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TheLexicalSemanticsoftheArabicVerb
TheLexicalSemantics oftheArabicVerb PETERJOHNGLANVILLE GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford, , UnitedKingdom
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ForChelsea Contents Acknowledgments x
Listof figures xii
Listofabbreviationsandsymbols xiii
Anoteonprimarysources xvi
Introductionandoverview
. Introduction
. Overview
Words,roots,andpatterns
. Introduction
Roots,patterns,andwordfamilies
. Roots,patterns,andderivation
Words,structure,andcontent
. Wordsfromverbs
Verbsfromwords
. Summaryandconclusion
Groundformverbpatterns
Introduction
Verbmarkingandprototypetheory
PatternI(a)
.
Energytransfer
Symmetricalstates
Cognitionverbs
Locativeconfigurations
One-participantactions
PatternI(i)
.
.
Experiencedstates
Subjectaslocation
Sequenceverbs
Influence
PatternI(u)
Summaryandconclusion
Reflexivemarking
Introduction
. Reflexivemarkingontheverb
Alternations
.. Subjectasbeneficiary
Actionsontheself
..
.
Symmetry
. Subjectaspatient
.. Anagencycontinuum
. Averbpattern
.. Denominals
.
.
.
Resultstates
Verbbuilding
Consistentmarking
Summaryandconclusion
Symmetry
. Introduction
Symmetry
.. Resistance
Risk
Competition
.
.
Interaction,exchange,andsharing
.. Helping,hugging,shakinghands
Co-action
.. Inherentsymmetry
Implementingsymmetry
. Symmetryandreflexivity
.. Reciprocity
.
..
. Counterfactuals
Chainingsituations
.. Co-action(again)
.. Progressivechange
Co-symmetry
. Summaryandconclusion
Causationandactionalization
Introduction
. Markedcausatives
Givingandsending
. Activatedstates
Baseasproduct
. Baseasgoal
Actionsontheself
. Causer-orientedactions
Resultstates
. Transfer
Conclusion
Repetition
. Introduction
. Repetitionandlinguisticmarking
.
Gemination
.
Repeateddivision
Repeatedcon
gurationandmotion
Incrementality
Repeatedtaking
. Reduplicationofthe firstandsecondconsonants
Repeatedsound
Rhythm
.
.
Soundsymbolism,etymons,andphonesthemes
.. Onthedirectionofderivation
Overlappingfunctions
.. Causationandrepetition
Expansionof faʕfaʕa
. Summaryandconclusion
Thebeginningsofasystem
. Introduction
. Asystemofconstructions
. Accountingforthesystem
.. Mergingwords
.. Abstractionofrelationalstructures
.. Analogy,categorization,andshape-invariantmorphology
. Derivationandconceptualblending
. Lookingforward
Primarysources
References
Index
Acknowledgments ThisbookistheresultofmycuriosityaboutandlovefortheArabiclanguage,and thisissomethingthathasbeenencouragedinonewayoranotherbyalargenumber ofpeople.MystudentsandcolleaguesatSultanQaboosUniversityinOmanwere fantasticteacherswhomademewanttolearnmore,andafterleavingIwasluckyto continuemyeducationwithsomeofthebestteachersworkinginthe fieldofArabic languagepedagogy.LikethousandsoflearnersofArabic,Iowespecialthanksto MahmoudAl-Batal,whohasworkedtirelesslyandwithgreatdedicationtotransformthewaythatArabicasasecondlanguageistaught,producingmaterials, trainingteachers,workingonassessment,andconvincingdecision-makersthat Arabicmustbetaughtforcommunication.IwouldalsoliketothankMohammad Mohammadforhisconstantencouragementandsupport,usuallyprovidedunderhis favoriteshadetreeattheUniversityofTexasatAustin,allofmyteachersin Damascus,especiallyManalYosefandGhadaHousen,theShadeedfamilyof Damascus,andmyfriendOsamaShamieh.AttheUniversityofMarylandIam gratefultoDinaHefnawy,LutfAlkebsi,ZeinElamine,HebaSalem,andAhmad Hanafyforbeinghappytoanswermyrandomquestionsaboutrootsandpatternsat thedropofahat.
Manypeoplehavealsosupportedtheresearchandwritingprocess.AttheinstitutionalleveltheUniversityofMarylandGraduateSchoolfundedmyresearchwitha ResearchandScholarshipAward(RASA)in ,andtheSchoolofLanguages, LiteraturesandCulturesprovidedasemesterofleave.Iamthankfultomycolleagues intheSchoolforprovidingvaluableadvice,mostnotablyMicheleMason,Alene Moyer,SteveRoss,andRyanLong.MycolleagueinArabic,ValerieAnishchenkova, hasbeenagoodfriendandsourceofmoralsupport,andourcoordinator,Lianne Berne,hasbeenfantasticineveryway.OutsideofMaryland,IamgratefultoVicki SunteratOxfordUniversityPressforbeingpositive,efficient,andprofessional throughoutthewholesubmissionandreviewprocess,toKarinRydingforinsightful commentsonthedraftbookproposal,AngelaHarmonforreadingearlydraft chapters,andanumberofanonymousreviewerswhohaveencouragedmetobe bolderinplaces,andlessoutrageousinothers.TheresearchIhaveundertakenfor thisworkwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithouttheexcellentArabiccorpusdevelopedandmaintainedbyDilworthParkinsonatBrighamYoungUniversity,andlike manyotherresearchersIamindebtedtohimforthis.
I firstencounteredthenameKristenBrustadwhenIboughtanArabiclanguage textbookinMorocco.ManyyearslaterwhenIwasagraduatestudentatUTshe turnedupandchangedmylife.Icouldneverhavewrittenthisbookwithoutthe
Acknowledgments xi
linguistictrainingsheprovided,orwithouttheconfidencethatsheinstilledinmeto dowhatIthinkshouldbedone.Thisistosaynothingofherconsiderableinputinto thisbookatallstages.
Finally,Iwouldliketothankmyfamily:myparents,forkeepingmeonthestraight andnarrowandforeventuallyrefrainingfromaskinghowmuchlongerallthisis goingtotake;mydogs,pastandpresent,forourwalks;myson,formakingmelaugh everyday;andmywifeChelsea,whoIlovewithallmyheart.
Listof figures . Contentandstructureof ʕadda ‘tocount’ , ʕadiid ‘ numerous ’,and ʕadad ‘number’
Contentandstructureof qatala ‘tokill’
. Contentandstructureof samiʕa ‘tohear’
. Contentandstructureof wasala ‘toconnect’
Contentandstructureof wasala ‘toarrive’
. Contentandstructureof qaruba ‘tobenear’
Contentandstructureof istawaa ‘tolevelout’
. Contentandstructureof tasaawaa ‘tobeequal’
Theadjective ʤayyid ‘good’ contrastedwiththeverb ʔaʤaada ‘todowell’
. Theconceptualblendrepresentedby qadam ‘foot’
Listofabbreviationsandsymbols (a)Transcription
IntransliteratingdatafromModernStandardArabicIusethefollowingsymbols:
ArabicCharacterTransliterationSymbolArticulatoryFeatures
ﺀ ʔ Glottalstop
ﻯ ,ﺍ aaLongopenfrontvowel
ﺏ bVoicedlabialstop
ﺕ tVoicelessdentalstop
ﺙ θ Voicelessinterdentalfricative
ﺝ ʤ Voicedalveolarfricative
ﺡ h Voicelesspharyngealfricative
ﺥ xVoicelessvelarfricative
ﺩ dVoiceddentalstop
ﺫ ðVoicedinterdentalfricative
ﺭ rAlveolarliquid
ﺯ zVoiceddentalfricative
ﺱ sVoicelessdentalfricative
ﺵ ʃ Voicelessalveolarfricative
ﺹ s Voicelessemphaticdentalfricative
ﺽ d Voicedemphaticdentalstop
ﻁ t Voicelessemphaticdentalstop
ﻅ z Voicedemphaticinterdentalfricative
ﻉ ʕ Voicedpharyngealfricative
ﻍ ġ Voicedvelarfricative
ﻑ fVoicelesslabiodentalfricative
ﻕ qVoicelessuvularstop
ﻙ kVoicelessvelarstop
ﻝ lDentalliquid
ﻡ mLabialnasal
ﻥ nAlveolarnasal
ﻩ hVoicelessglottalfricative
ﻭ w,uuVoicedlabialfricative,longclosebackvowel
ﻱ y,iiVoicedpalatalfricative,longclosefrontvowel aOpenfrontvowel uClosebackvowel iClosefrontvowel
TheArabiccharacter ﺓ appearsontheendoffemininenounsandistranscribedas/a/unless thenounisanon-finalnouninapossessiveconstruction,whenitistranscribedas/at/.
Ingivingthecitationformofverbs,innamingverbpatterns,andintranscribingexamples,Ido nottranscribe hamzatal-wasl,theglottalstopthatisaddedatthebeginningofawordtoavoid havingavowelasanonset.
(b)Glossingandtranslation
Followingestablishedconvention,thecitationformofaverbisthethirdmasculinesingular perfective.InwordliststhisistranslatedusinganEnglishinfinitive.Forexample: dahika ‘tolaugh’ Grammaticallabelsinwordlistsindicatewhetherornottheverbtakesanobject.Theyare abbreviatedasshown:
trnsTransitive.Theverbtakesadirectobject.Forexample: kasara ‘tobreak’ trns intIntransitive.Theverbdoesnottakeanobject.Forexample: rakada ‘torun’ int oblOblique.Theverbisfollowedbyapreposition,thenanobject.Forexample: iʕtamada ‘todepend’ obl ditrnsDitransitive.Theverbtakestwodirectobjects.Forexample: ʔaʕtaa ‘togive’ ditrns Intheinterestsofspace,wordlistsareonlyprovidedintranscriptionandtranslation. ContextualizeddataappearinArabictextwithatranscription,agloss,andatranslation. Theabbreviationsusedareasfollows:
firstperson
secondperson
thirdperson
accusative
collective
definite
dual
feminine
genitive
indicativemood
masculine negative
nominative
plural
singular
subjunctivemood
(c)Highlighting
Arabicwordsareinitalics;translationsareinsinglequotes.Forexample: kabiir ‘big’
Thevowels,affixes,orconsonantsofanArabicwordmaybehighlightedinbolddepending onthepointbeingmade.Thetextwillstatewhatishighlightedinagivenexample.
Semanticnotionsareinsmallcapitals.Forexample:theaction ;thenotionof
Anoteonprimarysources Unlessotherwisestated,datainwordlistsarefoundinHansWehr’ s DictionaryofModern WrittenArabic,editedbyJ.M.Cowan, thedition(Weisbaden:Harrassowitz, ),orLane’ s Arabic–EnglishLexicon,originallypublishedin (Beirut:LibrairieduLiban).ContextualizedexamplesofmodernusagearedrawnfromtheBrighamYoungUniversityOnlineArabic Corpus.Thisisa -million-wordcorpusconsistingoftextsfromnewspaperspublishedin Egypt,Syria,Morocco,Kuwait,Jordan,andtheUnitedKingdom,novelsbywritersfrom Egypt,Algeria,Palestine,SaudiArabia,Sudan,Syria,andLebanon,andnon-fictionworks foundontheInternetorinprint,someofwhichconsistofreligiousorpoliticalcommentary. Thecorpusalsocontainspremodernworks,includingtheQuran,andsomeEgyptiancolloquialtexts.WhenIusedatafromthiscorpus,thefootnoteidentifiesitascomingfrom BrighamYoungUniversity(BYU),andincludesareferenceusedinthecorpustoidentify thespecifictext.Forexample,BYU:SPO:.Othercontemporarydataaretakenfrom thenovel mudunal-milh ‘CitiesofSalt’ byAbdulRahmanMunif(thedition, ).These dataareidentifiedinfootnotesusingtheauthor’slastnameandthepagenumber.ContextualizedexamplesofolderusagearefromIbnManzuur’ s LisaanAl-Arab (Cairo:DarElHadith, ).ThiscomprehensivedocumentationofArabicusagedrawsfromanumberof oldersources,andisdatedaroundtheyear .
Introductionandoverview . Introduction
Thisbookisaboutthementalconstructionandlinguisticconstrualofmeaning. MyprimaryfocusistheverbpatternsofArabic:recurringphonologicalmaterial interlacedwithwhatistraditionallyreferredtoasaconsonantalroot.Whilethereisa greatdealofscholarshipproblematizingthestatusofroots,theverbpatternsin whichtheyarearrangedhavereceivedmarkedlylessattention.Standardgrammars ofArabiclabelpatternsas ‘intensive ’ , ‘causative’ , ‘middle ’ , ‘ reflexive’ , ‘reciprocal’,and soon,withlittlefurtherexplanationoftheseterms.Inmanycasesagivenpatternis assignedseveralsemanticfunctionsinordertoaccountforavarietyofseemingly unrelatedverbtypesthatneverthelessallreceivethesamelinguisticmarking.Hence tahaadaθa ‘toconverse’ and taʃaakasa ‘toquarrel’ areheldtohavethesamephonologicalshapebecausetheyarebothreciprocal,butinordertoexplain tamaarada ‘to feignsickness’,adifferentfunctionmustbeattributedtothis ‘reciprocal’ verbpattern. Similarly, ʔanzala ‘tolower’ and ʔadxala ‘toinsert’,from nazala ‘todescend’ and daxala ‘toenter’ respectively,aresupposedlyformedinacausativeverbpattern,and non-causativeverbslike ʔabhara ‘togotosea’ or ʔataaʕa ‘toobey’ areeitheroverlooked ortreatedseparately.Reflexiveverbslikeintransitive iġtasala ‘towash’,from ġasala ‘to wash(something)’,areexplainedas ‘middle’,butreflexivemarkingonaverblike ihtaaʤa ‘toneed’,whichdoesnotalternatewithatransitivebase,isnotaddressed.
Theanalysispresentedinthecomingchaptersexamineswhatissharedbyallverbs bearingthesamemarking,arrivingatasinglesemantictypologyforeachverb pattern.Myworkinghypothesisisthateachpatternbegan,mostlikelyinsome ancestorofArabic,asacollectionofindependentwords,andthatovertimethese becamephoneticallyreducedandmergedinaprocessofgrammaticalization.An importantconsequenceofthisprocessisthatapatternbecomesanindependent lexicalunitthatmarksacertainsemanticfeature,andisnolongerexactlyequivalent tothemeaningoftheonce-independentwordsthatcompriseit.Assuch,theverb patternsofArabicnowrepresentasetofsemanticstructures,andareiconic(Haiman , ),bearingadirectrelationtothetypesofparticipantinvolvedina situationandtheirrelationshipstoeachother.
Thisargumentrestsonaword-to-wordaccountofderivationinwhichtheSemitic rootfunctionsasaproxyforabasewordandisneveritselfasemanticbase.Thefact thatmultipleverbssharingthesamerootofferdifferentpresentationsofashared meaninghasledtothefrequentclaimthatrootsandpatternsarediscontinuous morphemes,oneencodinglexicalmeaning,theothergrammatical.Whileverb patternshavecertainlybecomemorphemichowever,theideathatarootcontributes anabstractmeaningtoaderivedwordisproblematic,sinceitcannotaccountfor relationshipsbetweenwords.Ifallwordsarederivedsemanticallyfromaroot,they shouldallpresentvariationsofasingleabstraction,anditshouldnotbethecasethat therearelayersofderivationinwhichsomewordsclearlyincorporatethemeaningof others.Inillustratingnumerousword-to-wordrelationships,asecondaryaimofthe bookistoestablishtherootasaconsonantalstringthatmaybeextractedfrommore thanonesourceword,andwhichmaythereforehavemultiplemeanings.
Overview Thebookisorganizedasfollows.Chapter establishesadistinctionbetweencore meaningontheonehand,andthewayinwhichitisviewedorframedontheother.It illustratesthatameaningcomponentrecursinagivensetofwords,andthateach wordpresentsthiscomponentslightlydifferently.Italsosituatesthecurrentwork withinthedebateoverthestatusoftheconsonantalrootinderivationalprocesses. Chapter beginstheanalysisoftheverbpatterns,focusingonthreegroundform variantsdistinguishedonlybyasinglevowel.Iproposeaprototypicalorderingof participantrolesinaneventorsituation,andarguethatagroundformverb representsthestructuringofsemanticcontentinawaythateithermatchesthis orderorthatdeviatesfromit.Deviationsfromtheprototypearesemantically marked,andtheArabicverbsthatconstruethemarethereforemarkedmorphologically.Chapter turnstoreflexivemarking.Iarguethattheaffixationofreflexive morphemestobaseverbshascreatedagrammaticalizedstructure:amorpheme pairedwithacertainsemanticfeature.Ishowthatthismorphemenowappearson verbswhoseactionterminatesatthesubject,andisnolongerdependentonanonreflexivebaseverbtomodify.InChapter Iarguethattwoverbpatternscharacterizedbyalongvoweldenoteasymmetricsemanticstructureinwhichtwoparticipant rolesareorientedrelativetoeachother.Recognizingthefunctionofthesepatterns allowsforasingletreatmentofagreatrangeofverbsthatbearthesamelinguistic markingbutwhichotherwiseappeartohavenothingincommon.Iillustratethat symmetryisaconceptualcategorythatincorporatesbutismuchlargerthanreciprocity,discernableinavarietyofeventsandsituations,andshowthatitismarked onverbscrosslinguistically.Chapter examinesverbsthatcausativizesimplespontaneousactions,andthosethatturnstaticconceptsintoactivities.Twoverbpatterns andtheirreflexivecounterpartsareaddressed,eachdenotingthepresenceofanagent
thatistypicallynotfoundinthebaseconcept.Chapter treatstwoverbpatternsthat signalrepetitiveactionwithrepetitionoflinguisticform,eitherthroughreduplicationofthesecondconsonant,orofthe firstsyllable.Thechapterinvestigatesthe typesofrepeatedactionconstruedbyverbsformedineachpattern,distinguishing betweenderivedverbsthatdoubleuptheactionofthebaseverb,andnon-derived verbsthatencodeasoundorrhythmnoticedintheenvironment.Intheconcluding chapterIconsiderhowthederivationalsystemofArabicmayhavecomeinto existence,presentingevidencefromstudiesofgrammaticalizationandanalogyin otherlanguagestostrengthenmyclaimthatArabicverbpatternsaretheresultof thesesameprocesses.
Words,roots,andpatterns . Introduction
Thefocusofthischapteristhesemanticmake-upofwordmeaningingeneral.My aimistoestablishthatallwordmeaningiscomprisedoftwoelements:asemantic structureandconceptualcontentthat fleshesoutthatstructurewithspecificdetail (Langacker , , ;RappaportHovavandLevin ;Levin ).Every wordframesconceptualcontent,andthederivationofonewordfromanother producesasetofwordsinwhichthiscontentisframedslightlydifferently.
Section . familiarizesthereaderwiththeideaofrootsandpatterns,illustrating thatArabicwordsformfamilieseitherbecausetheyshareaconsonantalstringor becausetheiroverallshapeisthesame.Section . providesanoverviewofthe currentdebateregardingthestatusofrootsandpatternsaslexicalunits,andsituates thecurrentworkwithinthisdebate,outliningmyapproachtoword-to-wordderivationandtheroleofrootsandpatternswithinit.Theanalysisofwordmeaning beginsinSection .,whereIillustratethedistinctionbetweenconceptualcontent andsemanticstructurewithavarietyofArabicdata.Thefollowingtwosections establishadirectionofderivation.Section treatswordsderivedfromverbs,and Section . illustratesthatverbsmaybederivedfromavarietyofnouns,adjectives, andotherverbs.IsummarizethemainpointsofthechapterinSection and concludebyconsideringtheimplicationsoftheanalysissofarforthetreatmentof theverbpatternsinthecomingchapters,andforthedevelopmentofacoherent theoryoftheArabicverb.
. Roots,patterns,andwordfamilies
StandardanalysesofArabicmorphologytypicallystatethat,withtheexceptionofa closedclassofgrammaticalfunctionwords,everyArabicwordconsistsoftwo components:aconsonantalrootandsometypeofpatternwithwhichitcombines (seeforexampleFischer
;Watson ;Holes a;Ryding , ). Arootmostcommonlyconsistsofthreeorderedconsonants,althoughrootswith twoandfourconsonantsarealsoattested.Followingaconventiondevelopedby
Pesetsky(),Iwillprefacearootwiththesymbol √.Asanexample,thewords in()formawordfamilywhosemembersallcontainthetriconsonantalroot √hdr, highlightedinbold.
() hadara ‘toattend,bepresent’ int/trns
hadaara ‘sedentariness;civilization’
hadar ‘acivilizedregion’
haadara ‘tolecture’ trns
hadra ‘ presence ’
istahadara ‘tosummon ’ trns
Theverb hadara,glossedin()as ‘toattend’,literallymeans ‘heattended’,butthe thirdmasculinesingularperfectiveofagivenverbistraditionallyalsoitscitation form,andisusedingrammarsinthewaythattheinfinitiveisusedinEnglish. Imaintainthisconventionthroughoutthisbook.
Asyoulookedoverthewordsin(),youprobablysearchedforasemantic connectionbetweenthem.Thissuggeststhatwhenthesamethree-letterstringis repeatedwerecognizeitasadiscreteextractableelement,andanumberofstudiesby BoudelaaandMarslen-Wilson(a,
,
)haveshownthatnative speakersofArabicrecognizerootsinthiswaytoo(althoughseeBohas ). Consonantalstringsarealsomaintainedwhenforeignwordsareimportedinto Arabic,wheretheycometorepresentthemeaningofthesourceword.Theexamples in()arefromRyding(: ).
(
) talfana ‘totelephone’ talfaza ‘totelevize’ balʃafa ‘toBolshevize’ taʔamraka ‘tobecomeAmericanized’
Zeroinginonarootinvolvesbackgroundingtheremainderoftheword,andwhatis leftoverisalinguisticpatternthatrecurstoproduceadifferenttypeofwordfamily. Thesewordpatternsconsistofvowels,non-rootconsonants(sometimes),andslots fortherootconsonantsto fill.Theyoccurwithdifferentrootsresultinginsetsof wordsthatsharethesameshape.Forexample,theword hadaara ‘civilization’ exhibitsacommonpatterncharacteristicofnounsdescribingabstractentitiesor states.Thispattern,nottheroot,ishighlightedin().
() hadaara ‘sedentariness;civilization’ hadaaθa ‘modernity’
θaqaafa ‘culture ’
kaθaafa ‘density’
baraaʔa ‘innocence’
badaana ‘obesity’
Manypropertystateadjectivesareformedinanotherfrequentlyrecurringpattern, highlightedinboldin().
() kabiir ‘big’
saġiir ‘small’
tawiil ‘tall’
hadiiθ ‘modern’
badiin ‘fat’
bariiʕ ‘innocent’
Forverbstherearetheoretically fifteendifferentpatterns.Severaloftheseare extremelyrarehowever,andinthisbookIfocusontheninemostcommonpatterns. InwesterngrammarsofArabictheverbpatternsarenumbered,whiletheearly grammariansofthelanguagereferredtopatternsusingtheroot √fʕlasanexemplar, spellingouttheformofthepatternitself(seeOwens andSuleiman ).In() theroot √qtʕ appearsinninedifferentpatterns.Thepatternnumberisgiveninthe westerntradition,andthepatternnameisalsoprovided.Iwillusenamesand numbersofpatternsinterchangeablyfromthispointforward.
(
)PatternNameExample
I faʕalaqataʕa ‘tosever,tocutthrough’ trns
II faʕʕalaqattaʕa ‘tochopup’ trns
III faaʕalaqaataʕa ‘tointerrupt;toboycott’ trns
IV ʔafʕala ʔaqtaʕa ‘togiveland’ ditrns
V tafa ʕʕalataqattaʕa ‘tobreakup;cutinandout’ int
VI tafaaʕalataqaataʕa ‘tointersect’ int/obl
VII infaʕalainqataʕa ‘toterminate,cutout’ int
VIII iftaʕalaiqtataʕa ‘tocutforoneself;toglean’ trns
X istafʕalaistaqtaʕa ‘todeduct’ trns
Ryding(: )assertsthatwordpatternspresenta ‘semanticslant’ onaconsistent lexicalcorethatismanifesteddifferentlydependingonthepattern.Determining thenatureofboththecoreandits ‘slant ’ orviewisacentralaimofthisbook.
Fromamorphologicalperspectivetherefore,Arabicwordscanbegroupedinone oftwoways:wordsthatshareacommonpattern,andwordsthatsharethesameroot. Wordsthatshareapatternwillbedistinguishedfromeachotherbytheirdifferent roots,asin()and()above.Wordsthatsharearootwillbedistinguishedfromeach otherbecausethatrootwillbeorganizedindifferentpatterns,asin().
Aroot-and-patterncombinationisnotalwaysafree-standingword.Verbsare builtaroundaverbstemconsistingofrootandpattern,butthismustbeinflectedin ordertobearticulated.Forexample,theroot √hdrarrangedinpatternXresultsin thestem stahdir ‘ summon ’.Thisstemneverappearsalone,butcombineswith inflectionalaffixestoproduceafullyinflectedverb,asin().
() ʔa-stahdir ‘Isummon’
ya-stahdir ‘Hesummons’
ya-stahdir-uun ‘Theysummon’
Thesedifferentaffixescontributetheagreementfeaturesoftheverb,buttheydonot alterthemeaningattributedtothestem.Thedividinglinebetweenderivationaland inflectionalmorphologyisnotalwaysclearinagivenlanguage(seeHaspelmathand Sims ),butausefuldistinctioncanbemadeforArabicbetweenderivation the creationofonewordfromanotherwithanaccompanyingchangeinmeaning and inflection theattachingofaffixestoawordorstemwithoutaffectingthemeaning attributedtoit(Shimron ).
.
Roots,patterns,andderivation AcommonlyheldviewofSemiticmorphology,assummarizedbyShimron(: ), isthatrootsandpatternsarediscontinuousmorphemesthataremergedtoform words.ThisviewisassociatedwithCantineau(a, b),whoassertsthat virtuallyallwordsarederivedbycrossingarootwithapattern.Inmodernwestern accountsofArabicmorphologyaconceptionoftherootassomekindofmorphologicalbaseisfoundinFleisch(),Goldenberg(),McCarthy(, ), Ryding(, ),Versteegh(),andYip().Inparticular,McCarthy’ s (, )influentialworkonprosodicmorphologyassertsthatwordsarecomposedofthreediscontinuousmorphemesarrangedonthreemorphemictiers:the patternorCVskeleton,consistingofslotsforrootconsonants(C)andslotsfor vowels(V),theconsonantalroottier,andthevowelmelodytiercomprisedofthe vowelsthat fillthevowelslotsinthepattern,markingactiveorpassivevoice.Thus thepassiveverb kuttib ‘tobemadetowrite’,forexample,isanamalgamationofthese threemorphemes,asillustratedin().
() Vowel Melodyuiperfective passive
CV SkeletonCVCCVCcausative (Form 2)
Rootk t b‘write’
(McCarthy and Prince 1990a: 5)
Thisroot-and-patternapproachtomorphologyrepresentsabreakwithtraditionalArab thought.InareviewoflinguistictreatisesonArabicwrittenbetween and , Owens(: –)remarksthatseveralwritersassumedabasicmeaningforthe root,notablyIbnJinniiandIbnFaaris(tenthcentury),buttheydidnotviewitas playingaroleinderivation.Asometimesvaguedistinctionwasmadebetweenthe tasriif ‘circulation’ ofaroot,whichaccordingtoIbn ʕusfuur(thirteenthcentury)referstoall permutationsofarootinvariouswordpatterns,and iʃ tiqaaq ‘derivation’ ofaword
fromits ʔasl ‘origin’,whichmaybeasimplenoun,oragerund/infinitivereferredto asa mas dar ‘ source ’.Therewasadistinctionhere,therefore,betweenbasicunderivedwordsandthosethatarederivedfromthem,andtheideaofrootsand patternsasdiscontinuousmorphemeswaslacking.IbnYaʕiiʃ (twelfth–thirteenthcentury)andAstaraabaadii(thirteenth)usetheterm kalima torefertoboth ‘word’ and ‘morpheme’,butthenotionofamorphemeisrestrictedtoinflectionalaffixes.Thereis nosuggestionthataverbitself,withoutaninflectionalaffix,consistsoftwomorphemes. Thereareseveralproblemswiththeideathateverywordisacombinationofaroot andapattern.Heath(: )pointsoutthattheseparationofconsonantsfrom vowelsinnounslike xubz ‘bread’ , ðahab ‘gold’ , kabʃ ‘ ram ’,and hifz ‘preservation’ leavesvowelsthathavenoconsistentfunction,andsocannotbeconsideredmorphemic.Thereisnoreason,heargues,toassertthat kalb ‘dog’ isdecomposedin thementallexiconintoaroot √klbandapatterncontainingasinglemeaningless vowel.Likewise,henotesthatthevowelinimperfectiveverbssuchas ya-ktub ‘he writes’ , ya-drib ‘hehits’,and ya-bhaθ ‘heresearches’ iseitherunpredictableordeterminedbyanadjacentconsonant,anddoesnotfunctionasameaning-bearingelement. Heath’sconclusionisthatArabichasacoreofunderivedstems,andthatthesefunction asbasesforderivation,beingmodifiedbyvowelchanges,affixation,orboth.Asimilar argumentismadebyBatEl(, )andUssishkin(, , )forHebrew. Logically,itcannotbethecasethatallwordsarederivedfromaroot,sincetheonly waythatmultiplewordscontainingthesamerootcouldcomeaboutwithoutone beingabaseforanotherisiftherewasprioragreementonwhatthatrootmeans. Suchasituation,wherebyearlyspeakersofArabicagreedonthemeaningofaroot priortoitsappearanceinaword,isclearlyabsurd.Somewordmustbethe firstto containagivenroot,andthatrootthenrecurswhenanotherwordiscoinedthat sharessomeaspectofitsmeaningwiththe first.Semantically,thisisword-to-word derivation.Importantly,itneednotbethecasethatonlyasinglewordinaword familyisthebaseforalltheothers.Forexample,Larcher(, )pointsoutthat thenounofplace maktab ‘office,desk’ appearstobederivedfromtheverb kataba ‘to write’,sincethenoundescribesaplacewherewritingiscarriedout.However, Larchernotesthatasecondnoun, maktaba ‘library,bookshop’,islinkedto kitaab ‘book’,sinceitdescribesaplacewherebooksarefound.Ifboth maktab and maktaba areroot-derived,itisnotpossibletoexplainwhyoneframesthenotion , whiletheotherbuildsonthemeaning .Thiscaneasilybeexplainedwithwordbasedderivation,whereboth maktab ‘office ’ and kitaab ‘book’ arederivedfromthe verb kataba ‘towrite’,with kitaab thenservingasabasefor maktaba ‘library’ . Thefactthattherootmustultimatelycomefromaworddoesnotautomatically excludeitentirelyfromderivationalprocesseshowever(cf.Watson ).Larcher ()makesanextremelyusefuldistinctionbetweenderivationonthesemantic level,wherethereisalwaysasourceword,andderivationasamorphological operation.Whilethereisalwaysabasewordinanyderivation,therearetwo
possibilitiesatthemorphologicallevel.Oneisthatthederivedwordresultsfroma changemadetothebase,andtheotheristhattherootconsonantsofthebaseare extractedandarrangedinanewpattern.Asemanticbaseisalwaysawordor uninflectedstemwhileamorphologicalbasecouldtheoreticallybeeitherawordor anextractedroot.Animportantquestionfacingphonologistsandmorphologists thereforeiswhetherderivationaloperationsaccessaconsonantalroot,orsimplya wordorstem.
Thereisagreatdealofevidencethatderivationdoesnotaccessaconsonantalroot.
Ratcliffe()showsthattheArabic ‘brokenplural’ isnotassociatedwitha fixedword pattern,butratherthatpluralsaremarkedbythelongvowel/aa/inthesecondsyllable.
()SingularPlural kalbkilaab ‘dog’ daftardafaatir ‘notebook’ xaatimxawaatim ‘seal’ damiirdamaaʔir ‘ pronoun ’ sultaansalaatiin ‘sultan’
(Ratcliffe :
)
Becausethepluralnounsin()donothaveaconsistentshape,aroot-and-pattern analysiscanonlyaccountforthembyproposingseveraldifferentbrokenpluralpatterns towhichrootsareassignedapparentlyatrandom.Incontrast,infixationofalongvowel tothesingularnoun,togetherwithaccompanyingvowelchanges,isaconsistentrule. Inaddition,asDavis()illustrates,thebrokenpluralpreservesnon-rootphonologicalmaterialfromthesingularnounbase.Theaffixalconsonantsofasingularnoun transfertotheplural,whichisunexpectedifthepluralisformedbyextractingonly therootfromthesingular.Rootconsonantsarehighlightedinboldin().
()SingularPlural
maktab makaatib ‘office ’ miftaah mafaatiih ‘key’ taqdiir taqaadiir ‘evaluation’
Theconclusionisthatbrokenpluralsarenotformedbycombininganextractedroot withapluralnounpattern,butthroughanoperationthatmodifiesthesinglebase noun.Similarly,Benmamoun(: )illustratesthatactiveparticiplesandsome nounsofplacemaintainthesamevocalicmelodyasthecorrespondingimperfective verb,suggestingthattheyareformedbymodifyingtheimperfectiveverbstemrather thanbypluggingarootintoapattern.
() yu-ʕallim ‘heteaches’ mu-ʕallim ‘teacher’ yu-saaʕid ‘heassists’ mu-saaʕid ‘assistant’ ya-ʤlis ‘hesits’ ma-ʤlis ‘conferenceroom,councilmeeting ’ ya-sbah ‘heswims’ ma-sbah ‘swimmingpool’
