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OXFORDEARLYCHRISTIANSTUDIES

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TheDonatistChurchin anApocalypticAge

JESSEA.HOOVER

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Preface

ThisbookbeganlifeasaPh.D.dissertationatBaylorUniversityunderthe directionofDr.DanielWilliams.Iamdeeplygratefulforhiscontinued involvementthrougheverystageoftheproject,fromhiscarefulcritiquesof myinitialmanuscriptchapters,whichwerereturnedtomenearlyasquicklyas Ihadsubmittedthem,tohisactiveencouragementtoconsiderreworking thecompleteddissertationintoafull-lengthbook.Iwouldalsoliketothank Dr.DavidWilhiteofTruettSeminary,whograciouslyconsentedtoserveas anoutsidereaderonmydefensecommitteeandwhosesuggestionsboth academicandgrammaticalhavegreatlyaffectedthe ﬁnalformofthiswork.

Myprojecthasalsobeensignificantlyinfluencedbyongoingconversations withfellowscholarswithinterestsinNorthAfricanChristianityandDonatism including,butcertainlynotlimitedto,RobinJensen,MaureenTilley(now sadlydeceased),EricFournier,FrankGumerlock,andAldenBass.From allowingmeaccesstopre-publishedversionsoftheirownbooksandarticles topointingmeinthedirectionofnewlydiscoveredDonatistprimarysources, theirperceptiveinsightshavebeeninvaluabletome.Giventhepractical difficultiesoftransforminganacademicdissertationintoamanuscriptsuitableforpublication,Ihaveparticularlyappreciatedthecarefulguidanceof KarenRaith,theSeniorAssistantCommissioningEditoratOxfordUniversity Press.Specialthanksalsogototheanonymousreviewerscontractedby OUPfortheirpainstakingcritiquesandsuggestionsregardingmyLatin translationsandotherstylisticareasofconcern.Anyremainingfaultsare,of course,myown.

Thisbookisdedicatedabovealltomywifeandfamily.Clichéthoughitmay sound,thelitanyofweekendsholedupwritingandlatenightsspentrevising isreal.Iamgratefultomywife,Katie,forherpatienceandencouragement duringthislongprocess andtomychildren,IsaacandNatalie,forremindingmethatthereismoretolifethanthenextacademicdeadline!

1.TheApocalypsethatNeverWas:ExternalImpressionsof DonatistEschatology25

2. “TheWorldhasGrownOld”:TheRootsofDonatistEschatology65

3. “WoetoYou,World,forYouarePerishing!” EarlyDonatists attheEndoftheAge98

4. “GodWillComefromtheAfric”:MainstreamDonatismand RemnantTheology116

5. “AsWeHaveAlreadySeeninAfrica”:TheTyconianAlternative161

6. “HisNameMeans ‘Ever-Increasing’”:DonatistEschatology after411182 Conclusion209 AppendixA:WasCommodianaDonatist?221 AppendixB:WeretheCircumcellionsaMillenarianMovement?228

ACW

ListofAbbreviations

AncientChristianWriters series.NewYork:PaulistPress,1946–

CCCM CorpusChristianorum,ContinuatioMedievalis.Turnhout:Brepols,1966–

CCSL CorpusChristianorum,SeriesLatina. Turnhout:Brepols,1954–

CSEL CorpusScriptorumEcclesiasticorumLatinorum.Vienna:Tempsky,1866–

FOTC FathersoftheChurch.Washington,DC:CatholicUniversityofAmerica Press,1948–

Maier LeDossierduDonatisme,Tomes1–2.EditedbyJean-LouisMaier.Berlin: Akademie-Verlag,1989

MGH MonumentaGermaniaeHistorica,AuctoresAntiquissimi.Berlin,1826–Musurillo TheActsoftheChristianMartyrs.EditedandtranslatedbyHerbert Musurillo.Oxford:ClarendonPress,1972

OSA OeuvresdesaintAugustin.EditedbyGuyFinaert.Paris:Descleéde Brouwer,1936–

PG Patrologiaecursuscompletus,seriesgraeca.EditedbyJacquesPaulMigne. 161vols.Paris:EditionsGarnierFrères,1857–66

PL Patrologiaecursuscompletus,serieslatina.EditedbyJacquesPaulMigne. 222vols.Paris:EditionsGarnierFrères,1844–66;secondedition,1878–90

PLS PatrologiaeLatinaeSupplementum.EditedbyAdalbertHammanetal. 4vols.Paris,EditionsGarnierFrères,1958–74

SC Sourceschrétiennes.Paris:EditionsduCerf,1942–

WSA TheWorksofSaintAugustine:ATranslationforthe21stCentury.Edited byJohnRotelleandBonifaceRamsey.NewYork:NewCityPress,1990–

Unlessotherwisenoted,alltranslationsaremyown.

Introduction

Thisisabookaboutanapocalypsethatneverhappened,seenthroughthe eyesofadissidentchurchthatnolongerexists.Myconversation-partners areDonatists,membersofanecclesiasticalcommunionthatforabrief momentformedthemajoritychurchinRomanNorthAfrica modernTunisia, Algeria,andLibya beforefadingawaysometimebetweenthe ﬁ fthand seventhcenturies.

Attheoutset,thismayseemlikearatheroddchoiceoftopic,giventhe characterizationoftheDonatistmovementamongitscontemporaries.Unlike otherreligiousalternativeslikethelong-deadCerinthians,whomAugustine denouncedaspleasure-addictedChiliastsinhisheresy-book,¹ortheprotomonasticHieracites,whodeniedtheresurrectionofthebody,²Donatismwas notusuallycharacterizedbyitsopponentsasanapocalypticcult.Rather, takingAugustineasourguideoncemore, “TheDonatistsarethosewho ﬁrst createdaschismbecauseCaecilianwasordainedbishopofCarthagecontrary totheirwishes andclaimedthattheChurchofChristhadperishedfrom thewholefaceoftheearthwhereGodpromiseditwouldbe.”³ Thereisaneschatologicaldimensionhere,butitissubtle.Donatismis usuallydeﬁnedasaquestionofecclesiasticalpuritywhichevolvedoutofa riftoverthestatusofbishopswhohadcompromisedduringtheDiocletianic persecution.The “originalsin” oftheiropponents Mensurius,bishopof Carthage,hissuccessorCaecilian,andthosewhofollowedhim wasthe crimeof traditio: “handingover” thescripturestotheauthoritiestobeburned. Anyonewhoheededthesiren-callofthese traditores (therootetymologyof ourEnglishword traitor)wasculpableintheirsin. “Tellustherefore, traditor, whenyoureceivedthepowerofimitatingthemysteries! ” theDonatistbishop

¹Augustine, Dehaeresibus 8.²Augustine, Dehaeresibus 47. ³Augustine, Dehaeresibus 69.1,inWSA1.18,50(CCSL46.332: “Donatistaesuntquiprimum propterordinatumcontrasuamuoluntatemcaecilianumecclesiaecarthaginensisepiscopum schismafecerunt tamquamecclesiachristi detototerrarumorbeperierit,ubifutura promissaest”).

Petilianthundered:thetruechurchcouldnotbebuiltuponsucha foundation. ⁴

Sowhyshouldwecareaboutatopicthatat firstglanceappearstobe tangentialtotheconflict,thefailedapocalypticpredictionsofalong-dead sect?Thereason,itturnsout,isthatstudyingagivenecclesiasticalmovement’sapocalypticself-perceptionisaverygoodwaytounderstandits internaldynamics.Byitsverynature,apocalyptictheologyencapsulatesthe drivingconcernsofitsproponents,highlightinginstarkreliefboththeir dreamsandtheirnightmares.Itgives,asPaulBoyerstates, “agrand,overarchingshapetohistory,andthusultimatemeaningtothelivesofindividuals caughtupinhistory’sstream.”⁵ Inhisbook ArguingtheApocalypse:ATheory ofMillennialRhetoric,StephenO’Learycharacterizesapocalypticisminterms oftheodicy: “Theuniquefeatureofapocalypticmythisthatitoffersa temporalor teleological frameworkforunderstandingevil.”⁶ Inapocalyptic theodicies,⁷ theeschatologicallandscapeispopulatedbythespecificenemies andalliesoftheappropriatingcommunity.Insodoing,suchnarrativesoffer usanintimateglimpseintotheinnerlifeofagivenecclesialcommunion:how itdefinesitsplaceinhistory,whatitvalues,whomitfears.Perhapsmore explicitlythaninanyotherareaoftheologicalenquiry,apocalypticthought capturesthecoreconcernsofitsadherents.

ANEGLECTEDTOPIC

Donatismhasbeenextensivelystudiedinthepast:asarelicoftheoldpreConstantinianparadigmthatstubbornlypersistedintheageoftheChristian emperors,⁸ asaclashbetweentheindigenousNorthAfricanreligioustradition

⁴ Petilian,EpistulaadpresbyterosetdiaconosinAugustine, ContralitterasPetiliani 2.31.70 (OSA30.314: “Doceigitur,traditor,simulandimysteriaquandoacceperispotestatem”).

⁵ PaulBoyer, WhenTimeShallBeNoMore:ProphecyBeliefinModernAmericanCulture (Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1992),xi.

⁶ StephenO’Leary, ArguingtheApocalypse:ATheoryofMillennialRhetoric (Oxford:Oxford UniversityPress,1994),6.SeealsoBrianDaley, TheHopeoftheEarlyChurch:AHandbookof PatristicEschatology (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1991),2: “Eschatologyincludes, amongotherthings,theattempttoconstructatheodicy:ajustificationoffaithinGod,ahopein the finalrevelationofGod’swiseandlovingactivitythroughouthistory,withalongingfor final reckonings.”

⁷ Withinthisproject, “theodicy” maybedeﬁnedastheattemptfromwithinthetheistic perspectiveofDonatistexegetestodetermine why Godhaspermittedaparticular “evil”— persecution,forinstance ratherthanaphilosophicalargumentwhichassessestheprobability oftheexistenceofGodinlightoftheproblemofevil.

⁸ RobertMarkus, Saeculum:HistoryandSocietyintheTheologyofSaintAugustine (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1970),55;GeraldBonner, “ QuidImperatori CumEcclesia?St.AugustineonHistoryandSociety, ” AugustinianStudies 2(1971),237.

andthetheologicalsensibilitiesofoverseasprovinces,⁹ evenasanincipient socialmovementwhichaimedatoverturningRomanhegemonyinfavorofa nativedynasty.¹⁰ Butwhilesuchstudieshaveattimesappealedtoapocalyptic motifswithinDonatisttheologyinordertofurthertheircase,therehasbeen littlesustainedinteractionwiththetopicitself.¹¹

Thereasonforthislacunaislikelytwofold.First,weliveinaneracharacterizedbyastrongsuspicionthatapocalypticprognosticationsconstitute aninvalid,oratleastimproper,subspeciesofexegesis.Proponentsofan imminentendarefarmorelikelytobefoundintheworldofroadside theologyandpopularbestsellersthanprestigiouspulpitsoruniversityreligiousstudiesdepartments.Thetopographyoftheapocalypseseemsdisturbing,alientous inBoyer’swords, “toobizarreoratavistictomeritthetime andattention expendedonit.”¹²Giventheseingrainedbiases,thepresenceofavibrantapocalyptictheologywithinDonatistcommunioniseasyto sidelineastangential,ameredistractionfromtherealissuesathand.

Thesecondreason,Isuspect,hastodowiththedesirewithinrecent scholarshiptorehabilitatetheDonatistchurchasaviablehermeneutical community.AsweshallseeinChapter1,earlystudiesofDonatismtended tohighlightthepresenceofapocalypticexegesiswithinthedissidentmovementasevidencethatDonatismwastheologicallymore “primitive” thanits opponents,maladaptedtotheConstantinianera.Accordingtotheclaimsof theconsistenteschatologyschoolofthelatenineteenthcentury,forinstance, apocalypticthoughtwasconsideredoneofthemostprimitivestrataofthe originalJesusmovement:asanexpressionofmainstreamtheology,itwas notsupposedtohavesurvivedtheexistentialcrisisallegedlyposedbythedelay ofthe parousia andthebeginningsofaChristianimperium.¹³Alwaysmore athomeintheageofmartyrsthanthe temporaChristiana,Donatistappeals totheapocalypticwereoftenportrayedasanachronisticholdoutsfroman earliertime.TheallegedshortcomingsofDonatisteschatologythusservedas aconvenientshorthandforthe “backward” theologyofthemovementasa whole:intrueDarwinianfashion,thedissidentchurchhadfailedtosurvive

⁹ Forexample,BrentShaw, “AfricanChristianity:Disputes,De ﬁnitions,and ‘Donatists,’” in Rulers,Nomads,andChristiansinRomanNorthAfrica (Brookﬁeld,VT:Ashgate,1995), 8– 9.

⁰ SeeinparticularW.H.C.Frend, TheDonatistChurch:AMovementofProtestinRoman NorthAfrica (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1952),60–1;S.L.Greenslade, SchismintheEarly Church (London:SCMPress,1953),58.

¹¹Thisdespiteoccasionalcallsformoreresearchintothearea.See,forinstance,Bernard McGinn, “EarlyApocalypticism:TheOngoingDebate,” in ApocalypticismintheWestern Tradition (Brookﬁeld,VT:Ashgate,1994),29.

¹²Boyer, WhenTimeShallBeNoMore,x.

¹³SeeMartinWerner ’ sclassicformulationofthetheoryin TheFormationofChristian Dogma:AnHistoricalStudyofItsProblem ,trans.S.G.Brandon(NewYork:Black, 1957[1941]).

becauseitwasfundamentallyobsolete,alivingfossiloutofplaceinanageof Christianemperors.

TherenewedattentiongiventoDonatistapocalypticconcernsbylater writerssuchasW.H.C.FrendorJean-PaulBrissonprovedlittlebetter,at leastintermsoftakingthedissidentmovement’sexegeticalconcernsseriously. Accordingtotheseandsimilarauthors,thepresenceofeschatologicalelementsembeddedinDonatistwritingsweresignsofdeepeconomicornationalist dissatisfaction,theirreligioustrappingsathinveneerformorebasicsocial concerns.Inshort,Donatismbecametheposter-childforwhatBritishhistorianNormanCohncalled “revolutionarymillenarianism,” inwhich “traditionalbeliefsaboutafuturegoldenageormessianickingdomcametoserveas vehiclesforsocialaspirationsandanimosities.”¹⁴ DespitetheincreasedattentiongiventoapocalypticmotifswithinDonatistthought,itwasnottheir speciﬁctheologicalcontentthatmatteredasmuchastheunderlyingsocial aspirationstheyrepresented.

Inher1997work TheBibleinChristianNorthAfrica,MaureenTilleyoffers usaglimpseintothelessthanfavorableassociationsthatthe “apocalyptic” labelconjuredamongscholarswhosoughttoreassessDonatisttheology:

WhenI ﬁrstbegantoinvestigateDonatism,nomatterwhatsourceIread,Ikept encounteringtheidenticalassertions.Thatthecommentsweresouniformly censoriousmademeverycurious.Findingthesameassertionsintextaftertext wasnotinitselfterriblyremarkable.WhatIdid ﬁndextremelysuspiciouswas themonotonoususeofthesamewords,theidenticalphrases(evenfromFrench toGerman,toEnglish,toSpanish,etc.), “millennialist, ”“Churchofthepure, ” andsoon.¹⁵

Incontrast,Tilley’sportraitoftheDonatistcommunionwasdynamic,adaptive: “notthetraditionaloneofastatic-martyr-bound,millennialistmovement,butonethatshowsthemovementrespondingtothelargerworldina varietyofwaysoverthecourseofitshistory.”¹⁶ SuchasuspicionofDonatist eschatologyappearstobewidelyshared,andforgoodreason:givenits prominentroleinsupportingearlierhypothesesaboutthebackwardsor socialistnatureofthedissidentchurch,morerecentstudiesofDonatist theologyhavebeennoticeablyreticenttoanalyzetheapocalyptictopography ofoursubjects.

¹⁴ NormanCohn, ThePursuitoftheMillennium:RevolutionaryMillenariansandMystical AnarchistsoftheMiddleAges (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1961),17.SeeChapter1foran extendeddiscussionofthe “millenarian” interpretationofDonatistapocalypticism.

¹⁵ MaureenTilley, TheBibleinChristianNorthAfrica:TheDonatistWorld (Minneapolis: FortressPress,1997),2.

¹⁶ Tilley, TheBibleinChristianNorthAfrica,8.

ANAPOCALYPTICAGE

MyownperspectiveontheDonatistchurchisdeeplyindebtedtoscholarslike MaureenTilley,JamesAlexander,andRobertEno:Donatismwas,intheir words,ahighlyadaptivetheologicalcommunityeverybitthematchofits Catholicopponents.¹⁷ Inthisbook,however,Iwillarguethatthewayinwhich Donatistsinterpretedtheendshoulditselfbeseenasan example ofsuch adaptation.Ifweignoreitsapocalypticaspect,wemisssomethingimportant aboutDonatism anditsembeddednessinthelargertheologicallandscapeof lateantiquity.

Donatism flourishedinanagecharacterizedbyapocalypticanxiety:the LatinChristianworldofthefourthand fifthcenturieswasasocietyobsessed withtheend.Beliefinanimminenteschatonwasnotrestrictedtothe credulous,nordiditsexponentshailfromtheoutskirtsofsociety.Inpart, thiswasduetotheuniquehistoricalmilieucreatedbytheConstantinian revolution.Theempire,thecenteroftheknownworld,hadconverted;forthe firsttime,itwaslegitimatelyplausibletoclaimthattheGospelmightindeed havealreadyspreadtoallnations,acriticalprerequisitefortheend.Nolessan exegetethanJeromecouldclaim, “ThesignoftheLord’scomingisthe proclamationoftheGospelinthewholeworld ... thisiseitheralready completedorwillbecompletedinashorttime.ForIdonotthinkanynation remainsthatisignorantofthenameofChrist.”¹⁸

Thenewculturalsituationwasonlyoneofseveralremarkableapocalyptic convergencesthatcharacterizedtheworldoflateantiquity.Indeed,thevery chronologicalcalculationswhichthechurchhadinheritedfromitspreConstantinianpastimpliedacomingendsomewherewithintheboundsof the ﬁfthcentury.Theworldhadgrownold;itsage,ascalculatedbyearly ChristianchronographerssuchasTheophilusofAntiochorJuliusAfricanus onthebasisofbiblicalgenealogies,wasnearlysixmillennia.¹⁹ Bythefourth century,thismethodofreckoning,whichRichardLandeshastitledan

¹⁷ SeethepositiveassessmentofDonatistexegeticalstrategycontainedinRobertEno, “Some NuancesintheEcclesiologyoftheDonatists,” RevuedesÉtudesAugustiniennes 18(1972),46–50 andJamesAlexander, “AspectsofDonatistScripturalInterpretationattheConferenceof Carthageof411,” StudiaPatristica 15(1984),125–30.MorecomprehensivetheologicalinterpretationsoftheDonatistphenomenonincludeJamesAlexander’ s “Donatism,” in TheEarly Christianworld,Vol.2,ed.PhilipEsler(NewYork:Routledge,2000),952–74,andMaureen Tilley’ s TheBibleinChristianNorthAfrica.

¹⁸ Jerome, CommentarioruminMatheum 24.14inFOTC117.271(CCSL77.225: “Signum aduentusdominiciesteuangeliumintotoorbepraedicari quodautiamcompletumautin breuicernimusessecomplendum.Nonenimputoaliquamremansissegentemquaechristi nomenignoret”).

¹⁹ SeeTheophilusofAntioch, AdAutolycum 3.28(inRobertGrant, TheophilusofAntioch: AdAutolycum (Oxford:ClarendonPress,1970,142–5));JuliusAfricanus, FragmentT92 (in JuliusAfricanusChronographiae:TheExtantFragments (Berlin:WalterdeGruyter,2007,274)).

“AM(AnnoMundi)Ichronology,”²⁰ hadbecomethedominantdating systemwithinthewesternchurch.²¹Butitcamewithaprice:forbiblical exegetessuchasHippolytusofRomeorLactantius,thedurationofthe worldwaslinkedtoa “cosmicweek, ” attheendofwhichloomedthe apocalypse.²²AsLactantiuswouldnote,

Someonemaynowaskwhenthesethingswillhappenwhichwehavespokenof. Ihavealreadypointedoutthatthechangeshouldoccurattheendofsixthousand years,andthatthesupremedayof ﬁnalconclusionisalreadyapproaching ... The timingofitissetforthbythosewhohavewrittenupontiming;theyhave searchedinholyliteratureandinvarioushistoriesforthenumberofyears gonebysincethebeginningoftheworld.Theydiffer;theirnumbersvary somewhat;nevertheless,theuniversalexpectationappearstobeforamaximum oftwohundredyearsmore.²³

RichardLandesarguesthatLactantiuswrotethesewordsasawaytopushthe dateoftheapocalypseoutsidetherangeoftheimmediatefuture.Bytheturn ofthe ﬁfthcentury,however,suchpredictionshadshifted “fromdelaying techniquetocountdown.”²⁴

Itwasthusallthemoresigniﬁcantthattheworldoflateantiquitywas characterizedbyunprecedentedturmoilbothwithinandwithouttheempire. Formuchofthefourthcentury,theso-called “Arian” controversyseethedand bubbled,creatingdeepfault-linesbetweenrivalChristiantheologies.Insucha conﬂict,manyonbothsidesinterpretedthe “heresy” oftheiropponentsas

²⁰ RichardLandes, “LesttheMillenniumbeFulﬁlled:ApocalypticExpectationsandthe PatternofWesternChronography,100–800CE,” in TheUseandAbuseofEschatologyinthe MiddleAges,ed.WernerVerbeke,DaniëlVerhelst,andAndriesWelkenhuysen(Louvain: LouvainUniversityPress,1988),137–8.

²¹Landes, “LesttheMillenniumbeFulﬁlled,” 139.Despitethecalculationofanalternate datingsystem(whichLandescallsAMII)byEusebiusin303,AMIchronologywouldprevailin thewesternworldoflateantiquitywellintothe ﬁfthcentury.

²²Fortheclassicdeﬁnitionofa “world” or “cosmic” week,seeJeanDaniélou, TheTheologyof JewishChristianity,trans.JohnBaker(Philadelphia:WestminsterPress,1977[1958]),390–402. “Worldweek” chronologiespositedthatjustastheworldwascreatedinsixdays,afterwhich camethedivine “dayofrest,” sotheworldwouldlastforsixmillennia,afterwhichwouldcome theapocalypse.Althoughmanyearlyadherentsofworldweekchronologyassumedthata millennial “ageofrest” wouldcomprisethe ﬁnalthousandyears,Daniéloucautionsthat millennialismandtheconceptofaworldweekarenotnecessarilysynonymous.

²³Lactantius, Divinaeinstitutiones 7.25.3,5,in Lactantius:DivineInstitutes,trans.Anthony BowenandPeterGarnsey(Liverpool:LiverpoolUniversityPress,2003),437(L.Caecilius FirmianusLactantius:DivinarumInstitutionumLibriSeptem,fasc.4:LiberVII, ed.Eberhard HeckandAntonieWlosok(Berlin:DeGruyter,2011),726–7: “Fortassequispiamnuncrequirat, quandoistaquaediximussintfutura.iamsuperiusostendicompletisannorumsexmilibus mutationemistam ﬁerioportereetiampropinquaresummumillumconclusionisextremae diem quandotamencompleaturhaecsumma,docentiiquidetemporibusscripserunt, colligentesexlitterissanctisetexuariishistoriis,quantussitnumerusannorumabexordio mundi.quilicetuarientetaliquantumnumerieorumsummadissentiant,omnistamenexpectationonampliusquamducentorumuideturannorum”).

²⁴ Landes, “LesttheMillenniumbeFulﬁlled,” 148.

partofanapocalypticrift,thepredictedapostasybywhich,asChristhad warned, “eventheelectwillbedeceived.”²⁵ Outsidetheempire,theforcesof GogandMagogstirreduneasily.Inadditiontochronologicalcalculations, westernChristiansoflateantiquityhadinheritedsomethingelsefromtheir ancestors:astrongbeliefthattheempireitselfwasthatwhich,inthewritings ofPaul,workedto “restrain” theonslaughtofAntichrist.²⁶ Thiswasanancient doctrine; firstexplicitlypropoundedbyIrenaeusinthelatesecondcentury,²⁷ it hadbecomeatheologicalaxiombythethird. “Werealize,” Tertullianwrotein his Apologeticum, “thatthetremendousforcewhichishangingoverthewhole world,andtheveryendoftheworldwithitsthreatofdreadfulafflictions,is arrestedforatimebythecontinuedexistenceoftheRomanEmpire.”²⁸ Nor wasRome’sidentificationasthe finalkingdombeforetheriseofAntichrist limitedtothepre-Constantinianpast.Inhis CommentarioruminDanielem, JeromeinsistedthatRomewascoterminouswiththepresentage:

WeshouldthereforeconcurwiththetraditionalinterpretationofallthecommentatorsoftheChristianChurch,thatattheendoftheworld,whentheRoman Empireistobedestroyed,thereshallbetenkingswhowillpartitionthe Romanworldamongstthemselves.Thenaninsigniﬁcanteleventhking[theAntichrist]willarise²⁹

EvenAugustine,albeitsomewhatmorereluctantly,wouldadmittheplausibilityofsuchaninterpretation: “Whentheapostlesays, ‘Onlyhewhonow holdsback,lethimhold,untilheistakenoutoftheway,’ itisnotabsurdto believethatthisstatementisareferencetotheempireofRome.”³⁰

²⁵ Matt.24.24(NRSV).

²⁶ 1Thess.3.7: “Forthemysteryoflawlessnessisalreadyatwork:onlyhewhichnowrestrains willdosountilheistakenoutoftheway” (NRSV).

²⁷ SeeIrenaeus, Adversushaereses 5.26,30.

²⁸ Tertullian, Apologeticum 32.1inFOTC10.88(CCSL1.142–3: “Quiuimmaximamuniuerso orbiimminentemipsamquaeclausulamsaeculiacerbitateshorrendascomminantemromani imperiicommeatuscimusretardari”).See AdScapulum 2and Deresurrectionemortuorum 24for furtherreferencestoRomeasthe “thingthatrestrains.”

²⁹ Jerome, CommentarioruminDanielem 7.8in Jerome’sCommentaryonDaniel,trans. GleasonArcher(GrandRapids,MI:Baker,1958),77(CCSL75A.844: “ergodicamusquod omnesscriptoresecclesiasticitradiderunt:inconsummationemundi,quandoregnumdestruendumestromanorum,decemfuturosregesquiorbemromanumintersediuidant,etundecimum surrecturumesseparuulumregem”).

³⁰ Augustine, DecivitateDei 20.19inR.W.Dyson, TheCityofGodAgainstthePagans (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998),1009(CCSL48.732: “Quodaitapostolus: Tantumquimodotenetteneat,donecdemedio ﬁat,nonabsurdedeipsoRomanoimperio crediturdictum.” AsAugustinewillimmediatelymakeclear,however,thisisnothispreferred interpretationofthepassage: “However,thereareotherswhothinkthat ‘Yeknowwhatwithholdeth’ and ‘themysteryofiniquity’ refersimplytothewickedandtothefalsebelieverswhoare inthechurch,untiltheyreachsogreatanumberastobecomeagreatpeopleforAntichrist.This, theycontend,is ‘themysteryofiniquity’ becauseitisseentobeconcealed.” (“Aliiueroetquod ait: Quiddetineatscitis et mysteriumoperariiniquitatis nonputantdictumnisidemaliset ﬁctis,

Bytheearly fifthcentury,thepredictionoftheempire’sfallseemedin imminentdangeroffulfillment.TheforcesofGogandMagog Ambroseof Milan’stermfortheGoths³¹ hadcrossedtheRhineandbegundividingup formerRomanterritoriesamongthemselves.Theageoftheprophesied “ten kings” seemedathand.ForSulpiciusSeverus,theempirehadenteredacritical stage: “Inshort,itisthefutureminglingtogetherofhumanpeopleswhoare mutuallyatoddswitheachotherthatissignifiedbytheclayandiron intermingling,yetneverquiteunitingthemselvestogether;accordingly, Romansoilhasbeenoccupiedbyforeignorinsurgenttribesorconsignedto thosewhoseemtohandthemselvesoverbyashowofpeace.”³²Jeromeagreed: inadespairinglettertothewidowAgeruchiadatedto409,helamented, “But wait whatamIdoing?I’marguingaboutthecargowhiletheshipisbreaking up! Thatwhichholdsbackistakenfromthemidst,andwedonotrecognize theapproachofAntichrist! ... everythingbetweentheAlpsandthePyrenees, allthelandsbetweentheRhineandOcean,theQuadi,Vandals,Sarmatians, Gepids,Heruli,Saxons,Burgundians,Alemanni,and OpoorRepublic! the hostilePannoneshavedevastated.”³³Bythemiddleofthe fifthcentury,even suchanAugustinianprotégéastheNorthAfricanbishopQuodvultdeuscould seeinthe “Arian” GothsandMoorsthesignofGogandMagog.³⁴ Mypointisthatthiswasanerainwhichtheshadowoftheapocalypse loomedverylargeindeed.ItwasanaxialperiodforearlyChristianapocalypticism,theculminationofcenturiesofcalculationandexegesis:whileearlier scareshadcomeandgone,neverhadanimminentendseemedsoplausible.If wewishtosituateDonatisttheologywithinitscontemporarymilieu,therefore, wemustenterintothepresuppositionsofanapocalypticage.Weneednot downplayevidenceofDonatistapocalypticisminordertofreethemovement fromclaimsofanachronism;indeed,thedissidentchurchwouldprovesomethingofanoutlierinthewesternempireoflateantiquityifithad failed toevolve someformofapocalypticscenarioinordertonarrateitspresentsituation.

quisuntinecclesia,donecperueniantadtantumnumerum,quiAntichristomagnumpopulum faciat;ethocessemysteriuminiquitatis,quiauideturoccultum”).

³¹SeeAmbrose, DeFide 2.16.135–8.

³²SulpiciusSeverus, Chronica 2.3(CSEL1.58–9: “Deniquecommisceritestumatqueferrum numquamintersecoeuntemateriecommixtioneshumanigenerisfuturaeaseinuicemdissidentessigniﬁcantur,siquidemRomanumsolumabexterisgentibusautrebellibusoccupatum autdedentibusseperpacisspeciemtraditumconstet”).

³³Jerome,Letter123.16(ToAgeruchia)(PL22.1057: “Uerumquidago?Fractanauidemercibus disputo.Quitenebat,demedio ﬁt,etnonintelligimusAntichristumappropinquare ... quidquid interAlpesetPyrenaeumest,quodOceanoetRhenoincluditur,Quadus,Wandalus,Sarmata, Halani,Gipedes,Heruli,Saxones,Burgundion es,Alemani,et,olugendarespublica!hostes Pannoniiuastarunt ” ).

³⁴ Quodvultdeuswasalsowillingtoacceptthealternateinterpretationthat “Magog” referred tothequasi-mythical “Massagetes.” Undereitherinterpretation,theGog/Magogprophecyof Ezekiel38wasseenashavingcontemporaryrelevance.SeeQuodvultdeus, Liberpromissionumet praedictorumDei D.13.22.

THEPRESENTSTUDY

Scope

Reconstructingtheinternaltheologyofanecclesiasticalcommunionthat ultimatelylostoutisoftentricky mostancientminoritysectsareonly knownthroughthepolemicalwritingsoftheiropponents.Inthecaseof Donatism,however,wearefortunateindeed:asurprisingnumberofdocumentswrittenbymembersofthedissidentcommunionthemselveshave survivedtothepresentday,eitherbybeingincorporatedwholesaleintothe pugnacious “dialogues” oftheirenemiesorpreservedontheirownmerit (oftenthroughmisattribution).Frommartyrologiesandpolemicallettersto biblicalcommentaries,chronographies,andsermonicmaterials,arichand diverseharvestawaitsthewould-beresearcher.Manyofthesewritings incorporateapocalypticmaterial,enoughforustoadequatelyreconstruct thebroad andinsomecasesquitespeciﬁc outlinesofnotonebutseveral Donatisteschatologicaltrajectories.

Wearelimited,however,bytherelativelynarrowwindowwithinwhich thesetextswereproduced.Thedocumentsunderconsiderationinthisbook tendtoclusteraroundthelatefourth-toearly ﬁfth-centurymark,withafair numberofmartyrologiesandexegeticalwritingsdatingfromthe360sand severalsermonicmaterials,letters,andchronographicalrecensionsextending intothe430s.Itisanunfortunatefactthatdespitethepersistenceofthe schismthroughouttheVandalandlaterByzantineperiod,wedonotpossess anyDonatistrecordsbeyondthe438recensionofthe Libergenealogus.After theVandalconquest,theirerstwhileopponentswerethemselvesundergoing persecution;unliketheplethoraofsourcesthatcharacterizethepreceding Augustinianera,referencestoDonatismarefew.³⁵ While “Donatism,” orat leastsomethinglikeit,reappearsinthesixthcenturyinthepolemicof

³⁵ Outsideofthe Libergenealogus,we findreferencestoDonatistrefugeesinthe fifthcentury inthecorrespondenceofAvitusofVienne(Letter26, trans.DanutaShanzerandIanWoodin AvitusofVienne:LettersandSelectedProse (Liverpool:LiverpoolUniversityPress,2002),302–3) andLeoI(Letter12.6,inPL54.662: “Maximumquoqueexlaicolicetreprehensibiliterordinatum,tamensiDonatistaiamnonest,etaspirituschismaticaeprauitatisalienus,abepiscopali, quamquoquomodoadeptusest,nonrepellimusdignitate;itautetipselibelloadnosedito catholicumseessemanifestet”).Wealso findmentionofaDonatistconvertto “Arianism” inVictorofVita’ s HistoriapersecutionisAfricanaeProvinciae 3.71(HistoryoftheVandal Persecution, trans.JohnMoorhead(Liverpool:LiverpoolUniversityPress,1992)andashort noticeoftheintentionsoftheNorthAfricanbishopAsclepiusAfer,toproduceananti-Donatist tractinGennadius(Devirisinlustribus 74).Inthesixthcentury,adisputebetweentheHomoian priestFastidiosusandFulgentiusofRuspeoverwhethertheformerhadplagiarizedFulgentius’ owncritiqueofDonatismseemstoindicatethatthemovementwasstillviable(Fastidiosus: SermoFastidiosiAriani 2inCCSL91.281;Fulgentius: ContrasermonemFastidiosi 10in CCSL91.296).SeeAntonioIsola, “Notesulleeresienell ’Africadelperiodovandalico,” Vetera Christianorum 34(1997),231 –49.

GregoryI,weareneverpermittedtohearthemovementspeakinitsownvoice again.³⁶ Inpractice,then,thescopeofmyprojectislimitedtotheperiod straddlingthefourthand ﬁfthcenturies.

Organization

InordertoexaminetheDonatistuseofapocalypticexegesiswithinthis chronologicalwindow,therefore,Ihavechosentodividemyprojectas follows.BeforewecanbegintoinvestigatehowDonatistapocalypticexegesis functionedinitsownsetting,wemust ﬁrstexaminehowithasbeenperceived inours.Chapter1,therefore,willtellthestoryofDonatistapocalypticism fromanoutsider’sperspective:fromthemilitantrhetoricofitscontemporary opponents Augustine’sdeeplyacerbicportrayaloftheDonatistbishop Gaudentiusasamadmillenarian,forinstance totwentieth-centuryvisions ofDonatismasaradicalprotestagainstRomanoppressionwhichwrapped itselfinapocalypticrhetoric.Beyondmerelysettingthestageforthefollowing chapters,thehistoriographyofDonatisteschatologyisafascinatingstudyin andofitself.

InChapter2wewillattempttosituateDonatisteschatologywithinthe contextofitsNorthAfricanbackground.Iwillthereforeembarkonan overviewofapocalypticspeculationamongspeciﬁcallyNorthAfricanpredecessorsintheyearspriortotheschism,concentratinginparticularonfour sources:Tertullian,the PassioPerpetuae andotherpre-Constantinianmartyrological acta,Cyprian,andLactantius.Bycarefullystudyingthesesources, whichbetweenthemselvescomprisenearlyallthatisknownaboutNorth Africanapocalypticthoughtduringthesecondandthirdcenturies,wewillbe abletolocateareasofcontinuityandinnovationamongtheirDonatist successors.

Thenextfourchaptersformtheheartofthisproject.Chapter3willbe devotedtoanexaminationofapocalypticmotifsinearlyDonatistwritings, thatis,fromthebeginningoftheschismthroughtheMacarianrepression, inordertoreconstructthebasicfeaturesofthedissidentcommunion’sappeal totheendandhowitcomparestootherapocalypticnarrativescirculatingin thewiderwesternworldoflateantiquity.Imustcaution,however,thatinthis bookwearenotstudying “Donatism” asauniﬁed,homogeneousphenomenon,

³⁶ Foratraditionalinterpretationofthe ﬁnaldaysoftheDonatistmovementinNorthAfrica seeFrend, TheDonatistChurch,308–13and,morerecently,inStanisławAdamiak’ s “WhenDid DonatistChristianityEnd?” in TheUniquelyAfricanControversy:StudiesonDonatistChristianity,ed.AnthonyDupont,MatthewGaumer,andMathijsLamberigts(Bristol,CT:Peeters, 2015),211–36.R.A.Markusoffersarevisionistassessmentin “Donatism:TheLastPhase,” in FromAugustinetoGregorytheGreat:HistoryandChristianityinLateAntiquity (London: VariorumReprints,1983),118–26.

butrather “Donatisms, ” toquoteMaureenTilley.³⁷ TheDonatistmovementhas aliteraryhistorywhichspanstwocenturies,muchofitspentasthemajority communioninNorthAfrica;³⁸ weshouldthereforeexpectto ﬁndevidenceof signiﬁcantevolutionandnarrativaldiversitywithinoursources.

Chapters4and5,ontheotherhand,willconcentrateonarelativelynarrow bandoftime:the fifty-yearperiodbetweenthecessationoftheMacarian repressionandthe411ConferenceatCarthage.Hereweshalltraceindetail theoriginandprogressoftwocompetingapocalyptictrajectorieswithinthe Donatistcommunion,beginninginChapter4withwhatwemightcalla “mainstream” Donatisthermeneuticaltrajectory,whichidentifiedthedissidentchurchasthefulfillmentoftheLord’spredictionintheOlivetDiscourse: “Becauseoftheincreaseoflawlessness,theloveofmanywillgrowcold.But theonewhoendurestotheendwillbesaved.”³⁹ Chapter5,ontheotherhand, willfocusontheradicalalternativeproposedbytheDonatisttheologian Tyconius,whichinterpretedtheDonatist–Caecilianistschismasanexample ofeschatologicalforeshadowing:thoughnottheenditself,itwasasymbolic precursorofwhatwouldshortlybreakoutthroughouttheworld.⁴⁰ Ifwewish toseeauniquelyDonatistadaptationofwidereschatologicalexpectations,itis tobefoundhere,intheserivalvisionsoftheNorthAfricancommunion’srole inthecomingapocalypse.

Despitetheseemingly-fatalwounddeliveredatthe411Conference,DonatistscontinuedtoproducetextsupthroughtheVandalconquest.We find,in fact,thatapocalypticexegesisappearstohaveblossomedintheaftermathof theConference,givenoursurvivingevidencefromthewritingsoftheDonatist bishopGaudentius,Fulgentius,andanonymoussermoncollectionsand chronologieswrittenduringthetwilightofRomanpoliticalcontrolover NorthAfrica.Aftersurveyingthese finalrelicsofDonatistliteraryproduction inChapter6,IwillconcludewithadiscussionofthesignificanceofapocalypticthoughtwithintheDonatistmovementandthewaysinwhichitmay impactourstudyofthemovementingeneral.

Inordertobetterstreamlinethemainbodyofthework,Ihavechosen torelegatetwointriguing,butultimatelytangential,topicstoappendices.In AppendixA,IwillexaminewhethertheNorthAfricanapocalypticpoet

³⁷ MaureenTilley, “RedeﬁningDonatism:MovingForward,” AugustinianStudies 42.1 (2011),25.

³⁸ SeethediscussionofDonatistnumericalstrengthinW.H.C.Frend, “Donatus ‘ paene totamAfricamdecepit’:How?,” JournalofEcclesiasticalHistory 48(October1997),627and B.H.Warmington, TheNorthAfricanProvincesfromDiocletiantotheVandalConquest (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1954),76.

³⁹ Matt.24.12–13(NRSV).

⁴⁰ TyconiushasoftenbeenartiﬁciallyseparatedfromhisDonatistcontext,hisdivergences ratherthancontinuitieswiththeDonatistcommunionemphasized.AsIshallemphasizein Chapter5,thisisaproblematicapproachtoTyconianstudies.

CommodianoughttobeidentifiedasaDonatist,athesis firstadvancedby Jean-PaulBrissonin1958.⁴¹Ifso,wewouldbeinpossessionofavaluable newwitnesstothemovement’ sapocalypticclaims;Isuspect,however,that suchisnotthecase.AppendixB,ontheotherhand,willaddressthecaseof theso-called “Circumcellions”— fringesupportersofthedissidentchurch whohaveoftenbeenidentifiedasradicalmillenarians. ⁴²Theirconspicuous absenceinthechaptersthatfollowwillthereforerequiresomeexplanation.

DEFININGTHEAPOCALYPSE

Beforeweproceedanyfurther,however,wemusttakethetimetodefineour terms.Sofar,Ihavereliedonthevisceralimagerythattheword “apocalyptic” anditsattendantvocabularyconjureinthepopularimaginationinorderto makemypoint.Withinthe fieldofreligiousstudies,however,theprecise connotationofthetermhasbeenthesubjectofintensedisagreement tothe pointthatsomescholars,suchasThomasGlasson,havecalledforitsabandonmentas “auselesswordwhichnoonecandefine, ” producingnothing “but confusionandacresofverbiage.”⁴³ “Apocalypticism” asaconceptiscertainly difficulttopindownasadiscretephenomenonifweinsistuponadefinition thatincludeseverythingfromSecondTemplepseudepigraphato NewYork Times bestsellerlists.YetevenGlassoniswillingtoadmitthat “ wecan recognizeanapocalypsewhenwemeetone” ; ⁴⁴ despiteitsdefinitionaldifficulties,Isubmitthatthetermretainsanintuitivepracticalitythatwillaidusfar betterthananyproposedalternative.

Partofthedifficultyisthat,asPaulHansonhasargued,thereareatleast threedistinctwaysinwhichtheterm “apocalyptic” canfunctionasasemantic indicator.⁴⁵ First,itmaybedefinedasa literarygenre which flourishedwithin JewishandChristiancommunitiesofclassicalantiquity.Theprecisenatureof

⁴¹SeeJean-PaulBrisson, Autonomismeetchristianismedansl’Afriqueromaine:deSeptime Sévèreàl’invasionvandale (Paris:Boccard,1958),378–410.

⁴²Toquotearepresentativeexample:PaulJohnson,in AHistoryofChristianity (NewYork: Touchstone,1976),84,deﬁnesCircumcellionsas “millenarianswhosawtheideaofarevived eschatologyasanoccasionforsettlingscoresonearth ﬁrst.”

⁴³ThomasGlasson, “WhatisApocalyptic?,” NewTestamentStudies 27.1(October1980),105.

⁴⁴ Glasson, “WhatisApocalyptic?,” 99.

⁴⁵ PaulHanson, “Apocalypticism,” in TheInterpreter’sDictionaryoftheBible, Supplementary Volume,ed.KeithCrim,LloydBailey,andVictorFurnish(Nashville,TN:Abingdon,1976),30. SeealsoMichaelStone, “ListsofRevealedThingsintheApocalypticLiterature,” in Magnalia Dei:TheMightyActsofGod, ed.F.M.Cross,W.E.Lemke,andP.D.Miller(GardenCity,NY: Doubleday,1976),439,JamesBarr, “JewishApocalypticinRecentScholarlyStudy,” Bulletinof theJohnRylandsLibrary 58(1975),14–16,andKlausKoch, RatlosvorderApokalyptik (Gütersloh:GütersloherVerlagshaus,1970),15–33,forsimilarattemptsatclassiﬁcation.

suchaliteraryphenomenonhasbeennotoriouslydifﬁculttodetermine,⁴⁶ but isperhapsbestencapsulatedinthedeﬁnitionassociatedwiththeSocietyof BiblicalLiterature’ s “ApocalypseGroup” publishedinthejournal Semeia in1979:

“Apocalypse” isagenreofrevelatoryliteraturewithanarrativeframework,in whicharevelationismediatedbyanotherworldlybeingtoahumanrecipient, disclosingatranscendentrealitywhichisbothtemporal,insofarasitenvisages eschatologicalsalvation,andspatial,insofarasitinvolvesanother,supernatural world.⁴⁷

Examplesof “apocalypticism” asagenrewouldthereforeincludethecanonical booksofDanielandRevelation,Jewishwritingssuchas Jubilees or The TestimonyofAbraham, ⁴⁸ andearlyChristianwritingslike TheShepherdof Hermas, TheAscensionofIsaiah,or5Esdras.⁴⁹

Second,theterm “apocalypticism” maybeusedasa theologicalcategory. Hanson,underthetitle “apocalypticeschatology,” deﬁneditbroadlyas “areligiousperspective,awayofviewingdivineplansinrelationtomundane realities” whichprivileges “thefutureasthecontextofdivinesavingand judgingactivity.”⁵⁰ Wewillhavemoretosayaboutthisdeﬁnitionshortly. Finally,itmayfunctionasa sociologicaldescriptor. “Apocalypticism” inthis sensereferstothe “symbolicuniverse” whichundergirdsthosesocialmovementsinwhich “apocalypticeschatologyhasbeentransformedintoanideology providinganidentityandviewofrealityforthemovement.”⁵¹

Clearly,allthreedefinitionsarerelated.An “apocalypticcommunity” is definedbyitsidentificationwithan “apocalypticeschatology,” whichisitself

⁴⁶ SeeAdelaCollins’ overviewofthehistoryofattemptstodeﬁnethetermin “Apocalypse Now:TheStateofApocalypticStudiesNeartheEndoftheFirstDecadeoftheTwenty-First Century,” HarvardTheologicalReview 104.4(2011),447–57.

⁴⁷ JohnCollins, “Introduction:TowardstheMorphologyofaGenre,” Semeia 14(1979),9. Theyear1979alsosawtheholdingofanInternationalColloquiumonApocalypticismin Uppsala;thedocumentsproducedatthisconference,containedin Apocalypticisminthe MediterraneanWorldandtheNearEast,ed.DavidHellholm(Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,1983) provideagoodoverviewofthecomplexityoftheissuesinplay.

⁴⁸ SeeJohnCollins, “TheJewishApocalypses,” Semeia 14(1979),51–9.

⁴⁹ SeeAdelaCollins, “TheEarlyChristianApocalypses,” Semeia 14(1979),107–21.

⁵⁰ Hanson, “Apocalypticism,” 29.

⁵¹RobertWebb, “‘Apocalyptic’:ObservationsonaSlipperyTerm,” JournalofNearEastern Studies 49.2(April1990),116.WebbproceedstocritiqueHanson’ssociologicaldeﬁnitionof “apocalypticism” ontwogrounds: ﬁrst,tocallasocialmovement “apocalyptic” blursthe distinctionbetweentextandcommunity: “theterm ‘apocalypticism’ maydenotetheideology ofasocialmovement,butitmayequallydenotetheideologyofaparticularindividualora particularliterarywork.” Second,preciselybecausewearelimitedtoliteraryremains,apocalypticideologycanonlybereconstructed “fromastudyoftheapocalypticgenrewhichexpresses thatideology.” Webbwouldthereforeliketodistinguishbetweenideologyasexpressedintexts andsocialphenomenaproper.Whileweshouldkeepthesecaveatsinmind,Idonotthinkthey requirethecompleteabandonmentofHanson’sthirdcategory.

baseduponexegesisofrelevantapocalyptictexts.Nevertheless,theyarenot allofequalimportancewithintheconﬁnesofthisproject.Withthepossible exceptionoftheDonatistmartyrnarratives,whichhavesometimesbeen characterizedasexamplesoftheapocalypticgenreduetotheirheavyemphasisonotherworldlyrevelationthroughvisionsanddreams,⁵²myproject willnotdirectlydiscussapocalypticismasaliterarygenre.Instead,Iwillutilize thetermprimarilyasatheologicalcategory Hanson’sseconddeﬁnitionofthe term whileremainingawareofthewaysinwhichDonatistapocalypticexegesisfunctionedtobuttresstheideology,orbetter,ideologies,ofthemultivalent NorthAfricancommunion.

IfIamthereforeprivileginga theological definitionofapocalypticismwithin mybook,itisimportanttoprovideaworkingdescriptionoftheterm.Aswe haveseen, “apocalypticeschatology” withinHanson’sclassificationsystem simplyconnotestheunveilingofadivineplanforfuturejudgmentand salvation.⁵³Whileconcise,thisdefinitionisalittletoobroadforourpurposes. Amongscholarsoflateantiquity,however,amorerobustdefinitionofboth “apocalypticism” and “eschatology” asdiscretetheologicalphenomenais common.Inherarticle “ApocalypseandRedemptioninEarlyChristianity,” forinstance,PaulaFredriksenexplainsheruseofeachtermasfollows: “Iuse eschatology tomeanthosebeliefsconcernedwiththeendoftimeandthe final destinyofhumankind:theyimplynonecessarytimetable. Apocalypticism holdsthattheEnd,howeverconceived,isimminent.”⁵⁴ Weencountera similarclassificationinBernardMcGinn’sintroductiontothe Encyclopedia ofApocalypticism:forMcGinn,apocalypticismis “thebeliefthatGodhas revealedtheimminentendoftheongoingstrugglebetweengoodandevil inhistory.”⁵⁵ Whenutilizingthetermasatheologicalcategoryinthisbook, IwilladheretoMcGinn’sdefinition.Asamatteroffact,Isubmitthatthe threeclausesthatmakeupthisdefinitionareparticularlywellsuitedtothe Donatistmilieu.

⁵²DavidFrankfurter, “EarlyChristianApocalypticism:LiteratureandSocialWorld,” in The EncyclopediaofApocalypticism I,ed.JohnCollinsandBernardMcGinn(NewYork:Continuum, 2006),430;EliezerGonzales, “The PassionofPerpetuaandFelicitas asanAdaptedApocalypse,” PLURA, RevistadeEstudiosdeReligião 4.1(2013),34–61;andPetrKitzler, “PassioPerpetuae and ActaPerpetuae,BetweenReligionandInnovation,” ListyFilologické 130(2007),1–19.

⁵³Hanson, “Apocalypticism,” 29.

⁵⁴ PaulaFredriksen, “ApocalypseandRedemptioninEarlyChristianity:FromJohnof PatmostoAugustineofHippo,” VigiliaeChristianae 45(1991),168,note3.Shecontinues: “Millenarianism holdsthattheredemptionbroughtbytheEnd,wheneveritcomes,willbe collective,historical,andearthy.” SeealsoLandes, “LesttheMillenniumbeFulfilled,” 205,who defines eschatology asa “beliefintheEndofTimeandaconceptionofthe finaldestinyof mankind,” while apocalypticism isviewedinmoreimmediateterms: “abeliefthattheend, howeverconceived,isimminent,thatonelivesattheveryedgeorinthemidstoftheLastDays.” ⁵⁵ TheEncyclopediaofApocalypticism, Volume1:TheOriginsofApocalypticisminJudaism andChristianity,ed.BernardMcGinn,StephenStein,andJohnCollins(NewYork:Continuum, 2000),vii.

First,apocalypticismisheredeﬁnedashavingitsbasisinaparticular exegeticaltradition: “Godhasrevealed.” AsIhopetodemonstrateinsubsequent chapters,Donatistapocalypticmotifsarefundamentallydependentuponbiblicalexegesis.Wedonotsee,forexample,anappealtotheextracanonical apocalypticaccountssocommoninearliercenturies Lactantius’ useofthe SibyllineOracles,forinstance,orthe AscensionofIsaiah;rather,Donatist exegetessoughttosituatetheirpresentsituationwithintheboundariesofa corpusofwidelyagreed-uponcanonicalwritings.Second,althoughweshall discussalternateinterpretationsofDonatistapocalypticthoughtinChapter1, Ibelievethatthequaliﬁcationoftheendas “imminent” accuratelycharacterizes mostappealstotheapocalypticwithintheDonatistcommunion.Whenthey utilizeeschatologicallanguage(andnotalldo),Donatistpreachersandexegetes tendtoemphasizethenearnessoftheimpendingevent.Infact,asIshallargue inChapter4,atleastonestrandwithintheDonatistcommunionactively vieweditselfastheprophesied “chosenremnant” whichalonewouldremain faithfulwhenChristreturned.

Finally,thequalificationofan “ongoing strugglebetweengoodandevilin history” encapsulatesoneofthemostdistinctivetenetsofDonatistselfidentity.AsMaureenTilleyhasemphasized,theDonatistconstructionof timewasdividedintotwoparts: “thetimeofsufferingandthetimeof glory.”⁵⁶ Thepresentagewascharacterizedasanageoftrials,duringwhich persecutioncontinueswithoutceasinguntilthe finaltribulationunderAntichrist.Theworldwillthenundergoatransformationwiththereturnof Christ:thecomingageofglory.⁵⁷ Asahistoriographicaldivision,theDonatist characterizationoftimewasrapidlybecominganoutlierwithintheworld oflateantiquity.Augustine,forinstance,insertedapresent “ageofdeceit” betweentheearlierageoftrialsandthefutureageofglory: “The first persecutionoftheChurchwasviolent,foritattemptedbytheconfiscation ofproperty,bytortureandmurders,toforcetheChristianstosacrifice. Asecondphaseofpersecutionworksratherbyguile;itiscarriedoninour daybyhereticsandfalsebrethrenofanyandeverysort.”⁵⁸ Suchamovewas

⁵⁶ Tilley, TheBibleinChristianNorthAfrica,2.

⁵⁷ Asnotedbythe ﬁfth-centuryDonatistchronology Libergenealogus (Sangallensis),39: “For [Cain’s]nameintheLatinlanguagemeans ‘everincreasing,’ andhereceivedthisnameforthis reason:becauseuptotheadventofChristthesonsofCainandhispartnerswillslaughterthose ChristianswhofollowinthefootstepsofAbelhisbrother” (MGH9.163: “Namnomeneius linguaLatinadiciturideoenimhocnomenacceperat,quoniamusqueadChristiaduentum ﬁlii CaineiusconsortesoccisuriessentChristianosuestigiaAbelfratriseiussequentes”).

⁵⁸ Augustine, Enarrationes,Psalm9.27,inWSA3.15,155(CCSL38.70: “Primaenimpersecutioecclesiaeuiolentafuit,cumproscriptionibus,tormentis,caedibus,christianiadsacriﬁcandumcogeretur;alterapersecutiofraudulentaest,quaenuncpercuiuscemodihaereticosetfalsos fratresagitur”).Augustine’sdivisionoftimeunfoldsinthreeacts.Inacontinuationoftheabove passage,hepositsafuturepersecutionbyAntichristthatunitesbothforceandseduction: “There remainsafurtherandthirdpersecutionyettocomethroughtheAntichrist.Nothingismore