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TheScienceofReligion,Spirituality,and Existentialism TheScienceofReligion, Spirituality,and Existentialism Editedby KennethE.VailIII
DepartmentofPsychology,ClevelandStateUniversity,Cleveland,OH,UnitedStates
ClayRoutledge
DepartmentofPsychology,NorthDakotaStateUniversity,Fargo,ND,UnitedStates
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Theexperimentalresearchsupportingterrormanagementtheory8 Researchdirectlyfocusedontheterrormanagementfunctionofreligion9
Theassociationbetweenreligiosityanddeathanxiety9 Mortalitysalienceandinvestmentinreligiosity10 Evidencethatstrongorbolsteredreligiousbeliefreducesdefensiveresponsestomortalitysalience11
JonathanJong
Arepeopleafraidofdeath?Pt1:Evidencefromlists23
Arepeopleafraidofdeath?Pt2:Evidencefromscales24
Arepeopleafraidofdeath?Pt3:Deathanxietyandproximitytodeath25
Arepeopleafraidofdeath?Pt4:Deathanxietyandmortalitysalience26
DarylR.VanTongeren
Howdopeopleusuallycopewithexistentialconcerns?37
4.Near-deathexperiences:themysticalfeelingof“crossingover”anditsimpact
6.Understandingthepsychologyofreligion:thecontributionof self-determinationtheory83
MariaBrambillaandAviAssor
Thecoreconceptsofself-determinationtheory83
Howself-determinationtheoryhelpsusunderstanddifferentformsofreligiosity84
Self-determinationtheory’sperspectivecomparedwithotherconceptualizationsaboutreligiosity84
Differentreligiousmotivationscorrespondtodifferentwaysofapproachingreligiouscontents85
Connectionbetweendifferentmotivationsforreligiousbehaviorsandwell-beingandsocialoutcomes85
7.Agoalsperspectiveonreligionandspirituality91
8.Religionandspirituality,freewill,andeffectiveself-regulation103
AdamS.Hodge,CourtneyJ.Alderson,DavidK.Mosher,CameronW.Davis,JoshuaN.Hook, DarylR.VanTongeren,JeffreyD.GreenandDonE.Davis
9.Authenticityandthetrueselfinreligionandspirituality119
AndrewG.Christy,GraceN.RiveraandRebeccaJ.Schlegel
Thehistoricalemergenceofauthenticityconcernsandtheirtiestoreligion119
Thetrueselfandauthenticity:perspectivesfromexistentialphilosophyandpsychology120
Theinterplayofreligionandauthenticity:conceptualandempiricalconsiderations121
Morality:thekeytounderstandingtherelationshipbetweenreligionandauthenticity?132
Concludingthoughts:isreligionuniquelyrelevanttoauthenticity?133
10.Freedomasacrosstobear:choiceoverload,theburdensoffreedom, andthebenefitsofconstraint141 BarrySchwartz Choiceoverloadandparalysis
From“YouAreWhatYouDo”to“YouAreWhatYouOwn”145 Freedom,choice,andwelfare:anonmonotonicrelation146 Religion,spirituality,freedom,andchoice146
11.Socialostracism,religion,andexistentialconcerns153
AndrewH.Hales,EricD.WesselmannandKiplingD.Williams
Temporalneed-threatmodelofostracism153
12.Theholygrailofconnection:I-sharing,existentialisolation,andreligion167
ElizabethC.Pinel,GenevaC.YawgerandYoungChinPark
13.Anattachmenttheoryperspectiveonreligionandspirituality175
PehrGranqvist,MarioMikulincerandPhillipR.Shaver
KennethI.MavorandRenateYsseldyk
Religiousideology:orthodoxy,fundamentalism,andcomponentsofright-wingauthoritarianism189 Specificityofprejudicetargetsandsocialidentity190
Socialidentityandthereligiousself190
Socialidentityandreligiousopinion basedgroups191
SIMCAandEMSICAmodelsofsocialidentityandcollectiveaction191
Atripartitesocialidentitynormativemodelofreligiousfundamentalism193
Religion,self-structure,andpersonalwell-being195
Thesaliencemodelofself-categories195
Convergentperspectivesfromtheoriesofthepersonalself196
Self-complexityandthemultipleself-aspectsmodel196 Complexityversuscoherence
Convergentperspectivesoftheselffromsocialidentitytheorizing197
RomanPalitsky,DanielSullivan,IsaacF.YoungandHarrisonJ.Schmitt
Anexistentialperspectiveonreligionandtheconstructionofidentity207
Existentialperspectivesonidentityandreligion207
Psychologicalapproachestotherelationbetweenreligionandidentity210
Commonpsychologicalapproachestoreligionandidentity212
Experimentalexistentialpsychologyresearchonthereligiousidentity214
EwaSzumowska*,AnetaCzernatowicz-Kukuczka*,MałgorzataKossowska,SzymonKro´land ArieW.Kruglanski
Religiousnessandglobalmeaning
Religionandmeaninginstressfullifecircumstances276
Religiousnessandinitialappraisalsofstressfulevents276
Religiousnessanddiscrepancy/distress278
Religiousnessandmeaningmakingcoping278
Religiousnessandmeaningsmade
Religiousnessandstress-relatedgrowth280
20.Meaning,religious/spiritualstruggles,andwell-being287
NickStauner,JulieJ.ExlineandJoshuaA.Wilt
Part5 Mechanisms,variations,andindividualdifferences 21.Inhisownimage:anexistentialevolutionaryperspectiveontheoriginsand
TomPyszczynskiandMarkJ.Landau
BastiaanT.RutjensandJesseL.Preston
CathyR.Cox,RobertB.ArrowoodandJulieA.Swets
Death,creatureliness,andincarnationalambivalencetowardtheDivine390
28.Religion:moreessential(andexistential)nutrientthanopiateforthemasses405
JaısAdam-TroıanandMattMotyl
Thebeliefinanafterlifeexorcizesdeath406
29.Politicsandreligion:commutable,conflicting,andcollaborativesystemsfor satisfyingtheneedfororder421
StevenShepherdandAaronC.Kay Compensatorycontroltheory
422 Godasasourceofcontrolandorder422
Secularandsociopoliticalsystemsasasourceofcontrolandorder423
Thesubstitutablenatureofgodandgovernment425
Symbolicalignmentbetweensociopoliticalandreligioussourcesofcontrolandorder427
30.Theparadoxoffaith:howexistentialconcernsmotivatebothprosocialand antisocialreligiousbehaviors435
SpeeKosloffandSheldonSolomon
Terrormanagementandthemotivationalunderpinningsofreligion435
Empiricalevidenceforthedeath-denyingfunctionofpro-andanti-socialreligiousbehaviors437
Testingfortheexistentialallureoffaith437
Religioustribalismasthedefaultresponsetomortalitysalience438
TylerJimenez,MichaelN.BultmannandJamieArndt
ListofContributors AndrewA.Abeyta RutgersUniversity-Camden, Camden,NJ,UnitedStates
Jaı¨sAdam-Troı¨an Aix-MarseilleUniversity,Marseille, France
CourtneyJ.Alderson VirginiaCommonwealth University,Richmond,VA,UnitedStates
JamieArndt UniversityofMissouri,Columbia,MO, UnitedStates
RobertB.Arrowood TexasChristianUniversity,Fort Worth,TX,UnitedStates
AviAssor BenGurionUniversity,Be’erSheva,Israel
ElizabethN.Blake RutgersUniversity-Camden, Camden,NJ,UnitedStates
MariaBrambilla CatholicUniversityoftheSacred Heart,Milan,Italy
MichaelN.Bultmann UniversityofMissouri, Columbia,MO,UnitedStates
AndrewG.Christy BowdoinCollege,Brunswick,ME, UnitedStates
CathyR.Cox TexasChristianUniversity,FortWorth, TX,UnitedStates
AnetaCzernatowicz-Kukuczka JagiellonianUniversity, Krakow,Poland
CameronW.Davis UniversityofNorthTexas,Denton, TX,UnitedStates
DonE.Davis GeorgiaStateUniversity,Atlanta,GA, UnitedStates
HollyR.Engstrom UniversityofBritishColumbia, Vancouver,BC,Canada
JulieJ.Exline CaseWesternReserveUniversity, Cleveland,OH,UnitedStates
PehrGranqvist StockholmUniversity,Stockholm, Sweden
JeffreyD.Green VirginiaCommonwealthUniversity, Richmond,VA,UnitedStates
JeffGreenberg UniversityofArizona,Tucson,AZ, UnitedStates
AndrewH.Hales UniversityofVirginia,Charlottesville, VA,UnitedStates
PeterJ.Helm UniversityofArizona,Tucson,AZ, UnitedStates
AdamS.Hodge UniversityofNorthTexas,Denton,TX, UnitedStates
LouisHoffman RockyMountainHumanisticCounseling andPsychologicalAssociation,ColoradoSprings,CO, UnitedStates
JaniceMinerHolden UniversityofNorthTexas, Denton,TX,UnitedStates
JoshuaN.Hook UniversityofNorthTexas,Denton,TX, UnitedStates
TylerJimenez UniversityofMissouri,Columbia,MO, UnitedStates
JonathanJong CoventryUniversity,Coventry,United Kingdom
AaronC.Kay DukeUniversity,Durham,NC,United States
JohannesKlackl UniversityofSalzburg,Salzburg,Austria
SpeeKosloff CaliforniaStateUniversity,Fresno,CA, UnitedStates
MałgorzataKossowska JagiellonianUniversity, Krakow,Poland
SzymonKro ´ l JagiellonianUniversity,Krakow,Poland
ArieW.Kruglanski UniversityofMaryland,College Park,MD,UnitedStates
MarkJ.Landau UniversityofKansas,Lawrence,KS, UnitedStates
KristinLaurin UniversityofBritishColumbia, Vancouver,BC,Canada
KennethI.Mavor UniversityofStAndrews,St Andrews,UnitedKingdom
MarioMikulincer InterdisciplinaryCenterHerzliya, Herzliya,Israel
DavidK.Mosher UniversityofNorthTexas,Denton, TX,UnitedStates
MattMotyl NewYorkUniversity,NewYork,NY, UnitedStates
RomanPalitsky UniversityofArizona,Tucson,AZ, UnitedStates
CrystalL.Park UniversityofConnecticut,Mansfield, CT,UnitedStates
YoungChinPark UniversityofVermont,Burlington, VT,UnitedStates
ElizabethC.Pinel UniversityofVermont,Burlington, VT,UnitedStates
JesseL.Preston UniversityofWarwick,Coventry, UnitedKingdom
TravisProulx CardiffUniversity,Cardiff,United Kingdom
TomPyszczynski UniversityofColorado,Colorado Springs,CO,UnitedStates
BenjaminRamey SaybrookUniversity,Pasadena,CA, UnitedStates
GraceN.Rivera TexasA&MUniversity,College Station,TX,UnitedStates
RossRogers ColbyCollege,Waterville,ME,United States
BenjaminD.Rosenberg DominicanUniversityof California,SanRafael,CA,UnitedStates
BastiaanT.Rutjens UniversityofAmsterdam, Amsterdam,TheNetherlands
RebeccaJ.Schlegel TexasA&MUniversity,College Station,TX,UnitedStates
HarrisonJ.Schmitt UniversityofArizona,Tucson,AZ, UnitedStates
BarrySchwartz BerkeleyHaas,Berkeley,CA,United States
PhillipR.Shaver UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,CA, UnitedStates
StevenShepherd OklahomaStateUniversity,Spear’s SchoolofBusiness,Stillwater,OK,UnitedStates
JasonT.Siegel ClaremontGraduateUniversity, Claremont,CA,UnitedStates
DanielleSilveira SaybrookUniversity,Pasadena,CA, UnitedStates
SheldonSolomon SkidmoreCollege,SaratogaSprings, NY,UnitedStates
NickStauner CaseWesternReserveUniversity, Cleveland,OH,UnitedStates
DanielSullivan UniversityofArizona,Tucson,AZ, UnitedStates
JulieA.Swets TexasChristianUniversity,FortWorth, TX,UnitedStates
EwaSzumowska JagiellonianUniversity,Krakow, Poland;UniversityofMaryland,CollegePark,MD, UnitedStates
MayaTamir TheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem, Jerusalem,Israel
NatashaTassell-Matamua MasseyUniversity, PalmerstonNorth,NewZealand
DarylR.VanTongeren HopeCollege,Holland,MI, UnitedStates
AllonVishkin TheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem, Jerusalem,Israel
EricD.Wesselmann IllinoisStateUniversity,Normal, IL,UnitedStates
KiplingD.Williams PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette, IN,UnitedStates
JoshuaA.Wilt CaseWesternReserveUniversity, Cleveland,OH,UnitedStates
GenevaC.Yawger UniversityofVermont,Burlington, VT,UnitedStates
IsaacF.Young UniversityofArizona,Tucson,AZ, UnitedStates
RenateYsseldyk CarletonUniversity,Ottawa,ON, Canada
Preface Religiousandspiritualbeliefsareincrediblywide-spreadphenomena,withimportantinfluencesonsocialbehavior,culturalpractices,andevensocietalfunctioning.Pollsestimatethatthevastmajorityofthepopulationisreligiousbelievers,with300millionAmericansandover5billionglobally(Pew,2017).Further,althoughthenumberofreligiously unaffiliatedhasbeengrowing,thespiritualimpulsehashardlyreceded.Infact,pollsindicatethateachoftheworld’s majorreligions’populations(exceptBuddhism)isexpectedtogrowoverthecomingdecades(Pew,2017).Thatis,as thepopulationgrowthofbelieversoutpacesthatofunbelievers(Lipka&McClendon,2017),theworldissettobecome more—notless—religious.
Thescientificstudyofreligionandspiritualityhasofcoursebeenmakingsteadyprogresstowardbetterunderstandingreligiousandspiritualphenomena.However,recentdecadeshaveseenrapidexpansionsinthenumberandscopeof interestedresearchers,intheavailabletheoreticalperspectivestheybringtothetable,andinthesophisticationoftheir technologicalandmethodologicaltools.Oneimportantthreadinthatexpansionhasbeentheincreasedfocusonempirical,quantitative,existentialpsychology—includingthescientificstudyofhowreligionandspiritualitymay(ormay not)functiontoaddressthe“ultimateconcerns”thatuniquelycharacterizehumanexistence.Thisbook,therefore, explorestheknowncontoursandemergingfrontiersof thescienceofreligion,spirituality,andexistentialism and appliesittoaddresssomeofthebigquestionsaboutwhyreligiousbeliefandspiritualityhavebeen—andremain—such centralfeaturesofthehumanexperience.
Coreexistentialconcerns Innearlyeverymomentofeveryday,peoplearoundtheworldmustgrapplewithexistentialconcerns,includingconcernsaboutdeath,freedom,isolation,identity,andmeaninginlife.Peoplepossesssophisticatedcognitivecapacities forabstractthought,self-awareness,andpersonalcontroloftheirattitudesandbehaviorswhich,amongmanyother things,forcethemtograpplewithcertainissuesinwaysthatnootheranimaldoes—inwaysthatuniquelycharacterize humanexistence.First,suchcapacitiesallowhumanstoappreciatethebrevityandfragilityoflife,notonlyintheconcretebutalsotheabstract.Whatdoesonedoaboutthebasicknowledgeoftheconceptofmortality,howdoesonemanagethecorrespondingfearofdeath,andhowdoesonecopewithmoretraumaticnear-deathexperiences?Second,such capacitiesallowpeoplethefreedomtoappreciatechoiceandexercisecontroloverthemselvesandtheirenvironments. But,inanygivenmoment,howshouldoneexercisethatfreedomindecidingwhotobeandwhattodo,andwhatare thecausesandconsequencesofanauthentic/genuineexpressionofone’sautonomycomparedtosimplyrelinquishing controloverone’sfreedomtoexternalforces?
Humansarealsosocialcreatures,inneedofacceptanceandbelonging,andinneedofconsensualvalidationof one’sownexperience—ofone’sowntruthandreality.Howshouldonebestseekoutthatacceptanceandexperiential validation,andwhataretheconsequenceswhenonefindsthemselveseithersociallyorexperientiallyisolated?Ona relatednote,giventhefreedomtochooseone’sattitudesandbehaviors,andtheneedsforsocialacceptanceandconsensualvalidation,whatmakesyou“you”?Thatis,whatcontributestotheconstructionofthepersonalandsocialidentities thatallow“you”toexistinformandfunction,howdoyouparticipateinthatprocess,andhowdothoseidentities impactyourattitudesandbehaviors?Andlastly,peopleclearlynavigatealloftheseissueswithpurposeinsystematic, meaningfulways.So,howdoesonefindpurposeintheworld,andsearchforandexperiencemeaninginlife?
Thescopeandtreatmentofthepresentvolume Thepresenthandbookpresentsin-depthanalysisofmanysuchcoreissuesinexistentialpsychology,theirconnections toreligionandspirituality(e.g.,religiousconcepts,beliefs,identities,andpractices),andtheirdiverseoutcomes(e.g., psychological,social,cultural,andhealth).Intheprocess,leadingscholarsfromaroundtheworld,representingdiverse
conceptualandmethodologicalapproaches,presentthecurrentstateofthescienceinthoseareas.Overthecourseof31 chapters,arrangedintosixparts,thosescholarsdescribetheoryandresearchillustratinghowfundamentalexistential issuescanoperateascauseandconsequenceofreligionandspirituality,informedbyworkspanningmultiplelevelsof analysis,suchasevolution,cognitionandneuroscience,emotionandmotivation,personalityandindividualdifferences, socialandculturalforces,physicalandmentalhealth,andmanyothers.
Part1focusesontheabstractconceptofmortality,concretenear-deathexperiences,andotherdeath-relatedconcerns. InChapter1,Dwellingforeverinthehouseofthelord:ontheterrormanagementfunctionofreligion,Greenberg,Helm, Landau,andSolomonpresentterrormanagementtheory,atheoreticalperspectivethatsuggeststheabstractconceptof mortalityexertsanonconsciousmotivationalpushtomaintainfaithinreligiousandspiritualconceptsthatoffersome senseofpermanence—suchasfaithinafterlife,souls,andtheirsupportingworldviews.Theycoverthelargebodyofprimarilyexperimentalevidencerevealingthebasicprocesses,thepsychologicaldeath-denyingfunctionofreligiousand spiritualfaith,andtheimplicationsofthisexistentialmotivationforwell-beingandinter-religiousconflict.Extendingthat contributioninChapter2,Deathanxietyandreligiousbelief:acriticalreview,Jongfurtherconsidersthebodyofselfreportandcorrelationalresearchexploringwhetherpeopleareconsciouslyawareofandafraidofdeath,whetherandhow self-reported(explicit)deathanxietyisrelatedtoreligiousfaith,andwhatcausalpathsmightbeinvolved.
Next,inChapter3,Facetofacewithdeath:theroleofreligionincopingwithsuffering,vanTongerenconsiders the theodicy—howtraumaticencounterswithhumansufferingandtheapparentevilsoftheworldcanshakeaperson’s fundamentalassumptionsaboutthenatureofreality,erodethesenseofmeaninginlife,andchallengeone’sreligious faith.vanTongerenthendiscussesworkrevealinghowsuchchallengestoone’sfaithcanleadonetoacknowledgethe sufferingyetdefensivelydouble-downontheextantbelief,tocognitivelyburyone’sheadinthesandanddenythat one’sfaithhasevenbeenchallenged,toadmitthefailureofone’sbeliefsandleavereligionaltogether,and/orpotentiallyopen-mindedlyseekspiritualgrowthinsearchofalternativefaithscapableofbetterexplainingtheworldand restoringspiritualmeaning.InChapter4,Near-deathexperiences:themysticalfeelingof“crossingover”anditsimpact onfaithandspirituality,Tassell-MatamuaandHoldenconsiderresearchonnear-deathexperiences,whenpeoplesurvivebeingatornearthepointofclinicaldeathandexperienceaperceivedtranscendenceofspace,time,andmental boundaries(i.e.,out-of-bodyexperiences).Oftenreportedascomplexandprofoundlyspiritualevents,thechapterconsidersthephysiological,psychological,psychopathological,andthemorecontroversial“nonmaterialist”explanations fortheseandsimilarlymysticalexperiences,followedbyanin-depthconsiderationoftheoftenimmediateanddramatic changesinreligion/spirituality.
Part2coversthestrugglesandtriumphsassociatedwithfreedom,self-regulation,andauthenticity.InChapter5, Reactanceandspiritualpossibilities:anapplicationofpsychologicalreactancetheory,RosenbergandSiegelpresent psychologicalreactancetheory,whichpositsthatafundamentalexistentialconcernistheindividual’sfreedomto choosewhenandhowtobehave,andthatthreatstoone’sperceivedfreedomstriggerbehavioralattemptstorestore thosefreedoms.Informedbyanow-classicbodyofreactanceresearch,theauthorsexaminehowreligionsmayoften conveytheirspiritualmessagesandbehavioraldirectivesinwaysthatpreserveorevenaffirmthebeliever’sperceived behavioralfreedoms,whereasoverbearingreligiousprescriptionsandproscriptionsmaytriggerreactanceandthusmotivateheresyandapostasy.InChapter6,Understandingthepsychologyofreligion:thecontributionofselfdeterminationtheory,BrambillaandAssorofferasimilarperspective,basedonself-determinationtheory,andfocuson thedegreetowhichpeoplemayinternalizetheavailablespiritualmessagesandreligiousbehavioraldirectives.
Rogersthenexplores,inChapter7,Agoalsperspectiveonreligionandspirituality,howreligionscandefineoverarchingspiritualideals/goalsthatorganizeandguidepurposefulactions,helpingpeopletoeffectivelycontendwith existentialconcernsaboutmeaninginlife,personalsignificanceandmortality,andmaintainbettersubjectivewellbeing.Hodgeetal.extendthatdiscussioninChapter8,Religionandspirituality,freewill,andeffectiveself-regulation, focusingonfreewillandself-regulation.Theauthorsconsidertheinfluenceofreligion/spiritualityonfreewillbelief, andviceversa,withimplicationsformoralisticbehaviorviafourcomponentsofpursuingreligious/spiritualgoals: rationalchoice,exertingself-control,takinginitiative,andplanfulbehavior.InChapter9,Authenticityandthetrueself inreligionandspirituality,Christy,Rivera,andSchlegeladdresstheexistentialstruggleforself-knowledgeandauthenticity,drawingfromtheempiricalevidencetoconsiderwaysinwhichreligious/spiritualexperiences,beliefs,andcommunitiesmightfacilitateorantagonizeone’ssubjectivelyauthenticexperience—especiallywhenitcomestomoral functioning.InChapter10,Freedomasacrosstobear:choice-overload,theburdensoffreedom,andthebenefitsof constraint,Schwartzclosesoutthesectionbyconsideringthepotentialproblemsposedbythefreedomtochoosewho tobeandwhattodo.Inaworldwithincreasingamountsofoptionsandpossibilities,evidencesuggestschoicemay sometimesinduceuncertaintyandparalysisratherthanenlightenmentandempowerment,andsomereligious/spiritual worldviewsmayhelpthefaithfulfindahappymediumbetweenautonomy-supportandautonomy-constraint.
Part3examinestherolesofsocialexclusion,experientialisolation,attachment,andtheconstructionofsocialidentity.First,inChapter11,Socialostracism,religion,andexistentialconcerns,Hales,Wesselmann,andWilliamsexplore evidencesuggesting interpersonal ostracismisrelatedtoavarietyofexistentialconcerns,thatreligiousgroupssometimeswieldostracismtoensuregroupcohesiveness,andthatothersourcesofostracismcanleadpeopletoturntoreligion(andperhapsevenextremistreligiousgroups)insearchofacceptanceandbelonging.Then,inChapter12,The holygrailofconnection:I-sharing,existentialisolation,andreligion,Pinel,Yawger,andParkaddfurthernuanceby focusingon experiential isolation—theinabilitytodirectlyvalidateone’sinnermentalexperienceswithothers’experiences.Theauthorsrelatehowthequestforexistentialconnection(i.e.,I-sharing)canmotivatetheperceptionofintimatespiritualrelationshipswithdivineagents,socialconnectionswithfellowbelievers,andevenconflictagainstthose withdifferentreligiousfaiths.Granqvist,Mikulincer,andShaverpresentattachmenttheoryinChapter13,Anattachmenttheoryperspectiveonreligionandspirituality,builduponittocoverresearchshowingthatpeoplealsoform attachmenttoGodandthenconsideremergingresearchontwomodels:acorrespondencemodelinwhichone’sattachmenttoGodmirrorsone’sotherattachmentbonds,andacompensationmodelinwhichattachmenttoGodmaybestrategicallyreliedupontosubstituteforone’sinsecureattachmentswithothers.Chapter14,Asocialidentityapproachto religion:religiosityatthenexusofpersonalandcollectiveself,andChapter15,Religionandtheconstructionofidentity,exploretheroleofreligioninthefundamentalconstructionofsocialidentity.First,MavorandYsseldykreview researchsuggestingreligionsareinvolvedinnavigatingbothindividualandcollectivesocialidentities;then,Palitsky, Sullivan,Young,andSchmittadoptavarietyofexistentiallyinformedperspectivesandmultimethodapproachesto studyinghowprivate,social,anddevelopmentaldimensionsofreligionandidentityareconstructedandintegrated. Part4considerstheproblemsofuncertainty,theefforttodiscerntruthandreality,andthechallengetofindmeaningin life.InChapter16,Truthandsignificance:a3Nmodel(needs,narratives,networks)perspectiveonreligion,Szumowska, Czernatowicz-Kukuczka,Kossowska,Kro ´ l,andKruglanskipresentthe3Nmodelperspective,inwhichreligiosityoften stemsfromtwoexistentialneeds—theepistemicneedtoknowandtheneedforsignificance—andisshapedbyculturalnarrativesoutliningstoriesandgoals/values,whicharethensanctifiedandenforcedbyrelevantsocialnetworks.In Chapter17,Existentialuncertaintyandreligion,EngstromandLaurinconsiderresearchfromavarietyofperspectives— uncertainty-identity,reactiveapproachmotivation,compensatorycontroltheory,andsystemjustificationtheory—eachsupportingtheconclusionthatuncertaintycanmotivatepeopletobecomemorereligious.ProulxthenutilizesChapter18, CosmicDadorCthulhu:whywewillalwaysneed(religious)absolutes,tohighlighttheoryandresearchsuggestingthat peopleoftengravitatetowardreligiousabsolutesbecausesuchapproachescancalmone’sanxietiesaboutanunnerving worldthatdoesnotalwaysseemtomakesense.Chapter19,Religiousnessandmeaningmakingfollowingstressfullife eventsandChapter20,Meaning,religious/spiritualstruggles,andwell-being,explorethestrugglewithstressfulandtraumaticlifeeventsandeventhestrugglewithreligious/spiritualbeliefsthemselves.Parkfirstpresentsthemeaningmaking model,whichpositsthatexperiencinganeventasinconsistentwithone’sunderstandingoftheworld(one’smeaningsystem)canmotivateeffortstoresolvethatdiscrepancy;thatprocesscannotonlyleadtoassimilationofthestressorintoone’s extantreligious/spiritualbeliefsbutalsotospiritualgrowthifoneneedstoadjustone’sreligious/spiritualbeliefstoaccommodatethediscrepantevent.Stauner,Exline,andWiltthenprovideadetailedreviewofresearchontheshapeofreligious/ spiritualstrugglesinvolvingconflictswithdeities,spirits,religiouspeople,andevenone’sowninternalmoraltumult.
Part5discusseshowtheminddeveloped(e.g.,evolution)tohandlesuchexistentialtopics,howthebrainandmind implementtherelevantprocesses(e.g.,neuroscience,emotionregulation,conceptacquisition),andthemanyvariations andindividualdifferencesthatalterthoseprocesses.PyszczynskiandLandau,inChapter21,Inhisownimage:anexistentialevolutionaryperspectiveontheoriginsandfunctionofreligion,presentanimpressiveintegrationofexistential andevolutionaryperspectivesanddata,providinganexplanationoftheemergenceofintuitivespiritconceptsandelaboratespiritualcosmologies,religiousmoralcodes,andbothindividualandsocialpsychologicaldynamics.Theycover topicssuchastheoryofmind,fearandanxiety,disgust,theinabilitytoimaginenonexistence,mind bodydualism, deathawareness,conceptualmetaphorandconceptacquisition,andmoralintuitions,inadditiontosocialcohesion, socialpower,andproselytizing.InChapter22,Fearnot:religionandemotionregulationincopingwithexistentialconcerns,VishkinandTamirdescribehowpeoplemayrelyuponreligion/spiritualitytoimplementproblem-focusedand emotion-focusedemotionregulationstrategieswhencopingwithexistential(e.g.,death-related)concerns.In Chapter23,Existentialgivens,religion,andneuroscience,Klacklexaminesevendeepermechanismsinthe“existential neuroscience”ofreligionandspirituality;theauthordiscusseshowvariousbrainstructuresmayfacilitatethereligious/ spiritualhandlingofexistentialissuessuchasmortality,freedom,isolation,andmeaning.InChapter24,Theexistential implicationsofindividualdifferencesinreligiousdefensiveandgrowthorientations:fundamentalism,questreligiosity, andintrinsic/extrinsicreligiosity,AbeytaandBlakedescribeindividualdifferencesinreligiousorientations,alonga continuumrangingfromstrict/closed-mindedfundamentalismtosecure/genuineinternalizationtoflexible/open-minded
questorientations,whichhaveimplicationsforwell-being,intergrouprelations,andwhetherbelieversutilizereligionto copewithexistentialissuesineitherdefensiveorgrowth-orientedways.InChapter25,Existentialtherapy,religion, andmindfulness,Hoffman,Ramey,andSilveiraadoptanexistentialtherapyperspectivetobetterunderstandtheroleof mindfulnessinreligion/spirituality,especiallyitsexpressioninBuddhistandrelatedapproaches.
Part6,delvesintothecontroversiesandapplicationsstemmingfromthepresentanalyses.RutjensandPreston,in Chapter26,Scienceandreligion:arockyrelationshipshapedbysharedpsychologicalfunctions,considertheshared— andpossiblycompeting—existentialpsychologicalfunctionsofreligionandsciencetohelphumansexperienceknowledge,control,andmeaninginlife.InChapter27,Offleshandblood:death,creatureliness,andincarnationalambivalence towardthedivine,Cox,Arrowood,andSwetsdiscussresearchrevealingtheimplicationsofexistentialconcernsandthe humanbodyforreligion/spirituality,withconnectionstodisgustemotions,notionsofspiritualanddivinepurity,andreligiousregulationssooftenplaceduponwomenandfemalebodies.InChapter28,Religion:moreessential(andexistential)nutrientthanopiateforthemasses,Troı¨anandMotylapplyrelevantexistential,evolutionary,andsociological perspectivesandresearchtobetterunderstandthedevelopmentofreligiousidentities,beliefs,andmoralvalues,with implicationsforthehomogeneityandparochialityofreligiousgroups.ShepherdandKay,inChapter29,Politicsand religion:commutable,conflicting,andcollaborativesystemsforsatisfyingtheneedfororder,applycompensatorycontrol theory—whichpositsthatpeoplearemotivatedtoperceivetheworldasanorderlyandcontrollablesystemofmeaning— tounderstandwhypeoplemightturntoexternalsystemsoforderlyandcontrollablemeaning,suchassecularinstitutions (e.g.,government)and/orreligiousinstitutionsandbeliefs(e.g.,organizedreligionandbeliefinacontrollinggod),with implicationsfortheroleofreligion/spiritualityinpoliticalbeliefsandpublicpolicy.Likewise,inChapter30,Theparadox offaith:howexistentialconcernsmotivatebothprosocialandantisocialreligiousbehaviors,KosloffandSolomonapply terrormanagementtheoryandresearchtobetterunderstandtheimpactofexistentialconcernsonreligiouspro-/antisocial behavior,rangingfromreligiousintoleranceandevenwar/terrorismtopeacefulcompassionandhelpfulness.Andlastly, inChapter31,Religionandhealth:buildingexistentialbridges,Jimenez,Bultmann,andArndtapplyexistentialperspectivesandresearchtobetterunderstandhowtheissuesofdeath,freedom,isolation,andmeaningcanimpactphysical health relateddecisionsinbothbeneficialandhazardousways.
Thebroadercontext Thisbookispartofagrowinginterestinempiricalexistentialpsychology,broadly,aswellasthemorespecificapplicationofexistentialpsychologytoreligionandspirituality.Theresearchpresentedhere,andthepresentvolumeitself, owesmuchtoearlierworkpioneeringthefieldofexperimentalexistentialpsychology(Greenberg,Koole,& Pyszczynski,2004).Thepresentvolumealsoappearsalongsidetheemergencein2019ofannualmeetingsofexistential psychologyresearchersattheExistentialPsychologyPreconference(hostedbytheSocietyforPersonalityandSocial Psychology)andtheformationin2020ofanewInternationalSocietyfortheScienceofExistentialPsychology.Thus thepresentvolumewillbeofcriticalinteresttoresearchersacrossavarietyofrelevantfields.Butgiventhatdiscussion ofexistentialtopicshasbeensoconsistentlydominantthat Dictionary.com(2019) dubbed“existential”thewordofthe year,wesuspectitmaybeofinteresttoabroaderreadershipaswell.Aseditors,wehopethepresentvolumefurther facilitatesthespreadinginterestinexistentialpsychologyandfurtherinspiresscholarsandresearcherstocontinue buildingtowardanimprovedunderstandingoftheroleofexistentialissuesinreligionandspirituality.
KennethE.VailIII1 andClayRoutledge2 1ClevelandStateUniversity,Cleveland,OH,UnitedStates, 2NorthDakotaStateUniversity,Fargo,ND,UnitedStates
References Dictionary.com.(2019,December2). Dictionary.com’swordoftheyearfor2019is:Existential.FromEverythingAfterZbyDictionary.comwebsite: ,https://www.dictionary.com/e/word-of-the-year/. Retrieved11.12.19. Greenberg,J.,Koole,S.L.,&Pyszczynski,T.(Eds.),(2004). Handbookofexperimentalexistentialpsychology.GuilfordPress. Lipka,M.,&McClendon,D.(2017). Whypeoplewith“noreligion”areprojectedtodeclineasshareofworldpopulation.FromPewResearchCenter website: ,https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/07/why-people-with-no-religion-are-projected-to-decline-as-a-share-of-the-worlds-population/. Retrieved12.12.19. Pew.(2017,April5). Thechangingglobalreligiouslandscape.FromPewResearchCenter’sReligion&PublicLifeProjectwebsite: ,https://www. pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/. Retrieved12.12.19.
Dwellingforeverinthehouseofthelord: ontheterrormanagementfunctionof religion JeffGreenberg1,PeterJ.Helm1,MarkJ.Landau2 andSheldonSolomon3 1UniversityofArizona,Tucson,AZ,UnitedStates, 2UniversityofKansas,Lawrence,KS,UnitedStates, 3SkidmoreCollege,SaratogaSprings,NY, UnitedStates
Fear,firstofall,producedgodsintheworld.
Statius(AD45 AD96).
Inthedecisivemomentsofexistence,whenmanfirstbecomesmanandrealizeshisimmenselonelinessintheuniversal,the world-fearrevealsitselfforthefirsttimeasessentiallyhumanfearinthepresenceofdeath higherthoughtoriginatesas meditationupondeath.Everyreligion,everyscientificinvestigation,everyphilosophyproceedsfromit.
OswaldSpengler, DeclineoftheWest (1926/1999,p.166).
Aphenomenonaslong-standing,complex,andfar-reachingasreligionundoubtedlyservesmultiplepsychological functions.Indeed, Allport(1950) exploredmanyofthesefunctionsinhisclassic TheIndividualandHisReligion. More recently, BatsonandStocks(2004) proposedthat,overhistoricalerasandformanyindividuals,religionhasserved eachofthecategoriesofhumanneedsin Maslow’s(1970) hierarchicalmodel:physiological,safety,belongingness, self-esteem,andself-actualization.Numerouschaptersinthisvolumeexaminetherelationshipbetweenreligionand oneormoreoftheseneeds.Here,wemakethecasethatacriticalfunctionofreligionistomanagethepotentialforterrorinherentinlivinginanapparentlyabsurduniverseinwhichtheonlycertaintyinone’slifeistheknowledgethatit willinevitablyend.
Religiousaffiliationsandidentitiescanhelpassuageexistentialterrorbyprovidingasenseofsymboliccontinuance beyonddeathviaenduringcontributionstothereligiousgrouporitscauses,orsimplybyidentifyingwiththecollective,whichwillcontinuebeyondone’sindividualdeath.Inthisregard,religionsareverysimilartosecularformsof symbolicdeathtranscendence,suchasnations,thesciences,andthearts.
Religionsare,however,uniqueinthattheyalsoofferhopeofliteraldeathtranscendencebyprovidingpeoplewith supernaturalconceptionsofrealitythatincludethepossibilityoftranscendingdeaththroughanimmortalsoulandafterlife,afunctiondeemedimportantbymanywriters(e.g., Allen,1897/2000; Allport,1950; Atran,2002; Becker,1971; Burkert,1996; Durkheim,1995; Feuerbach,1843/1980; Freud,1915/1959; Kierkegaard,1955; James,1902; Lifton, 1979/1983; Rank,1931/1961; Spengler,1999;foralternativeviews,see Boyer,1994; Leuba,1925; Skinner,1948; Wilson,2002).Forexample, Allport(1950,p.9) notedthat
Man’slife,bracketedbetweentwooblivions,ishauntedbyfear ofenemies,ofnature,ofsickness,poverty,ostracism;most ofallofdeath,forofallcreaturesonearthmanaloneknowsthathewilldie.Doweevoketheprotectionofanamulet,dowe trustourselvestotheeverlastingarms,dowedisciplineourselvestoseekNirvanaandsoescapethethreatsthathoverover us?
Historicalandanthropologicalobservationsprovideabundantevidenceforthisproposition.Allsmalltribalreligions includeelaborateritualsassociatedwithdeathandexplicitbeliefsthatsomeaspectoftheindividual—one’ssoulor spirit—persistsafterphysicaldeath(e.g., Siegel,1980; Smart,1996).Similarly,deathritualsandbeliefsina
TheScienceofReligion,Spirituality,andExistentialism.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817204-9.00002-0 © 2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
death-transcendingsoulorotheressenceareprominentinthemostpopularcontemporaryreligions:Buddhism, Christianity,Hinduism,Islam,andJudaism(althoughthereisongoingdebateregardingJudaism).Moreover,theprimarythemeofthe EpicofGilgamesh,theancientSumeriantextbelievedtobethefoundationalmythfromwhichall themajormonotheisticreligionshavesprung,wasthesearchforimmortality.Fromthisperspectivethen,Jesus’restoringofLazarustolifeandhisownrisingfromthedead3daysafterhiscrucifixionwerefarmorethanmereparlortricks toestablishhissupernaturalpowers;rather,theyspoketohumanity’smostburningdesire,tobelievethatdeathisnot theabsoluteendofone’sexistence.
Thereisalsoevidencethatthethreatofdeathinclinespeopletoembraceandrelyonreligiousbeliefs.Forexample, followingtheattacksofSeptember11,2001,therewasasurgeinchurchattendanceintheUnitedStates,Canada, England,andAustralia(Lampman,2001;Pyszczynski,Solomon,&Greenberg,2003);inBiblesalesintheUnited States(Rice,2001);andinvisitstoreligiousandspiritualwebsites(Lampman,2001). Heflick(2006) foundthatreferencestoreligionandafterlifebeliefswerehighlyprevalentin228Texasdeathrowinmates’laststatements.More recently, Pelhametal.(2018) foundthat,acrossmanycultures,thereisasubstantialuptickinGooglesearchesforreligiousconstructsfollowingsurgesinGooglesearchesforpotentiallydeadlydiseases.
Althoughtheological,anthropological,andhistoricalscholarship,andthesecorrelationalfindingsareofgreatimportance,terrormanagementtheory(TMT;foroverviews,see Greenberg,Vail,&Pyszczynski,2014; Solomon, Greenberg,&Pyszczynski,1991a,2015)hasgeneratedaconsiderablebodyofexperimentalresearchthatprovides additionalsupportforthecentralrolesthatreligion(andsecularcultureaswell)playinquellingmortalityconcernsby providingpeoplewithasenseofdeathtranscendence.TMTbuildsonpan-disciplinaryculturalanthropologistErnest Becker’s(1971,1973,1975) synthesisofinsightsfromscholarssuchasbiologistCharlesDarwin,philosopherSøren Kierkegaard,psychologistsSigmundFreud,WilliamJames,GregoryZilboorg,andOttoRank,sociologistErving Goffman,psychohistoriansNormanBrownandRobertJayLifton,andtheologianPaulTillichtounderstandthemotivationalunderpinningsofhumanbehavior.AfterencounteringBecker’sworkintheearly1980s, Greenberg,Pyszczynski, andSolomon(1986) distilledBecker’ssynthesisintoTMT.SubsequenttestsofTMT-basedhypotheseshavegenerated acorpusofresearchthatnowconsistsofover1400studiesconductedin26differentcountries.WebelievethatTMT providesacompellingaccountofwhyandhowreligionservestomanageexistentialterrorandofferscluesastohow religionmighthaveevolvedtoservethisaim.
Terrormanagementtheory Lifeistragicsimplybecausetheearthturnsandthesuninexorablyrisesandsets,andoneday,foreachofus,thesunwillgo downforthelast,lasttime.Perhapsthewholerootofourtrouble,thehumantrouble,isthatwewillsacrificeallthebeauty ofourlives,willimprisonourselvesintotems,taboos,crosses,bloodsacrifices,steeples,mosques,races,armies,flags, nations,inordertodenythefactofdeath,whichistheonlyfactwehave.
JamesBaldwin, TheFireNextTime (Baldwin,1963/1998,p.339).
TMTbeginsbynotingfundamentalcommonalitiesbetweenhumansandotheranimals.Asproductsofevolution, humanssharewithotherspeciesavarietyofbiologicalsystemsgearedtowardsurvival.Wehaveelaboratemechanisms tosustainthenecessaryintakeofoxygenandnutrients,toregulateourinternaltemperature,andtoexecuteamyriadof othervitalphysiologicalprocesses.Wealsohavebasicemotionsthathelpkeepusalive,suchasfearandangertomarshalfightorflightresponsestoparrythreatstoexistence.Indeed,reminiscentofFreud’sconceptofthe it (alsoknown astheid),ourlimbicsystemseemsdesignedprimarilytokeepusalivebyregulatingbasicbiologicalneedsandgeneratingfearandurgentactionwhenourlivesarethreatened.
Ofcoursehumansarenotall it;whatdistinguishesusmostclearlyfromotheranimalsistherelativelylargeand highlydevelopedcerebralcortexthatprovidesourspecieswithauniqueintelligence:acapacityforsymbolicthought andreasoning,whichhasfacilitatedthevastproliferationofourspeciesaroundtheglobe.Humansaresingularlycapable,forexample,ofcontemplatingtheirownexistenceandshiftingattentionawayfromthemomentaryflowofsensationstothinkincomplex,symbolicwaysaboutthepast,present,andfuture.Atthisverymoment,thisseemingly crowningjewelofevolutionispreciselywhatallowsustoproclaimourselvesthecrowningjewelofevolution!
Theseawe-inspiring,powerfulconceptualtoolshavemadeussosmartthatwecanimagineandbringtofruitionall kindsofgreatpossibilities(e.g.,plows,planes,andpizzas).However,theyalsoallow,andattimescompel,ustoimaginepossibilitiesandinevitabilitiesthataredistinctlylessdesirable.Toknowthatweexistenablesustoconsiderthe possibilitythatwewillnotexist.Wecananticipateallsortsofpossiblethreatstoexistence;butevenmoreunsettling,
weknowthat,soonerorlater,ourowndeathisinevitable.Combinethisknowledgewiththedesireforsurvivalrooted inourlimbicsystemandyouhaveanorganismwithanomnipresentpotentialtoexperiencedread,orterror:
Ineverycalmandreasonablepersonthereishiddenasecondpersonscaredwitlessaboutdeath PhilipRoth, TheDyingAnimal (Roth,2001,p.153).
How,then,canthehumananimal—abundantlypredisposedtosurvivewhileknowingfullwellthatannihilationis alwayspotentiallyimpending,andultimately,inevitable—functionsecurelyinthisworld?TMTpositsthatwedosoby imbeddingourselvesinasymbolicallyconstitutedrealityaccordingtowhich,theworldisorderly,stable,andmeaningful;andeachofusisasignificantbeingwhowillsurviveinsomewayafterphysicaldeath.Towardthisend,allculturalworldviewsexplainwherewehumanscomefrom,ourpresentplaceintheuniverse,howwemaybevaluable contributorstothisultimatereality,andhow,throughourvaluedstatus,wecantranscenddeath.Peoplethusmanage thepotentialforterrorengenderedbyknowledgeofmortalitybysustainingfaithinculturallyderivedworldviewsand shoringupself-esteembyperceivingthemselvestobelivinguptothestandardsofvaluedconductprescribedbythat worldview.
Forthosewhomeetthemark,culturesofferoneorbothoftwobasictypesofdeathtranscendence: literalimmortality,whichisbasedonconceptssuchassoul,spirits,heaven,andnirvana;and symbolicimmortality,whichisgained throughprogenyandinheritance,culturallyvaluedachievements,memorialsandmonuments,andidentificationwith groups,nations,causes,andmovements(Lifton,1979/1983).Althoughreligionprovidesavenuesforbothliteraland symbolicimmortality,empiricalevidencesuggeststhatliteralimmortalityisaparticularlyalluringelementofreligious faith(Kahoe&Dunn,1975;Spilka,Stout,Minton,&Sizemore,1977).
Basedonanthropological,archeological,andhistoricalevidence, Becker(1971) andmanyothershaveconcluded that,priortotheinfluenceofDarwin’stheorizing,virtuallyallcultureswerefundamentallyspiritualorreligiousin character.Thesharpdistinctionbetweensecularcultureandreligionisarecentdevelopment,onestillnotacceptedin manypartsoftheworld,particularlyamongmembersofIslamicandindigenoustribalculturesaswellasmany AmericanevangelicalChristians.Pharaohs,kings,shamans,andtribalchieftainswerealwaystiedtospiritpowers; evenHitlerlinkedhimselfto“thedivinewill,”andtheJapaneseemperorHirohitowasconsideredadeity.Aspromoters ofthereligiousrightintheUnitedStatesarequicktopointout,thiscountrywasbuiltlargelyuponadeisticfoundation, aspectsofwhichremaintothisday.Indeed,asof1985,apopularsurveyindicatedthat98%ofAmericanswouldrefuse tovoteforanatheistpresident(Elliot,1985),andfollowingtheeventsofSeptember11,2001,PresidentGeorgeW. BushdeclaredthatGodhadchosenhimtoleadtheUnitedStates(Carney&Dickerson,2001).
Clearly,inmanycontemporarycultures,religioncontinuestoserveacriticalterrormanagementfunctionbyprovidingstandardsofvaluetoliveuptoandbypromisingliteralformsofdeathtranscendencetothosewhodoliveupto them.But Becker(1973,p.5)extendedthescopeofreligionevenfurtherbyarguingthatevenexplicitlyatheisticculturalworldviewsareessentiallyreligious:
Itdoesn’tmatterwhethertheculturalherosystemisfranklymagical,religious,andprimitive,orsecular,scientific,andcivilized.Itisstillamythicalhero-systeminwhichpeopleserveinordertoearnafeelingofprimaryvalue, ... ofunshakable meaning WesternsocietysinceNewton,nomatterhowscientificorsecularitclaimstobe,isstillas“religious”asany other :“civilized”societyisahopefulbeliefandprotestthatscience,moneyandgoodsmakemancountformorethanany otheranimal.Inthissenseeverythingthatmandoesisreligious.
Certainly,thecustoms,morals,andritualsofsecularculturesarejustasarbitraryasthoseofreligiouscultures,and theyareoftensteepedinthesamedegreeofmystification.Tobuttressthispoint, Becker(1973) pointstothemummificationofLeninandthepilgrimagestohistombduringtheSovietreignandthereafter; Lifton(1968) makesasimilar pointinhisanalysisofMao’sideologyofrevolutionaryimmortality.Thereverencewithwhichtheflagistreatedhere intheUnitedStatesprovidesanotherexamplethatisclosertohome.Ifthereisacleardistinctionbetweenreligious andsecularworldviews,itisthatthereligiousonesofferliteralimmortalityinthecontextofaninvisibleyetpowerful worldofdeitiesandspirits.Bothkindsofworldviews,however,offermeaningfulconceptionsofreality,foundations forself-worth,andsacredmodesofdeathtranscendence.
Anotherkeypsychologicaldifferencebetweenreligiousandsecularworldviewsaccordingto Becker(1971,1975) is thatforreligiousworldviews,people’sself-esteemisheavilydependentontheirrelationshipwiththeirgods.Indeed, recentworkhasfoundthat,formanyAmericans,theirspiritualrelationshipsareaprimarysourceofself-worth (Crocker,Luhtanen,Cooper,&Bouvrette,2003;Crocker&Wolfe,2001;Fishbach,Friedman,&Kruglanski,2003). Forsecularists,incontrast,self-esteemderivesmainlyfromculturalaccomplishments,suchasartisticor charitableworks,theaccumulationofmaterialpossessions,oridentificationwithcollectivesandideologiesthatsurvive
beyondone’sowndeath.Butultimatelysuchpurelysecularformsofimmortalityareneverentirelysatisfyingbecause theyoffernoguaranteeofone’seternalsignificance.Accordingly,adherentsoftheseworldviewsmayoftenfeelcompelledtostriveformoreandmoreandtoprotectfromlossordegradationofone’smundanegroundsforimmortality, whethertheybeoffspring,property,creativeachievements,orsocialorpoliticalorganizations.When,however,aspiritualdimensionservesasthebasisofone’sself-worthandsecurity,terrorislikelytobemorefullymanaged.Sucha dimensionprovidesastable,immutablebasisforcosmicsignificance,freeingonefromearthlyprescriptionsofselfworthandpotentiallybringingoneagreatersenseofpeace.Furthermore,becausereligiousworldviewsprovidemore explicitandcompellingmeansfordeathtranscendence,culturesandpeoplewhosubscribetothemseemtobeless intentondenyingthefragilityandtransienceofearthlylife,andlesssubjecttothefearthataccompaniesthis knowledge:
Yea,thoughIwalkthroughthevalleyoftheshadowofdeath, Iwillfearnoevil:Forthouartwithme; Thyrodandthystaff,theycomfortme
Surelygoodnessandmercyshallfollowmeallthedaysofmylife,
AndIwilldwellinthehouseoftheLordforever.
Theontogenyofterrormanagement Psalm23(KingJamesVersion).
Howdoesthenewbornbecomeimbeddedwithinasymbolicconceptionofrealityandultimatelybecomesodependent onitforsecurity?Briefly(forafullaccount,see Solomonetal.,2015),eachhumanisbornhelplessandprofoundly dependent,moresothanneonatesofanyotherspecies.Andthebirthprocessitselfmaywellbetheindividual’sfirst traumaticseparation,as Rank(1929/1973) cogentlyargued.Thesubsequentphysicaldistressthatinfantsexperience fromthebiologicalneedsthatwereformerlymetthroughtheirdirectconnectiontothemother’sbodyelicitsintense emotionalreactionsthatcanbethoughtofasa“primalterror,”aninchoatefearthatprecedesanyconsciousawareness ofwhatthesourceofthisdistressmightbe.Onlythroughareattachmentprocessoflove,sustenance,andprotection receivedfromtheparentsdoestheinfantthriveandgrow(Rank,1929/1973).
Thus,fromtheoutset,survivaldependsontheloveoftheparents:theyaretheprimarybasisofsafetyandsecurity. Intheirlovingpresence,allisrightandthechildcanhappilyexploreanddevelop;ifthreatappears,theparentsprovide asafeharbor.However,asthesmallchild’sphysicalandintellectualcapabilitiesexpandininteractionwiththeenvironment,theparentsbegintoputconditionsontheirapprovalandlove,praisingsomebehaviorsandadmonishingthechild forothers.
Throughoutthesocializationprocess,thechildstrugglesbetweenexpressingurgentnaturaldesiresandconforming totheparents’standardsforgoodbehaviorinordertosustainthesecurityaffordedbyparentalloveandprotection.As Freud(1917/1952) and Mead(1934) argued,inordertoanticipateandtrytoadheretoparentaldictateswhilesimultaneouslyestablishingself-control,thechildmustinternalizesymbolicrepresentationsoftheparentsandtheirstandards. Sullivan(1953) proposedthatoncetheserepresentationsareinplace,viewingtheselfas“good”bymeetingparental standardsisassociatedwithasecuresenseofparentalaffectionandprotection,whereasviewingtheselfasfallingshort ofthosestandardsisassociatedwithanxietyoverpossibleseparationfrom,andabandonmentby,theparents.Inshort, throughadynamicprocessofsecurity-seekingandindividuation,thechilddevelopsapsychologicalneedforselfesteem,afeelingthatoneismeetinginternalizedculturalstandardsofvalueandisthereforesafeguardedfrombasic fears.
Concurrently,intellectualdevelopmententailsagrowingcapacitytocopewithexternalreality,aswellastheability torealizeone’svulnerabilitiesandtoanticipatethreatstoone’ssafety.Fromabouttheageof3years,childrenbeginto conceptualizeandthinkaboutdeath(see,e.g., Yalom,1980)and,overtime,theprimitiverepresentationsofthreatepitomizedbyfearsofthedark,monsters,andbigdogsarereplacedwithmorerealisticfearsandtheunwelcomerealizationthatdeathistheultimatethreat.Tomakemattersworse,aschildrenbetterunderstandtheirrealvulnerabilities, theyalsorecognizetheirparents’limitedabilitiestoprotectthem.
Becker(1973) proposedthat,inresponsetothisgrowingawareness,childrentransfertheirbaseofsecurityfromthe parentstomorepotentresourcesthatcanbetteraddresstheproblemofdeath,suchasdeitiesandreligiousauthorities, nationalleaders,andthecultureitselfasanenduringentity.Thesekeycomponentsoftheoverarchingworldview
