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Water-FormedDeposits

FundamentalsandMitigationStrategies

Editedby ZahidAmjad

DepartmentofChemistry, WalshUniversity,NorthCanton, OH,UnitedStates

KonstantinosD.Demadis DepartmentofChemistry, UniversityofCrete, Heraklion,Greece

Elsevier Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands

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2.3Scalinginflowsystems

2.3.1Scaleprecipitation

SectionA

Foulingandscalingfundamentals

1.Waterchemistryanditsrolein industrialwatersystems

VarvaraSygouni,PetrosG.Koutsoukos, andChristakis Α.Paraskeva

1.1Introduction 3

1.1.1Wettability4

1.1.2Waterandhydrophilic,hydrophobic surfaces4

1.1.3Mixedwettabilitycondition5

1.1.4Effectofroughnessonscaling6

1.1.5Effectofsurfacewettability onnucleationandcrystalgrowth7

2.4.1Supersaturation

2.4.3Hydrodynamicfactors

2.4.4Surfaceroughnessandmaterial24

2.5.1Rolesofadditivesonscale

2.5.2Additivetypes

2.6.1Locationofinhibitoratthe

2.6.2Chemicalbondingofinhibitors

2.7.1Inhibitingeffects

3.Historyofphosphorus-containing corrosioninhibitors:Fromthe beginningtillthepresenttime

JuditTelegdi

3.1Aboutcorrosionanditsinhibition

3.1.1Shortsummaryofcorrosion49

3.1.2Corrosioninhibitors49

3.2Phosphorusatomsresponsiblefor corrosioninhibition

3.2.1Phosphatesusedforcorrosion control50

3.2.2Phosphonicacids,phosphonates51

3.3Howtoincreasethecorrosion inhibitoryefficacyofphosphoruscontainigmolecues? 54

3.3.1Influenceofmetalions54

3.3.2Otherorganic/inorganicadditives thatdemonstratethesynergistic effectofmetalionsinthe presenceofdifferentphosphonic acids56

3.4Self-assemblednanolayerswith phosphoruscontent 58

3.4.1Corrosioninhibitionby coatings58

3.4.2P-containingSAMlayers59

3.4.3Stabilityoftheself-assembled molecularlayers61

3.5Summary

4.Biomineralization:Appliedto biodeteriorationand bioremediation

JasonS.LeeandBrendaJ.Little

4.1Introduction 69

4.2Mineralogicalindicatorsfor biodeterioration(MIC) 69

4.2.1Isotopefractionation69

4.2.2Sulfurfractionation70

4.2.3Ironisotopefractionation71

4.2.4Outlookforisotopefractionation asatooltoidentify biodeterioration72

4.3Biomineralizationasatoolforrepair andrestoration 73

4.3.1Vivianite73

4.3.2Calciumcarbonate73

4.3.3Outlookforapplicationsof biomineralizationfor bioremediation75 References 75

5.Microfoulinginindustrialcooling watersystems

ToletiSubbaRao

5.1Introduction 79

5.1.1Microbialbiofilmformationand biocorrosion79

5.2Growthphasesofbiofilm 80

5.2.1Reversiblephase80

5.2.2Irreversiblephase81

5.2.3Biofilmdevelopmentphase82

5.2.4Biofilmdispersalphase82

5.3Distributionofbacteriainanindustrial coolingsystem 82

5.4Factorsinfluencingbiofilm developmentandmicrofouling 83

5.5Microfoulingmonitoringtechniques 84

5.6Microfoulingandcorrosion 84

5.7Bacteriainvolvedincorrosion 85

5.7.1Iron-oxidizingbacteria85

5.7.2Exopolymer(slime)-producing bacteria86

5.7.3Nitrate-reducingbacteria87

5.7.4Sulfate-reducingbacteria87

5.7.5Othercorrosioncausing bacteria88

5.8Microfoulingorslimecontrol 89

5.9Corrosioncontrolandcoolingwater treatment 91

5.10Strategiesforcoolingwatersystems 92 5.11Conclusion 93 References 93

6.Particulatematter:Interfacial properties,fouling,andits mitigation

SalimNewazKazi

6.1Introduction 98

6.2Fouling 98

6.3Impuritiesandsuspendedsolids 100

6.3.1Categoriesoffouling101

6.3.2Thefoulingprocess102

6.3.3Effectsoffouling103

6.3.4Conditionsinfluencing fouling105

6.4Particletransportation,adhesion,and foulinginterface 105

6.5Factorsinfluencingfouling:Heat exchangertype,geometry, andprocessfluid 108

6.6Foulingmodels 108

6.7Costimposedduetofouling 110

6.8Foulingmitigation 110

6.8.1Useofadditivesinfouling mitigation112

6.8.2Mitigationoffoulingby particulatematerials (nanoparticles,fibers)117

6.8.3Mitigationoffoulingintheocean structures121

6.9Membranefouling 123

6.9.1Mechanismoforganicfouling124

6.9.2Mechanismofbiofouling124

6.9.3Membranefoulingmitigation strategies125

6.10Corrosionfoulingadditives 126

6.11Mitigationoffoulingbymechanical methods 127

6.11.1Magneticfoulingmitigation128

6.12Foulingmitigationondifferentheat exchangingsurfaces 129

6.12.1Oilfieldmineralscale mitigation130

6.13Summary

7.Calciumphosphatesingeological, biological,andindustrial systems

SergeyV.DorozhkinandPaulR.Young

7.1Introduction 141

7.2Calciumphosphatesingeologicaland biologicalsystems 141

7.2.1Structureandcompositionof calciumphosphates144

7.2.2Solubilityofcalcium phosphates148

7.2.3Stabilityofcalcium phosphates149

7.2.4Calciumphosphatesin pathologicalmineralization150

7.2.5Dentalapplications150

7.3Calciumphosphatesinindustry 150

7.3.1Calciumphosphatesinwater treatment150

7.3.2Balancingscaleandcorrosion inhibition—Thequestfora satisfactorysurfacefilm151

7.3.3Theeffectivenessofpolymers153

7.3.4Boilers159

7.3.5Reverseosmosis160

7.3.6Otheruses160 References 161

8.Nonchemicalmethodstocontrol scaleanddepositformation

YoungI.ChoandHyoung-SupKim 8.1Introduction

8.9WatertreatmentusingRFelectric fields 186

8.10Watertreatmentusinghigh-voltage capacitorsystem 188

8.11Validationfieldtests 189

8.12Watertreatmentusingcatalytic

8.13Validationstudies

9.Silicaandmetalsilicatedeposits

IkukoNishida

9.1Introduction 195

9.2Casesofsilicaandmetalsilicate deposits 195

9.2.1Coolingwatersystems196

9.2.2Geothermalplants197

9.2.3Reverseosmosis(RO)membrane systems199

9.2.4Boilers199

9.3Formationmechanisms 199

9.3.1Coolingwatersystems199

9.3.2Geothermalplants202

9.3.3ROmembranesystems203

9.4Inhibitiontechnologies 203

9.4.1pHcontrol203

9.4.2Chemicalcleaning204

9.4.3Inhibitors204

9.4.4Removalofsilicicacid206

9.5Summary 206

SectionB Scalingandfoulingissuesbyindustry

10.Reverseosmosis:Fundamental causesofmembranedeposition andapproachestomitigation

JaneKucera

10.1Introductiontoreverseosmosis 215 10.1.1Developmentandapplications ofRO216

10.1.2BasicROterminology217 10.1.3Polyamidethin-filmcomposite membranephysical characterization217

10.2ROmembranedeposits 219 10.2.1Membranefouling219 10.2.2Membranescaling223

10.3Mitigationofdepositsvia pretreatmentandconsequencesof inadequateoperations 226

10.3.1Feedwatersourceandquality226

10.3.2Pretreatmentconsiderations226

10.4Depositsenhancedbymembrane characteristics 230

10.4.1Polyamidemembranesurface roughnessandenhanced deposition230

10.4.2Polyamidemembrane hydrophilicityandzetapotential230

10.5Performancedeclineduetodeposits enhancedbyconcentration polarization 232

10.5.1Implicationsofconcentration polarizationformembrane deposition233

10.6Mitigationofdepositsviamembrane cleaning 233

10.6.1Chemicalconsiderations233

10.6.2Physicalconsiderations234

10.7Summary 234 References 234

11.Coolingwatersystems: Anoverview

DanielA.Meier,BingzhiChen,and CraigMyers

11.1Coolingwatersystemsoverview: Industrialapplications 239

11.1.1Typesofcoolingwatersystems inindustrialuse239

11.1.2Opencoolingwatersystems241

11.1.3Closedloopsystems241

11.1.4Coolingwatersystem applications241

11.2Treatmentsystemapproach 242

11.3MOC(mechanical,operational,and chemical)approach 243

11.3.1Mechanicalstressesinclude243

11.3.2Operationalstresses243

11.3.3Chemicalstresses243

11.3.4Mechanicalstresses243

11.4Waterqualitytypes 245

11.4.1Publicutilities245

11.4.2Directusenaturalsurface waters245

11.5Commonscalesencounteredin coolingwaterapplications 245

11.5.1Thescaleformationprocess246

11.5.2Factorsaffectingscaleformation247

11.5.3Typicalscalesthatoccurin coolingwatersystems247

11.6Scalecontrol 249 11.7Chemicalscaleinhibitors 249 11.7.1Thresholdinhibitors249 11.7.2Briefhistoryofscaleinhibitor development249 11.8Individualscaleinhibitors 251

11.8.1Inorganicphosphates251 11.8.2Organicphosphonate252 11.8.3Sulfonatedcopolymers255 11.9Corrosionandcorrosioncontrol 257 11.9.1Anodicreactionsandanodic inhibitionmechanism258 11.9.2Cathodicreactionand cathodicinhibitionmechanism259 11.10Typesofcorrosion 259 11.10.1Factorsinfluencingcorrosion259 11.11Typesofcorrosioninhibitors 260 11.12Carbonsteelcorrosioninhibitors 261 11.12.1Calciumcarbonate261 11.12.2Polyphosphates261 11.12.3Chromate261 11.12.4Zinc262 11.12.5Phosphonates262 11.12.6Silicates263 11.12.7Phosphate263 11.12.8Molybdate264 11.12.9Nitrite264 11.12.10Nonphosphoruscorrosion inhibitors265

11.13Copperalloyscorrosioninhibitors 265 11.14Summary 267 References 267

12.Formationandmitigationof mineralscalingingeothermal powerplants

MichaelA.ToddandMichaelJ.Bluemle

12.1Introductiontogeothermalpower 269 12.2Silicascales 270

12.2.1Amorphoussilica270 12.2.2Metalsilicatescale272 12.3Calciumcarbonatedeposition 275 12.3.1Introductorygeochemistry275 12.3.2Modelingofscaleformationin geothermalapplications275 12.3.3Depositionpreventionand removal276

12.4Metalsulfidedeposition 276 12.4.1Ironsulfidescaleformationand prevention277

12.4.2Antimonyandarsenicsulfide deposition277 12.4.3Additionalmetalsulfide species279

12.5Metalsulfatedeposition

13.Gypsumscalecontrolby phosphonateadditives

MarinaPrisciandaro,AmedeoLancia,and DinoMusmarra

13.1Introduction 283

13.1.1Theproblemofgypsumscales inindustry283

13.1.2Theuseofadditivestocombat theproblemofgypsumscales inindustry285

13.2Gypsumscaleformationmechanisms andtheeffectofadditives 285

13.2.1Nucleationinhibition285

13.2.2Growthinhibition286

13.3Phosphorus-basedadditivesandtheir effectongypsumscales 286

13.3.1Low-molecularweightorganic substances287

13.3.2Low-molecularweight inorganicsubstances287

13.4ExperimentalresultsonNTMPand PBTCinhibitioneffectongypsum scaleformation 288

13.5Conclusions 291 References 293

14.Recentdevelopmentsinoilfield scalecontrol

MiriamBarber

14.1Introduction 295

14.2Commonoilfieldmineralscales 296

14.2.1Carbonatescales296

14.2.2Sulfatescales297

14.3Scalecontrolstrategies 297

14.4Chemicaltreatments 298

14.4.1Typesofscaleinhibitors298

14.4.2Scaleinhibitionmechanisms301

14.4.3Scaleinhibitorapplications301

14.5Nonchemicaltreatments 302

14.5.1Lowsulfateseawaterinjection withsulfateremovalpumps302

14.5.2Smartwells303

14.5.3Surfaceengineeringviauseof coatings303

14.6Summary 303 References 303

15.Oilfieldironsulfidescaleformation andmitigation

QiweiWangandTaoChen

15.1Introduction 307

15.2Ironsulfidechemistry 308

15.2.1AmorphousFeSand mackinawite308

15.2.2Pyrrhotiteandtroilite309 15.2.3Greigite309 15.2.4Pyriteandmarcasite309 15.3Ironsulfidescalecomposition 310 15.3.1FeSscalesathigh temperatures310 15.3.2Phasetransformation312 15.4Ironsulfidescaleinhibition 312 15.4.1Conventionalinhibitors312 15.4.2Newpolymericinhibitors313 15.4.3Chelantadditives313 15.4.4Inhibitorsqueezetreatment313 15.5Ironsulfidescaledissolution 314 15.5.1Acids,oxidizers,and acrolein314 15.5.2Chelatingagents314 15.5.3THPS315 15.5.4Dissolversfordownhole application317

15.6Summary 318 References 320

16.Oilfieldscaleinhibitors:Synthetic andperformanceaspects

MohamedF.Mady

16.1Introduction 325 16.2Typesofscaleinhibitors(SIs) 327 16.2.1Conventionalscaleinhibitors327 16.2.2Greenscaleinhibitors338 16.3Conclusionsandoutlook 346 References 347

17.Controlofcompositeoilfield scalesanddeposits

ChongqinFengandPingZhang

17.1Introduction 353 17.2Typesofcommonmineralscales 354 17.2.1Calciumcarbonatescale354 17.2.2Sulfatescales355 17.2.3Sulfidescales355 17.2.4Compositescales356 17.3Scalecontrol 357

17.4Coprecipitationofcompositescale inoilfields 357

17.4.1CompositeCaCO3/CaSO4 scaling 357

17.4.2PbS-CaCO3 coprecipitation360

17.4.3CoprecipitationofBaSO4/ SrSO4 360

17.4.4CoprecipitationofBaSO4/ CaSO4 361

17.4.5CoprecipitationofCaCO3/ BaCO3 362

17.5Compositescaleinotherindustries 362

17.5.1Scaleinhibitionforcomposite foulingingeothermalbrines362

17.5.2CompositeCaSO4/CaCO3 scale inseawaterreverseosmosis desalinationsystem363

17.5.3Radiumremovalinan evaporiticsystem363

17.5.4CompositeCaOx-SiO2 fouling insugarmillevaporator365

17.5.5Compositeprecipitationin pharmaceuticalindustry365

17.6Conclusions 365 References 366

18.Polymersforindustrialwatersystems: Synthesis,characterization,and applications

ZahidAmjadandChristopherM.Fellows

18.1Whatisapolymer? 369

18.1.1Macromolecules369

18.1.2Uniquepropertiesof macromolecules369

18.2Typesofpolymer 371

18.2.1Naturalpolymers371

18.2.2Syntheticpolymers371

18.2.3Hybridpolymers371

18.3Synthesis 371

18.3.1Chemicalaspects371

18.3.2Physicalaspects374

18.4Characteristicsand characterization 378

18.4.1Molecularcharacteristics378

18.4.2Collectivecharacteristics381

18.5Depositformationandmitigationin industrialwatersystems 383

18.6Typesofscalesencounteredin industrialwatersystems 383

18.6.1Calciumcarbonate383

18.6.2Calciumsulfate385

18.6.3Calciumphosphate386

18.6.4Magnesiumammonium phosphate388 18.6.5Silica388

18.6.6Particulatematterfouling389 18.6.7Ironoxidedispersion389 18.6.8Clayandcalciumphosphate dispersion391

18.7Metalionfoulingandmitigation strategies 392 18.7.1Precipitation392

18.7.2Chelation/complexation392 18.7.3Metalionstabilization392

18.8Concludingremarks 395 References 395

19.Polymericsupportsforwater treatmentapplications

NicoletaPlesu,LaviniaMacarie, AdrianaPopa,andGheorgheIlia

19.1Introduction 399

19.1.1Adsorptionkineticsand isotherms399

19.2Functionalizedpolymersusedforthe removalofdyesfromwater 401 19.2.1Generalconsiderations401 19.2.2Polymericadsorbents fordyes401

19.3Removaloforganicpollutantsfrom wastewater 411 19.3.1Generalcomments411 19.3.2Polymersupportsforthe removaloforganicpollutants412

19.4Removalofpesticides 415 19.4.1Generalremarks415 19.4.2Polymersupportsforthe removalofpesticides416

19.5Removalofoilsandorganic solvents 417 19.5.1Generalremarks417 19.5.2Polymersusedforthe removalofoilsandorganic solvents417

19.6Removalofpharmaceuticals 420 19.6.1Generalremarks420 19.6.2Polymersupportsforthe removalofpharmaceuticals421

19.7Removalofphenolandphenolic derivatives 422 19.7.1Phenolsandphenolic derivatives422 19.7.2Syntheticpolymericadsorbents422

19.8Conclusions

20.Scaleinsugarjuiceevaporators: Types,cases,andprevention

ChristopherP.East,WilliamO.S.Doherty, andChristopherM.Fellows

20.1Introduction 435

20.2Typesandsourcesofscale 437

20.3Casestudiesofevaporatorscale 439

20.3.1ScaleformationinAustralian sugarmillevaporators439

20.3.2ScaleformationinSouthAfrican sugarmillevaporators441

20.3.3ScaleformationinFijicane mill441

20.3.4Scalesformedinbeetsugar evaporators444

20.3.5Developmentsinscale analysis444

20.4Scalemanagement 448

20.4.1Scaleinhibitors449

20.4.2Evaporatorcleaning451

20.5Conclusions 453 References 454

21.Scalecontrolinthermal desalination

ChristopherM.Fellows,AliA.AlHamzah, andChristopherP.East

21.1Introduction 457

21.2Thermaldesalinationprocesses 457

21.3Seawaterchemistry 459

21.4Scalecharacterization 460

21.5Thermodynamicsandkineticsofscale formation 460

21.5.1Softscale:Calciumcarbonate andmagnesiumhydroxide460

21.5.2Hardscale:Calciumsulfate462

21.5.3Physicalfactorsinkinetics464

21.6Controlofscaleformation 464

21.6.1Acidtreatment464

21.6.2Electrolytictreatment464

21.6.3Magnetictreatment465

21.6.4Preprecipitation465

21.6.5Nanofiltration465

21.6.6Antiscalants466

21.6.7Physicalcontrols471

21.7Futuredirections 472

SectionC Biological,environmental, andhomecare

22.Scalecontrolinhomecare applications

ScottAndrewBacker,AslinIzmitli,and TimothyYoung

22.1Introduction 479

22.2Fundamentalsofscale 479

22.2.1Introductiontoscalinginhome careapplications479

22.2.2Typesofscale481

22.2.3Methodsofavoidingscale formation482

22.2.4Phosphate-freecleaning483

22.2.5Examplesofscalingandcontrol infabriccareapplications484

22.2.6Examplesofscalingandcontrol indishcareapplications486

22.2.7Examplesofscalingandcontrol inhardsurfacecleaning490

22.2.8Summaryandconclusion493 References 493

23.Calcificationofbiomaterials

PetrosG.Koutsoukos,PanagiotaD.Natsi, PanosS.Garataganis,and SotiriosP.Gartaganis

23.1Introduction 495

23.1.1Implantsandbiocompatibility495 23.1.2Phasechangesinsolutions.The formationofcrystalsofminerals fromaqueoussolutions. Homogeneousand heterogeneousnucleation496

23.2Experimentalmethodology 498

23.2.1Batchreactorexperimentsat constantsupersaturation499

23.2.2Eyechambersimulation experiments500

23.3Resultsanddiscussion 501

23.4Concludingremarks 507 Acknowledgments 508 References 508

24.Kidneystone formation—Thermodynamic, kinetic,andclinicalaspects

M.Oner,PetrosG.Koutsoukos,andW.G.Robertson

24.1Introduction 511

24.2Stoneformationandcrystallization mechanism 511

24.2.1Supersaturation511

24.2.2Nucleation512

24.3Growth 515

24.4Aggregation 515

24.5Polymorphsofcalciumoxalate crystals 516

24.6Influenceofadditivesoncalcium oxalatecrystallization 517

24.6.1Macromolecularadditives517

24.6.2Syntheticpolymersandsmall molecules518

24.7Struvitestone-formation 519

24.7.1Concludingremark523

24.8Factorsinfluencingtheriskofcalcium stone-formationinthekidneys 523

24.8.1Urinaryandmetabolicfactors involvedincalciumoxalate stone-formation523

24.8.2Nutritionalfactorsinvolvedin calciumstone-formation529

24.8.3Summary534

References 534

25.Noveltechnologiestoprevent dentalplaqueandcalculus

KosukeNozaki,OmniaIsmarilMohamedSaleh (IsmarilMohamed),ShinichiArakawa,and HiroyukiMiura

25.1Thebasisofsaliva 543

25.1.1Thesalivaryflowintheoral cavity543

25.1.2Thecompositionandfunction ofsaliva543

25.1.3Acquiredpellicle543

25.1.4Thefunctionofacquired pellicle544

25.2Toothandperiodontaltissue 545

25.2.1Tooth545

25.2.2Periodontaltissue545

25.3Periodontaldiseaseandcaries 545

25.3.1Dentalplaque546

25.3.2Dentalcalculus547

25.4Guidedbiofilmtherapy(GBT) 550

25.4.1ThebasisofGBT550

25.4.2Surfacetexturebythe air-polishingsystem551

25.4.3Clinicaladvantagesofthe air-polishingsystem551

25.5Toothbrushingandflossing 552

25.5.1Toothbrushhistoryand overview552

25.5.2Typesoftoothbrushes552

25.6Dentrifices 554

25.6.1Maincomponentsof toothpasteandmouthwashes554

25.6.2Therapeuticagents555

25.7Concludingremarks 558 References 558

26.Biofouling(macro-fouling)in seawaterintakesystems

ToletiSubbaRao

26.1Introduction 565

26.1.1Industrialcoolingwater systems565

26.1.2Whatisbiofouling?566

26.1.3Featuresthatinfluence biofoulinggrowth566

26.2Biofoulinggrowthphases 568

26.3Characteristicsofthemacrofouling 569

26.4Anthropogenicactivitiesandinvasive speciesonbiofouling 570

26.4.1Biofoulingatacoastalpower plant571

26.5Foulingpreventionstrategy 574

26.5.1Passivestrategy574

26.5.2Activestrategy574

26.6Biofoulingcontrolinindustrial systems 576

26.6.1Chlorinationandbiofouling control576

26.6.2Target/pulsechlorination577

26.7Greentechnologyforcoolingwater treatment 578

26.7.1Foulreleasesystems579

26.7.2Microstructuredsurfaces581

26.7.3Biomimeticsurface modifications581

26.7.4Superhydrophobicsurfaces582

26.8Adverseeffectsofantifouling procedures 584

26.9Conclusion 584 References 584 Furtherreading 587

27.Sewersolidsaffecting microbiologicallyinduced corrosionand/orhydrogensulfide formation

AnastasiosI.Zouboulisand DomnaMerachtsaki

27.1Introduction 589

27.1.1Sewagesolids589

27.1.2Microbiologicallyinduced corrosion(MIC)591

27.2Suspendedsolidsandcolloids 591

27.2.1Characteristicsandproperties592

27.2.2Processes594

27.3Sewersediments 595

27.3.1Characteristicsandproperties596

27.3.2Processes596

27.4Sedimentbiofilm 598

27.4.1Characteristicsandproperties598

27.4.2Biochemicalprocesses599

27.5FactorsaffectingMIC 600

27.5.1Sulfideformation600

27.6Sulfidecontrol 603

27.6.1Designofthesewerage network603

27.6.2Inletcontrols604

27.6.3Sewersolidscontrol606

27.7Conclusion 608 Acknowledgments 608 References 608

28.Legionella:Causes,cases,and mitigation

DavidPierre,MichaelCastro,and JanetStout

28.1 Legionella andLegionnaires’ disease 611

28.2 Legionella inindustrialwatersystems andcoolingtowers 611

28.2.1Typesofindustrialwater systemsthataresusceptibleto Legionella colonizationand transmission 612

28.2.2Factorscontributingto Legionella colonization& transmission 613

28.2.3 Legionella colonizationcontrol strategies 615

28.2.4Impactof Legionella control approachesonscaleand corrosion 615

28.3 Legionella inbuildingpotablewater systems 617

28.3.1Factorscontributingto Legionella colonizationand transmissioninbuildingwater systems 617

28.3.2 Legionella colonizationcontrol strategiesinbuildingwater systems 619

28.3.3Impactof Legionella control approachesonscaleand corrosion 620

28.4Additionaltypesofnon-potablewater systemsthataresusceptibleto Legionella colonizationand transmission 622

28.4.1Othernon-potablesystems623

28.4.2Factorscontributingto Legionella colonizationand transmission 623

28.5Impactoflegislation,regulations,and guidance 624 Summary 625 References 626

SectionD Systemssupportandmaintenance

29.Globalwatertreatmenttrends andissues

MikeHenley

29.1Introduction 635

29.1.1Theimportanceofwater635

29.2Waterusage 636

29.2.1Sources636

29.2.2Globalwateruse637

29.2.3Desalination638

29.3Globalwatershortages 640

29.3.1Wildfiredangers640

29.4Waterquality 641

29.4.1Theuniversalsolvent641

29.4.2Aestheticsandsafety641

29.5Water-relatedproblems 642

29.5.1Publichealthconcerns642

29.5.2Safewateravailability643

29.5.3Developedworldconcerns644

29.5.4Pathogenicmicrobials645

29.5.5Othercontaminantsofconcern646

29.5.6Regulatorystandards647

29.5.7Aginginfrastructure648

29.6Water-relatedtreatmentconcerns 649

29.6.1Newseventsandregulatory actions649

29.6.2Current/recenteventsimpacting drinkingwater649

29.7Examplesoftechnology advancements 651

29.7.1Ultraviolet651

29.7.2PFASremovalmedia651

29.7.3Specialtymedia652

29.7.4Smarttreatments653

29.8Watertreatmentmarkets 653

29.9Closingtakeaways 654

References 655

30.Simulationtoolsformembrane scalinginreverseosmosis desalinationplants

AnastasiosJ.Karabelasand MargaritisKostoglou

30.1Introduction 657

30.2Backgroundinformation 658

30.2.1Nucleationandcrystal growth—Thermodynamicand kineticconsiderations658

30.2.2Factorsandmechanisms involvedindesalinationmembranescaling659

30.2.3Flowfieldandtransport phenomenainmembrane modules660

30.2.4Scalingindesalination plants—Keyissuesandcurrent predictivecapabilities661

30.3Experimentalfindings—Assessmentof keyparametersandmechanisms 663

30.3.1Incipientmembrane scaling—Inductionperiodand experimentaltechniques663

30.3.2Rateandpatternofmembrane scaling—Effectofwall supersaturationratio Sw 663

30.3.3Assessmentofdeposition mechanismsatthemembrane surface664

30.4ModelingmembranescalinginRO desalinationsystems 665

30.4.1Reviewofmodelingefforts665

30.4.2Towardcomprehensive modelingofmembrane-scaling evolution667

30.5Developmentofrealistic simulationtools 667

30.5.1Approach667

30.5.2Implementation—Progress made668

30.6Conclusions—R&Dpriorities 670 References 671

31.Synthesis,properties,and applicationsofnovelfluorescenttaggedscaleinhibitorsinwater treatment

MaximS.Oshchepkov, SergeyV.Tkachenko,andKonstantinI.Popov

31.1Introduction 675

31.2Syntheticapproachesto fluorescent-taggedantiscalants 676

31.2.1Fluorescent-tagged polymers677

31.2.2Fluorescent-tagged phosphonates682

31.3Inhibition,fluorescent,andother propertiesoffluorescent-tagged antiscalants 685

31.4Applicationsoffluorescent-tagged scaleinhibitorsforindustrial purposes 687

31.5Conclusion 692

32.Phosphonateinhibitors:Types, solutionchemistry,andapplications

MatthewBoonandFrancaJones

32.1Introduction 697

32.2Phosphonates 697

32.2.1Chemicalstructure697

32.2.2Typesofphosphonates698

32.2.3Generalsynthesis698

32.3Solutionbehavior 699

32.3.1Complexation700

32.3.2Coordinationstructureand environments701

32.4Crystallizationoverview 701

32.4.1Crystalgrowthmodifiers703

32.4.2Bariumsulfateandcalcium carbonate704

32.5Applications 706

32.5.1Phosphonatesascrystalgrowth modifiers706

32.5.2Waterapplications711

32.5.3Otherusesofphosphonates712

32.5.4Environmentalimpacts713

32.6Conclusionsandfutureprospects 714 Acknowledgment 714 References 714

33.IntroducingX-rayphotoelectron spectroscopyforcorrosion studies:Atoolforelucidating interfacialcompositionand chemistry

RobertLindsayandAndrewThomas

33.1Introduction 723

33.2XPSfundamentals 723

33.2.1Photoemissionprocess724

33.2.2Photoelectronpeaks726

33.3XPSinstrumentation 729

33.3.1Thephotoelectron spectrometer729

33.3.2XPSatnear-ambient pressures731

33.3.3XPSusinghardX-rays731

33.4XPSdataanalysis 732

33.4.1Peakfitting732

33.4.2Quantification734

33.5Corrosioncasestudy 737 References 743

34.Polyelectrolytepolymers—Types, forms,andfunction

LoganAJackson

34.1Syntheticpolyelectrolytes 747

34.2Polyacrylamides 748

34.2.1Acrylamidechemistry748

34.2.2Anionicpolyacrylamides749

34.2.3Cationicpolyacrylamides750

34.2.4Nonionicpolyacrylamides752

34.2.5Polyacrylamideproduct forms752

34.2.6Polyacrylamides—Function, uses,andapplications754

34.3Polyacrylates 758

34.3.1Dispersants758

34.3.2Scaleinhibitors758

34.3.3Water-absorbingpolymers758

34.4Polyamines 759

34.5Polydiallydimethylammonium chloride 760

34.6Polethyleneimine 760

34.7Summary 761 References 761

35.Mechanismsofscaleinhibition derivedfromafluorescent-tagged antiscalantvisualization

MaximS.OshchepkovandKonstantinI.Popov

35.1Introduction 765

35.2Somecontradictionsandgaps betweentheoryandarealantiscalant behavior 765

35.2.1Experimentaldatadiversity765

35.2.2Crystalhabitmodification766

35.2.3Zeta-potentials766

35.2.4Formationofcomplexes767

35.2.5Antiscalantsonthewayfromthe laboratorytoindustrial applications:Issuesand challenges767

35.2.6Someevidentgapsinrecent fundamentalsofinhibition mechanisms768

35.3Researchapproachescapableto eliminatesomegaps 768

35.4Majorresultsanddiscussion 770

35.4.1Particlecounteranalysis770

35.4.2ApplicationofDLSintensity standard771

35.4.3Applicationoffluorescenttaggedantiscalantsforthedirect visualizationofascaleinhibitor duringscaleformation772

35.4.4Somenotabledifferencesin gypsumscaleinhibitionat ambientandelevated temperatures775

35.5Tentative“nano-/microdust”-based machanismsofscaleinhibition 776

35.6Conclusions 779 Acknowledgments 779 References 779

36.Mineralscaledeposits—Analysis andinterpretation

TaoChenandQiweiWang

36.1Introduction 783

36.2Wetchemistrymethods 783

36.3Opticalmicroscope 785

36.4Scanningelectronmicroscope 786

36.4.1SEMscalecrystalmorphology analysis787

36.4.2EDSscaleelementcomposition analysis787

36.5X-raydiffractionanalysis 789

36.6Synchrotronradiationwide-angle X-rayscattering 790

36.7Summary 793 References 794

37.Regulatoryandcomplianceissues facedbythewatertreatment industry

LeeA.Cavano,MichaelHighum,JulianneL.Baron, andFredrickC.Hopkins

37.1U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency 796

37.1.1TheCleanAirAct796

37.1.2TheCleanWaterAct797

37.1.3FederalInsecticide,Fungicide, andRodenticideAct798

37.1.4SuperfundAmendments andReauthorizationAct(SARA)800

37.1.5ResourceConservationand RecoveryAct(RCRA)801

37.1.6EPApenalties802

37.2OccupationalSafetyandHealth Administration 802

37.2.1Coverage(29CFRPart1975)802

37.2.2Emergencyactionplans (29CFRPart1910.38)802

37.2.3Employeeexposuremonitoring (OSHAgeneraldutyandHazard assessment)803

37.2.4Thehazardcommunication standard(29CFRPart 1910.1200)803

37.2.5Laboratorychemicalhygiene plant(29CFRPart 1910.1450)806

37.3Purpose 806

37.4Complianceissues 806

37.4.1Productstewardship806

37.4.2Complianceforwatertreatment chemicalmanufacturers807

37.4.3Complianceforwatertreatment serviceproviders807

37.5Departmentoftransportation 807

37.5.1Hazardousmaterials regulations808

37.5.2Federalmotorcarriersafety regulations(FMCSRs)810

37.6Additionalinformation 812

37.6.1Resources812

Index813

Contributors

Numbersinparenthesesindicatethepagesonwhichtheauthors’ contributionsbegin.

AliA.AlHamzah (457),DesalinationTechnologies ResearchInstitute,SalineWaterConversionCorporation, AlJubail,SaudiArabia;SchoolofScienceandTechnology,TheUniversityofNewEngland,Armidale, NSW,Australia

ZahidAmjad (369),DepartmentofChemistry,Walsh University,NorthCanton,OH,UnitedStates

ShinichiArakawa (543),DepartmentofLifetimeOral HealthCareScience,GraduateSchoolofMedicaland DentalSciences,TokyoMedicalandDentalUniversity, Tokyo,Japan

ScottAndrewBacker (479),DowHomeandPersonal Care,DowInc.,Collegeville,PA,UnitedStates

MiriamBarber (295),BakerHughes,Liverpool,United Kingdom

JulianneL.Baron (795),ScienceandSafetyConsulting, Pittsburgh,PA,UnitedStates

MichaelJ.Bluemle (269),SolenisLLC,Wilmington,DE, UnitedStates

MatthewBoon (697),SchoolofMolecularandLifeSciences,CurtinUniversity,Perth,WA,Australia

MichaelCastro (611),SpecialPathogensLaboratory, Pittsburgh,PA,UnitedStates

LeeA.Cavano (795),ScrantonAssociates,Inc.,Cleveland, OH,UnitedStates

BingzhiChen (239),NalcoWater,anEcolabCompany, Naperville,IL,UnitedStates

TaoChen (307,783),EXPECAdvancedResearchCenter, SaudiAramco,Dhahran,SaudiArabia

YoungI.Cho (167),DepartmentofMechanicalEngineeringandMechanics,DrexelUniversity,Philadelphia,PA,UnitedStates

WilliamO.S.Doherty (435),SchoolofMechanical, Medical,andProcessEngineering,QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,Brisbane,QLD,Australia

SergeyV.Dorozhkin (141),MoscowInstituteofChemical Technology,Moscow,Russia

ChristopherP.East (435,457),SchoolofScienceand Technology,TheUniversityofNewEngland,Armidale, NSW,Australia;DesalinationTechnologyResearch Institute,SalineWaterConversionCorporation, AlJubail,SaudiArabia

ChristopherM.Fellows (369,435,457),Desalination TechnologiesResearchInstitute,SalineWaterConversionCorporation,AlJubail,SaudiArabia;School ofScienceandTechnology,TheUniversityofNew England,Armidale,NSW,Australia

ChongqinFeng (353),DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,FacultyofScienceandTechnology,UniversityofMacau,Taipa,Macau

PanosS.Garataganis (495),DepartmentofOphthalmology,251AirForceGeneralHospital,Athens, Greece

SotiriosP.Gartaganis (495),DepartmentofOphthalmology,MedicalSchool,UniversityofPatras,Patras, Greece

MikeHenley (635),MDHenley&Associates,Denver,CO, UnitedStates

MichaelHighum (795),McGowanInsuranceGroup,Indianapolis,IN,UnitedStates

TungA.Hoang (13),DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,CurtinUniversityofTechnology,Perth,WA, Australia

FredrickC.Hopkins (795),Environmental,Health& SafetyConsultant,PrairieVillage,KS,UnitedStates

GheorgheIlia (397),“CoriolanDragulescu”Instituteof Chemistry,Timisoara,Romania

AslinIzmitli (479),DowHomeandPersonalCare,Dow Inc.,Collegeville,PA,UnitedStates

LoganAJackson (747),KemiraChemicalsInc.,Atlanta, GA,UnitedStates

FrancaJones (697),SchoolofMolecularandLifeSciences,CurtinUniversity,Perth,WA,Australia

AnastasiosJ.Karabelas (657),ChemicalProcessand EnergyResourcesInstitute,CentreforResearchand Technology – Hellas,Thessaloniki,Greece

SalimNewazKazi (97),DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,FacultyofEngineering,UniversityofMalaya, KualaLumpur,Malaysia

Hyoung-SupKim (167),Onvector,Inc.,KingofPrussia, PA,UnitedStates

MargaritisKostoglou (657),ChemicalProcessand EnergyResourcesInstitute,CentreforResearchand Technology – Hellas;DepartmentofChemistry,AristotleUniversityofThessaloniki,Thessaloniki,Greece

PetrosG.Koutsoukos (3,495,511),Departmentof ChemicalEngineering,LaboratoryofInorganicand AnalyticalChemistry,UniversityofPatrasand FORTH-ICEHT;FoundationforResearchandTechnology—Hellas,InstituteofChemicalEngineering Sciences,Patras,Greece

JaneKucera (215),NalcoWater,AnEcolabCompany, Naperville,IL,UnitedStates

AmedeoLancia (283),DepartmentofChemical,Material, andIndustrialProductionEngineering(DICMAPI), UniversityofNaples“FedericoII”,Napoli,Italy

JasonS.Lee (69),NavalResearchLaboratory,OceanSciences,StennisSpaceCenter,Kiln,MS,UnitedStates

RobertLindsay (723),TheUniversityofManchester, PhotonScienceInstitute;TheUniversityofManchester, DepartmentofMaterials,Manchester,UnitedKingdom

BrendaJ.Little (69),B.J.LittleCorrosionConsulting, LLC,Diamondhead,MS,UnitedStates

LaviniaMacarie (397),“CoriolanDragulescu”Instituteof Chemistry,Timisoara,Romania

MohamedF.Mady (325),DepartmentofChemistry,BioscienceandEnvironmentalEngineering,Facultyof ScienceandTechnology,UniversityofStavanger,Stavanger,Norway;DepartmentofGreenChemistry, NationalResearchCentre,Dokki,Cairo,Egypt

DanielA.Meier (239),NalcoWater,anEcolabCompany, Naperville,IL,UnitedStates

DomnaMerachtsaki (589),LaboratoryofChemicaland EnvironmentalTechnology,DepartmentofChemistry, AristotleUniversityofThessaloniki,Thessaloniki,Greece

HiroyukiMiura (543),DepartmentofFixedProsthodontics,GraduateSchoolofMedicalandDentalSciences,TokyoMedicalandDentalUniversity,Tokyo, Japan

DinoMusmarra (283),DepartmentofEngineering, UniversityofCampaniaLuigiVanvitelli,Aversa,Italy

CraigMyers (239),NalcoWater,anEcolabCompany, Naperville,IL,UnitedStates

PanagiotaD.Natsi (495),DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,LaboratoryofInorganicandAnalytical

Chemistry,UniversityofPatrasandFORTH-ICEHT, Patras,Greece

IkukoNishida (195),KuritaWaterIndustriesLtd.,Shimotsuga-gun,Tochigi,Japan

KosukeNozaki (543),DepartmentofFixedProsthodontics, GraduateSchoolofMedicalandDentalSciences,Tokyo MedicalandDentalUniversity,Tokyo,Japan

M.Oner (511),ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,Yıldız TechnicalUniversity,DavutpasaCampus, Istanbul, Turkey

MaximS.Oshchepkov (675,765),D.MendeleevUniversityofChemicalTechnologyofRussia;JSC“Fine ChemicalsR&DCentre”,Moscow,Russia

Christakis Α.Paraskeva (3),DepartmentofChemical Engineering,LaboratoryofInorganicandAnalytical Chemistry,UniversityofPatrasandFORTH-ICEHT; FoundationforResearchandTechnology—Hellas, InstituteofChemicalEngineeringSciences,Patras, Greece

DavidPierre (611),SpecialPathogensLaboratory,Pittsburgh,PA,UnitedStates

NicoletaPlesu (397),“CoriolanDragulescu”Instituteof Chemistry,Timisoara,Romania

AdrianaPopa (397),“CoriolanDragulescu”Instituteof Chemistry,Timisoara,Romania

KonstantinI.Popov (675,765),JSC“FineChemicals R&DCentre”,Moscow,Russia

MarinaPrisciandaro (283),DepartmentofIndustrialand InformationEngineeringandofEconomics(DIIIE), UniversityofL’Aquila,L’Aquila,Italy

ToletiSubbaRao (79,565),WaterandSteamChemistry Division ,BhabhaAtomicResearchCentre,Kalpakkam, TamilNadu,India;HomiBhabhaNationalInstitute, Mumbai,India

W.G.Robertson (511),NuffieldDepartmentofSurgical Sciences,UniversityofOxford,Cambridge,United Kingdom

OmniaIsmarilMohamedSaleh(IsmarilMohamed) (543),DepartmentofFixedProsthodontics,Graduate SchoolofMedicalandDentalSciences,TokyoMedical andDentalUniversity,Tokyo,Japan

JanetStout (611),SpecialPathogensLaboratory; DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering, UniversityofPittsburgh,Pittsburgh,PA,UnitedStates VarvaraSygouni (3),DepartmentofChemicalEngineering, LaboratoryofInorganicandAnalyticalChemistry, UniversityofPatrasandFORTH-ICEHT;Foundation forResearchandTechnology—Hellas,Instituteof ChemicalEngineeringSciences,Patras,Greece

JuditTelegdi (49),InstituteofMaterialsandEnvironmental Chemistry,ResearchCentreforNaturalSciences;O ´ buda University,FacultyofLightIndustryandEnvironmental Engineering,Budapest,Hungary

AndrewThomas (723),TheUniversityofManchester, SirHenryRoyceInstitute;TheUniversityofManchester,PhotonScienceInstitute;TheUniversityof Manchester,DepartmentofMaterials,Manchester, UnitedKingdom

SergeyV.Tkachenko (675),D.MendeleevUniversityof ChemicalTechnologyofRussia;JSC“FineChemicals R&DCentre”,Moscow,Russia

MichaelA.Todd (269),SolenisLLC,Wilmington,DE, UnitedStates

QiweiWang (307,783),Research&DevelopmentCenter, SaudiAramco,Dhahran,SaudiArabia

PaulR.Young (141),KuritaAmerica,Inc.,Minneapolis, MN,UnitedStates

TimothyYoung (479),DowHomeandPersonalCare,Dow Inc.,Midland,MI,UnitedStates

PingZhang (353),DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmental Engineering,FacultyofScienceandTechnology,UniversityofMacau,Taipa,Macau

AnastasiosI.Zouboulis (589),LaboratoryofChemicaland EnvironmentalTechnology,DepartmentofChemistry, AristotleUniversityofThessaloniki,Thessaloniki, Greece

EditorsBiography

ZahidAmjadiscurrentlyaVisitingProfessor inChemistryatWalsh University,NorthCanton, Ohio.Hereceivedhis BSc(honors)andMSc fromtheUniversityof Punjab,Pakistan,and PhDfromtheUniversity ofGlasgow,Scotland, UnitedKingdom.After completinghispostdoctoralfellowshipattheStateUniversity ofNewYorkatBuffalo,NewYork,USA,hestartedhisprofessionalcareerasanR&Dscientist.Withfourdecadesof diverseresearchanddevelopment,andmanufacturingexperienceatCalgonCorporation,Pittsburgh,PA;Lubrizol AdvancedMaterials,Inc.,Cleveland,OH;andRNACorporation,Chicago,IL,hehasmadesignificantcontributionsin watertreatment,waterpurification,cosmetics,homecare, oralcare,pharmaceutics,andrelatedfields.

Dr.Amjadholds30U.S.andnumerousinternational patents,andhaspresentedmanyinvitedlecturesatnational andinternationalmeetings,universities,andindustrial researchcentersaroundtheworld.Hehaspublishedover 210papers,hascontributedtonumerousbookchapters, andhaseditedninebooks.Hisawardsincludeinductioninto NationalHallofCorporateInventors,EDIInnovation Award,andrecipientofAssociationoftheWaterTechnologies’RayBaumMemorialAward.Dr.Amjadreceived TechnicalAchievementandDistinguishedServiceAwards fromNationalAssociationofCorrosionEngineers(NACE).

Dr.AmjadisaNACEFellowandamemberofthe AmericanChemicalSocietyandtheAssociationofWater Technologies.HeisamemberofEditorialAdvisoryBoards ofseveraljournals,including TensideSurfactantDetergents,MaterialsPerformance,InternationalJournalof ScaleandCorrosionInhibition, and TechnologyofWater Treatment.Hiscurrentresearchfocusesonthecrystallizationofinorganicsaltsfromaqueoussolution,waterpurification,developmentandapplicationofwater-soluble polymers,andphysicochemicalphenomenaatsolid-liquid interface.HeistheownerofAquaScienceandTechnology LLC,Columbus,Ohio,whichprovidesconsultingservices

forindustrialwatertreatment,separationprocesses,and relatedtechnologies.

KostasDemadiswas borninKomotini(Thrace, NorthernGreece)in1967. HereceivedhisBachelor’sDegreefromthe UniversityofAthens, Greece,in1990andhis PhDinChemistryatthe UniversityofMichigan, USA,in1995.Hethen movedtotheUniversity ofNorthCarolina,Chapel Hill(UNC),forpostdoctoral,workingontheintricaciesofOsmiumchemistry.In 1998,hewashiredby(then)NalcoChemicalCompany (Naperville,IL,USA)asaSeniorChemistintheirResearch &DevelopmentDivision,switchingresearchgearsand “entering”thewatertreatmentworld.

In2003,KostasstartedhisappointmentasAssistantProfessorintheDepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofCrete, inhishomelandGreece.HecreatedtheCrystalEngineering,Growth&DesignLaboratory.Kostasiscurrently ProfessorofChemistry.

Kostas’researchgroupisinterestedinanumberofprojects.Theseincludemetalphosphonatechemistry(synthesis, characterization,andapplicationsofmetalphosphonatebasedmaterials),functionalhybridmaterials,silicachemistry (modelingofbiosilicificationmechanisms),watertreatment issues(mineralscaleinhibition,corrosioncontrol,metalion absorption),controlledreleaseofactiveingredients(inparticularphosphonate-baseddrugs),“green”chemicaltechnology,andthechemistryof(hydro)gels.

ProfessorDemadishaspublishedover180papersin peer-reviewedinternationaljournals,6editedbooks,24 chaptersinbooks,andistheinventoroftwopatents.He hasdeliveredover70invitedtalksandover180conference presentations.Heisareviewerfor129international journals,aswellasfortechnicalbooksandmonographs. Formoreinformation,see https://scholar.google.com/cita tions?user¼uPREvI8AAAAJ&hl¼en

Preface

Apartfromitsobviousroletosustainlife,waterplaysan importantroleintheworldeconomy,asitfunctionsasauniversalsolventforawidevarietyofchemicalsubstancesand facilitatesindustrialcoolingandtransportation.Potable waternotwithstanding,industrialwaterconstitutesalarge portionofwaterusage.Waterisusedinlargefacilities andapplications,suchascoolingtowers,boilers,geothermalenergyrecovery,oildrillingoperations,foodproduction,pulpandpapermanufacturing,desalination, semiconductormanufacturing,brewingindustry,domestic andindustriallaundryapplications,justtomentionafew.

Inspiteofwaterbeinga“blessing”tohumankind,itisa sourceofproblematicissues,especiallyinindustrialprocesses.Theseprocessesareusuallycategorizedintofour majorclasses:(a)formationofmineralscalesanddeposits, i.e.,calciumcarbonateCaCO3,gypsumCaSO4 2H2O, bariteBaSO4,calciumphosphateCa3(PO4)2,etc.; (b)suspendedsolidsthatcreatefouling,i.e.,mud,silt,clay, precipitatedsalts,organicdebris,etc.;(c)corrosionphenomenathatarecatastrophicforcriticalequipmentsurfaces, butalsogeneratecorrosionproducts,i.e.,ZnO,Fe2O3, Fe3O4,etc.;and(d)biological(microandmacro)fouling. Itistheinteractionofthesematerialswithsurfacesthat createsoperationalissuesinindustrialenvironments,for example,heattransfersurfacesinboiler,cooling,geothermalandpowerplants,distillationsystems,andreverse osmosis(RO)installations.Commonproblemsinclude overheating,lossofsystemefficiency,unscheduled shutdowntime,andprematureequipmentreplacement. Thus,theefficientoperationofindustrialwatersystemsis largelydependentonthecontrolofthesedeposits,byeither removingtheircause(s),orcombatingtheproblemitself,or takingcorrectivemeasuresafterfailure.

Thisbookisdedicatedtoseveralwatertreatmentprocessesspreadthroughouttheentireindustrythatrelate directlyorindirectlytoscaleanddepositformation.Water treatmentembracesallprocessesthatmakewatermore acceptableforadesiredend-use,byremovingexistingcontaminantsinthewater(inorganic,organic,orbiological),or bychemicaltreatment.Importantly,anyhumaninterventiontoimprovewaterqualitymustbeconsistentwith reducingandminimizingpotentialecologicalimpacton thenaturalenvironment.

Thisvolumeconsistsof37chaptersandiscategorized intofourmainareas:

SectionIcomprisesninechaptersandfocusesonfouling andscalingfundamentals. Chapter1 presentsanoverview ofwaterchemistryanditsroleinindustrialwatersystems, particularlytheaspectsofthechemistryofwaterthatimpact scalingandfouling.In Chapter2,thereadercanlearnabout themechanisticaspectsofscaleformationandinhibition withemphasisonimportantconceptssuchassupersaturation,nucleationrates,temperature,inductionperiod, hydrodynamicsfactors,etc.Importantly,significantfocus isgiventoscaleinhibitionapproaches,includingscale inhibitors(additives)andscaleinhibitionmechanisms. Chapter3 analyzeshistoricallythephosphorus-containing corrosioninhibitorsandtheirstateoftheart. Chapter4 concentratesontheorganism/materialinteractionsthatresultin specificmechanismsofbiomineralformations.Examples areprovidedforthemostcommonstructuralmaterials, includingmetalalloysandconcrete. Chapter5 describes thefreshwaterandseawatercoolingsystemswherebacteria, fungi,andmicroalgaeareinvolvedinthedevelopmentof microbialfoulingprocess. Chapter6 addressesparticulate foulingwithspecialemphasisonfoulingphenomena,interfacialproperties,design,andmitigationoffouling. Chapter7 focusesonthenumerousformsofcalciumphosphates,astheyappearingeological,biological,andindustrialsystems. Chapter8 presentsareviewandacritical discussiononnon-chemicalmethodstocontrolscaleand depositformation.Lastly, Chapter9 presentsanindustrial perspectiveontheuniquechemistryofsilicaandmetalsilicatedeposits.

SectionIIgathers12chaptersthatcoverscalingand foulingissuesencounteredinvariousindustrialoperations. In Chapter10,discussionispresentedonROtechnology, thenatureofdeposits,factorsthatminimizeorenhance deposition,andfuturedirectionstowarddepositionmitigation. Chapter11 deliversanoverviewofindustrial coolingwatersystems,the“workhorse”oftheindustrial watermarket,andananalysisofscalecontrolfromtheperspectiveofindustry.Geothermalscalesareproblematic issuesinthegeothermalpowerplants,and Chapter12 offers valuableinformationonhowtheyformand,moreimportantly,howtheycanbemitigated.Gypsumscaleandits

controlbyphosphonateadditivesarepresentedin Chapter13,withmechanisticdetailsoncrystalgrowthinhibition.Oilfieldscalesarethefocusof Chapters14 (recent developmentsinscalecontrol), 15 (ironsulfidescale), 16 (oilfieldscaleinhibitors),and 17 (compositeoilfieldscales anddeposits). Chapter18 presentsdiscussiononthe influenceofinhibitorarchitectureincontrollingmineral scalesdepositionincoolingwatersystems. Chapter19 summarizesthedevelopmentofpolymeric(naturalandsynthetic)supportsforwastewatertreatmentapplications, suchasremovalofdyes,organicpollutants,andphenols. In Chapters20and21,discussionispresentedonthescaling issuesandmitigationapproachesintheefficientoperation ofthermaldistillationandsugarprocessingplants.

SectionIIIconsistsofsevenchapters,anditcovers mineralscaleformationintheareasofbiological,environmental,andhomecaresystems. Chapter22 exploresthe causesandmechanismssurroundingtheformationofscale inthehomecareapplicationssuchaslaundry,dish,andhard surfaces,aswellasmethodologiesusedtopreventor removeit.Thefocusof Chapter23 isthe invitro calcificationprocessofhydrophilicintraocularlenses(IOLs) madeofpoly(hydroxyethylmethacrylicacid,PHEMA), bothinbatchreactorandinreactorssimulatingeye chamber.ResultsrevealthatcalcificationofIOLby hydroxyapatiteisinfluencedbysolutionsupersaturation. In Chapter24,in-depthdiscussionispresentedonmineral scaleorstoneformationinkidneysanditsimplicationin diseasedevelopment.Accordingtostonecomposition,most urinarystonecanbeclassifiedascalciumoxalate,magnesiumammoniumphosphate,anduricacidstones.For effectivediseasemanagement,severalissuesmustbetaken intoaccount,fromforcesthatpromotecrystalgrowthand thosethatinhibitcrystalgrowth,tounderstandkidneystone formation. Chapter25 isconcernedwithoralcare.Dental cariesandperiodontitisarethemajordiseasesintheoral cavity.Thedentalcliniciansandresearchershavebeen focusingonremovingdentalplaqueandcalculus,which aretheextensivebacterialdepositsandexopolysaccharides. Thischapterrevealstherecentdevelopmentsofofficeand homecleaningsystems,includingair-polishingsystem, toothbrush,anddenitrifice.Adetailedaccountofbiofouling (withemphasisonmacrofouling)inseawaterintake systemsisgivenin Chapter26.Theeverimportantmicrobiologicallyinfluencedcorrosioninsewagesystemsispresentedin Chapter27,withaneyeofH2Sformationandits consequences. Chapter28 presentsanoverviewof Legionella andLegionnaires’diseaseassociatedwithindustrial waters,suchascoolingtowers,potablewatersystems, andothertypesofwatersystems,includingdecorativewater features,pools,andspas.Despitetheincreasedawarenessin Legionella,outbreakscontinuetooccur.Discussionispresentedonthecausesandmitigationapproaches.

SectionIVdealswithsystemssupportandmaintenance andincludesninechapters. Chapter29 examinesglobal issuesthataffectwatertreatmentworldwideusingaholistic approach.Topicsdiscussedincludewaterdemandand usage,watershortages,availablewaterquality,and water-relatedproblemsindifferentworldregions.Discussionondevelopingwaterpurityissuessuchaslead piping,perfluoroalkylsubstances,arsenic,andendocrine disruptionsisalsopresented.ScalingprocessesinRO desalinationplantsaresignificantimpedimentsforproper operation,and Chapter30 providesvaluablesimulation toolsfortheseprocesses. Chapter31 presentsinformation onthesynthesis,properties,andapplicationsofnovel fluorescent-taggedinhibitorsinwatertreatment.Results ofonlinemonitoringontheuseofnewinhibitorsispresented.Pertinentinformationonthepopularphosphonatescaleinhibitorsisofferedby Chapter32,whichoutlines theirextensiveuseagainstvariousmineralscales.Surface analyticaltechniquesareparamountincorrosionscience, amongwhichX-rayfluorescenceholdsaspecialplace. Chapter33 providesanin-depthanalysisandapplication ofXPSincorrosion-relatedissues.Removalofsuspended anddissolvedcolloidalmatterinfeedwaterplaysan importantroleintheefficientoperationofindustrialwater systems. Chapter34 describesanddiscussesthemajorsyntheticpolyelectrolytechemistriesthatareavailableoncommercialscalealongwiththeirformsandindustrial applications.In-depthdiscussiononthemechanismsofprocessessuchascoagulationandflocculationispresented. Theincreasingutilizationoffluorescent-taggedantiscalants inscaleinhibitionhasbeennotedintheliterature.Hence, Chapter35 introducesthereaderinthefunctionofsuch advancedchemicaladditivesthataregermaneindelineating themechanismsofscaleInhibitionviafluorescentvisualization.Identifyingthetypeofscaleencounteredinindustrialwatersystemsisthefirststeptounderstandscale deposition,furthertodeterminetherootcause,andthen todevelopeffectivemitigationandinhibitionstrategy. Chapter36 introducesavarietyofanalyticaltechniques suchaswetchemistrytestmethods,scanningelectronand opticalmicroscopy,X-raydiffraction,energy-dispersive spectroscopy,etc.,toaddresstype,morphology,composition,andcrystallinestructureofthemineralscales.Successfulwatertreatmentinvolvesmeetingthestandardsof aparticularend-userapplication—whetheritishigh-purity waterusedinasemiconductorfab,process,orboilerwater inanindustrialplant,municipaldrinkingwater,cooling towers,commercialusers,oranaturalsourcewater. Chapter37 presentsanintroductiontodifferentaspectsof regulatorycompliancethewatertreatmentprofessionals faceintheireverydaywork.Thischaptermainlyaddresses thegeneralregulatorycomplianceintheUnitedStatesof America;however,similarlawsandregulationsgoverning

waterquality,discharge,safety,andtransportationarein placeinothercountriesandacrosstheborders.

Thepresentbookisnota“textbook.”However,itpresentsthereaderwiththestate-of-the-artinformationona plethoraofimportantissuesrelatedtomineralscalesand deposits,andotherrelatedindustrialwaterphenomena.It isa“must-have”companiontoourpreviousbook Mineral ScalesandDeposits:ScientificandTechnological Approaches (Z.Amjad,K.D.Demadis,Editors,Elsevier, 2015,ISBN9780444632289).Thisbookcomprises37 chaptersauthoredbyvariousinternationalexpertsintheir respectivefieldsandcomingfromindustryandacademia. Eachcarefullycraftedchapterprovidesanin-depth

discussionontherespectivesubject,whileitfurnishes numerousliteraturereferencesforfurtherreading.This bookisausefultoolnotonlyformembersoftheacademia, butalsoforindustrialwaterresearchers,technologists, powerengineers,water-relatedpolicymakers,andgraduate studentsworkingonwater-relatedfields.

ZahidAmjada andKostasD.Demadisb a DepartmentofChemistry,WalshUniversity, NorthCanton,OH,UnitedStates b CrystalEngineering, GrowthandDesignLaboratory,DepartmentofChemistry, UniversityofCrete,Heraklion,Greece