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MicrobialInoculantsandStress Interaction Thispageintentionallyleftblank
DevelopmentsinAppliedMicrobiologyandBiotechnology
SustainableHorticulture MicrobialInoculantsandStress Interaction Editedby MusaSeymen
HorticultureDepartmentofAgriculture,SelcukUniversity,Konya,Turkey
ErtanSKurtar
HorticultureDepartmentofAgriculture,SelcukUniversity,Konya,Turkey
CeknasErdinc AgriculturalBiotechnologyDepartmentofAgriculture, VanYuzuncuYilUniversity,Turkey
AjayKumar
AgriculturalResearchOrganization,TheVolcaniCenter,RishonLeZion,Israel
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1.1
CHAPTER3Theeffectsofmicrobialinoculantsonsecondarymetabolite
3.1
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
4.5
4.6
5.1
5.3
5.3.3Potassiumsolubilization..............................................................................107
5.3.4Phytohormoneproduction............................................................................108
5.3.5Siderophoreproduction................................................................................108
5.3.6Antibioticsproduction.................................................................................109
5.3.7Lyticenzymes..............................................................................................109
5.3.8Exopolysaccharidesproduction...................................................................109
5.4 Plantgrowth promotingrhizobacteriaandheavymetalstress...........................109
5.4.1Phytoremediationmechanismsofplantgrowth promoting rhizobacteria.................................................................................................109
5.4.2Phytoremediationofplantwithplantgrowth promoting rhizobacteria.................................................................................................111
5.5 Conclusion..............................................................................................................115
PaulA.Correa,AsiaNosheen,HumairaYasminandMuhammadAsifAli
6.1 Introduction............................................................................................................126
6.2 Soilmicrobesandtheirabundanceinsoil.............................................................126
6.3 Originofsalinityanditsimpactoncrops.............................................................127
6.4 Salinityeffectsoncrops.........................................................................................130
6.5 Benefitsandeffectsofmicrobialinoculants/plantgrowth promoting bacteriatoplants’attributes...................................................................................132
6.6 Impactofsalinityonsoil.......................................................................................133
6.6.1Nutrientavailability.....................................................................................133
6.6.2Osmoticpotential.........................................................................................134
6.6.3Soilbiologicalactivityanddiversity...........................................................134
6.7 Microbialfunctionalgenesthathelptoalleviatestresstoleranceinplants.........134
6.7.1Ncycle relatedgenes.................................................................................135
6.8 Impactofsoilsalinityoncrops.............................................................................135
6.9 Regulationofplantresponsetosoilsalinity.........................................................136
6.10 Roleofmicrobialphytohormonesignalinginconferringsaltstress toleranceinplants..................................................................................................136
6.10.1Jasmonicacidandethylenesignalingtoinducesaltstressinplants..........136
6.10.2Auxin-producingplantgrowth promotingrhizobacteria.........................137
6.10.3Cytokininandgibberellins-producingplantgrowth promoting rhizobacteria...............................................................................................137
6.10.4Ethylene-producingplantgrowth promotingrhizobacteria....................137
6.10.5ABA-producingplantgrowth promotingrhizobacteria..........................138
6.10.6Brassinosteroids-producingplantgrowth promotingrhizobacteria........138
6.10.7Strigolactones-producingplantgrowth promotingrhizobacteria............139
6.11 Plantswithplantgrowth promotingrhizobacteria-associatedsalinity stresstolerance.......................................................................................................139
6.12 Plantgrowth promotingbacteriaalleviatingplantstressdueto soilsalinity.............................................................................................................140
6.12.1Directrole/mechanismsofplantgrowth promoting rhizobacteriainconferringstresstolerance.............................................140
6.12.2Facilitatingresourceacquisition..............................................................140
6.12.3N-fixation.................................................................................................141
6.12.4P-solubilization........................................................................................141
6.12.51-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylase-deaminase....................................141
6.12.6Siderophoreproduction............................................................................141
6.12.7EPSandbiofilmsformation....................................................................142
6.12.8Enhancedplantnutrientuptake...............................................................142
6.12.9Osmolytesaccumulation..........................................................................142
6.12.10Indirectmechanisms................................................................................143
6.13 Plantgrowth promotingrhizobacteriamodulationofsalinitystress responsegenestoinduceplanttolerance..............................................................143
6.14
7.1 Introduction............................................................................................................157
7.2 Principlesofarbuscularmycorrhizalfungisymbiosis..........................................158
7.3 Functionsofarbuscularmycorrhizalfungiinabioticstressconditions...............159
7.3.1Arbuscularmycorrhizalfungiandnutrientdeficiency...............................159
7.3.2Arbuscularmycorrhizalfungiandsoilsalinity...........................................161
7.3.3Arbuscularmycorrhizalfungianddroughtstress.......................................162
7.3.4Arbuscularmycorrhizalfungiandtoxicelements......................................164
7.4 Arbuscularmycorrhizalfungiasabiocontrolagent.............................................165
7.4.1Improvingthehostplantnutrientstatus......................................................166
7.4.2Competition..................................................................................................166
7.4.3Changesinthehostplantrootsanatomy....................................................167
7.4.4Changesinthemicrobialstatusofrhizosphere..........................................168
7.4.5Stimulationofthehostplantdefensesystem..............................................168
7.5 Arbuscularmycorrhizalfungitechnology.............................................................169
7.6 Conclusionsandfuturedirections..........................................................................170 References...............................................................................................................171
CHAPTER8Enhancingthephysiologicalandmolecularresponsesof horticulturalplantstodroughtstressthroughplant growth promotingrhizobacterias ................................................... 185 Muzaffer IpekandEmreMutluay
8.1 Introduction............................................................................................................185
8.2 Effectsofdroughtstressonplants.........................................................................186
8.3 Mechanismofthedroughttolerance.....................................................................187
8.3.1Physiologicalresponsesoftheplants..........................................................188
8.3.2Molecularresponsesofplants.....................................................................190
8.4 Plantgrowth promotingrhizobacteriaunderdroughtstress...............................190
8.4.1Physiologicalandmolecularresponsesoftheplantgrowth promoting rhizobacteria.....................................................................................................190
8.5 Futureperspectivesandconclusion.......................................................................194 References...............................................................................................................194
CHAPTER9Nanotechnologiesformicrobialinoculantsasbiofertilizers inthehorticulture ............................................................................. 201 HarpreetKour,SofiaShariefKhan,DivjotKour,ShavetaSingh, ShilpaKumari,ManpreetKaur,RabiyaTabbassumKhanand AjarNathYadav
9.1 Introduction............................................................................................................202
9.2 Characteristicsofnanomaterials............................................................................203
9.2.1Typesofnanomaterials................................................................................204
9.2.2Synthesisofnanomaterials..........................................................................205
9.3 Impactofnanomaterialsonplantsystems............................................................206
9.3.1Nanomaterialsinteractionwiththeplants...................................................207
9.3.2Mobilizationofnanomaterialsinsideplants...............................................212
9.3.3Phytotoxicityofnanomaterials....................................................................212
9.3.4Biochemicalandphysiologicalresponses...................................................213
9.3.5Applicationsofnanomaterialsinplantsciences.........................................214
9.4 Nanotechnologyinagriculture...............................................................................215
9.4.1Nanoparticlesasmicronutrientsandmacronutrients..................................215
9.4.2Nanoparticlesasbiocontrolagents..............................................................216
9.4.3Nanoparticlesasabioticstressalleviators...................................................220
9.5 Nanoformulationsforthecrops.............................................................................230
9.5.1Microemulsions..........................................................................................231
9.5.2Nanoemulsions...........................................................................................231
9.5.3Nanodispersions.........................................................................................232
9.5.4Nanoencapsulation.....................................................................................232
9.5.5Polymer-basednanoformulations..............................................................232
9.5.6Claybasedencapsulations.........................................................................234
9.5.7Greenerencapsulations..............................................................................234
9.5.8Metallicnanoparticles................................................................................234
9.5.9Nanospheres...............................................................................................235
9.5.10Nanomicelles..............................................................................................235
9.5.11Nanogels.....................................................................................................235
9.6 Nanotechnologyinhorticulturalsystems..............................................................236
9.7 Greennanotechnology............................................................................................236
9.7.1Bacteriaandfungiasfactoriesforsynthesisofnanoparticles...................236
9.7.2Nano-biofertilizersandhorticulturalcrops.................................................237
9.7.3Statusofnano-biofertilizersinresearchanddevelopment.........................238
9.8 Conclusionandfutureperspective.........................................................................239
CHAPTER10Useofmicrobialinoculantsagainstbioticstressin HasanCan,UnalKal,NecibeKayak,YesimDalandOnderTurkmen
10.1 Whydoweneedmethodsasalternativestotheusageofpesticides inagriculture?.........................................................................................................263
10.1.1Actionmechanismofbiologicalagentsonvegetables.............................265
10.1.2Rootexudatesorchemicalattractants.......................................................266
10.1.3Molecularinteractionbetweenplantsandthemicrobialcommunity.........267
10.2 Pathogenbiocontrol................................................................................................273
10.2.1Directpathogenhuntermicrobialagents..................................................274
10.2.2Supportive-microbialagentstocopewithpathogens...............................278
10.3 Physiologicaleffectsofmicrobialagentsonplants..............................................281
10.3.1Directactionmechanisms..........................................................................282
10.3.2MechanismofPisolubilization.................................................................284
10.3.3Indirectmechanismsofaction...................................................................287
10.3.4Stressmanagement.....................................................................................288
10.4 Useofmicrobialagentsonsolanaceae..................................................................289
10.5 Useofmicrobialagentsoncucurbitaceae.............................................................293
10.6 Useofmicrobialagentson Brassicaceae ..............................................................296
CHAPTER11Seedapplicationwithmicrobialinoculantsforenhanced plantgrowth ......................................................................................
11.2 Methodstoinoculatemicrobialapplications.........................................................335
11.3 Plantbeneficialmicroorganisms............................................................................337
11.3.1Bacterialinoculations.................................................................................337
11.3.2Inoculantscontainingconsortiaofdifferentbacterialspecies..................341
11.3.3Fungalinoculations....................................................................................342
11.3.4Consortiaofdifferentmicroorganisms......................................................342
11.4 Microbialseedapplicationsinagriculture............................................................343
11.4.1Roleofmicrobialseedapplicationsonplantnutrition.............................344
11.4.2Roleofmicrobialseedapplicationtoenhanceplantgrowthand suppressplantdiseases...............................................................................344
11.4.3Microbialseedapplicationsdecreasingtheusageofchemical fertilizersandincreasingyield...................................................................351
11.5 Cost-efficientmicrobialbiomasspreparationsforseedtreatments......................351
11.6 Comparisonofmicrobialseedapplicationswithotherinoculatingmethods..........352
11.7 Limitationsofmicrobialseedapplications............................................................353
11.8 Conclusionandfutureprospective........................................................................354
CHAPTER12Organicwasteseparationwithmicrobialinoculants 12.1
12.2 Sorptionofpolyaromatichydrocarbons................................................................371
12.3 Half-livesofpolyaromatichydrocarbonsinsoils.................................................373 12.4 Presenceofmicrobialgenera/strainsinorganicwaste.........................................373 12.5 Taxonomicaldistributionofbacteriainorganicwaste.........................................376 12.6 Thermophilicbacteriasignificance........................................................................376 12.7 Moleculartechniquetoisolatethermophilicbacteria...........................................378
12.8 Recentadvancesincharacterizationofnovelmetagenome.................................381
12.9 Micorbialconsortium,aneffectivetooltodegradepolyaromatic hydrocarbonsinorganicwasteviacomposting....................................................382
12.10 Microbialconsortium(thermophilicormesophilic),thebestoptionfor horticulturecrop.....................................................................................................384
13.2 Somerelevantpreharvestandpostharvestfactorsinfluencinghorticultural cropquality.............................................................................................................400
13.3 Preharvestmicrobialinoculants,thealliesofpostharvestmanagement technologies............................................................................................................403
13.4 Potentialofbioinoculantsinpostharvesthorticulturalcropsprotectionand preservation............................................................................................................410
13.5 Postharvestpreservationtechnologiesincorporatingmicrobialinoculantsor theirmetabolites.....................................................................................................416
13.6 Conclusionandfutureprospective........................................................................422
T.N.VipinaVinod,JyothisMathewandE.K.Radhakrishnan
14.1 Introduction............................................................................................................437
14.2 Fertilizers................................................................................................................439
14.3 Microbialinoculantsasfertilizers.........................................................................439
14.3.1Applicationofbiofertilizers.......................................................................440
14.4 Typesofbiofertilizers............................................................................................440
14.4.1Nitrogen-fixingbiofertilizers.....................................................................440
14.4.2Phosphatesolubilizingbiofertilizers..........................................................441
14.4.3Potassiumsolubilizingbiofertilizers..........................................................442
14.4.4Zincsolubilizingbiofertilizers...................................................................442
14.4.5Sulfuroxidizingbiofertilizers....................................................................442
14.4.6Plantgrowth promotingbiofertilizers......................................................443
14.5 Nanotechnology—strategicpotentialinsustainablehorticulture.........................443
14.6 Nanofertilizers—roleinimprovingcropproductivityandcropprotection..........444
14.6.1EffectofmacroandmicronutrientNFsonplantgrowthand development...............................................................................................446
14.7 Nanobiofertilizers—anemergingeco-friendlyapproachforasmart nutrientdeliverysystemforhorticulture...............................................................447
14.7.1Roleincropprotection..............................................................................449
14.8 Advantageofnanobiofertilizersoverchemicalfertilizers....................................449
14.9 Conclusionandfutureperspective.........................................................................452
15.1 Introduction............................................................................................................461
15.2 Plantgrowthpromotionby Bacillus spp...............................................................463
15.3 Antagonisticeffectsof Bacillus speciesinmanagementofthe plantpathogens.......................................................................................................464
15.3.1Competitionbetween Bacillus spp.andplantpathogens.........................467
15.3.2Antibiosis-secondarymetaboliteswithantibioticproperties....................468
15.3.3Peptidecompounds....................................................................................469
15.3.4Hydrolyticenzymes...................................................................................476
15.3.5Antimicrobialandvolatilecompounds.....................................................477
15.4 Plant pathogen Bacillus interactions..................................................................478
15.4.1Systemicallyinduceddiseaseresistance...................................................478
15.4.2Phenoliccompoundsanddefenseenzymes...............................................478
15.4.3Defensestructuresandgenetics.................................................................480
15.5 Futureperspectives.................................................................................................480
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Listofcontributors MuhammadAsifAli
DepartmentofLifeSciences,AbasynUniversity,Islamabad,Pakistan
S¸eymaArıkan
DepartmentofHorticulture,Selc¸ukUniversity,Konya,Turkey
TayyabaAsif
DepartmentofBiosciences,COMSATSUniversityIslamabad,Islamabad,Pakistan
AngelikaAstaikina
FacultyofSoilScience,LomonosovMoscowStateUniversity,Moscow,Russia
KubilayKurtulusBastas
DepartmentofPlantProtection,FacultyofAgriculture,SelcukUniversity,Konya,Turkey
Go ¨ khanBoyno
DepartmentofPlantProtection,FacultyofAgriculture,VanYYU,Van,Turkey
MaryamBozorg-Amirkalaee
DepartmentofPlantProtection,FacultyofAgriculturalSciences,UniversityofMohaghegh Ardabili,Ardabil,Iran
HarisButt
DepartmentofPlantProtection,FacultyofAgriculture,SelcukUniversity,Konya,Turkey
HasanCan
EregliFacultyofAgriculture,NecmettinErbakanUniversity,Konya,Turkey
PaulA.Correa
DepartmentofBiosciences,COMSATSUniversity,Islamabad,Pakistan
YesimDal
DepartmentofHorticulture,FacultyofAgriculture,SelcukUniversity,Konya,Turkey
YounesRezaeeDanesh
Soil,FertilizerandWaterResourcesCentralResearchInstitute,Ankara,Turkey;Departmentof PlantProtection,FacultyofAgriculture,UrmiaUniversity,Urmia,Iran
SemraDemir
DepartmentofPlantProtection,FacultyofAgriculture,VanYYU,Van,Turkey
MelekEkinci
DepartmentofHorticulture,FacultyofAgriculture,Atatu ¨ rkUniversity,Erzurum,Turkey
HassanEtesami
DepartmentofSoilScience,UniversityofTehran,Tehran,Iran
MuzafferI ˙ pek
HorticultureDepartment,FacultyofAgriculture,UniversityofSelc¸uk,Konya,Turkey
UnalKal
DepartmentofHorticulture,FacultyofAgriculture,SelcukUniversity,Konya,Turkey
MerveKarakoyun
DepartmentofHorticulture,FacultyofAgriculture,BilecikSeyhEdabaliUniversity,Bilecik, Turkey
ManpreetKaur
DepartmentofPhysics,ChandigarhGroupofColleges,Mohali,Punjab,India
NecibeKayak
DepartmentofHorticulture,FacultyofAgriculture,SelcukUniversity,Konya,Turkey
RabiyaTabbassumKhan
ShriMataVaishnoDeviUniversity,Katra,JammuandKashmir,India
SofiaShariefKhan
ShriMataVaishnoDeviUniversity,Katra,JammuandKashmir,India
SeharKhushhal
DepartmentofBiosciences,COMSATSUniversityIslamabad,Islamabad,Pakistan
DivjotKour
DepartmentofBiotechnology,Dr.KhemSinghGillAkalCollegeofAgriculture,Eternal University,Sirmaur,HimachalPradesh,India
HarpreetKour
DepartmentofBotany,UniversityofJammu,JammuandKashmir,India
ShilpaKumari
DepartmentofPhysics,AkalCollegeofBasicSciences,EternalUniversity,Sirmaur,Himachal Pradesh,India
JyothisMathew
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
SaraMubeen
DepartmentofBiosciences,COMSATSUniversityIslamabad,Islamabad,Pakistan
EmreMutluay
InstituteofScience,UniversityofSelc¸uk,Konya,Turkey
SolmazNajafi
DepartmentofFieldCrops,FacultyofAgriculture,VanYYU,Van,Turkey
RabiaNaz
DepartmentofBiosciences,COMSATSUniversityIslamabad,Islamabad,Pakistan
AsiaNosheen
DepartmentofBiosciences,COMSATSUniversity,Islamabad,Pakistan
MaryamPahlavanYali
DepartmentofPlantProtection,FacultyofAgriculture,ShahidBahonarUniversity,Kerman,Iran
Marı´aValentinaAngoaPe ´ rez
DepartmentofResearch,CIIDIRIPNMichoacanUnit,NationalPolytechnicInstitute,Jiquilpan, Mexico
AbdullahKavianiRad
DepartmentofSoilScience,SchoolofAgriculture,ShirazUniversity,Shiraz,Iran
E.K.Radhakrishnan
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
AliSabir
DepartmentofHorticulture,FacultyofAgriculture,Selc¸ukUniversity,Konya,Turkey
SaminaSiddiqui
NationalCentreofExcellenceinGeology,UniversityofPeshawar,Peshawar,Pakistan
ShavetaSingh
DepartmentofMicrobiology,ShooliniUniversity,Solan,HimachalPradesh,India
RostislavStreletskii
FacultyofSoilScience,LomonosovMoscowStateUniversity,Moscow,Russia
MetinTuran
DepartmentofGeneticandBioengineering,FacultyofEngineeringandArchitecture,Yeditepe University,Istanbul,Turkey
OnderTurkmen
EregliFacultyofAgriculture,NecmettinErbakanUniversity,Konya,Turkey;Departmentof Horticulture,FacultyofAgriculture,SelcukUniversity,Konya,Turkey
HortenciaGabrielaMenaViolante
DepartmentofResearch,CIIDIRIPNMichoacanUnit,NationalPolytechnicInstitute,Jiquilpan, Mexico
T.N.VipinaVinod
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
AjarNathYadav
DepartmentofBiotechnology,Dr.KhemSinghGillAkalCollegeofAgriculture,Eternal University,Sirmaur,HimachalPradesh,India
HumairaYasmin
DepartmentofBiosciences,COMSATSUniversity,Islamabad,Pakistan
ErtanYildirim
DepartmentofHorticulture,FacultyofAgriculture,AtaturkUniversity,Erzurum,Turkey
MehdiZarei
DepartmentofSoilScience,SchoolofAgriculture,ShirazUniversity,Shiraz,Iran;Departmentof AgricultureandNaturalResources,HigherEducationCenterofEghlid,Eghlid,Iran
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Abouttheeditors AssocDr.MusaSeymen: FacultyofAgriculture,DepartmentofHorticulture,SelcukUniversity, Konya,Turkey
AssocDr.CeknasErdinc: FacultyofAgriculture,DepartmentofPlantBiotechnology,Van YuzuncuYılUniversity,Van,Turkey
Prof.Dr.ErtanSKurtar: FacultyofAgriculture,DepartmentofHorticulture,SelcukUniversity, Konya,Turkey
Dr.AjayKumar: VisitingScientist,AgricultureResearchOrganization,VolcaniCenter,Ministry ofAgricultureandRuralDevelopment,RishonLeziyon,Israel
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Preface Inthecurrentglobalclimatechangescenarioandrisinghumanpopulation,sustainablepracticesfor horticulturalcropproductionaretheimmediateneed.Nevertheless,conventionalpracticesforhorticulturalcropproductionmainlyrelyonchemicalpesticidestospeedupandenhancecropproduction.However,theundistributedandregularuseofchemicalpesticidesaffectsthesoilandcrop qualityandnegativelyimpactshumanandenvironmentalhealth.However,inthelastfewyears, microbesormicrobialproductshavefrequentlybeenpracticedasanalternativetochemicalfertilizersorchemicalpesticidestoenhanceandprotectcropplants.Theutilizationofbeneficial microbes,includingbacteria,fungi,yeast,andactinomycetes,hasbeenthefocusofmanyagriculturalstudies.Thisbookfocusesontheeffectsofmicrobialinoculantsandtheagronomic,physiological,andmolecularmechanismsoftheseeffectstomakeplantproductionmoreefficientina sustainableframework.PGPRandAMFsplayasupportiveroleinbiotic(diseaseandpestmanagement)andabiotic(drought,salinity,extremeheatandcold,heavymetalpollution)stressconditions,andundertheseconditions,theypositivelyaffectplantgrowth,yield,fruitquality,nutrient content,andshelflife.Inaddition,microbialinoculantapplicationsenhancetheproductionof somesecondarymetabolites(terpenes,phenolics,nitrogenatedcompounds)byprogrammingplant metabolism.Theuseofnanoparticlesasnanofertilizers(NF)andnanopesticides(NP)-basedPGPR andAMFshastremendousadvantagesineco-friendlyandcost-effectiveagriculturalproductionby minimizingsyntheticchemicalinputs.Microinoculantsalsohaveanessentialroleinpostharvest technologyandpreservethequalityandextendtheshelflifeofagriculturalproducts.SomePGPR andAMFstrainspromotetheplantimmunesystemagainstviral,bacterial,andfungaldiseases.We hopethatthisworkwillbehelpfulnotonlyforagriculturalfieldsbutalsoforotherbranchesofscience.Wewanttothankallthesubjectspecialists,ourresearchandcompilationteammembers, whocontributedtotheproductionofthisbook,fortheircooperationandpatience.
Editors
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Effectsofmicrobialinoculantson growth,yield,andfruitqualityunder stressconditions AbdullahKavianiRad1,MehdiZarei1,2,AngelikaAstaikina3,RostislavStreletskii3 and HassanEtesami4 1DepartmentofSoilScience,SchoolofAgriculture,ShirazUniversity,Shiraz,Iran 2DepartmentofAgricultureand NaturalResources,HigherEducationCenterofEghlid,Eghlid,Iran 3FacultyofSoilScience,LomonosovMoscow StateUniversity,Moscow,Russia 4DepartmentofSoilScience,UniversityofTehran,Tehran,Iran
1.1 Introduction Growingurbanizationandlifestyletransformationshavechangedconsumerdemandandfoodproduction(Philippeetal.,2021),andincreasingconsumptionofpoorandhyperenergyfoodshasled toanunhealthydietthatcausesnumerousdiseasessuchasobesity,overweight,stroke,hypertension,andcancer,especiallyinyoungpersons.Hence,ahealthydietisavitalagentforphysicaland mentalwellness.Consumptionoffruitsandvegetables(400g/day)isrecommendedtoadultsdue totheirshortandlong-termadvantages(Daietal.,2021;Lietal.,2021;Swallahetal.,2020). Becausefruitsasaherbalsnackareenrichedwithmacro-andmicronutrients,bioactivecompounds, antioxidants,carbohydrates,lipids,organicacids,vitamins,carotenoids,phenolic,anthocyanin, fibers,andothermetabolitesthatcanimprovethebodyimmunesystemandmitigatetheriskof
SustainableHorticulture.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91861-9.00014-8 © 2022ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
2Chapter1 Effectsofmicrobialinoculantsongrowth chronicandheartdiseases(Alasalvaretal.,2020;Jideanietal.,2021;Meenaetal.,2021;Wallace etal.,2020).Carotenoidsarepigmentsoffruits,and Marhuenda-Mun ˜ ozetal.(2021) detectedthat thecarotenoidwashigherinthecellplasmaofpersonswhoconsumedmorefruitsandvegetables. dosSantosetal.(2021) concludedthatconstipationprevalencedecreasedalongwithfruitconsumptionenhancement.Pentacyclictriterpenesandphenolsarebioactivemoleculesinolivetrees, andtriterpenessuchasoleanolicacid,malonicacid,erythrodiol,anduvaolhaveantitumoractivity, andphenolssuchasoleuropein,tyrosol,andhydroxytyrosolarenaturalantioxidants(Jim ´ enezHerreraetal.,2019).
Datepalmfruitisanexcellentfoodthatcontainsawiderangeofnutrientssuchascarbohydrates,fibers,proteins,andminerals.Fructoseandglucosecarbohydratesconsistof70%ofdate palmfruit,anditsmineralsconsistofcalcium,iron,selenium,copper,phosphorous,potassium, zinc,sulfur,cobalt,fluorine,andmanganese.Thereforedatepalmisanessentialeconomicproduct thatenduresfoodsecurity,specificallyinthearidregionsoftheworld(Aljaloudetal.,2020; Hazzourietal.,2020;Olakunle-Moses&Aderonke,2019).CeriTerengganualsohasahighphenolicandflavonoidcontentandantioxidantactivityandcanbeusedasanaturalantioxidantsource (Looietal.,2020).Investigatingthecapabilityof Sageretiatheezans forimprovingthebody’s immunesystemindicatedthatthisfruitenhancedcellsurvivalandphagocytosisbyproducing immunesystemmodulators(Eoetal.,2021).
Gu,He,etal.(2021) reportedthatreductionofriskofChineseadults’mortalityhadapositive correlationwithahigherleveloffruitconsumption.Moreover, Gła˛bskaetal.(2020) showedthat consumptionofcitrusandberrydecreasedpsychologicaldistressanddepressionsymptoms. Thereforeitisnecessarytoincreasetheconsumptionofvariousfruitsandreduceeatingpoornutritiousfoods(Davisonetal.,2021).Fruitadvantagesarenotlimitedtosupplyingfooddemand,and manyfoodindustriesareusingthepresentpectinoffruitsasastabilizerandthickeneragent(Wu etal.,2020).Also,fruitscanbeusedasbioactivecompoundsinordertoproducedyeingchemicals forthefoodandbeverageindustries(DiGioiaetal.,2020).Hence,horticultureandfruittreescultivationareessentialinagriculturalandindustrialproductionsectorsthatconsistoftechnologiesand commercialaspects(Huangetal.,2020;Li,Wang,etal.,2019).
Byconsideringworldpopulationenhancementin2050(UnitedNations,2017)alongwithclimatechangeandincreasingglobalwarming,cropproductivityimprovementandsustainablefood securityattractagriculturalscientists’attention(Bhattaraietal.,2021;Leeetal.,2019).Onthe otherhand,farmershavetoapplychemicalinputssuchaspesticidesandfertilizerstomaintain cropyieldandfaceincreasingfooddemand(Philippeetal.,2021).Pesticidesareorganiccompoundsthatincreasecropproductionandhelptocontrolthepestsanddiseasetransmitterssuchas mosquitoes,ticks,andmice(deOGomesetal.,2020;Rojasetal.,2021).Althoughpesticideshave manybenefitsforcontrollingplantpests,theirresiduesandmetabolitescanbetransferredtothe humanbodythroughwaterandfood(Omwengaetal.,2021).Approximately60,000chemicalcompoundsareusedinthefoodproductionprocess;90%ofthesechemicalagentsaredangeroustothe humanbody(Bursi ´ cetal.,2021;Cr ´ epetetal.,2021).
Accordingtoastudyby Olisahetal.(2020),organochlorinepesticidessuchas Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane(DDT)andendosulfanshavethehighestenvironmentalresiduesin Africa. Al-Nasiretal.(2020) reportedahighlevelofchlorothalonilanddaminozideinirrigation waterandgardensoilofagardeninJordan.Inastudyby Bhandarietal.(2019),pesticideresidues oforganochlorines,organophosphates,andacaricidesinsamplesofeggplant(4%),tomato(44%),
andpepper(19%)werehigherthanEuropeanmaximumresiduelimitstandards.Inanotherstudy,in ordertoinvestigatethedietofFrenchinfantsandchildrenunderthreeagesin2011 12,itwasindicatedthat78typesofpesticideresidueswerepresentedin67%ofthefoodsamples.Mostpesticides include2-phenylphenol,azoxystrobin,captan,carbendazim,difenoconazole,dodine,andimazalil, andtheinsecticideswereacetamiprid,pirimiphos-methyl,andthiacloprid,whichrangedfrom0.02to 594 μg/kginthefoodsamples(Nougade ` reetal.,2020).
Despitethefactthathorticultureistheprimarysourceoflivelihoodinmanyruralregions,the consequencesoftheuncheckeduseofchemicalpesticidescanbemoresevereintheseregions (Khan,Yaqub,etal.,2020).Uncontrolledapplicationofantimicrobialpesticidesalsoincreasesbacterialtolerancetoantimicrobialpesticidessothatcontrollingbacterialpathogenswillbecomplicatedbyusingconventionalcommercialpesticides(Campos&Ariel,2021). Table1.1 summarizes thestudiesonpesticideresiduesinfruitsinsomeregionsoftheworld.
Inadditiontotheprotectionofhorticulturalproducts,fertilizersareavitalfactortofruityield improvement,andnutrientshaveakeyroleinplantgrowthandmetabolism.Forinstance,potassiumhasacriticalroleinphysiologicalandmetabolicprocesses(Sattaretal.,2019),suchaswater settinganddroughttoleranceimprovement;calciumcanincreasesalinitytolerancelevelsby removingsodium,andsiliconformsaphysicalobstaclethatcontrolstheentranceofdiseaseagents throughsedimentinepidemiccellsoftheplantleaves(Fern ´ andez-Escobar,2019).Inastudyby Boarettoetal.(2020),nutrientsupplyenhancementincreasedtheplanttolerancetoenvironmental stressesandledtoahighphotosynthesisandtranspirationrateandlowelectrontransferring/photosyntheticcarbonratio.Magnesiumsupplyenhancementalsoraisedtheactivityoftheantioxidant enzymesystemandreducedtheoxidativestressofplants.InafieldexperimentinChina,magnesiumincreasedpepperyieldby25.6%(Luetal.,2021).Highchlorophyllcontentandlight-energy
Table1.1Summaryofstudiesonpesticideresiduesinfruitsindifferentregionsoftheworld.
FruitDetectedpesticideRegionReferences
Strawberry,apple,lettuce, andpotato
Dimethoate,chlorothalonil,andcarbendazimRomania Minu¸tetal.(2020)
PeachandgrapeDifenoconazoleandprocymidoneChina Qinetal.(2021) ChilipepperandcucumberMethomyl,imidacloprid,metalaxyl,and cyproconazole
FrenchbeanandtomatoAcephate,chlorpyrifos,methamidophos, omethoate,andprofenofos
EggplantImidacloprid,dimethoate,endosulfan,and 2,4-D
Grapefruit,lemon,orange, andmandarin
Saudi Arabia Ramadanetal. (2020)
Kenya Omwengaetal. (2021)
Sudan Abdelbagietal. (2020)
ChlorothalonilanddaminozideJordan Al-Nasiretal. (2020)
Eggplant,chili,andtomatoCarbendazim,chlorpyrifos,triazophos,and omethoate
Nepal Bhandarietal. (2019)
StrawberryandpepperChlorpyrifos,methomyl,andflusilazoleEgypt AbdEl-Rahman etal.(2020)
AppleCarbendazim,chlorpyrifos,fluopyram,and triazophos
Greece Tzatzarakisetal. (2020)
