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WasteManagement intheChemical andPetroleum Industries

SecondEdition

AlirezaBahadori

SouthernCrossUniversity Lismore Australia

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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Names:Bahadori,Alireza,author.

Title:Wastemanagementinthechemicalandpetroleumindustries/ AlirezaBahadori(SouthernCrossUniversity,Lismore,NewSouthWales, Australia).

Description:Secondedition.|Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc., [2020]|Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.

Identifiers:LCCN2019024462(print)|LCCN2019024463(ebook)|ISBN 9781119551720(cloth)|ISBN9781119551737(adobepdf)|ISBN 9781119551751(epub)

Subjects:LCSH:Petroleumindustryandtrade–Wastedisposal.|Chemical industry–Wastedisposal.|Petroleumrefineries–Wastedisposal.

Classification:LCCTD899.P4B342020(print)|LCCTD899.P4(ebook)| DDC628.5/1–dc23

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10987654321

Preface xv

AbouttheAuthor xix

1WastewaterTreatment1

1.1CharacteristicsofWastewater2

1.1.1WastewaterClassifications5

1.1.2WaterPollutionTerminals5

1.1.3SuspendedSolids6

1.1.4HeavyMetals6

1.1.5DissolvedInorganicSolids7

1.1.6ToxicOrganicCompounds7

1.1.7Surfactants7

1.1.8PriorityPollutants9

1.1.9VolatileOrganicCompounds9

1.2TreatmentStages9

1.2.1SourcesofWastewater11

1.2.2DischargeOptionsandQualityRequirements11

1.3EffluentWaterPollutionControl13

1.3.1SpillPreventionandControl14

1.3.2GroundwaterPollutionControl16

1.4TreatmentProcesses18

1.4.1WastewaterPollutionOilTerminals20

1.4.2SimpleGravitySeparation21

1.4.3ResidualSuspendedMatter21

1.4.4SelectionofTreatmentProcesses22

1.5SitingandDesign24

1.5.1AquaticEcosystems25

1.5.2TerrestrialEcosystems25

1.5.3WetlandEcosystems27

1.5.4LandUse28

1.5.5WaterPollutionControl28

1.6SourcesofEffluentinthePetrochemicalIndustry29

1.6.1WaterPollution29

1.6.2CoolingWater29

1.6.3WashingWaterandProcessWater29

1.6.4TypicalPollutantsinthePetrochemicalIndustry29

1.6.5PetrochemicalWasteTreatment30

1.6.6Fertilizer31

1.7EffectofPollution33

1.7.1MajorPollutants33

1.8OlefinPlants34

1.8.1PolymericPlants35

1.8.2PolyvinylChloridePlants36

1.8.3AromaticPlants37

1.9EnvironmentalProtectionforIndustrialWaste37

1.9.1ImportantFactorsinProcessSelection37

1.10ChemicalOxygenDemandinWastewaterSystems44

1.10.1DeterminationofCOD44

1.10.2CalculationofTheoreticalOxygenDemand45

2PhysicalUnitOperations47

2.1FlowMeasurement47

2.2Screening47 2.3Comminution50

2.4GritRemoval50

2.5GravitySeparation51

2.5.1General51

2.5.2Application52

2.5.3Oil–WaterSeparators:GeneralDesignConsiderations53

2.5.4Conventional,RectangularChannel(API)Separators53

2.5.5Parallel-PlateSeparators65

2.5.6OilTraps67

2.5.7OilHoldingBasins68

2.6FlowEqualization68

2.6.1ApplicationandLocation68

2.6.2VolumeRequirements69

2.7Mixing70

2.7.1DescriptionandType70

2.7.2Application70

2.8Sedimentation71

2.8.1SedimentationTheory71

2.8.2ApplicationandType73

2.8.3DesignConsiderations74

2.8.4NumberofBasins75

2.8.5InletArrangements75

2.8.6Short-Circuiting76

2.8.7OutletArrangements76

2.8.8DetentionTime76

2.8.9SurfaceLoadingRate76

2.8.10FactorsAffectingSedimentation76

2.9DissolvedAirFlotation78

2.9.1General78

2.9.2SystemConfiguration79

2.9.3VariablesAffectingDAFEfficiency80

2.9.4TreatabilityTesting80

2.9.5DesignConsiderations81

2.9.6InstrumentsandControl86

2.9.7Piping86

2.9.8ChemicalsFacilities87

2.9.9Material87

2.9.10EstimationofAirConcentrationinDAFSystems87

2.10Granular-MediaFilters93

2.10.1General93

2.10.2FilterTypesandApplications94

2.10.3SystemDesignParameters96

2.10.4CycleTime98

2.10.5VesselsandAppurtenances99

2.10.6InstrumentationandControls100

3ChemicalTreatments103

3.1Introduction103

3.1.1ChemicalPrecipitation103

3.1.2ChemicalCoagulation103

3.1.3ChemicalOxidationandAdvancedOxidation104

3.1.4IonExchange104

3.1.5ChemicalStabilization106

3.2DefinitionandApplication106

3.2.1ActivatedCarbonAdsorption106

3.3ChemicalPrecipitation109

3.4ChemicalFlocculation109

3.4.1DefinitionandApplications110

3.4.2DesignConsiderations112

3.4.3Clarifiers112

3.4.4ChemicalAdditionSystems115 3.5Disinfection116

3.5.1ChemicalAgents116

3.5.2MechanicalMeansofDisinfection116 3.6Chlorination118

3.6.1ChlorineDosages118

3.6.2DesignConsiderations119

3.7WaterMonitoring120

3.7.1DesignConsiderationsforaWaterMonitoringSystem121

3.8On-SitePortableInstrumentsforWaterPollutionControl121

3.8.1AlternativeCurrentColorimeter122

3.8.2OnlineFixedMeasurementorContinuousMonitoring122

3.8.3ContinuousWaterSamplingandClarificationSystem122

3.8.4LaboratoryInstruments122

3.8.5SoilWaterSampling125

3.8.6GroundwaterSampling126

3.9PhysicalExamination126

3.9.1Color126

3.9.2Conductivity127

3.9.3Turbidity128

3.9.4DeterminationofMetals128

3.9.5Polarography128

3.9.6DeterminationofOrganicConstituents129

3.9.7CombustibleGasIndicator130

3.9.8TotalOrganicCarbon130

3.9.9BiochemicalOxygenDemand131

3.9.10ChemicalOxygenDemand131

3.9.11ExaminationofWaterandWastewaterRadioactivity131

3.10AutomatedLaboratoryEquipmentforMonitoringWater andWastewater133

3.10.1LoadingLosses133

3.10.2EmissionstoWater134

4BiologicalTreatments137

4.1Theory137

4.1.1BiologicalActivatedCarbonProcess139

4.1.2BiokineticTheoreticalModel140

4.2BiologicalTreatmentProcesses142

4.2.1MajorDifferencesinAerobicandAnaerobicTreatment144

4.2.2AerobicProcesses146

4.2.3AnaerobicWasteTreatment149

4.2.4Aerobic-Anaerobic(Facultative)WasteTreatment149

4.3ActivatedSludgeUnits150

4.3.1Applications151

4.3.2EffectsofActivatedSludge151

4.3.3FeedComposition152

4.3.4ProcessDesign157

4.3.5DesignConsiderations158

4.4TricklingFilters160

4.4.1TricklingFilterProcessDesign162

4.5RotatingBiologicalContactorSystem163

4.6SewageOxidationPonds164

5WastewaterTreatmentintheUnconventionalOilandGasIndustries167

5.1Background167

5.1.1DissolvedandDispersedHydrocarbonComponents169

5.1.2DissolvedMinerals169

5.1.3ProductionChemicals169

5.1.4ProducedSolids170

5.1.5DissolvedGases170

5.2ToxicityLimitationsofCoalBedWater171

5.3ShaleGasandCSGProducedWater:Treatment,andDisposal174

5.3.1EvaporationPonds174

5.3.2Surface-StreamDisposal174

5.3.3IonExchange176

5.3.4MembraneFiltrationTechnology176

5.3.5Freeze-ThawEvaporation178

5.3.6Adsorption178

5.3.7ChemicalOxidation178

5.3.8Filtration179

5.3.9ConstructedWetlands179

5.3.10ElectrodialysisandElectrodialysisReversal179

5.3.11DeepWellInjectionatDedicatedOnshoreSites180

5.3.12BiologicalAeratedFilters180

5.3.13Macro-porousPolymerExtractionTechnology181

5.3.14ThermalTechnologies181

5.4Re-thinkingTechnologiesforSaferFacing185

5.5WaterTreatmentforOilSandsMining191

5.5.1RecyclingandWaterTreatmentOptions192

5.5.2OilyWaterTreatmentinOilSandsMining193

6WastewaterSewerSystems199

6.1StormWaterSewerSystem200

6.2OilyWaterSewerSystem200

6.3Non-OilyWaterSewerSystem201

6.4ChemicalSewerSystem(s)202

6.4.1DisposalofChemicalSewers202

6.4.2NeutralizationSystems202

6.4.3TypesofChemicalWaste202

6.5SanitarySewerSystem203

6.6SpecialSewerSystems203

6.7EffluentSourcesandDisposal203

6.8ParticularEffluentsinRefineryandPetrochemicalPlants205

6.8.1CausticScrubs(HeavyOils)205

6.8.2DesalterWastewater205

6.8.3FoulorSourWater206

6.8.4SpentCausticSolutions206

6.8.5MTBEorLeadedContaminatedStreams208

6.8.6BenzeneContaminatedStreams208

6.8.7SpentSulfuricAcidProducts209

6.8.8NitrogenBaseComponents210

6.8.9Cyanides210

6.8.10AluminumChloride210

6.8.11Polyelectrolyte210

6.8.12FerricChloride211

6.8.13PhosphoricAcid211

6.8.14HydrofluoricAcid211

6.8.15OtherSpentCatalysts211

6.8.16ChemicalCleaningWaste211

6.8.17SulfurSolidificationandCrushingFacilities,andLoading SystemsDrainage211

6.8.18WaterContainingSolids,EmulsifyingAgents,etc212

6.8.19HeavyViscousOilsDrainage212

6.8.20ToxicMetalContaminatedStreams212

6.8.21SolventProcessesDrainage212

6.8.22TreatingProcessesDrainage212

6.9PetrochemicalPlantSpecialEffluents212

6.9.1SummaryofDisposal/TreatmentMethods213

6.10NGL,LNG,andLPGAreaEffluents215

6.10.1LiquefiedGasSpill215

6.11GasTreatmentFacilitiesEffluents216

6.12EffluentsfromTerminals,Depots,andProductHandlingAreas216

6.13GeneralConsiderationsandConditionsforReleaseofWaste216

6.13.1CharacteristicsandCompositionofWaste216

6.13.2CharacteristicsoftheDischargeSiteandReceiving Environment217

6.13.3AvailabilityofWasteTechnologies217

6.14EffluentWastewaterCharacteristics218

6.14.1Flow218

6.14.2Temperature218

6.14.3pH218

6.14.4OxygenDemand219

6.14.5PhenolContent219

6.14.6SulfideContent219

6.14.7OilContent220

6.14.8LightHydrocarbonSolubilityinWater220

6.14.9PredictingtheMutualSolubilityofWater–Hydrocarbon Systems221

6.15WastewaterEmissions226

6.15.1PointSourceDischarge226

6.15.2EffluentPermissibleConcentrations228

6.16UnsaturatedZone232

6.17SiteAssessment232

6.18GatheringReleaseInformation233

7SewageTreatment237

7.1SewageEffluents238

7.1.1ReceivingWater238

7.1.2FinalEffluentsofDomesticWastewaterPlants239

7.2MethodsofSewageTreatment:General239

7.2.1ConventionalMethods239

7.3ChoiceofSystem:General239

7.4DesignofSewageTreatmentPlants:GeneralGuidance240

7.5DesignofSmallSewageTreatmentPlants240

7.5.1CollectionofInformation240

7.6PreliminaryTreatment242

7.7PrimaryandSecondarySettlementTanks242

7.7.1CapacitiesofPrimarySettlementTanks243

7.8SludgeDigesters244

7.9DryingBeds244

7.9.1SecondarySettlementTanks245

7.10BiologicalFilters246

7.10.1Distribution247

7.10.2VolumeofFilter247

7.10.3MineralFilterMedia247

7.11ActivatedSludgeUnits248

7.12TertiaryTreatment(Polishing)Processes249

7.13DisposalofFinalEffluent249

7.14AdvancedWastewaterTreatment250

7.14.1EffectsofChemicalConstituentsinWastewater250

7.14.2AdvancedWastewaterTreatmentOperationsandProcesses250

7.15EffluentDisposalandReuse250

7.15.1DirectandIndirectReuseofWastewater250

8SolidWasteTreatmentandDisposal257

8.1BasicConsiderations257

8.1.1Classification257

8.1.2Methodology257

8.1.3Sources258

8.1.4Characteristics261

8.1.5Quantities261

8.2SludgeHandling,Treatment,andReuse261

8.2.1General261

8.2.2SludgeandScumPumping264

8.2.3SludgePiping268

8.2.4PreliminaryOperationFacilities270

8.2.5Thickening(Concentration)272

8.3Stabilization274

8.3.1DesignConsiderations275

8.3.2LimeStabilization275

8.3.3HeatTreatment275

8.3.4AnaerobicSludgeDigestion276

8.3.5Composting278

8.4Conditioning278

8.5Disinfection278

8.6Dewatering279

8.6.1SludgeDewateringMethods279

8.6.2VacuumFiltration279

8.6.3Centrifugation281

8.6.4BeltFilterPress282

8.6.5SludgeDryingBeds282

8.6.6Lagoons283

8.7HeatDrying283

8.8ThermalReduction284

8.8.1ThermalReductionProcessApplications284

8.9LandApplicationofSludge285

8.10ChemicalFixation286

8.11GatheringContaminant-SpecificInformation286

8.12EvaluatingContaminantMobility288

8.13TechnologySelection288

8.13.1SoilVenting289

8.13.2Biorestoration289

8.13.3SoilFlushing289

8.13.4HydraulicMethods290

8.13.5Excavation290

8.14SaturatedZone291

8.15SiteAssessment291

8.15.1GatheringContaminant-SpecificInformation291

8.15.2EvaluatingtheContaminantPhaseintheSaturatedZone292

8.16EvaluatingContaminantMobility294

8.16.1MassofDissolvedandSorbedContaminantsinGroundwater294

8.16.2ExtentofContaminantPlume295

8.16.3MobilityofContaminationintheSaturatedZone296

8.17SettingRemediationGoals296

8.18TechnologySelection296

8.19DissolvedContaminants297

8.19.1TrenchExcavation297

8.19.2PumpingWellInstallation297

8.19.3RecoveryofFloatingNAPL298

8.19.4TreatmentofContaminantsDissolvedinGroundwater298

8.20MethodologyforPipelineLeakConsequenceEvaluation300

8.20.1EvaluationofLeak300

8.20.2PotentialLeakRateandLeakMass302

8.20.3EnvironmentalConsequenceFactor304

8.21LeakDetectionTechniques306

8.21.1BalancingMassInputVersusOutput307

8.21.2Pressureand/orFlowAnalysis310

8.21.3MonitoringofCharacteristicSignalsGeneratedbyaLeak310

8.21.4Off-LineLeakDetection311

8.22LeakproofControlofPipelineGasPiping,Tanks,andTechnological InstallationsUsingRadioactiveTracers312

8.22.1LeakDetectioninLiquidPipelines313

8.22.2LeakDetectioninGasPipelines313

8.23FinalSludgeandSolidsConveyance,Storage,andDisposal314

8.23.1ConveyanceMethods315

8.23.2EnvironmentalConsiderationsinSludgeTransportation315

8.23.3SludgeStorage315

8.23.4FinalDisposal316

8.23.5Incineration317

8.23.6AshHandlingandDisposal318

8.24DisposalofSolidWaste318

8.24.1TypesofWaste318

8.24.2SitingofHazardousWasteFacilities319

8.24.3Non-HazardousWaste320

8.24.4Sources,Segregation,Quantities,andCharacteristicsofSolid WasteinRefineries321

8.24.5SourceReductionMethods323

8.24.6ResourceRecoveryandWasteMinimization324

8.24.7HazardousWasteReduction328

8.24.8TreatmentPriortoUltimateDisposal330

8.24.9DisposalofWasteGeneratedinDrillingWells336

8.24.10GeneralSamplingConsiderations337

8.24.11AirMonitoringofWasteforEmployeeProtection343 8.24.12Procedures344

8.24.13Hazards345

8.24.14QualityAssuranceConsiderations346

8.25EmissionstoLand346

8.25.1GroundwaterMonitoring346 8.25.2Spills347

8.26EvaluationofSoilInfiltrationProblems348

8.26.1PredictiveTool348

8.26.2SampleCalculationsforPracticeEngineers351

Preface

Oilandgasaremajorsourcesofenergyandrevenueformanycountriestoday–their productionhasbeendescribedasoneofthemostimportantindustrialactivitiesinthe twenty-firstcentury–andobviouslywastetreatmentanddisposalassumeagreaterdegree ofimportanceinthepetroleum,chemicalprocessing,andunconventionaloilandgasindustriesthaneverbefore.

Wastewaterqualityandthequantityproduceddeterminethemeansofdisposalandthe costsofdisposal.Suspendedsolids,totaldissolvedsolids,andoxygendemandofproduced watershavethemostimpactonwastewatertreatment.

Wastewaterisacomplexmixtureoforganicandinorganiccompounds,andthelargest volumeofby-productgeneratedduringchemicalprocessingandbothconventionaland unconventionaloilandgasrecoveryoperations.Thepotentialofoilfieldproducedwater tobeasourceoffreshwaterforwater-stressedoil-producingcountriesandtheincreasing environmentalconcernsinadditiontostringentlegislationonproducedwaterdischarge intotheenvironmenthavemadeproducedwatermanagementasignificantpartoftheoil andgasbusiness.

Inmarginallyeconomiccoalbedprojects,thewaterdisposalcostsandtheattendant environmentalaccountingarecriticalfactorsintheinvestmentdecision;waterdisposal costseconomicallymakeorbreakamarginalproject.

Beforeinvestinginacoalbedmethane(CBM)process,amultiplicityofquestionshave tobeansweredconcerningthewatertobeproduced–questionsconcerningquantity,flow rates,chemicalcontent,disposalmeans,monitoring,andenvironmentalregulations.PerhapsnootherfactoraffectstheeconomicsandfeasibilityofCBMprojectsasmuchaswater removalanddisposal.

Inheavyoilproduction,between2and4.5volumeunitsofwaterareusedtoproduceeach volumeunitofsyntheticcrudeoilinan exsitu miningoperation.Despiterecycling,almost allofitendsupintailingsponds.However,insteamassistedgravitydrainage(SAGD) operations,90–95%ofthewaterisrecycledandabout0.2volumeunitsofwaterisused pervolumeunitofbitumenproduced.

Amajorhindrancetothemonitoringofoilsandsproducedwatershasbeenthelackof identificationoftheindividualcompoundspresent.Bybetterunderstandingthenatureof thehighlycomplexmixtureofcompounds,includingnaphthenicacids,itmaybepossible tomonitorriversforleachateandalsotoremovetoxiccomponents.Suchidentificationof

individualacidshasformanyyearsprovedtobeimpossiblebutarecentbreakthroughin analysishasbeguntorevealwhatisintheoilsandsproducedwaters.

Theextractionanduseofshalegascanaffecttheenvironmentthroughleakingof extractionchemicalsandwasteintowatersupplies,leakingofgreenhousegassesduring extraction,andpollutioncausedbytheimproperprocessingofnaturalgas.

Achallengetopreventingpollutionisthatshalegasextractionsvarywidelyinthisregard, evenbetweendifferentwellsinthesameproject;theprocessesthatreducepollutionsufficientlyinoneextractionmaynotbeenoughinanother.

Chemicalsareaddedtothewatertofacilitatetheundergroundfracturingprocessthat releasesnaturalgas.Fracturingfluidisprimarilywaterandapproximately0.5%chemical additives(frictionreducer,agentscounteringrust,agentskillingmicroorganism).Since (dependingonthesizeofthearea)millionsoflitersofwaterareused,thismeansthat hundredsofthousandsoflitersofchemicalsareofteninjectedintothesoil.

Onlyabout50–70%oftheresultingvolumeofcontaminatedwaterisrecoveredand storedinabove-groundpondstoawaitremovalbytanker.Theremaining“producedwater” isleftintheearth,whereitcanleadtocontaminationofgroundwateraquifers,thoughthe industrydeemsthis“highlyunlikely.”However,thewastewaterfromsuchoperationsoften mayleadtofoul-smellingodorsandheavymetalscontaminatingthelocalwatersupply aboveground.

Thisbookunravelsessentialrequirementsfortheprocessdesignandengineeringofthe equipmentandfacilitiespertainingtowastewatertreatmentunits,solidwastedisposaland wastewatersewersystemsofoilandgasrefineries,chemicalplants,oilterminals,petrochemicalplants,unconventionaloilandgasindustries(coalseamgasorCBM,shalegas andoilsandproduction),andotherfacilitiesasrequired.Inthisnewedition,thelatest developmentswithregardtominimizationofsoilandwaterpollutionhavebeenaddedto thebookandsomechaptershavebeensignificantlyupdated.Includedinthescopeare:

• liquidandsoliddisposalsystems

• primaryoil/solidsremovalfacilities

• furtheroilandsuspendedsolidsremoval(secondaryoil/solidsremoval),suchasdissolvedairflotationunits

• granularmediafiltersandchemicalflocculationunits

• chemicaladditionsystems

• biologicaltreatment

• filtrationand/orotherfinalpolishing

• sewagesystemhandlingdomesticandmedicalsanitaryappliancesofbuildings

• drainagesystemcarryingsurfaceandrainwater

• wastewatergatheringsystems

• cleanwaterdrainage,e.g.frombuildingsandpavedareas

• evaporationpondsanddisposalbynaturalpercolationintothesubsoilinpermeable ground

• sanitarysewagetreatment

• sludgehandlingandtreatment.

Itisobviousthattheaimofanydrainage/effluentdisposalsystemshouldbetosegregate uncontaminatedwaterfromcontaminatedwateroreffluentsandtosegregatedifferenttypes ofeffluentsinordertoreducethesize,complexity,andcostsofanytreatmentunitswhich

mayberequiredforhandlingthecontaminatedwaterandeffluentsbeforetheyaredischargedfromaunit.

Allwastewatereffluentsfromtheindustrieswhicharedischargedtopublicand/ornatural watersourcesordirectedtorecyclingpurposesinsidetheindustryandmaycontainawide varietyofmattersinsolutionorsuspensionshouldbecontrolledaccordingtotherequirementsimposedbythefinaldestination.However,inanycaseeliminationofthewasteor thehazardpotentialofthewasteshallbeultimategoalinthemanagementofhazardous wastes.

Undernocircumstancesshouldtheeffluentwatercauseoiltracesonthesurfaceor embankmentsofthereceivingwater,oraffectthenaturalself-purificationcapacityofthe receivingwatertosuchanextentthatitwouldcausehindrancetoothers.

Undernoconditionsshouldpollutedstreamsbecombinedwithunpollutedstreamsifthe resultantstreamwouldthenrequirepurification.Ingeneral,themainsewersystemsinthe industryshouldbesegregatedaccordingtothefollowingcategories:

• stormwatersewersystems

• oilywatersewersystems

• nonoilywatersewersystems

• chemicalsewersystems

• sanitarysewersystems

• specialsewersystems.

Inallareas,includingprocess,offsite,andutilityunits,provisionsshouldbemadeto foreseeanyoftheabove-mentionedsewersystemsasrequired.

Thetreatmentofwastewaterinvolvesasequenceoftreatmentsteps.Everywastewater treatmentprocessinvolvestheseparationofsolidsfromwaterinatleastsomepartofthe operationandremovalofbiochemicaloxygendemand(BOD)tosomeextent.

Theendofpipetreatmentsequencecanbedividedintothefollowingelements:primary orpretreatment,intermediatetreatment,secondarytreatment,andtertiarytreatmentplus ancillary,sludgedewatering,anddisposaloperations.

Thekeytooptimizethetreatmentsequenceforprovisionofmaximumwatertreatment atminimumcostistoidentifytheruleofeachunitoperationandoptimizethatoperation. Optimizingtheperformanceofspecificunitoperations,suchastheAmericanPetroleum Institute(API)separator,dissolvedairflotation,biologicaltreatment,etc.canbestbe achievedif:

a) thepropertiesofinfluentstreamsareconsidered

b) thechemicalprinciplesthatareusedinsolidspretreatmentareunderstood

c) thevarietyofchemicalsavailableforsolidstreatmentisrecognized

d) thepropertiesofeffluentwaterareestablishedbasedonthelocalenvironmentalregulationsandfinaldisposal

e) theprotocolsforquantifyingresultsareidentified.

Ingeneral,mostindustriesrequirewaterforprocessingorotherpurposes;muchofthis waterafteruseisdischargedeithertopublicand/ornaturalwatersourcesordirectedto recyclingpurposesinsidetheindustry.

Suchdischarge,whichmaycontainawidevarietyofmatterinsolutionorsuspension, shouldbecontrolledaccordingtotherequirementsimposedbythefinaldestinationand/or environmentalregulations.

Moreover,accordingtothetypeofplantandthemethodofplantoperation,thesources ofsolidsinawastewatertreatmentplantcanberealized.Solidsmayalsobeformedby interactionofwastestreamsinthesewer.

Wastewaterscontainmetalions,suchasiron,aluminum,copper,magnesiumetc.from corrosionoftheprocessequipment,chemicalsusedintreatingcoolingwater,saltsinthe waterintake,andchemicalsusedinprocessing.

Insolublemetalhydroxideflocmaybeformedwhenalkalinewastesaredischargedand raisethepHofwastewateraboveneutral.Thewastescontainingconsiderableconcentrationsofphenols,sulfides,emulsifyingagentsandalkalinesshouldbesegregated.Ingeneral, dischargingofanymaterialtotheoilysewersystemorotherdrainagesystemsshouldbe investigatedforthefinalwastetreatmentanddisposaltargets.

Inviewoftheabove,thisbookwillunravelthefundamentalengineeringforwasterecovery,treatment,anddisposalsystemsinthepetroleum,chemical,andunconventionaloiland gasprocessingindustries.Thesenewfundamentaldiscoverieswillenablethedevelopment ofpracticalsolutionstothesepressingenvironmentalissues.

Dr.AlirezaBahadori

AbouttheAuthor

Dr.AlirezaBahadori,PhD,CEng,MIChemE,CPEng,MIEAust,RPEQ,NERisaresearch staffmemberintheSchoolofEnvironment,ScienceandEngineeringatSouthernCross University,Lismore,NSW,Australia,andmanagingdirectorandCEOofAustralianOil andGasServices,Pty.Ltd.HereceivedhisPhDfromCurtinUniversity,WesternAustraliaandhasheldvariouspositionsintheprocessandpetroleumindustryformorethan twentyyears.Hehasbeeninvolvedinmanylargescaleoilandgasprojects,andhaswrittenextensivelyonthefield.HeisaCharteredEngineer(CEng)andaCharteredMemberof theInstitutionofChemicalEngineers,London,UK(MIChemE),aCharteredProfessional Engineer(CPEng)andaCharteredMemberoftheInstitutionofEngineersAustralia,a RegisteredProfessionalEngineerofQueensland(RPEQ),aRegisteredCharteredEngineer oftheEngineeringCounciloftheUnitedKingdomandisontheEngineersAustralia’s NationalEngineeringRegister(NER).

WastewaterTreatment

Oilandgasaremajorsourcesofenergyandrevenueformanycountriestoday,andtheir productionhasbeendescribedasoneofthemostimportantindustrialactivitiesinthe21st centurythereforeobviouslywastetreatmentanddisposalassumeagreaterdegreeofimportanceinthepetroleum,chemicalprocessingandunconventionaloilandgasindustries.

Wastewatertreatmentreferstothetreatmentofsewageandwaterusedbyresidences, business,andindustrytoasufficientlevelthatitcanbesafelyreturnedtotheenvironment.It isimportanttotreatwastewatertoremovebacteria,pathogens,organicmatter,andchemical pollutantsthatcanharmhumanhealth,depletenaturaloxygenlevelsinreceivingwater,and poseriskstoanimalsandwildlife.

Naturalwaterandwastewaterarecharacterizedintermsoftheirphysical,chemical,and biologicalcomposition.Theprincipalphysicalpropertiesandthechemicalandbiological constituentsofwastewaterandtheirsourcesmakealengthylist.Eachdesignatedwater bodyshouldbecontrolledaccordingtoregulationswhichmaybecomposedofbothbasic andmoredetailednumericalcriteria,asbrieflydiscussedbelow.

Basicfreedomfrompollution.Asfarasispracticallypossible,allbodiesofwatershould attainthebasiccriteriaoftheFiveFreedomsfromPollution:

1. Freefromsuspendedsolidsorothersubstancesthatenterthewaterasaresultofhuman activityandthatwillsettletoformputridorotherwiseobjectionablesludgedeposits,or thatwilladverselyaffectaquaticlife.

2. Freefromfloatingdebris,oil,scum,andotherfloatingmaterialsenteringthewaterasa resultofhumanactivityinamountssufficienttobeunsightlyorcausedegradation.

3. Freefrommaterialsenteringthewaterasaresultofhumanactivityproducingcolor, odor,orotherconditionsinsuchadegreeastocreateanuisance.

4. Freefromsubstancesenteringthewaterasaresultofhumanactivityinconcentrations thataretoxicorharmfultohuman,animaloraquaticlifeand/orarerapidlylethalinthe mixingzone.

5. Freefromnutrientsenteringthewaterasaresultofhumanactivityinconcentrations thatcreatenuisancegrowthsofaquaticweedsandalgae.

Table1.1 Wastewaterpollutantsandsources.

PollutionSources

HeavymetalsProcesswastewater,tankagewastewaterdischarges,coolingtower blowdown(ifchromate-typecoolingwatertreatmentchemicals areused)

NH3 ,H2 S,trace organics

Totalsuspended solids

Processwastewater(particularlyfromﬂuidcatalyticcrackingunit andcoker)

Processwastewater,coolingtowerblowdown,ballastwatertank ﬂowdrainageandrunoff

BOD5,COD,oilProcesswastewater,coolingtowerblowdown(ifhydrocarbonsleak intocoolingwatersystem),ballastwater,tankﬂowdrainageand runoff

PhenolicsProcesswastewater(particularlyfromﬂuidcatalyticcrackingunit)

Thewatercontaminantparametersdeterminedinrefinerywastewaterincludebiochemicaloxygendemand(BOD),chemicaloxygendemand(COD),oil,totalsuspendedsolids (TSS),ammonia(NH3 ),phenolics,hydrogensulfide(H2 S),traceorganics,andsomeheavy metals.

Table1.1showsthemajorsourcesofeachofthesecontaminants.Processwastewater contributesaportionofvirtuallyallofthese,whileothersourceshavemorespecificcontaminantdischarges.

1.1CharacteristicsofWastewater

Anumberofchemicalandphysicalcharacteristicsareusedtodescribewastewater.The mostcommonarethefollowing:

• Totalnitrogen(TN)andtotalphosphorus(TP)arethesumsofallformsofnitrogenand phosphorusinthewater,respectively.

• BODisameasureoftheamountofunstableorganicmatterinthewater.Itmeasures howmuchoxygenisrequiredbytheavailablemicroorganismstobreakdownthereadily availableorganicmatterintosimplerforms,suchascarbondioxide,ammonia,andwater.

• Fecalmicrobes(whichincludesviruses,bacteria,andprotozoans)arefoundinwastewaterandmaycausedisease.

• Suspendedsolids,biodegradableorganics,nutrients,refractoryorganics,heavymetals, dissolvedinorganicsolids,andpathogensaretheimportantcontaminantswhichmaybe foundintheoil,gas,andchemicalprocessingindustries’wastewater.Table1.2presents alistofimportantwastewatercontaminantsandthereasonsfortheirimportance.

Suspendedsolidscanberemovedbyphysicaltreatmenttosomeextent.Removalof biodegradableorganics,suspendedsolids,andpathogensisachievedthroughsecondary treatmentoperationunits.

Table1.3showstypicalwastecompoundsclassifiedasprioritypollutants.Themore stringentrulesdealwiththeremovalofnutrientsandprioritypollutants.Whenwastewater

Table1.2 Contaminantimportanceinwastewatertreatment.

ContaminantReasonforimportance

Physicalsuspended solids

Chemical biodegradable organics

Suspendedsolidsareimportantforestheticalreasonsandbecause theycanleadtothedevelopmentofsludgedepositsand anaerobicconditions.

Composedprincipallyofproteins,carbohydrates,andfats, biodegradableorganicsaremeasuredmostcommonlyintermsof BODandCOD.Ifdischargeduntreatedtotheenvironment,the biologicalstabilizationofthesematerialscanleadtothe depletionofnaturaloxygenresourcesandthedevelopmentof septicconditions.

NutrientsCarbon,nitrogen,andphosphorusareessentialnutrientsforgrowth. Whendischargedtotheaquaticenvironment,thesenutrientscan leadtothegrowthofundesirableaquaticlife.Whendischargedin excessiveamountsonland,theycanalsoleadtothepollutionof groundwater.

RefractoryorganicsTheseorganicstendtoresistconventionalbiologicalmethodsof wastewatertreatment.Typicalexamplesincludesurfactants, phenols,andagriculturalpesticides.

HeavymetalsDuetotheirtoxicnature,certainheavymetalscannegatively impactuponbiologicalwastetreatmentprocessesandstreamlife. Dissolvedinorganic solids

Inorganicconstituentssuchascalcium,sodium,andsulfateare addedtotheoriginaldomesticwatersupplyasaresultofwater useandmayhavetoberemovedifthewastewateristobereused. BiologicalpathogensCommunicablediseasescanbetransmittedbythepathogenic organismsinwastewater.

istobereused,rulesnormallyincluderequirementsfortheremovalofrefractoryorganics, heavymetals,andinsomecasedissolvedinorganicsolids.

Wastewaterfromthepetroleumindustrycontainsorganiccompounds,phenols,toxic metals,andotherpollutantssuchasiron,dissolvedandsuspendedsolids,oil,cyanides,sulfides,andchlorine.Inordertoreducethesecontaminants,anaccurateanalysisofprocesses isnecessary.

Pollutantsorcontaminantswhichenterabodyofwatercanbedividedinto:

• degradable(non-conservative)pollutants:impuritieswhicheventuallydecompose intoharmlesssubstancesorwhichmayberemovedbytreatmentmethods,e.g.certain organicmaterialsandchemicals,domesticsewage,heat,plantnutrients,mostbacteria andviruses,andcertainsediments

• non-degradable(conservative)pollutants:impuritieswhichpersistinthewaterenvironmentanddonotreduceinconcentrationunlessdilutedorremovedthroughtreatment, e.g.certainorganicandinorganicchemicals,salts,andcolloidalsuspensions

• hazardouswaterbornepollutants:complexformsofdeleteriouswastes,includingtoxic tracemetals,andcertaininorganicandorganiccompounds

• radionuclidepollutants:materialswhichhavebeensubjectedtoaradioactivesource.

Table1.3 Typicalwastecompoundsclassiﬁedasprioritypollutants.

Name(formula)Concern

Non-metals

Arsenic(As)Carcinogenandmutagen

Longterm:sometimescausesfatigueandlossofenergy; dermatitis

Selenium(Se)Longterm:redstainingofﬁngers,teeth,andhair;general weakness;depression;irritationofnoseandmouth

Metals

Barium(Ba)Flammableatroomtemperatureinpowderform

Longterm:increasedbloodpressureandnerveblock

Cadmium(Cd)Flammableinpowderform;toxicbyinhalationofdustor fumes;carcinogen;solublecompoundsofcadmiumare highlytoxic

Longterm:concentratesintheliver,kidneys,pancreas, andthyroid;hypertensionsuspectedeffect

Chromium(Cr)Hexavalentchromiumcompoundsarecarcinogenicand corrosiveontissue

Longterm:skinsensitizationandkidneydamage

Lead(Pb)Toxicbyingestionorinhalationofdustorfumes

Longterm:brainandkidneydamage;birthdefects

Mercury(Hg)Highlytoxicbyskinabsorptionandinhalationoffumeor vapor

Longterm:toxictocentralnervoussystem;maycause birthdefects

Silver(Ag)Toxicmetal

Longterm:permanentgraydiscolorationofskin,eyes,and mucusmembranes

Organiccompounds

Benzene(C6 H6 )Carcinogen;highlytoxic

Flammable,dangerousﬁrerisk

Ethylbenzene(C6 H5 C2 H5 )Toxicbyingestion,inhalation,andskinabsorption;irritant toskinandeyes

Flammable,dangerousﬁrerisk

Toluene(C6 H5 CH3 )Flammable,dangerousﬁrerisk

Halogenatedcompounds

Toxicbyingestion,inhalation,andskinabsorption

Chlorobenzene(C6 H5 Cl)Moderateﬁrerisk

Avoidinhalationandskincontact

Chloroethene(CH2 CHCl)Anextremelytoxicandhazardousmaterialbyallavenues ofexposure;carcinogen

Dichloromethane(CH2 Cl2 )Toxic;carcinogen,narcotic

Tetrachloroethene(CCl2 CCl2 )Irritanttoeyesandskin

Pesticides,herbicides,insecticides (pesticides,herbicides,andinsecticidesare listedbytradename;thecompoundslistedarealsohalogenatedorganiccompounds)

Endrin(C12 H8 OCl6 )Toxicbyinhalationandskinabsorption,carcinogen

Lindane(C6 H6 Cl6 )Toxicbyinhalation,ingestion,skinabsorption

Methoxychlor

[Cl3 CCH(C6 H4 OCH3 )2 ] Toxic

Toxaphene(C10 H10 Cl8 )Toxicbyingestion,inhalation,skinabsorption

Silvex

[Cl3 C6 H2 OCH(CH3 )COOH]

Toxic;usehasbeenrestricted