With this statement, we acknowledge that the University of Puget Sound was founded on the unceded lands of the Puyallup Tribe and lands of the Coast Salish Nations, who have stewarded and continue to steward these lands since time immemorial. We further acknowledge that UPS must proactively act to remedy the illegitimately acquired land that is crucial to the operation of our university.
“ ʔuk’ʷədiid čəł ʔuhigʷəd txʷəl tiiɫ ʔa čəɫ ʔal tə swatxʷixʷtxʷəd ʔə tiiɫ puyaləpabš. ʔa ti dxʷʔa ti swatxʷixʷtxʷəd ʔə tiiɫ puyaləpabš ʔəsɫaɫaɫlil tul’al tudiʔ tuhaʔkʷ. didiʔɫ ʔa həlgʷəʔ ʔal ti sləx̌il. dxʷəsɫaɫlils həlgʷəʔ gʷəl ƛ’uyayus həlgʷəʔ gʷəl ƛ’uƛ’ax̌ʷad həlgʷəʔ tiiɫ bədədəʔs gʷəl tix̌dxʷ həlgʷəʔ tiił ʔiišəds həlgʷəʔ gʷəl ƛ’uʔalalus həlgʷəʔ gʷəl ƛ’utxʷəlšucidəb. x̌ʷəla···b ʔə tiiɫ tuyəl’yəlabs. ” - Puyallup Tribe of Indians, text written in the Twulshootseed language
We commend campus initiatives like the Seeding Lushootseed Project, creating permanent signage in the Puyallup Language on campus for their efforts to educate our campus community and amplify the voices of the Puyallup Tribal Language Program, and join in their calls for a permanent Indigenous Studies program here on campus.
As students of science at the University of Puget Sound, it is our responsibility to educate ourselves on the role of western science in the discrediting of indigenous traditional knowledge. A true solution to climate change must implement both lenses. Local indigenous efforts to combat and adapt to climate change must especially be heard, and we must commit to amplifying and supporting them. The Puyallup Tribe of Indians has created a Climate Change Impact Assessment and Adaptation Options, highlighting sector-specific impacts to people, infrastructure, traditions, and resources, alongside mitigation strategies, crafted with an intersection of indigenous ecological knowledge specific to the region and western science findings.
In order to properly acknowledge the land we occupy and the people who actively steward it, it is also the responsibility of our university and magazine to have genuine discussion about the troubling history of western educational systems, and our university specifically, with the erasure of indigenous cultures and peoples. The Cushman Residential School was one of seventeen residential schools in Washington state, removing indigenous youth from their homes and cultures to assimilate them into Western society, stripping them from their native languages, communities, and ways of life. We urge the University to reconcile with its student groups’ relationships with the Cushman Residential School, address this history publicly, and take appropriate further measures to begin to remedy the harm of actions on indigenous communities.
On the next page, we include further information regarding specific present initiatives and historical information to our region and University’s history. We hope you will take a moment to educate yourself further on both of these.
PUYALLUP TRIBE CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ASSESSMENT AND ADAPTATION OPTIONS
PUYALLUP TRIBAL LANGUAGE PROJECT ON THE BOARDING SCHOOL & CUSHMAN PROJECT
LEARN MORE ABOUT THE UNIVERSITY OF PUGET SOUND’S HISTORY OF EUGENICS
LEARN MORE ABOUT GEOTHERMAL ON OUR CAMPUS
HAVE AN IDEA TO IMPROVE SUSTAINABILITY ON CAMPUS? GREEN FUND CAN PROVIDE UP TO $10,000 FOR ELIGIBLE PROJECTS.
The writing of this acknowledgement was very much a collaborative process that, crucially, not only broadened its scope, but also clarified its intent. What began as statements of fact about climate change became, in the next draft, assertions of values, followed by promises of action. It should be taken as just the start of a conversation, because there is much more to do along these lines. I would encourage you to think of it as a little like a communal prayer: it’s something the best versions of us dare to believe in. In fact, I think an acknowledgement that contains an apology, as this one does, has the potential to build community in unique ways. Of course, it’s right and fair to apologize when we have done something wrong (how else can trust be built?). But an acknowledgement that recognizes misdeeds can also lift up unheard voices it’s the enemy of erasure. And it can invite others to share their values and aspirations too.
- Steven Neshyba
“We deeply regret the extreme hardships that coming generations of people and non-humans will endure as a result of the present-day damage being inflicted on the global climate system. We recognize that this damage is a known consequence of the pervasive exercise of wealth-enabled carbon privilege, perpetuated by the economic and ideological dominance of Western colonialist nations. We recognize that BIPOC/marginalized communities are most vulnerable to the harms of climate change, and do not share the same burden of responsibility. We commit to exercising our individual agency and our collective power now, to build the best possible future and avert the worst consequences of climate damage.”
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Steven Neshbya, Climate Alliance of the South Sound, and Elements Team
The University of Puget Sound is currently in a Climate Action Planning process being led by Lexi Brewer, our director of sustainability. The plan will identify the barriers we need to overcome and investments that need to be made to decarbonize our campus. Around 80% of campus is heated using fossil fuels, making up the majority of campus’ greenhouse gas emissions. Geothermal heating and cooling is being explored as a step to reaching net-zero emissions, replacing outdated natural gas systems in our residence halls.
Elements Staff
BENNETT FITZGERALD DOMINIQUE LANGEVIN
MIKA LOPEZ
KATERINA WEARN
Letter from the Editor
Descartes says I am myself when I am thinking. On a bright afternoon in February, I watched a seagull float through falling snow. There is certainly something it is like to be that bird (according to Nagel, at least). But does the bird know this?
Does it understand the irony of a sea bird in a snowstorm?
Does it recognize the blurred lines of its own wings against the white flurry which surrounds them? Does it comprehend what it is like to be itself? Our metacognition metastasizes our minds, breaking them apart and spreading them evenly between subject and object, one and the same.
To think about our own thinking is to become the observer and the observed.
SPRING 2025 CLASS
Cognition is expanded even further by creation. Every piece of writing and artwork we make is a reflection of ourselves, an object further extending the subject. We have gotten to experience the joy that is collaboration and communication, minds working together to create something no one of us could have done on our own. To produce a magazine is to put pieces of our psyches onto paper, and eventually, into your hands. Language and art, computers and ink, all conduits for our minds to come into contact with yours. Every subsequent semester I spend on Elements allows me to share more of myself with others, and every semester I am lucky enough to get to experience what our writers and artists share with me. Through this work, we learn, we grow, and we know ourselves, and it is an honor to get to share our minds with you through this 34th issue of Elements.
Dominique Langevin Editor in Chief
Contact us: elements@pugetsound.edu @ups.elements on
The production of Elements Magazine is possible due to the funding of the Associated Students of the University of Puget Sound and the Green Fund. Printed and bound in Lakewood, WA at Print NW on FSC Certified 100% post-consumer recycled paper.
Puget Sound is committed to being accessible to all people. If you have questions about event accessibility, please contact 253.879.3931 or accessibility@pugetsound.edu, or visit pugetsound.edu/accessibility.
Biomimicry
From Burs to Buildings, How Nature Guides Design
BY ALYSSA CHUNG
On a crisp autumn day in the Jura Mountains, Swiss engineer George de Mestral discovered something extraordinary in the most mundane of moments. While walking his dog, he noticed how persistently cockleburs clung to his clothing and his companion’s fur. Where others might have brushed off the annoyance, de Mestral saw an opportunity. Examining the burs under a microscope, he discovered a remarkable hook-and-loop mechanism that he would later mimic with his invention of Velcro. De Mestral’s recreation of this natural phenomenon is a testament to how careful observation can transform everyday occurrences, or even irritations, into groundbreaking innovations (1).
This is the essence of biomimicry: the art and science of solving human challenges by looking to nature’s time-tested solutions. Consider the Shinkansen bullet train, a modern example of biomimicry in action. In 1989, Japanese engineers were confronted with a significant problem. Their high-speed train created massive sonic booms when emerging from tunnels, disrupting entire neighborhoods. Their solution to this problem came from an unlikely source: a general manager who was also an avid birdwatcher. By studying the kingfisher’s streamlined beak, which allows the bird to dive into water with minimal splash, engineers redesigned the train’s nose. They also drew inspiration from owl feathers for the pantograph and penguin body shapes for aerodynamics. The result was a train that was
faster, more efficient, and remarkably quieter (3, 4).
Biomimicry isn’t about simple imitation but about understanding fundamental principles. It operates on three key levels: form mimicry, which copies nature’s specific shapes; process mimicry, which replicates natural mechanisms; and ecosystem mimicry, which seeks to understand and replicate complex, interconnected systems (5).
Form mimicry, the most straightforward approach, can be seen in innovations like Speedo’s Fastskin swimsuits, which replicate the microscopic tooth-like scales (dermal denticles) of shark skin to reduce drag in water. This same principle of borrowing nature’s shapes appears in the kingfisher-inspired bullet train and in Velcro’s hook-and-loop fasteners (7).
Process mimicry takes this learning deeper by replicating nature’s methods rather than just its forms. The lotus leaf’s remarkable self-cleaning ability has inspired water-repellent surfaces that push dirt away with water droplets (7). Similarly, the Namibian desert beetle’s fog-harvesting technique—collecting water from morning mist through specialized surfaces on its back— has informed water collection systems now deployed in arid regions worldwide (7).
Perhaps most profound is ecosystem mimicry, where we learn from nature’s interconnected systems. The Eastgate Centre in Zimbabwe demonstrates this by adopting termite mound ventilation principles, achieving 90% energy savings compared to conventional buildings. Forest-inspired agricultural systems like permaculture mimic woodland ecosystems’ layered structure and diverse relationships to create resilient food production. In industrial contexts, the Kalundborg Symbiosis in Denmark exemplifies a circular economy where multiple companies exchange waste streams as resources, much like a forest where nothing is truly wasted, only transformed (7).
However, long before Janine Benyus coined the term in her 1997 book, Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature (8), indigenous communities worldwide had been observing, honoring, and adapting nature’s principles into their ways of living, crafting, and building (2). These knowledge systems, developed through millennia of careful observation and passed down through generations, represent some of humanity’s most
GEORGE DE MESTRAL AND HIS DOG MILKA (1)
sophisticated and sustainable technologies. Indigenous peoples across the Americas, Africa, Australia, and Asia have long practiced what we now call biomimicry, developing technologies and practices that remain sustainable and effective today. The Warao people of Venezuela build their houses in a way that mimics the water-repellent structure of the lily pad, and the Inuit people design their fishing hooks based on careful observation of predatory fish. These are not just historical curiosities but living examples of knowledge systems that center themselves within nature rather than extract from it (6).
JOHNATHAN WILKER, A CHEMIST AT PURDUE UNIVERSITY, SHOWS THE ADHESIVE SECRETIONS OF MUSSELS (6)
The potential of biomimicry extends far beyond technological innovation. By studying how ecosystems manage energy, handle waste, and create conditions conducive to life, we can reimagine everything from urban infrastructure to industrial processes (2). Nature has spent 3.8 billion years solving complex problems of survival, efficiency, and sustainability. Every leaf, every animal, and every ecosystem represents millions of years of research and development. For instance, spider silk—five times stronger than steel by weight yet completely biodegradable—has inspired materials scientists to develop high-performance fibers for everything from medical sutures to bulletproof vests, all without the toxic chemicals and high-temperature processing of conventional manufacturing (9). These marvels offer not just practical solutions but windows into different ways of creating and existing on Earth (5).
This doesn’t mean blindly copying natural systems, it means understanding their underlying principles. How do forests manage water? How do coral reefs create resilient communities? How do organisms adapt without destroying their environment? These
are the questions biomimicry encourages us to ask, questions that can transform our understanding of science itself (2). The research lab at the University of Cambridge, for example, has studied how European blue mussel secretions create powerful underwater adhesives, leading to the development of surgical glues that work in wet, dynamic environments like the human body—a challenge conventional adhesives have struggled to meet (10).
In nature’s laboratory, we find not just answers to technical problems but profound insights into systems thinking, circular economics, and evolutionary design that challenge our fundamental scientific paradigms. The field of biomedical research is particularly rich with examples: the human immune system’s ability to recognize and respond to invaders has informed computer security systems, and the selective permeability of cell membranes has inspired new approaches to water filtration and purification (11).
As we face unprecedented environmental and societal challenges, biomimicry offers more than just technological solutions. It provides a philosophical framework for reimagining our relationship with the natural world (5). We’re not separate from nature. We’re part of it.
By decentering human perspectives and recognizing ourselves as one species within a vast web of life, biomimicry invites us to shed the anthropocentric thinking that has contributed to our current ecological crisis.
It offers a path toward innovations that are not just clever but truly sustainable and designs that enhance rather than deplete our living systems (6).
The next time you see a bur stuck to your sock or watch a bird slice effortlessly through the air, pause for a moment. You’re witnessing millions of years of evolutionary problem-solving. You’re looking at a master class in design, waiting to be understood. In that moment of wonder lies the seed of a transformed relationship with our world, one where nature is not merely a physical resource but our most profound and generous teacher.
Everyone's Gay Grandpa Tortoise
BY MIA STEINER
St. Helena island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean, is largely known for being Napoleon Bonaparte’s place of exile and death. Shortly after Napoleon’s death, a tortoise named Jonathan—the new legend of St. Helena—joined the world, unaware of the extensive period of life he was about to experience.
Jonathan grew up in the Seychelles Islands of Africa, moving to St. Helena in 1882 as a fully grown tortoise, making him at least 50 years old at the time (1). While Jonathan’s true age is unknown, he’s assumed to be roughly 192 years old, making him the oldest land animal living today (2); the only animals living longer than Jonathan are sharks. Jonathan lives at the residence belonging to St. Helena’s governor. Nigel Phillips, the current governor, assigned his resident an unofficial hatch date of December 4th, 1882—although Jonathan often celebrates his birthday on New Year’s Day (2).
Jonathan has lived through the invention of the lightbulb and telephone, and he’s been present to see 31 governors of St. Helena, and 40 presidents of the United States (1).
Jonathan is a popular tourist attraction, bringing around 1,500 visitors every year. He has a tortoise corridor where he can be viewed by tourists without experiencing increased anxiety (2).
In 2009, Jonathan was introduced to Joe Hollins, a veterinarian, caretaker, and friend to the tortoise (2). When the two first met, Jonathan wasn’t in good health; Hollins would feed the tortoise various fruits and vegetables (Jonathan especially loves pears) and provide companionship (2). Jonathan became healthier and livelier over the years, and Hollins notes that presently, Jonathan shows “no signs of slowing down,” (1). When describing Jonathan, Hollins has said, “He recognizes my voice when I approach and call to him softly. He literally jerks to attention and starts biting the air,” (2). His playful personality has also been described as mischievous, as Jonathan has been prone to interrupt croquet games and displace benches (2). Hollins has devoted many years of his life to taking care of Jonathan. His love for the reptile is endless. Hollins has said about his friend, “I love this extraordinary animal to bits. It is the greatest of privileges to look after him.” (2).
While Jonathan is the most famous due to his age and Guinness World Record award (1), he’s not the only tortoise who resides at the governor’s mansion. Along with Jonathan, Hollins helps care for three other tortoises named Emma, David, and Frederik. Fred arrived over twenty years ago, initially thought to be a female tortoise named Frederica (1). Jonathan was immediately smitten, and he and Fred began a loving reptilian relationship. The humans caring for the two were always confused on how the pair never produced any offspring, until 2017, when they learned that Frederica was actually Frederik—a male tortoise (1). Hollins notes, “I can tell you it’s only us humans who get hung up on gender distinctions. Animals are less picky,” (2). The oldest land animal on earth is in an open gay relationship, providing an example of natural LGBTQ behavior in the animal kingdom. It is clear that homophobia is something purely created by humans—a fear that’s nonexistent in animal minds.
Let the Flowers Do the Talking
BY MALIA BRUAN
Have you ever received or sent out a bouquet of flowers to someone and wondered, “What do these flowers mean?" Well look no further! Flowers have been loved and cherished for centuries, not only for their beauty, but for their specific meanings. The language of flowers, called floriography, assigns specific meanings to each bloom and allows people to communicate without saying anything at all!
Floriography has been prominent since ancient times and was used by individuals who wanted to express their secret feelings inexplicitly to one another, but was popularized during the Victorian era by poet and aristocrat, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. She stated:
“There is no color, no flower, no weed, no fruit, herb, pebble, or feather, that has not a verse belonging to it; and you may quarrel, reproach, or send letters of passion, friendship, or civility, or even of news, without ever inking your fingers” (1).
The language of flowers has also played an extensive role in literature, art, and historical traditions for as long as it has been in use. Shakespeare frequently referenced flowers in his works, and artists have often used floral motifs to communicate hidden messages in paintings. Today, flowers remain a meaningful way to express emotions, whether in celebration, mourning, or romance. So next time you decide to hand out flowers to that special someone, maybe spare an extra thought on the subtle meaning that comes with each bloom!
Sharks & Rats & Fish, Oh My!
Biological integration of the extended mind theory
BY MICAH BEARDSLEY AND DOMINIQUE LANGEVIN
Andy Clark and David Chalmers are modern-day philosophers and the creators of the extended mind theory. Their central argument, spelled out in the most cited philosophy paper of the 1990s, says that parts of the mind, such as beliefs, can be constituted by features of the environment. They claim that “epistemic action… demands epistemic credit” (1). An epistemic action is an action that changes the environment to supplement a cognitive process, like writing out a math problem or lining up ingredients in the order they need to be used. The extended mind theory says that if the environment altered by an epistemic action functions the same as a process that could be done in the head, then the part of the environment involved should be credited as part of the cognitive process.
Does this mean the whole world is part of our mind?
As preposterous as that may sound, the extended mind theory only stands true if there is no relevant difference between the environmental extension and the mental process. Clark and Chalmers illustrate this through Otto, who has Alzheimer's and uses a notebook as his functional memory, and Inga, whose memories are all stored in her head. In both Otto's notebook and Inga’s brain, their beliefs are “available to consciousness and available to guide action,” (1). What makes something a belief is the role it plays in cognition, not its location
in the world. As long as the extension of the mind is constant, accessible, and endorsed by the individual, then there is no relevant difference between this extension and the memory in our brain. Just as Otto might lose his notebook, Inga might get drunk and blackout. Even if Inga were to suffer a concussion which left her able to reliably access her beliefs with less efficiency, her beliefs would still count as beliefs. Finally, they argue that the perceptual difference between Inga and Otto’s access to their beliefs should be discounted. Otto’s notebook, body, and brain are all one system, in the same way that Inga’s brain is its own system, so neither are reaching outside of cognitive structures to access their beliefs.
Kim Sterelny has been an avid opponent of the extended mind theory, preferring to argue in favor of a framework of cognitive scaffolding. This is modeled after the biological theory of evolutionary scaffolding, which explains how organisms' alterations of their environmental structures help shape their evolution. Examining Sterelny’s concept of cognitive scaffolding provides an alternative understanding of how cognitive processes are shaped and enhanced by environmental supports. It highlights how humans and other organisms actively construct their cognitive environments, creating durable, external supports that enhance mental capacities. Sterelny’s argument focuses on the coevolutionary and intergenerational relationship between organisms and their environments, where “agents (or, more exactly, lineages of agents) do indeed adapt to their environments. But they also adapt their environment to them,” (2). He emphasizes niche construction, where organisms actively modify their surroundings to create tools that reduce cognitive load and enhance decisionmaking.
For example, human tools such as written language, numerical systems, and even architectural designs are not merely passive external aids but shape integral components of our cognitive processes.
These tools allow for the offloading of complex mental tasks, enabling humans to overcome biological limitations in memory, computation, and communication.
Sterelny’s critique of the extended mind is rooted in the assertion that external aids, such as notebooks or calculators, may lack the integration of internal mental processes, but still serve the purpose of extending our cognition. However, his examples of scaffolded cognition reveal a spectrum of environmental supports ranging from passive aids to tightly coupled systems. His discussion of extended digestion provides a particularly compelling analogy for understanding scaffolding in biological systems. He notes, “Our lives depend on the artefacts and techniques that make it physically possible for us to ingest food and which enable us to extract more nutritional value from that food. We have engineered our gustatory niche; we have transformed both our food sources and the process of eating itself” (2). Just as cooking and food preparation technologies have externalized and enhanced human digestive capabilities, scaffolding externalizes cognitive tasks, changing the brain’s capacity to process and act upon complex information. By reframing scaffolding as a continuous spectrum rather than a hard boundary, Sterelny’s argument can be interpreted as supportive of the extended mind thesis. His insights into how humans and other species modify their environments to optimize cognitive and biological functions show the value of external tools as active participants in mental processes. Scaffolding, in this sense, does not undermine the extended mind but rather illustrates its broader applicability, particularly in the context of biological systems. If cognitive extension exists at one end of the scaffolding continuum, then there must be other biological processes that can count as extended using the requirements provided by Clark and Chalmers.
To further explore the idea of how evolutionary scaffolding can result in cognitive extension, we can look at examples in species outside of our own. Remora are a species of fish native to tropical oceans. Colloquially referred to as “suckerfish,” this species has evolved a unique mouth, suited for suctioning onto sharks, stingrays, and other marine animals— which decreases the overall cost of transportation for these fish (3). Just as Otto’s cognition can be extended by his notebook, a remora’s movement can be extended by a shark, as long as it is constant, accessible, and
endorsed. Another animal is a constant way to extend movement. Although the individual animal may change, the characteristics that make it a good host do not. The presence of an animal is accessible because the environment which remora live in is saturated with potential hosts. Additionally, the use of an animal is endorsed. Once the remora has engaged in movement in this way and experienced its success, they will seek to engage in the same behavior again. Attaching to another animal is not necessary for a remora’s ability to move, as they have been documented swimming freely (3). Rather, their attachment to another animal provides a constant, accessible, and endorsed way to move around their environment; there is no relevant difference between moving on their own and moving with the help of another animal.
The Froemke lab at NYU studies behaviors in rats, and Robert Froemke discussed the effects of female cohabitation on behavior in a recent talk. Their studies found that the release of oxytocin, a neurotransmitter associated with parental behaviors, is increased in virgin female rats cohoused with mother rats. Notably, the lab found that this increased oxytocin release correlated with the survival of pups and mothers during and immediately after birth, from near 0% survival to near 100% for both groups (4). Can this biological process of birth count as extended?
The virgin females are constant in the mother’s life, as studies in the lab have shown that after the oxytocin response has been elicited once, it persists throughout the rat’s lifetime (4). They are accessible, as the two cohouse together. They are endorsed, as the lab also found that mothers who have access to these helpers will leave the nest more frequently after birth, allowing for their pups to be in the care of their helpers (4).
Some may object to the fact that, in these two examples, the extension is another individual, and is therefore not accessible at all times. Cognition is something humans are constantly engaging in, so an extension to cognition would need to be nearly constantly accessible, as Otto’s notebook is to him. However, other biological processes do not exhibit this same kind of constancy. Just as humans are not eating all the time, they do not need access to their kitchen tools all the time, only when they are actively engaging in the biological process of eating. In the same way, rats and remora do not need constant access to their extensions, rather only needing them to be constant, accessible, and endorsed when the biological process in question is taking place.
Sterelny’s analogy to extended digestion in humans can additionally be seen in other species. The archerfish hunts using jets of water to knock its prey down from perches above the water's surface. These jets of water “...far exceed the maximum force that can be applied…” by their muscles (5). Rather than an internal structure that supplements the musculature of these fish, it was found that the archerfish use their mouths to shape the jet in a way that promotes the creation of an “external hydrodynamic lever” (5). Just as Sterenly describes with humans, the digestion of these fish is supplemented and extended by the physical properties of their environment. The water they live in is constant, accessible, and endorsed as a way to hunt their prey. Just as the brain has evolved to “factor in…a manipulable external environment” (1), so have the mouths of the archerfish and remora and the social behaviors of rats. These examples all entail coupled systems, organisms linked to an external entity in a two-way interaction. Coupled systems can be “cognitive system[s] in [their] own right” (1), and systems described above can be digestive systems or transportation systems in their own right. As Clark and Chalmers put it: “if we retain internal structure but change external features, behavior may change completely,” (1). By limiting the access of a remora to a shark, or a mother rat to a virgin one, the behavior of these organisms will change. The extended processes of transportation, digestion, or birth, will become less efficient in the same way that taking away Otto’s notebook would decrease the efficiency of his cognition.
The theory of the extended mind offers a strong framework for understanding how cognitive processes can go beyond the boundaries of the brain while incorporating external tools and environmental features.
By examining Sterelny’s scaffolded cognition and its applications to biological systems, we find a compelling case for extending that framework beyond human cognition to other biological processes. The examples of remora movement, rat birthing behaviors, and archerfish digestion illustrate that external structures and systems can become integral to biological functions while satisfying the criteria Clark and Chalmers put forward of being constant, accessible, and endorsed. These cases demonstrate that, like cognition, biological processes can be extended through external supports that are functionally integrated into the organism’s behavior. By broadening the scope of the extended mind to include other biological systems, we can deepen our understanding of how organisms, human and non-human alike, create and utilize external resources that reinforce the interdependence of biology and environment.
Building Blocks
BY STELLA DORMER
Intro
When it comes to moving things, our world is quite simple. So simple, in fact, that all systems to move objects can be broken down into six simple machines: the wheel and axle, the lever, the pulley, the wedge, the screw, and the incline plane. These exact simple machines are sometimes debated but the general principles still stand. The more easily an object can be moved, the higher the mechanical advantage of the object. However this mechanical advantage comes at a price; the higher mechanical advantage, the less efficient the system is.
Wheel and Axle (and Gears!)
Wheels and axles are often used as the basis of the lever and the pulley, but can also be their own simple machine. A wheel and axle is made with… you guessed it… a circle (wheel) attached to a rod (axle). If you turn the axle, the wheel will also turn the same number of degrees, but the larger circumference means that the distance traveled by the wheel will be greater than the rotation of the axle.
A wheel and axle is made with… you guessed it… a circle (wheel) attached to a rod (axle).
This is how (part of) a car works: the engine turns the axle which rotates the wheels the same number of times, but allows the car to travel further than the tiny circumference of the axle. If the engine turns the axle once, the tire is turned once, but the car travels a distance of the circumference of the wheel, not the axle. If you need to turn something more easily or precisely, then you can turn the wheel a greater distance which results in a smaller distance turn from the axle (because again, the same angle change but different circumferences).
Gears also tend to be defined under the simple machine of the wheel and axle. But this time the rotational motion and interaction between the
moving parts is caused by the gears having teeth that are locked together. This creates a gear train. Two gears that are interlocked with each other will actually turn in different directions, one clockwise, the other counterclockwise. Because of the change in direction, this will often create the need for an idler gear. In a gear train, the gear that receives the input force is the driver and the last gear that creates the output force is the follower. The idler gear is added in between the two and switches the direction of the follower. If the driver has more gear teeth than the follower then the follower will spin faster than the driver (and have a higher mechanical advantage and lower efficiency). Because the idler sits between the driver and the follower, its number of gear teeth doesn’t affect the mechanical advantage. A gear train where gears are only connected via teeth is called a simple gear train. When gears also share the same axle, they become a complex gear train, which combines the theory of the simple gear train and the wheel and axle!
Lever
The fulcrum is in the middle while the effort and the load are on either side.
At first glance, the lever seems to be a subcategory of the wheel and axle because a turning object with a larger radius turns an object with a smaller object, but is actually more complex than that. A lever has three important parts: the load (the output), the effort (the input), and the fulcrum (the pivot point). The relationship between these three parts will greatly change the mechanical advantage. Let’s start with a see-saw. The fulcrum is in the middle while the effort and the load are on either side. They can be equally spaced apart, or if the effort is further away from the fulcrum then it becomes easier to lift the load. The opposite is true if the effort is closer to the fulcrum than the load. When the effort and the load are on either side of the fulcrum, this is called a first class lever. Now think about a door handle being placed on the far edge from the hinge, or lifting an object in your hand by hinging your arm. In both these lever cases the effort and the load are on the same side, but the forces push in different directions. However in the first case, the effort is further away from the load, making it easier to move. This is called a second class lever. In a third class lever, like your arm, the effort is closer to fulcrum than the load which makes it harder to move the load, but can be a more compact system.
Pulley
While some sort of wheel is required to make a pulley work, it also needs some sort of string or rope!
Pulleys are another simple machine that appear to be based on the wheel and axle system, but have important distinctions. While some sort of wheel is required to make a pulley work, it also needs some sort of string or rope! There are two types of pulleys. There are anchor pulleys which are attached to a stationary point (usually the ceiling) and allow for a direction change in the force, but don’t help much in terms of mechanical advantage. If you need to lift up a heavy box, it may be easier to pull straight down on a pulley rather than pull the box up. There are also moveable pulleys which are attached to the load you’re trying to move and… you’ll never believe it… move with the load. Moveable pulleys split the weight of the load between the side of the rope you’re pulling and the anchor the other end of the rope is tied to. This means there is a mechanical advantage of two because now the load is twice as easy to move. By combining a few anchor pulleys and moveable pulleys, you can get a pretty high mechanical advantage! But be warned, the more pulleys you add to a system, the more friction gets introduced and the lower the efficiency becomes.
Wedge and Inclined Plane
Both wedges' and inclined planes' mechanical advantage and efficiency are reliant on the angle. Crucially, there’s a sweet spot between having a large enough mechanical advantage to be useful, without having too low of an efficiency, and taking up the appropriate amount of space in a given system.
Screw
Wedges and inclined planes are sometimes called the same simple machine and sometimes not because they are both glorified triangles. The main difference between the two is that an inclined plane remains stationary during use, while the wedge moves. An example of an inclined plane is pushing a box up a ramp. The ramp is an inclined plane and stays stationary, but makes it easier to get the box to a higher elevation than just lifting it straight up. An example of a wedge would be an axe. The wedge of the axe tip is driven into the wood which makes it easier to apply force and split the wood apart. This is because the vertical force applied to the top axe is channeled at an angle to the other two sides of the triangle which helps push the wood out horizontally.
Wedges and inclined planes are sometimes called the same simple machine and sometimes not because they are both glorified triangles.
At first you may think to yourself, “Screws? Those can’t be related to the previous simple machines.” Anyone? Maybe it’s just me. But either way, that would be wrong. Screws are actually an inclined plane that’s been wrapped around an axle! Don’t believe me? Take a strip of paper, cut a right triangle out of it, starting at the height side of the triangle, wrap the triangle around something like a pencil. As you continue wrapping the triangle, you should see that the line of the hypotenuse starts forming what look like screw threads. That’s how screws are formed! Surprisingly screws have an extremely high mechanical advantage. But high mechanical advantage also means low efficiency. Think about a screw used in a piece of furniture, it’s easier to put in a nail because the inclined plane of the screw allows it to wedge into place. But then once the screw is in place, there is a lot of friction as each part of the screw is touching part of the wood of the furniture meaning there is a very low efficiency and the screw (and the wood) will stay in place!
Screws are actually an inclined plane that’s been wrapped around an axle!
Why does any of this matter?
These simple machines are useful in their own right, but when you combine them, you can create a super cool, Frankenstein-esque complex machine. This is when multiple simple machines are put together in one system, and are more commonly employed than by themselves. This can mean that in one machine, multiple simple machines can be used for different purposes. For example, a record player uses a wheel and axle to turn the record, and a lever to detect the bumps in the record that create sound. Simple machines can also be connected to one another to accomplish one common action. For example, a crane uses a lever, pulley, and a series of gear trains connected and work together to lift an object. You can combine an infinite number of simple machines, which means you can get a very high mechanical advantage!! Mechanical advantage needs to be balanced out with efficiency, and considered hand-in-hand with spatial limitations.
Lunar Eclipse
PHOTOS BY MAX KETTERER
A lunar eclipse is the opposite of a solar eclipse. It occurs during a full moon when the earth comes between the moon and sun, casting its shadow on the moon. The moon becomes significantly darker and appears to become orange when fully covered in shadow. The reason for this is the same the reason for why the color of the sky changes during sunset: the blue light from the sun is scattered the most when traveling great distances through the atmosphere, leaving only the red end of the visible spectrum. Normally the fullmoon is so bright that it outshines all nearby stars. However, shrouded by the Earth's shadow, plenty of stars can be seen surrrounding it.
9 PM-3AM MARCH 13TH-14TH, 2025
Brain-Computer Interfaces in Medicine
BY MIKA LOPEZ
Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are computerbased systems that measure and use signals from the central nervous system (CNS) to create commands, which are relayed to an external device in order to execute an action (1). Researchers have begun to test these BCIs in individuals with limited motility and functioning. Paralysis is now being aided with computer systems integrated with and fine-tuned to an individual’s brain. What will this mean for our perception of disability and humanity?
In one recent case, researchers have begun to test the application of bidirectional BCI technology for individuals with ASIA B injuries, which results in the loss of sensory function, but not motor function (3). Those with this type of injury are able to interpret tactile feedback naturally, but the systems that control voluntary movement are largely undamaged. In this study, researchers used electrical pulses to stimulate the region of the brain responsible for movement in order to create signals that could then be recognized by a robotic arm able to provide the patient with tactile feedback—replicating a “normal” tactile and motor feedback loop (2). However, this is not the only current application of BCI technology.
BCIs are also being used to replace or restore functioning in individuals who have been disabled as the result of neuromuscular disorders—amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, cerebral palsy, stroke, spinal cord injury, and more (1). Additionally, BCI technology is being used to integrate brain signals with digital technology. BCIs can be used to control a device’s cursor, direct a robotic prosthesis or wheelchair, and interact with many other types of electronic devices (1). In order to understand the current uses, it is essential to understand the basic components of BCIs that work together.
BCIs can be described as a type of “feedback loop” that is made of four components: signal acquisition, feature extraction, feature translation, and then device control.
How do BCIs Work?
BCIs can be described as a type of “feedback loop” that is made of four components: signal acquisition, feature extraction, feature translation, and then device control. Signal acquisition is the first step in the loop, where brain activity is measured and recorded. Electrical brain activity is detected by electrodes placed on the scalp or the brain itself, and metabolic brain activity is detected with functional MRIs (1). The brain signals detected by electrodes or functional MRIs are then amplified and digitized before being transmitted to a computer (1).
After brain activity has been digitized, the next component in a BCI feedback loop is feature extraction. This step is where digital signals are analyzed with a computer interface to identify significant patterns and characteristics of the measured brain signals (1). These signals, referred to as “signal features,” are then compacted and used to direct output commands (1).
In order to make sense of the previously identified signal features, the third component of a BCI feedback loop is feature translation. During this stage, the signal features are analyzed using an algorithm that turns the compacted signals into commands that the external device can recognize, and that reflect the user’s intentions (1).
Finally, the commands identified by the feature translation algorithm are transmitted to an external device. Operating the device provides feedback to the user, which then closes the feedback loop (1).
Navigating Ethical and Physical Considerations
While BCI technology has the potential to revolutionize treatment for individuals suffering from neuromuscular disorders, there also exists great potential for harm. In order to mitigate the potential for harm, researchers and doctors must be mindful of several physical and ethical considerations.
BCI technology lacks long-term stability, consistent signal measurements, consistent performance across users, and practicality (1).
Current research aims to address these concerns, as they limit the population who is able to benefit from BCI technology.
Current and future BCI technology pose ethical questions for consideration. Presently, this technology is very expensive to produce which prevents individuals of lower socioeconomic standing from being able to benefit from this technology (4). This barrier of access both reflects and reinforces the existing class divides in place when it comes to medical care (4). Additionally, the limited population of users discourages companies from producing this technology on a larger-scale, which would cut down costs (4). Many of the current BCI models are also incredibly physically invasive, and are not without risk to the user’s physical health (4). In terms of more invasive systems that utilize implanted electrodes, injuries may result from the implantation surgery, and there is the potential for malfunctioning or loss
of function of this hardware (4). Non-invasive models are not without risk, as use in younger patients may be linked to a decrease in neuroplasticity (4). When considering if an individual is a good candidate for BCI technology, one must also consider the impact on their quality of life, and if any safer treatment alternatives are available (4). All of these factors must be considered in order to prevent harm and maximize good outcomes.
Utilizing BCIs
for
their capacity as a medical
intervention
has led to current efforts being directed with the goal of restoring functioning for individuals with paralysis, aiding in neurorehabilitative efforts, managing pain, and restoring sensation (5).
What Will the Future of BCI Technology Bring?
If BCI technology continues to become more widely used, extra measures should be enforced to promote security and privacy of an individual’s biometric data (5). Some researchers have highlighted that further development of BCI technology may lead to applications that enhance human abilities to a “superhuman” level (5). Finally, widespread integration of BCI technology to treat disabilities may redefine what it means to be disabled, and what it means to be human and have integrated technology (5).
BCI technology has the potential to revolutionize treatment interventions and quality of life for individuals with limited motility. However, the integration of this technology must be done with significant ethical consideration, as the potential for harm is undeniable.
ILLUSTRATION BY BENNETT FITZGERALD
Sakura Science
How chemistry paints the spring sky
BY JOHN LUU
Believed to have originated in the Himalayas (1), cherry blossoms have been admired worldwide. Their presence spans from the festivals of Kyoto, Japan, to the University of Washington, where thousands of Washingtonians flock each springtime. Often referred to by their Japanese name, “sakura” (written as 桜 or 櫻; and spelled phonetically as さくら or サクラ), the blossoming cherry tree is considered a sacred plant in Japan, marking the beginning of spring and symbolizing ephemeral beauty and the transience of life (2). With these beliefs, the popularity of sakura has spread across the globe, painting landscapes each spring in breathtaking shades of pink, white, and even yellow— but what gives these delicate petals their hues?
Unsurprisingly, sakura owes its captivating hues to a combination of pigments and biochemical processes. In this, the main contributors are anthocyanins—a group of pigments responsible for the red, purple, and blue shades in many plants (3). With biosynthesis induced by light irradiation, the pink hues reflected by anthocyanins, mainly cyanidin and pelargonidin, protect the plant tissues from harmful UV light—absorbing them and serving as a natural sunscreen (4). But why pink specifically? It turns out that the concentration of anthocyanins that have thrived throughout natural selection just happened to create the pink color we know and love today.
Between and within sakura species, blossom colors can vary as changes influencing the concentration of anthocyanins occur.
For example, as a sakura’s pH decreases in acidic conditions, anthocyanins are more stable and exhibit vibrant pink hues. However, as the pH approaches neutral or alkaline levels, these pigments can degrade, leading to color changes and a reduction in intensity (5).
During the onset of spring and the beginning of the flowering period, anthocyanin levels are at their highest as buds of the cherry blossoms start to open, and light irradiation stimulates the biosynthesis of anthocyanins. Afterward, anthocyanin concentrations may begin to decrease as the flowers age, resulting in a fading of their vibrant colors as they get older, often turning to a paler pink or white (6).
Today, over 400 species of cherry blossom are prevalent around the world (7). Here, at the University of Puget Sound’s campus—as well as at the University of Washington in Seattle—you can find the Yoshino species of cherry blossom. With its pale pink blossoms sprouting upon thin arching branches, Yoshino is the most common species of sakura (8). Native to China, Japan, and Korea, another popular sakura species is the Kwanzan Cherry, known for its lush, deep-pink blossoms that natively dot the mountainous regions. Unlike the Yoshino species, Kwanzan cherries produce dense clusters of double-petaled blooms, creating a fuller and more dramatic floral display. In contrast, the Weeping Cherry species offers a remarkable appearance with its gracefully cascading branches that drape downward like a waterfall, providing a soft backdrop that complements the more upright blossoms of its counterparts. Beyond these few species, hundreds of more varieties of sakura exist in numerous areas of the world—each with its own unique traits and beauty.
Whether you find yourself beneath a canopy of cherry blossoms on campus or halfway across the world, I hope the next time you come across sakura, you’ll take a moment to appreciate not just its captivating beauty, but also the intricate, countless biochemical interactions underneath that make them unique. The vibrant pink of the sakura is not just a visual delight but a testament to the fascinating science behind it, reminding us of the connections between nature’s artistry and the biochemical processes that bring it to life.
An Outbreak Lost in Time
BY DAISY INNIS
Amidst the first World War (WWI) and Spanish Influenza Pandemic, a secondary outbreak—called encephalitis lethargica—took hold across North America and Europe. The first report on encephalitis lethargica was published in 1917 and detailed seven severe cases of the disease—two of which were fatal. Later that year, a second report was published in France and described 40 similar cases of an unidentified encephalitis (1). By the fall of 1918, the second wave of the Spanish Flu took hold in North America and Europe, and there were enough cases of encephalitis to be classified as an epidemic.
Despite the fact that this disease was less common than the Spanish Flu, had high mortality rates, often chronic development, and an “unknown nature,” the encephalitis lethargica epidemic (2) created unique conditions under which neurologists, physicians, and the larger community scrambled for answers.
Encephalitis lethargica is suspected to have a viral origin and is characterized by fever, double vision, extreme tiredness, delayed physical and mental responses, tremors, possible psychosis, and abnormal eye movement (3). The disease outbreak came about at a particularly tumultuous time—the aftermath of WWI and the Spanish Flu had captured the majority of international attention. However, the encephalitis lethargica outbreak also came at a time when neurologists were looking for a way to legitimize their field in the eyes of the general public. Kroker explains that, in teaming up with public health officials and bacteriologic laboratories, neurologists hoped to solidify their role as a “real” scientific and medical field (4). These social and political contexts characterized responses to the epidemic, including who could treat patients with an encephalitis lethargica diagnosis. This outbreak, beginning in October of 1918, did not necessarily have a clear end
chronic—or cause other chronic conditions including mental health issues, Parkinsonism, and partial paralysis (6).
Some physicians considered the end of the epidemic when new cases slowed down; others considered the end to be when those with chronic effects largely stopped experiencing them, usually because they had died.
For this reason, some state that the epidemic ended as early as 1927, and others state that it ended as late as 1935-40 (7). Over the course of this epidemic, it is estimated that over one million cases were reported (8). Mortality rate estimates vary, cited as anywhere from 20%-50% of cases (9). Most who did not die from the disease never fully recovered to their pre-diagnosed state, both mentally and physically. The potential chronic nature of this disease impacted how physicians and neurologists perceived it, as mortality could occur soon after infection or many years later. These conflicting estimates—regarding mortality, epidemic span, etc.—were exacerbated by the lack of answers about encephalitis lethargica that not only plagued doctors then, but still evade us now.
Even today we still do not know the cause of encephalitis lethargica. There are a significant number of hypotheses, many of which first appeared during this initial epidemic. The prevailing hypothesis during the epidemic was that encephalitis lethargica was caused by the Spanish Flu—in other words, it was a post-influenzal infection. Other hypotheses included that encephalitis lethargica was caused by a virus similar to polio or the result of influenza activating some already-present virus in a person’s system (10). The primary theory of the time—that of the post-influenzal disease—has largely fallen out of fashion as there has been no link detected between the Spanish Flu and encephalitis lethargica.
Not only is the cause unknown, but the mechanism of transmission of encephalitis lethargica still confounds doctors. This disease affected nearly every part of the population, regardless of social factors including gender, social class, urban/rural environment, race/ethnicity, age, etc. Furthermore, clusters of the disease were rare, increasing the difficulty in explaining
how the disease spread. Without an understanding of transmission, which populations were vulnerable, or the origin of the disease, neurologists lacked answers. There was also, notably, no test beyond a physical examination by a neurologist or physician to diagnose someone with encephalitis lethargica. This meant that not only was it difficult to characterize the disease, but it was also difficult to prevent and treat it.
Much of our understanding of encephalitis lethargica has not changed since the 1920s.
The hope that this disease could legitimize neurology within public health fizzled as answers and research remained uncertain.
For this reason, the outbreak of encephalitis lethargica has largely been lost in time.
Much of the scholarly work was published in the 1920s, and there has not been significant scholarship, even within the fields of the history of science and medicine. There has been a bit of resurgence in the wake of COVID-19, which may result in a continuing trend as research into long COVID-19 and its related conditions continue to develop.
In a Bind
Should doctors write about their patients?
BY EVA LANGENTHAL
I grew up the child of a doctor and have always been endlessly fascinated by the stories that my mother would tell me about her day. I loved to hear about the obstacles that my mother helps people overcome, but sometimes I wondered if what she told me is legal or ethical for me to know. I have also often read books written by doctors about their experiences working with patients and have recently been thinking about the ethics of such literature. One can only assume that the doctors have changed all names and identifying features of those they mention in order to comply with HIPAA—or the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, a law passed in 1996 to protect patient confidentiality and safety. However, once a patients records have been depersonalized, there are no rules in place about how that information can be shared.
Where is the line that doctors must draw in order to write an interesting and informative book without sacrificing the relationship and trust that they have built with their patients in real life?
In a piece titled “Healing Narrative: Ethics and Writing about Patients,” Rimma Osipov, brings up how the practice of writing about patients has been a part of medical training for a long time and is an important component of a doctors education. They go on to explain that privacy is ever more necessary in the age of the internet, where finding these patient stories is easier and easier. In Osipov’s words: “The casual process of disguising names may no longer offer enough protection. Clinicians must decide how to request permission to publish a patient’s case or learn to thoughtfully and systematically de-identify patients” (1). In this new age of information sharing, what does it mean to write a book not just for medical students but a broader popular audience? The goal
of this writing shifts from purely educational to entertainment and profit. When considering these new factors, how much do you change to protect the safety of the patient, and how much do you keep to tell the true story? Patients are vulnerable when they tell their doctors the painful and/or embarrassing reasons that they needed to seek medical care, so wouldn't it feel somewhat exploitative to know that your blushing syndrome or STI, which came with so much shame, is being shared with the world? When these stories are written, they are done so through the doctor’s perspective, and therefore, they might have different boundaries on what they think someone would be comfortable sharing...
...after all, disclosure is easier when the secrets are somebody else’s.
It is also jarring to imagine the experience a patient might have when they stumble across their own story being sold for profit. Naturally, there is a big difference between my mother telling me about her day and a doctor writing a book that they will make money off of. The ethics of memoir and nonfiction writing are already shaky from the perspective of exploitation, but it only becomes more suspect when discussing a topic that so many people go into debt for. Health care in the U.S. is incredibly expensive, so what is the experience of finding your pain and money being used to create profit and publicity for someone else?
As a reader and enjoyer of books written by doctors about patients, I don't necessarily think that they shouldn't be written. I think that books like these can spread important knowledge, destigmatize different conditions, and simply be entertaining. I wish that there was more transparency about those who were written about and that there was a way they could be compensated if the book were to make its author millions. For now, I can only hope that the next time a doctor chooses to write about their patients, they will use their best judgment to protect and respect the people they treat.
The Science of Jewelry Making
BY HOLLAND RHODES
Jewelry was one of the first creations produced by civilizations that is purely for decoration and embellishment that does not aid survival. For thousands of years, humans have been manipulating metals for adornment. Cleverly-crafted metals have come to hold a plethora of meanings, symbolizing everything from devotion and good luck, to strength and wealth. Many of the processes and techniques developed by humans in these ancient civilizations have remained largely unchanged, and are still used today. I have had the joy of learning the craft and art of metalsmithing over the past six years and have come to foster a deep appreciation for the science-y processes that are crucial to the creation of a time-honored piece of art. Jewelry is a unique form of art because it is designed to interact with and be displayed on the human body, meaning that pieces are often very meaningful to the wearer. As a jeweler, I feel incredibly honored to play a role in what can become a significant part of someone’s life.
Soldering is a technique that increases the way metals can be manipulated in a multitude of ways. Most pieces of jewelry have at least one soldered component. Soldering is the process of joining metals together by using an alloy, usually of silver and copper, called solder, with a lower melting point than the primary metal used in the piece. The solder is placed along joints in the piece of jewelry and then heated with a flame until it melts and flows into the seam and hardens, which closes the seam. The other key component to soldering is flux, which is a compound that keeps joins clean, prevents oxidation and helps the solder flow into seams. Flux is usually composed of a mixture of boric acid and denatured alcohol or boric acid and ammonium chloride. Flux comes in liquid and paste form and gets brushed onto the piece along the seams before heat is applied to the metal.
Common metals used in jewelry fabrication projects are sterling silver, fine silver, copper and brass. Copper and brass are often used by beginners or when learning new techniques because it is less expensive than silver, but behaves similarly to silver and gold when soldered and manipulated. Beautiful pieces can be made with copper and brass, but they are not usually used in pieces that come in regular contact with the skin, because the metal reacts with the skin and stains it green (think of the cheap mood ring you had as a kid that turned your finger green). Both fine and sterling silver are favorites in the jewelry world because they are relatively inexpensive, can be polished to a high shine, take well to soldering and manipulation, and don’t stain the skin. The majority of pieces are made with sterling silver rather than fine silver because the copper content in sterling silver is higher, which results in the metal being harder and more suited for constant wear. Fine silver is often used in the stone setting process because it’s softness makes it easy to manipulate and form around the stone.
Another technique used in making jewelry is a process called annealing, which is the deliberate heating of the metal to soften it and make it easier to form. When heated, the molecules in the metal loosen up. As the piece is shaped, hammered and manipulated, the molecules cool down and lock into each other, called work-hardening. The metal can get brittle and difficult to work with as it hardens, so it is important to anneal the jewelry during the metal-working process to improve the piece’s ability to be manipulated with tools. When heat is applied to metals that contain copper, there is some degree of firescale, a type of oxidation, that occurs on the metal. This happens because oxygen mixes with the copper and creates cuprous oxide and then cupric oxide, which appears as a purple-blue stain on sterling silver (1, 2). Firescale
occurs every time the metal is heated, and impacts the way the solder and metal interact. Thus, the pieces should be cleaned to remove the firescale between every step of the soldering process. Firescale can be removed from copper, silver and brass using a mild acid, called pickle. The pickle is a sodium dichromate and water solution kept at a warm temperature, often in a small crockpot to maximize effectiveness (3). Steel and iron, (metal common in most jewelry making tools), should never be introduced to the pickle solution because it triggers a chemical reaction that results in any other metal in the pickle pot getting plated with copper. Despite making jewelry for six years, I find the processes of the pickle pot to be mysterious and still don’t fully understand how it behaves.
One of the final steps in the process of soldering is adding patina to certain parts of the piece to intentionally discolor the metal. Patina is often used to bring out small details in a piece and to add depth and dimension through color (4). Patina is achieved through two main mediums, silver blackener and liver of sulfur (which smells about as good as the name suggests). Liver of sulfur is a mixture of potassium sulfide, potassium polysulfide and potassium thiosulfate (5). When used in metalsmithing, liver of sulfur is diluted with hot water to create a solution to either submerge or brush onto the piece. The best liver of sulfur solution is one that is not too potent and allows the patina to gradually build
LARVIKITE RING BY HOLLAND RHODES
on the metal, which helps to extend the longevity of the color. Silver blackener is a solution of hydrochloric acid and tellurium dioxide (6). In contrast to liver of sulfur, silver blackener does not need to be diluted in hot water, smells slightly better and can be simply be brushed onto the piece.
Metalsmithing is a complex and dynamic craft that relies on the interactions between metal, various compounds and solutions, and the surrounding environment.
Having a basic understanding of the processes involved in making jewelry is crucial to the metalsmith’s technique and approach to manipulating the piece. Every piece of jewelry in the world has likely undergone at least one of the interactions described. As I continue to hone my craft, I am always mindful that the skills I am learning and designs I am making contain echoes from the metalsmiths of ages past.
STERLING SILVER JELLYFISH EARRINGS BY HOLLAND RHODES
WELCOME TO
Find Your Major Arcana
QUIZ AND ARTWORK BY BEA MOLDOW
1. What do you do to relax?
A.) Spend time alone contemplating
B.) Hang out with friends and do a fun activity
C.) Explore inner thoughts and dreams
D.) Work on new skills and projects
2. How do you approach problem solving?
A.) Deep thinking and seeking wisdom from within
B.) Optimistic action and trusting the outcome
C.) Letting intuition guide you through uncertainty
D.) Using resources around you to solve the problem
3. How do you view the unknown?
A.) A space to reflect and deepen your understanding
B.) An opportunity for growth and new experiences
C.) A mysterious domain that should be explored through the subconscious
D.) A challenge to be mastered and taken advantage of
4. What is your life’s motivation?
A.) Finding out your inner truths and reaching spiritual enlightenment
B.) Transmitting joy and positive vibes to those around you
C.) Understanding your emotions and delving deep into your psyche
D.) Manifesting your desires and generating your reality
Mostly A’s - The Hermit: You are introspective, wise and appreciate solitude. You want to seek a deeper understanding and find your own strength within your inner world.
Mostly B’s - The Sun: You are optimistic, energetic and radiate positivity to those around you. Everywhere you go, you bring joy and light. You live life fully and brightly.
Mostly C’s - The Moon: You are intuitive, in tune with your emotions and imaginative. You are able to navigate complex aspects of your subconscious and like to embrace the mystery of life.
Mostly D’s - The Magician: You are skilled, driven, and able to use the resources around you to manifest your goals. You are able to use your abilities to change and shape your reality in any way.
RENDITIONS OF TOTALLY-ABSOLUTELY-ENTIRELY REAL ANIMALS BY BENNETT FITZGERALD. AN AIRAVATA, A KITSUNE, A QILIN, AND A CHINESE DRAGON, WHICH YOU COULD DEFINITELY FIND IN THE WILD IF YOU WANTED TO, ARE FEATURED.
BY LOU LOBDELL AND BENNETT
Natural History I SPY
Citations
Land Acknowledgement
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Biomimicry: Nature’s Masterclass in Design
(
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(
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(
3) Kohlstedt, K. Biomimicry: How Designers Are Learning from the Natural World. 99% Invisible, November 9, 2017. https://99percentinvisible.org/article/biomimicry-
(4) Vox. The World is Poorly Designed. But Copying Nature Helps. YouTube, November 9, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iMtXqTmfta0 (accessed 2024-10-15).
(5) Our Changing Climate. Biomimicry is More Than Just Good Design. YouTube, October 12, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=r1CpzEGhs3c (accessed 2024-10-15).
(6) Sustainability Illustrated. 5 Amazing Biomimicry Examples Providing Real Sustainability Solutions | Architecture Building Energy. Youtube, Jun 19, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=5FZ9Ryx5zAk (accessed 2024-10-15).
(7) Learn Biomimicry. The Best 50 Biomimicry Examples and Inventions of All Time. www.learnbiomimicry.com. https://www. learnbiomimicry.com/blog/best-biomimicryexamples (accessed 2025-03-03).
(8) Benyus, J. M. Biomimicry : Innovation Inspired by Nature; Perennial: New York, NY, 2002.
(9) Eisoldt, L.; Smith, A.; Scheibel, T. Decoding the Secrets of Spider Silk. Materials Today 2011, 14 (3), 80–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/s13697021(11)70057-8.
(10) Waite, J. H. Mussel Adhesion – Essential Footwork. The Journal of Experimental Biology 2017, 220 (4), 517–530. https://doi.org/10.1242/ jeb.134056.
(11) Bar-Cohen, Y. Biomimetics—Using Nature to Inspire Human Innovation. Bioinspiration & Biomimetics 2006, 1 (1), P1–P12. https://doi. org/10.1088/1748-3182/1/1/p01.
Everyone’s Gay Grandpa Tortoise
(1) Osborne, M. The World’s Oldest Living Land Animal, a Tortoise Named Jonathan, Turns 191. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag. com/smart-news/the-worlds-oldest-livingland-animal-a-tortoise-named-jonathanturns-191-180983392/ (accessed 2025-04-05).
(2) Free, C. Happy 191st (or so) Birthday to the World’s Oldest Living Land Animal. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/
(1) Weiner, E. Floriography: The Secret Language of Flowers — Erica Weiner. https://www.ericaweiner.com/history-lessons/ floriography-the-secret-language-of-flowers (accessed 2025-04-05).
Brain-Computer Interfaces in Medicine
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