in providing one town with bread and other confectioneries. Thirty years ago, M. A. Clarke introduced candy-making into the Islands. Buttons.-The raw materials used for the manufacture of shell buttons are trocha, pearl shell, green snail, and the chambered nautilus. The Islands have an abund.ant supply of these shells. They are found in the waters of Jolo and also in the . vicinity of Sitanki, and the regions farther north, such as the Tafton Strait and along the coasts of most of the Visayan Islands; some are found along the coast of Pangasinan and Ambos Camarines, (but they are hard to obtain). In 1918 the United States alone imported 2,500,000 pesos worth of buttons. The Philippine exports of these products showed only 251,144 gross in quantity, valued at 247

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES 231,811 pesos, while the Islands imported buttons worth 119,787 pesos. Japan is supplying one-half of the buttons of America. In 1922 imports were valued at P216,086. There are two button factories in the Philippines. These companies use only a very small portion of the suitable material that could be obtained. The annual supply of pearls which the Philippines produce is 1,000,000 kilograms. These lim.ited local demands for shells and the better prices offered abroad result in the Philippine supply of shells being exported to other lands. It is estimated that a small button factory, destined only for local trade and capable of producing fifty gross of buttons daily, would require an investment of 20,000 pesos exclusive of the cost of the buildings. Candle-Making.-Candles are used in the Philippines mostly in religious rites and ceremonies. Electric light has in many cases, however, replaced it. Most of the candle factories are owned by Chinese. Carrriage Manufacture.-Carriage manufacture has declined greatly since the advent of motor cars. N ow only calesas, carts and carretelas are used. During the Spanish regime many different elaborate carriages were produced. In the future, perhaps even the few carriages used at present may be replaced by autos and trucks. Caustic Soda Production.-The industry has a bright future although it is still undeveloped. Much caustic soda is used in the manufacture of various articles such as paper pulp, glass, and soap. Raw materials, especially salt is abundant. Cement Manufacture.-Rizal Cement Company and Cebu Portland Cement Company, a Government concern having the trade mark" Apo," are the two companies manufacturing cement in the Philippines. The raw materials limestone and silica are taken from Naga and Cebu where 248

GENERAL INFORMATION the Cebu Portland Cement operates, but gypsum is obtained from Batangas. In the Philippines the sources of raw materials are: Cebu; Island of Batan; Island of Masbate; Island of Po!ilio; Bani, Pangasinan; Romblon; Capiz; Balayan, Iloilo, Iloilo; Loay, Bohol; and Binangonan, Rizal. C路ordage.-At present the Islands is an exporter of cordage. This industry has a promise of constant demand. The materials used are abaca, maguey and sisal; but abaca is far superior to all others and hardly encounter any competition. Most of the cordage exported goes to United States, British East Indies, and Hongkong. Derris.-Derris is a very good insecticide with the advantage over calcium arsenate in that it is poisonous only to insects, not to man. United States is a good market for this product for millions of pesos are used yearly for iIltsecticides there. Several species of the plant havin~ this as active constituent are growing wild here. If these are cultivated and factories are established to extract the active constituent and to prepare the hydrogenated retone for the market, several millions of pesos will be brought to the Philippines. DisUlleries.-Distilled spirits and fermented liquors have been exported only since 1915. Their manufacture, however, has been carried on since the earliest days of Philippine history. There are plenty of raw materials in the Islands, especially nipa sap, molasses, cane sugar, and coconut sap. Some of the markets for distillery products are China, Hongkong and French East Indies. Electric Light and Power Plants.-At present most of the towns in the Islands have electric light plants. The first electric light plant was organized in Manila in 1894, but it was during the American Occupation that many electric light plants were established. 249

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

Embroideries.-Hand embroidery in the Philippine Islands has been known for over four centuries, having been introduced by the Spanish, French and Belgian nuns, who taught this art craft to the Filipino women in the convents where exquisitely fine work was done, mainly for the church altar and tapestries and for decorations. At the present time there are scattered over the Islands, but chiefly in Central Luzon, thousands of women, men and children engaged in this enterprise, which is a means of adding to their home income, but is not considered as the mainstay of their livelihood, as they work only when they prefer to, not of necessity. France and Belgium, where embroidery industry was crippled by the war, are coming back to the field, but it is a question whether they will ever again be able to compete with the PHilippine Islands in quality and price of goods. The FilipiNos also excel in fine art done on the pifia (pineapple fabric) and silk. In the Philippines embroidery is a part of the curriculum of all the schools, so that every girl student learns how to embroider from an early age. The demand for Philippine embroideries greatly exceGds the supply. At present the greatest demand is for ladies' underwear, but there is also a tremendous demand for infants' and children's underwear and fine frocks. The making of children's dresses, especially the larger sizes, is probably the most complicated of handmade merchandise, not only in fine embroidery-stitchery but also in the cutting and sewing. This class of workmanship is finding favors in leaps and bounds in the United States. There are about forty embroidery factories in Manila, the entire output of which is practically absorbed by the United States. Recently new markets have opened up, notably India, Australia, and China, where the dainty work of the Filipinos have been much admired. 250

GENERAL INFORMATION The following figures show the growth of the embroidery industry in the Philippines-in 1913 the value of embroideries exported was P352,338, and in 1933, P3,661,337. }?ish Canning.-The Philippine Packing Corporation in Bogo, Oriental Misamis, cans tuna fish for export. Our fish-drying has a good market locally but the methods employed arc too primitive and should be greatly im.proved. Modern fish preservation may be established in great fishing centers like Manila, Iloilo, and Samar. Fishing.-Although all kinds of fishes abound in Philippine waters, not even the local demand can be met. Fishing is dOl).e only in shallow water, the methods employed not being adequate for deep-sea fishing. Fruit Preserves.-As the Philippines abound with fruits of the tropics, fruit preserving has become a very important native industry. Furniture Maldng.-Furniture making has been known by Filipinos for centuries. But production increased only about two decades ago when two big furniture shops were built in Manila. In 1924 there were 41 shops in the Islands. The center of the industry is Manila with Bulacan as a close second. The industry can be developed for export trade. The United States is the best market for Philippine furniture, although China is a close competitor for rattan and reed furniture. Ga.~ Plants.-The first gas plant established in the Philippines is the Manila Gas Corporation, an American firm, which was organized on October 16, 1912. Glass.-Sta. Ana Bottle 路 Factory producing mostly gin bottles out of broken bottles was the glass factory in the Islands. It was established in 1904. Another factory was built in 1924. But neither factory has made much progress because the supply of raw materials is very lim.ited. 251

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

Harness.-Harness industry in the Philippines has a very poor prospect because it depends on horse drawn vehicles which are fast being replaced by motor cars. It is probable that the industry dates as far back as the carriage manufacture. Hats.-The making of Philippine hats is almost a household industry. Hats made here are almost as durable and as beautiful as those produced in Panama. Philippine buntal, buri, hemp, and bamboo hats make attractive and comfortable wear. The towns of Baliuag, Bulacan, and Lucban, Tayabas, have become famous for the excellent hats they produce. The hat industry in the Philippines, although exploited only to a small extent, made it possible for the Islands to record exportation of this product in 1919 amounting to 1,470,026 pesos compared with only 753,942 pesos worth of hats imported for the same year. Of the 1,470,026 pesos worth of hats sent out of the Philippines in 1919, 1,280,968 pesos worth went to the United States. With the increasing popularity which the Philippine hats enjoy in the American market, hat exportation to the United States is expected to reach greater proportions. China, with its hundred of millions of souls, ma.ny of whom had already begun to wear hats, is also a big potential market for this Philippine product. There is one large factory in the Philippines which manufactures straw hats, wool hats and also umbrellas. Its actual annual production reaches half a million straw hats and half a million woolen hats. Iron Foundries.-The Chinese introduced iron founding in the Islands long ago, but the method used was very primitive and they produced only few cooking utensils such as kettles, etc. Machine shops were established shortly after the introduction of the steam engine in 1854. Mod252

GENERAL INFORMATION ern shop equipments in recent years greatly increased their activities. The articles produced are consumed locally. Matches.-There is one match factory in the Philip... pines which supply a portion of the local need, averaging 70,000 to 80,000 tins annually. One tin contains 1,440 small boxes. This factory has been in operation since eighleen years ago. The Philippines imported matches recently worth 949,205 pesos, while its export of the same product was only 33,207 pesos. Meat Packing.-We have enough raw material here to make the manufacture of canned meat, hams, sausages, canned milk, cheese and butter a profitable industry. Paint Manufacture.-Tyvo paint factories, both owned by Spaniards, are found in the Islands. The first was established in 1911. Lack of sufficient supply of materials and the cheaper prices of imported paints present a doubtful future for the progress of the industry in the Islands. Paper-Making.-We have rice straw, coconut husks, waste fiber, low-grade abaca and cane bagasse and sufficient labor to produce some low-grade paper and paper products at a profit. The government has shown by experimenting with these waste products for wrapping paper or Manila paper that the industry has great feasibility. Pea<rls.-Pearls abound in Philippine waters, especially in the neighborhood of Mindanao and Sulu. The Japanese go' as far as Sulu to fish for pearls. Merchants from Paris and London come to the Islands to get their supply of pearls. Until 1910 the pearl industry of the Philippines was totally in the hands of the Moros and the Chinese in Mindanao, who sent their pearls directly to Singapore for sale. After that year jewel:r:y houses in England and France sent their representatives here to purchase pearls, and since then large quantities have been shipped directly to those countries. At present not even one per cent of the 253

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES pearls fished in Philippine waters remain in the Islands. The rest are shipped out of the country to be manufactured into beautiful jewels which are sent back to the Islands to be sold at high prices. In 1919 the Islands exported raw pearls fished in Philippine waters remain in the Islands. that were imported were worth 155,150 pesos. Perfumeries.-Perfumes have been used by Filipinos since ancient times, but it was only since 1913 that its production was carried on commercial basis. Some of the native flowers used are sampaguita, jasmin, champaca, ylang-ylang and dama de noche. The industry has a bright future. Pottery.-Pottery was known long before the Spanish conquest of t.he Islands. The method used was very primitive and it was greatly improved by the introduction of the Spaniards of a better method of burning clay. Printing Establishments.-The first book printed in the Philippines by the first printing press, which was owned by Father Blanco San Jose, passed a few years later to the hands of Tomas Pin pin, the first Filipino printer. When the University of Sto. Tomas was established in 1611 this press began to have enough work, and the growth of the new industry have since then kept pace with the steady advance of the educational progress in the Philippines. According to the Census of 1903 the total value of the production of 35 lithographic and printing establishments then existing amounted to Pl,110,428. In 1918 the number of establishments increased to 74. It is estimated that around 4,000 persons are employed in these establishments, in which Filipinos, Americans and Chinese have invested approximately P3,000,000. Progress in education and business is giving impetus to the printing industry in the Philippines. The number of printing establishments in 1903 has more than doubled 254

GENERAL INFORMATION in 1925. The introduction of the linotype has made possible the big newspaper printing plants. Rattan.-The thirty odd kinds of rattans, and the climbing members of the palm family, furnish strips and reeds for the manufacture of furniture. Considerable exports in rattan were made during the war; and, should the rattan 00 graded and prepared in a manner similar to what is being done in Singapore, this item of export alone would not only be increased but much higher prices would be received for the product. Rattan strips are used in enormous quantities all over the Islands as tying material for houses, bridges, wharfs, boats, fish veins, etc., besides being almost the only material used for tying bales of Manila hemp, tobacco, sugar bags, and similar commercial packages. Raw Silk.-It was during the time of Governor Vargas that the production of raw silk was encouraged. In 1593 mulberry trees were known in the Islands but in 1760 Father Manuel Gallana, an Augustinian priest, sent mulberry seedlings and silkworms from China. Governor Vargas appointed pensionados from each town to study the different aspects of the industry from Chinese experts employed in Manila for the purpose. Vallehermoso, Oriental Negros, is at present the only silk-producing town in the Islands worth mentioning. The industry could be developed well in the Islands. Mulberry could be grown in the lands lying idle and they will grow well. There is also an excellent race of silkworm found in the Philippines practically free from disease. Female labor is abundant. Salt Production.-Pangasinan, Ilocos Sur, Bataan, Rizal, Cavite, Iloilo, Zamboanga, Albay, Camarines and other provinces along the sea coast produce salt. They use salt water, but in Albay and Camarines, the manufacturers use mangrove trees besides. 255

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES Common salt is used for drying fish besides the do'mestic use. It can also be used in the production of caustic soda and chlorine. Shipbuilding.-During the Spanish regime shipbuilding was carried on extensively in Albay. Vintas and other crafts were built in the M9ro region and used for highsea navigation. They are used mostly for interisland voyages. There are 16 shipbuilding and ship repairing plants in the Islands, aside from the U. S. Navy plant and the Philippine Government plant. AboutPI2,295,900 were invested in this industry during the year 1918 and 2,000 persons are estimated to be engaged in this trade which is controlled mostly by Filipinos, Chinese, Americans, and Spaniards. Shipbuilding timbers are obtainable in the Philippines; engines and fittings are imported mostly from the United States. Progress of the trade is limited by the demand for small wooden crafts of not over 250 tons. For bigger crafts, steel vessels are preferred by shipping firms. Shoes.-The shoe industry in the Philippines is in its infant stage. The exportation during 1919 was only 2,368 pairs of leather shoes and 674 pairs of canvas shoes, worth P20,675 and P2,351, respectively. Shoes, however, that left the Islands through the military, probably worth more than the amount given, are not included. On the other hand P5,000,000 worth of shoes of all kinds were imported in 1919. There are two factories in the city of Manila manufacturing shoes by machinery. Filipino laborers are employed and have proved competent to undertake all phases of the manufacture of shoes. These factories are making better grade shoes like those made in the United States, using the best imported leather and other necessary materials 256

GENERAL INFORMATION from the United States. The two factories have a capacity of about one thousand pairs of shoes per day. Besides the two factories mentioned, there is a considerable quantity of shoes made in small shops throughout the city of Manila and the provinces tnat make shoes entirely by hand and use a great deal of material made in the Philippines, especially sole leather and portions of the upper leathers. These small shops turn out products of good quality and make most of their shoes on individual order. There are also many local chinela or slipper factories. Soap.-The manufa.cture of soap in the Philippines has not made much headway although it was known as early as 1875 because the methods used a.re quite backward. At present out of the 86 factories in the Islands only two are using modern methods. Sto.rch.-Raw materials for the production of starch are abundant in the Philippines. Cassava and arrow-root are the principal ones but ricel corn and taro may also be used. Cassava is grown in Mindanao, Nueva Vizcaya, Camarines Sur and some other parts of the Visayan Islands. At present due to the limitation of the sugar production the lands formerly planted with sugar are being planted with cassava. Arrow-root and taro are found in Camarines Sur and Albay. Rice and corn are found throughout the Islands. The Philippines is importing a considerable quantity of starch annually. Tamneries.-Hides of cattle, horses and goats which are the ones mostly used in tanning are plentiful in the Islands, and the leather consumption for shoes is increasing annually. Tanning was introduced by the Chinese several centuries ago. The production was improved ' by the introduction of modern methods by the Philippine Tannery and other local companies. 257

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES

Textile Factories.-路The Filipinos were already engaged in weaving textiles when the Islands were discovered by Magellan. The four principal varieties of cloth were sinamay, jusi, pifia, and Ilocano cloth; the latter is used for making towels and blankets. Sinamay is woven from selected hemp fibers. Pifia is woven from the fibers extracted from the leaves of the pineapple plant. Jusi is a delicate fabric for dresses made either from pure silk or from a mixture of silk with hemp, pineapple or maguey fibers. Ilocano cloth is the term used for all kinds of cotton cloth which are manufactured in the Ilocos regions. In weaving this cloth both the locally produced and the imported yarns are used. It is claimed that the cloth made from the Philippine cotton is more durable, but the method used in spinning the yarn is crude and therefore it is more expensive than the imported. According to the (;ensus of 1918 the total value of cloth produced in the Philippine Islands during that year amounted to more than P10,000.000. The general centers of the industry are Iloilo, Batangas, Albay, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, Cavite, Cebu, Samar, Capiz, Rizal, and Bulacan. The market for domestic woven fiber textiles made on native hand looms is confined to the female population. Tiles and Bricks.-Bricks and tiles were in great demand during the Spanish regime as roofing, flooring and walls in building construction. But since the introduction of cement the manufacture of these articles has declined a great deal. VegetOible Fat Fa,ctories.-Extensive advertising in order to eliminate the prejudice of the people against a vegetable fat in place of animal which has been used for centuries will pave a great future for the vegetable fat industry. "'Purico," a vegetable lard from coconut oil has been produced since January 1, 1920. It competes with the Chinese and American products. 路 258

Weights and Measures COMMON PHILIPPINE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES kilogram .................. - . 2.20462 pounds pound ..................... 0.45359 kilogram gram ..................... - 0.03527 ounce ounce ..................... - 28.34953 grams liter ...................... 0.26418 gallon 1 gallon .................... 3.78533 liters 1 liter ...................... 1.05670 quarts 1 quart ..................... 0.94650 liter 1 centimeter ................ 0.39370 inch 1 inch ...................... 2.54000 centimeters 1 meter...................... ~ 3.28083 feet - 39.37 inches 1 foot ...................... ~ 0.30480 meter 1 meter ..................... 1.09361 yards 1 yard ................... . .. 0.91440 meter 1 kilometer ............... .... 0.62137 mile 1 mile ...................... 1.60935 kilometers 1 hectare ................... 2.47104 acres 1 acre ...................... 0.40469 hectare 19 Centigrade ............... 9/5 degrees Fahrenheit C9 ........................ . . 5/9 (F9-32) 19 Fahrenheit ............... - 5/9 degree Centigrade F9 .......................... - 9/5 C9-1-32

1 1 1 1 1

1 kilo (or kilogram)

LOCAL MEASURES 2.20462

avoirdupois or English pounds 2.17400 Spanish pounds 1 picul ..................... . 63.25 kilograms 1 arroba ................... . 25 Spanish pounds 11.5 kilograms 1 quintal ................... . 4 arrobas 46 kilograms 100 Spanish pounds 1 metric ton ............... . - 1000.00 kilograms - 2204.62 pounds l liter ..................... . 2.20462 avoirdupois pounds 0.908102 dry quart 1.0567 liquid quarts 1 cavan .................... . 75.00 liters 25.00 gantas 200 chupas 2.13 bushels 1 ganta .................... . 8 chupas 3 liters 1 hectare ................... . 2.4710 acres (English) - 3577.0000 brazas cuadradas 35.7700 loanes 259

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES 3.5770 0.3577 1

1 8 25 1

balitas quifion cavan seed (approximately)

DRY MEASURE chupa ................... - 0.375 liters chupas .... - 1 ganta ...â&#x20AC;˘ - 3 liters gantas ..... - 1 cavan .... -75 liters liter ..................... 2.6666 chupas

LIQUID MEASURE 1 chupa .................... 0.375 liters 8 chupas .... - 1 ganta .... 3 liters 8 gantas ..... - 1 tinaja .... - 48 liters HOUSEHOLD MEASURES 20 liters (when full) 5 gallons bottle, Vichy ............ . -900 cc. bottle, beer (large) ..... . -400 cc. bottle, Royal, Isuan, etc. . . -200 cc. I-lb. can, evaporated milk . -480 cc. lÂˇlb. can, salmon ........ . -480 cc. can, condensed milk . ..... . - < 300 cc.

1 can, kerosene

1 1 1 1 1 1

WEIGHT AND MEASURE EQUIVALENTS OF COMMON PHILIPPINE CROPS 25 gantas 1 cavan palay ., .......... . 43 kilos 2.128 Dushels Cleans 65 per cent Produces 28 kilos cleaned rice kilos 1 cavan, cleaned rice ....... 57.5 2.05 cavans palay 1 picul Chinese, cleaned rice . - 60.45 kilos kilos 1 cavan rice bran ......... 25 kilos 1 cavan corn on cob ....... 30 -200 ears corn on cob Shells 80 per cent 58.5 kilos 1 cavan shelled corn 2.47 cavans corn on cob kilos 58.5 1 cavan mungo ........... . 0.57 kilo 1 liter palay ............. . 0.77 kilo 1 liter cleaned rice ....... . 0.78 kilo 1 liter shelled corn ....... . 0.34 kilo 1 liter peanut (shelled) ... . 0.93 kilo 1 liter coconut oil ......... . 1.72 kilos 1 ganta palay ............ . 2.30 kilos 1 ganta cleaned rice ...... . 260

GENERAL INFORMATION 2.34 1.10 2.34 12 25 2

1 ganta shelled corn ...... . 1 ganta peanut (shelled) .. 1 ganta Dlungo ........... . 100 ears corn .............. . 1 kerosene can molasses .. . 1 bale abaca ............. .

~126.5

1 quintal tobacco ......... . 1 picul sugar ............. . -

46 63.25

kilos kilos kilos kilos shelled kilos piculs kilos kilos kilos

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT Used in commercial transactions generally, and in weighing metals, except gold and silver 16 drams ................... - 1 ounce 16 ounces .................. - 1 pound 14 pounds ................. - 1 stone 25 pounds .................. - 1 quarter 4 quarters ................ - 1 hundredweight 20 hundredweights .......... - 1 ton 100 pounds .................. - 1 quintal 196 pounds .....â&#x20AC;˘............ - 1 barrel flour 200 pounds .................. - 1 barrel beef or pork 280 pounds .................. - 1 barrel salt 1 pound avoirdupois ....... - 7,000 grains Troy 144 pounds avoirdupois ...... -175 pounds Troy In the Customs House, 28 pounds are equal to 1 quarter; 112 pounds are equal to 1 ewt.; and 2240 pounds are equal to 1 ton. TROY WEIGHT Used in weighing gold, silver, jewelry, etc. 24 20 240 1

20 3 8 12

grains .................. pennyweights ............ pennyweights ............ pound Troy .............

1 pennyweight 1 ounce 12 ounces - 1 pound 5,760 grains

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT Used in compounding medicine grains ................... - 1 scruple scruples .................. ~ 1 dram drams ................... - 1 ounce ounces ................... - 1 pound DIAMOND WEIGHT Applied to the weighing of diamonds

16 parts ................... 4 grains .................. 1 carat ................... 151-112 carats ..............

- 1 grain - 1 carat - 3-1/6 grains Troy (nearly) - 1 ounce Troy 261

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES LONG MEASURE Used in measuruing lines or distances when length only is considered 8 barleycorns .............. 12 lines .................... 12 inches .................. 8 feet .................... 16-1/2 feet or 5-1/2 yards ... 40 rods .................. . 32n rods 8 furlongs ....... } feet 1-3/20 statute miles ....... 8-9/20 statutes miles ...... 60 geographical miles ....... 69-1/6 statute miles ........ 360 degrees ................. 3 inches .................. 4 inches .. . ............... 9 inches .................. 1-1/2 feet ................ 6 feet ....................

- 1 inch - 1 inch - 1 foot - 1 yard - 1 rod, perch or pole - 1 furlong - 1,760 yards - 5,280 . - 1 statute mIle - geographical mile - 1 league ~ 1 degree - 1 equatorial degree (nearly) - circumference of the earth ---' 1 palm - 1 hand - 1 span - 1 cubit (Scripture) - 1 fathom

SQUARE MEASURE U sed in measuring surfaces, as land, the floors, and sides of buildings, etc. 144 sq. 9 sq. 272-1/ 4 80-1/ 4 40 sq.

inches ............... feet ................. sq. feet ............. sq. yards ............ l'ods .................

- 1 sq. foot - 1 sq. yard - 1 sq. rod, perch or pole - 1 sq. rod - 1 rood (43,560 sq. feet - 1 acre 4 roods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 160 sq. rod ~ 4,840 sq. yards

640 acres ................... - 1 sq. mile, or 1 sq. section 86 sq. sections ............. ~ 1 township, 6 miles sq.

SURVEYORS' MEASURE Used in the measure of distances and the area of surfaces 7.92 inches ...... ' .......... 25 links .................... 100 links .................... 80 chains .................. 820 rods .................... 625 square links ............ 16 square rods ............. 10 square chains ...........

link rod or rods mile mile square - d square - 1 square

1 1 4 1 1 1

262

pole 1 chain rod chain acre

GENERAL INFORMATION SOLID OR CUBIC MEASURE Used in measuring solid bodies and spaces having length, breadth, and thickness, or depth; as timber, stone, wood, ships, etc. 1,728 cubic inches ........... - 1 cubic foot 27 cubic feet ............. - 1 cubic yard 16 cubic feet ............. -- 1 cord foot of wood 128 cubic feet .............. - 1 cord of wood 8 cord feet .. , _. . . . . . . . .. - 1 cord of wood 16-1/2 cubic feet .......... - 1 perch 40 cubic feet ............. - 1 ton U. S. shipping 42 cubic feet ............. - 1 ton British shipping 40 feet of round timber ... - 1 ton or load 50 feet of hewn timber ...... - 1 ton or load CLOTH MEASURE Used by dealers in cloth, carpets, 1'ibbons, etc. 2-1/4 inches ............. . . - 1 nail 9 inches ..... . ............. - 4 nails - 1 quarter 27 inches ......... . ........ . - 3 qrs. - 1 ell Flemish 36 inches .......... . .. . ..... -- 4 qrs. - 1 yard 45 inches ................... - 5 qrs. - 1 ell English 54 inches ................... - 6 qrs. - 1 ell French WINE MEASURE U lied in measuring wine, water, cider, oil and most othe1' liquids 4 gills ..................... 2 pints .................... 4 quarts ................... 10 gallons .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31-112 gallons ............... 2 barrels .................. i4 barrels .................. 2 pipes .................... 42 gallons .................. 2 tierces ...................

2 4 36 2 2 3 4 6

- 1 pint - 28-7/8 cubic inches - 1 quart - 57-3/4 cubic inches - 1 gallon - 231 cubic inches - 1 anker - 1 barrel - 63 gallons - 1 hogshead - 126 gallons - 1 pipe - 252 gallons - 1 tun - 1 tierce - 84 gallons - l' puncheon

ALE OR BEER MEASURE Applicable to the measuring of ale and beer pints .................... 1 quart - 70-1/2 cubic inches quarts ................... 1 gallon --.: 282 cubic inches quarts ................... ~ gallons - 1 firkin firkins ................... 18 gallons - 1 kilderkin kilderkins ................ 36 gallons - 1 barrel kilderkins ................ 54 gallons - 1 hogshead kilderkins ................ 72 gallons - 1 puncheon kilderkins ................ - i 108 gallons - 1 butt 263

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES DRY MEASURE Applicable to all articles 'not liquid, bougkt and sold by measure, suck as grain, salt, coal, etc. 2 pints ........... . ........ - 1 q~art - 67-1/2 cubic inches 4 quarts ................... -1 gallon - 268-4/5 cubic inches 8 quarts .. . ................ - 2 gallons - 1 peck 4 pecks .................... - 1 bushel 8 bushels .................. - 1 quarter 36 bushels .................. - 1 chaldron 1 imperial bushel ........... -1.0315 U. S. bushels 3 imperial bushels .......... - 1 English sack 8 imperial bushels or 8-1/4 U. S. bushels (nearly) ..... -1 English quarter 5 English quarters .......... - 1 English load TONNAGE - 100 cubic feet 1 U. S. shipping ton. 32.143 U. S. bushels, or 40 cubic feet .......... . .. . - { 31.16 imperial bushels 1 British shipping ton 32.719 imperial bushels, or 42 cubic feet 33.75 U. S. bushels 1 keel 350 cubic feet 1 register ton

APOTHECARIES' MEASURE 60 minims (m) . .... , ....... - fluid drachm 8 fluid drachms ...... . .... - fluid ounce 16 fluid ounces .............. - pint 8 pints .................... -< gallon

60 60 24 7 2 4 52 12

60 60 30 90 12

MEASURE OF TIME Used in tke computation of Time seconds ............., ....• - 1 minute minutes .................. 1 hour hours .................... 1 day days ..................... 1 week weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 fortnight weeks .................... 1 month weeks 1 day and 6 hours •. - 12 calendar months calendar months, or 365 days and 6 hours ........... 1 Julian year MEASURE OF CIRCULAR MOTION Used in measuring latitude, longitude, etc. seconds or 60" ........... - 1 minute minutes or 60"........... ~ 1 degree or 19 degrees .................. --' 1 sign degrees .................. - 1 quadrant, or right angle signs, or 360 degrees ...... - 1 great circle of the zodiac 264

GENERAL INFORMATION PAPER AND BOOKS 24 sheets ................... - 1 quire 10% quires ................. - 1 token 20 quires ................... - 1 ream 2 reams .................... - 1 bundle 10 reams .................... - 1 bale in 2 leaves, is in 4 leaves, is in 8 leaves, is A book formed of in 12 leaves, is in 16 leaves, is sheets folded in 18 leaves, is in 24 leaves, is in 32 leaves, is in 64 leaves, is 12 144 12 20

units units gross units

a folio a quarto or 4to. an octavo or 8vo. a duodecimo or 12mo. a 16mo. an 18mo. a 24mo. a 32mo. a 64mo.

NUMBERS 1 dozen 12 dozens - 1 gross 144 dozens -- great gross 1 score

MEASURES OF LENGTH Myriameter 10,000 met ers 6.2137 miles 0.62137 mile, or Kilometer 1,000 meters - { feet 10 inches 3.280 Hectometer 100 meters - 328 feet 1 inch Decameter 10 meters - 393.7 inches Meter 1 meter 39.37 inches Decimeter .1 meter 3.937 inches Centimeter 0.3937 inch .01 meter Millimeter .001 meter 0.0394 inch Hectare ........ . Are ........... .. Centare ........ .

MEASURES OF SURFACE 10,000 square meters --' 2.471 acres 100 square meters -- 119.6 square yards 1 square meter - 1550 square inches WEIGHTS

Names

No. of grams

A voirdupois weight

Millier or Tonneau ........ . 1,000,000 - 2204.6 100,000 Quintal .................. . 220.46 Myriagram ............... . 10,000 22.046 1,000 Kilogram or Kilo ......... . 2.2046 , 3.5274 100 Hectogram ............... . Decagram ................ . 10 0.3527 Gram .................... . 1 -< 15.432 Decigram ................. . .1 1.5432 Centigram ................ . .01 0.1543 Milligram ................ . 0.0154 .001 -265

pounds pounds pounds pounds ounces ounce grains grains grain grain

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES MEASURES OF CAPACITY No. of

Names

liters

Kiloleter or Stere ................ ....... . Hectoliter .............................. . Decaliter ............................... . Liter ................................... . Deciliter ............ . ................... . Centiliter ............................... . Milliliter ............................... . Cubic Measure

1 cubic cubic 10 cubic 1 cubic 1 cubic 10 cubic 1 cubic

meter meter decim. decim. decim. centimo centimo

Dry Measure

1.308 2 9.08 0.908 6.1022 0.6102 0.061

cub. yards bu. 3.35 jks. quarts quart cub. in. cub. in. cub. in.

1,000 100 10 1

.1 .01 .001 Liquid or Wine Measure

264.17 6.417 2.6417 1.0567 0.845 0.338 0.27

gals. gals. gals. qts. gill fluid oz. fluid dr.

SPANISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Kilos

1 16 25 4 20 1 4 12 12

onza .................. . . . ............. . onzas .... . ............ ~ 1 libra ........... . libras ....... .. . . . . . . .. - 1 arr(!)ba ......... . arrobas ............... - 1 quintal ......... . quintales ..... .. . . . . . .. - 1 tonelada ........ . 1 kilo - 2.1734736 libras cuartillo ......... .. ... . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . .. cuartillos ............. - 1 celemin .... .. . . . . celemines ............. - 1 fanega .......... fanegas ............... - 1 cahiz ............ 1 liter ~ 0.864 cuartillo Liqt~id Measure, Except For Oil

0.0287558 .460093 11.50232 46.0093 920.186 11.15625 4.625 55.500 666 LiterB

1 4 8 6

cuartillo cuartillos azumbres cantaras

.............. ............. ............. .............. 1 liter

. .................... . 1 azumbre ............ . 1 cantara ............ . 1 moyo ............... . 1.983 cuartillos

0.504 2.019 16.133 258.128

JAPANESE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Weights GrannB

1 mo .................. .

10 mo ........... ........ . 10 rin .................. . 10 fun .................. . -

1 rin ................ . 1 fun ............... . 1 momme ... ......... .

1000 momme ............. 1 kilo -

1 kwanne ............ 268 momme

0.00375 .0375 .375 3.750 Kilos

266

3.750

GENERAL INFORMATION Measures For Textiles Milli1n.eter8

1 bu 10 bu

..................... 1 sun ................ -

3.8 38.0 Meters

10 sun ................. "

- 1 10 shaku ................. - 1 1 meter Measures For

shaku ............. . j0

.••••..•••••.•••••

0.38 3.8

0.26316 jo Other A1·ticles Millimeters

1 rin ...................

2 rin .................. 10 bu .................... -

. ................... . 1 bu ................ . 1 sun ............... . -

10 sun ................... 10 shaku ................. -

1 shaku ............. . 1 jo ................. .

---I

1.515 3.03 30.30 Mete1's

0.303 3.03

CHINESE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Kilos

1 tael ..................

. .................... . 16 taels ................. - 1 catty ............... . 10 catties ................ - 1 chinanta ........... . 10 chinantas ............. - 1 picul ............... . 1 kilo - 1.6666 catty

Weights and Measures Catty l-1i3 Ibs. or 604.53 grammes Picul 133-113 Ibs. or 60.453 kilogrammes Mow 1/6 of an English acre Li 2115 feet or 2/5 of an English mile

267

0.0375

.6 6 60

t..:I

I Gold. . ..

Legal standard

I Gold. . .. I I Gold. . ..

Brazil .................

I Gold .... I I British Honduras ...... I Gold ... , Bulgaria ............... I Gold. . .. I Canada ................ I Gold. . .. I

Bolivia ................

Belgium ...............

Austria ................ I Gold. . ..

Australia .............. I Gold. . ..

Argentine Republic ....

COUNTRY

Value ~n terms of U.S. money

I I

Remark~

............. . $1.63351 Paper normally convertible at 44 % of face value. Conversion suspended Dec. 16, 1929. Pound Sterling .. . . 8.2397) Control of gold stocks and exports authorized Dec. 17, 1929. .2382 Exchange control established Oct. Schilling .......... . 9, 1931. .1695 ! Based on decree of Mar. 31, 1935. Belga ............ . I 1 belga equals 5 Belgian francs. I I I Boliviano .......... I .6180 I Conversion of notes into gold susI pended Sept. 23, 1931. I I I Milreis ............ I .2025 I Conversion of Stabilization-Office I notes into gold suspended Nov. I I I 22, 1930. I I I DQllar ............. I 1.6931 I Conversion of notes suspended. I Lev ............... I .0122 ! Exchange control established Oct. I 15, 1931. I I I IDollar ............ I 1.6931 I Embargo on export of gold, Oct. I 19, 1931; redemption of DomiI I

IPeso

Monetary unit

VALUES OF FOREIGN MONETARY UNITS (at par as regards gold units; nongold units have no fixed par with gold)

(As of July 1, 1936)

Values of Foreign Moneys

t.%j

t.%j U2

'"C '"C

::c:

'"C

::c: t.%j

t-3

t::'

t.%j

b'"C

Q ~ Q

C!) ~

tI:)

1 I

Gold .... Gold. . ..

I I Gold .... I

Egypt .................

Gold ....

Ecuador ...............

Dominican Republic .... I Gold ....

Denmark .............. I Gold ....

Cuba .................. Czechoslovakia .........

Gold ....

Costa Rica ............

1 1Gold .... 1

........

Colombia ..............

Hong Kong ....... .. .

j ....... .

..................1 Gold ... .

China ..................

Chile

."-='=-

I I

nion notes in gold suspended Apr. 10, 1933 . Peso .............. \ .2060 Conversion of notes suspended July 30, 1931. I Silver standard abandoned by deYuan cree of Nov. 3, 1935; bank notes made legal tender under Currency Board control; exchange rate for British currency primarily fixed at about 1 s. 2* d., or about 290/0 cts., u. S., per yuan. ,Dollar _Treasury notes and notes of the three banks of issue made legal tender by silver nationalization ordinance of Dec. 5, 1935; exchange fund created to control I exchange rate. 1 -'''c~- .- 1 1Peso .... ~ .. ...... ... 1 1.0000 1 Obligation to sell sold suspended 1 ,.c-;-- 1 I Sept. 24, 1931. .7879 1 Conversion of notes into gold susI Colon .... ........ . I 1 pended Sept. 18, 1914; exchange I I 1 control established .Tan. 16, 1932. I 1 I Peso ............ .. 1 1.0000 I By law of May 25, 1934. I Koruna ....... .. .. 1 .0418 I Effective Feb. 17, 1934; exchange I control established Oct. 3, 1931. I I I Krone ............. 1 .4537 I Conversion of notes into gold susI pended Sept. 29, 1931. I j I Dollar ............. I 1.6931 1 U. S. money is principal circulatI ing medium. I I I Sucre ............. 1 .3386 1 Conversion of notes into gold susI pended Feb. 9, 1932. I I I Pound (100 piasters) I 8.3692 I Conversion of notes into gold susI pended Sept. 21, 1931. I I

..---------------------------~-------~ - ----------

> 1-3 o

a::

> t'"I

t.%j ~

C') t.%j

t-:)

-::J

Gold....! Pound Sterling ... .

Gold ... , I Rupee

,Pengo

Gold .... I Lempira

1 Gold ....

..... . .... .

Gourde ....... .. ".

Indo-China ............. 1 Gold .... I Piaster

India [British]

Hungary â&#x20AC;˘..............

Honduras

Haiti .................. I Gold....

Guatemala ............. I Gold .... ) Quetzal

Greece â&#x20AC;˘................ I Gold. . .. I Drachma ......... .

Great Britain ..........

, .... ' ." " . . . . "

Gold .... ' Markka .. ....-. -.... .

!Gold. . .. 1 Kroon

Monetary unit

France ................ Gold .... Fr~nc ............ . G('rmany ........... . ... / Gold. . .. RelChsmark . .. .....~

Fmland ............ " ..

E~tonia ................

COUNTRY

L egal standard

R emar ks

.4537 1 Conversion of notes into gold suspended June 28, 1933. .0426 1 Conversion of notes into gold suspended Oct. 12, 1931. 0663 1 ..4033 Exchange control established July 13, 1931. 8.2397 I Obligation to sell gold at legal monetary par suspended Sept. 21, 1931. .0220 I Conversion of notes into gold suspended Apr. 26, 1932. 1.6931 1 Conversion of notes into gold suspended Mar. 6, 1933. .2000 National bank notes redeemable on demand in U. S. dollars. .8466 Gold exports prohibited Mar 27, 1931; lempira circulates as equivalent of half of U. S. dollar. .29611 Exchange control established July 17, 1931. .6180 1 Obligation to sell gold at legal monetary pal' suspended Sept. I 21, 1931. .66331

Value in terms of U.S. money

VALUES OF FOREIGN MONETARY UNITS (at p a r a s l-egards gold unit s; nongold units have no fixed par 'with gold)

VALUES OF FOREIGN MONEYS-(Continued) t?j

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8.2397 I Conversion of notes into gold suspended Sept. 21, 1931. .0891 I Exchange control established May Italy .................. Gold .... Lira .............. 26, 1934. Japan ................. Gold .... \ Yen .............. .8440 I Embargo on gold exports Dec. 13, 1931. Latvia ................. Gold .... Lat ............... .3267 I Exchange control established Oct. 8, 1931. Liberia ................ I Gold. . .. I Dollar ........... . 1.6931 I British money is principal circulating medium. Lithuania ............. , Gold ... . .1693 I Free export of gold suspended Litas ......... :::: \ Oct. 1, 1935. Mexico â&#x20AC;˘............... \ Gold ... . Peso..... .8440 By law of July 25, 1931, gold has .. I 1 no legal tender status but it may I be held as monetary reserve. I I 6806 Netherlands and colonies Gold .... I Guilder (florin) . Newfoundland.... . ... .. GOld .... j Dollar ........... . 1.6931 1 Newfoundland and Canadian notes legal tender . New Zealand .......... , Gold .... \ Pound Sterling . .. . 8.2397 1 Conversion of notes into gold suspended and export of gold restricted Aug. 5, 1914; exchange regulations Dec. 1931. I Nicaragua ............. Gold .... I Cordoba .......... . 1.6933 I Embargo on gold exports Nov. 13, 1931. Norway ............... Gold.... \ Krone ............ . .4537 I Conversion of notes into gold suspended Sept. 29, 1931. Panama ............... Gold .... I Balboa ........... . 1.6933 I U. S. money is principal circulatI ing medium. I I I Paraguay .............. I Gold .... I Peso (Argentine) .. I 1.6335 I Paraguayan paper currency is I used; exchange control estabI I I I lished June 28, 1932. I I I Persia (Iran) ......... I Gold .... I Rial .............. I .0824 I Obligation to payout gold deI ferred Mar. 13, 1932: exchange I I I I control established Mar. 1, 1936. I I I

Irish Free State ....... Gold .... / Free State Pound ..

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I Gold ....

IDollar

IPeseta

Switzerland ............ Turkey ................

........... .

IGold.... Gold .... IFranc ............ . Piaster............ I

Sweden ................ I Gold. . .. I Krona

Stl'aits Settlements...... \ Gold. . ..

Spain .................

Siam .................. I Gold.... Baht (Tical) .... ..

Salvador ............... I Gold .... \ Colon ............ .

Rumania ..............

P{)rtugal ............... , Gold .... I Escudo " -:-.. ,.. 路. <;1;':-:-

IGold.... Gold. . .. IPeso ................. Zloty ............. .

Philippines ............ Poland ................

Monetary unit

Gold .... 1 Sol ............... .

Legal standard

Peru ................. .

COUNTRY

I I

Remarks

.4 740 Conversion of notes into gold suspended May 18, 1932. .5000 By act approved March 16, 1935. .1899 Exchange control established Apr. 27, 1936. .0748 I ~ld exchange standard suspended Dec. 31, 1931. .0101 I Exchange control established May 18, 1932. .8466 I Conversion of notes into gold suspended Oct. 7, 1931. .7491 Conversion of notes into gold suspended May 11, 1932. .3267 Exchange control established May 18, 1931. .9613 I British pound sterling and Straits dollar and half dollar legal tender. .4537 I Conversion of notes into gold suspended Sept. 29, 1931. .32671 .0744 [ 100 piasters equal to the Turkish 拢; conversion of notes into gold suspended 1916; exchange control established Feb. 26, 1930.

Value in terms of U.S. money

VALUES OF FOREIGN MONETARY UNITS (at par as regards gold units; nongold units have no fixed par with gold)

VALUES OF FOREIGN MONEYS-(Continued) l1j

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Gold....

Pound Sterling ... .

Dinar .............

I\ Gold. ...

Yugoslavia ............. U. S. Treasury

Bolivar............

I Gold. . ..

Venezuela ..............

Union of Soviet Republics Gold.... Chervonetz ....... . Uruguay .............. Gold.... Peso ............. .

Union of South Africa..

8.2397 I Conversion of notes into gold suspended Dec. 28, 1932. 8.71231 State monopoly of exchange. 1.7511 Conversion of notes into gold suspended Aug. 2, 1914; exchange control established Sept. 7, 1931. .32671 Premium on foreign currencies â&#x201A;Źstablished Aug. 29, 1934, by agreement of banks. .0298 I Exchange control established Oct. I 7, 1931.

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1. First~Class. - Letters (hand or typewritten and letter~press copies or mani~ fold copies of either), mat~ tel' wh<>lly or partly in writing or typewritten, ma~ nuscript or typewritten copy when not accompanied with printed proof sheets, and all packages and other mat~ tel' sealed against inspec~ tion. For letters mailed in bulk (not less than 100 pieces) without stamps af~ fixed a permit is neces~ sary. 2. Postal Cards and P?'i~ vate Mailing Cards.- (Post cards.) 3. Sec()nd~Class. - News~ papers, periodicals and regular publications entered as

Class

5 centavos for each k i 1 0 0 r fraction thereof.

2 centavos each.

for~

No limit of weight. Limit of size, 1 meter 80 centime~

Size-Same as eign.

No limit of weight. Limit of size, 1 meter 80 centimeters, length and girth combined.

2 centavos for each 20 grams or fraction thereof. Air mail: PO.18 for each 20 grams or fraction (Cir. 3,

1934) .

Limit of Weight and Size

Postage in Philippine Currency

All classes of domestic mail matter should be fully prepaid, but such mail matter inadvertently mailed deficient in postage, will be treated as follows: Sender Known Short~paid domestic mail matter of all classes wi11 be marked with the amoun,t of the shortage, single rate, and returned to the sender, if known, or if not expedient to return the article itself, the sender will be notified by the card form provided for the purpose. Sender Not Known If the sendel' is un~

Payment of Post age

ON MAIL MATTER ADDRESSED FOR DELIVERY IN THE PHILIPPINES

(As of September 1, 1936)

Schedule of Postage Rates and Conditions

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Air mail: PO.70 for each kilo or fraction (Cir. 10, 1933) .

2 centavos for each 60 grams or fraction thereof for articles not exceeding 600 grams in weight; 12 centavos for each half kilo (500 grams) or fraction thereof on the whole weight for articles exceeding 600 grams in weight.

second-class matter at post offices in the Philippines or in the United States, addressed to bona fide subscribers, and sample c.:>pies not exceeding 10 per cent of the number sent to such subscribers, mailed by the publishers or by news agents duly authorized as such by the Director of Posts.

4. Third-Class.-All other mailable matter not included in the above classes. It should bear the name and address of sender on the outside of wrappers preceded by the word "From." For third class matter of uniform weigh mailed in bulk (not less than 100 pieces) without stamps affixed, a permit is necessary.

Weight-20 kilos between most of the important port towns and places on railroads and those supplied by automobiles; 10 or 5 kilos between all others according to the method of transportation used. ( See list of Post offices by provinces in Postal and Telegraph Guide for d e t ailed information.) Size-2 meters and

ters, length and girth combined.

known and the mail matter is shol't-paid in an amount less than the postage for one kilogram (1000 grams), at the rate for the class to which the article pertains, the article vrill be forwarded to the Philippine Post office of destination marked postage due in an amount double the deficiency, which amount will be collected from the addressee by the postmaster at destination. When an article is short-paid in an amount equal to or more than the postage for one kilogram (1000 grams), at the rate for the class to which the article pertains, the article will be held at the post office of mailing and the addressee requested, by Form 1543, to send the amount of deficient postage, single rate, to the postmaster at the place of mailing. Any short-paid matter which thru inadvertence reaches destination witht;j

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Postag e in Philippine Currency

combmed.

1,0 centimeters, leng1~ and girth

Limit of W eight and Size

out having been rated at the office of mailing will be rated up with double the deficiency and the deficiency will be collected before delivery. The foregoing only applies to articles which are inadvertently mailed without sufficient postage. If articles are habitually or knowingly mailed with insufficient postage, said articles with a full report should be forwarded to the Director of Posts.

P ayment af Postage

ON MAIL MA TTEl! ADDRESSED FOR DELIVERY IN THE PHILIPPINES-Continued

SCHEDULE OF POSTAGE RATES AND CONDITIONS-(Continued) t?;j

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5. First-Class. ~ Letters (hand or typewritten and letter-press copies of either), and all matter wholly or partly in writing, Whether sealed or unsealed, except manuscript copy accompanying proof sheets or corrected proof sheets of it and the writing authorized by regulation to be placed upon matter of other classes. Matter sealed or otherwise closed against inspection is also of the first class. 6. Postal Cards.-(Government post cards.) Post Cards. - (Private mailing cards.) 7. Second-Class. - Newspapers, periodicals and regular publications entered as second-class matter.

Class

3 centavos for each pound or fraction thereof on that portion devoted to mat-

2 centavos each.

6 centavos for each ounce or fraction of an ounce.

Postage in Philippine Currency

Size-Same as foreign. Size-Same as foreign. Weight-No limit. Size-6 feet, length and girth combined.

Weight-Same fourth-class.

Limit of Weight and Size

Full quired. Full quired. Full quired.

very.

prepayment

re-

Prepayment of one full rate (4 centavos) required. Any deficiency will be collected on deli-

Payment of Postage

ON MAIL MATTER ADDRESSED FOR DELIVERY IN THE UNITED STATES INCLUDING HAWAII, PORTO RICO, CANAL ZONE, VIRGIN ISLANDS. GUAM, TUTIDLA, AND ADJACENT ISLANDS OF THE SAMOAN GROUP WHICH ARE POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES

SCHEDULE OF POSTAGE RATES AND CONDITIONS-(Continued)

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8. Thi1'd-Class.-Shall include books, circulars, and other matter wholly in print (except newspapers and other periodicals entered as second-class matter), proof sheets, corrected proof sheets, and manuscript copy accompanying them, merchandise (inclu din g farm products), and all other mailable matter not

When mailed by others.

Class

ter other than advertisements. 14 centavos for each pound or fraction thereof on that portion devoted to advertisements. 2 centavos for each 2 oz. or fraction and prepaid by stamps. 4 centavos for each 2 ounces or fraction, up to and including 8 ounces in weight, except th3t books, cat a 1 0 11: s, seeds, cuttings, bulbs, roots, scions, and plants, not exceeding 8 ounces in weight shall be 2 centavos for every 2 ounces or fraction,

Postage in Philippine Cl1rrency

rere-

prepayment prepayment

Full quired. Full quired.

Weight-Must not exceed 8 ounces,

Payment of Postage

Weight-Same fourth-class.

Limit of Weight and Size

ON MAIL MATTER ADDRESSED FOR DELIVERY IN THE UNITED STATES INCLUDING HAWAII, PORTO RICO, CANAL ZONE, VIRGIN ISLANDS, GUAM, TUTUILA, AND ADJACENT ISLANDS OF THE SAMOAN GROUP WHICH AUE POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES-Continued

SCHEDULE OF POSTAGE RATES AND CONDITIONS-(Continued) t;tj

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Class

10. Letters.

30 centavos for first pound or fraction thereof, and 22 centavos for each additional pound.

Limit of weight -70 pounds. Size-l00 inches, girth length and combined.

Full quired.

prepayment

12 centavos for the first 20 grams or less, and 6 centavos for each additional 20 grams or fraction thereof.

Postage in Philippine Currency

Limit of weight2 kilos. Limit of size-45 centimeters in any one direction; in case of rolls, 75 centimeters in length and 10 centimeters in diameter.

Limit of Weight and Size

re-

Pre payment optional. Double any deficiency will be collected on delivery. Note: - The mInImUm amount of deficient postage to be rated or collected is 4 centavos. The privilege of not prepaying postage, fully or partially, does not apply to let-

Payment of Postage

ON MAIL MATTER ADDRESSED FOR DELIVERY IN ALL FOREIGN COUNTRIES INCLUDING THE MEMBERS OF THE SPANlSH-AMERICAN POSTAL UNION

included in the first and second classes. 9. Fourth-Clas8.--'Includes all such matter enumerated under third-class weighing more than 8 ounces. This class of matter must be deposited at the post office or at a Postal Station and shall not bEe> deposited in a street letter-box. It should also bear the name and address of sender on the outside of wrappers preceded by the word "From." tJ:.j

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12. Printed Mat t e r.Newspapers and periodicals, books, pamphlets, photographs, pictures, maps, catalogs, and other matter wholly in print, and manuscript or typewritten copy when accompanied by proof sheets.

vate Mailing Cards.-(Post cards.)

11. Postal Cards and Pri-

Class

Size-Not to exceed 14 centimeters in length and 9 centimeters in width, nor be less than 10 centimeters in length and 7 centimeters in width. Weight-2 kilos; except printed matter for the use of the blind, and single books the limit for which will be 3 kilos. Size-45 centimeters in anyone direction; except rolls which must not exceed 75 centimeters

6 centavos each for single cards, and for each of the two halves of reply post cards.

4 centavos for each 50 grams or fraction thereof, except printed matter for the use of the blind the rate on which is 2 centavos for each 1000 grams or fraction thereof.

Limit of Weight and Size

Postage in Philippine Currency

Full quired.

prepayment

re-

ters, postal cards and private mailing cards mailed with the intention of avoiding prepayment of postage. Pre payment optional, except the halves of reply post cards which must be fully prepaid. Double any deficiency will be collected on delivery.

Payment of Postage

ON MAIL MATTER ADDRESSED FOR DELIVERY IN ALL FOREIGN COUNTRIES-Continued

SCHEDULE OF POSTAGE RATES AND CONDITIONS-(Continued)

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8 centavos for the first 100 grams or less, and 4 centavos for each additional 50 grams or fraction thereof.

16 centavos for the first 200 grams or less, and 4 cel\~a足 vos for each additional 50 grams or fraction thereof.

For air- mail, see Cir. 9, 1936.

13. Commercial Papers.all papers and all documents whether writings or orawings produced wholly or partly by hand, not having the character of a personal correspondence such as waybills, bills of lading, papers of legal procedure, manuscripts for publications, etc. 14. Samples of Merchandise.-Must possess no salable value, nor bear any writing except name and address of sender and add res see, manufacturer's trade mark prices, and indications relative to weight and dimensions or such as are necessary to determine the origin and nature of the goods. Weight - 500 grams. Size-45 centimeters in length, 20 centimeters in width and 10 centimeters in thickness; except rolls, which must not exceed 45 centimeters in length and 15 centimeters in diameter.

in length and 10 centimeters in diameter. Weight--2 kilos. Size, sam e a s printed matter.

Full quired.

prepayment

re-

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILIPPINES REGISTRATION FEES Registry fee on mail matter addressed for delivery in the Philippines .............................................. Registry fee on mail matter addressed for delivery outside the Philippines ........... . .............................. SPECIAL DELIVERY In addition to ordinary postage, add postage stamps worth

PO.16 PO.20

PO.20

UNITED STATES AIR MAIL On letter mailed for the United States a fee of 12 centavos each ounce or fraction thereof is charged. FEES CHARGED FOR TELEGRAPHIC TRANS}'-'ERS For For For For

amounts amounts amounts amounts for each

not exceeding P20 ... . . . ......... . ..... PO.20 over P20 and not exceeding P50 ... . . . ... .30 over P50 and not exceeding P100 ... . .... .40 over P100 ........................ 20 centavos P50 or fraction thereof.

FEES CHARGED FOR MONEY ORDERS For Orders i

P ay&,ble in Philippines

Payable in U. S.â&#x20AC;˘ Canada. Cuba. etc.

U. S . Currency

U. S. Currency

$0.05 .07 .10 .12 .14 .17 .20 .22 .27 .32

$0.05

U . S . Currency

From From From From From From From From From From

$ 0.01 2.51 5.01 10.01 20.01 30.01 40.01 50.01 60.01 75.01

to $ 2.50 .... . to 5.00 . . . . . to 10.00 . . . . . \ to 20.00 ..... \ to 30.0cr ..... to 40.00 .... . to 50.00 ..... I to 60.00 ..... I to 75.00 .. . .. to 100.00 .... .

.01

.10 .16 .24 .31 .38 .45 .58 .75

DOMESTIC C.O.D. SERVICE

In addition to the regular postage and the registry fee of 16 centavos, a commission in accordance with the following schedule will be charged: For For For For

a collection not exceeding P20 .... . ............. a collection over P20 and not exceeding P50 ..... a collection not over P50 and not exceeding P100 ... a collection not over P100 and not exceeding P200 282

PO.20 .40 .70 1.20

GENERAL INFORMATION The amount to be collected upon a single parcel is limited to P200. C.O.D. parcels accepted for registration are automatically insured, but the amount of indemnity payable to the claimant will not exceed one hundred pesos (P100) for each parcel lost, damaged, or rifled. INDEMNITY SYSTEM

The sender or owner of a registered matter may be indemnified for the loss, rifling, or damage thereof in the mail in an amount equivalent to its actual value, but not to exceed 100 pesos for each registered article on payment of the following fees: (a) (b) centavos. (c) centavos. (d) tavos.

No to exceed PIO payment of fee of twenty centavos. Not to exceed P25 on payment of fee of twenty-six Not to exceed P50 on payment of fee of thirty-six Not to exceed PIOO on payment of fee of forty cen-

283

Schedule of Telegraph Zone Rates on Domestic Telegrams (As of September 1, 1936) Provinces

Abra ................. . Agusan .............. . Albay ........ _....... . Antique .............. . Bataan ............... . Batanes .............. . Batangas ............. . Rohol ................ . Bukidnon ............. . Bulacan ........... _.. . Cagayan ............. . Camarines Norte ..... . Camarines Sur ....... . Capiz ................ . Cavite ................ . Cebu ................ . . Cotabato ............. . Davao ................ . Ilocos Norte ......... . Ilocos Sur ............ . Iloilo ................. . Isabela ............... . Laguna .............. . Lanao ................ . La Union ............ .

Plain ordinary

Provinces

PO.80 2.00 1.00 1.40 . 60 1.80 .60 1.60 2.00 . 60 1.00 .80 .80 1.20 .60 1.60 2.00 2.60 1.00 .80 1.40 .80 .60 1.80 .80

Leyte ................ . Manila Branch Station . Marinduque ........... . Masbate ............. . Mindoro ............. . Misamis ............. . Mountain Province .... . Nueva Ecija ......... . Nueva Vizcaya ....... . Occidental N egros .... . Oriental N egros ...... . Palawan ............. . Pampanga ........... . Pangasinan .......... . Rizal ................ . Romblon . . ........... . Samar ............... . Sorsogon ............. . Sulu ................. . Surigao .............. . Tarlac ............... . Tayabas .............. . Zambales ............ . Zamboanga ........... .

Plain ordinary

P1.00 .40 .80 1.20 .80 1.80 .80 .GO .80 1.60 1.60 1.80 .60 .60 .50 1.00 1.40 1.00 2.60 1.80 .60 .60 .60 2.40

1. The rates shown are for each domestic telegram of not exceeding ten words, address and signature excluded. 2. For each word over ten in a domestic telegram, the charge is one-twentieth of ten-word zone rate. 3. For radiograms and cablegrams originating at, or destined to, ship stations and points outside of the Philippine Islands, the Bureau of Posts land-line charge for each words including address and signature is one-tenth of the 10-word zone rates between the two terminal offices of the Bureau of Posts which handle the radiograms or cablegrams. For deferred cablegram or radiograms destined to points outside of the Philippines, the Bureau of Posts landline rate is lh of the ordinary rate. For cable-letters or radio284

GENERAL INFORMATION letters of 25 words or less, the charge shall be the ordinary rate for a domestic telegram of ten words; for each additional word, the charge is one-twentieth of the ten-word rate. 4. For rush messages, double the ordinary rates. 5. For code, cipher, and other repeat back messages, an additional charge of 50 per cent is collected. 6. The Bureau of Posts combined coastal and land-line rate on radiograms for or from ship stations is fO.16 a word, in addition to the ship's rate of PO.08. 7. The charge for a press message of fifty words or less is equivalent to that for a commercial message of ten words; for â&#x201A;Źach additional five words or fraction thereof, the charge is one-twentieth of the ten-word zone rate. The press rate per word on press radiograms to or from the ships is %, of 16 centavos, our coastal rate, plus one-fourth of one-sixteenth of the zone rate, plus %, of the ship's rate. 8. A 40-word night telegram is charged for at the rate equal to that for an ordinary 10-word telegram. The charge for each four words over forty is the same as that for one word over ten in an ordinary telegram. 9. Deferred telegrams are charged for at one-half the existing rates on ordinary messages.

285

a..

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1.16

2.32 2.32

2.42

2.56

Other Offices ...............

Arizona, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Utah and Washington (State)

Colorado, Kansas, Montana, N ebraska, New Mexico, North and South Dakota, and Wyoming ..

Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Texas, and Wisconsin ................... 1.28

1.21

1.16

--".~

P 1.06

P 2.12

...

Ordinoo-y per wd.

California: San Francisco, Oakland, Alameda, Berkeley, Burlingame, Emeryville, Piedmont, Redwood City, Richmond, San Mateo, etc...................

NORTH AMERICA

Urgent per wd.

-~~

.77

.73

.70

.64

CDE per wd.

(To All the World)

Cablegram Rates

.64

.60lh

.58

.53

LC per wd.

10.67

10.09

9.67

P 8.84

DLT 25 wds.

.422/3

.40113

.382/3

.35113

DLT extra wd.

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.80

.88

1.20

Shanghai .....................

Kwantung, Kwansi Provinces ...

Amoy, Foochow and all other offices, South Manchuria, via Shanghai ...................

2.66

Hongkong .....................

CHINA

All Offices ....................

EUROPE

2.40

Other Islands .................

2.52

2.70

1.80

Hawaii, Honolulu (Oahu) ......

HA W AllAN ISLANDS

1S;h~)o~e .. (.~~~~~~1~~~. ~~~..~~~t~~

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Columbia (district of), Connecticut, Deleware, Florida, Georgia, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia

.60

.44

.40

.23

1.33

1.20

.90

1.26

1.35

,.,'

/~.,

.36

.27

.24

.14

.80

.72

.54

.76

.1,-

.81

I. . .

.3,0

.22

.20

.11%

.66%

.60

.45

.63

.67%

5.00

3.67

3.34

1.92

11.09

10.00

7.50

10.50

11.25

.20

.14 2/3

.13113

.072/3

.44113

.40

.30

.42

.45 t.:tj

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"......,.

.35

.45 .J

.29

.37

4.84

6.17

2.75

.242/3

.11

DLT extra wd.

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DEFFERED messages must be written in plain language and bear the indicator "LC" in all cases no matter what plain language is used. An exception is made in the case of "LC" cablegrams to and from China in which four figure groups taken from the Official Chinese Administration Vocabulary are admitted. Restrictions as to the number of figure groups (written in figures) Trade marks, etc., must not exceed one-third of the total number of chargeable words in the text and signature combined. Numbers written in words are no longer subject to the one-third rule. Messages from the Provinces can be filed with any Bureau of Posts Telegraph or Radio Office, routed "VIA COM PAC CABLE". For full information regarding all classes of service, Phone 2-35-56 or 2-35-86 or visit Cablegram Office in the El Hogar Filipino Building. Messenger service furnished.

.58

.74

'V.

.20

LC per wd.

oI'!tj

1.16

Formosa ......................

CDE per wd.

,.r'" ... ~.,,------ '", ../ " .. /

.33

Ordinaa-y per wd.

.19113

1.48

.66

All Offices, Korea, Japanese Mandated Islands and Manchurian Offices (via Japan) ....

JAPAN

Macao ........................

per wd.

Urgent

CABLEGRAM RATES-(Continued)