This magazine was produced on the unceded homelands of the Puyallup and Coast Salish Nations, who have lived on this land and been its stewards since the beginning of time. They continue to do so today. We recognize that this land acknowledgement is one small step towards true allyship, which must be followed by intentional reflection and action centering the Indigenous peoples of this land and beyond.
As both guests on this land and science students, it is our responsibility to educate ourselves on the role of science in the discrediting of traditional ways of knowing, the enforcement of a heteronormative white patriarchy, and the systematic erasure and forced removal of the people of this land. We inherit the responsibility of this history, and commit to using our platform to uplift voices historically silenced by science, and to actively fight against the injustices which continue today. We include information here about the harms specific to our institution to emphasize accountability and combat the common misconception that these issues only occurred elsewhere.
LEARN MORE ABOUT THE UNIVERSITY OF PUGET SOUND’S HISTORY OF EUGENICS
HTTPS://HISTORYOFEUGENICS.PUGETSOUNDMUSEUM.ORG/
LEARN MORE ABOUT THE UNIVERSITY OF PUGET SOUND’S CONNECTION TO THE CUSHMAN RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL
The writing of this acknowledgement was very much a collaborative process that, crucially, not only broadened its scope, but also clarified its intent. What began as statements of fact about climate change became, in the next draft, assertions of values, followed by promises of action. It should be taken as just the start of a conversation, because there is much more to do along these lines. I would encourage you to think of it as a little like a communal prayer: it’s something the best versions of us dare to believe in. In fact, I think an acknowledgement that contains an apology, as this one does, has the potential to build community in unique ways. Of course, it’s right and fair to apologize when we have done something wrong (how else can trust be built?). But an acknowledgement that recognizes misdeeds can also lift up unheard voices it’s the enemy of erasure. And it can invite others to share their values and aspirations too.
- Steven Neshyba
“We deeply regret the extreme hardships that coming generations of people and non-humans will endure as a result of the present-day damage being inflicted on the global climate system. We recognize that this damage is a known consequence of the pervasive exercise of wealth-enabled carbon privilege, perpetuated by the economic and ideological dominance of Western colonialist nations. We recognize that BIPOC/marginalized communities are most vulnerable to the harms of climate change, and do not share the same burden of responsibility. We commit to exercising our individual agency and our collective power now, to build the best possible future and avert the worst consequences of climate damage.”
- Steven Neshbya, Climate Alliance of the South Sound, and Elements Team
The University of Puget Sound is currently in a Climate Action Planning process being led by Lexi Brewer, our director of sustainability. The plan will identify the barriers we need to overcome and investments that need to be made to decarbonize our campus. Around 80% of campus is heated using fossil fuels, making up the majority of campus’ greenhouse gas emissions. Geothermal heating and cooling is being explored as a step to reaching net-zero emissions, replacing outdated natural gas systems in our residence halls.
LEARN MORE ABOUT GEOTHERMAL ON OUR CAMPUS
Video created by Tia Böttger, Tatum Bunnett, Nicole Mannix, and Ethan Holst. The target decarbonization year of 2025 was an earlier aspirational goal that didn’t have technical analysis to back up its feasibility. The current Climate Action Planning process will determine a new appropriate date.
Have an idea to improve sustainability on campus? Green Fund can provide up to $10,000 for eligible projects.
Elements Staff
DOMINIQUE LANGEVIN
Editor in Chief Design Editor
BENNETT FITZGERALD
Design Editor & Illustrator
Copy Editor
Copy Editor
Content Editor & Outreach Manager
MIKA LOPEZ
KATERINA WEARN
SOL BHATTACHARYA
FALL 2024 STAFF
Letter from the Editor
If you’ve ever taken a creative writing course, you may have heard this advice: good writing takes the mundane and makes it magical. Nothing embodies this quite like scientific writing. At first glance, you might think this is oxymoronic; many find that science takes the magical and makes it mundane. The secrets of life, consciousness, and our universe being explained by chemical signaling, electron gradients, and subatomic particles strips away some of the mystique of the human experience. I’m sure many of you reading this have spent hours slogging through scientific papers, deciphering technical jargon, and never-ending acronyms. However, the hard work pays off. You walk away from the ordeal knowing more than when you started, with a greater understanding of a small, specific part of our world. These slivers of knowledge are where the magic resides, potential energy waiting to be released.
Our writers have taken the mundane and made it magical once again. The passion, the reverence, and the artistry involved in knowing everything there is to know about a subject emanates from each word. These works take on incredibly complex topics, from the science of tattoos to the history of syphilis and create new lenses through which to understand the world. These authors want you to experience the same wonder they do when they learn about their subject, and the love and care with which each piece is written, edited, and finalized infuses this magazine with a unique sense of magic. So please, take a seat and get yourself comfortable as the curtains rise on the 33rd issue of Elements.
Dominique Langevin Editor in Chief
FALL 2024 CLASS
I was the world in which I walked, and what I saw Or heard or felt came not but from myself; And there I found myself more truly and more strange.
- Wallace Stevens
Contact us: elements@pugetsound.edu @ups.elements on Instagram
The production of Elements Magazine is possible due to the funding of the Associated Students of the University of Puget Sound and the Green Fund. Printed and bound in Lakewood, WA at Print NW on FSC Certified 100% post-consumer recycled paper.
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Textiles in the Modern World: Alginate Yarn
BY MIKA LOPEZ
In today’s world, natural resources are dwindling. Natural fibers, such as cotton, wool, and silk, are resource-intensive in their processing methods. Many synthetic fibers used today are petroleum-based (acrylic, polyester, nylon, spandex, etc.), and their production involves harmful emissions into the atmosphere (1). The New York based company AlgiKnit has become one of the leaders in experimentation with biomaterials as textiles. Much of their work centers around alginate yarn, which is exactly what it sounds like—yarn made of algae.
AlgiKnit harvests resources for their yarn from one of the fastest growing organisms on Earth, kelp (laminaria digitata—a large brown alga known as oarweed). This kelp grows 10 times faster than bamboo (which grows up to 2.91ft/day! (2)), and is grown by diverse communities on a global scale (1). AlgiKnit uses this kelp to produce the biopolymer alginate. Biopolymers are macromolecules: long chains of smaller molecular units that are strung together (3). Biopolymers are produced by biological systems (microorganisms, plants, animals), or are chemically synthesized from biological materials, such as sugar, starch, natural oils or fats (4). Common biopolymers, like cellulose, are used to make fabrics like cotton, but contribute large amounts of pollution in their processing (3). Biopolymers have been widely used since the 1940s, and are more biodegradable than vegetable or animal derived natural fibers (4). While the production of biopolymers has continued to increase, biopolymers have not been commonly used in the textile industry due to challenges in their production (4).
Alginates are typically obtained from the cell walls of brown seaweed, brown algae, and bacteria (5). Alginate is extracted by adding specific salts to the seaweed base. This “salt bath” pulls the alginate from the cell walls of the kelp, the biopolymer is extracted from the seaweed residue and then dried into a powder (3). From this point, the powder can be fused and extruded into yarn. The cofounder of AlgiKnit, Tessa Callaghan, identified their two biggest challenges as getting the final fiber to be strong enough and flexible enough to be used on industrial knitting machines (3). Ensuring that this new yarn can mesh with existing textile infrastructure will be crucial to enhance the rate at which this new material is accepted.
The raw material for the production of calcium alginate fibers is alginic acid, which is used to produce alginate (6). The biological function of the biopolymer alginate is to provide strength and flexibility to the tissue of the plant, and to regulate the water content in the seaweed (6). The first scientific reports on the extraction of alginate (from brown algae) were introduced at the end of the nineteenth century by the chemist, E.C. Stanford, though the first alginates produced from seaweed were not made until much later, in the 1940s (6). Alginate is a polymeric acid, and is composed of the following two monomer units: L-guluronic acids (also known as High G Alginates) and D-mannuronic acids (also known as High M Alginates) (6). The High G Alginates are extracted from the stems of seaweed, and have a particularly strong ability to bind to calcium. The High M Alginates are extracted from the leaf fronds of seaweed, and are much more
KNIT FABRIC PRODUCED WITH ALGINATE YARN (1)
absorbent than their counterpart. Stanford observed a variety of characteristics of alginates: the ability to stabilize viscous suspensions, form film layers, and turn into gels (6). These characteristics, as observed by Stanford, led to the initial integration of alginates into the medical field as wound dressings. Overtime, the uses of alginates have multiplied, with vast commercial applications in the fields of biomedical engineering, biotechnology, environmental contaminant treatments, food processing, pharmaceuticals, as well as textiles (5).
Alginate yarn holds promise as the fashion and textile industries
Much of this starts with the decision to work with kelp as a material. Not only is kelp fast-growing and inexpensive to farm, it cleans the water too. Kelp absorbs nitrogen, phosphorus, and more than five times the amount of carbon dioxide than land plants (3). In coastal environments, kelp also absorbs and recaptures nutrients for the next generation of plants, making it a perfect choice for the future of sustainable manufacturing (1). When these biopolymers are turned into clothes, they can be broken down and decomposed. AlgiKnit co-founder, Aleksandra Gosiewski, goes so far as to say: “When it’s worn out or you don’t want it, it can be broken down by microorganism[s] and the nutrients reclaimed to feed the next generation of product,” (1).
Meandering Through Time
BY LEAH ZARIN
Rivers are ever-changing environments on every timescale, from human to geological. Every second they erode away at their banks, slowly carving new channels. As rivers meander across their floodplains, they leave behind scars in the land. If you’re standing on a floodplain, these scars can be difficult to notice, appearing as subtle changes in elevation that form no discernable pattern. By using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software, these patterns become clear as day. Washington state geologist Dan Coe came up with a method for using this data to create artistic visualizations of river floodplains. The images shown here are high-resolution topographic maps modified using GIS to show the relative elevation above the river surface. By making elevation relative to the river surface, we can visualize the floodplain more effectively, because rivers always are flowing downhill. This property sets these maps apart from other topographic maps, where elevation is relative to a standard benchmark like sea level. These maps can be used to show minute changes in elevation, such as those generated by a river carving new paths across its floodplain. These maps are all my original work, using GIS and following the method introduced by Dan Coe.
LITTLE MISSOURI RIVER IN SOUTHERN MCKENZIE COUNTY, ND.
Visualizing river floodplains with GIS
HENRY'S FORK RIVER NEAR HINCKLEY, ID.
CONNECTICUT RIVER NEAR NORTHAMPTON, MA.
WHITE RIVER NEAR AUGUSTA, AK.
Racing Raindrops
It rains in Tacoma. Like a lot.
BY STELLA DORMER
While we may not get the highest annual precipitation in the U.S., we get our fair share of drizzly days. Whether sitting in Oppenheimer café looking out the big glass windows at the rain, listening to the pitter-patter of the rain while sitting in your room, or even going outside without a rain jacket or umbrella to accept your fate that you will be soaked by the end of your walk, these experiences highlight that rain is pretty cool. But exactly how do raindrops form? Are they really tear shaped?
And to answer the childhood question that has plagued us all… which rain drop will race to the bottom of a window first?
The Shape of Water
When moisture begins to consolidate on small molecules of dust, it starts to form spherical drops. These drops have a diameter of roughly 1 millimeter (the size of the lead in a wooden pencil). Then they join together with their other dusty friends to form drops with roughly a diameter of 2-3 millimeters (about the size of the tip of a crayon). These bigger drops now have enough mass that they are affected by air pressure that pushes them back down towards the Earth. As the drop falls, it can no longer maintain its spherical
shape. There is more airflow that pushes up on the bottom of the raindrop than on the top. The raindrop slowly flattens out like a pancake. By running into more raindrops as they fall, sometimes drops grow in size. As they grow, they look less like a pancake and more like a parachute where the top is higher than the bottom. Raindrops that grow to be roughly 4.5 millimeters (half of a phone thickness) are no longer able to hold together under surface tension and break into smaller drops as they continue to fall (1).
Racing Raindrops
If you were like me as a child, rainy days meant that it was time for the most important race: which raindrop would make it to the bottom of the window first? I know I know, this is the big question. But can you use physics to guarantee the right pick between two raindrops? The answer is… theoretically, but not realistically.
Multiple drops of water on a plane (like a window) go through a few different stages as they reach different critical flow rates, thresholds describing the different types of paths water takes depending on the amount of water in a stream. First, water starts as drops, then as the flow rate increases, it becomes straight rivets—where water flows straight down a path. Then at a specific flow rate (dependent on a variety of forces such as gravity, the surface tension of the water itself, and the drop’s ability to move on the window as governed by inertia and debris), the path begins to twist
and turn, creating a “meandering rivulet”. At the next critical flow rate, this turns into a “dynamic regime”. This regime works a lot like the meandering rivulet where it has a curving but constant path, except that the tail end of the path wiggles around like the end of a hose. At a very high flow rate, the path once again straightens but creates the braided effect we sometimes see in water. This is called a “restable regime” (2).
Unless we’re looking at a total downpour, we won’t have most of these flow rate thresholds while racing raindrops on a window. However, it is good to note the main forces on a raindrop: gravity (rain goes down), surface tension (rain stays together), inertia (rain keeps moving), and the contact line pinning forces (stuff blocks rain from moving).
To race raindrops, the best bet is a raindrop that is already moving.
This means that the inertia and gravity forces have overcome the contact line pinning forces. In other words, so much of the water in the raindrop has gathered at the bottom of the raindrop that it can begin to slide down the window. Raindrops on windows tend to have a high Reynolds number, meaning that they have a lot of inertial forces (rain keeps moving) compared to viscosity forces (rain stops moving).
As for the path of the raindrop once it has started moving, it is more dependent on the wind than anything else. Small deviations in a path is the raindrop’s attempt at staying on the path of least resistance. There may be small bits of pollen on your window, or tiny crevasses that you can’t see but are creating a contact lining pinning force, making it harder for the raindrop to go straight down. But if the raindrop goes up? The only force that can make the raindrop go up is the wind. The same logic applies to a raindrop moving further
to the left or right. But rain also likes to be with its friends, so sometimes raindrops will erratically move out of the way in order to join with more drops (thanks surface tension!). This means your winning raindrop may not take the most efficient or direct path, but may join up with more raindrops, meaning that it is heavier (and increases the forces of gravity and inertia). But be careful little raindrop! If the drop becomes too big, it will split apart and fall at a slower rate again (3).
Long Story Semi-Short
We know a lot of the reasons and forces that are behind why some raindrops are able to win our races… but unless you can do a bunch of these calculations in an instant, it’s unrealistic that you can pick the winning raindrop off the bat. But if you’re asking yourself how to learn even more about raindrops so you can become the master of all knowledge surrounding rain on a car, then you’re in luck! A few years ago the International Physicists Tournament released a competition where one of the prompts focused on rain on the side of a car window. This means you too can do lots of academic research if you feel so inclined. If you’re more interested in the fluid mechanics behind rain in general, then you should definitely take a class with Dr. Rachel Pepper (like her biophysics class!) as she is a great help in starting to learn more about the world of fluid mechanics. But until then, go race some raindrops!!
ILLUSTRATION BY BENNETT FITZGERALD
You are breathing right now
BY EVA LANGETHAL
You are breathing right now. Everyday (mostly subconsciously) you breathe, and if you stop for too long you will die. This truth, of course, is not complete, many people who are alive are not breathing by their own volition but rather through the aid of machinery.
Iron lungs were once one of the most menacing images in the popular consciousness. They are large, loud, and mechanical, poking out of one side is a small head, that of a child. During the peak years of the polio epidemic they were feared, yet these machines were lifesaving.
Created in 1928, the iron lung, often called “the Drinker respirator” after one of the more popular models, was a new way to save the lives of those stricken with polio. The machine uses negative pressure to force the person inside to breathe out mechanically. When that pressure is reversed, it reenters the lungs to equalize pressure.
Polio attacks the nerves stopping the body from being able to send signals to the muscles, causing paralysis, which could be permanent or temporary. One of the most dangerous things about polio is that it can paralyze the muscles that control the diaphragm, called respiratory polio, preventing a person from being able to breathe. Before the iron lung was put into use this was almost always a death sentence.
Some patients who were placed in iron lungs could regain strength to be able to breathe again after spending anywhere from days to months in the machine. Many could also use an iron lung part time,
for example, only sleeping in it rather than needing the assistance full time.
When we think of modern ventilators we do not think of negative pressure ventilation, rather we think of positive pressure being used to force air into the lungs. This was used in surgery before the invention of an iron lung, but was done manually, which was not an optimal way to care for polio patients who needed round-theclock care.
A polio outbreak in 1952 in Copperheagan, where iron lungs were not as readily available, led to a change in procedure. Medical students sat by the beds manually breathing for those who could not. This saved countless lives and was more effective than an iron lung for patients who were suffering from respiratory polio as well as (when the paralysis affects the muscles in the throat in addition to the diaphragm).
Since the 1920s, methods of ventilation have changed greatly. Inventions such as negative ventilators that only needed to enclose the chest and automated positive ventilators have afforded those who depended on part or full-time iron lung usage more mobility. Not needing access to a giant metal machine allows people to travel and be away from home for longer periods giving them access to a fuller life.
So much medical care has changed in the last hundred years that allows people to live longer and fuller lives, so next time you take a breath it's important to remember all the people who couldn't.
You Are Breathing Right Now.
How deadly it is to breathe. Lungs suck ruthlessly pull inward, pressed into themselves then released, spit fervently expel outwards what's trapped. Thank God, a perfect pressurized polka.
Yet gasped it a fearful word stranded inside oneself, craved in an animal way a watchmaker would scoff at, blowing balmy breeze, losing precious air.
Freaky Creatures: A Creature Feature
BY MIA STEINER WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY MAGNUS MANSFIELD
Love stories among animals blossom in a truly unique way, one of a kind to each species. A common form of attracting a mate in the animal kingdom is through mating dances, where males will perform a series of steps in order to catch the attention of a female. Among many animals there are a plethora of different types of dances, many of which often appear humorous to us as humans. This short article dives a bit deeper into four different animals with unique ways of pursuing love, as well as a bonus animal.
The Long-Tailed Manakin:
Some of the most flamboyant mating dances are performed by various species of birds. Courting dance steps consist of multiple complicated actions which birds use to form their routines (1). Examples include the Long Tailed Manakin and the Blue Footed Boobie, two birds skilled at their dance routines.
The Long Tailed Manakin is a small, round bird. Males have primarily black feathers, with a light blue patch on their back and a small red feathered hat on top of their heads. They receive their name from the long tails that set them apart from other birds. They have two long tails that resemble thin pieces of yarn. Females are a similar size, but have yellow-greenish feathers and a shorter tail.
The Long Tailed Manakin usually performs its dance using a branch as its dance floor, visible to any nearby females. They sometimes perform solo dances, but often perform duets (1). While it may appear that
two male birds are competing for the female’s attention, this isn’t the case. In actuality, the team is composed of an alpha male and a beta male, and usually the alpha is the only one who flies away with a lover (1). The Manakin dance begins with a few logistics to be sorted out. There’s the “teeamoo,” where the alpha male sings a call to recruit a beta male to be his wingman, as well as another call known as “toledo,” where the males now are calling females to come watch their dance (1). Once all the main characters are present for the new couple’s meet-cute, the males begin their dance. They take turns hopping into the air for a few seconds, where they curve their tail and feet inwards, quickly flapping their wings before returning to the branch, all while chirping to provide background music.
The different moves of the dance are known as “hopping displays,” “butterfly displays,” “angel flight movements,” and lastly, a “bow” motion (1).
Females will respond with a few movements of their own, in which they provide feedback, and decide whether or not they are impressed.
The Blue Footed Booby:
Another bird with an amusing method of flirtation is the Blue Footed Booby. These birds get their name from their bright blue webbed feet, which are one of their main tools to show off. They have white feathers, with scruffier gray feathers along their head, and dark brown feathers on their wings. They have piercing pastel yellow eyes, and a gray-blue beak that matches their feet.
The dance of the blue footed booby mainly aims to show off their feet. They begin by lifting their feet, alternating between each foot, performing slow “tippytaps”, showing off their bright blue toes.
In addition to the “tippy-taps”, the birds bow their heads, and maybe give their crush a gift (2). Following this introductory flirting game, the male booby begins his dance.
The dance consists of one main move: the booby leans his body forward, tilts his head to look up, and spreads out the entirety of his wings. He’ll do this move a couple of times, then return to bowing his head and tapping his feet again. If his desired paramour is impressed, she will join in, dancing a duet with him (2). They face one another, spread their wings, and tap their feet in sync. While they put a lot of energy and effort into their dance, boobies aren’t monogamous, often having numerous partners throughout their lives (2).
The Peacock Spider:
In addition to birds, other critters, such as spiders, have exquisite moves they use when courting The peacock spider has a lively dance that is rarely seen due to its miniscule size. The spiders get their name from flaps (which resemble the colorful fans peacocks possess) that they keep hidden until it’s time to dance (3). The moves used for their mating dance go further than the visual aspect, as they use numerous types of vibrations as a way to attract females (3). There are “rumble-rumps,” which are short vibrations and occur when the male detects a female’s presence, “crunchrolls,” which occur during the introductory phases of the dance, and “grind-revs,” which occur as the dance is coming to an end (3).
The dance commences with the spider raising its legs one by one. He lifts two legs up, forming a v-shape with his body. When in this position, his legs neatly frame his peacock fan. Once his legs are erect, his peacock fan is revealed, slightly shaking back and forth. He uses his remaining legs to shuffle side to side on his
dance floor, waving his legs and fan in the air the entire time.
The dazzling routine consists of a few different moves, one that is present throughout the whole dance is the “pedipalp flicker,” which is where the spider moves its pedipalps (antennae-like appendages under their eyes) up and down in a flickering motion (3). Next, there is the “3rd leg wave,” which is when the spider lifts its legs into the v-shape and waves them as he dances (3). Once in position, the spider performs “opisthosomal bobbing,” which allows him to move his abdomen in a vertical motion, while he performs the “fan dance,” where he fully shows off his colorful peacock fan through waving motions (3). Part of the dance also consists of the female evaluating the male’s dance. If she seems to be losing interest, the male will perform another move called “fan-flapping,” where he slowly flutters his fan in an attempt to win back the lady’s attention (3).
As the dance comes to its close, the female spider makes her decision. If she’s pleased, mating can commence, but if she’s disappointed, her response will often be aggressive or dangerous (3), and maybe even fatal to the male spider (4).
Pufferfish:
Under the sea, creatures turn to a different form of flirting. Rather than dancing, pufferfish impress their mate with original works of art, spending roughly a week designing their masterpieces (5). They design large circular geometric designs in the sand using their bodies and decorative pieces they find along the ocean floor (5). The geometric art piece begins with a simple circle. The male pufferfish digs through the sand in
The outer ridges of the artsy nest are also decorated with ornamental pieces, such as bits of shells and coral, adding another level of flare to the work of art (5).
During this portion of construction is when females often begin observing the nests, deciding whether or not she is impressed (5).
a rapid manner, utilizing pectoral fins, anal fins, and caudal fins to create ridges and valleys outlining the center (5). The inner circle is a flatter, more comfortable surface, as this is the section where an interested female will mate with the male artist, as well as the nest for the eggs (6). If the male fish succeeds in impressing the lady, he will spend the next six days in the nest protecting the eggs, but paying little attention to his artwork, leading it to concave and flatten under the currents of the water (5). Once the eggs hatch and the new children enter the world, the male will abandon his creation, never returning to that nest site. He may stay in the vicinity when it comes time to reproduce again, but he always creates a new piece of art, never returning or altering a nest site that had already been used (5).
Final Thoughts:
These animals are only four out of millions with unique methods of flirting. Other animals with unique seductive charms worth researching further include: Mudskippers, Sage Grouses, birds-of-paradises, and many more (7). Make sure to check out a bonus animal linked below: walruses! The video is of a local walrus located at Point Defiance, sharing his voice that he uses to attract ladies (9).
LONG TAILED MANAKIN (8)
BLUE FOOTED BOOBY (2)
PEACOCK SPIDER (4)
PUFFERFISH (6)
WALRUS (9)
Why Did 1800s French People Care About Syphilis So Much?
BY DAISY INNIS
In Joris-Karl Huysmans’ 1884 novel, À Rebours, his main character, Jean des Esseintes proclaims: “Tout n’est que syphilis” (tr: “Everything is syphilis”), and for a lot of French people during the 19th century, that certainly felt true (1). In the last few decades of the 19th century, it was estimated that about 20% of the male population in Paris alone had syphilis (2). But syphilis was not the only illness running rampant in the French population—it wasn’t even the only sexually transmitted infection (STI). Gonorrhea, too, was incredibly present in the French population. So why was syphilis the French obsession?
The French obsession can be separated into two main phases: first, syphilis as a disease that could affect each infected individual, and second, as something hereditary that could lead to miscarriage, birth defects, and other reproductive issues. But the overarching fear of it all—of infection, transmission, the hereditary nature of the disease, etc—was the fear of the social decline and “degeneration” of French society.
The first phase of syphilitic obsession, which largely concerned the spread of the disease, involved a focus on prostitutes. Prostitution was heavily regulated in Paris during this time, as prostitutes were forced to register and undergo examinations. However, this did not mean that prostitutes escaped the blame in regards to who was responsible for syphilis transmission (3). Steven Wilson, author of The Language of Disease: Writing Syphilis in Nineteenth Century France characterizes syphilis as “associated with mobile bodies, particularly those of invading soldiers and unregulated prostitutes” and “considered a threat to the health of the individual and the security of the nation precisely because it defied geographical borders,” (4). Wilson expands the association to include members of the military, specifically those of opposing militaries, but it is clear that the presence of these associations was not nearly as socially important to those fearing the disease.
Regardless of the group to which blame was placed, they were all characterized with the common understanding that those who were viewed as transmitters of syphilis had some sort of moral failing. Of course, the same was not said for the middle- and upper-class men who contracted the disease from their extramarital affairs.
The réglementation of prostitutes served as a means of attempting to protect these middle- and upper-class men from syphilis, justified by the belief that “such treatment of ‘unworthy’ women would save respectable wives from diseases that their husbands would have otherwise brought home to them,” (5). The understanding that men would partake in extramarital affairs was a given—instead, doctors and politicians blamed the prostitutes with whom they were involved for infection of syphilis and its immoral implications. The moral failure of syphilis, therefore, was not something transmitted to men upon infection from prostitutes. Rather, the dangers of this immoral disease, supposedly, skipped to the progeny.
The second phase of the syphilitic obsession, led largely by Dr. Alfred Fournier, shifted from a centering of primary infection and its implications to that of future generations. Syphilis has the ability to transmit to a fetus in the womb, but it also has an impact on fertility, healthy development of the fetus, and likelihood of miscarriage and stillbirths. As the nineteenth century headed towards a close, medical and non-medical literature, lectures, conferences, and legislation “increasingly emphasized syphilis’ transmission through heredity, thereby stressing genealogical and familial responsibility over the individual’s immorality in non-pro-creative sexual relations,” (6). Not only did this disease have a physical impact on those born from syphilitic parent(s), but the French understood syphilis to carry a weakening of the bloodline when passed down to progeny. But in this case, the woman involved was largely spared. Instead, syphilologists like Fournier understood the transmission of syphilis as through the procreative material of the father—in other words, the father would pass on the disease directly to the fetus, completely circumventing the mother.
The implications of this type of transmission where incredibly concerning for middle- and upperclass families concerned with legacy and genealogical morality: “The patrilinear transmission of wealth de père en fils perpetuated, at least in the conservative imagination of the time, the values of connection, order and heritage on which social stability depended. By extension, any weakening of this model provoked bourgeois anxiety about the demise not only of cultural values but, in the eyes of some, the very fabric of the nation,” (7). Potential degeneration of social and moral factors of those impacted were not the only concerns. The potential physical issues associated with prenatal syphilis took on social meaning: “the focus of syphilis as a cause of ‘defects,’ a disease that filled hospitals and asylums with ‘human waste’,” (8).
This second phase of syphilitic infection, therefore, was encouraged by the desire for a society without people who are different, both in terms of potential physical differences and moral decline associated with syphilitic infection.
The answer to this question, of why French people were so obsessed with syphilis, seems to be largely entrenched in gender, socio-economic status, and the understanding of what a ‘moral’ society should be. I hesitate to come to a complete conclusion—there is certainly more research to be done, and more factors to consider. But, I feel confident in this: French people during the nineteenth century felt high levels of anxiety about syphilis and its transmission at least in part as a physical representation of their fears about the supposed decline of society.
When it felt like French society was hurtling into a new, unknown, ‘lesser’ society, syphilis seemed a perfect explanation. This physical condition, in all its infectious complexities, offered a moral scapegoat for the expected decline of French society.
Washington’s Official State Dinosaur
BY ADDY PELTZER
Section 1.20.041 of the Revised Code of Washington states that “The Suciasaurus rex is hereby designated as the official dinosaur of the state of Washington,” (1). Much like a state bird or a state flower, Suciasaurus rex holds a special significance to the state of Washington: it is the only dinosaur ever found here! It may be surprising that prior to the Suciasaurus rex, not a single dinosaur had been unearthed in the state of Washington, but more surprising is the fact that there were never any known dinosaurs, terrestrial or aquatic, living in what is now Washington state. During the Mesozoic Era, the period of geologic time when dinosaurs lived, Washington was almost entirely underwater (2). Not only did this prevent any terrestrial dinosaurs from living in the area, it also means that conditions were not ideal for fossilization. Fossils of any kind are relatively rare in Washington, but dinosaurs are an especially exciting find. Historically, the most common paleontological finds in Washington have been pelecypods, which are a type of bivalve (like oysters and clams), trilobites (ancient arthropods that look a bit like horseshoe crabs), and cephalopods resembling the modern-day nautilus (3).
ILLUSTRATION BY
BENNETT FITZGERALD
when Washington State Legislature introduced the aforementioned bill in 2019 (4). The dinosaur was initially called an “indeterminate theropod dinosaur” before more publicity developed around it, leading to the eventual determination of its scientific name.
Little is known about what S. rex would have been like in life, since we only have one leg bone to go off of, but paleontologists have
been able to make some inferences. Suciasaurus likely lived in a coastal area between what is now Mexico and California. After our Washington specimen died, it probably made its way into the ocean, where it was pulled apart by predators and the natural motion of the tides, until one fateful section of femur happened to settle in conditions that supported fossilization. Paleontologists can compare this section of femur to those of other Tyrannosaurus specimens to determine the approximate size of the dinosaur, which is said to be approximately 30 to 35 feet. We are able to know our specimen is a theropod because those were the only type of dinosaur living in North America at the time that would have had a thigh bone similar to that of Suciasaurus.
Suciasaurus was found in the San Juan Islands, specifically the island of Sucia, from which it gets its name. Paleontologists theorize that the dinosaur washed out to sea after it died, becoming fossilized with a layer of marine sediment. Suciasaurus is thought to be a Tyrannosaur, a familiar species of large dinosaur characterized by large skulls, forward-facing eyes, and short arms. Suciasaurus rex is actually older than its familiar cousin the Tyrannosaurus rex, living about 14 million years before T. rex appears in the fossil record. After its initial discovery in 2012 (only a portion of its femur was found, but that was enough to identify it), Amy Cole, an elementary school student from Parkland, Washington, petitioned to make S. rex our official state dinosaur. Her efforts proved successful
Fortunately, some clams, already known to paleontologists to have lived around 80 million years ago, made their home on this chunk of dinosaur femur around the same time that it settled to the ocean floor. These clams also became fossilized with the dinosaur, and have helped scientists date the fossil (5). The S. rex femur now resides in the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture in Seattle. While we don’t have enough information from one femur to piece to gather an idea of the complete skeleton, attention from both paleontologists and elementary school students like Amy Cole has helped bring Washington’s first dinosaur into the limelight and give it a name, so our dinosaur isn’t just an “indeterminate theropod” anymore, but instead the “Suciasaurus rex.”
Astrophotography
BY MAX KETTERER
The less detailed photo (p. 25, bottom right) is taken with a white light filter. Less detail is visible because the inner layers of the sun are much brighter than the surface and so only sunspots and some granulation are visible.
The full photo (p. 25, top) is taken using a hydrogen alpha filter, which only lets in a specific wavelength of light produced only on the sun's surface so that the beautiful surface details are visible. The jets coming off the side of the sun are called filaments and the brightness of the photo is inversed so that they are more visible. This is also why the sunspots look white instead of black in this photo.
It's also worth noting that both pictures are taken with a monochrome camera and color is added in post. The colors do not represent the actual color of the sun but are rather a neat visual representation of how we imagine it.
The Physical and Psychological Science of Tattoos
BY BENNETT FITZGERALD
Tattoos, historically and currently, are an incredibly common form of self-expression, accessory, and display of culture in countless societies. If you go to Japan, New Zealand, Africa, or even Greenland, chances are you will see someone adorned with art on their skin. Even on our own campus, it’s rare to go from Thompson to the SUB without walking by at least one person with tattoos. While tattoos have different kinds of significance in different parts of the world, the physical method of tattooing, the way the brain reacts to the stimulus, and the way the body reacts—during and after the process—is all the same.
Starting with the materials of a tattoo itself, there are different kinds of ink, dyes, and pigments that are embedded into the skin via needle. In the U.S., ink is most commonly used. Common tattoo ink contains two different parts, the carrying solution (an aqueous solution), and the pigment itself (which is solid or molecular). Carrying solutions typically consist of water and ethanol and/or isopropyl alcohol. Inks consist of varying colorful metals/metal oxides or polyaromatic compounds.
COMMON COMPOUNDS USED IN TATTOO INK (4, 6)
TATTOO BY LAUREN GARELICK ON LAUREN'S LEFT THIGH
Moving on to the actual process of tattooing, a needle that rapidly and repetitively penetrates the skin deposits the ink into the dermal layer. The dermis is about 1.5 to 2.0 mm below the surface of the skin. Needles used to tattoo typically range from 0.25mm to 0.40mm in diameter and can either be used standing alone or arranged in varying formations of four to 15 needles in a grouping.
The concept of repeatedly stabbing into your skin with a needle for hours, even up to nine hours, doesn’t sound very painless. Many, if not all people report experiencing pain during tattoos. The pain can depend on the location of the tattoo on your body, with areas of thinner skin and prominent bone (such as knees, shins, or fingers) being more painful, and areas with thicker skin (such as thighs and shoulders) being less painful. If tattooing was pure, unbearable agony, there would be far less people with these body modifications. But there’s lots of tattoo-covered folk and lots of people who even enjoy being tattooed. This is because of a physiological reaction to the pain. When experiencing pain, endorphins are released in the brain. These hormones' purpose is to alleviate pain and improve mood. So, when your brain registers the pain of thousands of stabs on your skin, it counteracts the repetitive minor traumas with a “natural high”. This high can be compelling, leading to a common experience where once you get one tattoo, you want another… and another… and another. The production of endorphins is not unique to painful experiences and occurs when exercising, eating, and having sex.
In the same way someone can get hooked on running marathons or binging food, endorphin-chasers can also get hooked on painful body modifications like piercings or tattoos.
In the same way someone can get hooked on running marathons or binging food, endorphin-chasers can also get hooked on painful body modifications like piercings or tattoos.
Despite shedding an estimated 5 billion skin cells per day, tattoo ink remains in the dermis. Macrophages, a kind of white blood cell that specializes in killing microorganisms and stimulating action of other immune cells (1), uses phagolysosomes to “chew up” any threats. Phagolysosomes use acidic content,
low pH, and enzymes to kill threats (2). However, tattoo ink is invulnerable to this process and the molecules of ink stain the macrophages whatever color is deposited. These macrophages either eventually retire and die, or realize they are unable to get rid of the ink, releasing the pigment which then stays trapped in the skin (3). Tattoos have a tendency to lose their vibrancy over time, which is a result of the macrophages partially doing their job— chewing up the ink and dispersing it. Friction and injury can also speed up the fading process of tattoos by removing the skin cells that hold the ink in place.
TATTOO BY LAUREN GARELICK
A study done in early 2024 was conducted to analyze commercial tattoo ink and uncover any unlisted ingredients in the ink. Using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy, chemists found several unlisted inorganic pigments. Higher alkanes, or organic compounds consisting of only carbon and hydrogen atoms, were also found, specifically nonane (C9H20, alkanes with 9 carbons and 20 hydrogens) and dodecane (C12H26, alkanes with 12 carbons and 26 hydrogens). 54 inks were analyzed and 25 inks were found to contain unlisted ingredients. 11 inks were found to show complete inaccurate listings of pigment compositions.
Out of the 9 brands of tattoo ink analyzed, only one brand had entirely correct labels...
ON LINO'S RIGHT THIGH
...six brands with major label discrepancies, and two brands with a combination of major and minor label discrepancies (5).
"I think making art is one of the most exciting things I can do with my time. I really just start drawing
or
creating by forming whatever
shapes
seem meaningful and express whatever I'm
feeling. It's especially rewarding to work creatively in a way that can tangibly and permanently make people appreciate their bodies as a canvas and as art. I started tattooing in high school and became more serious a couple years ago with the support from other tattoo artists in Tacoma and Denver, which has been extremely helpfu. I'm hoping to gain more practice, expand my creativity, and make as good of an impact as I can through this form of art." - Lauren Garelick
Tattooing is a highly common practice. It would not be if it was highly dangerous. However, this study highlights that it’s important to know what’s going into your skin, just like how it’s important to understand anything else going into your body. Infection from improper healing is far more common than infection from inks, although allergies to certain ingredients of ink is also a possible inhibitor of proper healing. Tattoo artists typically recommend wearing an airsealed “second skin” over your fresh tattoo for the first few days. After the second skin is removed, washing the tattoo with antibacterial unscented soap and moisturizing gently with unscented lotion gives the best results for a smooth healing process.
Tattoos are taboo for some and common practice for others. They are a cultural practice that has been around for thousands of years which also constantly evolve with new adaptations in different parts of the world. As with everything relating to the human body and brain, science can give us a better understanding of something we may not have thought twice about, whether you are tattooless and find yourself staring at others with art on their skin, or are booking your next tattoo appointment not only a month after your last.
TATTOO BY LAUREN GARELICK ON AMELIE'S LEFT UPPER ARM
TATTOOs BY LAUREN GARELICK ON LAUREN'S LEGS
Upcycled Moon Jellies
BY ALYSIANA SAR
For this piece, I utilized upcycled items from my household to create Aurelia Auritas, aka Moon Jelly. I incorporated a variety of different cardboards, plastic wrap, stuffing, and paper to shape and form the structure of the jellyfish. I made a simple water and flour paste to coat the outside with the leftover paper to harden and smooth the exterior. I painted them using White and Cobalt Blue.
When marine ecosystems are out of balance due to overfishing, pollution, and/or ocean warming, the moon jellies appear more frequently. Unlike other sea creatures, the moon jellies are able to thrive in inhabitable waters. I believe our land and waters will never be fully clear from humancreated waste, causing an imbalance in nature, ecosystems and our lives.
VELCOME TO
What STI Are You?
BY DAISY INNIS
1. How soon do you start studying for an exam/ test?
a. As soon as the exam is announced
b. Once your professor gives you the study guide
c. The week before
d. The night before
2. Where do you choose to study?
a. Library
b. Random Empty Classroom
c. Divs/Opp
d. Dorm
3. How do you take notes?
a. Handwritten in a notebook
b. Written on an IPad/Tablet
c. Typed
d. I don’t take notes
4. What snack/treat do you need while you work?
a. Sweet treat
b. Savory treat
c. Yummy drink
d. Nothing
5. How do you annotate?
a. Highlighter
d. I don’t annotate
6. What kind of noise do you like?
a. Silence
b. White noise
d. Lots of people around
7. If you listen to music, what do you listen to?
a. Classical
Mostly A’s - You’re HPV! Human Papillomavirus is a treatable, but not curable STI, so once someone contracts you, they have you forever! You’re so prepared that they can’t get you out of their system. You might just be too organized for your own good, and that can cause cancer later in life, unfortunately. Don’t burn yourself out! Stay non-oncogenic!
Mostly B’s - You’re Gonorrhea, aka The Clap! Gonorrhea is a curable STI, so you can be taken out by antibiotics. However, you are still mighty! You have a broad range of modes of infection, and just like your study habits, they are quite effective! You can spread through genital areas or mouth, nose, and throat. Some strains are becoming drug-resistant, and you might be on your way to being one of them! Keep up the good work!
Mostly C’s - You’re Chlamydia! Chlamydia is a curable STI, so you can be taken out by antibiotics. You might not always be the most on top of your work, but this doesn’t mean that you aren’t still awesome! Chlamydia is a common STI, and people often don’t even have symptoms when they get you!
Mostly D’s - You’re Pubic Lice, aka Crabs! Unlike other STI’s, you are not a virus or an infection. You are actually a bunch of little louse creatures! You feed on human blood and are found in pubic hair. Pubic lice are also capable of climbing a person’s body hairs to other parts of the body. Much like pubic lice, you just do whatever works for you, and this means that you might sometimes get a little behind on your work, but that’s okay! You’ll bounce back and climb up even more hairs on the human body!
Pee Like a Pirate
BY STELLA DORMER
The best time to be a pirate is the middle of the night when you need to pee. Ok, here me out. We all know the 2am pee routine pretty well. You finally drag yourself out of your warm bed and are able to deftly navigate the dark room and dark hallways with the faint light of the moon. You do what you gotta do under the way too bright fluorescent lights of the bathroom then stumble quite loudly and awkwardly back in what is now pitch black darkness. This disconcerting flailing about in the darkness is a perpetual problem. But the pirates have the solution.
Pirates may have worn eyepatches, not to cover an injured eye, but to be able to switch quickly between light and dark areas. After all, they would have to go between the bright sun above deck to the dimly lit below deck or a brightly lit room up to a starry night. Clearly pirates don’t have the patience for their eyes to adjust.
When we are looking around in a brightly lit area, it’s mainly the cone photoreceptors (sensitive to color) that are active in the eye. But when we switch to a dimly lit area, the rod photoreceptors (more sensitive to light) take over. The one downside is that it takes a moment for the rods to start working. This is why on the way back from the bathroom, after being in bright light, the once dimly lit hallway seems pitch black.
By keeping one eye in the dark, eyepatches let the rods stay activated on one eye while the other adjusts to a bright light. When a pirate goes below deck, they simply switch the eyepatch to the other eye and voila! Instant night vision!
Now you too can harness this pirate power.
Your first option is to go online and buy an eyepatch right this second and live your best pirate life. Or if you’re not that committed to the pirate aesthetic, you can achieve the same effect by shutting one eye before you turn on the bathroom light. Make sure to keep squeezing that eye shut the entire time the light is on and if you have long hair, you can move your hair in front of that eye to block out even more light as a makeshift eyepatch. Then when it’s time to head back into the darkness, turn off the light and switch the eye that’s open.
And ta-da! Now you’re peeing like a pirate!
Elementunes Fall '24
About Me
Jasco J-720
Age: Timeless
Thompson 369A
Looking For:
A Passion for Precision: If you’re into clean, reproducible data, we’ll get along famously. I need someone who appreciates the subtle differences in light and understands that the small stuff really matters.
Scientific Compatibility: Regardless of your inquiry, I’m all about helping you solve molecular mysteries.
No Drama: I’m a highly efficient machine, so I’m not here for any complicated relationships. I’m all about clarity, stability, and understanding, especially when it comes to protein structures.
I’m not just any instrument, I’m the Jasco J-720, the ultimate Circular Dichroism (CD) spectropolarimeter, here to break down complex molecular relationships one chirality at a time. My past relationships? Well, let’s just say I’ve had some high-profile partners. Most recently, I was living it up at UW. Now, I'm ready for my next chapter with you! Whether you’re studying proteins or diving into nucleic acids, I’ve got the moves to show you how your molecules fold, twist, and interact.
Status: Single and ready to measure up! If you’re looking for a competent lab partner, need help with your next research project and want to learn more about the optical properties of chiral molecules, I’m here for you. Ready to get in sync?
Hobbies & Interests
Studying the way proteins fold and stabilize (yeah, I know how to keep things stable in a relationship).
Analyzing nucleic acids and small biomolecules, because who doesn’t love a bit of DNA drama?
Helping scientists develop new biotherapeutics—I’m really into helping things grow (in the lab, of course)
Green Flags
Strong Bonds: I excel at determining secondary structures (alpha-helix vs. beta-sheet). If you need to figure out whether your molecule is more "ordered" or "disordered," I’m your go-to spectroscopy.
Versatility: I’m the ultimate multi-tasker: whether you’re exploring protein folding, testing molecular stability, or studying DNA, I’ve got you covered. Just think of me as your perfect analytical partner, always ready to get to the heart of things.
Clear Communicator: I don’t waste time with ambiguity. My readings give you clear insights into molecular chirality, stability, and even ligand binding (1). I'm not just a pretty interface, I’ve got the data to back up my claims.
Citations
Textiles in the Modern World: Alginate Yarn
(1) Preuss, S. Sustainable textile innovations: bio yarn made from kelp fibres. FashionUnited. https://fashionunited.uk/news/ business/sustainable-textile-innovations-bio-yarnmade-from-kelp-fibres/2018032628811.
(2) Weeden, M. 8 Amazing Bamboo Facts. One Tree Planted.
https://onetreeplanted.org/blogs/stories/bamboo
(3) Vartan, S. Fashion Forward: How Three Revolutionary Fabrics Are Greening the IndustryJSTOR Daily. JSTOR Daily. https://daily.jstor.org/ fashion-forward-three-revolutionary-fabricsgreening-industry/
(4) Trivedi, Y. Biopolymers in Textiles. Textilesphere.com.
(2) André, J.; Brochet, C.; Louis, Q.; Barral, A.; Guillen, A.; Goh, F.-T.; Prieto, A.; Guillet, T. Motion of rain drops on a car side window. Emergent Scientist 2019, 3, 3. https://doi.org/10.1051/ emsci/2019002.
(3) Grand-Piteira, N. L.; Daerr, A.; Limat, L. Meandering Rivulets on a Plane: A Simple Balance between Inertia and Capillarity. Physical Review Letters 2006, 96 (25). https://doi.org/10.1103/ physrevlett.96.254503.
Freaky Creatures: A Creature Feature
(1) Buckner, C and Yang Keyao. Mating Dances and the Evolution of Language: What’s the Next Step? Biology & Philosophy [Online] 2017. 12891316. Proquest Central. https://www.proquest.com/ docview/1967711146/fulltextPDF (accessed Oct 30th, 2024).
(2) Nat Geo Animals. The Blue Footed Booby Mating Dance | Wild Love. Youtube, February 14th, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=lcPHFQP9GN0 (accessed Oct 30th, 2024).
(3) Girard, M; Kasumovic, M; Elias, D. Multi-Modal Courtship in the Peacock Spider, Maratus volans. PLoS One [online], 2011. 1-10. Proquest Central. https://www.proquest.com/ docview/1308861575/fulltextPDF (accessed Oct 30th, 2024).
(4) Nature on PBS. Peacock Spider Mating Dance. Youtube, November 16th, 2017. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=v3HlwwJG85c (accessed Oct 30th, 2024).
(5) Kawase, H; Okata, Y; Ito, K. Role of Huge Geometric Circular Structures in the Reproduction of a Marine Pufferfish. Scientific Reports (Nature Publisher Group) [online], 2013. 1-5. Proquest Central. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1897434831/ fulltextPDF (accessed Oct 30th, 2024).
(6) Nature on PBS. Pufferfish Builds Sand Sculptures for Mating. Youtube, October 18th, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1k0MMxhOVpA (accessed Oct 30th, 2024).
(7) Osterloff, E. Best Foot Forward: Eight Animals that Dance to Impress. https://www.nhm. ac.uk/discover/animals-that-dance-to-impress.html
(accessed Nov 8th, 2024).
(8) Discovery. Manakin Mating Song and Dance. Youtube, August 17, 2016. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=-V4iJOakhGk. (accessed Dec 7, 2024).
(9) Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium. E.T. The Walrus Practices His Vocalizations at Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium. Youtube, June 8, 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= OAVL61yeCYs. (accessed Dec 7, 2024).
Why did 1800s French People Care About Syphilis So Much?
(1) Huysmans, Joris-Karl. A Rebours; Gallimard, 1977, pp 193.
(2) Wilson, Steven. The Language of Disease: Writing Syphilis in Nineteenth-Century France; Modern Humanities Research Association, 2020, pp 1.
(3) Harsin, Jill. Syphilis, Wives, and Physicians: Medical Ethics and the Family in Nineteenth Century France. French Historical Studies [Online] 1989, 72-95. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/286434. Accessed October 27, 2024, pp 72.
(4) Wilson, Steven. The Language of Disease: Writing Syphilis in Nineteenth-Century France; Modern Humanities Research Association, 2020, pp 15.
(5) Harsin, Jill. Syphilis, Wives, and Physicians: Medical Ethics and the Family in Nineteenth Century France. French Historical Studies [Online] 1989, 72-95. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/286434. Accessed October 27, 2024, pp 72.
(6) Koos, Leonard R. Damaged Literary Goods: Telling the Tale of Syphilis in Nineteenth Century France. Dalhousie French Studies [Online] 2007, 45-58. JSTOR. https://jstor.org/stable/40838407. Accessed October 28, 2024. pp 55.
(7) Wilson, Steven. The Language of Disease: Writing Syphilis in Nineteenth-Century France; Modern Humanities Research Association, 2020, pp 59.
(8) Cahen, Fabrice; Minard, Adrien. Fecundity in a World of Scourges: Venereal Diseases and Acquired Infertility in France, circa 1880-1950. In The Hidden Affliction: Sexually Transmitted Infections and Infertility in History; Boydell & Brewer; University of Rochester Press, 2019; pp 348.
Washington's Official State Dinosaur
(1) RCW 1.20.041. In: Revised Code of Washington; Washington State Legislature;
(2) Introducing Washington's First Dinosaur. Burke Museum. 20 May, 2015. https://www.burkemuseum.org/news/introducingwashingtons-first-dinosaur. (accessed Sept 27, 2024).
(3) Murray, Marian. Hunting for Fossils: A Guide to Finding and Collecting Fossils in All 50 States. 1974. Collier Books. p. 348.
(4) Camden, Jim. T. rex relative could become Washington’s official state dinosaur. The Spokesman-Review. 18 January, 2020.https://www. spokesman.com/stories/2020/jan/18 /t-rex-relative-could-become-washingtons-official-s/. (accessed Sept 11, 2024).
(5) Peecock, Brandon R.; Sidor, Christian A.. The First Dinosaur from Washington State and a Review of Pacific Coast Dinosaurs from North America. Plos One, 2015. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/ journal.pone.0127792. (accessed Sept 11, 2024).
The Physical and Psychological Science Of Tattoos (1) NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms. Cancer.gov. https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/ cancer-terms/def/macrophage
(3) Riggs, J. Why Tattoos Stay Put. UCSF Synapse. https://synapse.ucsf.edu/articles/2024/05/28/whytattoos-stay-put
(4) Disha Patni; Deepak Anap; Mamania, J. A.; Sushil Kachewar. A Scientific Tale of a Tattoo with a Twist 1. ResearchGate 2017, 3 (4), 236–239. https://doi.org/10.5005/jpjournals-10056-0079.
(5) Moseman, K.; Ahmed, A.; Ruhren, A.; Swierk, J. R. What’s in My Ink: An Analysis of Commercial Tattoo Ink on the US Market. Analytical Chemistry 2024, 96 (9), 3906–3913. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.3c05687.
(6) Spratt, A. June 29, 2016. Tattoos Tattooing Arm - Free Photo on Pixabay. Pixabay.com. https://pixabay.com/photos/ tattoos-tattooing-arm-skin-1209589/.
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