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AIRPOLLUTIONANDCLIMATE CHANGE THEBASICS Thisbookidentifiesfourkeyformsofairpollution:indoor,urban, regionalandglobal.Itdiscusseshowthesefourtypesofpollution aremanifestintoday’ssocietyandexaminesthescientificand policychallengesthatstandinthewayofprogress.
Writinginastylethatbalancesscientificunderpinningswith accessiblelanguage,PearsonandDerwentexaminethesourcesand historicalcontextofairpollutants,beforededicatingachaptertoeach ofthekeyforms.Armedwiththesebasics,theybegintoaddressthe challengesfacedbyimprovingindoor,urbanandregionalairquality, whilereducingglobalwarmingintheyearsahead.Thisleadstoa greaterunderstandingofthechallengesofglobalclimatechange,with newproposalsforreducingglobalwarming.However,theauthors concludethatitisonlywhenwehaveascenarioofreforestation combinedwithreductionsinemissionsofallgreenhousegasesthat realprogresswillbemadeinthe fightagainstclimatechange.Then, airpollutionwillalsobeconsignedtohistory.
WithaforewordwrittenbyProfessorJamesLovelock,thisbook willbeofgreatinteresttostudentsandscholarsofclimatechange andenvironmentalpolicy,aswellasairqualityprofessionals workinginthisimportant field.
JohnK.Pearson enjoyeda30-yearcareerinresearchwithRoyal DutchShell,includingtwoEuropeanassignments.Sincehisearly retirementfromShell,Johnhasbeenanairqualityconsultantto industry,workingonthedevelopmentofemissionsinventories andexploringairqualityopportunities,aswellasencouraging researchcouncilstopromoteuserappliedscience.Heistheauthor
ofthebook ImprovingAirQuality,publishedin2001,whichbuilds uponhisexperienceinbothEuropeandtheUnitedStateson energycompanies,motormanufacturersandlegislatorsworking together.Hismostrecentscientificcontributionin2019was ‘ImprovingSolventVOCEmissionsInventories’,publishedin AtmosphericEnvironment.
Richard(Dick)G.Derwent tookanMAdegreeandaPhDin physicalchemistryfromQueens’ CollegeintheUniversityof Cambridge.Hehasspentmuchofhisscientificcareerstudyingair pollutionandatmosphericchemistry.Dickisoneoftheforemost expertswithinthe fieldsofairpollution,atmosphericchemistry andglobalclimate,andhaspublishedover550peer-reviewedscientificpapers,reportsandbookchapters.Heisthejointauthorof twobooks: AtmosphericPollutionandEnvironmentChange and MechanismsofAtmosphericOxidationoftheAlkanes. Heisavisiting professorintheSchoolofGeography,EarthandEnvironmental SciencesattheUniversityofBirmingham.
TheBasics TheBasics isahighlysuccessfulseriesofaccessibleguidebooks whichprovideanoverviewofthefundamentalprinciplesofa subjectareainajargon-freeandundauntingformat.
Intendedforstudentsapproachingasubjectforthe firsttime,the booksbothintroducetheessentialsofasubjectandprovidean idealspringboardforfurtherstudy.Withover50titlesspanning subjectsfromartificialintelligence(AI)towomen’sstudies, The Basics areanidealstartingpointforstudentsseekingtounderstand asubjectarea.
Eachtextcomeswithrecommendationsforfurtherstudyand graduallyintroducesthecomplexitiesandnuanceswithinasubject.
REALESTATE
JANWILCOXANDJANEFORSYTH
MANAGEMENT(SECONDEDITION)
MORGENWITZEL
SEMIOTICS(FOURTHEDITION)
DANIELCHANDLER
CHOREOGRAPHY
JENNYROCHEANDSTEPHANIEBURRIDGE
LANGUAGEACQUISITION
PAULIBBOTSON
AIRPOLLUTIONANDCLIMATECHANGE
JOHNPEARSONANDRICHARDDERWENT
INFANCY
MARCH.BORNSTEINANDMARTHAE.ARTERBERRY
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DOI:10.4324/9781003293132
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Appendix3:Regionalairqualitymodels
2.1Thehistoryoftheevolutionofglobalatmospheric CO2 levelssincetheIndustrialRevolutionasrevealed frommeasurementsinicecores,relativetothe levelsfoundfrom20,000BCand5000BConwards.12
3.1Diagramillustratingtherelationshipbetweenindoor andoutdoorairqualityforPMusingasimple indoorairqualitymodel.24
4.1PMconcentrationsdownwindfromabusyroad showinghowconcentrationsfalloff rapidlywith distance.29
4.2HourlyairqualitymonitoringdatafortheMarylebone Road,Londonkerbsidemonitoringstationfor2010for NO,NO2,O3 plottedoutagainstNOx.30
5.1Themulti-pollutantmulti-effectframework underpinningourunderstandingofregionalair pollutionproblems.41
5.2Maximum8-hourlymeanozoneconcentration averagesfor11ruralUKand57long-runningEMEP ruralozonemonitoringstationsfrom1971to2019, togetherwiththeWHOozoneairqualitycriteriavalue setformaximum8-hourmeanozoneexposures.43
6.1Frameworkdiagramrepresentingthekeyprocesses involvedwithclimatechange.51
6.2PiechartsshowingcumulativehistoricCO2 emissionsbycountryin1820,1920and2020.55
6.3Theobservedandmodelpredictedatmospheric CO2 levelsfrom1950–2050.56
6.4Theobservedandmodelpredictedglobal atmosphericCH4 levelsfrom1950–2050.58
6.5Theobservedandmodelpredictedatmospheric N2Olevelsfrom1950–2050.59
6.6Themodelpredictedatmosphericlevelsofthree selectedhalocarbonsfrom1950–2050.60
6.7ThetimehistoryoftroposphericO3 from1950–2020aspredictedbyourglobalclimatemodel.61
6.8ThetimehistoryofradiativeforcingfromCO2,CH4, N2O,troposphericozone,halocarbonsandaerosols.64
6.9Globaltemperaturerisesincepre-industrialtimes predictedbytheglobalclimatemodelforCO2 alone,showingthecurrenttemperatureriseof1.0°C andtheParisAgreementtargetof1.5°C.66
6.10Globaltemperaturerisesincepre-industrialtimes predictedbyourglobalclimatemodelforCH4 and troposphericO3,showingthecurrenttemperature risesof0.34°Cand0.21°C,respectively.67
6.11Globaltemperaturerisesincepre-industrialtimes predictedbytheglobalclimatemodelforN2Oand thehalocarbons,showingthecurrenttemperature risesof0.12°Cand0.20°C,respectively.68
6.12Globaltemperaturedecreasesincepre-industrial timespredictedforaerosols,showingthecurrent decreaseof –0.46°C.69
6.13Globalclimatemodelpredictionsoftherisein globaltemperaturebetween1880and2020driven bygreenhousegasesandaerosols,comparedwith theobservationsintheGoddardInstituteforSpace Sciences(GISS)globaltemperaturerecord,relative tothe1880–1920average.Theerrorbarsshowthe likelyrangeinthemodelpredictedglobal temperaturerise.71
7.1Globaltemperaturepredictionsoutto2050withfor variousscenariosinvolvingfutureemissionsof regionalandglobalairpollutants.75
7.2TimehistoryofepisodicpeakO3 levelinruralareas oftheUKfromobservations(opencircles)andina regionalO3 airqualitymodelfor1990–2014and modelpredictionsoutto2050fora ‘nocoal-and gas-firedpowerstation’ scenario(dottedline), ‘no coal+transport’ scenario(dashedline)and ‘no coal+oil+gas’ scenario(dashedanddottedline). AlsoshownistheWHO2021airqualityguideline valueforO3 (greyline).78
7.3Climatemodelpredictionsfortheglobal reforestationscenarioontopofthemostambitious CO2 andCH4 emissionreductionscenarios.81
8.1Predictionsofglobaltemperatureriseextendedto 2075withthereforestationscenarioandreduction ofallman-madeemissions.93
8.2GlobaltemperaturerisesintheCOP-26scenarios, togetherwiththeParisAgreementtargets.95
A1.1Diagramillustratingtherelationshipbetweenindoor andoutdoorairqualityforPMusingatimedependentversionofanindoorairqualitymodel. Thethickblacklinerepresentsthetimebehaviour oftheoutdoorPMconcentrations.Thethinblack linerepresentsthenumericalsolutionforthe indoorPMconcentrationwithnormalventilation, dottedwithgoodventilationanddashedwithpoor ventilation.101
A2.1PMconcentrationsdownwindfromabusyroad showinghowconcentrationsfalloff rapidlywith distance.108
A3.1Themulti-pollutantmulti-effectframework underpinningourunderstandingofregionalair pollutionproblems.112
A3.2DiagrammaticrepresentationofaLagrangian trajectorymodel.118
A3.3DiagrammaticrepresentationofaEuleriangrid model.119
A3.4Illustrativediagramofthesulphurbudget processes.121
A3.5Illustrativediagramoftheoxidisednitrogenbudget processes.124
A3.6Behaviourofozoneinanairparceltraversingan urbanorindustrialarea.127
A4.1Frameworkdiagramrepresentingthekeyprocesses involvedwiththeradiativeforcingofclimate change.132
A4.2TimehistoriesoftheglobalCO2 mixingratiosin ppmfromourpredictionsandfromtheicecore reconstructionstogetherwiththeradiativeforcing inWm–2 andtheriseinglobaltemperaturein degreesCelsius.136
A4.3TimehistoriesoftheglobalCH4 mixingratiosin ppbfromourpredictionsandfromtheicecore reconstructionstogetherwiththeradiativeforcing inWm–2 andtheriseinglobaltemperaturein degreesCelsius.139
A4.4TimehistoriesoftheglobalN2Omixingratiosin ppbfromourpredictionsandfromtheicecore reconstructionstogetherwiththeradiativeforcing inWm–2 andtheriseinglobaltemperaturein degreesCelsius.141
A4.5Timehistoriesoftheglobalman-madeNOx emissions,theradiativeforcingfromtropospheric ozoneandtheriseinglobaltemperaturethatit drivesfrom1850to2020.144
A4.6Timehistoriesofthecontributionstotherisein globaltemperaturecausedby35halocarbonsand attributedtothe fivemostimportanthalocarbons.146
A4.7TimehistoriesoftheemissionsofSO2 +NOx,the aerosolradiativeforcingandtheglobaltemperature decreasefromaerosolparticles.148
5.1WHO(2021)guidelinesonexposurelimitsforthe mainairpollutants.47
5.2ClassificationofVOCsintothreegroupsaccording totheirimportanceinepisodicozoneformationas laidoutinthe1991GenevaVOCProtocolto CLRTAP.48
6.1RadiativeefficienciesinWm–2 ppm –1 foreachof themajorgreenhousegases.63
A2.1Inputdataforthecalculationoftheconcentration distributiondownwindofasinglepointsourceof pollutionusingaGaussianplumemodel.107
FOREWORD JamesLovelockCHCBEFRS Physicsisoftenregardedasthequeenofthesciences,anditwasnot surprisingto findthepredictionofsomethingasimportantasthe Earth’sfutureclimatetreatedasaprobleminphysicalmeteorology. InrealitywenowthinkthattheclimateoftheEarthisdependent notonlyonatmosphericphysicsbutalsoonhumanandbiological changesintheEarth’ssurfaceandatmosphere.Asdiscoveredby EdwardLorenz,evenpurelyphysicalattemptstoexplainclimateby mathematicalmodelscangivechaoticsolutions,whichareuseless forprediction.Lotkasuggestedthatpredictionwouldbeeasierifthe biologicalpartoftheenvironmentwasincludedalongwiththe physical.Thisconjecturewasconfirmedinthe1960s,whenfast computersbecameavailable,byLovelockandWatson.
ThisbookbyPearsonandDerwentclearlyshowshowmuch morecomplexistherealEarth.Itlistsvariousfactorssuchasthe physicsandchemistryoftheoceans,andsimilarlythegrowing influenceontheclimate,ofpeopleintheircitiesandbytheir agriculture,andhowinturnthischangestheclimate.Also,how thesechangesshouldbemeasured.
Itisabookforpoliticiansandgovernmentservantswhoreally wanttoknowwhata ff ectstheclimateandhowtheymight ameliorateadversechangemodestlyandwithoutruinous expenditure.
Wehavedevotedasignificantpartofourscientificcareersto understandthechallengesposedbyairqualityandglobalwarming. John,forhispart,hasworkedinindustrytoinformhiscolleagues abouttheseissuesandtoformulatestrategiesthatwillleadtoair qualityimprovement.Dick,forhispart,hasworkedonthebasic scienceunderpinningurban,regionalandglobalairquality.Both ofusferventlybelievethatitisnotpossibletounderstandair qualityandglobalclimateissuesfully,unlessanduntilyoucanput numbersintosomebasicmathematicalequationsthatdescribe them.Despitethecomplexity,therearesomehiddenbasictruths andprinciplesthatareworthyofdescription.Thesearethebasisof ourmonograph,whereweseektoquantifythelinkbetweenair qualityandglobalwarming.
Inwritingourmonograph,wehavedrawnmaterialfromsomekey basicreferencesources,whicharelistedattheendofeachchapter.In addition,wehavetakenmaterialfromalargenumberofliterature papersandwebsources.Wehavecheckedallthesesourcesasbestwe can,butwetakefullresponsibilityforanyerrorsandmistakes thatstillremain.Overtheyears,wehavelearnedmuchfrom ourscienti fi ccolleaguesandaregratefulfortheirinspiration. Wehopethismonograph,insomesmallway,repaysourdebt ofgratitudetoourcolleagues.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Afterlongcareersinindustryandgovernment,wedecidedtospend mostofourtimeduringtheCovidlockdownresearchingand writingthismonographonthelinkbetweenairqualityandglobal warming.Therearemanydocumentsonairpollutionandpaperson globalwarming,yetfewhadexaminedthelinkindetailorexplored bothbymeansofmathematicalcalculations.Quantifyingthislink hasbeenourchallenge,withtheobjectiveofdemonstratingthat globalwarmingcanbereversedgiventime.
Overmanyyears,wehaveworkedwithinmanyteamsof expertsfromtheenergyandchemicalindustries,frominternational organisationsandfromindividualgovernments.Ithasbeenour privilegetoshareourknowledgewith,andtolearnfrom,many giftedscientists,industrialists,andenvironmentalexperts.
Wehaveparticularlyappreciateddetailedtechnicaldiscussions withNadineAllemandofCITEPA,Paris,ZigKlimontofIIASA, Vienna,LucTurkenburgoftheEuropeanChemicalIndustry,Alan CurtisofAEREHarwell,MichaelJenkinofAtmosphericChemical Services,Okehampton,HarveyJeffriesoftheUniversityofNorth Carolina,ChapelHill,TomWigleyoftheUniversityofEastAnglia andMichaelPratheroftheUniversityofCaliforniaIrvine.
OurthanksgotoAlanWilson,whohasrecommendedimprovementstoourmonographaswehaveprogressed.
WerecordourdeepappreciationtoJamesLovelockCHCBE FRSforwritingtheForewordtoourmonograph.
Ittakesenthusiasmandperseverancetowriteabookandwe expressourgratitudetoourownfamiliesfortheirencouragement andinterest.
Airpollutionandglobalwarmingencompassmany fieldsof science,aswellaseconomicsandpolitics.Ithasbeenourprivilegeto explorehowourplanetwillovercomethefundamentalchallengesof improvingairqualityandreducingglobalwarming.
ABOUTTHEAUTHORS JOHNK.PEARSON JohnK.PearsonwasborninStAndrewsinScotland.Hereturned toreadappliedmathematicsattheuniversity,andwasawardeda UnitedCollegeBursaryinScience,graduatingin1969aswellas winningaclassmedalinappliedmathematics.
Heenjoyeda30-yearcareerinresearchwithRoyalDutch ShellincludingtwoEuropeanassignments.Hewasproject leaderforgasolinespecificationdevelopmentinthemid-1980s whenhepublishedandpresentedpaperstotheSocietyof AutomotiveEngineersintheUnitedStatesandCanada.During thisperiod,hehadbeenresponsibleforliaisonwithEuropean vehicleenginemanufacturersonfueldevelopmentsaswellas beingchairmanoftheFuelsCommitteeoftheBritishTechnical Council.
BilingualinFrenchandEnglish,Johnwasgroupleaderforfuel andlubricantresearchanddevelopmentforShellinFranceinthe early1990s,responsibleforalargeinternationalteam.
The final fiveyearsofhisShellcareerwerehismostchallenging asprincipalscientistresponsibleforairqualityresearch.Inthisrole, hewasdirectlyinvolvedintheEuropeanAutoOilProgramme andworkedcloselywithlegislatorsandEuropeanmemberstates ontheECOzoneDirectiveinthelate1990s.
SincehisearlyretirementfromShell,Johnhasbeenanairquality consultanttoindustry,workingonthedevelopmentofemissions inventoriesandexploringairqualityopportunities,aswellas encouragingresearchcouncilstopromoteuserappliedscience.Hehas
presentedhisworkworldwideandpersuadedIndustrytobeproactiveinimprovingairqualityandtheenvironment.
Heistheauthorofthebook ImprovingAirQuality publishedby theSAEin2001whichbuildsuponhisexperienceinbothEurope andtheUnitedStatesonenergycompanies,motormanufacturers andlegislatorsworkingtogether.Hismostrecentscienti fic contributionin2019was ‘ImprovingSolventVOCEmissions Inventories ’,publishedin AtmosphericEnvironment
Airqualityandglobalwarmingencompasseverythingfromscience topoliticsandeconomics.Carefulnegotiationbetweenallinterested playersiscritical – indeedhavingbeenchairmanofbothhislocal parishcouncilandhislocalhospice,JohnPearson’snegotiatingskills andteamplayinghavebeenkeptwelltothefore.
RICHARDDERWENTOBE Richard(Dick)DerwenttookaMAdegreeandaPhDinphysical chemistryfromQueens’ CollegeintheUniversityofCambridge. Hehasspentmuchofhisscientificcareerstudyingairpollution andatmosphericchemistry.
Hejoinedthescientificcivilservicein1971,initiallyintheAir PollutionDivisionofWarrenSpringLaboratory.Therehesetup the firstautomaticairpollutionmonitoringnetworkintheUK, measuringNOx,CO,SO2,VOCs,O3 andleadparticles.HediscoveredphotochemicalsmoginLondonandpublishedthe first nationalemissioninventoriesofNOx andVOCs.
In1974,DickjoinedtheEnvironmentalMedicalSciencesDivision oftheAtomicEnergyResearchEstablishment,Harwell.Therehe builtthe firstEuropeanmodelsofstratosphericozonelayerdepletion, photochemicalozoneformation,acidrainandthebuild-upof greenhousegases:methaneandozone.HewasappointedbytheUK DepartmentoftheEnvironmentasChairmanoftheUKPhotochemicalOxidantsReviewGroup.Heprovidedtheleadershipfor thescientificunderpinningofthenegotiationswithintheUNECE oftheNOx,VOCandGothenburgProtocolstotheConventionon Long-RangeTrans-boundaryAirPollution(CLRTAP)inGeneva.
In1990,DickjoinedtheDepartmentoftheEnvironmentasthe headoftheAirQualityScienceUnit.Thereheoversawthe establishmentoftheUKurbanairqualitymonitoringnetwork
providingreal-timeairqualitydatatothegeneralpublic.Hewasa LeadAuthoronthe firstreportoftheIntergovernmentalPanelon ClimateChangeanddevelopedtheconceptoftheGlobalWarming Potential(GWP)toexpresstheequivalencebetweenthedifferent greenhousegases.Heconstructedthebasketofgreenhousegasesfor theUNFrameworkConventionofClimateChange(UNFCCC), andthisisstillinusetothisday.
In1993,hemovedtotheAtmosphericProcessesResearch BranchoftheUKMeteorologicalOfficeasanindividualmerit scientist.Therehewasresponsibleforbuildingthe firstcoupled ocean-atmosphere-atmosphericchemistryclimatemodel.In1994, hewasawardedtheRoyalSocietyofChemistryAwardfor EnvironmentalChemistryforhismajorcontributiontothe understandingoftheprocessesleadingtotheformationofphotochemicaloxidants.In1996,hewasawardedtheFitzroyPrizeof theRoyalMeteorologicalSocietyinrecognitionofhisbecoming oneoftheforemostexpertsonatmosphericpollutionwithin Europe.HewasappointedOfficeroftheOrderoftheBritish Empire(OBE)byQueenElizabethIIforhisworkonairpollution andatmosphericchemistry.
In2003,Dicktookearlyretirementtobecomeanindependentscientiststudyingairpollution,atmosphericchemistryandclimatechange. HewasappointedchairmanoftheEMEPTaskForceonMeasurementandModelling,completingEurope-wideassessmentsofregional airqualityfortheCLRTAP.In2007,hiscontributiontotheawardof theNobelPeacePrizetotheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimate ChangethroughhisworkonGWPconceptwasofficiallyrecognised.
Dickisoneoftheforemostexpertswithinthe fieldsofairpollution,atmosphericchemistryandglobalclimateandhaspublished over550peer-reviewedscientificpapers,reportsandbookchapters.Heisjointauthoroftwobooks: AtmosphericPollutionand EnvironmentChange (HodderArnold)and MechanismsofAtmospheric OxidationoftheAlkanes (OxfordUniversityPress).Heisavisiting professorintheSchoolofGeography,EarthandEnvironmental SciencesoftheUniversityofBirmingham.
AIRPOLLUTANTSANDTHEIR SOURCES OVERVIEW Airpollutantsmaybepresentintheatmosphereasgasesorparticles.Mostairpollutantsaredirectlyemittedintotheatmosphere, butsomeareformedtherebychemicalreactions.Airpollutantsare transportedacrossregionsandcountriesandmaycrossnational boundaries.Inthischapter,wediscussairpollutants,theirhealth impactsandtheirprincipalsources.Wealsohighlightthemain greenhousegasesandpollutants:carbondioxide,methaneand ozone.Whilethereismuchfocusonthereductionoftheemissions ofthoseparticleswhichcanpenetratethelungs,reducingaerosol particlesalsoaffectsglobalwarming.
Coalandoilcombustionaremajorcausesofairpollutionproblems, followedbyroadtransportusinggasolineanddieselfuels.Massive reductionsincarbondioxideandallpollutantswillbeachievedover thenexttwodecadesbytransformingpowerstationsandroadtransport.Itis,however,importanttoconsiderallsourcesofpollution,both anthropogenicandnaturalbiogenic,inordertoimproveairquality.
Earth’satmospherecontains78.08%nitrogen(N2),20.95%oxygen (O2)and0.93%argon(Ar).Theremainingatmosphericconstituents arecalledtracegasesandincludewatervapour(H2O),carbondioxide (CO2),neon(Ne),helium(He),methane(CH4),krypton(Kr)and nitrousoxide(N2O).Watervapourconcentrationsarehighlyvariable andaverageabout1%attheEarth’ssurface.
DOI:10.4324/9781003293132-1
TheatmosphereisessentialtolifeonEarth,providingthe oxygenwebreathe,carbondioxideforplantgrowththrough photosynthesis,ozonetoabsorbdamagingultravioletradiation fromthesunandagreenhouseblanketofwatervapourandcarbon dioxidetomaintainthehabitabletemperaturesrequiredtosustain lifeonEarth.
Inadditiontothemajorgasesandthetraceconstituentsmentioned above,theatmospherecontainsawholerangeofatmosphericpollutantswhicharepresentintraceamountsandwhoselevelsarehighly variableinspaceandtime.
Thetermsairpollutionandairpollutanthaveprecisemeanings.An airpollutantisasubstancewhichwhenemittedintotheatmosphere causesdamagetohumanhealthorthewiderenvironment.Air pollutantsmaybepresentintheatmosphereasgasesorparticles. Examplesofgaseousairpollutantsincludesulphurdioxide,nitrogenoxides,carbonmonoxide,carbondioxide,methaneandother organiccompounds.Examplesofparticulateairpollutantsinclude smoke,smuts, fi neparticlesfromtra ffi candcoarseparticlessuchas seasaltsandwind-blowndusts.
Hereweexaminethecommonairpollutantsanddescribetheir sourcesintheairthatweallbreathe.
CARBONMONOXIDE(CO) Thiscompoundisformedbyincompletecombustionoffuels linkedtoinsufficientoxygen.Outdoors,themainsourcesare gasolinevehiclesandforest fires.Inpractice,moderngasoline vehiclesemitverysmallamountsofcarbonmonoxideandthis sourcehasbecomeaproblemofthepastinairquality.Bonfires andforest firesdogiverisetohighlevelsofcarbonmonoxide,but theseareusuallybroughtundercontrolquickly.Indoors,carbon monoxideremainsasignificantproblem.Theseissuesarecovered inChapter3.
CARBONDIOXIDE(CO2) Atmosphericcarbondioxideconcentrationsareincreasingsteadily duetocombustionprocesseslinkedtooil,gas,coalandwood. Thisisthemostimportantgreenhousegasassociatedwithglobal
warmingandclimatechangeanditscontrolisessentialintheyears tocome.PowerstationsinEuropearephasingouttheuseofcoal andoilinfavourofrenewabletechnologiesandmotormanufacturersareintroducinghybridandelectricvehicles.Boththese measuresarehelpingtoreduceemissionsofthispollutant.However, Asiancountriescontinuetobuildcoal-firedpowerstationsandcar ownershipisincreasingrapidlybasedongasolinevehicles,generating hugeemissionsofcarbondioxide.Thechallengestoreduceglobal carbondioxideemissionsarecoveredinChapter6.
SULPHURDIOXIDE(SO2) Sulphurdioxide,anacidicgas,isassociatedwiththeburningoffossil fuelstogenerateheatandelectricity.SO2 isreadilytransported acrossinternationalboundariesbywind fieldswhichcontributesto thechallengeofreducingacidrainanditsdamagingimpactsonsoils andsurfacewaters.Ingeneral,itisindecline,butcountrieswhich relyonpowerstationsburningcoalsuchasChina,India,Czech Republic,PolandandSerbiastillhavesubstantialSO2 emissions. LowsulphurfuelshavealsohelpedEuropetoreduceSO2 pollution overthepast30years.
NITROGENOXIDES(NOX) Nitricoxide(NO)andnitrogendioxide(NO2)arealwaysfound togetherintheatmosphereandclassedasNitrogenOxides(NOx = NO+NO2).Indevelopedcountries,thelargestsourceofNOx comesfromtheautomotivesector,accountingforabout50%,with powerstationscontributingabout20%.Inpreviousyears,thediesel enginehasmadethegreatestNOx contributionintheautomotive sector,butadvancesindieselenginetechnology(forexample:deNOx catalysts)havestartedtoreducethisconsiderably.Further reductionscontinueasthedieselenginegiveswaytoelectricand hybridenginetechnologies.MostpollutantsourcesemittheirNOx asNOwhichisconvertedintheatmospheretothemuchmore harmfulNO2 bychemicalreactionsinvolvingozone.Highlevelsof NO2 areamajorconcerninourcitiesbecauseofhealtheffects, particularlytheircontributiontoexcessdeaths.Theseissuesare addressedinChapter4.
NOx anditscompoundsarehighlyreactiveintheatmosphere andcontributetoacidrain,eutrophicationandtheformationof fineparticlesandground-levelozone.Theyarereadilytransported acrossinternationalboundariesandsoimpactsarefeltacrossentire regions.Acidrainandeutrophicationleadtoenvironmental damageintheformoflossof fishstocks,destructionofsensitive habitatsandthelossofbiologicaldiversity.Fineparticlesandozone causehealtheffectsandozonedamagescropsandvegetation. TheseissuesareaddressedinChapter5.
VOLATILEORGANICCOMPOUNDS(VOCS) Volatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)comprisethemanyhundreds tothousandsoforganiccompoundsthatarepresentintheatmosphere.Theyrangefromsimplehydrocarbons(suchasalkanesand aromatics)tooxygenates(suchasalcoholsandketones).Theyare pollutantsintheirownrightbecausesomecausecancer,suchas benzene,butitistheirsubstantialcontributiontoground-level ozoneformationwhichisofgreaterconcern.ThesourcesofVOCs arebothman-made(vehicleexhaust,gasolineevaporativeemissions andsolvents)andbiogenic(fromtreesandplants).Industryhasmade substantialeffortstoreduceVOCs,throughthedevelopmentof three-waycatalystsystemsandevaporativecanistersingasoline vehiclesandsolventreformulationincludingwater-basedpaints. TheseissuesarediscussedinChapter5.
IndividualVOCssuchasbenzeneremainaconcernbecause theycancausecancers.Theissueofbenzeneasanairpollutantis nowlargelyassociatedwithcigarettesmoking,particularlyindoor airquality,asexaminedinChapter3.
METHANE(CH4) Methaneisthelargestconstituentofnaturalgaswhichisawidely usedfossilfuelinpowerstationsforgeneratingelectricity,in industryforthemanufactureoffertilisersandinthehomefor heatingandcooking.Methaneisemittedinlargequantitiesby agriculture,particularlyricepaddiesandbyanimals,notably cattle.Thereareimportantnaturalmethanesourcesincluding tropicalwetlands,bogsandmarshes.Itisthesecondmost
importantman-madegreenhousegasaftercarbondioxideandis discussedindetailinChapter6.
OZONE(O3) Therearenoimportantdirectemissionsofozoneintothe atmosphereandalltheozonepresenttherehasbeenformedby atmosphericchemicalreactions.Intheupperatmosphere,the so-calledstratosphere,ozoneactsasasunscreenand fi ltersout theharmfulultra-violetradiationfromthesun.Thisisthe stratosphericozonelayerwhichisessentialtoalllifeaswe knowit.Intheloweratmosphere,particularlythatportion closesttotheground,ozoneisaman-madepollutantcausing healthe ff ectsanddamagetocropsandvegetation.
Atgroundlevel,ozoneisasecondarypollutantformedby sunlight-drivenchemicalreactionsinvolvingVOCsandNOx precursorsandistransportedacrossinternationalboundariesby wind fi elds.Assuch,itisbeingaddressedbyallcountries, whichcontinuetoreducethesetwomainprecursorpollutants. Bothchemicalreactivityandmeteorologyarethekeyfactorsin ground-levelozoneformationandmathematicalmodelsare usedtopredicttheoptimumstrategyforozonereductionin anyregion,asseeninChapters5and7.Itisinterestingtonote thatisopreneisoneofthemostreactiveVOCsinozoneformationandisamajorcomponentofnaturalbiogenicVOC emissionsfromtrees.Strategies tocontrolozoneformationhave totakeintoaccountbothman-madeandbiogenicVOCsin anyparticularregion,togetherwithNOx emissions.Ithas becomerecognisedthattheformationofozoneacrossEurope andlargepartsofNorthAmericaarenowNOx -limitedand, consequently,furtherNOx emissionreductionswillhavethe greaterimpactonreducingozonelevelscomparedwithVOC reductions.
Ozoneisalsoaman-madegreenhousegas,beingthethirdin importanceaftercarbondioxideandmethane.Globalozonelevels arecontrolledbytheemissionsofmethane,carbonmonoxide,oxides ofnitrogenandVOCs.Itsroleasagreenhousegasisdiscussedin Chapter6.
