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OXFORDSTUDIESONTHEROMANECONOMY GeneralEditors AndrewWilsonAlanBowman
OXFORDSTUDIESONTHEROMANECONOMY Thisinnovativemonographseriesreflectsavigorousrevivalofinterestinthe ancienteconomy,focusingontheMediterraneanworldunderRomanrule (c.100 BC to AD 350).Carefullyquantifiedarchaeologicalanddocumentary datawillbeintegratedtohelpancienthistorians,economichistorians,and archaeologiststhinkabouteconomicbehaviourcollectivelyratherthanfrom separateperspectives.Thevolumeswillincludeasubstantialcomparative elementandthusbeofinteresttohistoriansofotherperiodsandplaces.
Trade,Commerce, andtheStatein theRomanWorld Editedby ANDREWWILSONAND
ALANBOWMAN GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom
OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisaregisteredtrademarkof OxfordUniversityPressintheUKandincertainothercountries
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Preface Thisvolumehasitsorigins,likeitsthreepredecessors,inaconference organizedaspartoftheresearchprogrammeentitled ‘TheEconomyofthe RomanEmpire:Integration,GrowthandDecline’,fundedbytheArtsand HumanitiesResearchCouncilin2005–10anddirectedbytheeditors.Fuller informationontheaimsoftheresearchprojectcanbefoundintheintroductiontothe firstvolume, QuantifyingtheRomanEconomy:Methodsand Problems (ed.A.K.BowmanandA.I.Wilson,2009);hereitsufficestonote thattheprojectaimedtobringtogetherbotharchaeologicalanddocumentary evidencerelevanttothenatureandperformanceoftheRomaneconomyin fourmaindiagnosticareas urbanizationanddemography,agriculture,trade andcommerce,andminingandmetalsupply withaparticularinterestin datathatallowsomedegreeofmeasurementandquantification,andthe delineationoftrendsovertime.Thisvolumefocusesontheevidencefor trade,and,inparticular,itexplorestherelationsbetweencommercialactivity andregulation,interest(especiallyasregardscustomsduties),andinvolvementonthepartofthestate.Mostofthechapterswereoriginallydeliveredas papersataconferenceon ‘Trade,Commerce,andtheStateintheRoman World’ heldinOxfordon1–3October2009.
WearegratefultotheAHRCfortheawardofthegrantthatsupported theresearchprogramme,andtoBaronLorneThyssenandtheAugustus Foundation,whosesupportfortheprojecthasallowedustocontinuethe OxfordRomanEconomyProject’sresearchprogrammewellbeyondthe periodinitiallyfundedbytheAHRC.WearegratefulalsotoDrGareth Hughes,who,astheproject’sadministrativeassistantatthetime,assisted withtheconferenceorganization;tothestaffoftheSteliosIoannouCentrefor ResearchinClassicalandByzantineStudies,wheretheconferencewasheld; andtoallthosewhocontributedtothediscussionattheconference.Nichole SheldrickandEricaRowankindlyassistedwiththepreparationofmostofthe texts;andAngelaTrentacostewithobtainingsomeoftheimagepermissions. Thepreparationofthisvolumehas,foravarietyofreasons,takenlongerthan anyofuscouldhaveforeseenorwished,andwethanktheauthorsfortheir patienceduringthisprocess.
AndrewWilson AlanBowman
March2017
1.Introduction:Trade,Commerce,andtheState 1 AndrewWilsonandAlanBowman
PARTI.INSTITUTIONSANDTHESTATE 2.TheStateandtheEconomy:FiscalityandTaxation 27 AlanBowman
3.Law,Commerce,andFinanceintheRomanEmpire 53 BoudewijnSirks
4.MarketRegulationandTransactionCostsin theRomanEmpire 117 ElioLoCascio
5.FinancialInstitutionsandStructuresintheLastCentury oftheRomanRepublic 133 PhilipKay
6.NileRiverTransportundertheRomans 175 ColinAdams
PARTII.TRADEWITHINTHEEMPIRE 7.TheIndispensableCommodity:NotesontheEconomyof WoodintheRomanMediterranean 211 WilliamV.Harris
8.StoneUseandtheEconomy:Demand,Distribution, andtheState 237 BenRussell
9.AnOverviewoftheCirculationofGlassinAntiquity
DanièleFoy
10.Procurators’ Business?Gallo-RomanSigillatainBritain intheSecondandThirdCenturies AD
MichaelFulford
11.TheDistributionofAfricanPotteryundertheRoman Empire:EvidenceversusInterpretation327 MichelBonifay
12.TheSupplyNetworksoftheRomanEastandWest: Interaction,Fragmentation,andtheOriginsofthe ByzantineEconomy353 PaulReynolds
13.PricesandCostsintheTextileIndustryintheLightof theLeadTagsfromSiscia397 IvanRadman-Livaja
14.ExportsandImportsinMauretaniaTingitana:The EvidencefromThamusida427 EmanuelePapi
PARTIII.TRADEBEYONDTHEFRONTIERS 15.TheSilkRoadbetweenSyriaandChina443 DavidF.Graf
16.EgyptandEasternCommerceduringtheSecond Century AD andLater531 RobertaTomber
17.MoneyandFlowsofCoinageintheRedSeaTrade557 DarioNappo
18.ThePortofQanaʾ,aJunctionbetweentheIndianOcean andtheMediterraneanSea579 BarbaraDavidde
19.TradeacrossRome’sSouthernFrontier:TheSaharaand theGaramantes599 AndrewWilson
ListofFigures 8.1.Hypotheticalmapshowingzonesaroundanurbancentre,illustrating distance(left)versuseffort(right),andshowingtheeffectofdifferent costsofland,river,andmaritimetransportforimportingstone242
8.2.MapofquarrysitesintheRomanEmpire(Russell2013b)244
8.3.MapofquarriesinRomanGaulandBritain,withkeysitesmentioned incasestudieslabelled(Russell2013b)245
8.4.SitesinsouthernGaulmentionedincasestudy247
8.5.SitesinBritainandnorthernGaulmentionedincasestudy248
9.1.Themainevidenceofmaritimeandrivertradeinrawglass,glass forrecycling,andmanufacturedglassintheMediterranean duringantiquity269
9.2.Distributionofpaintedbowlsofthe firstcentury AD 275
9.3.Percentagesofstampedvesselsineachcategory279
9.4.Stampedvesselsattestinglocaltrade281
9.5.Stampedvesselsattestingregionaltrade283
9.6.Stampedvesselsattestinginter-regionaltrade284
9.7.Stampedvesselsattestinginter-regionaltradefromnorthernItaly (top)andBritain(below)286
9.8.Distribution,fromItaly,ofstamped unguentaria
288
9.9.Distributionoftwotypesof unguentaria bearingtwovariantsofthe statestamp PATRIMONI emanatingfromtwocentres:Italyandprobably northernGaul290
10.1.Theareaofpurposivecollectionofthepotters’ stampspublishedin HartleyandDickinson(2008–12)304
10.2.ThedistributionofLaGraufesenquepotters’ stamps(AtoE)ofall dates(butpredominantlysecondhalfof firstcentury AD)inBritain andthelowerRhine306
10.3.Thedistributionofsiteswith findsofearlysecond-toearly third-century AD Lezouxpotters’ stamps(AtoE)308
10.4.Thedistributionofpotters’ stamps(AtoE)ofLezouxinBritain,early secondtoearlythirdcentury AD 309
10.5.Thedistributionofpotters’ stamps(AtoE)ofRheinzabern,secondto mid-thirdcentury AD 310
10.6.Thedistributionofpotters’ stamps(AtoE)ofRheinzaberninBritain andthelowerRhine,secondtomid-thirdcentury AD 311
10.7.Thedistributionofpotters’ stamps(AtoE)ofTrier,latersecondto mid-thirdcentury AD 312
10.8.Thedistributionofpotters’ stamps(AtoE)ofLaMadeleine,second century AD 313
10.9.Thedistributionofinscriptionsreferringto negotiatores (after Whittaker(1994: fig.29))316
10.10.Thedistributionofpotters’ stamps(AtoE)ofLesMartresdeVeyre, predominantlyearlysecondcentury AD 317
10.11.Thedistributionofpotters’ stamps(AtoE)ofLesMartresdeVeyre inBritainandthelowerRhine,predominantlyearlysecondcentury AD 318
10.12.Thedistributionofpotters’ stamps(AtoE)ofMontans, c. AD 10–30319
10.13.Thedistributionofpotters’ stamps(AtoE)ofMontans, secondcentury AD 320
10.14.Thedistributionofpotters’ stamps(AtoE)ofMontansinBritain, firstandsecondcentury AD 321
11.1.MapofthemainAfricanpotteryworkshops(afterBonifay andTchernia2012)330
11.2.Africanamphoratypesmentionedinthetext333
11.3.Mapoftheshipwrecksmentionedinthetext336
11.4.PatternsofAfricanpotterydistribution(afterBonifayand Tchernia2012)338
12.1.Mapofsitesmentionedinthetext354
12.2.LateRomanAmphora1–5and7(fromRiley1981: fig.10) (reproducedwithkindpermissionoftheKelseyMuseumof Archaeology,UniversityofMichigan)356
12.3.Levantineamphoraeofthesecondcentury AD 357
12.4.ThedevelopmentoftheBeirutamphora,fromitslateHellenisticlate third-tosecond-century BC Sidonianpredecessor(a)andits first appearance(inBeirutfabric)inthelatesecondcentury/100 BC (b),to thelatestexamplesoftheseventhcentury AD 358
12.5.TheoriginsanddevelopmentoftheLateRomanAmphora1type fromthe firsttoseventhcenturies AD 359
12.6.MapshowingthesourcesandrelativequantitiesofimportstoBeirut andButrint,earlythirdcentury AD 361
12.7.MapshowingthesourcesandrelativequantitiesofimportstoBeirut andButrint,mid-thirdcentury AD 362
12.8.MapshowingthesourcesandrelativequantitiesofimportstoBeirut andButrint,latefourthcentury AD 363
12.9.MapshowingthesourcesandrelativequantitiesofimportstoBeirut andButrint, AD 400–50364
12.10.MapshowingthesourcesandrelativequantitiesofimportstoBeirut andButrint, AD 500–50365
12.11.MapshowingthesourcesandrelativequantitiesofimportstoBeirut andButrint,latesixthcentury AD 366
12.12.Butrint,third-century AD importedcookingwares;Phoceanimports intheViganjshipwreck(Jurišić 2000)368
12.13.LevantineexportstotheWestandEgypt(second–thirdcenturies AD)369
12.14.Beirut,third-century AD Kapitän2andBlackSeaamphorae372
12.15.Beirut,percentageoftotalamphorae,allsources (localversusimported)383
12.16.Beirut,relativepercentageofcloseregionalamphorae,bysource383
12.17.Butrint,Samianandrelatedforms, fifthtosixthcenturies AD 388
12.18.Beirut,typicalformsin AD 551(BEY006.13359)andlatesixth-/early seventh-century(BEY006.5503)assemblages389
13.1.LeadtagsfromSiscia(seechapterappendixforcataloguedescriptions) (drawing:MiljenkaGalić;copyright:ZagrebArchaeologicalMuseum)398
13.2.LeadtagsfromSiscia(seechapterappendixforcataloguedescriptions) (drawing:MiljenkaGalić;copyright:ZagrebArchaeologicalMuseum)399
13.3.LeadtagsfromSiscia(seechapterappendixforcataloguedescriptions) (drawing:MiljenkaGalić;copyright:ZagrebArchaeologicalMuseum)399
13.4.LeadtagsfromSiscia(seechapterappendixforcataloguedescriptions) (drawing:MiljenkaGalić;copyright:ZagrebArchaeologicalMuseum)400
13.5.Proportionsoftagswithandwithoutprices402
13.6.Pricelevelsontags407
13.7.Proportionsoftheoriginalinscriptionsgivingdifferentpriceranges408
15.1.TheHanEmpireandthe ‘WesternRegions’ (afterMutschlerand Mittag2008:452)450
15.2.TheHanEmpireandtheWest(mapbyChrisHanson,after Hill2009:690)454
15.3.The ‘JadeGate’ atYumenGuan,YadanNationalPark,80km north-westofDunhuanginGangsuProvince,China.Thegatewas erectedbyEmperorWudiafter121 BC,atthe finalpostonthe majorrouteleadingtotheWesternRegionsinCentralAsia (photo:JohnE.Hill)466
15.4.MapofCentralAsiaandtheTarimBasin(mapbyChrisHanson, afterMairandHickman2015: fig.1.1)467
15.5.Mapofoverlandandmaritimesilkroutes(mapbyChrisHanson)477
15.6.SatelliteimageofPalmyra(imagecourtesyofA.Schmidt-Colinet,with labelsaddedbyChrisHanson;Quickbirdimagery,copyright:Digital Globe/EuropeanSpaceImagingandA.Schmidt-Colinet)482
15.7.TowertombsatPalmyra,withthetowertombofKitot(Tomb44), datedto AD 40,atfarleft(photo:courtesyofAndreasSchmidt-Colinet)487
15.8.SilkfabricfromthetowertombofKitot(Tomb44),withChinese text(‘year...long-living...son...grandson’)wovenintodesign.In PalmyraMuseumuntil2015(Schmidt-Colinet,Stauffer,and Al-As‛ad2000:FarbtafelVIIIa,Kat.223;copyright A.Schmidt-Colinet)488
15.9.MapofthecaravanroutefromPalmyratoCharaxandthePersian Gulf(mapbyChrisHanson,afterGawlikowski1994:30)491
15.10.Palmyra,sarcophagusreliefofaseagoingship,fromatombwithan inscriptionmentioningaPalmyrenecaptainwhosailedtoIndia.In PalmyraMuseumuntil2015(photocourtesyofA.Schmidt-Colinet)493
15.11.PeutingerMap,sectionsX–XI,showingParthiaandtheroutesacross theIranianplateautoIndia(bypermissionoftheÖsterreichische Nationalbibliothek,Vienna)499
15.12.PeutingerMap,sectionXI:depictionofMuzirisandTempleof Augustusnearby(bypermissionoftheÖsterreichische Nationalbibliothek,Vienna)500
16.1.LocationmapofRedSeasitesandroads(A.Simpson,basedona mapbyP.Copeland)532
16.2.Potteryofthesecondhalfofthesecondtothemid-thirdcentury AD: Costrel(1); Sakkia potsandjars(2–4);Cookingwares(5–8); Egyptianamphora(9)(modifiedfromTomber2001: fig.6.1)536
16.3.TheIndianOceanshowingsitesmentionedinthetext (A.Simpson)542
16.4.GoldandsilvercoinsfromIndia,indicatingsecond-centurycoins (A.Simpson,modifiedfromTurner1989:map1)545
16.5.ThePersianGulfandadjoiningregionsshowingsitesmentioned inthetext(A.Simpson)546
17.1.ProportionsofRomancoinsfoundinIndiastruckinthereignsof AugustusandTiberiuscomparedtothosestruckfromGaiusto Caracalla;total=6,751568
17.2.Chronologicaldistribution,byreignofissue,ofnumbersofRoman goldandsilvercoinsfoundinIndia569
17.3.Chronologicaldistribution,byreignofissue,ofthetotalfacevalue (in denarii)ofRomancoinsfoundinIndia570
17.4.Chronologicaldistribution,byreignofissue,ofthefacevalue (in denarii)ofRomancoinsfoundinIndia,dividedbythenumber ofyearsofeachreign571
17.5.Chronologicaldistribution,byreignofhoarddeposition,ofthetotal facevalue(in denarii)ofRomancoinsfoundinIndia574
18.1.MapoftheSouthArabianPeninsulainantiquity(afterDeMaigretand Antonini2000:42)580
18.2.MaritimetradeinSouthArabia(DeMaigretandAntonini2000:88)581
18.3.Sabaeancoin,serieswiththeportraitofAugustus(mouldfrom privatecollection;photo:BarbaraDavidde)582
18.4.Hadramicoin,serieswithhead/eagle(photo:SedovandAydarus 1995:20, fig.13)584
18.5.KhorRori(Source:GoogleEarth.Image©2016DigitalGlobe)586
18.6.ReconstructionofthesiteofQanaʾ (Mouton,Sanlaville, andSuire2006:807)588
18.7.MapshowingthenorthernbayofQanaʾ andtheareaoftheunderwater archaeologicalsurvey(drawingbyMassimilianoEna:afterDavidde, Petriaggi,andWilliams2004: fig.1)589
18.8.Seabedweightusedasmooringstone(photo:BarbaraDavidde)590
18.9.Seabedweightusedasmooringstone(photo:BarbaraDavidde)590
18.10.Dressel2–4amphoramadeinLaodicea,inv.no.33(drawing: MarcoSangiorgio)591
18.11.Dressel2–4amphoramadeinLaodicea,inv.no.105(drawing: MassimilianoEna)592
18.12.Dressel2–4amphoramadeinLaodicea,inv.no.44(drawing: MarcoSangiorgio)592
19.1.Saharantraderoutesinantiquity,showingfoggaraoasesthatare certainlyorprobablyancient,and findsofRomanartefacts (A.Wilson/M.Anastasi)601
19.2.ThecentralFazzan,showingsiteswhereRomanmaterialhasbeen found.Therewasfoggara-fedirrigationalmostcontinuouslyalongthe lengthoftheWadial-AjalbetweenInTafaretandal-Abyad,butfor thesakeofclarityfoggarasareshownonlyatthewesternandeastern extremities,TinAbundaandInTafaret,andal-Abyad (A.Wilson/M.Anastasi)602
19.3.QuadransofDomitian, AD 83–5(RIC 34,exEvans:HeberdenCoin Room,AshmoleanMuseum).Obverse:rhinocerosbicornisadvancing left;reverse:IMPDOMITAVGGERMaroundSC(photo:Ashmolean Museum,bypermission)611
2.1.TaxratesatKaranis,mid-secondcentury AD 33
2.2.TaxratesinEgypt,mid-secondcentury AD,dependentvillages33
2.3.LandandtaxesatKaranis,mid-secondtoearlyfourthcenturies AD 44 5.1.BankBalanceSheet1158
6.1.Consignmentsofagriculturalproductsreceivedattheharbourofthe SacredGroveinArsinoeandshippedonwardstotheharbourat PtolemaisHormou, AD 42(in artabas)179
6.2.Deliveries ofartabas ofgrainbyanimalconvoy,forloadingontoriver boats, AD 127187
6.3.Nileshipcapacities:statedburdenandactualloadingswithgrain cargoes,latethirdcentury AD 196
12.1.Guidetothedistributionofimportsinthesecondcentury AD 367
13.1.DistributionofpricesontheleadtagsfromSiscia(includingonly thosepriceswherethereadingiscertain)409
13.2.Probableinterpretationofpriceswherethereadingisuncertain411
13.3.Pricesintheolderinscriptionsstilllegibleonthetags412
17.1.Attestationof μαρσί
ListofContributors ColinAdams,SeniorLecturerinAncientHistory,UniversityofLiverpool.His researchinterestsarethesocial,administrative,andeconomichistoryofthe RomanEmpire,especiallyRomanEgypt,andtransportandtravelinthe ancientworld.Publicationsinclude TravelandGeographyintheRoman Empire (ed.withR.Laurence,London,2001),and LandTransportin RomanEgypt:AStudyofAdministrationandEconomicsinaRomanProvince (Oxford,2007).
MichelBonifay,ResearcherattheCentreCamilleJullian(AixMarseille Université,CNRS,MCC,INRAP,CCJ,UMR7299,13094,Aix-en-Provence, France).HismainactivityfocusesonthepotteryoftheRomanprovincesof Africa:production,typologyandchronology,distribution,andthesignificanceofthisevidencefortheeconomichistoryoftheMediterranean.Recent publicationsonthistopicinclude: Étudessurlacéramiqueromainetardive d’Afrique (Oxford,2004), LRCW2,LateRomanCoarseWares,CookingWares andAmphoraeintheMediterranean,ArchaeologyandArchaeometry (ed.with J.-Chr.Tréglia,Oxford2007), LRFW1,LateRomanFineWares:Solving ProblemsofTypologyandChronology (ed.withM.A.CauandP.Reynolds, Oxford2011).
AlanBowman, FormerPrincipalofBrasenoseCollege,andCamdenProfessor EmeritusofAncientHistory,UniversityofOxford.Hisareasofresearchare thesocialandeconomichistoryoftheRomanEmpire,PtolemaicandRoman Egypt,papyrologyandtheVindolandawriting-tablets.Publicationsinclude AgricultureinEgyptfromPharaonictoModernTimes (ed.withE.Rogan, London,1999), LifeandLettersontheRomanFrontier:Vindolandaandits People (London,rev.edn,2003), QuantifyingtheRomanEconomy:Methods andProblems (ed.withA.I.Wilson,Oxford,2009), Settlement,Urbanization andPopulation (ed.withA.I.Wilson,Oxford,2011),and TheRoman AgriculturalEconomy:Organization,Investment,andProduction (ed.with A.I.Wilson,Oxford,2013).
BarbaraDavidde, DirectoroftheNucleopergliInterventidiArcheologia Subacquea,IstitutoSuperioreperlaConservazioneedilRestauro(Rome,Italy) andadjunctProfessorofUnderwaterArchaeology,UniversitàdegliStudi diRomaTre.Shewasco-directoroftheUnderwaterArchaeologicalMission intheRepublicofYemenforISIAOandoftheunderwatersurveysat Sumhuram(KhorRori,SultanateofOman)withtheUniversityofPisa. Herresearchinterestsincludeunderwaterandcoastalarchaeology fieldsurvey,
andconservationandrestorationofunderwaterculturalheritage(ISCR’ s ProjectRestoringUnderwater).Recentpublicationsinclude: Archeologia sott’acqua:Teoriaepratica (withRobertoPetriaggi,PisaandRome,2007); (withS.Riccietal.), ‘MarineBioerosionofStoneArtefactsPreservedinthe MuseoArcheologicodeiCampiFlegrei,intheCastleofBaia(Naples)’ , AMM 7 (2010),75–115.
DanièleFoy,Directeurderecherches,CNRS,CentreCamilleJullian,Aix-enProvence.Herresearchfocusesonglass-makingfromantiquitytotheendof themedievalperiodinthewesternandeasternMediterranean,studying production,exchange,andconsumptionofglassthrougharchaeologicalevidence(excavationsofworkshops,residentialbuildings,wrecks,andstudiesof theglassassemblages)andarchaeometricdata.Recentresearchhastreatedthe stampsappliedtoancientglasscontainers(Corpusdessignaturesetmarques surverresantiques,ed.withM.-D.Nenna,3vols,Aix-en-ProvenceandLyons, 2006,2011),andtheIslamicglass(seventhtofourteenthcenturies)ofthe MaghrebandMachrek.
MichaelFulford,ProfessorofArchaeology,UniversityofReading.Hisareas ofresearchareRomanurbanismandruralsettlement,economy,trade,and technology.Recentpublicationsinclude LifeandLabourinLateRoman Silchester:ExcavationsinInsulaIXsince1997 (London,2006), IronAgeand Romano-BritishSettlementsandLandscapesofSalisburyPlain (Salisbury, 2006), Silchester:CityinTransition.TheMid-RomanOccupationofInsula IX c. AD 125–250/300.AReportonExcavationsUndertakensince1997 (London2011), PevenseyCastle,Sussex.ExcavationsintheRomanFortand MedievalKeep,1993–95 (Salisbury2011).
DavidF.Graf, ProfessorofAncientHistoryattheUniversityofMiami.His researchinterestsareinthehistoryandarchaeologyoftheGreco-Roman NearEast.HehasparticipatedinexcavationsatZeugmaontheEuphratesin TurkeyandtheRedSeainEgypt,andrecentlydirectedtheHellenisticPetra ProjectinJordan(2004–7)andthejointSaudi–Americanexcavationsat Jurashinthesouth-westAsirProvinceofSaudiArabia(2008–9).Publications include RomeandtheArabianFrontier:FromtheNabataeanstotheSaracens (1997),andessayson ‘NabataeanTrade’ inG.Markoe(ed.), PetraRediscovered (NewYork,2003),and ‘RomeandChina:SomeFrontierComparisons ’,inZ.Visy(ed.), RomanFrontierStudiesXIX (Pécs,2005).
WilliamV.Harris,ShepherdProfessorofHistoryandDirectoroftheCenter fortheAncientMediterraneanatColumbiaUniversity,USA.Hisrecent publicationsinclude TheMonetarySystemsoftheGreeksandRomans (ed., Oxford,2008), MaritimeTechnologyintheAncientEconomy:Ship-Designand Navigation (co-editedwithKristineIara,Portsmouth,RI,2011)and Rome’ s ImperialEconomy (Oxford,2011).
PhilipKay,SupernumeraryFellow,WolfsonCollege,UniversityofOxford. HisresearchinterestsincludetheeconomyoftheRomanRepublicand ancientbanking.Publicationsincludehismonograph Rome’sEconomic Revolution (OxfordStudiesontheRomanEconomy,Oxford,2014)anda paperentitled ‘WhatDidtheAttalidseverDoforus?AViewfromthe aerarium’,in AttalidAsiaMinor:Money,InternationalRelations,andthe State (ed.P.Thonemann,Oxford,2013).Inadditiontohisacademicwork, healsorunshisowninvestmentmanagementbusiness.
ElioLoCascio,ProfessorofRomanHistory,UniversitàdiRoma ‘LaSapienza’ Hismainareasofresearcharetheinstitutional,administrative,andeconomic historyofRome,andRomanpopulationhistory.Hispublicationsinclude Il princeps eilsuoimpero:Studidistoriaamministrativae finanziariaromana (Bari,2000); Crescitaedeclino:Studidistoriadell’economiaromana (Rome, 2009);andtheeditedvolumes Romaimperiale:Unametropoliantica (Rome, 2000); ProductionandPublicPowersinAntiquity (Cambridge2000,with D.W.Rathbone); Creditoemonetanelmondoromano (Bari,2003); Innovazione tecnicaeprogressoeconomiconelmondoromano (Bari,2006); Agricolturae scambinell’Italiarepubblicana (Bari,2009,withJ.Carlsen).
DarioNappo,postdoctoralresearcher,Ciènciesdel’Antiguitatidel’Edat Mitjana,UniversitatAutònomadeBarcelona.Hisresearchhasfocusedon RomantradewithIndiaandintheRedSearegion,andhispublications include ‘RomanPolicyintheRedSeabetweenAnastasiusandJustinian’,in ConnectedHinterlands:ProceedingsoftheFourthInternationalConferenceon thePeoplesoftheRedSeaRegion (ed.L.Blue,J.Cooper,R.Thomas,and J.Whitewright,2009),and ‘OntheLocationofLeukeKome’ (JRA 23/1(2010), 335–48).
EmanuelePapi,ProfessorofClassicalArchaeologyattheUniversityofSiena, andDirectoroftheScuolaArcheologicaItalianadiAtene.Hisresearch interestsincludethearchaeologyoftradeandcommercialactivityinRome andaroundtheMediterranean,andhehasdirectedexcavationsatBomarzo (ancientStatonia)intheTiberValley,ThamusidainMorocco,Hephaestiaon Lemnos,andDionysiasinEgypt.Hispublicationsinclude SupplyingRome andtheEmpire (JRASupplement69,2007),and SidiAlibenAhmed Thamusida (ed.withA.Akerraz,3vols,2008–13).
IvanRadman-Livaja,seniorcuratorattheGreekandRomanDepartmentof theArchaeologicalMuseuminZagreb.Hisresearchinterestsmostlyconcern thearchaeologyofRomanPannonia,moreparticularlythe limes area,Roman armyandmilitaryequipmentstudies,epigraphy,aswellasRomantradeand economy.Hispublicationsinclude MilitariaSisciensia (Zagreb,2005)and FindsoftheRomanMilitaryEquipmentinCroatia (ed.,Zagreb,2010).
PaulReynolds,ICREAResearchProfessor,ERAAUB,DepartmentofHistory andArchaeology,UniversityofBarcelona;andInstitucióCatalanadeRecercai EstudisAvançats(ICREA).Hisworkfocusesonthereconstructionand interpretationofMediterraneantradeandeconomichistorybasedprimarily onthearchaeologicalevidencefortheregionalandlong-distancedistribution ofceramics(tablewares,amphorae,andkitchenwares).Hiscurrentresponsibilitiesincludethepublicationoftheclassicalpotteryofexcavations inBeirut,Butrint,Carthage,andNikopolis-Actium,aswellastheRoman ImperialamphoraeoftheAthenianAgora.Hispublicationsinclude SettlementandPotteryintheVinolopóValley(Alicante,Spain): AD 400–700 (BAR InternationalSeries588,Oxford,1993), TradeintheWesternMediterranean, AD 400–700:TheCeramicEvidence (BARInternationalSeries604,Oxford 1995), ‘LinearTypologiesandCeramicEvolution’ , Facta,2(2008),61–87, and HispaniaandtheRomanMediterranean, AD 100–700:CeramicsandTrade (London,2010).
BenRussell,LecturerinClassicalArchaeology,UniversityofEdinburgh.His researchfocusesonRomansculptureandarchitecture,especiallythesupply andproductionofmaterials,artistictechniques,thesarcophagustrade,and thelogisticsofbuilding.Recentpublicationsincludehismonograph, The StoneTradeandtheRomanImperialEconomy (OxfordStudiesontheRoman Economy,Oxford,2013),andchapterson ‘TheRomanSarcophagus “Industry” : AReconsideration’,inJ.ElsnerandJ.Huskinson(eds), Life,DeathandRepresentation:SomeNewWorkonRomanSarcophagi (BerlinandNewYork,2011) and ‘Lapistransmarinus:Stone-CarryingShipsandtheMaritimeDistributionof StoneintheRomanEmpire’,inD.J.RobinsonandA.I.Wilson(eds), Maritime ArchaeologyandAncientTradeintheMediterranean (Oxford,2011).
BoudewijnSirks,RegiusProfessorofCivilLaw,Emeritus,Universityof Oxford.HisareaofresearchisprimarilyRomanlawfromantiquitytillmodern times,includingByzantinelaw,andfurthersocialandeconomichistoryaswell aspapyrologyinasfarasitisrelatedto(Roman)law.Publicationsinclude Food forRome:TheLegalStructureoftheTransportationandProcessingofSupplies fortheImperialDistributionsinRomeandConstantinople (Amsterdam1991; repr. ’s-Gravenhage,2010);(withP.J.SijpesteijnandK.A.Worp) EinfrühbyzantinischesSzenariofürdieAmtswechslunginderSitonie.Diegriechischen PapyriausPommersfelden(PPG)miteinemAnhangüber:DiePommersfeldenerDigestenfragmenteunddieDigestenüberlieferung (Munich1996);(ed. withJean-JacquesAubert) SpeculumIuris:RomanLawasaReflectionofSocial andEconomicLifeinAntiquity (AnnArbor,2002); TheTheodosianCode: AStudy (Friedrichsdorf,2007).
RobertaTomber,VisitingResearcherintheDepartmentofScientificResearch attheBritishMuseum.HerresearchinterestsareintheRomaneconomyofthe
MediterraneanandIndianOceanasevidencedthroughmaterialculture.She specializesinceramicsandtheirscientificcharacterization,andhasworkedasa potteryspecialistforexcavationsatmajortradeportsinEgypt,SouthArabia,and India.Recentpublicationsinclude Indo-RomanTrade:FromPotstoPepper (London,2008),and(withR.Thomas) ‘PotteryfromtheLakeMareotisResearch Project’,inL.BlueandE.Khalil(eds), AMultidisciplinaryApproachtoAlexandria’sEconomicPast:TheLakeMareotisResearchProject (Oxford,2011).
AndrewWilson,ProfessoroftheArchaeologyoftheRomanEmpire,UniversityofOxford.HisresearchinterestsincludetheeconomyoftheRoman Empire,ancienttechnology,ancientwatersupplyandusage,RomanNorth Africa,andarchaeological fieldsurvey.Recentpublicationsinclude: Maritime ArchaeologyandAncientTradeintheMediterranean (ed.withD.J.Robinson, Oxford2011), Settlement,UrbanizationandPopulation (ed.withA.K.Bowman, Oxford,2011), TheRomanAgriculturalEconomy:Organization,Investment,and Production (ed.withA.K.Bowman,Oxford,2013), Urbancraftsmenandtraders intheRomanworld (ed.withM.Flohr,Oxford,2016),and Theeconomyof Pompeii (ed.withM.Flohr,Oxford,2017).
1 Introduction Trade,Commerce,andtheState AndrewWilsonandAlanBowman
[TheemperorTrajan]who,byhisauthority,advice,andloyaltyhas openeduproads,providedharbours,givenroutestotheland,letthe seaintotheshore,andextendedtheshoreouttosea,andhasmixed differentpeoplesbytradetosuchanextentthatwhateverisproduced anywhereseemstohaveoriginatedamongeveryone.
(Pliny, Pan.29.2–3)
Andherethemerchantvesselscomecarryingthesemanyproductsfrom allregionsineveryseasonandateveryequinox,sothatthecityappearsa kindofcommonemporiumoftheworld.CargoesfromIndiaandifyou will,evenfromArabiatheBlest,onecanseeinsuchnumbersasto surmisethatinthoselandsthetreeswillhavebeenstrippedbareand theinhabitantsoftheselands,iftheyneedanything,mustcomehereand begforashareoftheirown.AgainonecanseetheBabyloniangarments andornamentsfromthebarbariancountrybeyondarrivingingreater quantityandwithmoreeasethanifshippersfromNaxosorfrom Cythnos,bearingsomethingfromthoseislands,hadbuttoenterthe portofAthens.YourfarmsareEgypt,Sicilyandthecivilizedpartof Africa.Arrivalsanddeparturesbyseanevercease,sothatthewonderis, notthattheharbourhasinsufficientspaceformerchantvessels,butthat eventheseahasenough,<if>itreallydoes.
(AeliusAristides, ToRome 11–13,trans.Oliver1953:896)
Thereisonecontinent,onesea,theislandscommontoall,theharbours openedupandthegatesthrownwide.Merchantshipseverywhereconvey productsfromallpartsandcrowdtheanchorages.Amutualcommunity hasextendedthroughpracticallyallthelandunderthesun,withsome travellingforexplorationandothersforotherreasons,somewhocross
oceansandotherswhotraversethecontinent.DwellersintheWestare observersofthewondersoftheNilewhiletheinhabitantsbytheNilegain knowledgeofthebeautiesoftheWest.TherearePhoeniciansinthe anchoragesofSicily,andSiciliansinturnintheharboursofPhoenicia. ThecityofAthenshasbeenopeneduptothetraffickersinlogic,andthe nationoftheBithynianshasbecomeaccessibletothosedesiroustotake whatevertheywant.
(Libanius, Oration 59.171,trans.Dodgeon,Vermes, andLieu,inLieuandMontserrat1996:204)
DespitetheiravowedlyRome-centredview,emphasizingtheconsumermegalopolis,PlinyandAristidesconveyavividimpressionofthescaleand importanceoflong-distancetradeatthehighpointofRome’simperial powerandofthestatesupportthatunderpinnedit.Equallystrikingisthe factthatinthelaterfourthcentury AD,when,inmanypeople’seyes,the Empirehadpassedbeyonditsclimaxofpowerandprosperity,LibaniusdepictedtheMediterraneanasavastandwell-connectedmarket,inwhichthe ubiquityofmaritimetradeencouragednotonlythelong-distancemovement ofmerchantsandtheirgoods,butalsoothertravellers,andevengenerated almostacommonmarketintrade,travel,andideas.Notquitetwocenturies later,CosmasIndicopleustesinhis ChristianTopography wentsofarastostate thatGodhaddesignedtheworldexpresslytofacilitatemaritimetrade: ‘He [God]alsosopreparedthegulfsthattheycouldbenavigatedandaffordameans oftransittodifferentpartsoftheworld,thusalwaysunitingthedispersed nationsinthebondsofamitythroughthefacilitywithwhichcommodities mightbetransportedfromnationtonation.’1 Thenotionof ‘connectivity’ has becomepartoftheacceptedvocabularyindiscussingtheeconomichistoryof theMediterraneaninantiquitysincethepublicationof TheCorruptingSea in 2000;CosmasoffersamorebenignviewthanisimpliedbythetitleofHorden andPurcell’sinfluentialbook,butwithexactlythesamestressonthatnotion.
Allthesetestimoniesemphasizemoreorlessexplicitlythepoliticaland economicimportanceoftradinglinksandactivitieswithinandbeyondthe boundariesoftheEmpire,eveniftheyofferusnobroadprogrammatic statementsabout ‘economicpolicy’.Inthisvolume,weapproachthesubject fromthepointofviewthatthestatewasveryactivelyandself-consciously involvedinthisaspectofempire.
Onecrucialproponwhichthisapproachreliesisthefactthatscholarship onthenature,scale,andimportanceofancienttradehaschangedradically sincethe1970s,notleastbecauseofthemassiveincreaseinthequantityof archaeologicalevidencethathasbecomeavailabletous.Inthemid-twentieth century,A.H.M.JonesbelievedthattradeintheRomanworldwasrelatively
1 CosmasIndicopleustes, ChristianTopography,book3,trans.McCrindle(1897:101).
insignificantbecauseofthecostoftransportandthelimitedpurchasingpower ofmostruralandurbandwellers.2 Heandmanyothersthoughtthatthe overwhelmingmajorityofeconomicactivity,perhapsover80percent,inthe ancientworldlayintheagriculturalsector,withtradebeingverymucha secondaryactivity,andbysomedistance.3 MosesFinleythoughtthatsuch long-distancetradeastherewasintheancientworldwasatradeinluxury goods,smallinscaleandaimedatanarrowelite,notabulktradeinstaples.4 Traderswereoflowstatus;5 eliteswerenotinvolvedintrade,asmoneycame fromagriculture;andtradewasnotalarge,orevenasignificant,componentof theancienteconomy.
At firstsight,itisstrikingthateveninthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury suchviewswerestillheldbyprominentscholars,despitethetestimonyof ancientauthors.Rostovtzeff ’ s SocialandEconomicHistoryoftheRoman Empire was,formanypeople,themostpowerful,originalandcompelling workonRomanhistoryinthetwentiethcenturyandwas firstpublishedin 1926(issuedinarevisededitionin1957).Rostovtzeffcertainlydidnottakea minimalistviewoftheimportanceoftrade,evenifhisargumentsaboutthe natureanddeclineoftheurban ‘bourgeoisie’ failedtowinfavour.Tenney Frank’ s EconomicSurveyofAncientRome,aproductofNorthAmerican historicalempiricism,waspublishedinthe1930sandamassedagreatdeal ofeconomicdatathatcanhardlyfailtotakeusfarbeyondanysimplistic notionofsubsistenceagricultureasthecoreoftheancienteconomy.Partof theexplanationmaybethatinthemid-twentiethcentury ‘economichistory’ wastoolittleespousedbyancienthistoriansgenerally,perhapspartlybecause itsmackedofradicalpoliticalviewsor ‘economicdeterminism’.Onthe positiveside,thehugeincreaseinarchaeologicalevidenceinthesecondhalf ofthetwentiethcenturyhasinducedancienthistorianstodirectattentionto cliometricworkmoreeffectivelythanhadpreviouslybeenpossible.Itmayalso berelevantthattoolittlehadbeendonetoemphasizetheeconomicroleof coinageandmoney(perhapsstillthecase,withhonourableexceptionssuchas Howgego),6 butitisneverthelessdifficulttoseehowscholarswhorecognized theenormouswealthandtheconspicuousconsumptionofthegreatlandownersoftheancientMediterraneanworld(thepermanentbasisofwhose wealthwasadmittedlylandedproperty)couldhavefailedtoemphasizeand analysetheessentialroleoftradeandcommerceintheprocessofrealizing thatwealththroughagriculturalproductionandsaleofsurpluses.7
2 Jones(1974:37–9).
3 Jones(1974:36–7;cf.83).
4 Finley(1973;1985). 5 Finley(1973:59–60).
6 Jones(1956)offersapessimisticview,frequentlyendorsed.ContrastHowgego(1992;1994; 1995;2013).
7 SeeMarzano(2007);BowmanandWilson(2013).
