SPEED AND OUTSIDE INFLUENCE
PREVIOUS: Fig. 22. Speed limit signs and a new road are gifts from Australian aid. Tarawa.
Through the Paris Agreement 195 nations committed to “holding the rise in global temperatures to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels.”47 The variance in potential sea level rise between a couple of degrees can be substantial with a 1.5°C increase equating to a 1 metre rise and a 2°C increase leading to a rise of up to 4 metres.48 A 4 metre rise would be devastating for the low lying cities of Amsterdam and Venice, but with the US now having indicated their withdrawal from the Agreement, it will be all that much tougher to achieve the aims therein. With a 2°C rise, 280 million people would be displaced while a worse case scenario rise of 4°C would lead to the displacement of 600 million people.49 Such mass migration will cause huge disruption and is indeed a challenge for humanity.
In response to the threat posed various nations have turned to mitigate the situation by investing in infrastructure. The Netherlands is constructing a 3700 km sea and flood defence and spending billions in the process.50 Australia has turned to city planning new towns to house the millions that are expected to turn up on their shores in desperation from the surrounding island nations - potentially
47. “Paris Agreement,” Climate Action - European Commission, 2017 <https://ec.europa.eu/clima/ policies/international/negotiations/paris_en#tab-0-0> [accessed 3 September 2017]
48. “ScienceDaily,” ScienceDaily(ScienceDaily) <https://www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/2012/06/120624134955.htm> [accessed 3 September 2017]
49. “See How Our Megacities Will 'Slip under the Waves' with Two Degree Rise in Temperatures,” The Telegraph (Telegraph Media Group, 2015) <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/ worldnews/11983115/How-our-megacities-will-slip-under-the-waves-with-two-degree-rise-intemperatures.html> [accessed 3 September 2017]
50. “Netherlands to Upgrade Flood Defences to Cope with Climate Change,” Climate HomeClimate Change News (Climate Home, 2014) <http://www.climatechangenews.com/2014/03/04/ netherlands-to-upgrade-flood-defences-to-cope-with-climate-change/> [accessed 3 September 2017]
including Kiribati.51 The Maldives has also looked to Australia as savior by buying land to house 350,000 or their people.52
These are localised responses driven by individual desperationimpulsive and lacking in long-term vision. Some commentators have looked at such approaches unfavourably, seeing them as more reactive rather than proactive, looking to sea-level rise as an inevitable outcome rather than fighting the good fight.53 This may indeed be the case, and collectively we do need to work together internationally to combat the fundamental issues but it would be churlish to berate affected nations for aiming to mitigate negative outcomes. It could be that the world will continue to warm even if we address what science tells us we need to and so we all need to be prepared to adapt.
Ocean acidification is caused by the excess carbon dioxide in our atmosphere being absorbed by the oceans. This leads to the ph of the water increasing and many species of coral to die. This ‘bleaching’ has been observed across the world. If carbon emissions are not reduced, ocean acidification will
51. Doherty, Ben, “'Disaster Alley': Australia Could Be Set to Receive New Wave of Climate Refugees,” The Guardian (Guardian News and Media, 2017) <https://www.theguardian.com/ environment/2017/apr/05/disaster-alley-australia-could-be-set-to-receive-new-wave-of-climaterefugees> [accessed 3 September 2017]
52. “Maldives Look to Mass Australian Migration as Solution to Rising Sea Levels,” Australian Visa Bureau News <http://www.visabureau.com/australia/news/10-01-2012/maldives-look-to-massaustralian-migration-as-solution-to-rising-sea-levels.aspx> [accessed 3 September 2017]
53. “The Art of a Deal? Reflections on US Withdrawal from the Paris Accord,” The Polar Connection, 2017 <https://polarconnection.org/us-withdrawal-paris-accord/> [accessed 3 September 2017]
OPPOSITE: Fig. 23. Dead coconut palms after floodinduced soil salinization. Tarawa.
9 percent of people of the planet or a billion people rely on coral reefs for their source of protein. Likewise some 30 million people live on land which will soon be inundated with water within the next 100 years. These people will be forced to migrate to higher ground and places with secure food sources. It is therefore in the best interests of all the larger countries of the world, which are generally the highest per capita emitters of carbon dioxide, to not only reduce their greenhouse emissions but also take active steps to promote food security and coral growth development projects. With governments paying refugees to stay in their home countries, such climate refugees should be “paid” through technology and systems based approaches as well as solid infrastructure development.
While current research has shown that the coral in the islands can continue to grow and in turn, grow the size of the islands55, this is dependent upon the reduction of ocean acidification and the response of the community to other climate induced changes. These include more frequent storms and coastal disruptions. The islands are generally considered Low Risk for cyclones, however cyclone movement is enough to cause severe flooding events such as when Cyclone Pam passed by a couple of years ago.
Flooding causes damage to water wells, erosion and damage to natural food sources such as the coconut palm. On Abaiang, the village of Tebunginako
54. “Coral Reefs and Climate Change - How Does Climate Change Affect Coral Reefs - Teach Ocean Science,” Teach Ocean Science <http://www.teachoceanscience.net/teaching_resources/ education_modules/coral_reefs_and_climate_change/how_does_climate_change_affect_coral_reefs/> [accessed 3 September 2017]
55. Webb and Kench, The Dynamic response of reef islands to sea-level rise: evidence from multidecadal analysis of island change in the central pacific
PREVIOUS PAGE: Fig. 24. All that is left is the church and a maneaba . Tebunginako, Abaiang. increase.54
is now partially offshore as erosion from constant flooding meant that the sea has now slowly claimed a large portion of the land. The posts of the previous structures rising above the water. When saltwater intrudes, the coconut palms begin to die from the top down, losing fruit and leaves, just leaving the dead stalk as a reminder of better days.56
“Sustainable” extraction of construction aggregates was established as an enterprise in 2014.57 This has been achieved through dredging, excavating and processing coralline material from the lagoon. The previous industry of sand mining by comparison has been incredibly harsh on the environment, leading to extensive erosion, however the workforce for this has been moved into the less damaging industry of coral extraction.
To address the constant erosion the Kiribati Adaptation Program was launched in 2005 with funding from the World Bank and Australia. Now finishing up its third phase, the two primary areas of focus have been building coastal resilience and building infrastructure for better water resource management.
Mangroves dominate the lagoon coastlines of the atolls. These plants have been culturally important as both a source of traditional building materials, folk medicine, and dye. They also provide protection against erosion, tropical storms and wave damage. Under the Kiribati Adaptation Program Phase II, 37,000 seedlings were planted for just this very reason - to act as sea walls.
It has been shown that mangroves are very good at adapting to rising sea
56. “Climate Change - Abaiang,” Climate Change<http://www.climate.gov.ki/case-studies/abaiang/> [accessed 3 September 2017]
57. Ministry of Finance & Economic Development, Republic of Kiribati, p. 8.
OPPOSITE LEFT: Fig. 25. Baby mangroves grow in the lagoon. Tarawa.
OPPOSITE RIGHT: Fig. 26. A mangrove seed has washed up. North Tarawa.
levels while also retaining soil.58 As surrounding coral continues to grow upwards, the cycle of death and accumulation of sand on the surface will continue. The mangrove plant itself moves upwards away from the water - constantly adapting to its situation.
Major flooding events have also caused serious immediate damage. This was the case on the island of Tamana where 65 homes were destroyed in 2015.59 The Betio Hospital’s maternity ward also flooded after one such surge as a result of Cyclone Pam.60
Aid agencies have looked to mitigate other issues such as lack of education and healthcare rapidly, as well as housing. In their haste, and in the spirit of any solution is better than no solution at all, some less than ideal outcomes have been built which are poorly ventilated, low on the ground and with no connection to the local culture. There is an evolution taking place here slowly however with newer buildings being built with raised foundations that use less concrete.61
58. Krauss, Ken W., Karen L. Mckee, Catherine E. Lovelock, Donald R. Cahoon, Neil Saintilan, Ruth Reef, and others, “How Mangrove Forests Adjust to Rising Sea Level,” New Phytologist, 202 (2013), 19–34 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nph.12605>
59. Michael Foon Interview. See Appendix.
60. “Rescuing Kiribati's Drowning Maternity Ward,” ABC News, 2016 <http://www.abc.net.au/ news/2016-05-06/fundraiser-launched-to-save-flooded-maternity-ward-in-kiribati/7389670> [accessed 3 September 2017]
61. Coffey International, Evolution of the kitset design, (Unpublished internal report sourced from Rebecca Pryor)
OPPOSITE: Fig. 27. Housing provided by NZAid. Exterior.
ABOVE:
28.
LEFT:
29.
OPPOSITE TOP: Fig. 30. Primary school under construction. Tarawa.
OPPOSITE BOTTOM: Fig.
31. Evolution of the Coffey International school building kitset design.
Sea wall solutions have mainly consisted of piling up sandbags which provide little relief. Pelenise Alofa of KiriCAN has been very critical of this response: “if we want to be serious about protecting from the waves then we should do what the Netherlands is doing!”62 referring to the multi-billion dollar Maeslant Storm Surge Barrier63. A similarly expensive solution is the sea wall of concrete tetrapods protecting the capital island of the Maldives, Male, which cost some $60 million in 1987 money for a tiny 1 mile long island and making it the “ugliest island in the Maldives”64. Being highly economically vulnerable and heavily reliant on foreign aid already, such solutions are out of the budget scope for Kiribati. Pouring money - non-existent at that - on solutions which will only create a larger environmental impact is not the way forward. Then what is the solution?
Hamdi has written about the need to be suspicious of community, the “c-word” or that which promotes a singular standard at the expense of change65. The focus of aid agencies to work to develop a ‘community’ can be problematic as this leads to a homogenised version of a group whereby some are winners and some are losers, where there might have been a very complex pattern of small communities, an ecosystem not fully appreciated, where “hundreds of millions are
62. Notes from a conversation with Pelenise Alofa, Tarawa, Kiribati (2017)
63. “As Sea Levels Rise, Rotterdam Floats to the Top as an Example of How to Live with Water,” Public Radio International <https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-06-20/sea-levels-rise-rotterdam-floatstop-example-how-live-water> [accessed 3 September 2017]
64. “Maldives Builds Barriers to Global Warming,” NPR (NPR, 2008) <http://www.npr.org/ templates/story/story.php?storyId=18425626> [accessed 3 September 2017]
65. Koolhaas, p. 89.
PREVIOUS: Fig. 32. The mix of settlement. Modern school buildings across the street from flood-prone residences. Eita, Tarawa.
OPPOSITE LEFT: Fig. 33. A typical sea wall made from sandbags filled with concrete. Tarawa.
OPPOSITE RIGHT: Fig.
34. Betio Maternity Ward Flooding. Betio.
marginalised, oppressed and made miserable by discrimination and exclusion.”66 It is tempting to create an organised, clean bureaucratic structure that pairs the state, the market and society as equal partners but these power relationships are never as clean cut and are almost always biased to the benefit of one and the marginalisation of the other.
In some ways Kiribati has skipped the 20th century, with technology playing a vital role in the development of the country. Low voltage devices such as LED lighting, sensors and smartphones powered by solar are enabling the local community to participate in the global community, to learn - self-teach, network and advocate for further support and change.
Sea sensors are used to collect weather information and are satellite connected, transmitting oceanic change data as well as alerting for potential threats back to base.67 Most of the islands are serviced by a mobile phone network - with a 4G connection that can even be found out at sea. In a place where they still do not have their own currency but instead use the Australian Dollar, the use of digital credits sent from phone to phone are acting as a simple way to encourage commerce on the islands. 13 percent are internet users and 38.8% have a mobile phone subscription.68 Most power is still provided by fossil fuel - diesel engines - and when this fails so does the connection. 43.47 percent petroleum and 51.6 percent biomass energy sources in 2014.69 Lamps used to be lit with kerosene but have now mostly been replaced with LEDs.
66. Hamdi, p. 72.
67. “News,” Many Strong Voices <http://www.manystrongvoices.org/news.aspx?id=5274> [accessed 3 September 2017]
68. UNDP
69. Ministry of Finance & Economic Development, Republic of Kiribati, p. 45.
Fig. 35. A kiakia hooked up to a solar powered battery. Abaiang.
OPPOSITE: Fig. 36. Moving house, Kiribati-style. Don’t forget your solar panels! Betio Wharf, Tarawa.
Investment and aid from the European Union is allowing for greater solar energy access. Over 2000 solar home kits and 281 solar kits for maneaba and businesses being provided in 2015. Further support from Taiwan, UAE, Japan and the European Union is providing various solar based initiatives across the islands. With automated power management the systems are anticipated to provide nearly 30 percent of the total demand and save around $800000 per annum in fuel costs70. Renewable energy sources are currently providing 2.9 percent of total electricity. 71 However maintenance and continued use of these technologies has been hampered by the current use of wet batteries during drought periods - dry cell technology will help here.
Inter island transport is also difficult, with unreliable air services. And unscheduled sea services. There is no flight connection between the two main economic centres of Kiritimati and Tarawa. My own plans to visit the country has meant a choice between these two options with either a flight East through Asia or West through the US being required.
There has been great success and innovation, but going beyond this we need more innovative thinking and a greater connection and appreciation of local culture during these innovations. Transitions using tech for energy sources has been very successful and community empowering. The same level of engagement needs to be had when dealing with the threat of flooding and how we can adapt existing infrastructure and build an ever growing community
70. Ibid., p. 14.
71. UNDP
OPPOSITE: Fig. 37. Handstand competitions. North Tarawa.
North Tarawa. As we crossed the small causeway in the canoe, my feet dangled over the side opposite the outrigger dragging along in the water. Our boatman with his greying hair stared straight ahead intently - ignoring my attempts to photograph him in the failing light. The boat pulled up to the shore and we carefully got off, I did not want to drop my camera in the water. A group of children ran up to us and began a headstand competition. I managed to get a shot of the two boys who were the best at it. As the sun proceeded to set, suddenly all the LEDs turned on throughout the village and peering through the windows as I passed I could see the children continuing to practice their headstands inside.
INITIAL DESIGN
PREVIOUS: Fig. 39. Private tebuia extend over the causeway between South Tarawa and North Tarawa.
Early theorisations on potential architectural interventions for Kiribati took place prior to my visit. From my initial perspective, I saw self-sufficiency as key to unlocking solutions for a multitude of issues. Self-sufficiency would mean less reliance on the import of foreign goods, reducing the trade deficit and potentially eliminating the buildup of waste on the beaches of Kiribati. Self-sufficiency also speaks of self-reliance and self-determination - the building blocks of identity and dignity and the beginning of a move away from a dependency on international aid. The nation is still heavily reliant on outside funding for their survival. This should prompt us to invest further in order to reach a level of adaptation which requires minimal future investment.72
Self-sufficiency can be aided by a well thought through application of technologies, including the Internet of Things, to tie together a series of seemingly small innovations into a cohesive whole - an organic network managed by AI, working hand-in-hand with the local people to protect and preserve their way of life. This is not beyond reality, as my investigations have shown technology is already making a large impact. Coupled with architectural interventions this utopian ideal can be taken further still and I looked to creating a new floating community off shore that would allow for a gradual migration off the land as it becomes more unstable and prone to further flooding events.
The hope is that a more broad addressing of climate change will mean that rising sea levels will slow down drastically or halt altogether. This involves the participation of the international community to do their part, buying time for future generations to continue to adapt using new technology that will be available to them then. This speculative project therefore only looks at roughly the next 50 years. Beyond that, the future holds many further exciting possibilities.
72. Ministry of Finance & Economic Development, Republic of Kiribati
There is a need to build an exemplar prototype to introduce the possibilities to the community at large and let their own informal systems take from that to bring novelty into their own homes and designs. Breaking the “black box”73 of architecture allows for others to question and adapt with their own systems for standards and organisation then created. The names attributed to the creation of the first maneaba, and their reverence, perhaps tell us that their were a few instances in history where that “box” was broken before and the culture and their constructions were altered from that point onwards.
In an aid or developmental context there is usually the need for a quick response. This can be achieved through the development of a kit-of-parts and indeed this is how aid agencies deploy the structures currently on Kiribati. Modularity can provide significant cost certainty, achieve transportation requirements and give allowances for unskilled labour. The modular can also be an artistic and considered architectural response as in the case of Noh Bo or the modular bamboo floating house concept by H+P architects in Vietnam.74
As described previously, I have shown that the traditional methods of construction are well known throughout the community. While they are not skilled in Western construction methods, they are well acquainted with there own, and in many cases it is far superior. It makes sense therefore to develop a system or framework in which to allow locals to build within - an infrastructure for selfexpression and identity building. The traditional coconut husk twine used to lash different woods together is strong, and its preparation and use is far superior in
73. Banham, p. 299.
74. Uffelen, Chris van, and Lisa Rogers, Bamboo: Architecture & Design(Salenstein: Braun Publishing AG, 2015), p. 98.
OPPOSITE TOP: Fig. 40. Noh Bo - sleeping huts for orphans. Thailand.
OPPOSITE BOTTOM: Fig. 41. An exploded view of the Noh Bo kit of parts.
OPPOSITE: Fig. 42. Rolling the husk to create twine. Abaiang.
bringing a community together than providing a kit-of-part manufactured offsite.
In my project I chose bamboo for its structural and tensile strength, as well as its fast-growing properties. While it has been proven that bamboo cannot survive in saltwater, their preservation against fungi, termites and bacteria can be promoted for 50 years by soaking them in the sea for 2 months. This allows them to absorb a high level of salt content, and is a traditional bamboo treatment method used throughout Asia. Along with pine, bamboo was first introduced to the islands in 2000 to provide raw materials for building, fishing rods, and furniture in an effort to reduce the reliance on imported timber.
Buckminster Fuller wrote nearly half a century ago of how floating cities could be built using submarine pontoons that float 100 feet below the surface of the ocean, below turbulence, with structural columns rising from them to support platforms high above the crests of the greatest waves.75 In that spirit I proposed a series of bamboo culms lashed together and set in concrete, which anchor the structure into the seabed while platforms are either lashed in place high above the sea level or constructed as pontoons at sea level. The framework prevents excess lateral movement and ensures that the platforms can only move up or down. Research has shown that bamboo can act as replacement for steel reinforcement when encased in this way.76
75. Fuller, R. Buckminster, Critical Path: Kiyoshi Kuromiya, Adjuvant (New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 2002), p. 736.
76. Akeju, T.a.i., and F. Falade, “Utilization of Bamboo as Reinforcement in Concrete for LowCost Housing,” Structural Engineering, Mechanics and Computation, 2001, 1463–70 <http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/b978-008043948-8/50164-8>
PREVIOUS: Fig. 43. A series of platforms that can be customised to suit the community. Negotiated space.
LEFT: Fig. 44. Floating farms.
ABOVE: Fig. 45. Cross-section of a farm pontoon. Native plants have shallow root systems, well-suited to growth on pontoons.
LEFT AND BOTTOM LEFT: Fig. 46. A unitised Kiribati home made from a kit of parts.
BOTTOM RIGHT: Fig. 47. A slight alteration on the traditional style allows for hot air build-up to exit.
RIGHT: Fig. 48. Within the framework, there is a mix of floating platforms that respond immediately to changes in sea level, and demountable fixed typologies that can be taken apart and reconfigured higher up avoiding tsunamis.
Fig 49. Proposed view from afar.
OPPOSITE: Fig. 50. Proposed view from above. Platforms can be clustered around larger pontoon areas that allow for ceremonies and large gatherings.
LEFT: Fig. 51. Axonometric view of a multi-storey residential experimentunheard of in Kiribati.
ABOVE: Fig. 52. Plan view of a triangular residential typology.
OPPOSITE: Fig. 53. Timeline showing a possible sequence of adaptation to a fully water based future.
Concrete has been created on the island previously by missionaries through burning of coral to create lime mixed with crushed coral aggregate. Cement mortar has been used to line the facades of churches to which shells are attached. The US military famously used coral aggregate for all their structures during World War 2 after testing how portland cement could be made from coral.77 Koen Olthuis has said “All the things you do on land, you can also do on floating foundations, and by using concrete, which is very, very strong - that give you a life span for more than a hundred years, and that’s exactly the same lifespan you [have] on land.”
Floating platforms and sunken structures for oil and gas rigs provide valuable environments for marine life as they act as artificial reefs.78 Artificial reefs are becoming beacons of hope for supporting failing coral infrastructures and can also be used to help break large incoming waves for low lying areas already under threat of rising seas.
Separation of resources and land can be adapted according to current settlement. This is similar in effect to the process of land ownership following the destruction of the City of London in 1666. Existing land ownership boundaries were maintained for the construction of new buildings. Currently the Kiribati government is purchasing land in Fiji for its people - this purchasing could take place on the Kiribati land presently available, giving people the funds to build their own floating homes. Or the government could take a lead and build the infrastructure for the people. Currently, families or individuals own most of the
Farming and Diet
Sandy, infertile soils limit natural and introduced vegetation. These soils are among the poorest in the world.1 There is no formal forestry activity, however there have been informal subsistence plantings of coconut, breadfruit, bananas pandanus and native figs. Coconut is by far the most dominant. Training programs to teach people how to be more self-reliant, grow their own food, and hand-outs of free seeds are normal government activities.
Fishing is a very important source of protein. The coral reefs protected environment allow for smaller species of fish to thrive, sometimes attracting larger prey from the ocean which are then hunted in turn by the local people.
78. Quirk, p. 51.
land.
The Maldives, nation of 1300 islands may soon also be submerged. Koen and his team (Waterstudio) and the Maldivian government are partnered to build several floating mega projects, including a golf course with a grass-terraced hotel in the shape of a starfish to a total of 80 million square feet of floating space. Tourism is key to the Maldives and their current economy, so they are protecting this and and using it as an investment driver to secure their future.79
While Kiribati has very poor quality soil, phosphorus depletion from soil is an issue worldwide. Algae can be used to recover phosphate from land based farming runoff and used for biofuel, food and fertiliser. In 2010 the US Army Corps of Engineers built islands that float in order to protect surrounding habitats from taking in too much phosphate runoff.80 Seaweed - itself a macro-algae - utilises the CO2 in the ocean to form alongside nitrogen, reducing ocean acidification and providing food for marine life.81 Enterprising farmers such as Kaboua Johnhimself the agricultural officer for Abaiang - show locals how to collect the seaweed and used it to fertilise soil so that fruit and vegetables such as tomatoes, eggplant and others can grow in Kiribati’s poor soils.
In Kiribati, apart from imported foods, their diet is traditionally seafood heavy. Each family typically keeps a few domesticated chickens and pig which is fattened up and roasted during a time of celebration such as Independence Day or a marriage. Families are very self sustaining, and farming is generally that of
79. Ibid., p. 25.
80. Ibid., p. 52.
81. Ibid., p. 74.
subsistence. A move to a floating future would only free up more land to allow for more natural abundance.
The growth on new coral is necessary to promote both continuing food sources, and land growth over time. 50 percent of the world’s coral has been destroyed in the last 30 years. Current research has shown that the growth of coral can be accelerated through micro fragmentation growth spurts. Small bits of coral - species of which are highly tolerant to ocean acidification - are torn and then fused onto old corals. The damage has been shown to promote fast new growth - 25 years faster than would be otherwise. Coral reefs also provide significant protection to the land from the ocean. They can break waves and help mitigate tsunamis. Continued protection to the residents and food security requires promoted coral growth.
The coral ecosystem that their world is based on is also incredibly valuable to humanity at large. To migrate away from Kiribati and leave what has been termed the “medicine cabinet of the future” is almost negligent with so much current research finding valuable sources in coral for treatments for cancer and alzheimer's. The farming and stewardship of this could more than create a self sufficient economy. This coupled with seaweed farming can be very profitable and good for the planet.82 These will be the sea-based economies of the future, where aquaculture meets conservation.
82. Ibid., p. 76.
OPPOSITE: Fig. 54. Split coconut kernals or copra drying in the sun in order to harvest coconut oil. The husks will be used to make construction twine.
DESIGN ANALYSIS + LOCAL INNOVATION