Dioramas : a visual history of the Philippines by Filipiniana Online

DS 668 D56 1978

AYALA FOUNDATION . INC .

FILIPINAS HERITAGE LIBRARY

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Dioramas

A VISUAL HISTORY OF mE PHILIPPINES

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Dioramas

Al l rights reserved including th e right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form or by an y means without the written permission of the publisher excep t for brief passages which may be quoted by a reviewer in a magazine o r ne wspaper. Copyright 1978 and published by FILIPINAS FOUNDATIO N, INC., MSE Bldg., Ayala Avenue, Makati, Metro Manila Member, PAPI, Pub lish ed under PCPM Certificate of Registration No. SP 855 First Printing, December, 1978 Filipinas Found ation , Inc. is a non-profit, non-sectarian and non-political organi zati on established in 1961, devoted to research and development in th e fi elds of nat.ural scie nce, social science and the humanities. I t assists, mate rially -a nd techn ically, researches and human and natural resource devel opm ent efforts. As an integral par t of its operation,. the Foundation fro m t im e to tim e pub lishes books and pamphlets resulting from these ac tivities to give the gene ral public new insights into and information in the fiel ds of natural scie nce, social science and the humanities. However, the views, opinions, interpretations and conclusions of the authors do not necessa rily reflect those of Filip inas Found ati on, its trustees, officers or em ployees. This book, published by Filipinas Foundation, Inc., 4th Floor, MSE Bldg. , Aya la Ave., Ma kati , Metro Manila, was designed by Francis de Guia and pr inted in Dece m ber 1978 by Bustamante Press, Inc., 155 Panay Avenue, Quezon Ci ty. Th e text was prepared b y Crispina Mendoza-Reyes. The illustrations we re reprod uced f rom ful l-color transparencies taken by Butch Monse rrat of In-F ocus. The typeface Theme was used for the text of this book. Manuel Doctole ro set the text and illustration by hand -under the supe rvis io n of Jose Avena. Annel la Manalo read the proofs. This edition is limited to iO,OOO cop ies.

EARLY HUNTERS, CAGAYAN VALLEY, CA. 150.000-30,000 S.c. /

Ph ilippine pre-history began as earl y as 500,000 years ago , in a perio d character ized by the "e nlarge ment of th e ice caps in tMe polar reg io n and of the g laciers in th e mo untaino us areas" . A s th ey grew larger, the sea leve l went dow n causing land bridges to emerge, th ereby linking the As ia n co ntinent to o utl y ing islands, in clud ing th ose of th e Philippin e Ar ch ipelago. From the Asian mainl and, man (of t he Hom o erect us variety) an d anim al crossed over to the Phili pp ines o n these land bridges, specificall y over th e o ld con nectio ns be tween Fo rm osa and Lu zo n.

T hat ma n a lread y appeared in t he co untry at abou t t his t ime is ind ica ted by the discover ies of stone tools in associ ati o n with pre-hi stori c animals such as elephas, stegodon, rhinoceros, gia nt tortoises and crocod iles, in Cagayan Valley. These ma n-made too ls, consisting of river pebble or cobble too l and the f lake or f lake core tool, belong to a hun t ing and gath eri ng cultu re. It was in thi s corr idor in the north where these animals, hemm ed in by the high mo untains in the east, west and south, were f in all y ki ll ed off by man.

2 TASON CAVES, 22,000 S.c.

T he coming of modern man (Homo sapiens) into the Philip pine Archi pe lago is believed to have occurred at the time of the last glac ial period so me 45,000 to 55,000 years ago. Again, as a result of the lower ing of the sea level brought about by glaciatio n, land br idges link ed th e archipe lago to the As ian mainland all owing the Homo-sapiens to move into the Ph ilippin es. One such land bridge connected Palawan with Bor neo for at least 40,000 years. Excavations at the Tabon Caves point to the existence of modern man in the Philipp ines. The caves, found in a stri king li mesto ne prom on tory in Lipuun Point, Pal awan, yielded the skull cap and mandible of Hom o-sapiens dated to be about 22,000 years old. From the bones dug up in this area, it has been concl uded that at this time, Tabon man hunted wild pig, deer, and smalle r animal species such as birds and bats. Not a single seashell has been discovered, strengthening the theory that 55,000 to 8,500 years ago, the sea level was 100 meters lower than its present leve l and the coastline was 30 to 35 kilometers away. The idea l physical features of Tabon Caves exp la in why man chose it as a dwell ing place for an incredib le span of 40,000 years . The beautiful entrance chamb er, shaped like the interior of a cathedra l, is nearly forty-one meters in length . Th e cave is dry, bathed by sunlight throughout the day and free of dust an d in sects. A smal l cliff about fo ur meters in height lies di rectl y in fro nt of the mou th of the 路cave and would have am pl y shielded th e inhabitants inside. Drinking water f lows freely in nearb y Igang Cave and at the base of the cliff.

3 BURIAL CAVE, CA. 200 B.C The glacial advances or melting ice sheets submerged the land bridges again at about 5,000 B. C. resulting in climatic and environmental changes. Fi shing and agriculture became a means of survival and required the evolution of a new technology. Axes, ad zes, gouges, chisels, knives, saws, hammers, drills, muller and barkcloth-beaters were fashioned to make the felling of trees and the construction of boats

easier.

From food-gathering, man had shifted to the reaping of wild edible grasses, and then, to growing th em for fo od. To help him with this horticultural occupation, he domesticated the animals he had earlier hunted. Man became relati ve ly more sed entary. Most of the caves at Lipuun Point are believed to have

been used as temporary she lters of foo d gatherers who li ved in open or coastal areas. Oth ers apparent ly se rve d as convenient burial grounds revealing a jar bu rial pottery comp lex characteristic of the time span from about 1,500 B.C. to 500 A.D . A preciou s find in th e Manunggu l caves was a burial jar with a lid showing th e figu res of two men in a boat, paddling toward the after-life. Burial was generall y seco nd ary, (o nl y the bones be ing placed in th e jar) th ough there were also traces of prim ary (the entire body bein g placed in th e jar) an d mu lt iple (p lacing of two or more bod ies in a jar) bu ria ls. They so meti mes pa inted the bones with red hematite hinting that some ri tual meaning associated with death and bur ial was attached to the pain t. "Grave furn iture" inc lud ed beads, earri ngs, and bracelets.

4 POTTERY MAKING, BICOL, CA. 200 B.C.

The technology of pottery making, while already present some 5,000 years ago, beca me highly developed during t he Metal Age (500 B.C. - 1,000 A.D.). In many ways, it enabled the anc ient Filip inos to express their creative genius bo th in maki ng functiona l earthen wares such as those used to cook and store food and artistic ones for rituals and deco rati ons. From out of wet clay and by the expert contro l of dry ing and firing, the y were able to fashio n wares wh ich, li ke th e ones recovered from archeological sites, showed a h ighly

stylized craftsmanship. The process is more or less uniform . The clay is beaten on a board with a mortar路pestle, and made into a ball. The maker sinks a smooth stone into a hole on th e top. With one hand, the stone is sunk deeper and deeper enlarging the hole as the clay is turned round and round . Th e other hand, with a small flat stick (paddle), shapes and smoo ths the exterior. Ornamental marks are made either with the finger, the end of a stick or a wooden stamp.

/ 5 RICE TERRACES, CA 1. B.C.

The kinship between Southern China and Luzon is made even more striking by the close resemblance of t heir art of terracing. In Banaue, the extent of terracing covers 3,160 acres, almost t he who le of Ifugao cou ntry. It was calculated that if t he walls supporting the embankments were placed end to end, they would stretch eight times longer than the Walls of China or half-way around the world. The building of the terraces consisted in digging a series of flat platforms of earth with sloping sides and then fortifyi ng them with stone wa ll s, made waterproof by a mi xture of gravel, sand a nd clay. Water is fed to them through an elaborate system of canals a nd ditches, some of them several miles long. On the basis of the extent of the terracing and th e labor that went into it, experts theorize that the terraces took two to three thousand years to build.

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6 MALAY FORGE, MASBATE, CA. 600 AD Nothing is clear about whether the early Filipinos mined meta ls or raw mater ials were brought to the country by foreign traders. What is certain is that meta l was widely used by the ancient Filipinos and, as indicated by the iron slags and unfin ished iro n too ls discovered in various archeological sites, they had good know ledge of smelting and forging. The Malay Forge, the method used as earl y as two thousand year ago, is sti ll in use in several mo untain areas in the Phili ppines. It consists of two hollow tree tru nks into which pisto ns are plunged dow n and the n pulled up in rh ythmic strokes forcing air th rough the pipes to fan f ire. With longhandled iron pinchers, the unfi nished metal is put over the fire un til red hot, then hammered into the desired shape and cooled in water. For we lding, a smith heats the two pieces of iron separately: th ose are then allowed to coo l in water an d

placed under mud. The heating and the hammering are done again and again until the two pieces of metal become we lded.

7 CHINESE TRADERS, 1200 AD Commercial ties between the Chinese and the southerners had long existed when the Spaniards came. The earliest mention of the Philippines occurred in 977 A.D. when an Arab trader reported of Ma-i (M indoro) to the Chinese court A Chinese source describes in interesting detail how merchandising was carried out: "Whenever foreign traders arrive at any of the settlements, they live on board ship before venturing to go on shore, their ships being anchored in midstream, announcing their presence to the natives by beating drums. Upon hearing this, the savage traders race for the ship in small boats, carrying cotton, yellow wax, native cloth, coconut路heart mats, which they offer for barter. If the prices cannot be agreed upon, the chief of the local traders must go in person to come to an understanding which being reached the natives are offered presents of silk umbrellas, porcelain, and rattan baskets . . . "The custom of the trade is for the savage traders to assemble in crowds and carry the goods away with them in

baskets; and even if one ca nnot at f irst know them, and can but slowly distinguish th e me n who remove the goods, there will be no loss. The savage t raders will afte r this carry these goods on to the other islands for barter, and, as a ru Ie, it takes them as much as eight or nine months till they return, wh en th ey repay the traders on sh ipboard with what they have obtai ned (for the goodS)".1

8 COMING OF ISLAM, 1475 Attempts to introduce Islam in the Philippines were made about 1380 but it was only in the last quarter of the 15th century that it became widespread. In the Magui nd anao tradition, a certain nobl eman from J ohore, Kabungsuwan, is given credit for bring ing t he relig ion and a more soph isticated form of organizati on to the Samals. It is written that... "Sarip Zayna -1 - Ab idin came to Juhur and heard th at the su ltan of J uhur, Sultan Sulkarnayn, had a daughter called Putri J asul As ikin . The sarip marr ied Pu t ri Jasul Asikin and begot Sarip Kabungsuwan. As Sa"rip Kabungsu wan.grew up and reached maturity he obtain ed hi s fa ther 's permiss ion and set o ut o n a sea voyage with a large number of followers from J uhur. As the y got out on the open sea t hey unfur led their sails to make speed, but a very stro ng wind b lew and scattered them in all directions, so that the y lost t rack of one a nother. As a resul t Sarip Kabungsuwan arri ved at Magu ind anao. Th e othe rs scattered to Balunay, Kuran, T ampasok Sand akan, Palimbang, Bangjar, Sulug, Tubuk and Ma labang . . . . "Sarif Kabungsuwan . .. anchored at Ti nundan . There was nobod y there; but the sarif saw a taro plant and a co rnstalk floating down, and said. 'Th ere mu st be some people at the head of this river; let us wait unti l they come down .' Late r there came down the ri ver Manumbali, t he datu of Si angan, with seven men, t o fish at Tinundan. T hey saw Sarif Kabungsuwan. The sarif called them but the y could not und erstand him. He beckoned to them , but one of them di ed on that account, and the y were frighte ned a nd returned . Later the people of Katitwan, having heard of th is, came dow n th e river to see the sharif, but they also could no t und erstand him, and one of the men died of th e same cau se. Th ey again returned and told T ab unaway, who came down th e river and saw Sarif Kabungsuwan. The sarif called to Tabunaway and Mamalu who both understood him a nd came in to h is boat .. ''Tabunaway sent Mamalu up the river to bring down all the men of Magindanao. After the arrival of the men

Tabunaway invited Ka bungsuwan to accompany him to Magindanao. Kabungs uwan refused to accompany them unless t hey became Moslems . Tab unaway and Mamalu then re peated the ir invi tation and al l of th em promised to become Mosl ems. Kabungsuwan insisted t hat he wou ld not lan d at a ll unless they came togeth er th en and t here and were washed a nd became Mo hammedans. Th is they did, and on account of t he bath ing at that pl ace, t hey ch anged its name to Paygwan. " Kab ungsuwan then accompanied T ab unawa y and Mamalu, a nd the men towed t hem up a ll the way from Tinundan to Maginda nao, Ma tampay, Si anga n, Simiway and Katitwa n. ,,2

9 THE FIRST MASS IN THE PH ILIPPINES, 1521 When the Bu ll of Alexander V I, and later, the T reat y of Tordesillas,. drew an imaginary line o n th e glob e fro m north to south some leagues west of Cape Verde Island, a ll owing Portugal to get the Orien t, Sp ain dec id ed to sco ut fo r a new route to get to the rich preserves of th e east. The Po rtu guese seaman, Ferdina nd Magellan, d isgruntled by the seeming ind iffere nce of his king, appeared in th e Spanish court in 1518 with a strange proposal: to reach th e wealth and spices of t he east by sailing west. King Charles too k the project w ith live ly interest, and after a year's preparations, 18 mo nt hs at sea, a se ries of mutinees, desertions and battl es w ith scurv y, Mage lla n, w ith his half-starved crew, dropped a nch or at Su luan, an is let southeast of Samar. Find ing the place not invigorating enough, he pu shed on to an isla nd ruled by a Rajah Kola mb u, " where the peop le painted their bod ies and co ntin uall y chewed bete l-nuts." On Good Friday, March 29, 1521, Mage llan a nd Kolambu established a b lood brotherhood with a pacto-desangre, a ritual which called fo r mi xing a drop of eac h one's blood in a c up of w ine a nd drinking it.

As the Spaniards a lso sai led fo r t he Ho ly ROClan Emp ire, t he first mass in the island s was celebrated by Fr. Pedro de Va lderrama o n Easter Sunday. Magellan's cnronicler gives 'us an interesting accou nt : "Early on the morning of Sunday, the last of March, and Easterda y, the capta in-genera l se nt the priest with some men to prepare the place whe re mass was to be sa id, together with the interpreter to te ll the king that we were not going to land in order to dine w ith h im,

but to say mass. Therefore, t he king se nt us two swines tha t he had killed. Wh en th e ho ur fo r mass arrived, we landed with abou t f ifty men, wit hou t arm or, but carrying o ur o th er arm s, and dressed in ou r best clo thes. .Before we reac hed the shore w ith o ur boat s, six pieces were d ischarged as a sign of peace. We land ed; the two kings emb raced th e capta in'genera l, and p lace d h im between them . We we nt in marching ord er to th e p lace consecrated, wh ich was not far fro m the shore. Befo re th e comm encement of th e mass, t he captain sprin kled

th e entire bodies of th e two kings with musk water. Th e mass was offered up . T he kings went forward to kiss t he cross as we did, bu t th ey did not offer the sacrif[c e. Wh en the bod y of our Lord was elevated, they remai ned o n t he ir knees and worshipped Him with c las ped hand s. Th e sh ips fired all their arti lle ry at once when th e bod y of Chr ist was e levated, the signal hav ing bee n give n fro m the sho re w ith muskets. After the co nclu sio n of mass, som e of ou r men took comm union." 3

10 THE BATTLE OF MACTAN, 1521 In search of food and suppl ies, Magellan worked hi s way through the eastern Visayas and made his landfall in what appeared to be a most flouri shing trade center-Cebu. Its ruler, Rajah Humabon, received him well, sealed his fr iendsh ip with a blood co mpact and p ledged vassalage to the king of Spain. At that time, Humabo n was having prob lems with one of his two vassa ls, Lapu-Iapu, the local chief of Mactan. Mage lla n tho ught that he would qo Humabon a favor and at the same t ime create an impression with his superb European fighti ng prowess. He decided to sai l to Mactan to exact strict obedience fro m its recalcitrant chieftain. Antonio Pigafetta, the expedition's official chron icler, gives an eyew itness-accoun t o f the battle. "We reached Mactan three hours before dawn. The captai n did not wish to fight t hen, but a message to the natives to the effect that if they would obey the king Spag nia, recognize the Christian king as th eir sovereign, a nd pay us o ur tribute, he would be their friend; but that if th ey wished o therwise, they shou ld wait to see how our lances wounded. They replied that if we had lances they had lances of bamboo and stakes hardened with fire . (They asked us) not to proceed to attack them at once, but wait until morning so that the they might have more me n. They said th at in order to induce us to go in search of them ; for they had dug certain pitholes between the ho uses in o rder that we might fall in to them. When morning came forty-ni ne of us leaped into the water up to our thighs, and walked through water fo r more than two crossbow flights before we could reach the shore. The boats cou ld not approach neare r because of certain rocks in the wate r. The other e leven. men remained behind to guard the boats. When we reached land, those men had for med in t hree d ivisio ns to the number of more than one

thousand five hundred persons. When they saw us, they charged dow n upon us with exceeding loud cries, two ' divisions on our flanks and the other on our front. When the capta in saw that, he formed us into two divisions, and thus did we begin to fig ht. The musketeers and crossbowmen shot from a distance for about a half-hour, but uselessly; for the shots only passed through the sh ields wh ich were made of th in wood and the arms (of the bearers) . The captain cried to them, "Cease firing! Cease firing!" but his order was not at all heeded. When the natives saw that we were shooting our muskets to no purpose, crying out they determined to stand firm, but they redoubled their shouts. When our muskets were discharged the natives would never stand still, but leaped hither and thither, covering themselves with their shields. They shot so many arrows at us and hurled so many bamboo spears (some of them tipped with iron) at the captain-general, besides pointed stakes ' hardened with fire, stones, and mud, that we

could scarely defe nd outselves. Seeing that, the captain路 general sent some men to burn their houses in order to terrify them. Whe n the saw their hou ses burning, the y were rou sed to greater fury. Two of our men were killed near the houses, while we burned twenty or thirty houses. So man y of th em charged dow n up o n us th at they sho t the captain through the right leg wi th a poisoned arrow. On th at acco unt, he ordered us to reti re slow ly, but the men took to f light, except six or eight of us who remai ned with the captain. The natives shot on ly at our legs, for the latter we re bare; and so many were th e spears and sto nes that they hurled at us, th at we cou ld offer no res ista nce. Th e mo rta rs in the boats cou ld not aid as they were too far away. So we continu ed to retire fo r mo re th an a good crossbow f light from the shore always f ighting up to o ur knees in th e water. The natives continu ed to pursue us, and picking up the same spear fo ur to six times, hurled it at us aga in and aga in. Recognizing the captain, so

man y turned upon him that they kn ocked his he lm et off hi s head twice, but he a lways stood firml y like a good knight, together with some others. Thu s di d we f ight for more than one ho ur, refu sing to reti re further. An In d ian hurled a bamboo spear into the captain's face, but the latter immed iately killed him with his lance, which he left in th e Ind ia n's bod y. T hen, trying to lay hand on a swo rd, he coul d draw it o ut but ha lfway, because he had bee n wo und ed in the arm w ith a bamboo sp ear. When the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves up o n him. One of them wounded him o n the leg with a large cut lass, wh ich resemb les a sci mitar, o nl y being larger. T hat ca used t he captain to fall face downward, wh en imm ed iate ly t hey rushed upon hi m with iron and bamboo spears and with the ir cutlass, unti l they killed o ur mirror, ou r light, o ur comfort, and and our true guide. When th ey wo unded him, he turned back many tim es to see whether we were all in th e boats. Thereupon, to th e boats, whi ch were already pull ing off.'"

11 LEGASPI-SIKATUNA BLOOD COMPACT, 1565 Only o ne of th e orig inal f ive ship s in Magellan's fleet made it back to Spain by sa iling west. Between 1525 and 1542, the Spanish thro ne sent expeditio ns to claim Moluccas for itse lf; foremost were those of Loaisa, Saavedra and Villalobos. Loa isa's expedition, as well as Saavedra's fai led to wrest the spice trade from the Portuguese and d iscover a return route to Sp ain. Th ey, however, understood the importa nce of erecti ng stat ions in Mex ico where an expeditio nary fl ee t cou ld rep lenish its supp lies. Villa lobos reached Mindanao, even renamed the is lands "Las Phelipinas" in honor of the heir-apparent, but did not succeed in finding the return route ac ross the Pac ific. Spain renewed its th rust toward the east when Ph il ip succeeded to the throne, but by th is time, she had give n up her interest in th e Moluccas and started to cons id er co lon izing the Philippines "w hich they say also conta in spices." On November 21,1564, Migue l Lopez de Legasp i, with the Augustin ian fr iar Andres de Urdaneta, a ve teran of Loa isa's expedition, led th e fourth major voyage to the Philippines. It reached Samar on February 13, 1565 . Pl agued by scarcity of food and the open hostility of the natives, th e fl eet was forced t o thread t h rough Manica ni, Limasawa, Camiguin and late r Bohol, where as a measure of goodwill, Legasp i e nte red into a blood co mpa ct with the chieftain . S ikat un a. "You shall ma ke it th e object of your voyage to search for and discover the I sl ands of the West near the Mo luccas , but you must not by an y manner of means come into the Mo luccas isla nd s t hemse lves in order not to violate the treaty Betwee n His Majesty and the Mos t Serene King of Portuga l. Rath er, yo u must make for the other islan ds near them, suc h as the Philippines and others wh ich do not come under the treaty referred to but are 路 withi n the qemarcation of His Majesty and are reported to be also spice-producing . Wit the ad vice of t he pilots in yo ur compan y yo u shall steer a straight cour se so as to reac h those isl ands and thus fulfi ll the ai ms which

Hi s Maj esty principall y has in mind, namely, to make known to the nat ives o f those parts o ur hol y Catho li c faith and to deter min e t he return route from thence to t his New Spai n, in order that bO y trade and intercour se and other law ful means which can in conscience be employed hi s patr im ony and roy al crown of Castile ma y be e nhanced and the spices and other richer th ere o btainable be brough t hith er, , , "Upon yo ur reach ing the said Phi lippine Island s and other islan d s ad jacent to them and th e Moluccas - with o ut entering among the latter, as has been pointed out - y ou shal l endeavor to discover and exp lo re what ports they have and to obtai n accurate information regarding the ir inhabitants and resources, th e ch aracter and way of life of the people, what trade and commerce they engage in an d with what nations, a t what price spices are val ued amo ng

12 PAN DAY PIRA, THE CANNON-MAKER, 1571

Glowing reports about the populo us and busy vi llages in a neighboring island sent Legaspi rais ing anchor at Bohol and sailing west - northwest to Cebu. The nat ives of Cebu were not w illing to give the Spanish fleet a warm we lco me . While th e women and children headed for the hills, the men "had put o n the ir wooden corselets and rope armor, and had armed themse lves with their lances, shi elds, smal l cutlasses, and arrows" .6 Legaspi fired some arti ll ery shots to fr ighten th e approaching natives who fe ll into utter confusion. He took Ceb u without much opposition, broke the ground for a fort and established a settlement which he named "Vi lla de San Miguel". However, Cebu did not solve t he problem of food shortage for the Spanish settlers. The settleme nt was constantly the target of attacks by t he natives and harassments by Portuguese. In 1568, the bedraggred garrison was moved to

Panay where harvest was more plentiful. But the promises which the island held for the settlers did not stop Legaspi from to lerating forays and armed expedition and ordering his second -in-command, Martin de Goiti, to reconnoiter "Maynila", a seaport in the north that some traders had often talked to him about. The reconnaissance ships fou nd a "town .. . situated on the bank of the river, and seemed to be defended by a palisade all along its fron~" ruled by Rajah Soliman. When approached by a Spanish emissary, he was said to have "assumed an air of importance and haughtiness (but) ... pleased to be the fr iend of the Spaniards. (However, he) ... would not tolerate any abuse (and) wou ld repay with death the least thing that touched (hi s) honor" 7 A cannon shot from the Spanish flotilla sparked hostilities. In the artillery duel that ensued, the defenders of Manila lost. The fortress was abandoned in flames. Goiti made a tour of the wasted fortress and found th irteen excellently made cannons and a warehouse which... "contained much iron and copper, as wel l as cu lverins and can nons whi ch had melted. Some smal l and large cannons had just been begun. There were clay and wax moulds, the target of which was a cann on seventeen feet long, resemb ling a cu lverin."s When Legaspi finally moved to Mani la, he ordered the search for its cannon-maker, Panday Pira. Panday is said to have been born in Mindanao in 1488 and migrated to Mani la after learning the art of cannon-making from his Taosug mentors. He was located by the Spaniards in Apalit (Pampanga) where he had establ ished a foundry and taught his sons and some residents his. sk ill s. By then, th e iron plows and bladed weapons which he fashioned had already found their way to Sam toy (il ocos) and Ibalon (B iGa I). Pan day Pira was offered a genero us compensation, including exemptio n from polo (forced labor) and certain privileges fo r his sons, for his skill s. He accepted it and subseq uently moved to Lamayan (Sta. Ana) where he set up a foundry. The cannons and other arti llery pieces he made improved the defenses of Legaspi's newly-founded city.

13 SALCEDO REPELS LlMAHONG, 1575 After peace was co nclud ed, Legaspi took the tongue of land between Pasig and th e sea, gave it a city charter a nd t he t itle of "th e Distinguished and Ever-loyal City_" The Spanish settlers lost no t ime in going about their tasks of building their new ho me. So me more ships from New Spain had come to call at the city bringi ng more colonists. Manila had started to ta ke shape. T he grid iron plan of the Adelantado was applied, stree ts were laid o ut at righ t angles and sixty blocks were set. Th e defense, however, remained as vulnerable as they were the fi rst time t he Spaniards saw them_ T he new colo ny had "wooden pl anks, stakes, boxes and barrels filled with mud and sand, bu t it was o pen ta-' attacks from the sea. In 1574, it u nderwent a test of survival with the surprise assault of the notorious Chinese corsair Limahong . Said to be born of no ble parents in Touchu in China, Li mahong started an earl y career as a corsair. His ve ntures paid off, and soon, he had mustered 95 sh ips and several t ho usand fo llowers includi ng 5,100 wome n. News about the poor fo rtifications of Manila did not escape his ears. On Nove mber 29 , 1574, he entered Ma nila Bay with 62 junks and 3,000 warriors. He ordered his Japanese aide, Sioco, with 700 men to land in Ermita from where he was to launch an assault aga inst t he city. T he initial attack cost Manila several lives including that of Martin de G oiti. However, the invaders were repulsed by the more powerful arquebuses of the defenders. Before Li mahong could mo unt the next assault, Captain Ju an de Salcedo arrived fr o m hi s sorties in t he lIocos and provided the desperate ly needed rein fo rceme nt in the garrison. Manila was m iracu lously spared. Limahong retired to Pangasi nan where he built a fort. He was later on pursued by Salcedo but managed to flee to the open sea through a secret canal.

* VIGAN DIORAMA -ESTABLISHMENT OF MISSIONARY CENTERS, 1570'S In "the service of Both Majesties", the King of Spain and God, co nquistadores and missionaries came to claim the Phi lippines. And as th e so ldiers fa nned out to the villages to win vassa ls for the throne, the friars fo llowed to wi n them once again for their Christian God. Spanish missionaries, spec ifical ly the Augustinians, began their evangelica l wo rk in the island s in 1565. Other relig ious orders arrived subsequently: the Franciscans in 15 77, the Jesu its in 1581, th e Domini ca ns in 1587 and the Augustinian Recollects in 1606. The demographic situatio n of the island s was a factor which the religi ous co nsid ered in their ministry. Sm all settlements of few fami li es clu stered near their rice field s or along the river banks making evangeli zation slow and difficult.

To cope with as many natives as possible, the missionaries encouraged the Filipinos to compact in villages thereby "reducing" the area of work considerab ly. The reduced settlement was called "cabecera" or "poblacion" and it doubled as parish for the ministered and center for the unpacified areas in the mountains a nd other remote places. Where there were villages that refused resettlements,"visitas" were estab lished and attached to the cabecera. A non-resident curate wo uld just "visit" the out laying villages to see to the people's sp iritua l needs until such time when t he number of "adm inistered so ul s" warranted the establ ishment of an independent religious mission. Thus o riginated the Phil ippine town路plaza complex. The evange lical methods emp loyed in the Philippines were ak in to those of New Spain. Adaptations, however, were made to su it some peculiar conditions like the diversity of native languages, the clann ish ness of the people and the somewhat concrete character of pre-Hispanic anim istic religions. In seeki ng to make this ministry more effective, the friars used the native languages as med ium for religious instructions, because "it was much easier for one missionary to learn the lang uage of an area than for all the people of that area to learn Spanish." Taking advantage of the extended family arrangement of the barangays, the missionaries tried to convert the ch iefly classes first. The other members of the clan followed suit as soon as their patriarchs were won over. Ceremonies were performed with pomp in order to impress the importance of th e sacraments, and churches were built as grand iose ly a? the coffers of the parish wou ld permit to inspire awe among the natives. One typical example of a Spanish religion mission is Paoay town in Ilocos Norte. A t the center of the town complex is the religious edifice which remains a monument to the engineering feats of the natives. Aside from its co lossal size (70 meters by 30 meters and 35 meters in height), the church is considered a rarity because of the presence of bricks and corals. The masony is said to be hard and durable because of the mixing of sand, lime, sugarcane juice, eggshells and corals boiled with leaves of "sablot", leather and rice straw.

14 BROTHER JUAN CLEMENTE'S HOSPITAL, 1578 The active interests taken by the churchmen in purely secular matters contribu ted largely to the improvem ent of the quali ty of life in the colony. In social services like schools, orphanages and hospitals, the fria rs often did the pioneering work. One fine example was Fray Juan Clemente's hospital in the late 1570's. As a porter of th e Franciscan conve nt in Manila, Fray Clemente began to aid the poor and the sick who gathered at the doors. "The number of poor people who came to be fed and be cured of t heir ai lments increased to such an extent that the vestibu le (of the convent) came to be filled to capacity, since there was no other suitable place. And as the fa me of his cures spread, the press of those seeki ng them becam e so grea t that it became necessary ... to erect in the patio or outer court of the convent a long shed or she lter of bam boo roofed with sacate grass... where all this multitude of peop le afflicted with

paralysis, running sores and leprosy, of every nation, Christian and non-Christian, could be taken care of. For the charity of our Fray Juan Clemente extended not only to the natives of this country but to strangers from Siam , the Malabar Coast, China, Japan, the Malay peninsula and Borneo; to all these sick he applied the remedies with wh ich Heaven inspired an unschooled lay路brother, whose knowledge of the most effective medicaments was derived from the assiduous practice of prayer." 9 ' Aided by donors and the poor themselves, Fray Clemente raised two spacious halls on the site now occupied by the Lyceum. The hospital was maintained solely by alms and donations until 1593, when the Mesa de la Misericordia was established to provide the hospital its means of support. It got its present name, San Juan de Dios Hospital, in 1656.

THE FIRST PRINTING PRESS, 1593

In 1593, Governor Gomez Perez Dasmariiias granted to the Dominicans a license to print the first books in the islands: the Doctrina Christiana in Tagalog and in the Hokkien dialect. They were done in wood cuts or xylography, that is, each word was cut on wooden blocks and the pages printed one at a time. Each copy was sold at four reales. The first printing press in the country, founded and run by Fray Francisco Blancas de San Jose, also trained interested natives. The most notable of them was Tomas Pinpin, a Tagalog from the order's religious mission in Bataan.

CHINESE UPRISING, 1603

The demand for co lon ists to settle in newl y "pacified" areas and the return of some disappointed Ma nila residents to Mexico and, even tually, Spa in greatly reduced the Spanish population in the ci ty. In con t rast to their dwindling number, there were about twenty to twenty路five th ousand Sangley s liv ing in the Parian, Quiapo, Binondo and th e fr inges of Ton do. Inspite of the need of one for the other in the Manila路 Acapu Ico trade, te nse relatio ns develo ped between them. Some Spanish offic ials ha rassed the S angleys by exacting exhorbitant duties while the latter got back by ra ising th e prices of their goods. Such was the co nditio n when three mandar ins dise mbarked in Mani la in March of 1603, to find out more about the "go lden mountains of Cavite" and possibly bring home to Ch ina a shipload . Their rea l in te nt

in coming was never quite fully resolved. In October, a band of Chinese motivated by personal vengeance, attacked the home of a Spanish official killing him, his wife and four of his children. The incid e nt ignited the already highl y-charged situation. Hundreds of armed Chinese led by Eng Kang, a Christian convert, stormed the Walled City.-The underpopu lated settlement was gallantly defended by every able-bodied male, including the friars who were pulled out of their convents. The former Governor Luis Dasmariiias, then living in Tondo, came and desperately tried to fight off the attack. He fell up on a big group of seditionists and was overwhelmed. An arm y of Taga log and Pamp ango vo lunteers marshalled by so ldiers in the city garrison turned back the Chinese who fle d ,!nd fanned out into Makati, Batangas and Lag una. Th e n, the worst blood-bath in the island since the conquest took

place. The vi ctorious army went on a rampage, killing all Sangleys in sight Eng Kang was hanged and the Chinese quarters were put to the torch. The full scale revolt that lasted for 18 days left 25,000 Sangleys and 250 Mani la residents dead. "The city was very hard pressed, and in danger of being lost, together with the faith here (which has been established at such a cost to the roya l exchequ er), and the hopes for the incre'ase of the church and its extension through over new wor ld s. It co uld be the destr uction of this enem y - so pern icious for the spread of the gospel, and averse to natural law, for they were" very Sodom; and with their in tercourse with the natives, th is cancer was spread ing. It is certain that if the Sang leys had had a concerned leadership, the y wou ld have been m aster~of the city with little enough opposition; for they could have entered as they usuall y did on their business,and taken possession of the weapons of the citizens, which were all left in the houses without being guarded, as the peop le lived without fear or apprehension , The Sangleys are clever at all things, but the Lord blinded them so that this might not come about." 10

UST CONSTRUCTION

On the bequest of Fray Miguel de Benavidez, a Dominican who came in the Philippines in 1580, became archbishop of Nueva Segovia in 1603 and of Mani la th e following year and d ied in 1605, a sem ina ry-schoo l was founded on Apr il 15, 1611. The institution was late r o n called "Colegio de Santo Tomas" to ho nor th e Do m in ican theologian and philoso pher, Th o mas Aquinas. It ass um ed the rank of university in 1857 by a royal decree. " In accordance w ith t he clause of the w ill of t he sa id

a rchbi sho p (Migue l de Benav idez), I, the said father commi ssary, F ray Bernardo de Santa Catali na, inasmu ch as t he said father F ray Do mingo de Ni eva is dead, dec lare t hat what his Lo rds hip co mmunicated to us (t o myse lf a nd to h im) was, that the said rema inder of hi s properties be spe nt in aiding the fo und a t io n and endow ment of a co ll ege-se minary, where th e religious of thi s sa id co nve nt may pursue the stud y of th e arts

and of theology; and where the religious may instruct the novices and other religious who wish to avail themselves of the aid, others who are sons of this city and the islands, any other persons. It is to be under the name and devotion of Nuestra Senora del Rosario; and to be estab li shed in this city, or where the religious of this said order should assign it, inasmuch as his Lordship and some of the first founders were in this city. And inasmuch as there are but one thousand five hundred pesos left of the properties of the said archbishop, it has been and is necessary, in order that a work so important for the we lfare of this kingdom, and one that sheds so much luster on communities and people and directs them so greatly to the service of our God and Lord, may not be without effect (I declare likewise that there have remained and are left three thousand seven hundred and forty pesos from the properties of the said Pablo Rodriguez de Araujo; and that from the properties of the said Andres de Hermosa, six hundred and thirty-seven pesos of the two thousand pesos left at my disposition, have been collected; I establish, apply, unite and set as id e all the aforesaid two thousand pesos - that collected and to be co llected of them - and the three thousand seven hundred and forty pesos from the properties of the said Pablo Rodriguez de Araujo, together with the sum remaining from the properties of the said archbishop, fo r the endowment and foundation of the said college. In their names, I declare that I have bought two houses and their grounds, which are located near the principal chapel of this convent, on a stree t halfway to the corner of the street th at run s from the said principal chapel to the squ are and cathedral church of this said city, contiguous to the street running to the river gate; and on th e one side, th e houses of Antonio de Espejo, and on the other th ose of Alonso Gomez - the place where the build ing of the said college路seminary must be located, and the instructio ns in the said branches take place, and where must live and remain the students and other things and persons pertaining to the said co ll ege and the use of it.

And in case - it is necessary, I, as such executor and administrator, delegate authori ty, cession and transfer to the part of the said college, so that it may col lect t he one thou sand and t hree hund red and sixty-three pesos thus owing from the pro perties of the said And res de Hermosa; and th ey sha ll give receipts and take what steps are necessary fo r the co ll ect io n un t il the money is obtain ed. And alth ough I, t he said father commissary, might make t hi s fo undation and e nd owment a lone - by vi rtue of my a ut hor ity granted me by the said clauses, and th at auth ority given me by my superiors for the exercise of t he said executorsh ip - fo r its greater stabili ty and so th at it may be firm and valid forever, since the very revere nd fa th er Fray Ba ltasar Fort, prov inc ial of the sa id prov ince of Nuestra Senora del Rosario, is present, I beg th e latte r, in addition to th e permission and lice nse that I have had and have, for new permission and license to make and execute thi s fo undation and endowment, and its arti cl es and conditi ons.""

KU DARAT'S DEFENSE, 1637

Not long afte r Legasp i had estab li shed footing in the islands, expeditions were se nt to Mindanao to open up trade with the natives. These attempts were stubbornly resisted by the highl y organi zed Muslim s perhaps due to their exper ien ces with Portuguese pirates w ho had earli er cruelly raided their islands. The expansion ist efforts of Governor Sande in 15781579 reaped initial success but as soon as the Spaniard s withdrew their detachme nts, t he Muslims declared independence and wage\piratical ra id s aga in st the no rthe rn island s. These incursions kept the Christian villages of t he Visayas and Luzon

in constant fear. Villages were scorched and plundered, fields were ravaged and thousands of natives were either held captives or sold as slaves in Borneo. In 1637, a we ll路equipped punitive expedition to Mindanao led by Governor Corcuera captured the stronghold of the is land's most powerfu l leader, Sultan Kudarat. He fled, led a life of a fugitive for a whi le but pursued a campaign to forge ties with other Mu slim chiefs outside Lanao, Davao and Cotabato. Having consolidated his forces after more than four years, he mounted an attack against t he Spanish troops, a lmost killed the ent ire detachment and made slaves out of the few survivors. A more liberal governor, Diego Fajardo turned the tide of events by offering Kudarat some concessions. In a treaty inked by Kudarat and his chiefs and Francisco Atienza, Spanish commandant of J 0 10 and Jesuit Alejandro Lopez, th e problems of "mutual al liance, of boundaries of possession, of trade, of ransom, of captives, and of freedom for ministrations of Jesuit missionaries" were settled. Even ransom rates were fixed: "for men and women, in the prim e of life, and in good health, each forty pesos; for those who were more youthful, th irty pesos; for aged and sick persOJ1 s, . twenty pesos; for ch ild ren at the breast, ten pesos."

....

PARIAN SCENE, 1710

At the beginning of the Spanish rul e, th e Sangleys, (word co mes from the Cantonese "k iang" and " ley ", meaning " trave ling merchant", later adapted to refer to a permanent Chinese resident) were allowed to li ve and roam free ly in the is lands. But as they continua ll y increased in number (by 1580, there we re more than 10,000 Ch in ese in Manila compared to less than 1,000 Span ish res id ents in Intramuras), the terribly outnumbered Span ish residents bega n to get alarmed. The governm ent tried to restri ct th e Ch inese ac tiviti es by confini ng them to a sma ll district where they cou ld live and carryon their trade and business. F irst, it was a narrow strip o r marsh y land bordered by the wa ll s an d the Pasig. La ter on, the authorities designated a place north of the river just opposite Old Mani la. Both were within the range of th e artillery pieces mo unted on the city wa lls. Th e firs t Parian was gutted dow n by fire in 1583 and rebu ilt in a muc h bigger area in Arroceros, the d istr ict where rice or arroz was traded . It con tinued to be the major Chinese quarters serving the dai ly needs of Man il a and th e suburbs unt il th e infamo us Chinese upr ising and massacre of 1603. A nine-b lock quarter too k its place in 1860. The Parian, from its inception in the late 16th century to its demo lit io n, was one of the live li est sections in Manila. In its count less shops and bazaars cou ld be found goods from

China, Japan, Indi a and Europe, rang ing from silk, rayon, woo l, ca rp ets, hats, umbrellas to lfpancit", flmisua," "pinsec," "Iumpia ll , "sutanjon," j'liampo", lfampaw", jjs iopao",

"h opia", "bu che", "tajo", etc. It was also the place to find "fishermen, gardeners, hunters, weavers, brick-makers, limeburners, and iron-makers ... tailors, cob blers bakers, candlemakers, confectioners, apothecaries, painters, si lvermiths, etc."ll lt must have really been quite a sight and an excelle nt commercia l hub to make Bishop Domingo de Salazar report the f(!)lIowing to King Philip li on June 24,1590: ''The Par ian has so adorned the city that I do not hesitate to affirm to your Majesty that no other known city in Espana or in these region s possesses anything so well worth seei ng as this; for in it can be found the whole trade of China with all kinds of goods and cur iou s things which come from that country. These articles have already begun to be manufactured here, as quickly and with better fi ni sh than in China... In this Parian are to be found workmen of al l trades and handicrafts of a nation, and many of them in each occupation. They make much prettier ar ticl es than are made in Espana, and sometimes so cheap that I am ashamed

to mention it."13

ASSASSINATION OF GOV.-GEN. BUST AMANTE, 1719

Th e Chri stian institu tion of sanctu ary deve lop ed as an exten sion of a Bishop's ro le as in tercesso r from as far back as th e 4th cen tu ry. Or iginall y a place where the divine or sacred was believed to be present, sanctuary was later app lied to include any man-m ade structure that offer ed protection

to certain kinds of fugitives due to its special sacred character Within its walls, a refugee charged with any crime other than treason and sacrilege was immune from arrest. Through th e yea rs, the in sti tution assumed a socia l fun ction by deterring execution without trial and blood vengeance . Another angle to the right of sanctuary is shown in an event that took place in 171 9 Gove rnor路General Fernando de Bu stamante decided to wage a war agains t graft and corruption immediately after assum ing office in 1717. His probe into the grave irregularities in the management of the roya l funds led to the discovery of the cu Iprits among the royal trea sur y officials and members of the Aud ien cia. The latter, in turn, took no time in taking refuge at the Cath edral. The aged Archbishop Geronimo de la Cuesta defied dl l orders of arrest issued by th e governor . He was, then, ordered arrested and hustled off to Fort Santiago Fur ther develop ment saw the friars organ izing a rabble to storm the governor's residence and eve ntuall y free the imprisoned prelate. An account of what happened next follow s: "The religious of St. Franci s, St. Do minic, and St. Augustine (both calced and discalced ) came o ut from th eir convents, each as a bod y, carry ing in the ir hands cruci fixes and sh o uting, 'long live (Viva) the Faith' long live th e Church ! long live our king Don Phelipe V ' ' Perhaps also resounded such uttera nces as in these cases are peculiar to the comm on people and to a tumultuou s populace. Th ese re ligious were joi ned by those who had taken refuge in t he ch urch es, and as a great number of peopl e of all classes, and they we nt in this array to (th e church of) San Agustin. Th ose who had taken refuge there, who were among the most d istingu ished citi ze ns, filled wi th fear lest the y should be taken from their asylum and put to death, joined the crowd, and promoted the sedition, all providing themselves with ar ms. A page of th e gove rnor, hear ing the co nfu sion and ye ll s, entered his master's apartment, and in ala rm gave him the news that va rious religious were coming toward the palace, conducting a mission . Th e governor, greatly disturbed , sprang up, and ordered the guards t o keep back the crowd ; he we nt to a

window, and heard that from the co rner of th e cathed ral to wer thirty men were asked fo r to check the peop le, who were marching through the street . He despatched an order t o the fort to discharge th e artillery at th e crowd ; but he was so little obeyed that, alth o ugh th ey appl ied the match to two cannons, these were aimed so low a nd th e ball s were buried in th e middl e o f the esplanade of th e fort Without opposition this multitud e arrived at the doors of the palace, the Jesuits foll owing at a short dista nce, with many of the common people many boys, t he entire crowd, with deafeaning ye lls, repea t ing the vivas of the re ligious. As for the soldiers and the guards, some retreated in fear, and others in terror laid do w n thei r arms T he mob cl imbed up by ladders, and entered th e firs t hall, the halberdiers not firi ng the swivelguns that had been prov ided , although the governor commanded them to do so; he now went forward to meet them, with a gun, its bayonet fixed, and gave confused orders to his reta iners to seize th e weapons whic~ by his order had been take n fro m the m. One of the religious presented him self to the governo r, and tried to set forth to him th e mi sfortunes into wh ich he was rushing head long; but at the firs t word s tha t he uttered, the governor, already furious, sai d to him, 'G o away, Father' ' He attempted to di scharge hi s gun at a citizen standing near, and it missed f ire; then the governor d rew his sabre and wounded the citizen; th e latter, and with h im all the rest at once, attacked t he governor. They bro ke h is right arm, and a blow in his head from a sabre caused him to fa ll li ke one dead. His son, th e sargento路 ma yor, who was in command at the fort, seeing th e great throng of peo ple who were entering the palace, mounted hi s hor se to go to h is fa ther's aid. Entering the guard-room, sabre in hand, he wounded several persons, but as he was no t suffi cient fo r so many, he was attacked by them and fe ll from his hor se in a dying condition, and he gave no sign of it; and, supposing that he was dead, the people occup ied themsel ves w ith imprison ing some and releasing oth ers." 1 4 T he II1cide nt was punctuated by an unforgetab le irony: a requi em was chanted fo r the mu rdered governo r and aTe Deum was sung for the liberated bi shop .

DAGOHOY REVOLT, 1744

The long Spanish regime in th e Philippines was punctuated by replete rebe lli o ns and revo lts. So me upr isings, like Lakandu la's, were protests against the maltreatm ent of natives; o thers like those of Magat Sa lamat and Pedro Land ia stemmed from the desire of d ispossessed ch iefs to be re insta ted. The rebellions of th e 19orots in 1601 an d th e Gaddangs in 1621 were efforts to resist religious imposition while that of Hermano Pu le -was rooted in hi s bitte rness towards his inability to en ter o ne of the religious orders because of his race. None of them, except Dago huy 's, lasted long enough . Historical accounts give tw o di ffe rent ve rsions of

what triggered t hi s 85 year-revo lt. O ne rel ates tha t a pr iest refused to give a Christian buria l to Dago hoy 's brother who had died in a d uel. Anoth er acco u'nt blames his bitterness on t he arbitary cond uct of the pr iest who allowed Dago hoy's co nstab le-bro th er's body to re mai n unburied and rott ing after he was slai n by a re negade who resisted arres t. Dagohoy sco red vengea nce by ki ll ing t he priest and persuad ing so me 3,000 natives to aban don their vi ll ages and take to th e hill s.- At its he ight, the revo lt had as ma ny as 20,000 rebe ls, a fo llowi ng large eno ugh to make its leader se t u p an independent regi me. The revo lt was supresse d in 1827.

MANILA GALLEON, 1750

The fabu lou s wealth that lured the adventurous among the Spanish settlers to the islands was sti ll a myth years after Legaspi had established the colon y. Th e conquerors had not discovered any workable gold mine and were not willing to turn to commercial agr icu lture or hom e industries. But Manila's locat ion which made it the receptacle of the popular goods from China, Macao, Cambod ia and India and America 's readiness to pay si lver dollars for them prevented what co uld have been the earl y loss of Spain's outpost in the Orient. Yearly, for two and a half centuries, galleons brought, among other things, sil k, carpets, ivory, pear ls, and shells to Acap ul co and sa iled home with twice the investment of so me favored Spaniards entitled to cargo space. The trading tickets (boletas) were distributed amo ng widows, orp hans and government pen sioners who

either shipped o n the galleo ns themselves or sold their privileges to the highest bidders. There were also the "obras pias" of religi ous and charitab le institutions read y to advance trading capital or even sell insurance pol icies to will ing clients. The Manila trad ers had been quick to learn to li ve by the trying and dangerous navigation of the galleons. Eve n with dozens of vessel s, thousands of lives and millions in cargoes and sil ver dollars that had been claimed by the sea or coveted by the pirates and privateers, it remained the all important co ncern of the settlers. "If the Manilefi os lived dangerously in the midst of so many perils, they also lived luxur ious ly and recklessly, and it was the bo untiful returns from the annual voyage of the Manila Gall eo n that prov ided the means for their lavish way oflife."ls

23 BRITISH INVASION, 1762 Spain's alliance with France caused her to become embroiled in the Seven Years' War in Jan uary 1762. Britain declared war on her, giving British India the reason to dispatch an armed expedition to the Philipp ines in August of the same year. An armada of 13 ships under the command of Rear Admiral Samuel Corn ish and a landing force of about 2,000 British regulars and Sepoys led by Brig. General William Draper entered Man ila Bay September 23. Manila was ill-prepared. There had bee n no official communications about the war that could tell Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, then the concurrent acting governor and 'captain-general, how to proceed. Just the same when certain intelligence reported the impending invasion, he mustered a poorly-equipped army of 500 Spanish regulars and a volunteer militia of Manila residents a nd natives from the ne ighboring provinces. The enemy attacked the city on September 24 and laid seige to it for about 10 days. Heavy bombardment from its emplacement near the stone church of Malate a nd more poundings from the fleet at sea eventually rup tured the south-west corner of the wall. On October 5, an assault through the breach was launched ~nd the city was ravaged . Brig. Gen. Draper recounts: "We entered Manila by storm on the 6th of October 176 with a handful of troops whose total number amounted to litt le more than two thousand; a motley composition of seamen, soldiers, Sepoys, Cafres, Lascars, Topasees, French an.d German deserters. "Many of the houses had been abandoned by the frightened inhabitants, and were burst open by the vio lence of shot or explosion of shells. Some of these were entered and pillaged. But all military men know how difficult it is to restrain the impetousity of troops in the first fury of an assault, especially when composed of such a variety and confusion of people, who differed as much in sentiments and language as in dress and complexion. "Severa l hours elapsed before the principal magistrates

cou ld be brought to a co nference; during the interval the inhabitants were undoubtedly great sufferers . .. That several robberies were committed after the capitulation was signed is not to be denied ... But th at the p lace was pillaged for forty hours, and that pi ll age authorized ~ permitted by me, is a most false arid infamous assertion."! 6 Manila was surrendered to the Britls , but the rest of the colony was kept loyal to Spain through the efforts of Simon de Anda y Salazar. He set up his headquarters in Bu lacan and later, Pampanga, where he organized a resistance arcny路 Only a few months after the British take over of Manila, the Seven Years' War ended. Owing to pOOL communication s, however, it was only in April17;f4 that the city was given back to Spain.

24 ST A. INES MINES, 1769 The four路m ill on peso ra nsom demanded by the British commanders in 1762 and the suspension of the galleon trade for almost three years put the co lony's fin ances in shambles. One of the more en lightened Span ish entrepren eurs who had a hand in th e enormo us economic reconstruction of the co lony was Francisco Xav ier Salgado. He ventured in mining, agri cul tural and manufacturing enterprises a nd got good returns. He joined t he resi stance forces of Anda during t he British invasion and specif icall y took care of transports and commun icati ons. After the war, Salgado resu med his interest in mining

and operated the Sta. Ines iro n mines, deep in the mountains of Sierra Madre o n the side of Riza l province. "At a place called Santa Ines, o n the same island as this capital city and eight or nine leagues from it, is the iron mine called Santa Ines which I discovered. I built there a fine large hou se roofed w ith tile, some shed also roofed with tile for the foundries and charcoal stores, a workshop for crushing the store, another for refining the metal, and 113 charcoal furnaces. I mined and extracted close to 6,000 piculs of iron, wh ich has been proved su perior in quality to that of Biscay, as being more duc ti le. I manufactured several lots of can non bal ls, some farm Implements, and a number of sma ll artillery p ieces - one pounders and half路pounders.,,'7

-.---.., .. ...

VIGAN DIORAMA-TOBACCO MONOPOLY, 1778

The galleon trade which Manila had chosen to und erwrite the cost of living in th e colony might have made a few lucky shippers rich but, on the w ho le, it stunted th e eco nomic growth of the country. While there were earlier attempts to p<!-y lip-service to wide sca le local production, the country had rema ined a merch ant or a middlemen of Oriental good-suppliers and the consumers of Europe and America. Th en, the British came to invade Manil a and succeeded, in so short a time, to up set its already precario us economy. Post-invasion rehabilitation meant the resumptio n of the ga lleon, but as a new breed of Spanish in te llectuals was gai ni ng strength at the Council of the I nd ies, plans were submitted to re-stru cture the impoverished eco nomy of the Philippines. Some Spanish entrepreneurs had started to engage in various agricultural and indu stria l ventu res after the British occupation. Nothing far路reaching issued from t he ir innovations as the conservative elements of the government adapted an obstructive posture towards radica l eco nom ic changes. In the meantim e, the Philippines continued to rece ive annual sub sid y from Spain. A new governo r-general , Jose Basco y Vargas, arrived in Manila in Jul y, 1778, bringing with him progress ive ideas on how to free Spain from the load of supporting a far-flung colony. Upon c lea ring the A udienc ia of hostil e conservatives, he drew up a document ca lled "A General Economic Pl an" in which he outlined t he advantages of deve lop ing ag ricu lture, commerce and indu stries in the Philippines. He, later on, founded the noted "Economic Society of th e Friend s of

the Coun t ry", ante-dating a royal decree which ordered him to call upon knowledgeable residents of t he colony "to fo rm an associatio n of selected persons, capab le of producing

ideas"o Basco's most remembered achievement was the institution of a govern ment mo nopoly of tobacco. In answer to his proposal, the Span ish governmen t decreed on February 9, 1780 that the cu ltivation, manufacture and sale of tobacco be made a state monopoly. On the strength of the order, the cultivation of t he crop was limi ted to Cagayan Valley and Gapan (now in Nueva Ecij a) and subjected to the vigi lan ce of t he governmen t. The growers were compe lled to de liver their entire produ ce to government representatives who graded the leaf, paid for it at government-dictated prices and destroyed whatever was left unsold . Th e crop was' then taken to government factories where it was made into cigars and cigarettes for export and sale in som e appoi nted government outlets. As soon as the monopo ly had stabi lized, the oncesub sid ized co lony was sending cash and crop to its mother country. Though a success accordi ng to fina ncial measures, the tobacco monopoly exacted its toll on t he people. Not onl y was the system oppressive in th at the government bough t the crop at an unreasonably low price it fixe d, but it also bred dishonesty and abuse among t he agents and led the shortchanged natives to contraband-runn ing and outright bandi t ry to recover losses. The government monopo ly on tobacco was abo lish ed o n January 1, 1883 as other altern atives for industrial expansion were taken up by the governm ent.

25 THE FIRST NEWSPAPER, 1811 Napoleon's invasio ns into Sp an ish possessions and the holding of sessions of the Cortez were shap ing the Mother Country in the early 1800's and were causing public anx iety and impatience in the Philippines. Th e Mani la government dispatched a vessel to Mexico to gather news about Europe but months had passed with no reply. Then an English ship from Bengal anchored off in Manila bringing newspapers with a lode of information on Eu rope. Th e rep orts were immediatel y translated and published in what has passed for the country's first newspaper. The first issue that came out on Aug ust 8, 1811 had neither title nor date ncr place of pub lication. It carried news

date-lined April 10, 1811, Calcutta and dispatches from London, Lisbon and Boston proclaiming "the enthusiasm and unalterable resistance of the Spaniards in the metropolis, the unending fidelity of the British allies, the victories won over the French, and what's more, the opening of the Cortes in the island of Leon".l8 The title "Del Superior Govierno" appeared on the second issue which contained some more news from English newspapers. When these had run out, the editor (sa id to be Gov. Mariano Folgueras him se lf) extracted news from some periodicals fro m Macao. With the non-arri vals of ship from abroad, thus, the stop of news' flow from Europe, the publication folded up after coming out with 15 issues.

DAMIAN DOMINGO, 1821

The Economic Society of Friends of the Country established an Academy of Drawing, the first school of fine arts in the islands, in August, 1821. Five years later, Damian Domingo, a mestizo miniature portrait -artist f rom Tondo was appointed director of the Academ y becau se of hi s "conduct, knowledge, talent and assiduousness in th e art of painting." 19 Nothing much is known about his early years, but , accounts put it that he was already conducting art lessons in his home on Real Street in Tondo before his appointment. He carries the distinction of being the first Filipino to specialize in non路religious paintings, excelling in details because of his photographic eye. Domingo is also remembered for breaking racial

barriers by admitting "indios" to what was otherwise a school for white Sp aniards. In 1846, some years after his death, a Frenchman, Jean Mallat, paid him and other Filipino artists tribute when he wrote: " Drawing and painti ng are much more advanced than one would have be li eved among t he Indian s of th e Philippin es. As id e from the beautifu l maps of Nicolas Ocampo (Ni co las dela Cruz Bagay), we can cite the miniature of Denian (Damian Domingo) and Sauriano (Hilari o Sori ano)' the church paintings and oi l portraits of Areco (j uan Arceo). These works are certain ly far f ro m perfect o n accoun t of th e fact that the ar.tists who made them never had a ny teacher; but they show marks of great ta lent and the portraits are of attractivr appearance." 20

27 SUNDAY AFTER MASS AT ST A. ANA, 1850's

Th e confusion that issued from the Napoleonic invasions and the outbreak of the wars of in dependence in Mexico quickened the inevi ta ble dea th of the Mani laAcapulco trade . In 1815, the Galleon sailed for her home port in Manila on its last voyage afte r two and a half centur ies. The end of the Spanish sett lers' only invo lvement in overseas' trade left it in the control of fo reign hands. An increase in foreign popul ation came as a re sult of the boom in foreign trade . Con sul ates were opened; aHens were given iibe rai treatment and freedom to move about th e co untry. In 1854, Manila officiall y opened its doo rs to fore ign trade. Subsequentl y, Zamboanga, Iloilo, Cebu, Legaspi and Tacloban took th e cue. In th e field of agriculture, prod uct ion had assumed commercial proportions. Not only was the break-through in tobacco production, but in sugar, abaca and indigo as well. The pasture land of th e friar estates was being leased to inquilinos and improved machinery was being introduced. Defini te ly, Phi lipp ine economy never had it so good since the Sp aniards set foot in the islands . What took place in th e coun try between the coming of the Spanish entrepreneurs and its agricultural revolution was more than just perceptibl e in a typical Sunday morning in Manila or its subu rbs. Sunday in th e mid-1850 's for Filipinos and Spaniards alike started with th e mass. Follow ing an hour of piety, they wou ld stream out of th e church, gay and resplendent in their best attire. The men and women evolved a unique mode of dressing: the baro, saya and panu elo ensemble for the women and th e sem i-transparent striped silk worn over form fitti ng tro users for th e men.

ESCOLTA SCENE, 1860'S

Ear ly in t he nin eteen th century , Ma nila 's comme rcia l hub moved from the Parian to a street north of the Pasig and running paral lel to it. Th e Spa ni ard s called it La Escolta or "the escort," a na me be lieved to have had its roots duri ng the British in vasi on of 1762 when th e Bri ti sh commander-in -chief wo uld him se lf ride dow n th e street with his escort or esco lta. By the 1860's, hand some t wo-store y b ui ldi ngs were housing shops and sta lls of S pan iard s, Sang leys, S ikhs, Portuguese, Mexicans, Japanese and Britishers. A roya l

decree in 1844 wh ich fo rbade alca lde mayores from trading unleashed th e flow of t rade goods from the prov in ces, resulting in a f looding of merchandise in th e comm ercial di stri ct. A nd , of course, the end of th e galleon t rade el imin ated t he co rne ring of imported items for transshipm ent to Mex ico and a llowed th e inf lux of fo re ign traders. Mo re tha n a bu sin ess center, Esco lta came to symbo li ze th e grea t accelerati on of th e country 's movement towa rds what might be term ed as the " modern era."

GOVERNOR LA TORRE'S RECEPTION IN MALACANANG, 1869

Foremost among t he events that led to t he catacl ysmic develop ments in the 1890' s are th e enforceme nt of t he controve rsia l ep iscopal visitation and the seemi ngl y harm less return of the J esu its to the . Philippines in 1859 . As early as 1610, attempts had been made to fo rce visitation upon al l curates in the parishes in th e manner provided by t he Council of Trent. The bishop was authorized to subject the regulars w ithin his jurisd ictio n to his scrutiny and correction. In effect, the legislat io n also empowered him to inspect churches, check parish finances and recommend the rectif ication of quest ionable practices by th e clerics in towns and parishes. Arguing t hat they were onl y responsible to the ir provincial, the re ligious refused any vis itatio n and threaten ed to relinguish their parishes if it was forced upon them. When the bishop persisted, quite a number of them made good their threat. As a frantic reaction to this unforeseen turn of events, a numbe r of bishops undertook a crash program to train secular priests among the Filipin os, sometimes ordaining them even before they were ready. Complaints about the "unfits" made them change their minds. A royal order reverted th e parishes to the Spanish regulars causing discontent among t he Filipinos. More t han a century later, th e Jesuits emerged from their expulsion to return to o ld missions in Minda nao, then already in the hands of the Recollects. Th e res umption of their tour of duty was accomplished by moving the Recollects to Luzon, thus, displacing several secul ar priests, most of whom were notable Filipino half-castes and natives. Once again, the bitterness that grew o ut of the ep iscopal visitation issue in the previous centuries was awakened. While there were isolated cases of complaints from the Filipino secular clergy prio r to thi s development, a feeling of solidarity, perhaps, infused with the courage a nd

ideali sm of a rising Filipin o m idd le class, was noted. The arrival of li bera l Carlos Ma ri a de la Torre provided them a chance to come out in th e ope n. A semb lan ce of li berali sm was ushered in the Philippines dur ing de la T orre 's br ief admini stration . After the September revolution of 1868 wh ich saw democratic parties ta king over th e govern men t in Spain, Madrid sent him to Man ila to assume th e offi ce of governor-genera l. He lifted the censorsh ip of the press, orga nized a commission to discuss refo rms in government and encouraged a group of middleclass F ilip in os wh ich included Joaqui n Pard o de Tavera, Jaco bo Zo bel a nd Jose Burgos. On the night of July 12 , 1869 and to the utter shock of Spanish Manila, he joined th e Fil ip ino liberals in a toast to freedom .

VIGAN DIORAMA-GOMBURZA'S EXECUTION, 1872 Dela Torre's libe ral reforms were reversed by his successor, Rafae l de Izquie rd o. Not that Izquierdo was averse to reform itself for he figured in the sam e liberal campaigns in 1868, but he fea red t he increas in g strength of the middle class might have emboldened th e Filipinos, most especiall y the anti-clerics among them, and thi s did not seem ideal if the S panish rule was to continue in th e isl ands. On January 20, 1872, more than 200 Filipino soldiers and marines revolted in a Cav ite garrison and took possession of the fo rtress nearby. T hey were apparently ange red by Izquie rdo's abo lition to certain pr ivileges, namely, exem pt io ns from payment of tributes and fo rced labor. To ca ll attenti on t o their grievances, they agreed to rise in mutin y, killing seve ral Spanish residents a nd wou nding many more . Reinforcements from Manila a rrived to suppress the revo lt. Ord er was restored to Cavite as soon as the Spanish

troops resumed command of the garrison. In Manila, however, anyone identified with the growing liberal movement was arrested, charged with com~ity in the mutiny and given a hasty trial. Those whoAmeted out death by the garrote included three Filipino * priests who had been in the middle of the struggle of Filipinos secular priests against the transfer of parishes to regulars. It is suspected by some that the influential religious may have instigated the priest'~' execution owing to the insufficient proof of guilt or conspiracy in Cavite. As history was to show, their martyrdom of the priests gave birth to the rising tide of nationalism that found expression in the propaganda movement and subsequentl y, the revolution of the masses in 1896. *G o mburza sh ow n wearing cassocks follows the traditional visual rep resentation of this event.

30 INTRODUCTION OF TRANVIAS, 1881

T echno log ical progress in th e area of land transportation caught up w ith the Philippines in 1881 w ith the introduction of the tranvia. A blueprint for a street car syste m in Manila was drawn by Leon Monssour in 1878 but it remai ned unimpl emented because of t he absence of a n entrepreneur who could take it up. In 1881, Jacobo Zobel de Zangroniz accepted the government offer to construct and operate a five streetcarline system under a concession to run for 60 years. The Compania de los Tranvias de Filipin as was fo unded to ma nage the co ncessio n the following yea r.

Over 1,200,000 pesetas we nt into con struction to make the system operatio nal. Fo reign experts were hired to superv ise th e installation of the tracks. To hasten the completion of the termina ls in In tram uros, Binondo, Tondo, Malabo n and Sampaloc, Chinese were contracted to augment native labor. Th e innovation rece ived tremend ous response from the pub lic. Though the tranvias had seats for twelve and room for eight. strange rs, it was normal for t he pon y to pull along a tota l of 30 passengers. One America n visitor to the country took interest in the sight and wrote, "i t is no uncommon t hi ng on a slight rise or sh arp turn for all hands to get off and help the ve hicle over th e difficulty." "

31 FREEMASONRY MOVEMENT,1874 When the Suez Cana l was opened in 1869, the long traveling time that discouraged Spaniard s f rom coming to the colony wa s cut to a relat ively negligibl e span. They had started to come in droves bringing with them ideas and ideals of fre edom and inde pend ence inspi red by th e French Enligthenemen t. A consensus among certa in conservatives th at included the Spanish clergy was made : the co lo ny had to be protected f rom tho ughts that wo uld endanger its instab ili ty. If there was no way to stop liberal Spaniard s from coming to Ma ni la, their id eals should , at least, be contained. Thus, when. Freemasonr y was introduced in the Philippines in the second ha lf of the 1800 's, it labored heavily under rigid prohib it ions.

Most of the organized lodges in the Philippines admitted only peninsular Spaniards and foreigners, however. Inspite of their liberal persuasions, the masons were not ready to sponsor revolutionary or separationist ideal s. Later, mestizos and indios were invited to enlist on the condition that they "knew how to read and write," had a responsible position, pledged that they loved Spain and had a definite religion ."22 It was only in 1889 that the Masonry opened its doors to the natives. The numerous Filipinos who succeeded in getting adm itted to the movement joined ithe lodges in Paris, London, Madrid and Barcelona. In it, they found a convenient medium for conducting propaganda.

32 RIZAL WRITES THE NOLI ME T ANGEiRE, 1886 â&#x20AC;˘ The unj us~ execution of three prominent Filipino priests in 1872, while not purely political , became the ral lying point of the propaganda movement which the Filipino inte lligentsia sustained for more than two decades. Disconten t was centered around the friars to whom the great inju stice was imp uted and the abusi ve Spanish civil authorities who had nullified the reforms scored d uring the liberal interlude of 1869 . 1871 . Of the names listed as members of the Propaganda movement in Europe, Jose Rizal figured most prominently

for his br iJli ant writings. Rizal 's first novel, Noli Me Tangere, is a socia-historical exposition writte n in Madrid, Paris, Heidelberg and finished in Madrid when he was o nl y 26. Considered the literary masterpiece of the propaganda movement, it mirrored the backwardness of the social and political sy>tem of the Spanish regime in the Philippines, the hypocrisies and tyrannies of its functionaries and set before t he eyes of his people their defects and the need to raise t hemselves by their own efforts.

33 KATIPUNAN INITIATION RITES, 1892 Co nsidering t hat th e reform movement had a im ed to ach ieve assimilation fo r the is lands, freedom of speech and rep rese nta tio n at th e Spani sh Cortes, it was an utter f ailure. It succeeded, however, in pol c,rizing the se ntim ents of th e people against the Spanish religio us and c ivil admini strators in the cou ntry. Rizal 's arrest and exile to Dapitan had convinced some of the midd le class leaders to think of more rad ical measures. Bu t it was Andres Bo nifac io, a pl ebian fro m Ma nila, who actually organ ized t he masses by fou nding t he Katipunan

(Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan nt A nak ng Bayan)

on Jul y 2,1892, the day Rizal's deportation leaked out. The organi zation., while patterned after Rizal's La Liga Filipina was not seeking reforms. It was more intended to prepare the Filipinos to rise in rebellion should other peace路 ful means of winning independen ce for the country fail. In meetings secretl y held in Tondo, Bonifacio's humbl e followers und erwen t the initiation rites which included performing the o ld blood compact and signing their membership papers with their own blood. Three years after its founding, the Katipunan had a membersh ip of 30,000.

34 THE CRY OF PUGAD LAWIN,1896 The unmasking of the Katipunan on August 19, 1896 was fo ll owed by mass arrest of Fi lipino suspects. About 500 me n of prominence were rou nded up for a lleged comp licity in the Katipunan and summaril y tr ied before a specia l court fo r co nspiracy and sedition. Bonifacio secretly summoned his leaders to a meeting at Balintawa k to discu ss t he course of action in the face of the crisis. After cha nging th e Katipunan code which the Spanish authorities had deciphered, he agai n ordered h is men to move to Kangkong, and the n, to Pugad Lawin . Bonifacio asked h is men if they wou ld fight to th e end; they a ll said they wou ld . He then asked the rebels to tear off the ir cedula personal to signal their desire to end all servitude to the king of Spain. They did am id st shouts of " Lo ng live the Philippi nes, Long live the Katipunan."

35 EXECUTION OF RIZAL, 1896 Rizal's exile in Dapitan ended when his offer to serve as a volunteer physician in Cuba was accepted by the Spanish Government. Before reaching Spair, f ro m where he had planned to sail for his destinatio n, his ship captain received a telegram from Manila ordering his a rrest. Rizal was immediately taken to Fort Santiago where he waited for his trial. He was tried for rebellion a nd organizing illicit associations, fou~d guilty and sentenced

to die. Governor Cami lo de Polavieja decreed his death on Dec. 28 . At 7 o'clock in the morning of December 30, Jose Rizal was brough t to Bagumbayan to be executed "with the formalities required by law". 23 With his elbows tied behind him, he was shot by a squad of eight native soldiers, serene in his last moments. He turned halfway around, fell Oii his side and died with his face turned up to the sky.

36 THE COURT -MARTIAL OF BONIFACIO, 1897 In Cavite where the rebels were scor ing truimphs,a riva lry that existed between the Magdala of Cavite and Magdiwang of Noveleta had slowly led to costly reverses. Andres Bonifacio was invited to Cavite to patch up the rift but later found him self embroiled in internal intrigues and petty quarrels, and his leadership in question. A convention designed to solve internal problems was , called in Tejeros o n March 22,1897. In that meeting a new form of government replaced the Katipunan. Emilio Aguinaldo was catapulated to t he presidency of the Republic and Andres Bonifacio was grievously offended prompting him to invalid ate its entire proceedings. The Katipunan Supremo, in repudiation of the Tejeros Convention, drew up a document establishing another independent govern ment Agu inaldo saw the move as a serious risk to the cause of the revolution, a factor that could split the ranks and lead to sure defeat. He. then ordered the arrest of Andres Boni-

facio and his brothers, Ciriaco and Procopio. After a skirmish in which Ciriaco was killed and Procopio was wounded, Andres was taken prisoner and his case brought to the Council of War. The Counci l that tried the Bonifacio brothers found them guilty of treason and sedition and recommended a death sentence. Aguinaldo, however, commuted the death sentence to banishment considering "the present situation of the country, ... the fact that the accused are true sons of the country (and) the merciful policy of this Government never to shed blood uselessly. 2. Agu inaldo's generals vehemently opposed the order of pardon saying that "Andres was intent upon having him killed and assuming the presidency for himself" 2 5 Aguinaldo, later o n, yielded to their pressure. On May 10, 1897, in Mount Buntis near Maragondon, Cavite, Bonifacio and his brother Procopio were executed by a platoon of soldiers led by Major Lazaro Makapagal .

37 PACT OF BIAK-NA-BATO, 1898

Inspite of Governor Fernando Primo de Rivera's decrees granting pardon to rebels who would give up their arms and surrender to the government, the revolution continued. The Filipinos were retreating and had moved their headquarters to Batangas, then to Morong and finally to Biak-na-Bato in San Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan. Here, in July, 1897, Aguinaldo established a republican government known as the Biak-naBata Republic and approved a provisional constitution which empowered a Supreme Council to : 1) direct activities necessary for the existence of the Republic 2) impose and collect taxes

3) contract publ ic debts here and abroad 4) issue paper currency and co in money 5) devo te collected funds to the need of the state 6) negotiate peace treaties with Spain 7) mobili ze troops and provide for th e ir maintenance 8) approve, amend and modify decree s and orders of the army In the meantime, Governor de Rivera, anx io us to brin g about peace, accepted Pedro Paterno's offer to med iate between the Filipinos and the Spaniards. Aguinaldo himself co mm iss io ned Paterno to negotiate with Ri vera for a peaceful end to the conf lict conflict. Foll owi ng a series of negotiations, a tru ce, later to be called Pact of Biak-na-Bato, was drawn up and signed on Dec. 14 and 15, 1897 with provisions which in cluded : payme nt of $800,000 to the Filip ino re vo lutioni sts, of which one路half was to be paid upon depart ure of Agu inald o and h is officers to Hongko ng; payment of $900,000 to those who suffered from the war; surrender of firearms by the revo luti oni sts and the granting of general amnesty by the Spanish government. As neither party co mplied with its part of the agree ment the revolution erupted once agai n.

BATTLE OF M AN ILA BAY, 1898 America's economi c interest in Cu ba allowed her leaders to be drawn to the side of t he rebe lling Cubans, worsening her already strained relatio ns with Spain. When the accident involving the blowing up of the A merican warship Ma ine at HavaOla harbor which resulted in the death of 246 men to o k place, Commodore George Dewey was alread y in Hong ko ng ready with a plan to attack Manila. Commodore Dewey's order to destroy the Span ish fleet in Manila was received on A pril 25, 1898. It took hirr. just two days to mobil ize 7 wel l armed ships. By 1 :00 o 'c lock in the afternoon of Apr il27, the U.s. Asia tic Sq uadron moved into China Sea for the Phi li pp in es with the cre w men chanting "Remem ber the Maine". The American ships entered Man ila Bay u~dete cted in

the early morning of May 1. Dewey spotted the Spanish f leet near Sang ley Point, Cavite so he ordered his ships to turn in that direction. Montojo's flee t fired some ineffecti ve shots upon sighting the approaching enemy. When Dewey had ascertained that a d,a r hit could be made, he tu rned to the captain of the Olympia and said, "you ma y fire when you are ready, Gridley."26 By noontim e, the battle was over. Montojo's fleet sustained mortal wounds. Smoke and flame were belching from his f lagship, the Reina Chr istina, and the other ships were either driven agro und, afire or sink ing. As against casualties of 381 killed or wounded, Dewey lo st one man. "There never before had been such a lopsided victory in the history of modern naval

warfare.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, 1898

O n an urgent ca ll fro m E. Spe ncer Pratt, the Amer ican Consul-genera l in Singapo re , Aguinaldo met wi t h him and learned t hat the U.S. had gone to wa r with Spain. He was as ked to he lp Am erica by returni ng t o the Phili ppines to lead t he revo lt in Lu zon. T o Aguinaldo 's q uestion o n what th e Ph il ipp ines wou ld gai n by aid ing America, Pratt answered, " Inde pendence ! We have no ambitions in t he Phili pp in es! We ente red thi s wa r so le ly fo r the purpose of free ing Cuba and are so lemnl y ob liged to leave that island o nce the Span ish have been dri ven ou t. Believe me, we want nothing from yo u a nd yo ur peo ple. Fight beside us a n aJ.~l1a ll attain a ll yo ur d reams ! "28 Ag uin aldo arrived in Man ila o n May 19 aboard t he McC uli ock. He was take n aboard t he O lympia, was met by Dewe y

and got the imp ressio n t hat the US wo uld grant hi s co un try independence upo n t he defea t of Spain . Th e Spanish defeat in Lu zon did not take too mu ch time. By J une, 189 8, the who le of t he island, w ith t he except ion of t he port of Cavite and Mani la which were in A merican hands had been swe pt by th e F il ipinos. Agu inaldo set up t he f ramework of an independent country and dec lared the independ ence of t he Ph ilippines on J une 12, 1898 in hi s residence in Kaw it, Cav ite. On that day, t he Dec la ra t ion of Phi lippi ne I nd epende nce was read by Ambrosio R ianzares Baut ista at th e ba lcony before a huge, hu shed cro wd. Th e nat io na l f lag was unfu rled for the first tim e whi le t he San F ra ncisco de Ma labon band, a lso for th e first t ime, p layed the natio na l anthem .

40 FALL OF MANILA, 1898 The FilipinQ's expecta tiQns th at the American Presid ent WQ uid recQgnize the cQuntry 's independe nce ran high. But pressures tQ keep the Phil ippines were strQng, fQr as SenatQr Henry CabQt LQdge nQted : " ... the Phil ipp ines must be .o urs . . . We hQld t he .other side .of the Pacific and the va lue tQ this cQuntry is almQst beyQnd imaginatiQn." 29 AguinaldQ had seized almQst the whQ le .of Lu zon but Manila remained in Spanish hands. Trapped wit hin the Walled city were 13,000 Spanish regulars whQ WQuid rather surrender tQ the Americans. Besides, Dewey had seen tQ it t hat th e FilipinQS were kept .out .of IntramurQs. By the clQsi ng .of July, the Fil ipinQs had becQ me resentfu l .of the Americans whQ did nQt seem in a hur ry tQ all Qw their takeQver .of Manila. CQQperatiQn between their fQrces had virtually ceased. There were disputes .over tr QQP deplQym ent PQsiti Qn bQundaries and the cQnduct .of th eir men_ Dewey fQr

his part was mQst disturbed by the develQpments prQmpting him tQ cable WashingtQn: "SituatiQn critical. Spanish may surrender any mQment. Gr eatest prQblem wi ll be hQW tQ dea l with Aguina ld Q. .. He has becQme aggressive and even threatening tQ our army .. . " 3 0

Meanwhile, GQvernQr General Fermin J audenea began negQtiatiQns with the A mericans and had suggested the staging .of a mQck battle tQ save face. A brief, desultQry fight was put up by the Spaniards and the Americans while the FilipinQs were held at bay. Manila was finall y taken .over by the Amer ican trQQPS .on August 13, 1898. Th e fQrma l act .of capitu latiQn was signed .on August 14 by the representatives .of the Spanish and American cQmmanders. The FilipinQs were nQt allQwed tQ take part in the discussion and nQt the slightest mentiQn .of them was made in the document.

MALOLOS CONGRESS, 1898

Flushed with his military victories, Aguinaldo decided it was time to establish a Filipino government. He met with his advisers who convinced him of the need to set up a dictatorial government in view of the critical times. In the morning of May 24,1898, he declared that he was assuming "command of all the tr09ps in the struggle for the attainment of our lofty aspirations, inaugurating a dictatorial government to be administered by decrees promulgated under my sole responsibility" until such time "when!lJeace shall have been reestablished and our legitimate aspiration for unrestricted li berty attained. It may be modified by the nation, in which rests the principle of authority." 3 1 The dictatorial government lasted for a mo nth , being changed into a revolutionary one on Jun e 23. Aguina ldo announced that it would remain so "until all natio ns, including the Spanish, shall expressly recognize it.,,路32

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...--.

In accordance with the decree t hat establ ished the revolutionary government, the Mal o los Congress was convoked. Aguinaldo took it upon himself to ap poi nt the delegates because the peace and order situatio n in some provinces d id not warrant a free election . Th e Congress was inaugurat ed on September 15, at the Sarasoain Church in Malolo s amid st co lorfu l ce remo nies. It proceeded to elect Pedro A. Paterno president, and for its f irst act, ratified the Ind ependence declared in Kawit o n J une 12. Another significant accomplishmen t is th e drafting of a co nstitution which provided for, among other th ings, t he separation of church and statd, safeguard again st abu se s, th e upho ld ing of individual rights of Filipinos and a liens, the sup remacy of the leg islative over the ex ecu t ive and judi cia l branches of governme nt an d the establi shmen t of a unicameral leg islature. It was promulgated o n J anuary 21,1899 paving the way fo r th e inauguration of t he Philip pine Republic on Jan uary 23 .

SAN JUAN BRIDGE INCIDENT, 1899

America's refusal to recognize Ph il ippine inde pende nce did not prevent Aguinaldo from working for the eventual establishment of a repub li can government. Differen t departments were created to effect the transition and d iplomatic agents were sent abroad to win recognitio n of PhiliPpines independence . All these efforts, however, did not change Amer ica's intention to take over the Phil.ippines. From October to December, 1898, Ameri can and Spanish representatives met in Paris to discuss final peace terms includ ing the cession of the Philippines to the United States. On Decembe r 19 , 1898 , inspite of Fi lipino efforts to influence the negotiations, the treaty of Paris, providing that Spain would cede t he Philip pines to the United States and in trun, recieve the amo unt of $20,000,000 in payment for the improvements made in the . colony, was signed. The American Senate ratified the treaty inspite of e lements who lobbied against it because of its unfairness to the Filipinos. Orders to extend Ame rican sove-

reignty over the entire country as conta ined in Preside nt Mc Kinley's "Benevolent Assimilation" proclamati on were received f rom Washington (')n Dec~ mber 21, .1 898. The Filipinos reacted uniformly to the proclamation, protesting " most so lemn ly against t he intrusion of the United States Government on th e sovereignty of these isla nds. " Whil e efforts were made to ease the tension,that was rapi d ly buil ding up, Aguinald o 's troop s and the ir Am erican coun terparts stood their ground. A se ries of in c ide nts led to the outbre ak of hostilities o n February 4, 189 9. An American sentry, Private Robert Grayson, fired at and ki lled a Filip ino soldier who tried to cross the lines that separated the two armies. The Filipino troo ps opened f ire in retaliation. Th e fo ll ow ing da y, Ge nera l Arthur MacArthur o rder his men to advance against th e Filipino troops.

FALL OF PANAY , 1899

Fi li pino Revo:utionists proceeded to establish a provisional revolutionary government in Panay on Nove mber 17,1898. T he towns were then organized according to the directive of Ag u inaldo who, b y then, had already signified his intention to un ite t he isla nds into a federation. A truce was arranged with General D iego de los Rios and the Filipinos were allowed to establish the government in Molo. On December 23, two da ys after Pres. McK inle y issued his proclamation, General Elwell Otis was directed to send

troops to Iloilo a nd "proceed with great caution, avo iding all manifestatio ns by immedi a te forc ible action in case the insurgents were found in possessi on o n the ci t )." An American ex ped ition under th e comm a nd of Br ig. Gen. Marcus Miller arrived in Il o ilo but lai d o ff the shore un t il negotiations with Filipin os we re m ade. A fo rm al dem and fo r surre nder was made on th e Fil ipin os, bu t was ignored . On February 11 , Iloilo was attacked and occu pied as th e F ilipinos abandoned it in fl a mes.

BATTlE OF QUINGUA, 1899

From the time hostilities sparked in early February, the Amer icans, with their superior arms and better traini ng pushed ahead in a ll directions . When reinforcements arrived from the United States, a more intense campaign was launched. General Lawton took the offensive in the south capturing Zapote, Bacoor, and Cavite while General Wheaton pounced on Morong and some towns in Laguna. Then, General Otis ordered a dr ive to the no rth to pursue Ag ui nal do pro m pting him to move his governmen t from Malo los to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. Th e Amer ican offensive to the north was temporar ily checked in the Battle of Quingua (Plaridel). A fo rce of Fi lipino riflemen led by Pabl o Tecson deployed by General Gregorio del Pilar met the advance of the 4th Cavalry led by Major J. F. Bell defeating them on April 23. The Nebraska a nd Iowa volunteers reinfo rced the beleaquered Bell. After inflicting heavy cas ualties, the Fil ipinos fi nally gave ground . Killed in this encou nter was Col. John Stotsenberg, commander of the Nebraskans.

4 5 AS SAS SINATION OF GEN. ANTONIO LUNA, 1899 As ch ief of Op e ration s an d Commander-in-chief of Cen tra l Luzon, Ge neral Antonio Luna tried t o co pe with t he lack of arms and poor mili tary discipline of his men to score victo ries against the Am ericans. His military ge r.i us was quick ly discern ed by Agu inald o w ho prom oted him in rapid succession making him his mo st powerful general in 4-rn o nths time. Luna, however, wh ile steeped in mi litary science and tact ics, was a man of tempes t uou s temper. In severa l occasions, he jeopardized his operations by giv ing ve nt to h is excess ive enthusiasm. Once, he orde red the burning of a house occup ied b y Amer icans; anoth er t ime, he directed his men to shoot at any civilian vio lating military rul es . Hearing of the insubord ination of General Tomas Mascardo, he and his men and artillery left Ka lump it, t he most important barricade aga in st the American pursuers, to pu nish him. T here were also

reports of Luna slappi ng a cabin et member and o penly ca ll ing ce rtain officers cowards. During the early days of hostiliti es, he o rde red t he disarming of the e ntire Kawit Battali on when one of its officers, Ped ro J anolino, refused to join in th e defense of Caloocan . Apparen t ly, t he Cavitei'ios were will in g to take ord ers only from Ag u inaldo . Th e death of th e general came on June 5, 1899. The day before, he rece ived a telegram pu rportedly sent by Agu inaldo summ oning h im to Caban atuan . With his aides, he arrived at t he ch urc h-con vent, Aguinald o's headqu arte rs, o n ly to find ou t t hat his commander had left. He turned in fury to some inept guard s who happened to be und er Capt. Janolino. The y ganged up on him, hi tting him with guns and daggers. Bleeding from numerou s wo unds, he ra n towards the pl aza but was cut down by gunfire.

DEATH OF GREGORIO DEL PIL AR, 1899

Th e assass ination of th e Revo lution ary Ar my's ab lest general caused demoraliza ti on among the Filipin o ranks. No t long after the tragic in cid ent many army officers loya l to him surre ndered to th e Ameri cans wo rse ning th e alread y disorga nized situatio n of th e res ista nce. Aguihaldo was again forced to move his capital. From San Isidro, Nueva Ecij a, it was transfer red to Tarlac, and then to Bayo mbong, Nueva Viscaya when the Americans offe nsive was in te nsified by Gene ral MacA rthur . He

decid ed to flee to the north after surrending the women among his ranks to the enemy. I n his flight to the north, Aguinaldo appointed General Gregorio del Pilar as his rear guard commander. The 24 yearold sold ier from Bulacan had ear l;er spearheaded the advance compan ies when the army was cu t in half in Manaoag and marched on thro ugh Pangasinan and Ilocos Sur. Reaching Concepcion, they wound through the mountains to a seemingl y impenetrable pass near the summit of a 4,500 ft. hill called Tirad . Del Pilar took note of the idea l terrain of the place and decided to wa it, along with 60 sharp -shooters, for the pursuing enemy to enab le Aguinaldo to make good his escape. On December 2, 1899, this smal l ba nd of so ldiers engaged in battle more than 300 officers and men under Major P. C. March. Del .Pilar could have held on indefinitely if not for the betraya l of.~ ;ec~et trail to the pa~s by a native renegade named Januario Galut. An American war correspondent, Richard Henry Little, filed the fo llowing report with the Chicago Tribune the day after. "We had seen him cheering his men in the fight. One of our compan ies crouched up close under the side of th e cliff where he built hi s first entrenchment. We heard his voice continual ly during the fight, urging his men to greater effort, scold ing them, praising them, cursing, appea ling one moment to their love of country and the next in stant threatening to ki ll himself if they did not stand firm . Driven from the first entrenchement, he fell back slowly to the second in full sight of our sharpshooters and under a heavy fire. Not until every man around him in the second entrenchment was down did he turn his white horse and ride slowly up the winding trait. Then we who were below saw an American sqairm his way out to the top of a high high flat rock and take deliberate aim at the figure on the whi te horse. We held our breath, not knowing whether to pray that the sharpshooter would shoot stra ight - or mi ss. Then came the spiteful crack of the krag rifle. The man on horseback rolled to the ground. When t he troops charging up the mountain side reached him , the boy genera l of the Filipinos was dead ... "33

BATES TREATY, AUGUST, 1899

To extend US sovereingty over the Philippines, the Americans, for the most part, made use of force. One exception though, was the take-over in Sulu in which the Americans, cognizant of Muslim recalcitrance, employed the finest brand of diplomacy to effect peaceful co-existence with the southern natives. While armed hostilities were raging in Luzon and the Visayas, the Americans attempted, with great success, to ne-

gotiate a treaty with the Sultan of Jo lo, Jama lul Ki ram. On the o rder of General Otis, Brig. Gen. lohn C. Bates went to Jo lo in Jul y 1899 to arrange what is now know n as the "Bates Tre aty". Signed o n August 20 , t he agreeme nt in effect defined the status of the sultanate as a protected sovereignty under the United States and provided, amon the others, that: "The United States flag will be used in the arc hipe路 lago of Jo lo ... "T he Moros shall not be interfered with on account of thei r religion .. "W hile the United States may occupy and control such po ints in the archipelago of Jo lo as public interests seem to demand , encroach will not be made upon the land s immediately abo ut the residence of His Highness, th e Sultan ... "Any person ca n purchase land in the archipelago of J 0 10 and hold the same by obta in ing the conse nt of the Sultan . . . coming to a satisfactory agreement with the owner of the land ... and such purchase shall immediately be registered in the project office of the United States gover nm ent "The introductio n of firearms and war material is fo rbidden . . . "Piracy must be su ppressed ... "Where cri mes and offenses are committed by Moros against Moros, the govern ment of the Sultan wi ll bring to trial and punishment the cri minals and offenders, who wi ll be delive red to th e government of the Sultan by t he Un ited States a utho rities if in their possesssion. In a ll other cases, perso ns charged with crimes or offenses w ill be delivered to the United States a utho rities for tri a l and punishment. .. "Any slave in the archipe lago of J o lo sha ll have the right to purchase freedom by paying to the master the usual market value . .. "The United States will not se ll the island of Jo lo or any other island of the J 0 10 archipelago to any foreign nation witho ut the consent of the Sultan of J o lo ... "34 The United States also agreed to pay t he Sultan an d some other Muslim leaders a mo nthl y salary in exchange for Some privileges they surrendered. The Bates T reaty was confi rmed by President McKinley on October 27, 1899 but abrogated by Co ngress in 1904.

CAPTURE OF AGUINALDO, M ARCH,1901

Ending his flight from his pursuers, Aguinaldo found a safe refuge in the small town of Palanan in Isabela, He set up his headquarters and directed the gueri ll a warfare which he had ear lier ordered his dwindling army to carryon . In the meantime, several leaders of the Republic, among them Pedro Paterno, Felipe Buencamino, Benito Legarda and Gregorio Araneta, had already been won over to the side of the Americans .

Aguinaldo's capture was effected in March, 1901 . Through documents found in the possess ion of a courier, the Americans were able to pinpoint hi s hiding place in Pa lana n Colonel Frederick Funston planned a strategem emp loyi ng Macabebe so ldi ers and two of Aguina ldo's fo rmer officers, Lazaro Segov ia and Hilario Tal Plac ido. On March 23, an ex peditio n led by Colone l Funston landed in Palanan and infiltrated Fil ipino lines by prete nding to be t he captives of t he rayadi lo-clad Macabebes. Aguinald o welcomed t hem and even orde red t hat they be served with food . Whe n the impostors haa ascertai ned that the guards had a already re laxed, T al Pl acido grabbed Aguinaldo from behind while Segovia started f iring upon his troops_ When everything had quieted down, Co lo nel Funston entered the room and took the general pri soner. Ag uina ld o swore all egiance to Amer ican sovere ignty on April 1. Two weeks late r, he explained himse lf saying ... "the effects of the war wh ich o n Iy recently have come to my knowledge have fully convinced me that comp lete termination of hostilities and the establi shm ent of lasting peace are not only ' desirable but abso lute ly essential to the welfare of the Philippines ... The time has come when we find ourse lves faced by an irresistib le force whi ch wh ile impeding o ur progress, neverthel ess enlightens our minds, pointing out to us another a path, the cause of peace which the major ity of o ur' co untry have glad ly embraced, confident that, under the protection of the American people, we would obtain all th e liberties promised to us an d which we are even now beginning t o enjo y. " 35 I

BALANGIGA MASSACRE, 1901

A few mon t hs afte r t he caputre of Ag u inald o, and o n th e reco mmen dation of the Second Ph il ipp ine Co mm iss io n, civi l autho r ity was instit uted in t he coun tr y with Wi ll iam Howard Taft as governor. Mi litary rule, however, re main ed in many parts of the archipe lago as gue rilla activities contin ued in spite of Ag uin aldo's appea l to the remaining forces to surrende r. To complete ly stamp o ut further resistance, the US Army Division in the Philippi nes d ivided the coun try in to fo ur areas, placing each of t hem under an army general. Ports were tig htly secured, garrisons were established. Such garrisons we re ordered put up in Samar, on e of them in Ba langiga, a small tow n-port a t the southern t ip of the island-prov in ces. When the men of Co mpan y C of the N inth Infantr y landed in Balangiga, it was the ne rve ce nter of guerilla ac ti vit ies being carri ed out by Gen. Vicente Luk ban and h is me n. It did no t appea l much to the American troops, th o ugh, as th ey had seen far more exciting action in Cuba in 1898, Manila in 1899 and North China in 1900 dur ing the Boxer Rebe lli o n. The company commander required the natives to take oath of allegiance to America. Shortly after, he o rgan ized a labo r force consisting of 80 able-bod ied men to clean and clear up the tow n. When they grumbled, they were take n prisoners and for weeks, given food hardl y e no ugh to tide them over for each da y . A lso, perhaps, they had been away from home too long, they cured t heir homesickness by engagi ng in dri nk ing bou ts until the y we re drunk enough to become trigger-happ y and chase native girls. But it was t he extreme measures t hey resorted to in fo rcing out information abo ut gu erilla activ ities w hich angered the townfolks and made the m

hatch a plan to wipe out the American detachment. On September 38,1901, the natives armed with sunda ngs and bolos, some of them dressed in fema le clothes, attacked the Ameri can so ldiers at their breakfast tab le. The raid was short and almost thorough. Some more fortunate soldiers managed to survive the assau lt by run ning to the coast and paddling to Leyte.

50 AMERI CA N RETALIATION, 1901-1902

The massacre at Balangiga o nl y made th e Americans mo re determ ined to sque lch the insurrectio n at a ll cost. And to crush it, Brig. Gen . Jaco b H. Sm ith, co mmander of th e Six th Separate Brigade fo rm ed specifi ca lly t o pacify Samar, ordered Majo r L.W.T . Wa lle r to t urn the prov ince into a " how ling wi ld erness." "The mo re yo u burn and kill the better yo u will p lease me", he add ed. He dema nded unconditi o na l surrende r of a ll in surgents and a ll owed t he resort to barbar ic means t o for ce hapl ess Filipinos to he lp in the capture of th e more st ubbo rn o nes. As ins urgents were fe rretted out, tow ns were scorched leav ing th ousands of nat ives homeless, cro ps and livestocks destroyed. Sm ith 's b lood-a nd-i ron po licy proved effective afte r several months. Later, o n Fe brua ry 27, 1902 , Gen. Lukba n was cap tu red forc ing his me n to surrender a nd p ut an end to Samar 's bl oody res istance movements. News abo ut Sm it h's effo rts in t he province resu lted in uproars in the Un ited States. Investigat io ns were cond uc ted, leading u lt im atel y to his co urt martia l an d subsequent d ismissal from the service.

ZARZUELA PRESENTATION, 1902

Zarzuela, as a popular form of theatre entertainment, sta rted to displace the "moro-moro" with the start of secular movement immediate ly before th e Philippine revo luti on, Nationa li stic playw rights saw in this medium a means to expose clerical ab uses, agitate for reform s and, later, in cite the peo ple into ri si ng in arms again st the Spaniards. Although of dubi o us literary merit and sometimes lack in g in o rigina li ty, the zarzuela survived due to the incorporation of songs into dia logues and, in part, to the people's hunger for entertainme nt. The art flo urished in t he ea rl y years of the American regime inspite of t he vigil ance of t he authorities. As before, it co nt inued to keep the fire of nationalism burning in t he hearts of t he spectato (s. Somehow, the playwrights managed to clothe t he ir sed iti ous messages w ith symbolism a nd o ther devices. The masq uerades did no t a lways pull through, how ever. Some wri ters, like Juan Abad an d Aurelio Tolentino, were indi cted for sed ition, then, impri soned and f in ed. At o ne in sta nce, a petformance turned into a r iot when certain Amer ica ns among the audi ence, apparently angered by t he zarzuela 's message, c limbed up the stage and smashed everyt hing in sight. Wh ere governme nt decrees fa il ed to kill the zarzuela, vod-a-vil (vaudevi ll e) did later on. Depicted in the diorama is Severino Reyes' "Wala ng Sugat" a p lay about two lovers set aga inst the Philippine revo lution and fi rst presented in Manila in 1902.

52 AGLIPAY SECEDES FROM THE CATHOLIC CHURCH, 1902 The Philippine re vo lution, which primaril y began as a conflict of races, assumed a re ligious angle when Father Gregorio AgJipay, as Military Vicar Genera l of the movement, urged the Filipino clergy t o o rgani ze and support the revo lutionary cause_ In an ecclesiastical assembly whi ch he convoked in October, 1899, he pressed for the Filipinizatio n of t he Catholic Church and the assumption of the authority to negotiate with Rome_ For these pronouncements, Aglipay got an excommunication from th e archbishop of Ma nil a, to whi ch the Filipino religious leader replied in kind_ T he col lap se of the Filipino government prevented the earl y development of a national church. With the waning of the Spanish regime, the Filipino priests saw an open opportunity to take over the parishes. Th ey sough t

an audience w ith the Pope to discuss the matter but as he seemed mo re inclined to let the friars keep th eir re ligio us missions, they sailed home even mo re conv inced that Rome was incapab le dealing justly with Filipinos. Attempts were made to win back Aglipay and prevent a threateni ng religious schism. It is sa id t hat a Jesuit tried to offe r him a sizeable sum and a position of bishop or archbish o p in exchange for retraction. The meeting only resu lted in to a heated arg ument and precipitated the comp letion of the break with Ro me. The movement for the organ ization of the Philippine Ind epe ndent Church was launc hed by Isabe lo de los Re yes in August 1902. On October 26,.1902, the Ch urch was forma lly inaugurated with Ag lipay as th~ new Obispo Maxi mo, cel ebrating a high mass in a pri vate house in Azcarraga Street.

CAPTURE OF GENERAL SAKAY, 1906

Throughout the first decade of the American rule, armed uprisings in many parts of the country continued insp ite of relentless efforts of the government to hold them in check. In Bicol, an insurrection made it necessary for the military to deploy a company of soldiers, declare an armistice and negotiate with its leaders. In Leyte, a "Papa Rios" established an Externa l Municipal Government and promised the end of forced labor, taxes and military abuses. Hit-and-run warfare was waged against the Amer icans in Cebu, Samar, Panay, Laguna, Cavite, Batangas and Tayabas. Some disgruntled natives in I locos banded themselves into an army and declared Philippine independence. The Americans refused to look upon the w id espread opposition as a national movement to overthrow US sovereignty. The rebe ls were branded as "Iadrones", "bandits" and "brigands" and their activities, as "disorders" and "disturbances". Yet, they read ily acknowledged that the resistance could only have held on because of the connivance of the inhabitants. Harsh measures were taken to suppress resistance in the country. Apart from the Sedition Law passed on November 4,190 wh ich made any advocacy of independence from the United States punishable by death or long imprisonment, the autho rities enacted the Brigandage Act wh ich meted out death or long imprisonment to whoever wo uld join an armed band and the Reconcentration Act, which authorized prov in cial governments to re locate towns infested with " Iadrones and outlaws." Still, some Filipinos, like General Macario Sakay, cont inued with their war of attr ition again st the Americans. In the mountains where he .hid after Aguinaldo was captured, General Sakay gathered the remnant of hi s revolutionary forces, established the Supreme Government of the Tagalog Archipelago declaring himself its President and Commander-in-

Chief and, with other resistance leaders, drew up a constitution . There, he enforced rigid discipline and demanded cooperation from the peopl e in the plains. After conducti ng su ccessful guerrilla warfare fo r four years and being told that his surren路 der would hasten the restoration of peace and order, a req ui site for the establishment of the Philippine Assembl y, Sakay pre路 sented himself to the American au thorities in July, 1906 . In a banq uet given to him by Govern or Van Schaich of Cavite on the occasion of his surrend er, he was arrested and charged with banditry. He was hanged in the Old Bili bi d Compound on September 13, 1907, protesting to the very end that he was never a brigand but a patriot fightin g for Philippine independence.

INAUGURATION OF QUEZON AS COMM ONWEALTH PRESIDENT, 1935

A new kin d of strugg le for inde pen d ence using a new wea po n which consisted " inthe judicio us use of t he power granted by law" was lau nched by the F ilip ino people un der the A meri can reg im e. Main '.a ining t hat the Fil ipinos were not ready fo r auto nom y, [he Ame ricans too k t he positio n t hat they sho uld und ergo tutelage o n how t hey co uld run t he ir own govern men ta l affa irs. As a step lead ing to t he eve ntual , though unspecified, take-over in govern ment, t hey we re a llowed t o assum e posi tio ns in th e m unic ipa l, provincia l, and later, nationa l leve ls subj ec t to t he least degree of supervisio n and co ntro l of th eir Amer ican me ntors .

The fi rst clear advance in this directi o n came in 1907, whe n in f ulfi ll me nt of t he req uire men t set by th e Henr y Cooper A ct of 1902 ("a conditi o n of genera l and complete peace, with recogniti o n of the autho rity of th e Uni ted States"), 36 th e Ph ilippi ne Asse mbl y was inaugurated. Perhap s as importa nt as th e good share of t he powers and fun ctio ns of governm ent and th e effec ti ve medium with which the peaceful camp aign fo r independe nce could be waged , th e Ph ilippin e Assembly occasio ned the emerge nce of two leade rs, Manu el Luis Quezo n and Sergio Osme iia .

Then in 1912, shortly after the Dem ocrats clinched the US presidency, Henry J ones was sent to the Philippines to look into its conditions. He returned to Washington after two months carrying a glowing report about how well the Filipinos had been conducting their government. The result was the Jones Law, America's first commitment "to withdraw (its) sovereignty over the Philippine Islands and to recognize their independence as soon as a stable government can be established therein ." 37 Several factors made the American leadership consider the early granting of independence to the Philippines. The independence missions to the United States were persistent but the stronger pressure was provided by the rea lities brought to pass by the First World War, the Great Depression, invasion of Manchuria and the agitations of representatives of American agricultural interests and labor groups. For the first time since 1898, the US legislators crossed party lines to pass the Tydings-McDuffie Act, which pr ov ided . for a ten-years transition period at the end of which the United States would grant and recognize Philippine independence. With its passage, a constitutional convention was called to draft a constitution. Approved by the US President and ratified by the Filipino people, it paved the way' for the holding of general elections of the officials of the Commonwealth Government resulting in the overwhelming victory of Quezon and Osmena.

On November 15, 1935, Quezon was sworn in as Pres ident of the Philippine Commonwealth. Th e re ins of governmen t, with the exception of its curre nc y and foreign re lati o ns, were now completely in the hands of Filipinos. It wo ul d have bee n smooth sa iling to complete ind epend ence were it not for the outbreak of the Second World War.

JAPANESE ENTER MANILA, 1942

The Japanese designs for a co-prosperity sphere in the East-Southeast Asian region brought the war to the Phil ippines in 1941. Pearl Harbor was treacherously attacked on December 7, paralyzing America's military strength in the Pacific. On December 8, Presid ent Franklin Rooseve lt, de livering an impassioned speech at a joint-sess ion of US Congress, got an almost unanimous vote to dec lare war on Japan . It was just hours ago when Japan bombed American military installations in the Phili ppines virtually leavin g it without defense against invasion. The grea t sufferings that would befall defense less Manila due to indiscr imin ate Japanese bombings prompted General Douglas MacArthur to declare it an open city . Sorties agai nst the city contin ued, however, as Japan refused to recogni ze it as such because of t he no n-fu lfillment of a nearly-i mpossible condition, that Filipino armies cooperate with the Japane se forces and cease all res istance. Following unopposed land ings in Luzo n, Japanese troops converged towa rds Manila . Truckloads of Japanese so ld iers en tere d t he city from north and so uth gates at 6:30 p.m., January 2, 1942. The day after the occupation, the en d of American sovere ignty over the Philippines and the re ign of martial law in all occupied areas were annou nced by the Japanese Military Commander .

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BATTLE OF BATAAN, 1942

As opp osed to the 1898-vi ntage idea that the Ph ilippines was an asset to the United States, there were opinions that the isl ands at th e gate of the Pacific were a liability, "an unprotected pawn" , an easy prey for the Japanese who had been pushing so uthward to the area _ Plans to make it a formidable fortress by augmenting the US forces failed when General MacArt hur decided in favor of a ',citadel-type defense for the

Philippines, that is, the mobili zation of the country's forces ("The strength and composition of the defen se forces projected here are be li eved to be sufficient to accomplish such a mission") _However, the strategists in Pentagon were not prevented from evolving defense plans to parry aggressive thrusts into the Philippines. One strategy, coded "War Plan Orange 3", ca lled for the apportioning of the country into six, each to be defended according to specific designs. Included in the plan was the withdrawal of all military personnel, arms and equipments to Bataan if a prolonged defense would become necessary. As it was just to enable the army to hold out pending the arrival of reinfocements from nearby Pearl Harbor, no provisions were made regarding the possible co urse of action should Bataan fall into enemy hands. The sudden attack in Pear l Harbor destroyed MacArthur's timetable making War Plan Orange 3 the only workable strategy for the defense of th e Philippines. Desp ite its loopho les, the plan proved to be a brilliant manuever. The topography of the peninsula made it an ideal defense rampart. Its location was a decisive factor in preventing the encircling of the USAFFE that would have fini shed off the Philippin es fast. Several times, the Japanese launched their cruel offensive only to be turned back with heavy losses by the defenders . But the plans for Bataan were not meant to remain as effective beyond a certain time. As months dragged on, rations became scarce resulting in malnutrition and disease. Ammunitions were also run ning short and because of the' ''Europe-First Policy" of

the United States and England, everybody knew that help was not forthcoming. The heavy artillery fir e and bombing an d the unabated epidem ics claimed more lives. General lonath an Wainwright wrote his superior to report that "the troops in Bataan are fast folding up" on April 8. In less than 24 hours, after an assurance that the troops would be "well-treated ", the defenders of Bataan surrendered "volu ntarily and un con ditionall y."

57 DEATH MARCH, 1942

By Apri l 10, 1942, the greater bul k of the surrenderees had been readied for the long march to Capas. Th e Japanese or iginallyconce ived of a two-phase plan for the Bataan captives . Major Kawane Toshimitsu planned to make them walk a nine teen路 mile stretch from Mari veles to Balanga. From Ba langa, 200 trucks wo uld transport th em to Sa n Fernando from where they could march aga in to Camp 0' Donnell The pl an, however, was drawn to app ly to about 25,000 or 30,000 so ldiers. After a headcount, the Japanese Command realized that there were more than 70,000 lives trapped in Bataa n. Under the heat of th e blaz ing tropical sun, the prisoners walked in columns, the Americans segregated from the Filipinos . Infrequently , they were ordered to ha lt alongs ide the trail. The agony of the marchers grew day by day as they became witness to wanton ki llings, beati ngs and humiliation s of their comrades. It was not an un common sight to see gruesome looking bodies lying on the road. But while inhuman treatment was the rul e, th ere were cases of Japa nese guards showing ki ndness and tho ughtfulness to the prisoners. Both the Amer ican and Filipino prisoners were he rded in Camp O'Done ll at the end of the Death March. Of the 60,000 so ldiers who stayed in the cam p, less than a half survived the into lerable conditions of prison li fe.

GUE RI LLA ACTI VITI ES DURING THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION, 1942-1944

3. With the fall of Bataan an d Corrigidor, th e res istance against the Japanese contin ued in the form of gueri lla warfare . Local governments were moved to barrios, if not the moun tains. F rom their barracks in Capas, severa l survivo rs of the Death March took to the hill s to join the ir comrades who had escaped Bataan. Even as the enemy stepped up its campaign to root out resistance, guerilla outfits mushroomed al l over the archipelago, carry ing in the ir rosters, names of men from all ' walks of life. Activ ities vari ed according to local e and logistics. Where arms and ammun iti ons were available , guerril la fighters engaged the ene my in skirmishes or sabotaged installations. Otherwise, they did their bit in th e intellige nce machine by disseminating counter-propaganda, li sting names of co llaborators and spying on enemy stre ngth and di spositi ons and sendi ng these informations to General MacArthur. The extent and nature of gue rilla warfare is reflec ted in a typ ical letter of instructions circulated amon the ran ks3s . 1. Groups will be organ 'ized to ex ceed 30 riflemen.

4. 5. 6.

Groups will keep on moving from place to place to battle the enemy and to avo id difficulty of supply. "Hit and run" tactics will be emp loyed . Not more than six rounds will be expended during amb uscades, raids, etc., except in successfu l encounters where an nihilation of the enemy is possible and in extreme emergency for him . Never fight in places selected by the enemy. Fight only on the ground'yo u have prepared foe him. No civi lian will be allowed to enter places occup ied by the enemy. Pigs, chickens, cows, rice, corn and other supplies will be moved to places i hat are u'nlikely to fall into enemy hand s. Supplies in danger of actually falling into enemy hands wi ll be destroyed. All roads leading into and out of places occupied by the enemy will be barricaded with barbed wire entang lements. Solid barricades wi ll be placed in depth behind th e barbed wire. The enemy must be placed under constant survei llance. Spies, scouts and patrols must be se nt out daily .. Ev.eryday, snipers must fire at least once or twice on the enemy during the day.

10.

11. 12.

13. 14.

Patro ls goi ng out wi ll be provided with grenades, sufficient am mun itions, bolos, and molotov cock路 tails. Issue identification cards to all USAFFE soldiers under yo ur control to prevent civ ilians from posing as so ld iers and obtain suppl ies in the name of the USA FFE. Stop all sorts of law lessness, looting and banditry . Fifth co lumnists and spies of the enemy wi ll be dealt with severely . Any Filipino who works directly or indirectly (for the enemy) becomes our enemy and will be dealt with according ly. Kill at least one Japanese daily . In the absence of in structions use yo ur best judge 路 ment and initiat ive .

LEYTE LANDING, 194 4

Th e ea rl y months of 1944 proved to be th e begin ni ng of th e fall of japan's co-prosperity sphere. Inching his way nor th fro m the New Guin ea area, MacArthur had taken Ce ntral and South wes t Pacific, putting his fo rces within strik ing distance fro m the Philippines. In june, t he famous Battle of the Phi lippin es Sea was foug ht and resu lted in the des truction of the j ap anese rei nforceme nts for th e Marianas. Th e defeat, co nsidered on e of japan's costliest, had virtuall y iso lated the ene my in the Phili p路 pines. MacArthu r earli er pl an ned the invasion to begi n in Min danao . In the island, he thought he could establ ish an air base for the air umbre lla of the forces that would strike Leyte. He

decide d to push on straight to Ley te on October 11 when so me sorties in Septembe r revea led the vuln erability of th e enemy posit ion in the Visayas. With the ap proaches swe pt up of all mines, the Ce ntra l Phili ppine Attack Force consisting of 650 shi ps and fo ur army divisions entered Ley te Gul f. Its landin g was prepared by the des tru ction of j apa nese insta ll at io ns and suppl y dumps on th e shore through the night of October 19-20. The japanese poured out their bes t to prevent th e invasio n, a ll to no ava il. At abou t 10:00 in the morn ing, General MacArthur , accompanied by Pres id ent Sergio Os mefi a and Resident Co mm iss ioner Carlos Romul o, waded ashore in fulfillm ent of a so lemn promi se to return .

60 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, 1946

The end of the war on July 5, 1945 saw the reinstatement of the Commonwealth Government which, in the face of the formidable problems that demanded imm ediate so luti on, seemed hardly able to cope up. Incalcul ab le was the damage wrought by war. Production stood almost at zero due to lack of capita l; fac ili ties were in the sad state of disrepair and the governmenta l machinery was unable to move freely because of outside press ures. To enab le him to deal adequately with the prob lems, President Osmefia cal led Congress to session on June 9. Various measures were taken up in cluding foreign re lations and trade agreements that would prove pivotal to the country's economy in the succeeding years. The presi dential election that followed on April 23, 1946 gave Manuel A. Roxas the distinction of being the last to serve the Commonwealth and the first to assume the leadershi p of the Republic. The day for which the Fili.pinos were so eager came. On July 4,1946 amidst impressive ceremonies witnessed by a quarter of a million people, the in dependence of the Philippine Republic was proclaimed. The American colors were pulled down as the Filipino Flag was hoisted to signal the birth of a new nation.

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NOTES 1. Chau JU-kua "Chu-fan-chi", trans . and ed . by Friedrich Hirth and W. W. Rockhill, in Readings in PhiNppine History, H. dela

18. From t he Firs t Iss ue of Del Super ior Govierno, no date. 19 . Dip lo ma re pro duced ve rbat im by Fr . Clotet, La lIustracion Filipino, IV, 7 de Ma yo de 1894. 20. Jea n Ma lla t , L es Philippine Histoire, Geographic, Moers,

Costa (Manila: Bookmark , 1965), pp. 9-10. 2 . From a manuscript in the possessi o n of Datu Mastu ra of Maguindanao , in Studies in Mora H istory, Law, and Religion,

Najub M. Saleeb y (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 19 05), Pp. 23-24. 3. Antonio Pigafetta, "Primo Viaggio Intorno AI Mo nd o", in The Philippin e Islands, E. H. Blair and J. A. Robinso n (C levela nd : Clark , 1903-1909 ) XXXIII, pp. 12 3路1 24. 4. Ibid , p. 1 75. 5 Instructions to Legaspi from Mexico, Sept. , 1564 in "Doc urrentos de Ultra mar" , in Readings in Philippine History, H. de la Costa, (Manila: Bookmark , 1968), p. 18 6. "Relation of the Voyage to t he Ph ili p pine Isla nd s" by Mi guel Lopez de Legaspi , 1565 , in Blai r a nd Ro be rto n 11 , p. 213 . "Relation of the Discover y of the Island of Lu zo n, O ne of t he 7. Western Island" (unsigned) , in Blair and Robe rtso n III , pp.

94-95 . 8. Ibid , pp. 102-10 3 9 . Juan Francisco de San Antoni o , Chronicas de 10 Apostolica Provincia de S. Gregorio de Relig iosos Descalzos de N.S.P.S. Francisco. (Sampaloc: Imprenta de la Provi ncia e n el Co nven to

de Ntra. Sra. de loreto, 17 38), pp. 597-599 , 379 . Fro m a letter o~ Fr. Berna rdo de Sta . Cata lin a to t he Kin g of Spai n , 1603 , in Blair and Robert so n X II p . 147 . From ' ,Foundation of the College of Sto. Tomas of Ma nil a" b y 11. Bernardo de Sta. Catalina, O . P. and ot h~rs, April 28 , 1 61 1 , i n

Agricul t ure, I ndustrie et Commerce de Colonies Espognoles

21. 22 . 23.

24.

25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

10.

32. 33 .

Blair and Robertson XVII , pp. 159路1 61. From a letter of Bishop Domingo de Sal azar to th e king of Spain, Jun e 24, 1590, in From Ten Centuries of 12. Eufronio M. Alip PhiJippine-Chinese Relations (Ma n ila: Alip

and Sons, 1959 ). p. 98. 13. Ibid ' 14.

''The Government and De a th of Bustam an te" b y Diego d e

Otazo, S.J., 1719-1720, in Blair and Robe rt so n XLIV, pp" 156-158. 15. Benito legarda, " Two and A Half of t he Ga ll eo n T rade", Philippin e Studies, Vo l. III, No.4, p. 372. 16.

17.

34.

William Draper, " Colon e l Draper's Answer to th e Spa ni sh Arguments Claiming the Ga lleo n a nd Re f usin g Pa y ment of the Ransom Bills for Pre serving Manila from Pillage a nd Destruction", Readings in Philippine H is tory, p. 99 . From a letter of Fran cisco Xavier Salgad o to Anto ni o Por tie r , December 4 , 1769 , in Bla ir a nd Ro be rtso n XX II , p p.

448-449.

35 . 36.

Dons Oceonie (Pari s, 1846) Vol. II , p. 253 . Edilb erto de Jes us, " Tr a nvia" (unpublished a rticle, Asian In sti tut e of Man age me n t, 1976 ), unpaged . Teod oro M. Ka law, Philippine Masonry (Manila: McCullough Prin t ing Co., 1955), p.17. "Confi r matio n of Death Se nt ence by Governor-General Camilo de Po lavieja ", Dece m ber 28, 1 896, in Th e Tr ial of R izol, H. dela Costa (Manil a: Ate neo de Man il a Univer sity Press, 1961) p. 139. " Comm utat io n of Se nte nce" iss ued by Ge neral Emilio Ag ui na ld o, May 8, 1897, in The Trial of Andres Bonifacio, tr . by Virg in ia Palma Bo n ifacio (Manila: Ateneo de Manila , 1963), p. 62. From t he " Historical In t ro du ction " by Ca rlo s Quirin o, in The T rial of Andres Bonifacio, p. 21. Ir ving We rst ei n, 7898: The Spanish-A merican War (New York : Cooper Square Publishers, 1966), p. 54. Ibid Ibid, p.48. Ibid, p.5 7 Ibid, p.48. Teodoro Ago nc illo , The Cr isis of the Republic (Q ue zon City: Universi t y of the Ph il ip pines, 1960 ), p. 219' Ibid, p.235 . F rom a re port of Major-General E.S. Otis, U.S. V., Commanding De part me nt of th e Pacifi c and Eight Army Corps a nd Mili tary Gove rn or in th e Philipp ine, August 3',1899, in The Philippines Insurrection Against the United States, John R. M. Taylor (Pasay City : Eugen io lopez Foundation, 1971 ). p.384. " Tr eaty wit h t he Sul tan of Sulu ", report of General Bates in th e English Version of the Agree ment, in Harper's History of the Wa r in the Philippines, A ppend ix A. F ro m a procl a ma tion iss ued by General Emilio Aguinaldo, in Ago n c ill o , The Crisis of the Republic, p.618. T eodo ro Ago nci ll o a nd Mil agr os Guerrero, History of the Filip ino People, (Q uezon Cit y: R. P. Garcia Publishing Co., 1973) p.33 1.

37.

Ibid , P. 345.

38.

Uldarico S. Baclago n , Philipp ine Campaigns, 1952.

A Y A LA

IlIA

MUSEUM

Th e Ayala Museum isa project of the Filipinos Foundation, I nc., a non·profit organization founded on December 14, 1967 . The Foundation was among the first to be established in the Philippines under the N otional Science Act of 7958, which had been aimed at intensifying scientific research and development in the country. The Museum was established in April of 7967. It moved to its present site in June of 19 74. Barely two years later, as a result of its rapid growth, a few more halls were constructed. The Museum building, with its austere design and striking interplay of lines and blocks, has become a landmark in Metropolitan Manila's classiest commercial area. The Museum's initial collections included art ifacts bought from the late H. Otley Beyer, who pioneered in Philippine archeological studies; some 2,000 rare and contemporary books and periodicals dona t ed by the Ayala Corporation,' a priceless painting by the 79th century Filipino master, Juan Luna,' and Chinese ivory figurines. Its ear liest efforts, however, centered on the painstaking construction of dioramas, of which there are now 63, depicting high points in Philippine history : f r om a hunting scene in northen Philippines circa 150,000-30,000 B.C., the conversion to Islam of southern Philippin es in the 74th century, through the long per iod of Spanish rule, and climaxing in 7946 with the proclamation of the Philippine Republic. The woo den figurines used in the dioramas were carved by craftsmen from Paete, Laguna, a Tagalog town in which transfer of the skill has a long, unbroken, and illustrious history. To complement the dioramas, bigger figurine s were carved and clothed in period garments to present in a vivid manner the evolution of th e Filipino's clothes from preh istor ic times. For this project, Museum researchers drew from th e works of Damian Domingo, Karuth, th e military alb ums of Spanish governor, and the Dasmarinas Code x, all of which form a part of the Museum:s L ibrary and I conographic Archives. Since then, the Museum has completed two major mo delconstruction projects: of I ntramuros in 1860 and of 21 watercraft, including a tnree·meter long galleon. Paintings of the first Filipino N ational Artist, Fernando A morsolo, have been purchased and put on permanent display. The memorabilia of one of the most outstanding statesmen in the country, Carlos P. Romulo, have been assembled in one room. The Museum 's numismatic collection has also grown, and now includes a pr iceless piloncito and a 13th century gold barter ring, made accessible to researchers on request. I n March of 1976, the Museum opened to th e public its Aviary, a huge cage which covers half a hectare. Over 200 Philippine birds,

including the bleeding heart pigeon to be found only in the Philipp ines, are cored for by a sp ecial staff in on environment so designed as to approximate the or iginal habitats of the birds. The Museum's archeological and ethnographic collections are modest in size but comprehensive. These include porcelain, stone war es and earth enware from the Calatagan excavation, one of the first porcelain sites in the country; some prehistoric implements; and fossilized rema ins of Pleistocene flora and fauna. The Calaragan findings confirm the intensity of the Filipino's pottery trade with Chino, A nnam and Siam, and reconstruct (0 a significant extent the culture of the ancient Tagalog, particularly 05 it was influenced by foreign cultures. The ethnographic materials on display include repre se ntative tools, weapons, clothing and ornaments of small ethnic groups: !fugao, Tagbanwa, Maranao, T 'boli and Tausog, som e of wh ich items carry the sa(f'·manok and naga design motifs. Th e Museum has traditionally puc a large premium on the acquisition only of items of great cultural value. The Library's collection has do ubled since the Muse um start eq, A mong its most valuable items are. a true copy of the first book printed in the Philippines, the Doctrin a Christiana in Spanish o ld Tagalog and Chinese versions; the 1609 Madrid edition of Conquista de las Islas Molucas of Bartolome de A rgenfol; the 73 volumes of l uan de la Concepcion's 1788 work, Historia General de Philipinas: conqui~ta espirituales y temporales de es to s Espanoles dom inios; and an origmal copy of the 55·volume set of Blair and Robertson's Th e Philippine Islands. The Museum has the country's most extensive iconographic archives, with over 30,000 entries on a variety of subjects from the 77t h century to the present: paintings, churches, birds, the war tech.no/Ogy of different ethnic groups, Philippine Floro and fauno, f est/va Is and contemporary events covered by the Museum's photographers and researchers. Its most recent acquisitions include over 200 World War /I pictures. Ea ch entry is amply annotated and properly catalogued. Th e Museum has its own re search and publications department engaged in various projects, principally historical and ethnograph ic researchesj a lectur e·series on differen t aspects of Philippine Culcure. , The Museum in 1976 initia l ed film research projects. Th e first focusses on a nationalisr-religiOlls sect in the Tagalog region. It also comple~ed arra~gements for the purchase of eight film documentar~es on dIfferent ethnic groups ond folk rituals in the coun try. It I~ currently cooperating with a film inst itute 011 further doc~mentallon of traditional practices in the country today, an.d enVisions for the future a Film Archives comparable to its I conographic A rchives.

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