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TOMBSOFTHEANCIENTPOETS Tombsofthe AncientPoets BetweenLiteraryReception andMaterialCulture Editedby
NORAGOLDSCHMIDT ANDBARBARAGRAZIOSI 3 GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom
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©OxfordUniversityPress2018
Hapax:Poems Copyright©2006byA.E.Stallings.Published2006by TriQuarterlyBooks/NorthwesternUniversityPress.Allrightsreserved
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Acknowledgements Thiscollectionhasitsoriginsinacollaborativeresearchproject, LivingPoets:ANewApproachtoAncientPoetry,directedbyBarbara GraziosiandbasedatDurhamUniversity:weoweadebtofthanksto theEuropeanResearchCouncilforfundingit.Earlierversionsof someofthechapterswerepresentedata LivingPoets panelatthe AnnualMeetingoftheAmericanPhilologicalAssociationinChicago (4January2014);othersfeaturedataninternationalconference hostedbyDurhamUniversity(12–14September2014).Wewould liketothankallthosewhotookpart,whetherasspeakersoraudience members,fortheirstimulatingcontributionsandscholarlyexpertise. Wearealsogratefultoallresearchersonthe LivingPoets team, especiallyErikaTaretto,fortheirhelp.AtOxfordUniversityPress, CharlotteLoveridgeandGeorginaLeightontookexcellentcareof thisvolume,fromwhenwe firstsubmittedanexploratoryproposal allthewaythroughtopublication.Theanonymousreadersoffered perceptivefeedback,whichsubstantiallyimprovedthebook.Our copy-editor,BenHarris,workedwithgreatprecisionandspeed.We wishtothankClementRajandAmandaGomezfortheirhelpfuland preciseworkofproductionandproofreadingandKurtBallstadtfor preparationoftheindex.Finally,awordofthankstoourfamilies, whoofferedusmoralsupportandpracticalhelp,asweworkedon thisvolumeamidseveralcompetingcommitments.
Contents ListofIllustrations ix
ListofAbbreviations xi
ListofContributors xiii
Introduction1 NoraGoldschmidtandBarbaraGraziosi
PARTI.MATERIALTEXTS,TEXTUAL MATERIALS 1.SilentBonesandSingingStones:Materializingthe PoeticCorpusinHellenisticGreece21 VerityPlatt
2.SimonidesonTombs,andthe ‘TombofSimonides’ 51 RichardRawles
3.Ennius’ imago betweenTombandText69 FrancescaMartelli
4.APortraitofthePoetasaYoungMan:TheTomb ofQuintusSulpiciusMaximusontheViaSalaria83 ValentinaGarulli
5.Ovid’sTombs:AfterlivesofaPoetic corpus 101 NoraGoldschmidt
PARTII.THEPOETASCHARACTER 6.Earth,Nature,andtheCultoftheTomb:ThePosthumous ReceptionofAeschylus heros 123 EmmanuelaBakola
7.TombsofPoets’ MinorCharacters147 PeterBing
8.StillSinging:TheCaseofOrpheus171 BarbaraGraziosi
Contents
PARTIII.COLLECTINGTOMBS 9.Poets’ CornersinGreekEpigramCollections197 ReginaHöschele
10.ImpermanentStones,PermanentPlants:TheTombsof PoetsasMaterialObjectsinthe PalatineAnthology 217 SilviaMontiglio
11.Pausanias’ DeadPoetsSociety235 JohannaHanink
PARTIV.THETOMBOFVIRGIL 12.DeadLettersandBuriedMeaning:Approachingthe TombofVirgil253 AndrewLaird
13.TheTombofVirgilbetweenText,Memory,andSite265 IrenePeiranoGarrison
14.Virgil’sTombinScholarlyandPopularCulture281 HaraldHendrix
15.RuinsandReputations:TheTombofthePoetin VisualArt299 SamSmiles
ListofIllustrations 1.1.Objectsrecoveredfromthe ‘TombofthePoet’,Piraeus Museum,Athens.23 Photograph:ChelseaGardner.
4.1.CastcopyofthetombofQuintusSulpiciusMaximus, first century CE,PiazzaFiume.
PURL:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: QS_Maximus_memorial_stone.JPG.86
5.1.JohannHeinrichSchönfeld, SarmatenamGrabeOvids (SarmatiansattheTombofOvid),(c.1653).Oiloncanvas, 110 93.5cm.110 RoyalCollectionTrust/©HerMajestyQueenElizabethII2017.
5.2.PietroSantiBartoli,engravingfromtheprincipalnicheofthe ‘tombadiOvidio’,inGiovanniPietroBelloriandPietroSanto Bartoli, Lepittureantichedelsepolcrode’ Nasoniinellavia Flaminia (Rome,1680),TavolaV.117
©UniversitätsbibliothekHeidelberg.PURL:<http://digi.ub. uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/bartoli1680>.CCBY-SA3.0:<https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/legalcode>.
5.3.PiaţaOvidiu(OvidSquare),Constanţa,Romania,with EttoreFerrari’sstatueofthepoet(1887).
©iStock:496476311. 119
7.1.ThetombofCharlotteTemple.148 Photograph:PeterBing.
14.1.G.A., ‘Ilverodisegnioinsulpropioluoghoritratto[ ]’ (Naples,1540).289
©BibliothèqueNationaledeFrance,Paris.
14.2.JorisHoefnagel, ‘NeapolisetVesuviimontisprospectus’ , inGeorgBraunandFranzHogenberg, Civitatesorbis terrarum (Cologne,1578).290
©BibliothèqueNationaledeFrance,Paris.
14.3.Sannazaro’svillaandchapelSantaMariadelParto,detail fromthemapofNaplesbyBaratta, Fidelissimaeurbis Neapolitanaecumomnibusviisaccurataetnovadelineatio (Naples,1629).291
©BibliothèqueNationaledeFrance,Paris.
x ListofIllustrations 14.4.Commemorativeplaque(dating1544)nearthealleged graveofVirgil,Naples,withgraffitibyStanislausCencovius (1589)andothervisitors.293 Photograph:HaraldHendrix.
14.5.Virgil’sgraveatthePiedigrottaentranceofthePosillipo tunnel,inPompeoSarnelli, Guidade’ forestiericuriosidi vedereed’intenderelecosepiùnotabilidellaRegalCittàdi Napoliedelsuoamenissimodistretto (Naples,1692), contra p.340.295 Privatecollection,HaraldHendrix.
15.1.AntoineAlexandreJosephCardonafterGiuseppeBracci, ‘ViewofVirgil’stomb’,Plate4ofPierreFrançoisHugues d’Hancarville(ed.) Etruscan,GreekandRomanAntiquities fromtheCabinetoftheHonourableWilliamHamilton (Naples,1766).Etching,156 268mm.300 ©TrusteesoftheBritishMuseum.Allrightsreserved.
15.2.JosephWrightofDerby, Virgil’sTombbyMoonlight,with SiliusItalicusDeclaiming,1779.Oiloncanvas,101.6 127cm. MetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork.2013.155. Purchase,LilaAchesonWallaceGift,GiftsofMrs.William M.Haupt,JosephineBayPaul,andEstateofGeorge Quackenbush,inhismemory,byexchange,TheMorris andAlmaSchapiroFundGift,andfundsfromvarious donors,2013.303 MetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork.Publicdomain(CC0).
15.3.J.M.W.Turner ‘FourSketchesofVirgil’sTombonthe PosillipoHill;alsoPartofaViewofNaplesandVesuvius’ from Pompeii,Amalfi,&c., SketchbookCLXXXV68 [D15865],1819.Graphiteonpaper,113 189mm.312 ©Tate.
15.4.JamesT.WillmoreafterJ.M.W.Turner Ancient Italy OvidBanishedfromRome, c.1842.Etchingand engraving,engraver’sproof,527 711mm.YaleCenter forBritishArt,PaulMellonCollection.B1977.14.8048.315 Photo:YaleCenterforBritishArt,PaulMellonCollection. Publicdomain.
ListofAbbreviations ABC.AustinandG.Bastianini,eds, PosidippiPellaeiquae supersuntomnia (Milan,2002)
APPalatineAnthology
APlPlanudeanAnthology
BernabéA.Bernabé,ed., PoetaeepiciGraeci.Testimoniaet fragmenta,partII,3vols(Munich,2004–7)
CEG P.A.Hansen,ed., CarminaEpigraphicaGraeca (NewYork,1983–9)
CILCorpusInscriptionumLatinarum (Berlin,1863–)
DKH.DielsandW.Kranz,eds, DieFragmenteder Vorsokratiker,6thedn,3vols(Berlin,1951–2)
FGE D.L.Page,ed., FurtherGreekEpigrams (Cambridge, 1981)
FGrHist F.Jacoby,ed., DieFragmentedergriechischenHistoriker (Berlin,1923–)
G-PA.S.F.GowandD.L.Page,eds, TheGreekAnthology: HellenisticEpigrams,2vols(Cambridge,1965)
G-P, Garland A.S.F.GowandD.L.Page,eds, TheGreekAnthology: TheGarlandofPhilipandSomeContemporaryEpigrams, 2vols(Cambridge,1968)
GV W.Peek,ed., GriechischeVers-Inschiften,vol.1: GrabEpigramme (Berlin,1955)
IGInscriptionesGraecae,12vols(Berlin,1873–1981)
IGRR R.Cagnatetal.,eds, InscriptionesGraecaeadres Romanaspertinentes,vols1,3–4(Paris,1911–27)
ILLRP A.Degrassi,ed., InscriptionesLatinaeliberaereipublicae, 2ndedn,2vols(Florence,1963–5)
KAR.KasselandC.Austin,eds, PoetaeComiciGraeci (Berlin,1983–95)
LIMC L.Kahiletal.,eds, LexiconIconographicumMythologiae Classicae (Zurich,1981–97)
LSJH.G.Liddell,R.Scott,andH.S.Jones,eds, Greek–English Lexicon,9thedn(Oxford,1940;withrevisedsupplement byP.G.W.Glare,1996)
Pf.R.Pfeiffer,ed., Callimachus,2vols(Oxford,1962)
PIR2
ProsopographiaImperiiRomani.Saec.I,II,III,7vols, 2ndedn(Berlin,2006)
PMG D.L.Page,ed., PoetaeMeliciGraeci (Oxford,1962)
ListofAbbreviations PowellJ.U.Powell, CollectaneaAlexandrina.Reliquiaeminores poetarumgraecorumaetatisptolemaicae,323–146A.C. (Oxford,1925)
P.Oxy. TheOxyrhynchusPapyri (London,1898–)
ReifferscheidA.Reifferscheid,ed., C.SuetoniTranquillipraeter Caesarumlibrosreliquiae (Leipzig,1860)
SEGSupplementumEpigraphicumGraecum (Amsterdam, 1923–)
SGO
SH
SupplItal
TrGF
R.MerkelbachandJ.Stauber,eds, Steinepigrammeaus demgriechischenOsten,5vols(Munich,Stuttgart,and Leipzig,1998–2004)
H.Lloyd-JonesandP.Parsons,eds, Supplementum Hellenisticum (Berlin,1983)
G.L.GregoriandM.Mattei,eds, SupplementaItalica. Imagines.Supplementifotograficiaivolumiitalianidel CIL, Roma(CIL,VI),I. MuseiCapitolini (Rome,1999)
B.Snell,R.Kannicht,andS.Radt,eds, Tragicorum Graecorumfragmenta,4vols(Göttingen,1971–85)
VSDVitaDonatianaeVitaSuetonianadesumpta,in G.BrugnoliandF.Stok,eds, VitaeVergilianaeantiquae (Rome,1997),9–56
WM.L.West,ed., IambietelegiGraecianteAlexandrum cantati,2ndedn,2vols(Oxford,1989)
WendelC.Wendel,ed., ScholiainApolloniumRhodiumvetera (Berlin,1974)
AbbreviationsofancientauthorsandtextsfollowtheOxfordClassical Dictionary,4thedn;titlesofjournalsareabbreviatedaccordingto L’Année philologique.
ListofContributors EmmanuelaBakola isAssociateProfessorinAncientGreekLanguage andLiteratureattheUniversityofWarwick.Previously,sheheld fellowshipsatUniversityCollegeandKing ’ sCollegeLondon.She haspublishedamonograph( CratinusandtheArtofComedy, OxfordUniversityPress,2010)andseveralarticlesandchapters whichexploretherelationshipofancientcomedytoothergenres. Hercurrentprojectusesculturalanthropologyandtheatrespace theorytoargue,onthebasisofdramaturgy,imagery,stageaction, andengagementwithcult,thatAeschyleantheatreisprofoundly preoccupiedwiththehumanrelationshiptotheearthandits resources.
PeterBing isProfessorofClassicsattheUniversityofTorontoand SamuelCandlerDobbsProfessoroftheClassicsEmeritusatEmory University.Amonghisbooksare TheWell-ReadMuse:Presentand PastinCallimachusandtheHellenisticPoets (1988;2ndedn,Michigan ClassicsPress,2008), TheScroll&TheMarble:StudiesinReadingand ReceptioninHellenisticPoetry (UniversityofMichiganPress,2009),and (withReginaHöschele) TheEroticLettersofAristaenetus:Introduced, TranslatedandAnnotated (SocietyofBiblicalLiterature,2014).
ValentinaGarulli isaResearchFellowinGreekLanguageand LiteratureattheUniversityofBologna,andworkedatdifferentstages ofhercareerinCambridge,Göttingen,Cincinnati,andOxford.Shehas publishedonGreekbiography(Il Περὶ ποιητῶν diLobonediArgo, PàtronEditore,2004),Greekpoetryonstone(Bybloslainee.Epigrafia, letteratura,epitafio,PàtronEditore,2012),GreekandLatinepigram (particularlyCallimachusandPosidippus),andHellenisticpoetry.She alsoresearchesthehistoryofclassicalscholarship,specificallyon WilhelmOttoCrönert,TadeuszZielinski,andLauraOrvieto.
NoraGoldschmidt isAssociateProfessorofClassicsatDurham University.Sheistheauthorof ShaggyCrowns:Ennius’ Annales andVirgil’sAeneid (OxfordUniversityPress,2013). Afterlivesofthe RomanPoets:BiofictionandtheReceptionofLatinPoetry,written undertheaegisoftheERCproject LivingPoets:ANewApproachto AncientPoetry,isforthcomingwithCambridgeUniversityPress.
BarbaraGraziosi isProfessorofClassicsatPrincetonUniversity.She heldpositionsatOxford,Reading,andDurham,wheresheservedas HeadofDepartmentandDirector,fortheArtsandHumanities,of theInstituteofAdvancedStudy.Hermostrecentmonographsare TheGodsofOlympus:AHistory (ProfileBooks,2013)and Homer (OxfordUniversityPress,2016).Sherecentlydirectedamajor researchproject,fundedbytheEuropeanResearchCouncil,onvisual andnarrativeportraitsoftheancientGreekandRomanpoets, entitled LivingPoets:ANewApproachtoAncientPoetry.Thisvolume stemsfromthatproject.
JohannaHanink isAssociateProfessorofClassicsatBrownUniversity.Sheisauthorof LycurganAthensandtheMakingofTragedy (CambridgeUniversityPress,2014)and TheClassicalDebt:Greek AntiquityinanEraofAusterity (HarvardUniversityPress,2017), andco-editor(withRichardFletcher)of CreativeLivesinClassical Antiquity:Poets,ArtistsandBiography (CambridgeUniversity Press,2016).
HaraldHendrix isdirectoroftheRoyalNetherlandsInstitutein RomeandProfessorofItalianStudiesatUtrechtUniversity.Hehas publishedwidelyontheEuropeanreceptionofItalianRenaissance andBaroqueculture(TraianoBoccalinifraerudizioneepolemica, Olschki,1995),ontheearlymodernaestheticsofthenon-beautifulas wellasonliterarycultureandmemory.Heiscurrentlypreparinga bookontheculturalhistoryofwriters’ housesinItaly,fromPetrarch tothepresentday.Recentpublicationsinclude Writers’ Housesand theMakingofMemory (Routledge,2008),(withAntonelloCorsaro andPaoloProcaccioli) Autorità,modellieantimodellinellacultura artisticaeletterariafraRiformaeControriforma (Vecchiarelli,2007), (withPaoloProcaccioli) Officinedelnuovo (Vecchiarelli,2008),(with PhiliepBossierandPaoloProcaccioli) DynamicTranslationsinthe EuropeanRenaissance (Vecchiarelli,2011),(withLiekeStellingand ToddRichardson) TheTurnoftheSoul:RepresentationsofReligious ConversioninEarlyModernArtandLiterature (Brill,2011),(with GeertBuelensandMonicaJansen) TheHistoryofFuturism:The Precursors,Protagonists,andLegacies (LexingtonBooks,2012),and (withBenjaminArbelandEvelienChayes) CyprusandtheRenaissance,1450–1650 (Brepols,2013).
ReginaHöschele isAssociateProfessorofClassicsattheUniversity ofToronto.Herresearchfocusesonpost-classicalGreekliterature, Graeco-Romanepigram,andancienterotica.Sheistheauthorof VerrücktnachFrauen.DerEpigrammatikerRufin (ClassicaMonacensia,2006), DieblütenlesendeMuse.PoetikundTextualitätantiker Epigrammsammlungen (ClassicaMonacensia,2010),and(withPeter Bing) TheEroticLettersofAristaenetus:Introduced,Translatedand Annotated (SocietyofBiblicalLiterature,2014).
AndrewLaird istheJohnRoweWorkmanDistinguishedProfessorof ClassicsandHumanitiesatBrownUniversity.Hisbooksinclude PowersofExpression,ExpressionsofPower (OxfordUniversity Press,1999), AncientLiteraryCriticism (OxfordUniversityPress, 2006),and TheEpicofAmerica (Bloomsbury,2006).Hehasproduced the firstcomprehensivesurveysofLatinwritingfromcolonialSpanishAmericaandBrazilfor Brill’sEncyclopediaoftheNeo-LatinWorld (Brill,2014)andforthe OxfordHandbookofNeo-Latin (Oxford UniversityPress,2015).
FrancescaMartelli isAssistantProfessorofClassicsatUCLA.Sheis theauthorof Ovid’sRevisions:TheEditorasAuthor (Cambridge UniversityPress,2013),andhaswrittenarticlesonarangeofLatin authors,fromCicerotoStatius.
SilviaMontiglio isBasilL.GildersleeveProfessorofClassicsatJohns HopkinsUniversity.Shehaswrittenextensivelyonmanyaspectsof Greekliteratureandculture.Hermostrecentbooksare Loveand Providence:RecognitionintheAncientNovel (OxfordUniversity Press,2013), TheSpellofHypnos:SleepandSleeplessnessinGreek Literature (I.B.Tauris,2016),and TheMythofHeroandLeander:The HistoryandReceptionofanEnduringGreekLegend (I.B.Tauris,2017).
IrenePeiranoGarrison worksonRomanpoetryanditsrelationto rhetoricandliterarycriticism,bothancientandmodern.Sheis especiallyinterestedinauthorship,authenticity,andthehistoryof philologyandotherscholarlypracticesfromantiquitytomodernity. Sheistheauthorof TheRhetoricoftheRomanFake:LatinPseudepigraphainContext (CambridgeUniversityPress,2012). Eloquentia: Persuasion,RhetoricandRomanPoetry isforthcomingwithCambridge UniversityPress.
VerityPlatt isAssociateProfessorofClassicsandHistoryofArtat CornellUniversity.Sheistheauthorof FacingtheGods:Epiphany andRepresentationinGraeco-RomanArt,LiteratureandReligion (CambridgeUniversityPress,2011),andco-editor(withMichael Squire)of TheArtofArtHistoryinGraeco-RomanAntiquity (Arethusa,2010)and TheFrameinClassicalArt:ACulturalHistory (CambridgeUniversityPress,2017).
RichardRawles isLecturerinGreekattheUniversityofEdinburgh. Heistheauthorof SimonidesthePoet:IntertextualityandReception (CambridgeUniversityPress,2018)andofseveralarticlesonGreek poetry.TogetherwithPeterAgócsandChrisCarey,heeditedtwo volumesonepinicianpoetry.
SamSmiles isEmeritusProfessorattheUniversityofPlymouth andHonoraryProfessorattheUniversityofExeter.Hisresearch concentratesonBritishart,focusingespeciallyontheeighteenth andnineteenthcenturies,andinparticularonthecareerof J.M.W.Turner.Hispublicationsinclude BritishArt:AncientLandscapes (PaulHolberton,2017), LateTurner:PaintingSetFree (Tate, 2014), J.M.W.Turner:TheMakingofaModernArtist (Manchester UniversityPress,2007), EyeWitness:ArtistsandVisualDocumentation inBritain1770–1830 (Ashgate,2000),and TheImageofAntiquity: AncientBritainandtheRomanticImagination (YaleUniversityPress, 1994).Heiscurrentlycompletingabookonlatestyleinthevisualarts.
Introduction THEDEATHOFTHEAUTHOR Whenhewas51,VirgildecidedtoretiretoGreeceandAsiafor athree-yearperiodwiththesinglepurposeofrevisingthe Aeneid,sothathewouldthenbefreetodevotetherestofhis lifetophilosophy.Butwhen,afterembarkingonhisjourney,he metAugustusinAthens,whowasreturningtoRomefromthe East,hedecidednottostayawaybut,infact,toreturntogether withhim.Virgilthencaughtafeverwhilehewastouringthe nearbytownofMegaraintheswelteringheat.Heworsenedhis conditionbynotbreakinguphisjourney,sothathewasinafar moreseriousstatewhenheputashoreatBrundisium.Hedied therewithinafewdays,ontheeleventhbeforetheKalendsof October,intheconsulshipofGnaeusSentiusandQuintus Lucretius.HisremainswerebornetoNaplesandlaidina tombwhichisontheroadtoPuteoli,withintwomilesofthe city.Onthetombisacouplethecomposedhimself:
Mantuamegenuit,Calabrirapuere,tenetnunc Parthenope.ceciniPascua,Rura,Duces.
Mantuaboreme,Calabriatookmeaway,andnow Parthenopeholdsme.Isangofpastures,agriculture,and leaders.
(VSD 35–6)1
1 TheLatintextreads: annoaetatisquinquagesimosecundoimpositurusAeneidisummammanum statuitinGraeciametinAsiamsecederetriennioquecontinuonihilamplius
NoraGoldschmidtandBarbaraGraziosi
2 NoraGoldschmidtandBarbaraGraziosi
ThisancientaccountofVirgil’sdeathculminatesinanepitaphhe composedforhisowntomb.Inatersetwolines,thepoettakesonthe roleofhisownbiographerandliteraryhistorian.Hestateswhere hewasborn(Mantua),wherehedied(theportofBrundisiumin Calabria),andwherehenowrests(Parthenope,thatistosayNaples). Itisthislastlocationthatmostfullyexposestheautobiographical conceitoftheepitaph:amanislikelytoknowhisplaceofbirth,may realizethatheisabouttodieinaparticularplace,buthasnocontrol overthesubsequentwhereaboutsofhisbody.Hemayexpressawish, tobesure,butthematterrestsinthehandsofothers.Thesameis true,ofcourse,ofliteraryreception.Aftertheshortbiographywhich openstheepitaph,anevenshortersentenceencapsulatesVirgilthe author,organizinghisoeuvreinchronologicalsequenceandascendingorderofgenre: firstthepastoral Eclogues;thentheagricultural Georgics;and finallythemartialepic Aeneid. TheepitaphextendsVirgil ’ slifeandoeuvre:itposesashislast workandsuggeststhatthepoetstillspeakstousfromhisgrave.2 Thereisaclearconnectionbetweenthepoemandthegenuine worksofVirgil:theepitaphecho esseveralautobiographicalpassages,or ‘ seals ’ ( sphrageis),containedinhispoems. 3 Moreover,the sequenceofworks Eclogues, Georgics,Aeneid isalreadyimplied withinthoseworksthemselves.Still,theepitaphmakesanimportantcontributiontoliteraryhistory:thesequenceonlybecomes canonicalwhensetinstone.Thelifeandtheoeuvrearesealedby death.WearetoldthatVirgil’ soriginalplanswereinterrupted.He enjoyednooldage,andnograduationfrompoetrytophilosophy. Virgil’ s curriculumvitae thusfailedtoconformtoastandard ancientpattern,accordingtowhichepicpoetrywaspropaedeutic
quamemendareutreliquavitatantumphilosophiaevacaret.sedcumingressus iterAthenisoccurrissetAugustoaborienteRomamrevertenti,destinaretque nonabsistereatqueetiamunaredire,dumMegaravicinumoppidumferventissimosolecognoscit,languoremnactusest,eumquenonintermissanavigatione auxitita,utgravioraliquantoBrundisiumappelleret,ubidiebuspaucisobiitXI Kal.Octobr.Cn.SentioQ.Lucretioconss.ossaeiusNeapolimtranslatasunt tumuloquecondita,quiestviaPuteolanaintralapidemsecundum,inquo distichonfecittale.
2 Fortheinscriptionofthisepitaphontheso-called ‘TombofVirgil’,andthe subsequentepitaphsimaginedforit,seeHendrix,Chapter14andSmiles,Chapter15 inthisvolume,togetherwithTrapp(1984).
3 SeeChapters12and13inthisvolume.
tophilosophy.4 Deathbrokeupthatsequence,andsimultaneously establishedanewone:the rotaVergiliana, ‘Virgil’swheel’,apoeticcareer ascendingtoprogressivelygrandergenresofpoetry.Forcenturies,this careerremainedanimportantmodel :poetsasdifferentasPetrarch andWordsworthimitatedthe rota intheirownlivesandworks.5
Virgilwasbynomeanstheonlyancientpoetsaidtohavecomposedhisownepitaph.FromHomertoEnniusandbeyond,GraecoRomanantiquityengenderedawholeseriesofauto-epitaphsinwhich poetsallegedlysetinstonetheir ‘lastwork’.Thepoets’ self-composed epitaphsfollowedfuneraryconventionsthatalsoappliedmoregenerally:ancienttombsoftenexhibitedinscriptionsthatstated,inverse andinthe firstperson, ‘HereIlie ’ . 6 Inshort,evenordinarypeople becamepoetsaftertheirdeath.7 Still,thecaseofactualpoetswas different,inatleasttworespects.Theirepitaphsextendedanddefined theiroeuvres and,inturn,helpedtoshapetheirreception.Our openingexampleillustratesthisdoublefunctionclearly:justas Virgil’ sepitaphdrewfromhispoetry(andatraditionofpoetic epitaphsthatextendedbacktoEnniusandHomer),so,too,itshaped thelivesandworksoflaterpoetsforanunusuallylongperiodoftime, sometwomillenniatodate.8
Thetomb,then,istheplacewherelifeendsandLifebegins;where theoeuvreisextendedandreceived;wheredeathislamentedand immortalityaffirmed.9 Inthecaseofapoet,immortalitymeans,in
4 Virgil’scontemporaryHoraceemphaticallymarkshisowntransitionfrom poetrytophilosophyin Epistles 1.1(esp.1.1.7–12),wherehealsopresentsepic, specifically,aspropaedeutictophilosophy.Ingeneral,theAugustanpoetsdisplay anintenseinterestintherelationshipbetweenlifeandwork,andinthewayinwhich autobiographicalpassagescanbeusedinordertoorganizetheirownoeuvrein chronologicalsequence.
5 HardieandMoore(2010),esp.19;282–3.;cf.alsodeArmas(2002)onCervantes. Forthealternative ‘anti-career’—thatistosay,adeliberateandconsciousrefusalto imitateVirgil’ s seeLipking(1981),131.
6 Foradiscussionofthe first-personvoiceinsepulchralepigrams,seeVestrheim (2010).
7 Thisaspectofancientculturehasattractedintensescholarlyattentioninrecent years. CEG providesanoverviewofGreekfuneraryepigramsonstone;important recentworkoninscriptionalepigram(notalwayswhollyseparablefromliterary epigram)includesBingandBruss(2007),29–93;Prioux(2007);Baumbach, Petrovic,andPetrovic(2010);andChristian(2015).
8 Seeabove,n.5.
9 SeerecentlyLaqueur(2015)forabroaderculturalhistoryofmortalremains, whichrestatestheimportanceofthetombandofburialaspartof ‘theenormous amountofculturalwork ... thatneedstogointogivingadeadbodymeaning’ (p.46).
the firstinstance,preservationoftheworks,sothattheymay findnew readers.Inturn,thosereaderskeepthepoetalivethroughtheirwish toknowabouthisorherlifeandperson.Plinytalksexplicitlyabout thisdesirefortheauthor.Hedescribeslibrariesasplaceswhere ‘immortalspiritsspeaktous’,andcommentsonthefashionto placeportraitsoftheauthorsnexttotheirworks.Hepresentsitasa formofreceptionmostpleasingtothedeceasedwriter;buthealso pointsoutthat ‘desiregivesbirth’ totheauthor,evenincaseswhen theauthoris,inpointoffact,unknown:
nonestpraetereundumetnoviciuminventum,siquidemnonexauro argentove,atcerteexaereinbibliothecisdicanturillis,quorumimmortalesanimaeinlocisiisdemloquuntur,quinimmoetiamquaenonsunt finguntur,pariuntquedesiderianontraditosvultus,sicutinHomero evenit.utiquemaius,utequidemarbitror,nullumestfelicitatisspecimen quamsemperomnesscirecupere,qualisfueritaliquis.
Wemustnotpassoveranoveltythathasalsobeeninvented:portraitsmade, ifnotofgoldorsilveryetatleastofbronze,aresetupinthelibrariesin honourofthosewhoseimmortalspiritsspeaktousinthesameplaces.In fact,evenimaginarylikenessesaremade,anddesiregivesbirthtocountenancesthathavenotbeenhandeddowntous,asoccursinthecaseofHomer. Atanyrate,inmyview,thereisnogreaterkindofhappinessthanthatall peopleforalltimeshouldwanttoknowwhatkindofpersononewas.
Pliny, NaturalHistory 35.9–10
Biographyandportraitureareimportantaspectsofapoet’ s Nachleben; theymakeupforanabsence.Thiscanbecharacteristicofmodernas wellasancientresponsestoliterature.Inheressaysonlifewriting, BodyParts,HermioneLeespeaksofadesirethatrecallsPliny’ s desideria: ‘whatmakesbiographysocurious ... isthat ... wekeepcatchingsightofarealbody,aphysicallife.’ 10 Again,likePliny,Leeinsists thatthisdesireforthebody,andforphysicalcontact,happensinthe mindofthereader.HercelebratedbiographyofVirginiaWoolfends withachapteronhersuicideandhersuicidenote,herdeathandher lastwork,asitwere.Italsodescribeswhereshewasburied,andwhat wasinscribedinstone(aquotationfrom TheWaves).Still,asthe final sentenceinsists,Woolf ‘ wentonlivingandchangingafterdeath’ 11 InthecaseofVirgil,theancientaccountofhisdeathlivesonand changesthroughmanysubsequentiterations,mostarrestinglyperhaps
10 Lee(2005),3. 11 H.Lee(1996),767.
inBroch’ s TheDeathofVirgil (1945).Here,thelasthoursofthepoet’ s lifeinvolveacomparisonbetweenthebrutalitiesofRomansocietyand thebeautifulliesofliterature,adisgustedrejectionofpoetry,aneventual agreementtohandoverthe Aeneid toAugustus(inexchangeforthe freedomofhisslaves),and fi nallyadyingvisionofaseavoyage.Itis notdiffi culttoseeinthatvision,andthebookmoregenerally,the factsofBroch ’ sownlifeasaJewishwriterwhoescapedViennafor BritainandtheUnitedStatesshortlyaftertheNazi Anschluss of Austria.Theancientpoetlivesoninwhatothersmakeofhim. 12
Thetomb,meanwhile,marksatransition.AsJean-PierreVernant pointsout,itsignalsanabsence,thatofthemissingpersonwhose bonesitholds: ‘thebeingitevokes,likeasubstitute,appearsintheform ofthestoneasthatwhichhasgonefaraway,whichwouldnotdeignto bethere,thatwhichbelongstoaninaccessible “elsewhere” . ’13 Atthe sametime,thetombcanalsomarkamomentofliberation.Toadapt thewordsofRolandBarthes,whenitcomestoapoet’sburial,thedeath oftheauthormostclearlysignalsthebirthofthereader.14 Barthes’ celebratedessay, ‘TheDeathoftheAuthor’,wasprimarilyconcerned withthefreeplayoftextsonceliberatedfromauthorialcontrol and, writteninParisin1967,shortlybeforethestudentoccupationofthe Sorbonne,wasitselfanactofemancipationfromtheinfluenceof previousgenerations.WhatwasmissingfromBarthes’ statement, however,andfromthevastdiscussionsandpublicationsitsubsequentlyinspired,wasanunderstandingofauthorsandreadersin theirfull-bodiedphysicality.Therewaslittleacknowledgementthat ‘poetryemergesfromandisattendedtobythemortalbody’,asPlatt writesinthisvolume.15 Thisbookstemsfromthatrealization from aninterestinphysicalcontactanditsabsence.16
12 Brochworkedonanearlierversionofthenovelduringthreeweeks’ imprisonmentinBadAusseeinMarch1938andcompleteditasanexileintheUnitedStates. Forapoetologicalreadingof DerToddesVergil,seeHeizmann(2016),179–86.For Broch’sbiofictionalreceptionofVirgil,seeGoldschmidt(forthcoming),ch.5.
13 Vernant(1990),32: ‘L’êtrequ’ilévoque,àlamanièred’unsubstitute,semanifestedanslaformedelapierrecommecequis’estenfuiauloin,quinesauraitêtrelà, quiappartientàuninaccessibleailleurs’ (trans.Neer(2010),15).
14 Barthes(1967). 15 P.22.
16 Inthisrespect,itcanbeseenaspartofawidermovementawayfromrather impersonalanddisembodiedmodelsofintertextualityandtowardsanunderstanding ofliteratureasgroundedinlivedexperience specifically,asaformofhumancontact. Inantiquity,theauthorwasseenandcreatedasanembodimentofhisorheroeuvre: Graziosi(2002)arguedthisinrelationtoHomer;theproject LivingPoets:ANew
Thepointisnotjustthatthetombphysicallysubstitutesforthe bodyoftheauthor,butalsothatreadersmaybephysicallypresent atthetomb,orimaginethemselvestobethere.Readingthetomb andreadingtheworkareconnectedenterprises,becausetheyare embeddedinanancientsystemofcommemorationthatinvolves bothliteratureandmaterialculture.Justastheauto-epitaphsof poetshavetheirrootsinwiderculturalpractices specifically firstpersonfuneraryinscriptionsinverse soalltombs,andnotjust thoseofpoets,aresitesofreading.JesperSvenbroargued,inan influentialmonograph,thattheboundarybetweentombandtextis inherentlypermeable.Meaning ‘sign’ , ‘symbol’ , ‘signal’,aswellas ‘tomb’ , theGreek sēma canbereadjustasmuchasatextwrittenoutonpapyrus, callingforactsofinterpretationthatparalleltextualcommunication strategies.17 Withinthisgeneralframework,thetombsofpoetsarea specialcase:theymarkoutanabsenceandstimulateadesireforthe figure ‘behind’ thetexts somethingthatBarthes,aswellasPliny, acknowledged: ‘I desire theauthor,Ineedhis figure. ’18 Theyarealso, andmoreintenselythanothertombs,sitesofreading,becausethe ‘reading’ ofthetombisineffectintertextual,indialoguenotonlywith othertombs,butwiththeoeuvreoftheburiedauthor.
Thisissomethingcontemporarypoetsunderstandandknowhow toexploit.InarecentprogrammeforBBCRadio4,contemporary BritishpoetsPaulFarleyandMichaelSymmonsRobertsdescribe theirpilgrimagestotheplaceswhereother,earlierpoetslivedand died:theaccountworkswellasanintroductiontopoetryandhasnow alsobeenpublishedasabookentitled DeathofthePoets. 19 Inthe courseofwalkinginthefootstepsofotherpoets,FarleyandSymmons Robertssuggest,tothesetworeadersatleast,afewquestions abouttheirowneventualdeaths,particularlygiventheiremphasis oncoincidenceoftimeandplace.20 In ThisIsNotaNovel,David
ApproachtoAncientPoetry exploresthisaspectofancientculturefromavarietyof angles:<https://livingpoets.dur.ac.uk>.
17 Svenbro(1993).Forthemultiplemeaningsof sēma,seealsoVernant(1990)and (1991);Nagy(1983);Nagy(1990b),ch.8;Sourvinou-Inwood(1995);Neer(2010), 14–19and passim,andAlcockandSchnapp-GourbeilloninHenryandKelp(2016), 1–8and205–18.
18 Barthes(1975),27.Cf.Burke(1992)forthe ‘return’ oftheauthorintwentiethcenturycriticaltheory.
19 FarleyandSymmonsRoberts(2017):thebookfocusesonplacesofbirthand death;tombsareleftunexplored.
20 AngeMlinko(2017),reviewingthevolumeforthe LondonReviewofBooks, seemstohavehadthesameidea: ‘FarleyandRobertstakecoverundertheimpersonal
Markson(writinginhisseventiesandinpoorhealth)ismoreexplicit: heliststhedeathsofsome fivehundredpoets,writers,philosophers, politicians,actors,andathletes,turningtowardstheend andin somedefiance totheancientpoets:21
WhenthecityIextolshallhave perished,whenthementowhomIsing shallhavefadedintooblivion,mywords shallremain.
SaidPindar.
Nonomnismoriar. Ishallnotwhollydie. SaidHorace.
Persaeculaomniavivam. Ishallliveforever.
SaidOvid.22
Marksonthenaddsadiagnosis,whichisatonceliteraryandphysiological: ‘Writer’ scancer. ’23 ThisIsNotaNovel growslikeatumour, fromonedeath-generatingscenetothenext,untilitsuddenlystops withavalediction,ahanding-over: ‘Farewellandbekind.’24
first-personpluralasiftosaytothegods: “Moveon,nothingtolookathere” ’ Death ofthePoets,however,hardlyexploitsthepossibilitiesofautobiographyandautoepitaphicpoetry,beyondafewurbanesuggestions.
21 Markson(2016),147. 22 Markson(2016),147.
23 Markson(2016),148.
24 Markson(2016),148.After ThisIsNotaNovel, firstpublishedin2001,Markson wentontowriteasortofsequel, TheLastNovel,publishedin2010.Towardstheendof thatwork,too(whichturnedouttobe,infact,hislast),heconsideredtheancientpoets onemoretime.Thepassageisquotedhereinaposthumousedition(2016),439–41: Havingdiedtheyarenotdead.
WroteSimonidesoftheSpartansslainatPlataea.
Keats,inalastlettersomeweeksbeforetheend,tellingafrienditisdifficult tosaygoodbye: Ialwaysmadeanawkwardbow. Tinydropsofwaterwillhollowoutarock. Lucretiuswrote.
Dispraised,infirm,unfriendedage. Sophoclescallsit.
Theoldmanwhowillnotlaughisafool. Alsickkan.
8 NoraGoldschmidtandBarbaraGraziosi
Inantiquity,thetombsofthepoetswerepresentedasextensionsof theirworksnotjustthroughtheinscriptionstheybore,butalso throughtheirlocationsandthebehaviourtheyinspired.Pindar,who celebratedathleticvictories,wasburiedattheracecourseinThebes.25 ActorsperformedtheplaysofAeschylusathisgrave.26 Thetombof Stesichoruswasanelaborateoctagonalmonument,whichexpressed specifictheoriesaboutmusicalharmony.27 AstatueofEnniuswas placedinthetomboftheScipiones,inrecognitionofthepoet’ s roleinestablishingtheirname.28 Horacewasburiedinthetombof Maecenas,thegreatpatronofhispoetry.29 Manymoreexamples couldbeadducedtoillustratethecorrespondencebetweentomband work:inausefulrecentmonograph,FloreKimmel-Clauzetoffersavast survey,whichwerecommendasacompaniontothisvolume.30 Silvia Barbantanidevotesawholemonographtothetraditionsconcerning justthreetombs:thoseofIbycus,Stesichorus,andSimonides.31 Inthis greatabundanceofmaterialthereisonecomplication:noneofthe tombsjustmentionedactuallysurvives.Allwehavearetextsthat describerealor,insomecases,imaginedmonuments.
ThisvolumefocusesonGreekandRomanpoetswhoseoeuvresare known,andsituatestheirtombsbetweenliteraryreceptionand materialculture.Thisaimdeterminestherangeofcasesconsidered. Tombswhich,onthebasisofarchaeologicalandepigraphicevidence alone,canbeidentifiedasgravesof(otherwiseunknown)poets featurehereonlyinasmuchastheyshedlightonrelevantpractices ofcommemoration.32 TheexceptionisthetombofQuintusSulpicius Maximus,whichdeservesawholechapter.Althoughallwehave,in hiscase,isafunerarymonument,thetombitselfpreservesthe otherwiseunknownoeuvre:asubstantialhexameterpoem,which establishedMaximus’ reputationasapoetwhenhewasonlya youngboy,isinscribedontwocolumns,totheleftandtherightof
25 Paus.9.23.2. 26 LifeofAeschylus 11,discussedbyBakolainChapter6.
27 SeetheinterpretationofferedbyBarbantani(2010),34.
28 Cic., Arch.9.22,discussedtogetherwithotherrelevantsourcesbyMartelliin chapter3.
29 LifeofHorace,p.4*Klingner.
30 Kimmel-Clauzet(2013);seealsoher ‘Poets’ tombsandconceptionsofpoetry’ at <https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01328536>.
31 Barbantani(2010).
32 See,mostimportantly,thecasediscussedonpp.22–3:acisttombexcavatedin Daphne,datingtothe fifthcentury BCE,whichclearlycontainedtheremainsofapoet.
hisportrait.Themonument,inthiscase,makestheoeuvre.Atthe otherendofthespectrum,wediscusstombsoffamouspoetswhich existonlyasliteraryconstructions.Weevenincludeachapteronthe fictionaltombsof fictionalcharacterscreatedbypoets:they,too,are anaspectofliteraryreceptionand,indeed,ofmaterialculture.It seemstousthat,iftheterm ‘materialculture’ hasanyforceatall,it mustincludetheimaginedmaterialityofthetomb,aswellasthe actualmaterialsoutofwhichtombsweremade.Betweenmonuments withnoliteraryoeuvresandoeuvreswithnomonuments,thereare manyintermediatecases includingthatofVirgil,withwhichthis collectionends.NearNaples,anancientRomantombhaslongserved asasiteofVirgilianmemory,evenifthereisnoreasontoassumethat theremainsoftheancientpoetwereburiedinit.Fromantiquity onwards,countlessvisitorspaidhomagetoVirgilattheallegedsiteof histomb.Tothisday,schoolchildrenfromalloverEuropeleave scribbledmessagesatthetomboftheancientpoet,askinghimfor helpinlove andgoodmarksintheirLatinexaminations.
Topoi AsLiddellandScottstate,theGreekterm topos candenotenotonlya physicalplace,andspecificallyaplaceofburial,butaliterarycommonplace.33 ThetombsoftheancientGreekandRomanpoetsare both:physicalplacesand/orspacesoftheimagination lieuxde mémoire,inthewordsofPierreNora.34 Therearedirect,tangible waystointeractwithtombsasphysicalobjects.Severalchaptersin thiscollectionexplorewhatpeopledidanddowhenvisitingthem: worship,recite,paint,fallasleep,writegraffiti,convertfrombusiness toliterature,and(especiallyiftheyarethemselvespoets)planthe locationanddesignoftheirowntombs.35 Inthesixteenthcentury,
33 LSJs.v.I.5;II.2. 34 Nora(1984–92);(1989);(1996).
35 Bakola,Bing,andHaninkdiscuss,fromavarietyofperspectives,therelationshipbetweenherocultandthecultofpoets:seeChapters6,7,and11respectively.On recitingpoetryatthetombsofpoets,seeBakolaatp.126andHaninkatp.235;on painting,SmilesChapter15;onfallingasleep,Graziosipp.187–9;onwritinggraffiti, Hendrixpp.292–7.Themostfamousliteraryconversionis,arguably,thatofBoccaccio atthetombofVirgil:seetheaccountofhowheturnedfrombusinesstoliteraturegiven byGiovanniVillani(1280–1348)in LiberdecivitatisFlorentiaefamosiscivibus,ed. Galetti,Florence1847,p.17,discussedbyTrapp(1984),10.
theNeapolitanhumanistJacopoSannazarobuilthisownposthumousmemorialnexttothatofVirgil.Centurieslater,thecorpseof thelyricpoet,philosopher,andphilologistGiacomoLeopardiwas buriednearthere,too.ThegravesofpoetsnearNaplesinspiredthe collectionofanothersetoftombs:the ‘Poets’ Corner’ inWestminster Abbey.TheepigramthatPietroBembowrotetocommemoratethe deathofSannazaroin1530insistedonthedeceased’sproximityto Virgil:whenSpenserdiedafewdecadeslater,in1599,anepigram celebrated,insimilarterms,thatpoet’sburialnexttothegraveof Chaucer.Histombinturnledtoasteadyadditionofpoets’ gravesin WestminsterAbbey.36
Thereare,then,materialwaysofengagingwiththetombsofpoets, includingthepracticeofplacingthemnexttoeachother,andthus imbuingspecificsiteswithliterarysignificance.Atthesametime,there arealsowaysofengagingwithtombsthatinvolvenospecific,material locationsatall.Forexample,weneednotimaginethattheepitaphson thegravesofpoetscollectedinthe PalatineAnthology wereever inscribedonstone.Whatthosepoemsdo,ratherthanmarkspecific monumentsandplaces,iscreateadifferentkindof ‘poets’ corner’—an imaginarygraveyardthroughwhichreadersstrollintheirmind.Infact, twoepigramsallegedlycomposedtomarkthetombofEuripidesinsist that ‘thewholeofGreece’ ishisgrave.37 As lieuxdemémoire,thetombs ofpoetshaveallandnothingtodowithphysicallocation.
Accordingly,chaptersinthiscollectionexploretheplaceofboth realandimaginarytombsinthereceptionofliteraturethroughkey topoi,whichareusedtostructurethecollectionintofourparts.The firstgoverningcommonplaceistheoppositionbetweenliteratureand materialculture,thelifeofthemindvstheapprehensionsofthebody. Thecontrastisnotnew.Pindardeclaredwithsomeprideatthe beginningof Nemean 5: ‘Iamnosculptor ’ andwentontopoint outthathispoemwouldtravel ‘oneveryshipandboat’ spreadingthe newsthatPytheaswonthepancratiumcompetition,whereasastatue oftheathletewouldhavetostayput ‘onitspedestal’ ontheislandof Aegina.Horaceelaboratedonthistheme.Thelastpoeminthethird bookofhis Odes startswiththenowproverbial exegimonumentum
36 OnthetombsofEnglishpoets,seefurtherMatthews(2004)andHöschele’ s discussioninthisvolume,pp.197–201.
37 AP 7.45.1–3,attributedtoThucydides:seediscussionbyMontiglioatp.220; and7.47,discussedbyPlattatp.31.
