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30.PolicyAnalysis
31 LogicModels
PartVI.GeneralIssues
32.EthicalIssuesinSocialWorkResearch
33 Gender,Ethnicity,andRacialIssues
34.InternationalResearch
35.IntegratingQualitativeandQuantitativeResearchMethods
36 ApplyingforResearchGrants
AuthorIndex
SubjectIndex
AbouttheEditor
PrefacetotheFirstEdition
BruceA.Thyer
WelcometothisnewHandbookofSocialWorkResearchMethods,avolumespecificallywrittenbysocialworkers forasocialworkaudienceinterestedinlearningmoreaboutresearchrelatedtosocialworkpractice.Every chapterhasbeenauthoredbyoneormoresocialworkers,mostofwhomaresenioracademicswithextensive historiesintheworldsofbothpracticeandresearch Thissocialworkfocusisimportant,giventheapplied natureofmostoftheworkandresearchthatweundertakeasaseparatediscipline.Someothersocialwork researchbooksaresimplytextsoriginallywrittenbysociologistsforsociologystudentsandthengivena faceliftforasocialworkaudience Othersaregeneralistresearchtextswrittenbyoneormoresocialworkers butthatlackthedepthpossibleinaneditedhandbooksuchasthepresentvolume,whereinitispossibleto recruitaleadingscholarorscholarstowriteeachindividualchapter.Noonesocialworkresearcher(noteven severalsocialworkresearchers)canlegitimatelyclaimextensiveexpertiseinallareasofsocialworkresearch, whereasaneditedhandbookcanovercomethisall-too-humanlimitation.
Thishandbookisorganizedinarelativelystraightforwardmanner.Afteranintroductorychapterbythe editor,placingtheimportanceofscientificresearchintoitshistoricandcontemporarycontext,theremainder ofthevolumeisdividedintofourmajorparts PartIisdevotedtoquantitativeapproaches,thetypeofinquiry thatmostreadersthinkofwhenthewordresearchcomestomind.Introductorychapterspresentanoverview ofthesemethodsofstudyandintroducetopicsthatarecentraltomostscientificstudies-probabilitytheory andsampling,determiningthereliabilityandvalidityofmeasurementmethods,howtofindsuitable instrumentsforuseinresearch,andanoverviewofsomestatisticalmethodsthataremostusefulin quantitativeinvestigations Theseintroductorychaptersarefollowedbyindividualchaptersauthoredbyexpert researcherspresentinginformationaboutthevarioustypesofquantitativestudies,descriptivestudies,surveys, needsassessments,single-systemsdesigns,randomizedcontrolledtrials,programevaluations,andcost→ procedure→process→outcome→analysis
PartIIdealswithqualitativeapproachestoscientificresearchincontrasttoquantitativestudies,inwhich manydataarepresentedintheformofnumbers;inqualitativeinquiry,dataandevidencearejustifiedusing wordsaloneandoftenlackthenumericalfocusofquantitativemethods Asnoted,qualitativestudiesalways havebeenanimportantpartofmainstreamscience,fromthebeginningsofsocialworktothepresent Infact, therecurrentlyisaresurgenceofinterestinqualitativemethodsasappliedtosocialworkresearch.Both quantitativeandqualitativemethodsshareaninterestinobtainingreliableandvalidinformation,andthefirst chapterinthispartisfollowedbyachapterdealingwithadescriptionofthequalitativeapproachtojustifying researchevidence.Thesetwointroductorychaptersarefollowedbyfivechaptersthatpresentspecificmethods ofqualitativeresearch:narrativecasestudies,in-depthinterviews,ethnographicresearchmethods,participant observations,andgroundedtheory Eachoftheseisanimportanttoolthatsocialworkresearchersmayusefor specificpurposes.Eachhasitsstrengthsandlimitations,asoutlinedbysomeoftheforemostqualitative researcherstobefoundwithincontemporarysocialwork.
PartIIIpresentsfourchaptersondifferentformsofconceptualresearch,approachestoinquirythatmightnot fitintoeitherthequantitativeorqualitativecategory studiesontheorydevelopment,historicalresearch, literaturereviews,andcriticalanalyses.Dependingonitsslant,anindividualstudyusingthesemethodsmay bemorecloselyalignedwitheitherquantitativeorqualitativeresearchmethods.Forexample,ahistorical studymaybeveryquantitativeinnature(eg,Almgren,Kemp,&Eisinger,2000),aimedatpresenting historical“facts”asaccuratelyaspossible,perhapsusingarchivalstatisticaldata,oritmaybemoreorientedto anexaminationoftheperceptionsofpeoplewhoexperiencedaparticularhistoriceventandhavediaries, newspaperarticles,andjournaleditorialsasitsprimarydatasources(eg,Knupfer,1999) Similarly,reviews oftheliteraturemayinvolveafocusonaggregatingstatisticalfindingsacrossstudies(e.g.,Gorey,Thyer,& Pawluck,1998)ormaypresentanarrativesummaryoftheauthors’impressionsofanarrayofresearchstudies (eg,Stubbs&Bozarth,1994) Eachapproachhasitsmeritsandlimitations Thetypeofresearchlabeled theorydevelopmentmaybepurelyconceptualinnatureormayinvolveapresentationofempiricalresearch studiessupportiveordisconfirmingofaparticulartheoreticalmodel.
PartIVpresentschaptersthatdealwithmoregeneralissues ethicalfactorsinsocialworkresearch;the significanceofgender,ethnicity,andracevariables;comparativeinternationalresearch;thevalueof integratingqualitativeandquantitativeapproachestoresearch;applyingforresearchgrants;anddisseminating researchfindings Eachoftheseisimportanttotheresearchprocess Increasingly,socialworkresearchis beingfundedthroughcompetitivelyawarded,externallyfundedgrants Themostsophisticatedresearcherin theworldwhocannotobtainneededfundingtoundertakeimportantstudieswillbeseriouslydisadvantaged. Socialworkmustbegroundedinathoroughknowledgeofethicalprinciplesandgovernedaccordingly Duringrecentyears,theresearchprogramsofentireuniversitieshavebeentemporarilyhaltedbythefederal government,pendingthecorrectionofinternalreviewmechanismsestablishedfortheprotectionofhuman subjects Pitythepooracademicsocialworkresearcherwhoseeagernesstocollectdatapriortoobtaining approvalfromhisorheruniversity'shumansubjectsinstitutionalreviewboardresultsinashutdownofall university-conductedresearchbythefederalgovernment.Obviously,researchfindingsmustbedisseminated tothesocialworkcommunityandtoothersforsuchfindingstobeofvaluetosociety Theunpublished researchstudymightaswellnothavebeenconducted Althoughdisseminationisusuallyconstruedtomean “publishedinapeer-reviewed,hard-copyjournal,”otherusefulvehiclesinwhichtoshareresearchinformation includeconferencepresentations,electronicjournals,articlesinpopularmedia,andteaching Toooften,our researchprogramsteachsocialworkershowtodesignandconductresearchbutfailtoteachtheintricaciesof howtogetpublished.Fortunately,therearesomeexcellentresourcesavailablewithwhichtoremedythis deficit(eg,B A Thyer,1994)
Together,thesefourpartsprovidethereaderwithacomprehensiveoverviewtomajorresearchmethodsused incontemporarysocialwork.ThishandbookjoinsrelatedvolumespublishedbySAGEPublications, includingTheHandbookofSocialWorkDirectPractice(editedbyAllen-Meares&Garvin,2000),TheHandbook ofSocialPolicy(editedbyMidgley,Tracy,&Livermore,2000),andTheHandbookofSocialWelfare Management(editedbyPatti,2000).Thiscomprehensiveseriespromisestobeanexceedinglyvaluable,ifnot definitive,compilationofscholarlyresourcesforsocialworkstudents,academics,andpractitionersalike.
Keepinmindtheappliednatureofsocialworkresearch.Ourfieldisnotprimarilyinterestedinthe developmentoftheoreticalknowledgeforknowledge'ssakealone;wecanleavethattotheacademic disciplines.AsnotedbyR.Thyer(1759),“Theendofallknowledgeistounderstandwhatisfittobedone, fortoknowwhathasbeen,andwhatis,andwhatmaybe,doesbuttendtothat”(pp.487–488).Asa practicingprofession,ourmandateistoprovidecredibleevidenceregardingwhatcanbedonetohelpsolve societalandinterpersonalproblems.Totheextentthatweadheretothistask,wearecarryingoutthemission giventousbysocietyatlargeandexpectedofusbyourclients.
BruceA Thyer
(2000)
References
Allen-MearesP.,&GarvinC.(Eds.).(2000).Thehandbookofsocialworkdirectpractice.ThousandOaks, CA:Sage
AlmgrenG,KempS P,&EisingerA (2000) ThelegacyofHullHouseandtheChildren'sBureauinthe Americanmortalitytransition SocialServiceReview,74,1–27
GoreyK M,ThyerB A,&PawluckD E (1998) Differentialeffectivenessofprevalentsocialwork practicemodels:Ameta-analysis SocialWork,43,269–278
KnupferA M (1999) ProfessionalizingprobationworkinChicago,1900–1935 SocialServiceReview,73, 478–495.
MidgleyJ,TracyM B,&LivermoreM (Eds) (2000) Thehandbookofsocialpolicy ThousandOaks, CA:Sage.
PattiR.(Ed.).(2000).Thehandbookofsocialwelfaremanagement.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.
StubbsJ P,&BozarthJ D (1994) Thedodobirdrevisited:Aqualitativestudyofpsychotherapyefficacy research.AppliedandPreventivePsychology,3,109–120.
ThyerB.A.(1994).Successfulpublishinginscholarlyjournals.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.
ThyerR (Ed) (1759) GenuineremainsinverseandproseofMr SamuelButler London:J &R Tonson
PrefacetotheSecondEdition
BruceA.Thyer
Ithasbeenalmost10yearssincethefirsteditionofthisHandbookofSocialWorkResearchMethodscameoutin 2001,andmuchhastranspiredwithintheworldofsocialworkresearchtojustifyundertakingamajor revision.Thehandbook'sbasicstructureremainsthesame anintroduction,aseriesofchaptersdealingwith quantitativeresearchmethods,aseriesofchaptersdealingwithqualitativeapproachestosocialworkresearch, andaconcludingsectiondealingwithcross-cuttingtopics,suchasresearchethics,mixedmethods,theoretical research,andsoforth.Anumberofchaptersarecompletelynew,reflectingemergingbutimportanttopics havinganimpactonsocialworkresearch,topicssuchasmeta-analysis;systematicreviews;theuseofquasiexperimentaldesignstoevaluatepractice,naturalisticstudies,oralhistories,andparticipatoryactionresearch; logicmodels;andhistoricalresearch.
OthersignificantdevelopmentsrelatedtosocialworkresearchincludetheexpansionoftheSocietyforSocial WorkandResearch Theorganizationnowservesasaninternationalvehicleforpromotinghigh-quality scholarshipthroughitsconferences,awards,andjournalsprogram.Readersunacquaintedwiththis membershiporganizationshouldconsiderjoining(wwwssworg) TheCampbellCollaboration(C2)has emergedasaleadinginternationalvoiceinpromotingevidence-basedpracticethroughtheproductionof systematicreviewsintheareasofsocialwelfare,criminaljustice,andeducation.Morethan50completed systematicreviewscannowbefoundontheorganization'sWebsite(wwwcampbellcollaborationorg),eachof whichisagoldmineofup-to-dateinformationontheevidentiarystatusofpsychosocialinterventionsor assessmentmethods.TheC2nowhasaformalsocialwelfaresteeringgroupandeditorialboard,andthe annualC2conferenceisaworld-classevent ReadersarealsoencouragedtoreviewtheCampbell CollaborationWebsiteandtoconsiderwaystogetinvolved helpprepareasystematicreview,attendthe annualconference,volunteerforaneditorialorleadershiprole,andsoon.
OtherdevelopmentsincludeasocialworkTopicalInterestGroupfocusedonsocialworkbeingformedasan elementoftheAmericanEvaluationAssociation,andthisthrivingorganizationservesasanotherpositive nexusforsocialworkresearch(seehttp://www.eval.org).Also,theInstitutefortheAdvancementofSocial WorkResearch(http://wwwiaswresearchorg)continuesitsmissionofdistributingane-mailedweekly newsletter,providingresearchtraining,providinginformationtopolicymakers,andpromotingevidencebasedpractice.Andinalong-overdueinitiative,eventhevenerableNationalAssociationofSocialWorkers hasestablishedaresearchsectiononitsWebsite(http://www.socialworkers.org/research/default.asp),andit istakingsometentativestepsinembracingevidence-basedpractice
ThejournalIedit,ResearchonSocialWorkPractice(RSWP),hasenteredits20thyearasaSAGEjournal Its mostrecentimpactfactorplaceditasthethirdmostcitedtruesocialworkjournal,anditnowhasmorethan 5,800individualandinstitutionalsubscribers,makingit,tomyknowledge,thesecondmostsubscribed-to socialworkjournalintheworld Ithasmorethan150,000downloadsoffullarticlesinPDFformatfromthe journal'sWebsiteannually,whichisanothermeasureofitsroleindisseminatingresearchknowledge.Most
readerswillbeabletogainfreehardcopyorelectronicaccesstothejournalviatheirlocaluniversitylibrary.If thisisnotavailable,youcanobtainafreesubscriptionthroughjoiningtheSocietyforSocialWorkand Research,whichcontinuestosupportthejournalasabenefitforitsmembers Thejournalnowhasan electronicsubmissionportalforauthorstosubmittheirmanuscriptsthrough,shorteningthetimeneededto undertakeblindpeerreview,anditnowoffersapublish-ahead-of-printfeature,inthatassoonaspageproofs havebeencorrectedbyanauthor,thearticleispostedonthejournal'sWebsitewithacitableDOI This meansthatscholarscanaccessandciteanauthor'sworkmonthspriortotheappearanceofthein-print publication.ThisgivesRSWPallthebenefitsofasolelyelectronicjournalwhileretainingtheadvantagesofan establishedprintjournal,suchasbeingpickedupbythemajorcitationandabstractingservices(eg, PsycINFO,WebofScience),featuresmostelectronicjournalslack(see http://wwwsagepubcom/journalsProdDescnav?prodId=Journal200896&currTree=Subjects&level1=M00&)
Aswithalleditedbooks,thelion'sshareoftheintellectualcreditfortheworkisduetotheauthorsofthe individualchaptersthatcompriseit.Iamverygratefultoeachofthemforlendingtheirexpertiseinpreparing aneworrevisedchapterreflectingcontemporarydevelopmentsinthetopictheyhaveaddressed Sincenoone scholar,nomatterhowadept,canbeexpectedtobecompletelycurrentinallpossibleresearchmethods,I believethataneditedvolumesuchasthisone,drawinguponthestrengthsofmanysocialworkers,provides thereaderwithmoreaccurateandin-depthinformationthanaworkauthoredbyonlyoneortwopeople As before,theeditingandproductionstaffofSAGEhavedisplayedaconsistentcommitmenttoproducinga high-qualityworkofvaluetotheprofession,andIgratefullyacknowledgemydebttotheminthisregard, particularlytoKassieGraves Thishandbookisamuchbetterproductbecauseoftheirdiligentefforts
BruceA Thyer (2009)
Acknowledgments
TheEditorofthisvolumegratefullyacknowledgesthehelpandsupportprovidedoveranumberofyearsby KassieGraves,withSAGEPublications SAGEPublicationswouldliketothankthefollowingreviewersof thisedition:
KevinL.DeWeaver UniversityofGeorgia
MariaDinis CaliforniaStateUniversity,Sacramento
MichaelJ Holosko UniversityofGeorgia
AndrewScharlach UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley
BassimaSchbley WashburnUniversity
CathryneL Schmitz RadfordUniversity
JulieSchroeder FayettevilleStateUniversity
MichaelWolf-Branigin GeorgeMasonUniversity
Chapter1IntroductoryPrinciplesofSocialWorkResearch
BruceA.Thyer
Thescientificapproachtounsolvedproblemsistheonlyonewhichcontainsanyhopeoflearningtodealwiththeunknown
BerthaCapenReynolds(1942,p 20)
Anemphasisonthevalueofscientificresearchhasalwayscharacterizedprofessionalsocialworkeducation andpractice.Indeed,thisemphasisisoneofthehallmarksthatdistinguishesgenuinely“professional”services fromotherformsofprivate/publicphilanthropyandcharityandtheprovisionofsocialcaremotivatedby religious,familial,altruistic,orphilosophicalreasons InthehistoryofsocialworkinNorthAmericaand GreatBritain,aswellasinotherEuropeannations,thesystemofpoorlawsandotherrelativelyunsystematic attemptstocareforthedestitutegaveriseduringthelatterpartofthe19thcenturytoanorientationlabeled scientificphilanthropy Coincidentwiththeemergenceof“friendlyvisiting,”settlementhouses,formalized academictraining,andotherprecursorstotheprofessionalizationofsocialwork,thedevelopmentof charitableservicesguidedbyascientificorientationhasevolvedtothepresentday
SocialworkhistorianJohnGrahamprovidesagoodcasestudyonaTorontocharityhomeforwomencalled TheHaven,establishedin1878byreligiouselites,thatgraduallymadethetransitiontoamoresecularly orientedandprofessionalservice.Graham(1992)describesthecompletionofthistransitionin1927as follows:
Professionalsocialwork,therefore,hadbeenfirmlyinstalledatTheHaven,andthelastvestigesofthe benevolentphilanthropyofthenineteenthcenturywereabandoned.Agrowingsenseofprofessional identitymoreoverdemandedastrictdelineationbetweenthesocialworkerandthesocialagency volunteer Differentiatingtheformerfromthelatterwasascientificknowledgebaseandspecializedskills whichwerethesocialworker'salone.(p.304,italicsadded)
SuchatransitioncanbesaidtocharacterizethemajorityofsocialworkprogramsacrossNorthAmericaby theearlypartofthe20thcentury Currently,onewidelyuseddefinitionofsocialworkcanbefoundinThe SocialWorkDictionarypublishedbytheNationalAssociationofSocialWorkers “theappliedscienceof helpingpeopleachieveaneffectivelevelofpsychosocialfunctionandeffectingsocietalchangestoenhancethe well-beingofallpeople”(Barker,2003,p 408,italicsadded) Manystatesfurtherdefinethepracticeof clinicalsocialwork,andFlorida'sdefinitionprovidesarepresentativeexampleoftheinter-connectednessof socialworkandscience:“The‘practiceofclinicalsocialwork’isdefinedastheuseofscientificandapplied knowledge,theoriesandmethodsforthepurposesofdescribing,preventing,evaluating,andtreating, individual,couple,familyorgroupbehavior”(FloridaDepartmentofHealth,2008,italicsadded) These definitionsillustratethecloselinkagebetweenthepracticeofsocialworkandtheworldofscientificinquiry.
Wheredowesocialworkerscomefromorganizationally?Wehavemanyroots,butacentralonewasthe
establishmentin1865oftheAmericanSocialScienceAssociation(ASSA),ageneralistorganization influencedbyFrenchsociologistAugusteComte'sthennovelphilosophyofsciencelabeledpositivism,which calledfortheobjectivestudyofhumansocietyandbehaviorusingthesametoolsofscientificinquirythat wereprovingsosuccessfulinthebiologicalandphysicalsciences.FromtheASSAsproutednumerous offshoots,someofwhichthrivetothisday,althoughtheparentgroupcrumbledin1909 FromtheASSA,in 1879,emergedtheConferenceofCharities,whichin1884evolvedintotheNationalConferenceofCharities andCorrection(NCCC),describedas“aforumforthecommunicationoftheideasandvaluesconnectedwith scientificcharity”(Germain,1970,p 9) Inturn,theNCCCwasrenamedtheNationalConferenceonSocial Workin1917.Thislabellasteduntil1957,whenitwasalteredtotheNationalConferenceonSocial Welfare,whichgraduallyexpiredduringthe1980s.
Morerecently,in1994,asmallgroupofsocialworkersledbyJanetB W Williamsestablishedanew scientificallyorientedsocialworkmembershiporganizationknownastheSocietyforSocialWorkand Research(SSWR).Allsocialworkerswithaninterestinscientificresearchinsocialworkareeligibletojoin. TheSSWRquicklygrewfrom271membersin1995tomorethan1,300in2009,andtheorganizationhasan activenewsletterandprogramofannualinternationalconferences ThefirstprofessionalSSWRconference washeldin1995inWashington,D.C.,andhasbeenfollowedannuallysincethattimewithverysuccessful andhigh-qualityconferences(seewwwsswrorg) TheSSWRconferencesofferahostofcompetitively reviewedsymposia,papers,andposters;plenaryaddressesbyprominentsocialworkresearchers;andan awardsprogramthatrecognizesoutstandingexamplesofrecentlypublishedsocialworkresearch.Becauseof itssuperborganizationandthetopqualityofitspresentations,theSSWRconferencehasrapidlybecomethe preferredvenueforsocialworkresearcherstopresenttheirresearchfindings Moreover,ithasbecomethe conferenceofchoiceforschoolsofsocialworktoseekinterviewswithpotentialnewfacultyandforpotential newfacultytoseekacademicpositions In1999,theSSWRbeganprovidingitsmembersasubscriptiontothe bimonthlypeer-reviewedjournalResearchonSocialWorkPractice,anindependentperiodicalestablishedin 1991.ThisgrowthoftheSSWRaugurswellforthecontinuingvoiceofsciencewithinmainstreamsocial work
ArelatedbutindependentdevelopmentwastheestablishmentoftheInstitutefortheAdvancementofSocial WorkResearch(IASWR)in1993.ThemissionoftheIASWRistocreateinfrastructureforsocialwork research,toleadadvocacyeffortstofundsocialworkresearch,tohelpstakeholdersviewsocialworkresearch asvaluable,toprovidetrainingandprofessionaldevelopmentprogramsforsocialworkresearchers,to persuadesocialworkerstoundertakecareersinresearch,toprovideafreeWeb-basedresearch-focused newsletter,andtopromotedisciplinaryandinterdisciplinaryresearchcollaboration.Fivenationalprofessional socialworkorganizationscontributedtothedevelopmentoftheIASWRandarerepresentedonitsgoverning board.ItsoriginalpurposeofadvocatingfortheestablishmentofafederallyfundedNationalCenterfor SocialWorkResearchfailedinthefaceoffiscalausterity,buttheIASWRhasexpandeditsremitasdescribed above(seehttp://wwwiaswresearchorg/)
AnotherorganizationalresourceforsocialworkresearchistheSocialWorkTopicalInterestGroup(TIG) foundwithintheAmericanEvaluationAssociation(AEA).TheAEAhasabout5,000members,andseveral
hundredofthesecomprisethesocialworkTIG.TheAEAholdsanannualconferenceaswellasregional ones,hasanactivejournalsprogram,andprovidestrainingandconsultationservices,anditsWebsitehasa wealthofusefulresources(e.g.,locatingmeasurementinstruments,howtolocateanevaluator;see http://www.eval.org/aboutus/organization/aboutus.asp).
TheNationalAssociationofSocialWorkersisthelargestprofessionalsocialworkgroupintheworld,with about150,000members AlmostallareMSW andBSW-leveltrainedprofessionals,andtheorganization primarilyservestheneedsofitspractitionermemberbase,notthoseofsocialworkresearchers.TheNASW doesnothostanannualconferencebutdoeshaveoneresearchjournal,SocialWorkResearch Anewinitiative isasocialworkresearchWebpage(seewwwsocialworkersorg/research/),cosponsoredwiththeIASWR, whichisitselfostensiblyindependentbutisactuallyhousedwithintheNASWofficesinWashington,D.C. Socialworkresearchersalsofindwelcomingorganizationalsupportfromvariousdisciplinary(eg,American PsychologicalAssociation,AmericanSociologicalAssociation,AssociationforBehaviorAnalysis)and interdisciplinary(e.g.,AmericanPublicHealthAssociation,AssociationforAdvancementofBehavioraland CognitiveTherapies,AmericanOrthopsychiatricAssociation,theGerontologicalSocietyofAmerica)groups Thesegroupstypicallyhavethrivingannualconferences,awell-establishedjournalsprogram,andtraining opportunitiessocialworkerscantakeadvantageof.Thus,bothbuddingandexperiencedsocialworkershave ampleopportunitiestonetworkwithresearch-orientedcolleaguesbothwithinandoutsideofthediscipline
ScientificPerspectivesonPractice
Theroleofscientificresearchinsocialwelfarecanbeseenthroughmanyearlywritings,includinganarticle titled“ScientificCharity,”presentedatthe1889meetingoftheNCCC(citedinGermain,1970,p 8),and onetitled“AScientificBasisforCharity”(Wayland,1894),whichappearedintheinfluentialjournalThe CharitiesReview.SuchperspectivesculminatedinthepublicationofRichmond's(1917)SocialDiagnosis,an influentialtextthatwholeheartedlyextolledthevirtuesofpositivistscience Indeed,in1921,Richmond receivedanhonoraryMA degreefromSmithCollegefor“establishingthescientificbasisofanew profession”(citedinGermain,1970,p.12).
Thepossibleexamplesofconferencetalks,journalarticles,chapters,andbooksillustratingthecentralreliance onscientificresearchasaguidingforcewithinearlysocialworkaretoonumeroustomentionfurtherhere Germain(1970)remainsoneoftheverybestreviewsofthis“ancient”historyofourprofession.Morerecentis thehistoryoftheSocialWorkResearchGroup(SWRG),ashort-livedprofessionalmembershiporganization establishedin1949thatbecameoneoftheoriginalsevenconstituentsoftheNationalAssociationofSocial Workers(NASW)in1955,transmogrifyingitselfintotheNASW'sResearchSection.In1963,thisbecame theNASW'sCouncilonSocialWorkResearch,whereitgraduallyfadedfromviewbythemid-1960sasthe NASWallowedtheresearchmissionestablishedinitsbylawstolargelylapse Graham,Al-Krenawi,and Bradshaw(2000)havepreparedanexcellenthistoricalstudyoftheriseanddemiseoftheSWRG.
Coincidentwiththeseorganizationalandpolicydevelopmentsrelatedtotheintegrationofscienceandsocial workduringthepastquartercenturyhavebeenthreerelatedperspectivesonpractice Thefirstisknownas empiricalclinicalpractice(ECP),thesecondiscalledempiricallysupportedtreatments(ESTs),andthethirdis labeledevidence-basedpractice(EBP).Thesearereviewedbrieflyinturn.
EmpiricalClinicalPractice
EmpiricalclinicalpracticewasthenameofabookauthoredbysocialworkersSiriJayaratneandRonaLevy (1979),whodescribethecharacteristicsoftheECPmodeltheyespouse:“Empiricalpracticeisconductedby clinicianswhostrivetomeasureanddemonstratetheeffectoftheirclinicalpracticebyadaptingtraditional experimentalresearchtechniquestoclinicalpractice”(p.xiii).Theauthorsfocusonteachingsocialworkers theuseofrelativelysimpleresearchmethodscalledsingle-systemresearchdesignstoempiricallyevaluatethe outcomesoftheirwork Theybelievethat“clinicalpracticethatcanempiricallydemonstrateitseffectprovides thebasisforthebestservicetotheclient”(p.xiv).TheycontendedthatECPcanbeadoptedbypractitioners usingvirtuallyanytheoreticalmodelofpracticesolongasitispossibletomeasurechangesintheclient,relate thesechanges(provisionally)tosocialworkintervention,andthenbasefutureservicesontheseobservations Theauthorsadvocatethatsocialworkersshouldrelyonpreviousresearchtohelpguidetheirchoicesof interventionsthattheyofferclients Intheirwords,“Theclinicianwouldfirstbeinterestedinusingan interventionstrategythathasbeensuccessfulinthepast Whenestablishedtechniquesareavailable,they shouldbeused,buttheyshouldbebasedonobjectiveevaluationratherthansubjectivefeeling”(p.7).ECP involvesthecarefulandrepeatedmeasureofclientfunctioning,usingreliableandvalidmeasuresrepeatedover time,combinedwithselectedtreatmentsbasedonthebestavailablescientificevidence Theirentirebookis devotedtodescribinghowtodotheseactivities.AsimilarsocialworktextbyWodarski(1981),titledTheRole ofResearchinClinicalPractice,advocatedformuchthesamething apreferencetomakeuseofpsychosocial treatmentsthatscientificresearchhadreallydemonstratedtobeofbenefittoclients,measuringclient functioninginreliableandvalidways,andempiricallyevaluatingoutcomeswithindividualclientsandlarger groups
ThebannerofECPwaspickedupbyanumberofsubsequentsocialworkers,andaratherlarge(andnot uncontroversial)literaturehasgrownaroundthesenotions(e.g.,Corcoran,1985;Ivanoff,Blythe,&Briar, 1987;Ivanoff,Robinson,&Blythe,1987;G.MacDonald,1994;Thyer,1996).TheinfluenceofECPhasnot beeninconsiderable Forexample,in1982,just3yearsfollowingthepublicationofEmpiricalClinicalPractice (Jayaratne&Levy,1979),thecurriculumpolicystatementoftheCouncilonSocialWorkEducation (CSWE,1982)includedanewmandatethatresearchcoursesmustnowteach“designsforthesystematic evaluationofthestudent'sownpractice [andshould]preparethemsystematicallytoevaluatetheirown practiceandcontributetothegenerationofknowledgeforpractice”(pp 10–11) Similarstandardsstillcanbe foundinthecurrentCSWEguidelines.Insistingthatindividualpractitionersconductsystematicoutcome evaluationsoftheirownserviceswasaremarkableprofessionalstandard,onethathasnotyetbeenemulated byeducationalandpracticeguidelineswithinclinicalpsychologyorpsychiatryinthepresentday Reid(1994) providesaniceoverviewoftherise,influence,anddisseminationoftheECPmovement.
EmpiricallySupportedTreatments
SubsequenttotheECPmovementwithinsocialwork,arelatedinitiativedevelopedwithinclinicalpsychology calledempiricallyvalidatedtreatments Duringthemid-1990s,thepresidentofSectionIII(Societyfora ScienceofClinicalPsychology)ofDivision12(ClinicalPsychology)oftheAmericanPsychological AssociationconvenedaTaskForceonPromotionandDisseminationofPsychologicalProcedures,agroup chargedwithtwofunctions:(a)developascientificallydefensiblesetofcriteriathatcanbeusedtodetermine whetheragivenpsychologicaltechniquecanbecalledempiricallyvalidatedand(b)conductcomprehensive reviewsoftheresearchliterature,applythesecriteria,andcomeupwith,ineffect,listsofpsychological proceduresthatfulfillthesecriteriaand,therefore,canbeconsidered,inascientificsense,empirically validated
Theevidentiarystandardsultimatelydecidedonbythetaskforcewereactuallyrathermodest,consistingof thefollowingcriteria:
1 Atleasttwogoodbetween-groupdesignexperimentsdemonstratingefficacyinoneormoreofthe followingways:
1. Superiortopillorpsychologicalplaceboortoanothertreatment
2 Equivalenttoanalreadyestablishedtreatmentinexperimentswithadequatestatisticalpower
2 Alargeseriesofsingle-casedesignexperiments(N>9)demonstratingefficacythatmusthavedonethe following:
1 Usedgoodexperimentaldesigns
2 Comparedtheinterventiontoanothertreatment(asinIA)
Amongthefurthercriteriaarethatthepsychologicaltechniquesmustbebasedonwell-proceduralized treatmentmanuals,thatthecharacteristicsoftheclientsamplesareclearlydefined,andthatthepositive effectsmusthavebeendemonstratedbyatleasttwodifferentinvestigatorsorinvestigatoryteams A psychologicaltreatmentmeetingtheprecedingcriteriacouldbesaidtobewellestablished.Asomewhatless stringentsetofcriteriacouldbefollowedtopotentiallylabelatreatmentasprobablyefficacious(Chamblesset al,1996)
Withthecriteriainplace,thetaskforcebusilygottoworkinseeingwhichpsychologicaltreatmentscouldbe labeledempiricallyvalidatedandprobablyefficacious,andreportssoonbeganappearingindicatingempirically validatedinterventionsforawidearrayofpsychosocialdisorderssuchasdepression,panicdisorder,pain,and schizophrenia AswiththeECPmovementwithinsocialwork,thetaskforcewithinpsychologydidnot escapecontroversy.Foronething,thetaskforcerecognizedthatlabelingatreatmentasempiricallyvalidated seemedtoclosethediscussionoff,implyingperhapsastrongerlevelofresearchevidencethanwasjustified Subsequentreportsofthetaskforceusedthemoretemperedlanguageofempiricallysupportedtreatments (ESTs).Entireissuesofleadingprofessionaljournals(i.e.,a1996issueofClinicalPsychology:Scienceand Practice,a1998issueoftheJournalofConsultingandClinicalPsychology,a1998issueofPsychotherapyResearch) weredevotedtothetopic,aswereconsiderableindependentliteratures(eg,Sanderson&Woody,1995)
TheinfluenceoftheESTmovementalsohasbeenstrong,andtheworkoftheDivision12taskforcewas commentedonextremelyfavorablyinMentalHealth:AReportoftheSurgeonGeneral(Hatcher,2000) The volumetitledAGuidetoTreatmentsThatWork(Nathan&Gorman,2007),nowinitsthirdedition,isan exemplaryresourceforsocialworkersseekingrelativelycurrentinformationaboutempiricallysupported treatmentsforawidevarietyofmentalhealthproblems Division12,SectionIII(TheSocietyforaScienceof ClinicalPsychology)continuesitsworkindefiningthecriteriaandlanguageusedtodescribeempirically supportedtreatmentsandmaintainsaWebsiteprovidingcurrentinformationonthisinfluentialinitiative(see http://wwwpsychologysunysbedu/eklonsky-/division12/indexhtml)
Evidence-BasedPractice
CoincidentwiththeESTinitiativesinclinicalpsychologyhavebeenrelatedactivitiesinmedicinelabeled evidence-basedpractice,definedas“theconscientious,explicit,andjudicioususeofthecurrentbestevidencein makingdecisionsaboutthecareofindividualpatients”(Sackett,Richardson,Rosenberg,&Haynes,1997,p 2).Onitsface,EBPwouldnotseemtobearadicalnotion,andindeed,mostreaderswouldassumethatsuch astandardalreadywasinplaceinmostofthehealthprofessions Sadly,toagreatextent,thisisnotthecase, althoughasmallbutinfluentialgroupofhealthcareprovidersisattemptingtomakeitso EBPandEST actuallyaremuchmoresophisticatedvariantsoftheearlierECPmodelofsocialwork,butthespiritand intentofallthreemovements ECP(developedwithinsocialwork),EST(developedwithinpsychology), andEBP(developedwithinmedicine) arethesame EBPisgraduallysupplantingtheECPandEST initiativeswithinsocialworkandpsychology.ThecurrentpresidentoftheSocietyfortheScienceofClinical Psychology(asectionofDivision12oftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation)publishedaneditorialtitled “Evidence-BasedPsychotherapy:AGraduateCourseProposal”(Persons,1999),andsomesocialworkers havebegunusingtheEBPlanguage,mostnotablyGambrill(1999)withherthoughtfularticletitled “Evidence-BasedPractice:AnAlternativetoAuthority-BasedPractice,”whichintroducedEBPtothesocial workliterature ThepastdecadehasseenthepublicationofenoughsocialworkbooksontheEBPtopictofill abookshelf.Themeldingofthesedisciplinaryperspectivesintoaninterdisciplinaryhumanservicesmovement genericallycalledevidence-basedpracticeseemslikely ConsiderPersons's(1999)descriptionofEBP:
Theevidence-basedpractitioner:
Providesinformedconsentfortreatment
Reliesontheefficacydata(especiallyfromRCTs[randomizedclinicaltrials])whenrecommendingand selectingandcarryingouttreatments
Usestheempiricalliteraturetoguidedecision-making
Usesasystematic,hypothesis-testingapproachtothetreatmentofeachcase:
○Beginswithcarefulassessment
○Setsclearandmeasurablegoals
○Developsandindividualizedformulationandatreatmentplanbasedontheformulation
○Monitorsprogresstowardthegoalsfrequentlyandmodifiesorendstreatmentasneeded(p 2)
Well,perhapsJayaratneandLevy(1979)weresimplytwodecadesaheadoftheirtime AnissueoftheNASW NewscontainedanarticleontheSurgeonGeneral'sReportonMentalHealthandnoted,“Achallengeinthe neartermistospeedtransferofnewevidence-basedtreatmentsandpreventioninterventionsintodiverseservice deliverysettingsandsystems”(O'Neill,2000,p 6,italicsadded) TheSurgeonGeneral'sreportitselfstates clearly,
Respondingtothecallsofmanagedmentalhealthandbehavioralhealthcaresystemsforevidence-based interventionswillhaveamuchneededanddiscernableimpactonpractice Itisessentialtoexpandthe
supplyofeffective,evidence-basedservicesthroughoutthenation (Hatcher,2000,chap 8,p 453)
EBPrequiresknowingwhathelpssocialworkclientsandwhatdoesnothelpthem Itrequiresbeingableto distinguishbetweenunverifiedopinionsaboutpsychosocialinterventionsandfactsabouttheireffectiveness Andseparatingfactsfromfictionsiswhatscienceisprettygoodatdoing.Notperfectly,andnotwithoutfalse starts,butthepubliclyverifiableandpotentiallytestableconclusionsofscientificresearchrenderthisformof knowledgebuildinganinherentlyself-correctingone(inthelongrun),aconsiderableadvantageoverother “waysofknowing.”
EBPdiffersfromitsprecursorinitiativesinthatitdoesnottellsocialworkerswhatinterventionsshouldbe providedtoclients Itdoesnotlistso-calledbestpractices,createpracticeguidelines,ordeveloplistsof supposedlyempiricallybasedtreatments.Nordoesitundulyprivilegecertainformsofevidenceaboveall others.EachoftheabovethreesentencesrepresentscommonmisconceptionsofEBP.EBPisactuallya processofinquiryofferedtopractitioners,describedforphysiciansinStraus,Richardson,Galsziou,and Haynes(2005),butreadilyadaptabletoprovidersinallofthehumanserviceprofessions Thesestepsareas follows(fromStrausetal.,2005,pp.3–4):
Step1:convertingtheneedforinformation(aboutprevention,diagnosis,prognosis,therapy,causation, etc)intoananswerablequestion
Step2:trackingdownthebestevidencewithwhichtoanswerthatquestion.
Step3:criticallyappraisingthatevidenceforitsvalidity(closenesstothetruth),impact(sizeofthe effect),andapplicability(usefulnessinourclinicalpractice)
Step4:integratingthecriticalappraisalwithourclinicalexpertiseandwithourpatient'suniquebiology, values,andcircumstances
Step5:Evaluatingoureffectivenessandefficiencyinexecutingsteps1–4andseekingwaystoimprove thembothfornexttime.
EachchapterinStrausetal.(2005)addressesoneofthesesteps,andtheyhavebeenadaptedforusebysocial workersinanexcellentseriesofentriesappearinginTheSocialWorker'sDeskReference(seeRoberts,2009,pp 1115–1182).EBPstatesthatsocialworkersneedtobefamiliarwiththebestavailableevidenceaddressingthe questionsrelatedtoclientservicesandtotheirparticularpracticesituationandtointegratetheirappraisalof thisinformationintoanassessmentoftheirownskills,theclient'spreferences,relevantprofessionaland personalvaluesandethicalstandards,cost,feasibility,andresources.Allofthesefactorsarerelevant,notjust whattheresearchevidenceindicates.Andbybestevidence,whatismeantisnotso-calledgold-standard studiessuchasrandomizedcontrolledtrialsormeta-analyses(seelaterchaptersonthesetopicsinthisbook) butsimplythebestavailablerelevantevidence.Iftherearenostudiesofsuperlativequality,thenyoulocate andassessthoseoflesserquality.Lotsofevidencecangointothemix,includingquasi-experimentalstudies, single-subjectstudies,correlationalstudies,descriptivework,epidemiologicalevidence,qualitative investigations,casehistories,theory,andinformedclinicalopinion.Thereisalwaysevidenceforasocial workertoconsult,evenifitisnotevidenceofthehighestquality.AswithECP,EBPalsoencourages practitionerstoevaluatetheoutcomesoftheirworkwithindividualclientsusingaresearchmethodology
calledsingle-subjectdesigns.
Anotheroptionisforsocialworkerstoconsultsystematicreviews(SRs)oftheresearchevidencerelatedto variousanswerablequestionsinvolvingassessmentandinterventivemethods Thetwogroupsmost responsibleforpreparinghigh-qualityandindependentSRsarecalledtheCochraneCollaboration(see wwwcochraneorg),focusingonissuesrelatedtohealthcare,andtheCampbellCollaboration(see wwwcampbellcollaborationorg),focusingonsocialwelfare,education,andcriminaljustice SRsareprepared byqualifiedresearchteamswhoobtainarticlesandreportsfromallovertheworlddealingwithaspecific issue Thesereportsareminutelyanalyzedandcritiquedandthecollectedinformationsummarizedina readableformat,withatake-awaymessagesomethinglikeTreatmentXiswell-supportedasaneffective treatmentforclientswithProblemY;TheavailableevidenceindicatesthatTreatmentXisineffectiveinhelping clientswithProblemY;ClientswithProblemYwhoreceiveTreatmentXdemonstratedimpairedoutcomes,compared toclientswhoreceivenotreatment Youcanseehowthisinformationwouldbeofimmensevaluetosocial workers.HereisasamplingofSRscurrentlyavailableontheCochranedatabasethatisofrelevancetosocial workers:
Behavioralandcognitive-behavioraltherapyforobsessive-compulsivedisorderinchildrenand adolescents
Familyinterventionforbipolardisorder
Familytherapyfordepression
Psychologicaldebriefingforpreventingposttraumaticstressdisorder Psychotherapyforbulimianervosaandbinging
Short-termpsychodynamicpsychotherapyforcommonmentaldisorders
AndherearesomefoundontheCampbellCollaborationWebsite:
Cognitive-behavioraltherapyformenwhophysicallyabusetheirpartner
Cognitive-behavioralinterventionforchildrenwhohavebeensexuallyabused Interventionsintendedtoreducepregnancy-relatedoutcomesamongadolescents
School-basededucationalprogramsforthepreventionofchildhoodsexualabuse Workprogramsforwelfarerecipients
Thesesystematicreviewsrepresentthehighestqualityandup-to-datecriticalappraisalsoftheexisting researchliteratureaddressingparticularpsychosocialandhealthproblemsexperiencedbysocialworkclients. Theyareawonderfulresourceforpractitionersseekingsuchinformationandareintegraltotheconductof evidence-basedpractice
Tosummarize,ECPsuggestedthatsocialworktreatmentshouldbechosenbasedonsupportviarandomized controlledstudiesandthatsocialworkersneedtoevaluatetheoutcomesoftheirpracticewithclientsusing single-systemresearchdesigns TheESTinitiativecameupwithalistofevidentiarycriterianeededtolabela giventreatmentas“empiricallysupported”Oncethesecriteriawereinhand,listsofpsychosocial interventionsmeetingthesestandardswerepublished.EBPprovidesmoreofaprocesstoguideclinicaland
practicedecisionmaking,whichexplicitlyembracesevidencefrommanysources(albeiturgingonetopay particularattentiontoevidenceofthehighestquality)andexplicitlyincludesnonscientificconsiderationssuch asclientpreferencesandvaluesintothisdecision-makingprocess.Inmanyways,EBPisamoresophisticated andmatureconceptualizationoftheconductofpracticethanECPandEST,andtheselattertwoinitiatives largelyhavebeensubsumedbyEBP
OnTerms
Theprecedingbriefoverviewhelpstobringustothepresent,whereinsocialworkisattemptingtoreally implementouroriginalaspirationspertainingtobeingbasedonafoundationofscientificresearch Asinmost intellectualundertakings,italwaysishelpfultobeginbydefiningone'sterms Accordingly,thefollowing languageisbeingusedtohelpsetthestageforsubsequentchaptersinthishandbook.
Researchrefersto“systematicproceduresusedinseekingfactsorprinciples”(Barker,2003,p 398),andthe phrasescientificmethodmeans
asetofrigorousproceduresusedinsocialandphysicalresearchtoobtainandinterpretfacts The proceduresincludedefiningtheproblem,operationallystatinginadvancethemethodformeasuringthe problem,defininginadvancethecriteriatobeusedtorejecthypotheses,usingmeasuringinstruments thathavevalidityandreliability,observingandmeasuringallthecasesorarepresentativesampleofthose cases,presentingforpublicscrutinythefindingsandthemethodsusedinaccumulatingtheminsuch detailastopermitreplication,andlimitinganyconclusionstothoseelementsthataresupportedbythe findings (Barker,2003,p 383)
Thetermempiricalisoftenlooselybandiedaboutinthesocialworkliterature,andinsomeinterpretations,it seemssynonymouswiththeassertion,“IfIcanseeit,thenitisreal.”Well,evidenceobtainedviathesenses certainlyisapart(andaveryimportantone)ofthemeaningoftheterm,butsimplyhavingasingleperson sense(eg,see,hear,smell)somethingdoesnotreallysufficeforsomethingtobeconsideredapieceof scientificdata.Forresearchpurposes,data“shouldalsobeobtainedthroughsystematicobservationscapableof beingreplicated(ie,verified)byotherindividualsandsubjecttosomeevidentiarystandards”(Thyer& Wodarski,1998,p 2) Perhapsitistruethatyourneighborwasremovedfromhisbedbyaliensonenightand subjectedtoinvasivemedicalprocedurespriortobeingreturnedhome.Butunlessothersseetheabduction occur,orotherevidenceisavailable(eg,thealiensleftunusualobjectsinsidehisbody),tolabelthis experienceofhisasempiricalistrueonlyintheloosestsenseoftheterm Certainly,onetimeprivateevents leavingnodetectableevidencebehind,orpurelysubjectiveexperiences,aredifficultphenomenaonwhichto conductscientificresearch Thisisnottosaythatsuchexperiencesarefalseorotherwiseunimportant,only thattheyrarelyarethesubjectmatterofscience
SomePhilosophicalAssumptions
Professionalsocialwork'sdualoriginsintheworldsofreligionandofsciencerequirecontemporarypractice andresearchtorestabituneasilyonaProcrusteanbedofphilosophicalassumptions Thephilosophical positionsdescribedinwhatfollows,whileforthemostpartbeingsimplyseenascommonsense,cannotinany waybesaidtobeprovedordemonstratedtobevalid.Eachisvulnerabletoattackand,indeed,toapparent refutation,buttheseviewsneverthelesshavestoodthetestofbothtimeandpracticesufficientlywellforusto havesomedegreeofconfidenceinthem First,Idescribeprinciplesthatmostcontemporaryresearchers acceptasphilosophicallyaxiomatic(i.e.,self-evidenttruths),followedbysomeselectedphilosophicalpositions thatarerejectedbymostscientiststoday
SomeAcceptedPrinciples
Realism:thepointofviewthattheworldhasanindependenceorobjectiveexistenceapartfromthe perceptionsoftheobserver
Determinism:theassumptionthatallphenomena,includingpsychosocialones,havephysical(asopposed tometaphysical)causesthatarepotentiallyamenabletoscientificinvestigationanddiscovery
Positivism:thebeliefthatvalidknowledgeabouttheobjectiveworldcanbearrivedatthroughscientific research
Rationalism:thebeliefthatreasonandlogicareusefultoolsforscientificinquiryandthat,ultimately, truthfulorvalidaccountsofhumanbehaviorwillberationalorlogicallyunderstandable
Empiricism:apreferencetorelyonevidencegatheredsystematicallythroughobservationorexperiment andcapableofbeingreplicated(ie,reproducedandverified)byothersusingsatisfactorystandardsof evidence
Operationism:theassertionthatitisimportanttodevelopmeasuresandtreatmentsthatcanbereliably replicatedbyothers
Parsimony:apreferencetoseriouslyconsiderthesimpleroftheavailableandadequateexplanationsofa phenomenonpriortoacceptingamorecomplexaccount
Scientificskepticism:thepointofviewthatallscientificclaims(e.g.,TreatmentXhelpsclients)shouldbe consideredtobeofdoubtfulvalidityuntilsubstantiatedbycredibleempiricaldata
Naturalism:theperspectivethattheworldinwhichwelive,theobjects,people,andprocessesthatoccur withinit,consistofnaturalphenomena,potentiallyunderstandablewithoutanyneedtoinvoke supernaturalormetaphysicalforces
SomeRejectedPrinciples
Metaphysics:explanationsinvolvingsupernatural,incorporeal,orimmaterialentitiesorfactors
Nihilism:thedoctrinethatallvaluesarebaselessandthatnothingisknownorcanbelearned
Dualism:theviewthattheworldconsistsofthetwofundamentalentitiesofmindandmatter
Reification:attributingrealitytoanabstractorhypotheticalconstruct(eg,thesuperego)intheabsence ofadequateevidencesupportingtheexistenceofthatconstruct
Circularreasoning:anexplanationforhumanbehaviorinwhichcausesandeffectscannotbe distinguishedfromeachother
Scientism:thetheorythattheinvestigationalmethodsusedinthenaturalsciencesshouldbeappliedinall fieldsofinquiry(e.g.,valuesandethics)andusedtoanswerallquestionsofinteresttosocialworkers
Radicalskepticism:alsoknownasPyrrhonianskepticism,aftertheGreekphilosopherPyrrhoofElis.This positionassertsthatnothingcanbeknownor,moremoderately,thatalljudgmentsshouldbesuspended
Now,certainly,somewordsofclarificationmightbeneededherebecauseafewoftheprecedingpositions couldbeseenaschallengingorconfusingtothereader.Letusbeginwithrealism.Mostofaccepttheideathat theworldcontinuesmerrilyalong,eventhoughwemightnotbeawareofit forexample,whenweareasleep orunderanesthesia Buttoacceptrealismisnottorejectthepotentiallyimportantroleofindividual perceptionsintheconstructionofanindividual'sworld.Asmanyofusweregrowingup,Plutowassaidtobe aplanet,homosexualitywasamentalillness,and,earlier,Galileowasadangeroushereticintheeyesofthe Church NowPlutoisnotsaidtobeaplanet,homosexualityisnolongerseenasamentalillness,andGalileo hasbeenhailedbytheVaticanasanintellectualhero!Plutoswimsalongintheheavensundisturbedbythe votesofastronomers Thenatureofone'ssexualorientationdoesnotdependonmajorityvotesofagroupof psychiatrists,andGalileo'sachievementsdonotriseorfallaccordingtoclericalpreferences Tobearealist meanstoacceptthatatleastsomepartofourworldhasanobjectiveexistence,andformanyareasofsocial workpractice,itistheseobjectiverealitiesthatarethefocusofintervention Actually,mostsocialworkersare hard-corerealists,anditisonlyasmall(butvocal)minoritywhochallengethisnotion,mostlyphilosophically orientedsherry-sipperslocatedwithintheacademy.ThewisdomofsocialworkpioneerBethaCapen Reynoldsremainsthemainstreamandcommonsenseview:
Atfirstglanceitseemsunnecessarytostatethat,ifwebelieveinanon-capriciousandobjectivelyreliable universe,suchbeliefalsoincludessocialandeconomicforceswithwhichwecancooperate Actually,we constantlydenythisrelianceonobjectiverealityinfavorofsubjectivefantasies.(Reynolds,1963/1991,p. 315)
and
Asecondcharacteristicofscientificallyorientedsocialworkisthatitacceptstheobjectiverealityofforces outsideitselfwithwhichitmustcooperate (Reynolds,1942,p 24)
SocialworkersMantysaari(2005)andBeckett(2007)providesomecontemporaryperspectivesonthe usefulnessofrealismasaphilosophicalaxiomforsocialwork.
Weacceptdeterminismwheneverweattemptinterventionbythetacitassumptionthattreatmentcanhave effects Ifwedidnotbelievethatclients’problemsorsocialillshadcauses,thenwhatwouldbethepointof havinganentireprofessiondevotedtodiscoveringthosecausesandremedyingthem?
Althoughthetermpositivismisoftenusedasatermofapprobationinthesocialworkliterature,inreality, manyofthecriticismsagainstithaveportrayedastrawman Mostofusbelievethatscientificinquiryabout theworldofourclientsandtheameliorationoftheirdifficultiescanbeausefulundertaking.Thedominant philosophyofscienceinboththenaturalandsocialsciences,includingsocialwork,hasbeenandremainsthe approachgenerallyknownaspositivism:“AparadigmintroducedbyAugustComtethatheldthatsocial behaviorcouldbestudiedandunderstoodinarational,scientificmanner incontrasttoexplanationsbased onreligionorsuperstition”(Rubin&Babbie,2008,p 642) Thatsimpleideaispositivisminanutshell We areallpositivists,tosomeextent(Thyer,2008b) AclearComteaninfluencewasevidentinatalkgivenatthe NationalConferenceofSocialWorkin1918,when
Ellwoodoutlinedthedevelopmentofsocialwork.Accordingtohimit“beganwithatheologicalstage, passedthroughametaphysicalstage,andisenteringuponitsscientificstage”Heholdsthat“the scientificstagewillbereachedwhensocialworkpassesfullyunderthedominationofscience;whenit becomestransfusedwiththespiritandtransformedbythemethodofmodernscience….Thesocial workermustlearntobecomeascientificsocialthinkeralso Simplegoodwillandhumansympathyare nosufficientguideforthesocialworker Theymayfurnishwarmth,butnotlight”(QuotedinKarpf, 1931,pp.71–72)
AstatementbyU.S.socialworkerFrankBrunoprovidesamorematuresummaryofthisposition:
Socialworkholdsasitsprimaryaxiomthatknowledgeofhumanbehaviorcanbeacquiredand interpretedbythesensesandthatinferencesdrawnfromsuchknowledgecanbetestedbytheprinciples oflogic.Thedifferencebetweenthesocialworkofthepresentandofallprecedingagesisthe assumptionthathumanbehaviorcanbeunderstoodandisdeterminedbycauseswhichcanbeexplained. Wemaynothaveatpresentamasteryofthemethodsofunderstandingbehavior,butanyscientific approachtobehaviorpresupposesthatitisnotinitsnatureincomprehensibletosensoryperceptionand inferencetherefrom.(Bruno,1936,pp.192–193)
PositivismwasalsothedominantphilosophyofscienceduringtheestablishmentoftheBritishsystemof socialwelfare,asexemplifiedintheworkoffounderssuchasSidneyWebb(seeBevir,2002)andstrongly influencedAmericansocialworkersMaryRichmond(Agnew,2004,p.117)andJaneAddams.Positivism itselfhasspawnedmanyvariants,withHalfpenny(1982)listingoveradozencontrastingviews.Theversion knownaslogicalpositivismisnolongergenerallyheldtobeaviableposition,anditisimportanttonot conflatethisparticularlimitedphilosophyofsciencewiththemoregenericandwidelyacceptedapproach definedabove(seeBolland&Atherton,2002).
Forthemanypositivists,traditionalabstractphilosophicalproblemsareessentiallyunresolvablebythe methodsofscience(eg,Whatisbeauty?Whatistruth?)andarethereforeseenaspseudo-problemsandserve onlytodistractusfrommoreseriousissues.Whetherthishandbookthatyouarereadingis“real”orwhether youaresimplydreamingaboutit(anightmare!)cannotbeascertainedwithcertaintybyscientificmethods Thus,positivismdismissessuchissuesfromthepurviewofscienceandmovesontothemorepracticalmatters thatconcernmostsocialworkers.Askingprovocativephilosophicalquestions,postingtautologiesand conundrums,andpointingoutprofessionalparadoxescanbebothinterestingandfunattimes Butifwe becomepreoccupiedwithsuchissuestotheextentthatwebecomeprofessionallyimmobilized,thenwhatwas aharmlessdistractionhasbecomeadestructiveinfluence.
Positivismdoesnotmeanthatscientificresearchistheonlywayinwhichtodiscoverusefulknowledge Positivismdoesnotmeanthatallknowledgeobtainedfromnonscientificsourcesisincorrectoruseless And positivismdoesnotmeanthatanysupposedfindingobtainedfroma“scientificstudy”isfreefromerrororthat sciencedoesnotmakemistakes Remembertheexcitementofthediscoveryof“cold”fusiontwodecadesago, withitsunfulfilledpromiseofunlimited,pollution-freeenergyforhumankind?Howabouttheearly astronomerwhodiscovered“canals”onMars,canalsthenalsoclaimedtobeseenbyotherastronomers(sorry, therearenocanalsonMars) Andifmistakesoccurintherelatively“cleaner”disciplinessuchasphysicsand astronomy,thenthinkhowmuchmoredifficultitcanbetodesignandconductsoundscientificstudiesinthe fieldofsocialwork,studiestakingplacenotinagerm-freelaboratoryusingpurifiedreagentsbutratherinthe hurly-burlyofclients’lives,inthereal-worldcontextsinwhichsocialproblemsexist Socialworkerscanenvy thebenchscientists’degreeofexperimentalcontrolovertheirsubjectmattersandthereliabilityofthefindings theycanobtain.Envy,perhaps,butwiththeappreciationthatourfieldismoreintrinsicallydifficultand challenging.Researchintothecausesofsocialproblemsandintothedevelopmentandevaluationof interventionsdesignedtoameliorateorpreventthemcanbeseenasmoredifficultandasrequiringgreater intelligenceandperseverancethanrocketscience.
Certaintyinscienceisrelative,provisional,andfallible,withanygivenfindingalwayssusceptibletobeing overturnedbynewandbetterdata “Sciencedoesnotclaimtohavecompleteknowledgeofthetruthorto haveestablishedperfectorderoutofchaosintheworld Itislessanaccomplishedfactthananattitude” (Todd,1920,p.71).Throughscientificresearch,wemayperhapscomeclosertonature'struth,evenifweare unabletocompletelyunderstandit
Fewwouldarguethatrationalismandempiricismarenotnobleattributes,andmostacceptthatitisnecessary
