Think About Theory Tuckman’s group Development model 185
Conflict and Cohesion in groups in groups 186
B ALANCING G ROUP AN d mE m BER dI m EN s ION s 187
Balancing Conformity and Nonconformity 187 • balancing group roles 188
Know Thy Self Can you Name your Norms? 188
Group Task and Maintenance Roles 189 • Self-Centered roles 190
Know Thy Self Do you Disrupt group Work? 191
dE v ELOPING G ROUP L EA d ER s HIP 191
Three approaches to leadership 192
Communication in Action becoming a leader 193
The 5-m model of leadership Effectiveness 194
Communication & Culture Diversity and leadership 195
Communication Assessment group member Participation and leadership Evaluation 196
Summary 197
Test Your Knowledge 198
11
Group Decision Making and Problem Solving 199
P RERE q UI s ITE s FOR G ROUP dECI s ION mA k ING AN d
P ROBLE m sOLv ING 200
A Clear Goal 200 • Quality Content 201 • Structured Procedures 201 • Commitment to Deliberation 201
Think About Theory groupthink 202
E FFECTI v E G ROUP dECI s ION mA k ING 203
Decision-making methods 203
Communication in Action false Consensus 204
Ethical Communication Ethical group Decision making 204
Decision-making styles 205
Know Thy Self What Is your Decision-making style? 205
E FFECTI v E G ROUP P ROBLE m sOLv ING 206
Brainstorming 206 • Nominal Group Technique (NgT) 207
Communication in Action brainstorming Versus Nominal group Technique 208
Decreasing Options Technique (DOT) 208 • The standard agenda 209
Mediated Communication in Action Decision making and Problem solving in Virtual groups 210
E FFECTI v E G ROUP mEETING s 211
Planning the Meeting 211 • Preparing the Agenda 211
Taking Minutes 213 • Chairing a Meeting 213
Communication & Culture motivating multicultural group members 214
Communication Assessment group Problem-solving Competencies 215
Summary 216
Test Your Knowledge 217
R EA d ING: “Why Can’t Groups Focus on New Information?,”
Lyn M. Van Swol 218
PART FOUR: think Presentational Communication
12
Planning Your Presentation 220
T HE sPEECH P REPARATION P ROCE ss 221
dETER m INE YOUR P URPO s E AN d TOPIC 222
Begin with Your Purpose 222 • Identify the Type of Presentation 222 • Choose an Appropriate Topic 223
Know Thy Self What Do you Value? 224
Narrow Your Topic 224 • Develop Your Purpose statement 224
A NALY z E AN d AdAPT TO YOUR AU d IENCE 225
know your audience 225
Know Thy Self Do you honor the audience’s bill of rights? 226
adapt to your audience 227
Communication & Culture adapt to Nonnative speakers of English 228
adapt to Cultural Differences 228
AdAPT TO THE CONTE x T 229
Analyze and Adapt to the Logistics 229
Analyze and Adapt to the Occasion 230
Mediated Communication in Action Web-based Presentations 230
Communication in Action how long Should you speak? 231
E NHANCE YOUR C RE d IBILITY 231
Components of speaker Credibility 231
Developing speaker Credibility 232
Think About Theory aristotle’s Ethos 233
The Ethical Speaker 233 • The Ethical Audience 234
Ethical Communication The Perils of Plagiarism 235
Communication Assessment What’s your Preparation Plan? 236
Summary 237
Test Your Knowledge 238
Content and Organization 239
R E s EARCHING AN d sELECTING YOUR CONTENT 240 gather supporting material 240
Mediated Communication in Action be Wise about Wikipedia 241
Document your sources 242
Ethical Communication Don’t Take It out of Context 243
Evaluate your supporting material 243
Communication & Culture linear Versus spiral Thinking 244
O RGANI z ING YOUR CONTENT 245
Determine Your Central Idea 245 • Establish Your Key Points 245
A PPLYING AN O RGANI z ATIONAL PATTERN 247
Arrange by Subtopics 247 • Arrange by Sequence in Time 248 • Arrange by Position in Space 248 • Present a Problem and a Solution 248 • Show Cause and Effect 249 • Tell Stories and Share Examples 249 • Compare and Contrast 249
Communication & Culture Tall Poppies and big britches 315
P ER s UA s I v E sPEA k ING IN ACTION 316
Communication Assessment Persuasive Presentation assessment 321
Summary 322
Test Your Knowledge 323
R EA d ING: “Muhammad Ali’s Fighting Words for Justice,” Ellen W. Gorsevski and Michael L. Butterworth 324
what’s new in THINK Communication, 3e
Key Objectives
New Features
Key objectives
Every chapter in this third edition of Think Communication begins with a list of competency-based Key Objectives directly tied to chapter content. These objectives are also linked to the end-of-chapter Summaries and Test Your Knowledge features, which allow students to assess whether and how well they have learned the theories, strategies, and skills essential for effective and ethical communication. Faculty members can use the same objectives as a basis for assessing student performance and learning.
mediated Communication in ACTION
This new feature in every chapter examines the positive and negative impact of digital communication in our daily lives—from interacting online through social media to working in virtual groups.
Chapter 1. Social Media Madness
Chapter 2. Creating, Deceiving, and Revealing Yourself Online
Chapter 11. Decision Making and Problem Solving in Virtual Groups
Chapter 12. Web-Based Presentations
Chapter 13. Getting Wiser about Wikipedia
Chapter 14. Master the Microphone
Chapter 15. Fact and Fiction Go Viral
Chapter 16. The Persuasive Power of Social Media
mediated
Chapter- opening Vignettes
New chapter-opening narratives and photos focus on contemporary issues and events:
• Mini-interviews for professional school admission
• Infants lack a sense of “self”
• Race, ethnicity, gender, and age in the 2012 presidential election
• The “You Never Listen” epidemic
• The power of naming
• Love at first sight
• Mark Zuckerberg’s interpersonal challenges
• Predicting romantic breakups and divorce
• The millennial generation at work
• Teamwork in Cirque du Soleil
New feature:
Communication in ACTION
and
Comment. Dr. Laura Guerrero, a highly respected interpersonal communication scholar, effectively summarizes decades of her research focusing on the “dark side” of interpersonal communication.
Comment. In addition to encompassing communication principles related to providing social support and dealing with conflict, anger, and jealousy, Guerror’s concept of integrative communication also addresses other topics in Chapter 7 and 8, such as appropriate selfdisclosure and receptivity to feedback, strategies for comforting others, and developing assertiveness.
Assessment. In Chapter 7, we recommend strategies for romancing another person. How does Dr. Guerrero’s appeasement strategy compare to the behaviors we use for beginThis Communication Currents
NC A
Coping with Hurtful Events
For example, a wife might tell her husband, “I’m sorry I lied to you. I feel really bad about it. If I had it to do over again, I would have told you the truth in the first place.” Apologies are more likely to be accepted if they are perceived to be heartfelt.
Appeasement involves doing something to try and make it up to the partner. Sending flowers, planning a special evening out, and doing extra favors for the partner are all classic examples of appeasement strategies.
Finally, when people use relationship invocation they talk about the hurtful event within the context of the broader relationship. For example, Spencer might tell his girlfriend, “I know we can get through this because we love each other so much.”
This type of statement reinforces the positive qualities of the relationship.
Other remedial strategies are not so successful.
future (e.g., “I understand why you feel that way” and “You know that I will always love you”). Another strategy involves
remedial strategies. After people engage in hurtful acts, such as cheating, lying, making an especially cruel remark, or betraying a confidence, they often use remedial strategies, such as sincere apology, appeasement, and relationship invocation. Sincere apology involves saying “I’m sorry” while also expressing remorse for one’s actions.
Sometimes people try to justify or minimize their actions by saying things like “Someone else made me do it,” or “It’s not that big of a deal.” of communication often infuriates the hurt person who is looking for an apology and an acknowledgement of wrongdoing rather than an excuse. Of course, some explanations are valid and can be effective. For example, Sophie might explain that she only had lunch with her ex-boyfriend because he seemed depressed and she wanted to help him, not because she is still attracted to him. This type
Assessment. In Chapter 8, we wrote “When you say you are sorry, you take responsibility for your behavior and action.” Explain why the act of apologizing can help couples cope with hurtful events. What guidelines should you follow when apologizing?
Expanded
discussions and new significant research
New readings
new additions—Chapter by Chapter
Chapter 1: Human Communication
• The importance of critical thinking as an essential communication competency
• Freedom of speech and the National Communication Association Credo for a free and responsible communication in a democratic society
• National security decision-making and the Osama bin Laden raid
• Language, delivery, and an actor’s craft
• The rhetoric of Pope Francis
• Crafting and recrafting messages
• Instructive classroom lectures
• Michelle Obama’s homage to Hadiya Pendleton
new Readings from Communication Currents
Part Two: “Coping with Hurtful Events” by Laura K. Guerrero
“Even in the best of relationships, couples sometimes encounter problems that lead them to feel negative emotions, such as jealousy, anger, and frustration, and to communicate in destructive ways.” This article recommends constructive communication strategies for “maintaining a healthy and happy relationship.”
Part Four: “Muhammad Ali’s Fighting Words for Justice” by Ellen W. Gorsevski and Michael L. Butterworth
Although Muhammad Ali is best known as a worldclass boxer who could “float like a butterfly, sting like a bee,” he should also be recognized for the ways in which “his persuasive public performances played a pivotal role in radicalizing the civil rights movement . . . and the anti-Vietnam war movement.”
Chapter 2: Understanding Your Self
• Self-Concept development model focusing on social comparison, social judgments, self-observation, and self-identification
• Self-monitoring and selfpresentation competencies
Chapter 3: Adapting to Others
• Gender expectations as an intercultural variable
• More intercultural examples, including individualistic words in American political campaigns; male and female interaction in Muslim cultures
Chapter 4: Listening
• Expanded discussion of HURIER Model of Listening (Hearing, Understanding, Remembering, Interpreting, Evaluating, Responding)
• New organization that emphasizes interpersonal communication strategies
• Managing and responding to emotions
Chapter 9: Professional Relationships
• Communication and professionalism
• Communication and the quality of work
• Interviewing pitfalls and best practices
Chapter 10: Working in Groups
• Types of conflict in groups
• Group development stages and the group process
Chapter 11: Group Decision Making and Problem Solving
• Prerequisites for group deliberation
• Matching problem-solving methods to group goals
Chapter 12: Planning Your Presentation
• Audience ethics
• New, contemporary speech excerpts, such as Cardinal Bergoglio’s [Pope Francis] address to the general congregation of Cardinals
Chapter 13: Content and Organization
• New up-to-date examples of different supporting material
• Selecting appropriate key points for a presentation
Chapter 14: Language and Delivery
• Enhancing expressiveness through the vitality, variety, and sincerity of a speaker’s delivery
• New contemporary speech excerpts, such as Pakistani teenager Malala Yousafzai’s address to the United Nations General Assembly
Chapter 15: Speaking to Inform
• New, contemporary examples of misinformation, such as the rumors and reporting errors following the Boston Marathon bombing
Chapter 16: Speaking to Persuade
• New contemporary speech and campaign examples, such as First Lady Michele Obama’s address to Chicago business leaders on the shooting death of an innocent teenager
New examples and analysis of contemporary presentations and persuasive campaigns
New, contemporary examples and analysis of ethical communication issues
Instructor and Student Resources
Key instructor resources include an Instructor’s Manual (ISBN 0-13-377467-8), Test Bank (ISBN 0-13-377461-9), and PowerPoint Presentation Package (ISBN 0-13-374597-X). These supplements are available at www.pearsonhighered. com/irc (instructor login required). MyTest online test-generating software (ISBN 0-13-374645-3) is available at www. pearsonmytest.com (instructor login required). Also available is Pearson’s MySearchLab™, a valuable tool to help students conduct online research. Access to MySearchLab is available at no additional cost in an optional package with new copies of this text or for purchase at www.mysearchlab.com (access code required). For a complete list of the instructor and student resources available with the text, please visit the Pearson Communication catalog at www.pearsonhighered. com/communication.
acknowledgments
• This new edition of think Communication would not have been possible without the talents and dedication of our publishing team. We are particularly grateful to the production editors, graphic designers, photo editors, copy editors, and behind-the-scenes technicians who transformed our revised manuscript into a cutting-edge introduction to communication studies. Thanks go out to Barbara Mack, Anne Ricigliano, Greg Johnson, Katy Mehrtens, Carolyn Arcabascio, Lee Scher, Mark Schaefer, Craig Jones, Tina Rudowski, and Diane Lombardo.
• Four amazing women deserve our thanks. Karon Bowers, our dynamic, multitasking editor in chief at Pearson, is always there for us with her wise counsel, problem-solving acumen, creativity, and sense of humor. We also welcome the return of Lai T. Moy as our development editor par excellence We enjoyed racing Lai to see who would be first to suggest better explanations, more up-to-date examples, engaging and creative approaches, and social media applications to critical communication strategies and skills.
We are particularly grateful to marketing manager Blair Tuckman and the Pearson sales representatives for demonstrating the many ways in which think Communication meets the needs of faculty members and their students. This year, we welcomed the e-mails they forwarded to us from instructors and students asking questions and recommending new approaches and examples to enliven the textbook. Our fourth leading lady, Jennifer Nolan, earned her stripes as editorial assistant by responding to our sometimes-desperate requests with patience and speed.
• Insightful reviewers provided many excellent suggestions that make the third edition of think Communication a better textbook. We salute Leonard Assante of Volunteer State Community College; Ann Duncan of McLennan Community College; Norman Earls Jr. of Valdosta State University; Bernadette Kapocias of Southwestern Oregon Community College; Karl Krayer of Brookhaven College; Dee Ann McFarlin of North Central Texas College; and Laurie Metcalf of Blinn College.
• Most of all, we are indebted to our students and faculty colleagues who have shared their opinions and provided valuable suggestions and insights throughout our careers. They are the measure of all things.
about the Authors
ISA ENGLEBERG
, Professor emerita at Prince George’s Community College in Largo, Maryland, served as president of the National Communication Association (NCA) in 2004 and chaired the NCA Research Board from 1995 to 1998. She has written six college textbooks in communication studies, published more than three dozen articles in academic journals, and made hundreds of convention and seminar presentations. Dr. Engleberg received the Outstanding Community College Educator Award from NCA and the President’s Medal from Prince George’s Community College for outstanding teaching, scholarship, and community service. She has focused her professional career on improving both the content and teaching of introductory of communication courses at all levels of higher education as well as studying, teaching, and consulting internationally.
DIANNA WYNN is a faculty member at Nash Community College in Rocky Mount, North Carolina. Previously she taught at Midland College in Texas and Prince George’s Community College in Maryland, where she was chosen by students as the Outstanding Teacher of the Year. She has coauthored three communication textbooks and has written articles in academic journals. Professor Wynn served as an officer in the Community College Section and a member of the Legislative Assembly of the National Communication Association (NCA). In addition to teaching and college services, she worked as a trial consultant, assisting attorneys in developing effective communication strategies for the courtroom.
human communication
1
Key Objectives
1.1 explain the purpose and impact of human communication.
1.2 Use communication models to analyze the communication process.
1.3 explain the ways in which context affects the meaning of messages.
1.4 Apply key principles of communication to a variety of contexts.
1.5 explain the relationship between critical thinking and effective communication.
1.6 Practice ethical communication.
Let’s say your dream is to become a doctor. Your excellent grades make you look great on paper, but to get accepted into medical school, you also need exceptional recommendations from your professors, high scores on your MCATs (Medical College Admission Test ® ), and a successful interview. Several top medical schools require an additional hurdle—you must demonstrate an ability to communicate effectively with others.
At the Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, applicants participate in nine mini-interviews that test whether candidates have “the social skills to navigate a health care system in which good communication has become critical.” 1 Miniinterviews like these have become part of the admission process at other medical schools, such as Stanford and the University of California, Los Angeles. When asked to describe the goal of these interviews, a medical school administrator replied, “[We are trying to] weed out the students who look great on paper but haven’t developed the people or communication skills we think are important.”2
By now you might be saying to yourself, “But becoming a doctor is not my dream.” That’s not the point. The point is this: regardless of whether you dream of becoming a teacher, a business manager, a chef, an engineer, a musician, a physical therapist, an elected official, or a landscape architect, effective communication skills are critical in all occupations as well as in all professional and social settings.
Communication in Your Life
1.1 Explain the purpose and impact of human communication.
Communication is the process of using verbal and nonverbal messages to generate meaning within and across a variety of contexts.3 The key phrase in this definition is to generate meaning . You generate meaning when you speak, write, act, and create visual images as well as when you listen, read, and react to messages.
Your personal, academic, and professional success throughout your lifetime will depend on how well you communicate. 4 Even college faculty members identify communication skills, such as effective speaking, listening, and problem solving as well as working in and leading groups, as essential for every college graduate.5
When you communicate effectively with others, your personal relationships become richer and more rewarding. Colleagues who express respect for one another and argue constructively are more likely to enjoy productive interactions. Work group members who communicate skillfully with one another are more likely to achieve their goals. Moreover, if you speak early, often, and well, you are more likely to be elected or selected for leadership roles. Finally, in this highly competitive world of ours, effective communication skills can transform you into a dynamic public speaker—one with the potential, knowledge, opinions, talents, and personality to make you stand out from the crowd.6
To gauge whether you communicate effectively in a variety of communication situations, ask yourself the following questions:
• Personal. Do I have meaningful personal relationships with close friends, relatives, and romantic partners?
• Professional. Do I communicate effectively within and on behalf of a business, organization, or work team?
• Educational. Do I demonstrate what I have learned in collegiate, corporate, and other training settings?
• Intercultural. Do I understand, respect, and adapt to people from diverse backgrounds?
• Intellectual. Do I analyze and evaluate the meaning of multiple and complex messages in an everchanging world?
• Societal. Do I critically analyze and appropriately respond to public and mediated messages?
• Ethical. Do I apply ethical standards to personal and public communication in a variety of situations?
Executives from Fortune 500 companies claim that the college graduates they employ need better communication skills, as well as demonstrated
Know Thy Self
ability to work in teams and with people from diverse backgrounds. 8 In a 2010 critical skills study, the American Management Association (AMA) put the need for communication skills front and center: “As the U.S. economy begins to show signs of improvement, executives say they need a workforce fully equipped with skills beyond just the basics of reading, writing and arithmetic (the three Rs) in order to grow their businesses.” Rather than the 3Rs, the AMA identifies the four competencies (4Cs)— (1) communication, (2) critical thinking, (3) collaboration, and (4) creativity—as even more essential to organizations and employees in the future.9
Do You Have the Right Stuff for the Job?
A survey by the National Association of c olleges and e mployers (NA ce ) asked employers to rate the skills they seek in the college graduates they hire.7 in your opinion, which of the skills in the table below are most important to employers? Rank them in order of preference, with 1 being the most prized skill, 2 being the next most prized skill, and so on. then rate yourself: Are your skills in this area strong, moderate, or weak? Now compare your rankings with the NAce study results. Numbers indicate rankings, with 1 going to the most important skill, 2 to the next most important, and so on.
Think Communication recommends strategies and skills for improving all four of these competencies. We focus on communication principles
and practices that will help you think critically and ethically, work collaboratively with people from similar and diverse backgrounds, and engage your
Communication models
creative powers to solve problems, engage listeners, resolve disputes, and create memorable messages.
1.2 Use communication models to analyze the communication process.
When we describe the fundamental nature of communication, we often use communication models
Communication scholars Rob Anderson and Veronica Ross write, “A model of communication—or any other process, object, or event—is a way of simplifying the complex interactions of elements in order to clarify relevant relationships, and perhaps to help predict outcomes.”10 Communication models
• identify the basic components in the communication process, • show how the various components relate to and interact with one another, and • help explain why communication succeeds or fails.
Early Communication Models
The earliest type of communication model, a linear communication model, functions in only one direction: A source creates a message and sends it through a channel to reach a receiver. The channel represents the various physical and electronic media through which we express messages. Linear models identify several important components but do not address the interactive nature of human communication.
Communication theorists then devised interactive communication models, which include the concepts of feedback and noise to show that communication is not an unobstructed or one-way street. When feedback is added, each communicator becomes both the source and the receiver of messages. When noise is added, every component becomes susceptible to disruption.
Feedback Any verbal or nonverbal response you can see, hear, or feel from others is referred to as feedback
A person giving feedback may smile or frown, ask questions or challenge your ideas, listen intently or tune out.
Another person may nod yes or no, raise his or her vocal pitch and volume when responding, or pat your back. If you accurately interpret feedback, you can assess how well your message is being received and whether you are likely to achieve your purpose. Consider, for example, what the president of a New York marketing and design company
For example, consider how much the president of a New York design company said she relied upon feedback: “You know when they are with you.” Expert communicators are sensitive to listener reactions. They use feedback— whether positive or negative—to evaluate whether and how well they are achieving their purpose, and then they adjust their message accordingly.
Noise Interactive communication models recognize obstacles that can prevent a message from reaching its receivers as intended; in communication studies, this is referred to as noise. Noise can be external or internal. External noise consists of physical elements in the environment that interfere with effective communication. Noise is often an audible problem: heavy vehicle traffic outside the window, a soft-speaking voice, or a difficult-to-understand
accent. However, noise is not limited to just the sounds you hear. An uncomfortably warm room, an unpleasant odor, or even bright and distracting wall designs can interfere with your ability to be an attentive and effective communicator.
While external noise can be any distracting element in your environment, internal noise is a mental distraction within yourself. Internal noise consists of thoughts, feelings, and attitudes that inhibit your ability to communicate and understand a message as it was intended. A listener preoccupied with personal thoughts can miss or misinterpret a message. As a speaker, you may be distracted and worried about how you look during a presentation instead of focusing on your message and your audience. Or you may be thinking about your upcoming vacation rather than listening to a coworker’s instructions. Such preoccupations can impair your ability to speak and listen effectively.
Encoding and Decoding According to most of the early models, communicators have two important functions: they serve as both the source and the receiver of messages.
Transactional Communication Model
COMMUNICATION ENVIRONMENT
The communication source is a person or group of people who create a message intended to produce a particular response. Your message has no meaning until it arrives at a receiver , another person or group of people who interpret and evaluate your message. These two actions, sending and receiving, are called encoding and decoding.
When you communicate with others, you encode your ideas: you transform them into verbal and nonverbal messages, or codes . Thus, encoding is the decision-making process you use
to create and send messages that generate meaning.
Decoding converts a code or message sent by someone else into a form you can understand and use. Decoding is the decision-making process you use to interpret, evaluate, and respond to the meaning of verbal and nonverbal messages.
Transactional
Communication Models
Communication in real time, however, is more complex than the
Communication Contexts
1.3 Explain the ways in which
In the previous section on communication models , we explain that all communication occurs within a context , the setting and circumstances in which communication takes place. Although this definition may appear simple—after all, communication must occur somewhere—context is anything but simple. Effective communicators analyze and adapt to the context. Consider, for example, how various contexts affect the implied meaning of the question, “Why are
processes depicted in linear or interactive models. In reality, communication is a simultaneous transaction in which we continuously exchange verbal and nonverbal messages, and share meanings. Transactional communication is also fluid, not a “thing” that happens.
Transactional communication models recognize that we send and receive messages simultaneously within specific contexts. Even when we listen to someone, our nonverbal reactions send messages to the speaker.
context affects the meaning of messages.
you here?” In addition to the contexts shown in the images on page 6, there are countless other meanings for this question, which changes as the context changes.
There are four types of interrelated communication contexts: psychosocial, logistical, interactional, and mediated.
Psychosocial Context
Psychosocial context refers to the psychological and cultural
environment in which you live and communicate. Consider, for example, your relationship with other communicators, their personality traits, and the extent to which they share attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Consider their age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, levels of ability, and socioeconomic class.
The psychosocial context also includes your emotional history, personal experiences, and cultural background. Thus, if you have a history of conflict
with a work colleague, your feelings, experiences, and culture may influence your response to a suggestion made by that colleague.
Logistical Context
Logistical context refers to the physical characteristics of a particular communication situation in terms of its time, place, setting, and occasion. Are you talking to your friend privately or in a busy hallway? Are you speaking informally to colleagues in a staff meeting or welcoming guests to an important event? Can you be heard and your PowerPoint slides be seen from the back of the room?
Interactional Context
Interactional context refers to whether the interaction is between two people, among group members, or between a presenter and an audience.
Psychosocial context
cOMMUN ic Ati ON In Action
The Arab Spring
Twitter and its many offspring such as Tumblr and Reddit have been criticized as “dumb,” “annoying,” “meaningless,” and “a monumental waste of time.”
Others view social media as an incomparable medium for sharing important news, citizen comments, and political opinions. During the 2012 U.S. presidential elections, both candidates used the full range of social media—as did journalists, political action committees, advocacy groups, and voters.
Even more dramatic than a U.S. presidential election, the political uprisings, citizen demonstrations, and public criticism of government actions in other countries have used social networking to plan, inform, and motivate their followers. For example, at the beginning of the Arab Spring uprisings in 2011, social media was celebrated as a tool for political action and democracy building in the Middle East. A 2012 report by the Pew Research Center indicated that in Egypt and Tunisia, two nations at the heart of the Arab Spring, more than sixty percent of social networkers shared their views about politics
The Nation , a government-owned English-language newspaper published in Abu Dhabi (capital of the United Arab Emirates, one of the world’s largest producers of oil) described the impact of social media. “Nearly 9 in 10 Egyptians and Tunisians surveyed in March [2011] said they were using Facebook to organize protests or spread awareness about
them. [These findings] give empirical heft to the conventional wisdom that Facebook and Twitter abetted if not enabled the historic region-wide uprisings of early 2011.”
In studying the Arab Spring uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt, researchers in Australia question the supposed effects of social media. They found that social media such as YouTube helped mobilize mass support in a matter of weeks. Social media did not, however, cause the Arab Spring uprisings. 12 Despite the excitement and joy of the Arab Spring, social media was powerless in preventing the tragic events that followed in many Arab countries. Popular protests against the elected regime in Egypt resulted in what some describe as a military coup. The continuing civil war in Syria has claimed more than 100,000 lives. Four Americans died defending the U.S. diplomatic mission in Benghazi, Libya. In 2011, social media gave millions of people a sense of hope and a taste of freedom. Today both hope and freedom persist as a dream rather than a reality in many countries.13
Mediated context
Logistical context
interactional context
“Why Are you h ere?” The
At the airport
“Why are you here?”
(Meaning: Are you traveling for business or pleasure?)
At the doctor’s office
“Why are you here?”
(Meaning: Are you here for your annual physical or because there’s a problem?)
We divide the communication that occurs in interactional contexts into three common types of communication: interpersonal, group, and presentational.
Interpersonal communication occurs when a limited number of
On the job
“Why are you here?”
(Meaning: Are you here to train or to explain the design options?)
people, usually two, interact for the purpose of sharing information, accomplishing a specific goal, or maintaining a relationship. Chapters 7 through 9 focus on the fundamentals of interpersonal communication and the strategies and skills needed for
On Twitter
“Why are you here?”
(Meaning: Are you rejoining us or just lurking?)
effective communication in personal and professional relationships.
Group communication refers to the interaction of three or more interdependent people who interact for the purpose of achieving a common goal. Group communication represents
c ommun I ca TI on & c ulture
Does everyone CommuniCate the same Way?
Do the differences between people outweigh what they have in common? How do these differences affect the way people from different cultures communicate? carefully consider the following statements about communicative behavior and indicate whether you agree, disagree, or don’t have an opinion about them.
Agree Disagree i Don’t Know communicative behaviors
1. the United states is the most individualistic (independent, self-centered, me-first) culture in the world.
2. Australian students and professors communicate on a first-name basis and expect to have lively class discussions.
3. Women talk more than men do.
4. Men and women communicate very differently from one another.
5. Genetic characteristics explain why African Americans communicate differently from european Americans.
6. communicators from Asia are more likely to honor their elders and defer the gratification of their needs than are communicators from the United states.
Now think about how you responded to each of these statements. Why did you respond this way? After reading chapter 3, “Adapting to Others,” return to this
survey and think about whether you would change any of your answers. if so, why? if not, why not?
more than a collection of individuals who talk to one another; it is a complex system in which members depend on one another. Family members and friends, work groups, neighborhood associations, self-help groups, social clubs, and athletic teams engage in group communication. Chapters 10 and 11 focus on how group communication works and discuss the essential strategies and skills for effective group participation, leadership, decision making, and problem solving.
Presentational communication occurs between speakers and audience members. 14 Presentational communication comes in many forms, from formal commencement addresses,
campaign speeches, and conference lectures to informal class reports, staff briefings, and training sessions. You will make many presentations in your lifetime—at school, at work, at family and social gatherings, or at community and public events. Chapters 12 through 16 explain how to create and deliver effective presentations.
Mediated context
Mediated communication occurs when an additional media exists between communicators—usually some type of technology. Personal forms of mediated communication include phone calls, social media posts, and mailed letters. Mediated communication that
occurs between a person or group of people and a larger, often remote audience is classified as mass communication . Radio, television, film, blogs, and websites are forms of mass communication, as are newspapers, magazines, billboards, and books.
Usually, the person who shares a message using mass communication cannot see or hear how audience members react as they see, read, and hear. All mass communication is mediated, but not all mediated communication—text messages, letters, or greeting cards—is intended for the masses.
Today, it’s all about computermediated communication , which
Media Richness Theory
Richard Daft and Robert Lengel developed the Media Richness Theory to explain how the qualities of different media affect communication.15 the theory also helps explain why your physical presence makes a significant difference in how well you communicate. Let’s say you have a message you want to share with a group of people. you can share that message in one of four ways: face to face, written, visual, and virtual.
Face-to-face communication (be it at a party, group meeting, or presentation) is the richest communication medium because you can (1) see and respond instantly to others, (2) use nonverbal communication, such as body movement, vocal tone, facial expressions, and visual images, to clarify and reinforce messages, (3) use a natural speaking
style, and (4) convey your personal feelings and emotions.
i n contrast, written, visual, and virtual communication in the form of handwritten notes, a book or magazine, a photograph, a billboard, e-mail messages, text messages, and posts on social media sites are quite the opposite. Readers rely exclusively on printed words and illustrations to interpret the sender’s meaning. thus, a tweet does not let
you hear a person’s vocal tone, see a person’s facial expressions or have more than 140 characters to understand a complex message. Generally, and particularly when a message is complex or potentially confusing, more media are needed to ensure effective communication. thus, faceto-face communication is often the most effective because it can engage more of our senses than any other form of communication.
refers to how we interact with others using various networked technologies and software, ranging from simple texting to multimedia
communication. 16 Computer-mediated communication also includes SMS (short message services)— communication that occurs through
Improve your personal relationships
Adapt to Others
Communi C ation Skill S
Improve your professional relationships
texting, and SNS (social networking sites)—communication that occurs through sites such as Google Hangouts and Pinterest.
Prepare and deliver a presentation
Collaborate with colleagues
Communication principles and practices
1.4 Apply key principles of communication to a variety of contexts.
M
ost of us would laugh at individuals who thought they could become a champion tennis player, a professional airline pilot, or a gourmet chef simply by reading a single book. At the very least, you’d have to practice that skill. Likewise, no textbook or classroom lecture alone can teach you everything you need to know about initiating a new relationship, resolving a conflict, comforting a person in distress, leading a group, planning a presentation, or responding to tough
questions. As we see it, the best way to learn how to communicate effectively is to develop a set of reliable competencies based on validated communication theories, strategies, and skills.
Communication Theories
Theories are statements that explain how the world works. They describe, explain, and predict events and behavior.
Communication theories have emerged from extensive observation,
empirical research, and rigorous scholarship. They help you understand what is happening when you communicate and why communication is sometimes effective and sometimes ineffective.
Learning about theories in isolation, however, will not make you a more effective communicator. Theories do not necessarily tell you what to do, what to say, or how to say it. Nevertheless, without theories, we would have difficulty understanding why
or how a particular strategy works or how strategies and skills interact.
Communication Strategies
Strategies are the specific plans of action you use to achieve a goal. The word strategy comes from the Greek word strategia and refers to the office
of a military general. Like great generals, effective communicators marshal their “forces” to achieve a specific purpose: to comfort a friend, resolve a conflict, lead a group discussion, or deliver an inspiring presentation. However, learning about strategies is not enough. Effective strategies are
based on theories. If you don’t understand theory, you won’t know why some strategies work in one situation and fail in another. Strategies based on theory help you understand when, where, why, and how to use a particular strategy most effectively.
Medi Ated commun I caTI on I n Action
Social Media Madness
When academic researchers study computer-mediated communication, they face a host of corporate products such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Google+, Meetup, Vimeo, and Squidoo.
There is no question that social media affects the way we communicate. What follows is a short list of the ways in which new social media has helped us:
• To initiate new relationships
• To seek social information about potential relationship partners
• To construct individual or multiple identities
• To manage interpersonal impressions
• To comment on postings, photographs, and relationships
• To aid in relationship reconnections17
To understand the full impact of social media, let’s take a quick look at two of the most popular: Facebook and Twitter. Facebook. When Facebook launched in early 2004, no one imagined that it would attract the flood of users that it did. By the end of its first year, CEO Mark Zuckerberg estimated that approximately one million individuals had joined. By 2012 the number of active users had skyrocketed to one billion— monthly and worldwide. So hugely popular did Facebook become that its popularity inspired its own net lingo, for example, Facebook fever (the uncontrollable urge to check Facebook constantly), Facebooking (the act of checking and posting on Facebook), FB (Facebook), and wall sniper (someone who tends to post only negative or controversial comments). Currently, it ranks as the most popular social network, followed by Twitter at a close second, and Pinterest, a newer, image-based networking site.
t witter. In 2006, two years after Facebook stepped onto the social networking stage, Twitter was launched.
Six years later, in 2012, it tweeted that its number of active users had surpassed the half-billion mark. 18 Originally, Twitter asked its users the question, “What are you doing?”
Soon, the smart folks at Twitter realized that subscribers were exchanging information, not just about themselves, but about the things, people, and events they cared about. In 2009, Twitter shortened its question by two characters and changed it to “What’s happening?” As much as people enjoyed telling others that they were sitting in traffic or climbing a mountain, they were also “witnessing accidents, organizing events, sharing links, breaking news, reporting stuff their dad says, and so much more.”19
Social media Controversies. Social media have become much more than a place for personal interactions. In the last decade, we’ve witnessed its growth and role in helping to report on and respond to major world events: presidential elections and debates; mass protests against governments and dictators, citizen uprisings, popular revolutions, and civil wars; natural and human-caused disasters; and triumphs and failures at the Olympic Games.
But, with this revolution comes a warning that communication scholars refer to as the “dark side” of social media: becoming a cyber victim to sexual solicitation, cyberbullying, cybersex, deception, spying, theft, and invasions of privacy.20
So what’s your verdict? Do the advantages of social media make it one of the greatest innovations of the twenty-first century? Do the disadvantages, at the very least, moderate your initial verdict or even outweigh the advantages? See whether you can add two more advantages and two more disadvantages to the table that follows.
advantages of Social Media Disadvantages of Social Media
1. Convenient: You can contact others no matter where you or they are.
2. Useful: You can share urgent, provocative, and useful information, opinions, and experiences with others.
1. Inconvenient: You can disturb and annoy others when you are messaging.
2. A waste of time: You can waste precious hours by getting sidetracked by what other people are writing about and doing.
Communication Skills
Communication skills refer to your ability to accomplish communication goals through interactions with others. Communication skills are the tools or techniques you use to collaborate with a colleague, prepare a meeting agenda, and speak loudly enough to be heard by a large audience. Throughout this book, you will read about and practice many communication skills: how to be more assertive, how to think critically, how to listen effectively, how to resolve conflicts, how to speak clearly, how to organize a message, and how to explain complex concepts or persuade others.
Like strategies, skills are most effective when they are grounded in theory. Without theories, you may not understand when and why to use a particular strategy or skill to your best advantage. For example, in the hope of improving group morale, you may decide not to use a structured, problem-solving agenda at a critical meeting. Unfortunately, this may lower group morale because your approach to problem solving is disorganized and wastes everyone’s valuable time. However, if you are familiar with group communication theory, you will know that using a standard agenda helps a group to follow a series of practical steps to solve problems. In our eagerness to communicate effectively, we may grab ready-made, easy-to-use tricks of the trade, which are inappropriate or ineffective. Enlisting skills without an understanding of theories and strategies can make communication inefficient and ineffective as well as frustrating for everyone.
Communication Competencies
When you understand well-founded communication theories, select appropriate communication strategies, and practice a variety of communication skills, you are ready to transform your understanding, appreciation, and abilities into lifelong competencies.
The term competency has become a big deal at all levels of education, from preschool to postgraduate work. Communication competencies are not the same as objectives, or learning outcomes. Rather, competencies
are sets of performance standards that go well beyond “the mere attainment of skill.” “[They involve] other qualities such as attitudes, motives, personal insightfulness, interpretive ability, receptivity, maturity, and selfassessment.” 21 That’s a lot to ask of anyone, but well worth the effort. For example, if you are unmotivated to communicate or cannot monitor and accurately interpret your own behavior and how others react to you, all the theories, strategies, and skills in the world will be of no use to you.
“ Theories are nets to catch what we call ‘the world’: to rationalize, to explain, and to master it. ”
Karl R. Popper, philosopher22
applies to many physical skills. Once learned—and assuming there aren’t physical or health barriers—you never forget how to swim, ride a horse, ski, surf, drive a car, or use chop sticks. In 2009, neuroscientists identified a nerve cell in your brain that controls the formation of memories for motor skill. Put another way, specific nerve cells help you learn and remember how to do something.24
Communication competencies are measurable performance standards that require the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and personal qualities essential to the practice of effective and ethical communication. 23 When you master such competencies, effective communication becomes an enduring habit that will last a lifetime.
Study the full-page graphic on the following page. It depicts 7 Key Competencies of Effective Communication matched with a series of questions that can help you understand their scope and significance.
The seven key competencies apply to all types of communication, regardless of whether you are talking to friends, sending an instant message, delivering a speech to a large audience, planning a business meeting, or participating in a videoconference. No matter how well you adapt to others, structure the content of your message, or speak in a melodious voice, you won’t achieve your purpose if you do not appreciate how all seven competencies interact with one another every time you communicate. Effective communicators accept the fact that they may never create or deliver a perfect message, but they never stop trying to reach that ideal.
“You never forget how to ride a bike.” This popular and true statement
We believe that a similar process is at work when we communicate effectively. Highly competent communicators develop an instinct for knowing what to say, where to say it, when to say it, how to say it, and even whether to speak at all. When learning to communicate more effectively, you should engage three types of learning:
• Knowledge: What to do
• Skills: How to do it
• Motivation: Want to do it
For example, in the case of an interpersonal conflict, these three types of learning can help you manage the quality and outcome of a difficult situation as described in the following paragraph:
If a friend of mine and I have an argument, things may get worse if I don’t know what to say or do. However, by studying conflict resolution principles and best practices, I can analyze the conflict and choose appropriate communication strategies (what to do) that may help resolve it. But unless I have the skills ( how to do it) to put those principles into action, I may not resolve the problem and could even make it worse. Finally, even if I learn about and master conflict resolution strategies and skills, I also must want to resolve the problem. Only then will I be prepared to resolve the argument and preserve a friendship. Equally important, I will be better prepared and know what to do, how to do it, and why to do it, when I face a similar conflict in the future.
2
cONN ect with Other S
The 7 Key Competencies of Effective Communication
4
3
e X pre SS i ON
• Which channels are most appropriate given your purpose, the other communicators, the context, and the message’s content and structure?
• What skills and techniques will improve your ability to express your message?
• How effectively do you express and listen to verbal and nonverbal messages?
Structure
• What are the most effective ways to organize your message?
• How can your organizational structure enhance attention, comprehension, and interest in others?
• in what order should you share your ideas and information?
cON te N t
• What ideas and opinions should you include in your message to make it clear, effective, and interesting?
• How should you support your ideas and opinions in your message?
• How well do you interpret messages from others?
• Do you listen to and defend the rights of others to express opinions contrary to yours?
Self
• How do your characteristics, traits, skills, needs, attitudes, values, and self-concept influence your communication goals and style?
• How well do you put aside your personal needs and attitudes when listening to others?
• What is your ethical responsibility as a communicator?
OtherS
• With whom are you communicating? How do their characteristics, traits, skills, needs, attitudes, and beliefs affect the way they listen and respond?
• How can you better understand, respect, and adapt to others when you communicate with them?
• How well do you listen when interacting with others?
purpOSe
• What do you want others to know, think, believe, feel, or do as a result of communicating with them?
• How might others misunderstand or misinterpret your purpose?
• can you identify the intended purpose of other communicators?
cON te X t
• What role are you assuming in this setting or situation?
• How will you behave in different psychological and interactional contexts?
• How well do you adapt to the logistics of the place where you will communicate and the occasion?
Communication and Critical Thinking
1.5 Explain the relationship between critical thinking and effective communication.
C ritical thinking is “reasonable reflective thinking that focuses on deciding” what to believe, do, or say. 25 It can also result in a more meaningful conversation, a more productive group discussion, or a highly persuasive presentation. Critical thinkers are usually highly skilled listeners who know how to accurately hear, understand, remember, interpret, and evaluate messages as well as appropriately respond to others.
Critical thinking puts your mind to work on complex communication challenges such as resolving a family crisis, supporting a grieving friend, conducting an important meeting, expressing your point of view, or critiquing a politician’s campaign speech. At every stage of the encoding and decoding process, you will make significant decisions depending on your desire and ability to think critically.
Attitude and skills of ideal CritiCal thinkers
Attitude
• I want to know the intended meaning of a message.
• I take the communication context and characteristics of other communicators into account.
• I am open-minded and withhold judgment when messages seem weak or questionable.
• I am aware of my own and others’ beliefs and biases.
• I am willing to take or change a position when the evidence and reasons are sufficient to do so.
Skill S
• I can identify the central purpose of a message.
• I analyze others’ reasons for disagreeing with or doubting my claims.
• I respect and appropriately respond to the feelings, information, and opinions expressed by others.
• I can judge the credibility of evidence and sources.
• I ask and answer questions effectively.
• I ask probing questions.
Critical thinking puts your mind to work on complex communication problems—from applying for a job promotion to solving a family crisis, from making an effective classroom presentation to critiquing a politician’s campaign commercial.26
A common misconception about critical thinking is that it means criticizing. The word criticize implies judging in order to find fault with something or someone. The word critical is a broader term, with a less of a fault-finding implication. Critical comes from the Greek word for critic (kritkos), which means “to question, to make sense of, to be able to analyze.”27 Critical thinking is not a way to tear down a statement or belittle someone. Rather, it helps you identify the intended meaning of a message and evaluate the evidence and reasoning used to support that message. Critical thinking also enables you to develop and defend your position on issues.28
According to Robert Ennis, a wellrespected philosophy professor, skilled critical thinkers exhibit distinct attitudes and skills, as shown in the table to the left.29
Before leaving this topic, take a second look at the table. Think critically about the attitudes and skills of critical thinkers. All of these perspectives and abilities exemplify highly competent communicators. In subsequent chapters, you will learn how to apply specific critical thinking skills to help you identify faulty reasoning and create persuasive messages. Equally important, you will learn to appreciate the important role of emotions in making critical decisions.
Communication Ethics
1.6 Practice ethical communication.
How would you feel if you learned that
• a corporate executive hid lavish, personal expenditures while laying off employees?
• a teacher gave higher grades to students he liked and lower grades to students who annoyed him?
• a close friend shared your most intimate secrets with people you don’t know or don’t like?
• a politician used a racial slur in private to describe a disgruntled group of constituents?
Most of the above actions are not illegal. They are, however, unethical. Whereas theories, strategies, and skills focus on questions asking why , what , and how to communicate, you also must answer a whether question, that is, whether you should communicate as planned: Is it right? Is it fair? Is it deceptive?30
Ethical Communication
Ethical issues arise whenever we communicate because communication has consequences. What you say and do can help or hurt others; can build or destroy your reputation; and can result in justice or injustice. Sadly, the communication competencies we address in this textbook can and have been used for less-than-ethical purposes. Unscrupulous speakers have misled trusting citizens and consumers. Bigots have used hate speech to oppress and discriminate against those who are “different.” Self-centered people have destroyed the reputations of their rivals by spreading cruel rumors among friends, colleagues, and members of the public.
In every chapter of this textbook, we include a feature titled Ethical Communication. Each of these features discusses the ethical issues that arise whenever you interact with others in a variety of communication contexts. Ethics requires an understanding of whether communication behaviors
meet agreed-on standards of right and wrong.31 The National Communication Association (NCA), the largest professional association of communication scholars, researchers, educators, students, and practitioners in the world, provides a Credo for Ethical Communication. In Latin, credo means “I believe.” Thus, the NCA ethics credo is a set of belief statements about what it means to be an ethical communicator.
I ca L
Freedom of Speech
The NCA Credo for Ethical Communication emphasizes the strong connection between communication ethics and free speech. Several ethical principles in the credo—“We endorse freedom of expression,” “We are committed to the courageous expression of personal conviction,” and “We accept responsibility for the short- and
communIcaTIon
the Nca credo for ethical communication32
Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people communicate. Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making, and the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe that unethical communication threatens the well-being of individuals and the society in which we live. Therefore we, the members of the National Communication Association, endorse and are committed to practicing the following principles of ethical communication:
• We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of communication.
• We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision making fundamental to a civil society.
• We strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluating and responding to their messages.
• We promote access to communication resources and opportunities as necessary to fulfill human potential and contribute to the well-being of families, communities, and society.
• We promote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that respect the unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators.
• We condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred.
• We are committed to the courageous expression of personal conviction in pursuit of fairness and justice.
• We advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings when facing significant choices while also respecting privacy and confidentiality.
• We accept responsibility for the short- and long-term consequences of our own communication and expect the same of others.
f ree DOM of S PEE ch
National communication association credo for a free and responsible communication in a Democratic Society33
Recognizing the essential place of free and responsible communication in a democratic society, and recognizing the distinction between the freedoms our legal system should respect
and the responsibilities our educational system should cultivate, we members of the Speech Association of America endorse the following statement of principles:
we BelieVe that freedom of speech and assembly must hold a central position among American constitutional principles, and we express our determined support for the right of peaceful expression by any communicative means available.
we SuppOrt the proposition that a free society can absorb with equanimity speech which exceeds the boundaries of generally accepted beliefs and mores; that much good and little harm can ensue if we err on the side of freedom, whereas much harm and little good may follow if we err on the side of suppression.
we criticiZe as misguided those who believe that the justice of their cause confers license to interfere physically and coercively with speech of others, and we condemn intimidation, whether by powerful majorities or strident minorities, which attempts to restrict free expression.
we accept the responsibility of cultivating by precepts and example, in our classrooms and in our communities, enlightened uses of communication; of developing in our students a respect for precision and accuracy in communication, and for reasoning based upon evidence and a judicious discrimination among values.
we eNcOurage our students to accept the role of well-informed and articulate citizens, to defend the communication rights of those with whom they may disagree, and to expose abuses of the communication process.
we DeDicate ourselves fully to these principles, confident in the belief that reason will ultimately prevail in a free marketplace of ideas.
long-term consequences of our own communication and expect the same of others”—demonstrate the centrality of free speech to our democracy and ethical communication.
The first amendment of the United States Constitution guarantees our freedom of speech when it states that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.”
Although you are free to say whatever you want (with some exceptions), even if it is false, highly controversial, discriminatory, or inflammatory, there are consequences. If, for example, your claims prove false or unjustified, you can be sued for defamation , a false statement that damages a person’s reputation.34 If you say hateful or inflammatory things about someone, you may face hostility and harassment from others as well as sharp criticisms about your character and competence. You may even find your job or career in jeopardy. The best protection of your right to free speech is to make sure
that you can back up your opinions with legitimate facts, valid reasoning, and defensible responses to objections. We strongly recommend that you review the NCA’s Credo for a Free and Responsible Communication in a Democratic Society. In addition to presenting a set of belief statements about the nature of free and responsible communication, the credo calls upon “students to accept the role of well-informed and articulate citizens, to defend the communication rights of those with whom they may disagree, and to expose abuses of the communication process.”
c ommun I ca TI on A SS e SSM ent
are You an effective communicator?
How can you become a more effective communicator? Use the five-point scale below to rate the following competencies in terms of their importance to you. Circle only one number for each item.
Review your ratings: Circle the competency item numbers next to the skills that you scored as 5—skills that, in your opinion, are the most important and essential for effective communication. Why did you select these items?
