ListofAbbreviations
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BorgheseGianLucaBorghese, CarloId’AngiòeilMediterraneo: Politica,diplomaziaecommerciointernationaleprimadei Vespri (Rome:ÉcolefrançaisedeRome,2008).
BrunschvigRobertBrunschvig, LaBerbérieorientalesousles Hafsides,desoriginesàla finduXVesiècle.2vols(Paris: Adrien-Maisonneuve,1940–7).
Crawford The “TemplarofTyre”:PartIIIofthe “Deedsofthe Cypriots”,ed.PaulCrawford(Aldershot,Hampshire: Ashgate,2003).
deSacySilvestredeSacy, “Mémoiresurletraitéfaitentreleroi deTunisetPhilippe-le-Hardi,en1270,pour l’évacuationduterritoiredeTunisparl’arméedes croisés,” Histoireetmémoiresdel’institutroyaldeFrance, Académiedesinscriptionsetbelles-lettres 9(1831): pp.448–77.
“Documentsdivers” PierreGarrigou-Grandchamp(andMohammedTalbi), “DocumentsdiversrelatifsàlacroisadedeSaintLouis contreTunis(1270),” LescahiersdeTunisie 25(1977): pp.245–82.
L’Espagnecatalane
Charles-EmmanuelDufourcq, L’Espagnecatalaneetle MaghribauXIIIe etXIVe siècles:DelabatailledeLas NavasdeTolosa(1212)àl’avènementdusultanmérinide Abou-l-Hasan(1331) (Paris:Pressesuniversitairesde France,1966).
GeoffreyofBeaulieuGeoffreyofBeaulieu, VitaLudovicinoni. RHGF, vol.20.
GestaLudovici
GuillaumeofNangis, GestasanctaememoriaeLudovici regisFranciae RHGF,vol.20.
GuillaumeofChartresGuillaumeofChartres, Devitaetactibusinclytae recordationisregisFrancorumLudovicietdemiraculis quaeadeiussanctitatisdeclarationemcontingerunt. RHGF,vol.20.
HistoiredesBerbères
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Ibn ʿAbdal-ZahirMuhyial-Dinb. ʿAbdal-Zahir, Al-Rawdal-zahir fi sirat al-malikal-zahir,ed. ʿAbdal-ʿAzizal-Khuwaytir(Riyad, 1976).
Ibnal-FuratIbnal-Furat, Ayyubids,MamlukesandCrusaders: SelectionsfromtheTarikhal-Duwalwaʾl-MulukofIbn al-Furat,ed.andtrans.UrsulaandMalcolmC.Lyons, historicalintroductionandnotesbyJonathanRileySmith,2vols(Cambridge:W.HefferandSons,1971).
IbnKhaldun
ʿAbdal-Rahmanb.Khaldun, Kitabal-ʿibarwa-diwan al-mubtadaʾ wa-l-khabar fi ayyamal-ʿarabwa-l- ʿajam wa-l-barbarwa-man ʿasarahummindhawial-sultanalakbar,7vols(Beirut:Daral-kitabal-Lubnani, 1956–61).
Ibnal-Shammaʿ Muhammadb.Ahmadb.al-Shammaʿ , al-Adillaal-bayyina al-nuraniyya fi mafakhiral-dawlaal-hafsiyya,ed.al-Tahir al-Ma‘muri(Tripoli:al-Daral-‘Arabiyyali-l-kitab,1984).
IbnWasilIbnWasil, Mufarrijal-kurub fi akhbarbaniAyyub,ed. MohamedRahim, DieChronikdesibnWāsil...Kritische EditiondesletztenTeils(646/1248–659/1261)mit Kommentar (Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz,2010).
JoinvilleJeanofJoinville, ViedeSaintLouis,ed.Jacques Monfrin(Paris:ClassiquesGarnier,1995).
al-KhazandariShihabal-DinQaratayal-ʿIzzial-Khazandari, Taʾrikh majmuʿ al-nawadirmimmajarali-l-awaʾilwa-lawakhir,ed.Horst-AdolfHeinandMuhammad al-Hujayri(Beirut:Klaus-SchwarzVerlag,2005).
LayettesLayettesdutrésordeschartes,ed.AlexandreTeuletetal. 5vols(Paris:HenriPlon,1863–1909).
LefevreRenatoLefevre, LacrociatadiTunisidel1270nei documentideldistruttoarchivioangioinodiNapoli (Rome:IstitutoItalo-Africano:Quadernidellarivista “Africa,” 1977).
LongnonJeanLongnon, “LesvuesdeCharlesd’Anjoupourla deuxièmecroisadedeSaint-Louis:Tunisou Constantinople?” in Septièmecentenairedelamortde Saint-Louis:ActesdescolloquesdeRoyaumontetdeParis (Paris:BellesLettres,1976),pp.183–95.
al-MaqriziTaqial-DinAbual-ʿAbbasAhmadb. ʿAlial-Maqrizi, Kitabal-Sulukli-maʿrifatduwalal-muluk,ed.Mustafa al-ZiyadaandSaʿidal-Fath ʿAshur,4vols(Cairo:Lajinat al-Ta’lifwa-l-Tarjamawa-l-Nashr,1934–72).
MGHSSMonumentaGermaniaehistorica,scriptores.Ed.Georg H.Pertzetal.,32vols(HanoverandLeipzig:Impensis BibliopoliiHahniani,1826–1934).
MollatMichelMollat, “Le ‘ passage ’ deSaintLouisàTunis:Sa placedansl’histoiredescroisades,” Revued’histoire économiqueetsociale l(1972):pp.289–303.
OrdonnancesOrdonnancesdesroysdeFrancedelatroisièmerace,ed. EusèbeLaurièreetal.,21vols(Paris:Imprimerie royale,1723–1849).
PrimatPrimat, ChroniquedePrimat,traduiteparJeandu Vignay. RHGF,vol.23.
QuatremèreAl-Maqrizi, Histoiredessultansmamlouksdel’Égypte, trans.ÉtienneQuatremère,2vols(Paris:Oriental TranslationFund,1837–45).
RCAIregistridellacancellariaangioinaricostruitidaRiccardo Filangiericonlacollaborazionedegliarchivistinapoletani, ed.RiccardoFilangierietal.,49vols(Naples:Presso L’Accademia,1950–2010).
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RHCOcc.Recueildeshistoriensdescroisades:Historiensoccidentaux, 5vols(Paris:Académiedesinscriptionsetbelles-lettres, 1841–1906).
RHGFRecueildeshistoriensdesGaulesetdelaFrance.Ed. MartinBouquetetal.,24vols(Paris:Auxdépensdes librairesassociés,1737–1904).
RISRerumItalicarumscriptores,novaseries,ed.Giosuè Carduccietal.,33vols(Bologna:N.Zanichelli,1921–).
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PeterJackson, TheSeventhCrusade,1244–1254: SourcesandDocuments (Aldershot,Hampshire: Ashgate,2007).
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Smith “TheLifeofSaintLouis,” in ChroniclesoftheCrusades, trans.CarolineSmith(London:Penguin,2008).
SpicilegiumSpicilegiumsivecollectioveterumaliquotscriptorumqui inGalliaebibliothecisdelituerant ...,ed.Lucd’Achéry, 3vols(Paris:Montalant,1723).
SternfeldRichardSternfeld, LudwigsdesHeiligenKreuzzugnach Tunis1270unddiePolitikKarlsI.vonSizilien (Berlin, 1896;repr.Vaduz:Kraus,1965).
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ThorauPeterThorau, TheLionofEgypt:SultanBaybarsIand theNearEastintheThirteenthCentury,trans.Peter M.Holt(London:Longman,1992).
TraitésTraitésdepaixetdecommerceetdocumentsdivers concernantlesrelationsdeschrétiensavecl’arabesde l’Afriqueseptentrionaleaumoyenâge,ed.LouisdeMas Latrie(Paris:HenriPlon,1866).
al-YuniniQutbal-DinMusaal-Yunini, Dhaylmiratal-zaman,4 vols(Hyderabad:Daʾiratal-Maʿarifal-ʿUthmaniyya, 1955).
KINGDOM
AdriaticSea
BYZANTINEEMPIRE
Aigues-Mortes
Gulf of Lion
Map3. ThecentralMediterranean, c.1270
Adriatic Sea EPIROS
Cagliari
Tunis Trapani
Syracuse
Algiers Bijaya
Palermo
Qasantina Viterbo
Tagliacozzo
Durazzo
Bab al-Bahr al-Bahira
Gulf of Tunis
Sebkha Sejoumi
Sebkha er Riana
Medjerda River
Cap Gammarth
Tunis
Carthage
Aryana
Radès
Map4. Tunisandenvirons
Introduction
TheTunisCrusadeof1270wasthelastofthegreatcampaignstowin backtheHolyLandforwesternChristendom.Fittinglyenough,itnever reachedits finaldestination.Backwhenweusedtonumberthecrusades, itwasknownastheEighthCrusade,thelastonthelistbeforethecrusader statesfellforgoodin1291.Thequestionaboutithasalwaysbeenasimple one:whydiditwindupattackingTunis,apeacefulNorthAfricanport citythousandsofmilesfromtheHolyLand,whenitwascleartoeveryone thatthecrusaderstatesofSyriawereonthebrinkofcollapse?Simple enoughtoask,notsoeasytoanswer:westillknowpreciouslittleabout howtheTunisCrusadebroughttheclassiceraofcrusadingtosuchan unexpectedend.
Thisishardformetoadmit,becauseIhavebeenworkingonthis crusadeforyears.Partoftheproblem,Ihavebelatedlyrealized,isthat Iwasgoingaboutitthewrongway.Likemostcrusadeshistorians,Iwas trainedinEuropeanhistory.ButtheTunisCrusadeisnotreallya Europeanstory;itisaMediterraneanone.OpeningupthislargerperspectivehasinvolvedrethinkinghowIstudyandteachthecrusades.Ithas alsorequiredretrainingintheacademicdisciplinethatshares(andsometimescontests)thestudyoftheMediterraneanworldwithEuropean history:NearEasternStudies.Standingattheintersectionofthesetwo establishedbodiesofscholarship,thisbookaimstocontributetobothby openingupanewconversationabouttheplaceofcrusadinginmedieval Mediterraneanculture.
COMBININGMULTIPLEPERSPECTIVES
Forgenerations,historiansstudiedthecrusadesfromthecrusaders’ point ofview.Thiswaspartlyoutofnecessity,becauseofthetechnicaland disciplinaryobstaclesthattraditionallystoodinthewayofadoptinga broaderperspective.Butitwaspartlyoutofchoiceaswell.Formany years,crusadeshistoryturnedinwardasscholarstriedtounderstandhowa holywartraditionemergedoutofmedievalEuropeancultureandthen
cametoinfluencethatcultureinprofoundways.Theresultsofthis projecthavebeenimpressive.Wenowknowmuchmoreabouttheorigins andconsequencesofcrusadinginmedievalEurope.Somuchso,Ibelieve, thatthetimeisrighttolookoutwardagain.Withanewconfidence,we canexplorethecrusadesasaseriesofencountersbetweentheLatin Christianworld,itsneighbors,anditsinternalminorities.1
Inthisnewkindofcrusadeshistory,EuropeanandNearEastern sourcescanbebroughttogetherintoproductivedialogue.Thisapproach differsnotonlyfromthetraditionalEuropeanemphasisbutalsofromthe pioneeringworkofscholarssuchasCaroleHillenbrandandPaulCobb, whohavetriedtoredresstheimbalanceinthescholarshipbyconcentratingontheIslamicsideofthecrusades.Ratherthanshiftingthefocus fromonesingularperspectivetoanother,Iamaimingforamultiperspectivalapproachtotheinterreligiousconflictsandcollaborationsofthe crusaderperiod.2
Thereweremanysidestothecrusades.Tounderstandthembetter, weneedtoappreciatetheviewpointsofallthemajoractors.Noneof theclassic,numberedcampaignsentailedastraightforwardclash betweenChristiansofthewestandMuslimsoftheeast.Thepeople whobecameentangledintheTunisCrusadecamefromeverycornerof theMediterraneanworldandengagedinallmannerofinteractions withinandacrossreligiouslines.Tellingtheirstories allofthem bringsusclosertowhatitwasliketolivethroughthesecomplex multilateralencounters.
ThemedievalMediterraneanwasacrossroadsforahostofmultiethnic, multilingual,andinternallydiversepolities.Onlycenturieslater,inafeat ofacademicgerrymanderingthatstillstructuresourunderstandingofthe period,wouldtheregionbecomethepurviewoftwodistinctdisciplinary enterprises EuropeanHistoryandNearEasternStudies.Restoringthe lostconnectionsbetweenthese fieldsisanessentialcomponentofa crusadeshistorian’sworktoday.Arabicisnotusuallyconsideredacore researchlanguageincrusadesscholarship,butitshouldbe.Informedby
1 Leadingthisinwardturnwasmywonderfulresearchsupervisor,thelateJonathan Riley-Smith.See,forexample,his TheFirstCrusadeandtheIdeaofCrusading,2nded. (Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2009).Otherimportantexamplesofthis influentialtrendincludeMarcusBull, KnightlyPietyandtheLayResponsetotheFirst Crusade:TheLimousinandGascony,c.970–c.1130 (Oxford:ClarendonPress,1993);and, morerecently,NicholasPaul, ToFollowinTheirFootsteps:TheCrusadesandFamilyMemory intheHighMiddleAges (Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,2012).
2 SeeCaroleHillenbrand, TheCrusades:IslamicPerspectives (NewYork:Routledge, 1999);andPaulCobb, TheRaceforParadise:AnIslamicHistoryoftheCrusades (New York:OxfordUniversityPress,2014).
thismoreholisticapproach,wecanmovetowardacrusadeshistorythatis alivetointeractionsacrossfrontiersofbeliefandbelonging,thatdoesnot privilegeEuropeanperspectivesontheseencounters,andthatregardsthe Mediterraneanlessasasettingforonestrandofhistoricalexperiencethan asazoneofdialogueamongcultures.
THECRUSADESANDTHEMEDIEVAL
MEDITERRANEANWORLD
Thismethodologicalshifthasconsequencesforhowweunderstandthe historicalroleofthecrusadesinthedevelopmentofthemedievalMediterraneanworld.Therearetwoschoolsofthoughttobearinmindhere. The firstwecancall “MediterraneanStudies,” whichoriginateswiththe workofFernandBraudelinthelate1940s.3 Scholarsworkinginthis traditiontendtoarguethattheChristiansandMuslimswholivedaround theseasharedacommoncultureshapedbyclimate,geography,and agriculturalpractices,despitethereligiousdifferencesthatshouldhave dividedthem.Thesecondschoolwecancall “clashofcivilizations,” which isassociatedwithSamuelHuntingtonandBernardLewis.4 Scholarsin thistradition,bycontrast,tendtoseethereligiousdividebetweenIslam andChristianityassharpenoughtobeanendemicsourceofconflict. Thereareobviousdifferencesbetweenthetwoapproaches oneprivileges thenaturalenvironmentanditspowertoshapehumancivilizations,while theotherlocatesthewellspringsofhumanactionandmotivationin religiousallegiance.Butthesedifferencesshouldnotobscureacommon assumptiontheybothshare:religiousdifferences,whenvigorouslymaintainedanddefended,usuallyledtoanxiety,violence,andinstability.
Thecrusadesseemtoembodythissharedassumption.Theyarea paradigmaticexampleofconflictrootedinaggressiveassertionsofreligiousdifference.ForMediterraneanists,religiousdifferenceissomething thathadtobeovercomeforpeacefulrelationsbetweenfaithstotake place.Productiveexchangescould,andoftendid,occurwhenmedieval Muslims,Christians,andJewsfocusedmoreonwhatbroughtthem together(thecommonpursuitofmaterialprosperity,loveoflearning
3 FernandBraudel, LaMéditerranéeetlemondeméditerranéenàl’époquedePhilippeII, 2nded.,2vols(Paris:A.Colin,1966);Englishtranslation: TheMediterraneanandthe MediterraneanWorldintheAgeofPhilipII,trans.SiânReynolds,2vols(Berkeley: UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1972).
4 SamuelP.Huntington, TheClashofCivilizationsandtheRemakingofWorldOrder (NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1996);BernardLewis, IslamandtheWest (NewYork: OxfordUniversityPress,1993).
andliterature,sharedenvironmentalchallenges)thanonwhatdivided them(Trinitariandoctrine,thestatusofJesus).Forthe “clashofcivilizations” school,bycontrast,Mediterraneanpeoplewereseldomabletoset asidetheirdifferencesinthisway.Theysuccumbedrepeatedlytothe destructiveurgesinherentinpowerfulreligiousidentification,fuelingthe large-scaleconflictthatissupposedtohavedominatedinternational relationsdowntothepresentday.
ThesecontrastingaccountsoftheMediterranean,eachgroundedina negativeviewoftheroleofreligiousdifference,bothexpressapowerful truthabouttheregion’spast.Ontheonehand,themedievalMediterraneanwasthesiteofgreatconflictsbetweenChristiansandMuslims thesearethecrusadesandthejihadsthatweallknowabout.Ontheother hand,italsowitnessedthekindofethnicandreligiousdiversitythat allowed flexiblereligiousattitudes,hybridpersonalidentities,andcomplexnetworksofinteractionto flourish thisistheMediterraneanrecognizabletostudentsofmedievaleconomicandintellectualexchange.The problemisthatthesetwodefiningfeaturesofMediterraneanhistorydo notsitcomfortablytogether.Ifweinsistonseeingstrongexpressionsof religiousdifferenceasinevitablyleadingtoconflict,thenweareleftwith thechallengeofexplaininghowtwoseeminglyirreconcilablesystemsof interreligiousrelations onededicatedtoconfrontationalongreligious lines,theothertopragmaticaccommodationacrossthem flourishedat thesametime.
Inwhatfollows,Iproposeanalternatewayofunderstandingthis Mediterraneanparadox.Iarguethatundercertainhistoricalconditions, powerfulassertionsofreligiousdifference,evenintheformofcrusadeor jihad,couldhelptostrengthenandstabilizerelationsacrossreligious divides.Mediterraneandiversityandreligiouswarfarecouldcoexist becauseinsomecrucialrespectstheyweremutuallyreinforcing.The crusadesdidnotstandapartfromandinoppositiontoother,lessviolent formsofcontactbetweenfaiths.Instead,theyformedpartofalarger systemofrelationsthatonlybecomesvisiblewhenallitscomponents receiveattention.Thatiswhyitiscrucialtotakeintoaccountalltheactors inthecrusadesandalltheirinteractionswithoneanother commercial, diplomatic,scholarly,missionary,artistic,andsocial.Withthisbroader perspectiveinplace,itbecomespossibletosituatethecrusadesinan alternatehistoryofreligiousdifference,onethatexploresnotonlyits capacityforprovokingviolencebutalsoitspotentialasasourceofstability andcooperationinapre-secularage.Inthishistory,theforgingofdistinct confessionalidentitiesamongMuslims,Christians,andJewswouldbe seennotasanimpedimenttotheemergenceofasharedMediterranean cultureandlifestyle,butratherasanintegralfeatureofitscreation.
TheTunisCrusadeistheMediterraneanParadoxinmicrocosm.The modestbodyofscholarlyliteratureontheexpeditionhastendedtofall intotwocamps,whichmatchthepositionsstakedoutinthelargerdebate overthenatureofmedievalMediterraneanculture.Ontheonehand, thereisthe “clashofcivilizations” versionofthecampaign,whichtellsthe storyofKingLouisIXofFrance’s(r.1226–70)drivetoChristianizethe IslamicMediterraneanthroughaprogramofcrusadeandconversionthat cametofocusonTunisanditsemirAbu ʿAbd-AllahMuhammadalMustansir(r.1249–77).5 Ontheotherhand,thereisthe “Mediterranean Studies” version,whichdescribeshowLouis’syoungerbrotherCharlesof Anjou,kingofSicily(r.1266–82),divertedhissaintlysibling’scrusade fromtheHolyLandtoNorthAfricainordertostabilizeSicilian–Tunisian relationsafteranunsettledperiod,maintaincommercialcontactswith Egypt,thepresumedinitialtargetoftheexpedition,andextracttribute paymentsfromal-Mustansir.6 JustasinthelargerdebateovertheMediterranean,thesealternativesareseenasmutuallyexclusive.Thecrusade waseitheradriveforsoulsoradriveformoney,butitcouldnotbeboth. Itwaseitheracampaignofeliminationoranattemptataccommodation, butitcouldnotbeboth.Itwasanepisodeinwhichreligionmattered eitherverymuchorverylittle,butitcouldnotbeboth.Whatweareleft witharecompetingexplanationsthatcanbereducedtobinaries:souls/ money;confrontation/accommodation;spiritual/material.
Thesetwowaysofunderstandingthecrusade,alwayspresentedas contradictory,areactuallycomplementary.LouisandCharlesbothfound whattheywantedinTunis:itwasaplacewhereMuslimsoulscouldbewon and Hafsidmoneycouldbehad;whereLatinChristiancommercialinterests and missionaryinitiativescouldbeadvanced;andwheremethodsof militantconfrontation and conciliatorydiplomacycouldbetried.Thekey tounderstandingtheTunisCrusade,inotherwords,hasbeenhidingin plainsight.ItisTunisitself,withitsfar-flungcommercialengagements, ambiguouspoliticalstatus,andenduringcentralitytoMediterraneannetworksofexchange.
Theseargumentsbuildonageneration’sworthofpath-breakingscholarshipinthehistoryofthecrusadesandthemedievalMediterranean. Threeparticularlyimportantexampleswarrantexplicitmention.David Nirenberg’sworkonritualizedintercommunalviolenceinthefourteenthcenturyCrownofAragonhasinfluencedallsubsequentscholarshipon medievalinterfaithrelationsinthewesternMediterranean,andthepresent
5 SeeSternfeld,Mollat,Longnon,andÉtienneDelaruelle, “L’idéedecroisadechezsaint Louis,” Bulletindelittératureecclésiastique 61(1960):pp.241–57.
6 SeeBorghese.
