TransportationEngineering Theory,Practice,andModeling
SecondEdition
Dus
Professor,FacultyofTransportandTrafficEngineering,UniversityofBelgrade,Serbia
ProfessorEmeritus,CharlesE.ViaDepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering, VirginiaPolytechnicInstituteandStateUniversity,UnitedStates
MilanJanic
ResearchProfessor,UniversityofBelgrade,Belgrade,Serbia
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2.1
2.2 HistoryofTransportation...........................................................................................6
2.3 TransportationSectorandTransportationModes...................................................15
2.3.1ComponentsofTransportationModes............................................................16
2.3.2StructureofTransportationModes.................................................................17
2.3.3TechnologiesofTransportModes..................................................................17
2.3.4RelationshipsBetweenTransportModes.......................................................20
2.4 CharacteristicsofTransportModesandTheirSystems..........................................22
2.4.1Introduction.....................................................................................................22
2.4.2UrbanandSub/UrbanRoadandRail-BasedTransitSystems forPassengers..................................................................................................22
2.4.3UrbanandSub/UrbanTransportSystemsforFreightShipments..................29
2.4.4InterurbanRoadTransportSystems................................................................30
2.4.5InterurbanRailTransportSystems.................................................................34
2.4.6InlandWaterwaysandSeaShippingSystemsforCargoShipments.............44
2.4.7AirTransportSystem......................................................................................51
2.5 TransportationSystemsTopics:Planning,Control,Congestion,Safety,and EnvironmentProtection............................................................................................56
2.6
CHAPTER3TrafficandTransportationAnalysisTechniques
3.1 ObjectMotionandTime-SpaceDiagrams..............................................................63
3.2 TransportationNetworksBasics..............................................................................69
3.3 OptimalPathsinTransportationNetworks.............................................................72
3.3.1FindingShortestPathinaTransportationNetwork.......................................72
3.3.2Dijkstra’sAlgorithm........................................................................................73
3.3.3ShortestPathsBetweenAllPairsofNodes....................................................77
3.4
3.4.1LinearProgramminginTrafficandTransportation.......................................82 3.4.2IntegerProgramming.......................................................................................88
3.4.3DimensionalityoftheTrafficandTransportationEngineering
3.4.4ComplexityofAlgorithms..............................................................................92
3.5
3.6.4
3.6.5
3.6.6QueueingTheoryandInvestmentsinTransportationFacilities
4.4 PoissonDistributionoftheNumberofArrivalsandtheExponential DistributionofHeadways.......................................................................................166
4.5 NormalDistributionandPearsonTypeIIIDistributionofHeadway...................168
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11 Micro-SimulationTrafficModels..........................................................................186
4.12 CarFollowingModels............................................................................................187
4.12.1TheCar-FollowingModelBasedonFuzzyInferenceRules.....................188
4.13 NetworkFlowDiagram..........................................................................................189
4.13.1Link-BasedMeasurements..........................................................................190
4.13.2GeneralizedTrafficFlowVariables............................................................190
4.13.3Trajectory-BasedMeasurements.................................................................192
4.14
CHAPTER5CapacityandLevelofService
5.2.1HighwayCapacityandTrafficDemandVariations.....................................199
5.2.2Freeways........................................................................................................201
5.2.3MethodologyfortheCapacityAnalysis,LOS,andtheLane
5.2.4TheNumberofLanesRequiredtoDelivertheTargetLOS.......................209
5.3 “Ultimate”and“Practical”CapacityofBusStations...........................................212
5.4.1General...........................................................................................................215
5.5
5.6
5.6.1General...........................................................................................................253
5.6.2Ports...............................................................................................................253
5.6.3ShippingLines...............................................................................................263
5.7
5.7.1General...........................................................................................................269
CHAPTER6TrafficControl
6.1 Introduction............................................................................................................293
6.2 TrafficControlatSignalizedIntersections............................................................294
6.2.1Fixed-TimeControlattheIsolatedIntersection.........................................296
6.2.2VehicleDelaysatSignalizedIntersections.................................................300
6.2.3TheDeterminationofTimingforFixed-TimeSignals..............................307
6.2.4SignalPhasingSelection.............................................................................307
6.2.5VolumeAdjustment(CalculationofEquivalentStraight-Through PassengerCars)...........................................................................................309
6.2.6CriticalLaneVolumesSelection................................................................310
6.2.7ChangeIntervalCalculation........................................................................311
6.2.8CycleLengthCalculation............................................................................312
6.2.9GreenTimeAllocation................................................................................314
6.2.10PedestrianCrossingTimeCheck................................................................315
6.2.11ActuatedSignalControl..............................................................................316
6.3 AlternativeIntersections.........................................................................................317
6.3.1DisplacedLeft-Turn(DLT)Intersections.....................................................319
6.3.2MedianU-Turn(MUT)Intersection.............................................................323
6.3.3RestrictedCrossingU-Turn(RCUT)Intersections......................................324
6.3.4QuadrantRoadwayIntersection....................................................................326
6.3.5Roundabout....................................................................................................327
6.3.6DivergingDiamondInterchange(DDI)........................................................331
6.4 TrafficControlforArterialStreets........................................................................335
6.4.1AdaptiveControlStrategies..........................................................................337
6.5 Area-WideTrafficControlSystems......................................................................338
6.6 TrafficControlSignalNeedsStudies....................................................................341
6.6.1Warrant1.......................................................................................................342
6.6.2Warrant2.......................................................................................................342
6.6.3Warrant3.......................................................................................................342
6.6.4Warrant4.......................................................................................................342
6.6.5Warrant5.......................................................................................................342
6.6.6Warrant6.......................................................................................................342
6.6.7Warrant7.......................................................................................................342
6.6.8Warrant8.......................................................................................................343
6.6.9Warrant9.......................................................................................................343
7.5
7.6
7.19.4BicycleTransportation................................................................................473
7.19.5TransportationPolicyThatPromotesBicycleTransportation...................473
7.19.6InfrastructureforBicycling.........................................................................475
7.19.7Bicycle-SharingSystems.............................................................................479
7.20.2ServiceNetworksinanInterurbanRoadTransportation...........................482 7.21
7.21.1AirTransportationDemand........................................................................487
7.21.2AirlineSupplyandAirlineCapacity..........................................................488 7.22
8.14 ApplicationoftheComputationalIntelligenceTechniquesforthePredictionof
CHAPTER9FreightTransportationandLogistics
9.1
9.2.1“Ultimate”and“Practical”CapacityandServiceLevelofRoad TruckRoads...................................................................................................602
9.2.2“Ultimate”and“Practical”CapacityofRoadFreightTerminals andTheirLevel-of-Service...........................................................................603
9.3 ServiceNetworksoftheRoadFreightTransportOperators.................................605
9.3.1CapacitiesandServiceLeveloftheRoadFreightTransportService
9.5.1LocationProblemsClassification.................................................................624
9.5.2MeasuringDistancesBetweenFacilitiesandDemand-Generating
9.5.3TheLocationSetCoveringProblem............................................................626
9.6.1VRPsTypes...................................................................................................640
9.6.2VehicleRoutingandSchedulingProblemsComplexity..............................642
9.6.3TravelingSalesmanProblem........................................................................642
9.6.4VehicleRoutingProblem..............................................................................644
9.6.5Clark-Wright’s“Savings”AlgorithmfortheVRP.......................................646
12.5 ExamplesofEstimatingReliability,Resilience,Robustness, andVulnerability....................................................................................................916
12.5.1RoadTransportMode..................................................................................916
12.5.2RailTransportMode...................................................................................923
12.5.3AirTransportMode.....................................................................................931
12.6 ContingencyMeasuresandDisruptionManagement............................................939
12.6.1PublicTransport..........................................................................................939
12.6.2EvacuationProblems...................................................................................940
12.6.3EvacuationProcess......................................................................................941
12.6.4
12.6.5Evacuees’DepartureRateandDepartureTimes........................................943
12.6.6EvacuationStrategies..................................................................................944
12.6.7ThePerformanceMetrics............................................................................944
12.7 ComparingReliability,Resilience,Robustness,Vulnerability, andSustainabilityofTransportSystems...............................................................945
12.7.1SimilarityandDifferences..........................................................................945
Forewordtothefirstedition
ItiswithgreatpleasurethatIamwritingthisforewordto TransportationEngineering:Theory, PracticeandModeling byDus ˇ anTeodorovicandMilanJanic.Ihaveknownthetwoauthorsforalong time—closeto40yearsnow.Bothhaveenjoyedhighlyproductiveanddistinguishedcareersatmajor universities,notonlyintheirnativelandsofSerbiaandSlovenia,butalsointheUnitedStates,the UnitedKingdom,andtheNetherlands.Theirexperienceaseducatorsandexpertiseasresearchers arereflectedinthisvaluablebook.Theyhavewitnessedfirst-handandhavedevotedthemselvesto thedevelopmentandevolutionofthetransportationfieldduringtheirprofessionallifetimes.
Since2001,Ihavebeenco-teachingwithvariouscolleaguesatMITacoursecalled“Transportation SystemsAnalysis:SupplyandPerformance,”whichintroducesfundamentalquantitativemodelsand theirapplicationtofirst-yeargraduatestudentsinourTransportationProgram.Thecourseattemptsto provideanoverviewthatspansallmodesoftransportandcutsacrossthedisciplinesoftrafficengineering,transportationscience,transportationeconomics,andoperationsresearch.Whiledeveloping thecourseandintheyearsthathavefollowed,Ihavebeenstruckbytheabsenceofatextbookthat coversthismaterialinanintegratedfashionandatanadequateandconsistentmathematicallevel. Theavailablebookstendtobefocusedprimarilyonasinglemodeand,usually,ononlyspecificaspects ofthemode,suchasurbantraffic,highwaytraffic,publictransit,orairtrafficmanagement.Moreover, theirmathematicallevelisalltooofteneitherelementary—sothatthereadercannotappreciatethe poweroftheexistinganalyticaltools—oruneven,alternatingbetweenverybasicandtooadvanced. Asaresult,mycolleaguesandIhavereliedonourowncoursenotes,supplementedbyselectedreadingsoflandmarkpapersorbookchapters.
Thisnewbookthereforeconstitutesamostwelcomeadditiontothetransportationliterature,asit addressesthecentralissueIidentifiedinthepreviousparagraph—lackofintegrationacrosstransportationmodes,disciplines,andmethodologicalapproaches.Takingadvantageoftheircomplementary areasofexpertise,theauthorshavemanagedtowriteatextbookthattrulyspansallmodes.Having devotedalargepartofmyownresearchtoairtransportation,Iamparticularlypleasedtoseethatairportsandairtraffichavebeengiventheir“fairshare”ofattention.Airtransporthasbecomethedominantmodeoflong-haulpassengertransportationonaglobalscale,anditisessentialthattransportation professionalsandstudentsbecomefamiliarwithsomeofthemostimportantmodelsthatdescribeair trafficmovementandprocesses.Anaddedbenefit,inthisrespect,isthatairtrafficmodelstypically treatvehicles(theairplanes)asdiscreteobjects.Thus,thesemodelsexposethereadertoasetofmethodologies,suchasintegerprogramming,thatfocusonindividual,“atomistic”entities.Airtraffic modelsthereforeofferaperspectivedifferentfromthecontinuousflowmodelsthataregenerallyused tostudyroadandhighwaytraffic.
Anotherwelcomefeatureofthebookisthatitdoesnotdrawapriorianydividinglinesbetween modesoftransport,butisstructuredaroundasetofmajorcommonthemes,suchas“trafficflowtheory,”“capacityandlevelofservice,”“trafficcontrol,”“transportationplanning,”and“environmental impacts.”Thismakesitpossibletointegratethematerialbetterandfacilitatesthehighlightingofthe similaritiesanddifferencesamongthemethodologiesandmodelingapproachesusedforeachmode.
Themajorcommonthemesarethemselvesarrangedinalogicalsequence,sothatthereadercan progressfromanunderstandingofthe“physics”ofthe individualelements oftransportation
networks—e.g.,flowsinaroadsegment,trafficlightsettingsatanisolatedintersection,thecapacityof arunway—tostudyingtheperformanceofthe networks asawhole.Inthisrespect,theauthorstake greatpainstoemphasizetheimportanceofconsideringhowthepiecesfittogetherinto systems.This bookisdefinitely“network-centric”anddiscussesthedesignoftransportationnetworks,including multimodalones,theiroptimizationattheplanninglevelandtheoperationslevel,theircontrolin thelongrun(“demandmanagement”)andinrealtime,andtheeconomicsandenvironmentalimpacts ofthedifferentmodes.
Thecenterpieceofthebooklies,Ibelieve,inthepresentationoffundamental models,i.e.,mathematicalabstractionsandconstructsthatareusedtorepresentessentialfeaturesofactualtransportation systems.Inthetransportationfield,wearefortunateatthispointtohaveanabundanceofsuchmodels. Astheauthorsmakeclear,theappropriatemodeltousedependsonthequestionsthatonewishesto answer.Anygiventransportationsystemcanbemodeledinseveraldifferentways,accordingtothe questionathand.Onecanhavemodelsthataredeterministicorprobabilistic/stochastic,dependingon theextenttowhichonewishestoaccountforuncertainty;staticordynamicovertime;macroscopicor microscopicdependingonthelevelofdetailonewishestocapture;andanalyticallybasedor simulation-baseddependingonthemethodologyused—withnumerousadditionalsubcategorieswhen itcomestoanalyticalmodels.Thereaderwillfindallthesetypesofmodelsindifferentpartsof thisbook.
Duringthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,studiesintransportationengineeringandtransportation sciencemadehugestridestowarddevelopingaknowledgebaseofmethodologiesandmodelsfor studying,quantifying,andpredictingthebehavioroftransportationsystems.Asaresult,wenowhave amuchbetterunderstandingofhowtoplan,design,manage,andoperatetransportationnetworks.The firsttwodecadesofthe21stcenturyhaveaddedtothisarsenaloftoolstheabilitytocollectandprocess, ofteninrealtime,enormousamountsofdataaboutthestateoftransportationnetworks.However,to takefulladvantageofthisnewfoundcapability,onemustbefamiliarwiththisknowledgebaseofmethodologiesandmodels.Thisbook,Ibelieve,makesanimportantcontributiontowardprovidingthis crucialbackgroundforstudentsandprofessionalsalike,includingamuch-neededhistorical perspective.Iamquitecertainthatthereaderswillagreewiththisassessment.
AmedeoR.Odoni
T.WilsonChairProfessorEmeritusofAeronauticsandAstronautics ProfessorEmeritusofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology March2016
Forewordtothesecondedition
Itisagreatpleasuretowritetheforewordtothesecondeditionofthisbookbytwoofthemosteminent transportationresearchersandeducators,Drs.Dus ˇ anTeodorovicandMilanJanic.AsnotedbyProfessorAmedeoR.Odoniintheforewordtothefirsteditionofthistextbook,thisisanexceptionallythoroughandwell-integratedintroductiontotransportationengineering.Itisanotablelandmarkamong transportationengineeringtextbooksinthewayitleadsreadersfrombasicconceptstorelatively advancedmethodsthatenablethemtounderstand,analyze,andimprovetransportationsystems.
Forstudentsandpractitionersoftransportationengineeringandotherdisciplinesrelatedtotransportation,suchasoperationsresearch,transportationplanning,andtransportationeconomics,thisvery impressivebookisnotonlysurprisinglycomprehensiveforaone-volumetextbookbutalsoexcitingto diginto.Itintroducesandexplainsbasicconceptssuchasfundamentaltrafficflowortraveldemand relationsinclearandsimpleways,usinghelpfulgraphics,whilethenleadingreaderstomorecomplex analysismethodsandapplicationexamples.Itprovidesrelativelyeasyintroductionstothebasic methodsofoptimization,probabilityandstatistics,queuingsystems,economicanalysis,andsystem evaluationthataremostusefulandwidelyusedinanalyzingtransportationsystems.Ifoundtheproblemsprovidedattheendsofchapterstobeespeciallyusefulinapplyingthelessonsofthosechapters.
Amongthehighlightsofthisbook,Iamespeciallyimpressedwiththefollowing: Chapter2 presents notonlythecharacteristicsofvarioustransportationmodesbutalsothecompetitiveandcooperative relationsamongmodes. Chapter3 presentsnotonlythemostcommonlyusedmethods,suchaslinear programming,networkflowalgorithms,andqueuingmethods,butalsosomethatarenotoftencovered inbasictransportationtextbooks,suchasmulti-attributedecision-making(MADM),dataenvelopment analysis(DEA),fuzzysets,andneuralnetworks.Thediscussionofshockwavesandnetworkflowdiagramsin Chapter4 seemsespeciallyinteresting.
Chapter5 analyzescapacityandlevelofservicenotonlyforroads,ascommonlyfoundinother basictextbooks,butalsoforpublictransportationsystems,railroads,inlandwaterways,maritimetransportation,andairtransportation,includingairportsandairtrafficcontrolsystems. Chapter6 oncontrol systemscoversnotonlytrafficsignalsforroadnetworks,butalsomoregeneraltransportationsystem managementapproaches,applicationsofintelligenttransportationsystemsinmanagingnetworks,and controlsystemsusedforrailroadsandairtraffic.Thepresentationofunconventionalintersectionsand interchangesisespeciallynotable.Itisinterestingthattheauthorsintroduceconceptsaboutcapacity reservationssystems,includingauctions,basedontheirownresearch.
Chapter7 onpublictransportationcoversdemand-responsivetransitsystemswithfixedroutesand schedules.Unusually,italsocoversintercitygroundpassengertransportationandairlineservices, whileprovidingconsiderabledetailsonthemanagementofsuchoperations.
Chapter8 ondemandanalysispresentsnotonlytheconventionalmethodsforforecastingdemand, butalsosuchinterestingtopicsasheuristictrafficassignmentalgorithms,dynamictrafficassignment, andcomputationalintelligencetechniquesfortraveldemandforecasting.
Chapter9 includesaveryinnovativediscussionofcitylogistics.
Afterpresentingthebasicconceptsofmicroeconomics, Chapter10 providesdetailedcostfunctions,forinitialaswellasoperatingcosts,thatareusefulinevaluatingvarioustransportationmodes andservices. xxiii
Chapter11 presentsthemajorenvironmentalimpacts(noise,safety,energyuse,pollution,landuse) forallmajormodesusingcongestionasthestartingpoint.
Themostnotableadditionbeyondthefirsteditionofthisbookis Chapter12,whichcoversbroadly andquitedeeplytheresilienceoftransportationsystems.Itexplainsclearlytheconceptsofreliability, resilience,robustness,andvulnerability.Itthenprovidesmethodsformeasuringandimprovingthese aspectsoftransportationsystemperformance,throughsuchmeansasdesignredundancy,contingency planning,andevacuationplanning.Asinpreviouschapters,theconcepts,performancemeasures,analysismethods,andexamplesareprovidedforeachmajortransportationmode.
Overall,thisisanexcellentbooknotonlyforbeginnersintransportationengineeringbutalsofor experiencedprofessionals.Itisveryvaluableinorganizingknowledge,relatingproblemstoanalysis methodsandpossiblesolutions,aswellasplacinginperspectivethemanyaspectsoftheverybroadand deepfieldoftransportationengineering.
PaulSchonfeld Professor
DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering UniversityofMaryland,CollegePark May2021
Prefacetothefirstedition
Whenonceyouhavetastedflight,youwillforeverwalktheearthwithyoureyesturnedskyward,for thereyouhavebeen,andthereyouwillalwayslongtoreturn.
LeonardodaVinci
Jointwritingabookisnotasimpletask.Itissimilartoplayingthepianowithfourhands.Wemet, forthefirsttime,in1974,attheUniversityofBelgrade,Serbia,whenthefirstauthorwasateaching assistant,andanotherundergraduatestudent.Wehadadifferentprofessionalcareersinthecountriesin whichwelived.Duringoccasionalmeetings,wehavebeenstrengthenedinourbeliefthatwehave similarviewsonimportanttransportationengineeringissues.Duringourprofessionalcareers,wewere professors,andvisitingscholarsattheuniversitiesinEurope,theUnitedStates,andAsia.
Formanyyears,wehavebeenstudyingfascinatingtrafficphenomena.Wethought,atonepoint, thatitwastimetowriteourbookabouttransportationengineeringfundamentals.Westronglybelieve thateachnewbookinacertainareaopensupnewviewstothereader.Wehavetriedinthisbookto touchonurbanandroadtransportation,airtransportation,railways,inlandwatertransportation,and logistics.Thisbookbeginswiththestoryabouttheearliestdiscoveredpaths,madebyanimals,and adaptedbyhumans,foundnearJericho,andarrivesattheissuesrelatedtotheautonomouscar (self-drivingcar,driverlesscar,roboticcar)thatarenowaroundus.Thefollowingisabriefdescription ofthebookchapters.
Chapter2 introducesthereadertothefieldoftransportationengineering.Thechaptercoversthe historyoftransportation,offersbasicdefinitionsandclassificationofthetransportationsystems,and describesthemostimportanttransportationsystemsissues:planning,control,congestion,safety,and environmentprotection.
Chapter3 dealswithtrafficandtransportationanalysistechniques.Thischaptercoversobjectmotionandtime-spacediagrams,transportationnetworksbasics,mathematicalprogrammingapplications intrafficandtransportation,therelationshipbetweentheprobabilitytheoryandtrafficphenomena, queueingtheory,simulationtechniques,andcomputationalintelligencetechniques.
Chapter4 coverstrafficflowtheorybasics.Thechapterdescribesmeasurementsofthebasicflow variables,speed-densityrelationship,flow-densityrelationship,speed-flowrelationship,fundamental diagramoftrafficflow,micro-simulationtrafficmodels,carfollowingmodels,andnetworkflow diagram.
Chapter5 involvescapacityandlevelofserviceofdifferenttransportationmodes(highways,urban transitsystems,urbanfreighttransportsystems,railinterurbantransportsystems,inlandwaterway freight/cargotransportsystems,maritimefreight/cargotransportsystems,airtransportsystems,and airtrafficcontrolsystems).
Chapter6 describestrafficcontroltechniquesrelatedtotheroad,rail,andairtrafficcontrolsystems. Thechaptercoversavarietyoftrafficcontrolmeasures,methods,andstrategiesthatshouldbeimplementedinordertousetheexistingtransportationinfrastructureoptimally.
