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SugarcaneBiorefinery, Technologyand Perspectives
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SugarcaneBiorefinery, Technologyand Perspectives
Editedby
FERNANDOSANTOS
RioGrandedoSulStateUniversity, PortoAlegre,Brazil
SARITACÂNDIDARABELO
CollegeofAgriculturalSciences, SãoPauloStateUniversity(UNESP/BotucatuCampus), Botucatu,Brazil
MARIODEMATOS
SeniorAssociate,Schaffer/Africaglobal
PAULOEICHLER
PontificalCatholicUniversityofRioGrandedoSul, PortoAlegre,Brazil
AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier
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1.Sugarcaneworldscenario1
MariodeMatos,FernandoSantosandPauloEichler
Introduction1
Historicalitineraryofsugarcane3
Historyofthemainproductsofsugarcane7
Worldscenarioofsugarcaneanditsmainproducts8
Socioeconomicandenvironmentalbenefitsofusingethanolfromsugarcane16 Perspectives17
References19
2.By-productsofthesugarcaneindustry21
FernandoSantos,PauloEichler,GrazielleMachado,JaquelineDeMattia andGuilhermeDeSouza
Introduction21
Sugarandethanolproductionprocess22
Bagasseandstraw26 Molasses29 Vinasse30 Filtercake31 Yeasts33
Otherby-productsofthesugarcanesector34
Chemicalpotentialofsugarcaneresidues36 Futureperspectivesforsugarcanebiorefinery42 References45 Furtherreading47
3.Sugarcane:biorefinery,technology,andperspectives49
SauloPhilipeSebastiãoGuerra,MarceloScantamburloDenadai, AndréLuizMerthanSaad,EmanuelRangelSpadimand MarciusXavierRodriguesdaCosta
Introduction49
Sugarcanestrawbalesashcontent53
Watercontentinsugarcanestrawbales58
References64 Furtherreading64
4.Sugarcane:foodproduction,energy,andenvironment67
EvaristoE.deMirandaandMarceloF.Fonseca
Introduction67
Sugarcane:themainagriculturalproductofBrazil68
Sugarcane:foodandenergyproduction70
SugarcaneinSãoPauloState75 Sugarcaneandtheenvironment79 Conclusion85 References86 Furtherreading87
5.Sustainabilityofsugarcaneforenergypurposes89
CarlaSilva,RuiPacheco,DaniloArcentalesandFernandoSantos Introduction89
Flex-fuelvehicletechnologiesandwell-to-wheels97 Conclusions100 Acknowledgments100 References100
6.Energycanebreeding103
GeraldoVeríssimodeSouzaBarbosa,JoãoMessiasdosSantos, CarlosAssisDiniz,DaniloEduardoCursiandHermannPauloHoffmann Introduction103 Sugarcane104 Energycane108 References115
7.Energyfromsugarcane117
LuísAugustoBarbosaCortez,RicardoBaldassin,Jr.andEduardodeAlmeida
Sugarcane:mainBrazilianenergycrop118
Residuesenergyfromsugar/ethanolmills122
Mainconversionroutesforsugarcanebioenergy130
Energycane:anopportunitytoimproveagriculturalproductivity135 Thefuturemarketsofsugarcanebioenergy135
Finalcomments136
References137
Furtherreading139
8.Chemicalandenergypotentialofsugarcane141
SaritaCândidaRabelo,LíviaBeatrizBrenellidePaiva,ThaynaraCoradiniPin, LuisaFernandaRiosPinto,LauraPlazasTovarand PedroYoritomoSouzaNakasu
Introduction141
Energypotentialofsugarcane:technologyplatformsofenergyproduction basedonenergyform142
Chemicalpotentialofsugarcane148
Conclusion159
References159
9.Sugarcaneforrenewablechemistry165
SílvioVazJr.
Introduction165
Sugarcaneasarawmaterialforrenewablechemistry168 Perspectivesforsugarcanebioproducts170 Challengesinvolved175 Conclusion176 References177
10.Useofsugarcanevinassetobiogas,bioenergy,andbiofertilizer production179
AndersonCarlosMarafon,KarinaRibeiroSalomon, EduardoLucenaCavalcanteAmorimandFernandaSantanaPeiter
SugarcanecropandbioethanolproductioninBrazil179
Characterizationandchemicalcompositionofsugarcanevinasse180 Alternativesfortheuseofsugarcanevinasse182 PerspectivesofthevinassesugarcaneuseinBrazil191 References193
Furtherreading194
11.Productionofsecond-generationethanolfromsugarcane195
FernandoSantos,PauloEichler,JoséHumbertodeQueirozand FernandoGomes
Structuralorganizationoflignocellulosicbiomass197
Recalcitranceoflignocellulosicbiomass200
Productionofsecond-generationethanolfromsugarcane202
Pretreatments204
Typesofpretreatments206
Hydrolysis212
Fermentation217
Inclusionofsecond-generationethanolproductionannextostandarddistillery221 References223
Furtherreading227
12.Biopolymersofsugarcane229
ThalitaMendonçadeResendeandMarceloMoreiradaCosta
Introduction229
Sugarcane231
Biopolymer232
Sugarcanebagasse233
Cellulose236
Perspectivesandchallengesfortheproductionofbiopolymerfromsugarcane249
References251
Furtherreading254
13.Bioelectricityofsugarcane:acasestudyfromBraziland perspectives255
ZilmarJosédeSouza
Introduction256 Whatisbioelectricity?256
Theelectricmatrixandpowerinstalledbybioelectricity257
SãoPaulo:responsiblefor44%ofbioelectricityin2018261
Productivityinthegenerationofsugarcanebioelectricity263
Onepointofattention:thedecontractingofbioelectricityinthecomingyears269
Thepotentialofbioelectricityyettoenjoy272
Expansionofbiomassisfarfromindicatedinthe10-yearplaninBrazil272
ThepotentialofbioelectricityandtheRenovaBio273
Anagendaforbioelectricity275 References278 Furtherreading279
281
Listofcontributors
EduardoLucenaCavalcanteAmorim
TechnologyCenter,FederalUniversityofAlagoas,Maceió,Alagoas
DaniloArcentales
DomLuizInstitute(IDL),FacultyofSciences,UniversityofLisbon,Lisbon,Portugal; FacultyofEngineeringinEarthSciences,HigherPolytechnicSchoolofCoastline (ESPOL),Guayaquil,Ecuador
LuísAugustoBarbosaCortez
InterdisciplinaryCenterforEnergyPlanning-NIPE,UniversityofCampinas-UNICAMP, Campinas,Brazil
DaniloEduardoCursi
SugarcaneBreedingProgram,RIDESA/UFSCar,Araras,Brazil
MarceloMoreiradaCosta
FederalUniversityofViçosa,Viçosa,Brazil
MarciusXavierRodriguesdaCosta
SãoPauloStateScientificPolice,SãoPaulo,Brazil
EduardodeAlmeida
SchoolofChemicalEngineering-FEQ,UniversityofCampinas-UNICAMP,Campinas, Brazil
MariodeMatos
SeniorAssociate,Schaffer/Africaglobal
JaquelineDeMattia
RioGrandedoSulStateUniversity,PortoAlegre,Brazil
EvaristoE.deMiranda
BrazilianAgriculturalResearchCorporation(Embrapa),Brasilia,Brazil
MarceloScantamburloDenadai
BotucatuCollegeofTechnology,Botucatu,Brazil
LíviaBeatrizBrenellidePaiva
InterdisciplinaryCenterofEnergyPlanning,UniversityofCampinas-UNICAMP, Campinas,Brazil
JoséHumbertodeQueiroz
DepartmentofBiochemistryandMolecularBiology,FederalUniversityofViçosa,Viçosa, Brazil
ThalitaMendonçadeResende
AdfertAdditivesIndustryandTrade,Uberlandia,Brazil
GuilhermeDeSouza
StateSecretariatofEnvironmentandInfrastructure,PortoAlegre,Brazil
ZilmarJosédeSouza
FGV,RiodeJaneiro,Brazil,SugarcaneIndustryUnion(UNICA),SãoPaulo,Brazil
GeraldoVeríssimodeSouzaBarbosa
FederalUniversityofAlagoas,Maceió,Brazil;SugarcaneBreedingProgram,RIDESA/ UFAL,Campinas,Brazil
CarlosAssisDiniz
SugarcaneBreedingProgram,RIDESA/UFAL,Campinas,Brazil
JoãoMessiasdosSantos
FederalUniversityofAlagoas,Maceió,Brazil;SugarcaneBreedingProgram,RIDESA/ UFAL,Campinas,Brazil
PauloEichler
PontificalCatholicUniversityofRioGrandedoSul,PortoAlegre,Brazil
MarceloF.Fonseca
BrazilianAgriculturalResearchCorporation(Embrapa),Brasilia,Brazil
FernandoGomes
FederalRuralUniversityofRiodeJaneiro,RiodeJaneiro,Brazil
SauloPhilipeSebastiãoGuerra
PaulistaStateUniversityJuliodeMesquitaFilho,SãoPaulo,Brazil
HermannPauloHoffmann
FederalUniversityofSãoCarlos,SãoCarlos,Brazil;SugarcaneBreedingProgram, RIDESA/UFSCar,Araras,Brazil
RicardoBaldassinJr.
AgronomicInstitute – IAC,Campinas,Brazil
GrazielleMachado
PontificalCatholicUniversityofRioGrandedoSul,PortoAlegre,Brazil
AndersonCarlosMarafon
EmbrapaCoastalBoards,RioLargoResearchandDevelopmentUnit,RioLargo,Brazil
PedroYoritomoSouzaNakasu
FacultyofChemicalEngineering,UniversityofCampinas-UNICAMP,Campinas,Brazil
RuiPacheco
InstituteofBioengineeringandBiosciences,HigherTechnicalInstitute,Universityof Lisbon,Lisbon,Portugal
FernandaSantanaPeiter
SãoCarlosSchoolofEngineering,UniversityofSãoPaulo,SãoCarlos,Brazil
ThaynaraCoradiniPin
FacultyofChemicalEngineering,UniversityofCampinas-UNICAMP,Campinas,Brazil
LuisaFernandaRiosPinto
FacultyofChemicalEngineering,UniversityofCampinas-UNICAMP,Campinas,Brazil
SaritaCândidaRabelo CollegeofAgriculturalSciences,SãoPauloStateUniversity(UNESP/BotucatuCampus), Botucatu,Brazil
AndréLuizMerthanSaad PaulistaStateUniversityJuliodeMesquitaFilho,SãoPaulo,Brazil
KarinaRibeiroSalomon TechnologyCenter,FederalUniversityofAlagoas,Maceió,Brazil
FernandoSantos
RioGrandedoSulStateUniversity,PortoAlegre,Brazil
CarlaSilva DomLuizInstitute(IDL),FacultyofSciences,UniversityofLisbon,Lisbon,Portugal
EmanuelRangelSpadim PaulistaUniversity,SãoPaulo,Brazil
LauraPlazasTovar InstituteofEnvironmental,ChemicalandPharmaceuticalSciences,Departmentof ChemicalEngineering,FederalUniversityofSãoPaulo(UNIFESP/DiademaCampus), Diadema,Brazil
SílvioVazJr.
BrazilianAgriculturalResearchCorporation – NationalResearchCenterforAgroenergy (EmbrapaAgroenergy),Brasilia,Brazil
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Preface
Theconceptofsustainability,muchsoughtinrecentyears,islinkedto thepartialandgradualreplacementofexhaustiblesourcesbyrenewable energysources.Thissustainabilitypathfitstheconceptofbiorefinery, whichaimstoconvertbiomassintobiofuelsaswellasbioenergyandbioproductsofcommercialinterest,inordertofindasolutionthatcombines economicviabilitywithenvironmentallyfriendlyproduction.
Inthecontextofthemostcultivatedagroenergybiomassintheworld, sugarcaneisoneofthemostecologicalandsustainable,beingfundamental fortheeconomy.Inaddition,itisimportantforthereductionofcarbon dioxideemissions,qualityoflifeinurbancenters,andglobalimprovementoftheenvironment.Thoughitsoriginisunknown,manybelieve thatsugarcanewasfirstcultivatedinNewGuinea,whereitwasconsideredawildandornamentalplant.
Sugarcaneconsistsofthestalk formedbyseveralculmsandmadeup offibers(cellulose,hemicelluloses,andlignin),sugars(sucrose,fructose, andglucose),andleaves composedofgreenleavesanddriedleaves/ sheaths,alsocalledstraw.Withregardtosugarcanemasscomposition,the threemaincomponents(straw,bagasse,andjuice)arepracticallyinthe sameproportionsandtogetherrepresent43%oftheplantmasscontent, andtheremaining57%arerepresentedbywater.Inenergyterms,the sameproportionalityisverifiedamongthesugarcaneconstituents,giving about7400MJofenergycontent.
Strawandbagassearemostlyusedforanumberofagronomicbenefits, forexample,weedcontrol,moistureretention,animalfeed,andimprovingphysical,chemical,andbiologicalpropertiesofsoil.However,dueto thesignificantamountthatisgenerated,itscompositionand,consequently,thechemicalandenergeticpotentialofthevegetablefiber,itis possibletousepartofthesematerialsinamorenobleuse,bothchemicallyandenergetically,withoutanydamagetoagronomicbenefits throughprocessesinvolvingthedifferentbiorefineryplatforms chemical route,biochemicalroute,andthermochemicalroute.
Thebiorefineryconceptisgainingmoreprominencewithgreat investmentpotentialandhasbeenidentifiedasoneofthemostpromising routesforthecreationofnewindustries.Thisvisionoftechnological developmentwillhavegreatrelevanceandimportanceregardingthe
evolutionoftheworldagriculturalandindustrialsectors,directlyreflectingonthegenerationofjobsandincomeindifferentsegmentsofsociety. Thinkingaboutthisoptimisticscenario,whichinvolvestheintegral andsustainableuseofsugarcanethroughthedifferentbiorefineryplatforms,wedecidedtopublishthebook SugarcaneBiorefinery, Technology, andPerspectives.Thebookisdividedinto13chaptersandispreparedby someoftheleadingauthoritiesoneachofthetopicsaddressed.Thework isanimportantcontributiontothedisseminationofknowledgeandthe consolidationofsugarcanebiorefineryintheworld.Thefutureofbiorefineryhasbegun!
Goodreading!
FernandoSantos
CHAPTER1
Sugarcaneworldscenario
MariodeMatos,FernandoSantosandPauloEichler
Contents
Introduction1
Historicalitineraryofsugarcane3
Historyofthemainproductsofsugarcane7
Worldscenarioofsugarcaneanditsmainproducts8
Approximatevaluesforthe2016/17harvest11
Approximatevaluesforthe2017/18harvest12
ThesugarandethanolsectorsinAfrica12
Thesugar,ethanol,andenergysectorsinBrazil14
Socioeconomicandenvironmentalbenefitsofusingethanolfromsugarcane16
Perspectives17
References19
Introduction
Sugarcane,nowknownworldwideforitshighproductivity,participation inhightechnologyprocesses,high-qualityrawmaterial,and,especially forthepotentialofsugarandethanolproduction,hasundergoneseveral modificationsthroughouthistory.Itisasemiperennialplantofthegrass family,originatingfromhottotropicaltemperateregionsofAsia,especiallyIndia.Itsmaincharacteristicistheproductionofsugars(mainly sucrose,glucose,andfructose),concentratingonitsculm.Theaerialpart oftheplantconsistsofstalk,greenleaves,anddryleaves.Theupperpart oftheplanthasahigherhumidityandthelowerparthasalowerhumidity,withdry(ordead)leaves(Fig.1.1).ThesugarcanepresentsaC4photosyntheticcycle,withleavesintheformofspears,sproutinginstalks, andabundanttilleringintheinitialphaseofdevelopment(Santosetal., 2013).Theplanthasapproximately57%ofwaterinitsmasscomposition, theremainderbeingdividedbetweenstraw,bagasse,andsugar.
Thisculturehasbeenshown,throughouthistory,asanimportant product,widelymarketed,andofgreatinterestduringseveralperiods
Figure1.1 Sugarcaneplantillustration. AlexanderAG(1985)Theenergycanealternative.Amsterdam:ElsevierSciencePublishersB.V.,509pp.
ofhistory.Sincesugarcanewasusedforsugarproductionitwas responsibleforthecreationofnewcommercialroutesintheold Mediterraneanuntilitsestablishm entintheAmericas,whenitisused forethanolproduction.
Inthischapter,weshowthehistoryofsugarcane,fromitsprobable origininSoutheastAsiatothepresentdaywheresugarcaneispresenton allcontinents;beingoneofthemostimportantcropsintheworld,generatinghundredsofthousandsofdirectandindirectjobs.Duetotheimportanceofitsmainproducts(sugar,ethanol,andenergy),sugarcanehas becomeacrucialsourceofincomeanddevelopmentforseveraltropical countrieslikeBrazil.Thusitisimportanttoshowthedevelopmentof thesecountrieswiththeuseofsugarcane,sothatispossibletoknowhow impactingitisforhumanity.
Historicalitineraryofsugarcane
Forafewyears,IndiaandPapuaNewGuineadisputedtheoriginofthis plantasanativeofthesecountries.Thefactthatsomeofthespontaneous speciesof Saccharumspontaneum and Saccharumrobostun stillbeingfoundin PapuaNewGuineaendedupgivingreasonforchoosingthiscountrythat isnowofficiallyconsideredtheirhomeland.Thedomesticationofthis specieswouldgive Saccharumbarberi widespreadinIndiaand Saccharum sinensis implantedinChinaaftermanyyears.ThusIndianswouldhave beenthefirsttoextractthesugarcanejuicetoproducerawsugararound 500BCE.Atthattime,EmperorDarius,uponarrivinginIndia,observed thattherewere “plantsthatproducedhoneywithouttheneedofbees” (Santosetal.,2018).
Thename Saccharum attributedtosugarcanehasitsoriginintheword ofTranskrit,KarkaraofIndiathatwaslatercalledSakkarorSukkarby theArabsafterhavingintroducedsugarcanefromIndiatotheMiddle EastthroughPersia.
Afewcenturieslater,afterbeingbroughtfromPersiatoEuropeby AlexandertheGreat,theRomanswouldcallitmuchlater Saccharum namewithwhichitwouldbeadoptedandlaterattributedbyLinnaeusin 1753foritsbotanicalclassificationthatlastsuntilourdays.
However,sugarcanehasbeenwidelycultivated,inadditiontoEgypt, inSpain(wherethereisstilltheoldestknownsugarcanemillinthe world)whichusesstonegrinders,andalsointroducedandcultivatedin otherpartsoftheMediterranean,suchasVenice,fromwhichlaterto transitinthe15thand6thcenturiesfortheMadeiraIslandsandthe CanaryIslands.Notoriously,fromtheCanaryIslandsitwasintroducedin theNewWorldtoHispaniolaIsland(DominicanRepublic)inCE1493 andtoBrazilinCE1532.
Inthemid-14thcentury,therearerecordsthattheproductionof sugarcaneintheMediterraneanregion(Crete,Greece,NorthAfrica, andCyprus)wasrelatedtotheuseofslavelabor.Liketheotheragriculturalproductivemeans,theeconomyoftheregionwasbased ontheslaveworkasproductiveforce.Atthistime,theregions aroundtheMediterraneanSeahadlargetradesandwereconsidered developedforthetime,influencingEuropeancountrieslikePortugal andItaly.Later,thesemethodsofproductionandmanagementof sugarcaneweretransferredtoBrazilinthecolonialperiod( Schwartz, 1988 ).
AfterthetakeoverofConstantinople,therewasamonopolyonthe productionandsaleofsugar.Toendthemonopoly,thePortuguese crowndecides,asanalternative,tostimulatetheproductionofsugarcane initscoloniesoftheAmericancontinent.Favorabletropicalclimate,fertilesoil,andabundanceofwaterpointedtoBrazilasalandoffavorable, evenideal,conditionsforthecultivationof Saccharumofficinarum,which originallycamefromtheSouthPacificandIndia(LeCouterand Burreson,2006).Brazilwouldthenaffirmatthebeginningastheplaceof preferenceforexcellenceofthisculturethatquicklyexpandedand becamethemainexportwealthofthe,then,PortugueseEmpire,constitutingamonopolythatwouldonlybecompetedwiththeDutchinthe 17thcenturyafteritsintroductionintheCaribbean. Fig.1.2 illustratesthe passageofsugarculturearoundtheworld,startingfromitsoriginsinNew Guinea,throughIndia,theMediterraneanuntilitsarrivalinBrazil, aroundCE1500.
InadditiontothestrongtradecompetitionintheMediterranean region,Portugalsawtheneedtoeffectivelyoccupythecoloniesofthe Americas,whichnecessarilyrequiredthedevelopmentofproductive activitiestojustifytheinvestmentsofthePortuguesecrown.Inthisway, sugarcaneproduction,asinmanyothercountries,hasbeenespecially rootedinthehistoryofBrazilianterritoryandinitseconomysincethe 16thcentury.SugarcanewasavaluablePortuguesesettlementthat
Figure1.2 Thepathofsugarcaneculture:fromitsbeginningtoitsarrivalin America.
enabledthemercantilistcolonizingprojectofPortugal.Unfortunately,in additiontothedevastationofforests,thecolonialsugareconomyalso reliedontheproductionmodeladoptedbytheEuropeansinthenew world.Thismodelwasbasedonthetripodlandowner,thatis,thelandscapesdominatedbysugarcaneplantationswerebasedonlargelandusage, monoculture,andslavelabor(Prado,2006).Inthisway,howevergood, thetradeinvolvedinsugarcaneanditsproductsbroughtsocialimpactsin Brazilthatarestillfelttoday.
InBrazil,sugarproductionwasestablishedbetweenCE1530and 1540,withtheformationofsmallmills,ofthe “trapiche ” type,moved byoxenandhorsesorhydraulicforce(Fig.1.3).Initially,astherewas notsufficientslavelabor,indigenousworkerswereused,whowerethe nativepopulation.Asthemillsgrew,therewasaneedtoincreasethe laborforce,withthetransitiontoslavelabor.Inthisway,thousandsof AfricansweretakentoBraziltoworkinthemills.Thefirstmerchants,
Figure1.3 HydropoweredmilldescribedbyJeanBaptisteonhisvoyageinIndia between1693and1706. Labat,J.B., 1742.Nouveauvoyageauxislesdel’Amerique. Paris.
membersofFernandodeNoronha’sgroup,duringtripsandstopson MadeiraIsland,Azores,andSãoTomé,negotiatedthefirstsugarcane plantcultivatedinBrazil.InordertoimplantthesugarcultureinBrazil, thelandwasdividedintolotsanddonatedtonobles,accordingtothe wishesofthePortuguesecrown.In1516thePortuguesemonarchD. ManuelI,the Venturoso,decreedthateveryonefromPortugaltoBrazil shouldbringinstructionandequipmentforlarge-scalesugarcaneproduction.Tothisend,largeamountsofmoneyweretradedonloansfrom PortugalandHollandtothelanddonorswhoweretoproducethecane (Novinskyetal.,2016 ).
CanegrowingsuccessivelypassedfromtheSpanishIslandtoCubain 1760assoonasthisislandisoccupiedbyEnglandwhereitalsoknowsa greatexpansionfavoredbythedemandofthesugaroftheAmericasin Europe.WiththerevolutioninHaitiin1795,afewyearslater,and destructionofcaneplantationsinSpanishterritories,theFrenchinstalled thecultureinLouisianainthelate17thcentury,thusinitiatingthe Americansugarindustry.
ThegrowthofsugarcanecultureintheNewWorldandinothercontinentshasalsoseendifferentadvancesintheareaofbreedingafterthe creationofthenoblevarietyPOJ2878inIndonesia,whichformany yearshasbeenthegeneticreferenceinthehybridizationcrossesofmany breedersfromdifferentresearchcentersandvarietalselectionfromseveral countries.Alsogoingthroughthecreationofmanyvarietiesofthe CoimbatoreResearchInstituteinIndiain1912.Theintroductionofnew varietiesfromtheCoimbatoreResearchInstitutealsocontributetothe growthofthesugarindustryworldwidenamelybyusingfuzzfrom CoimbatoretoselectedthewellknownNCovarietiesfromMount EdgecombeinSouthAfrica.
Themaincontributiontotheenormoussuccessofthegrowthand expansionofthisculturegoesmainlytothegeneticvalorizationand introductionofirrigationtechniques,whereinformationaboutthefirst Java productionsin1840from2000kgofcaneperhectareisincreasedto 10tonsin1910and20tonsin1940.
Also,intheearly20thcentury,withtheincreasedproductionofinternalcombustionvehicles,fuelethanolbegantobecomeextremelyinteresting.Asaresult,Brazil,whichalreadyhadlargesugarcaneproduction, createdincentivesfortheproductionofethanolfromthecrop,which helpedsolidifysugarcanecultivation.
Historyofthemainproductsofsugarcane
Bothsugarandcaneculturehaveaverysimilarhistory.Sugarcaneextractiontakesplaceapproximately8000BCEinSoutheastAsia. Approximately100 500BCEinIndia,amanufacturingprocessisdiscoveredthatdrivestheuseandcommercializationofsugar:thetransformationofsugarcanejuiceintosugarcrystals.Thusitispossibleto commercializetheproductovergreatdistances,becauseitimprovesits conservationandreducesthevolumeoftransportandalsothewayof transport.Withtheprogressofcommercialization,Chinaissoonalso interestedinthepracticeofsugarproduction,wherereports(betweenCE 600and700)describeChinesevisitstoIndiatolearntheprocessesof sugarproduction.Bythe7thcentury,itwasreportedthatoneoftheearliestdocumentedplantationsofsugarcaneinChina,broughtbythehelp ofBuddhistmonksinspecialmissionsofChineseemperors(Sen,2003).
ForsometimeintheMiddleEast,theuseofcanesugarformedicinal purposes(aroundthe1stcentury)wasalsoknown,betweenGreeksand Romans.WithincreasingconsumptionofsugarbyEuropeancountries viaMediterraneanroutes,theirpriceandimportanceincreased;leading countriessuchasCyprus,Crete,Zanzibar,andGreecetoalsohavesugarcaneproductiontoexportsugar,aroundthe10thcentury.Atthetimeof theCrusades,therewerealsoreportsfromthe “HolyLand” ofcaravans carryingwhatwascalled “sweetsalt.”
InBrazil,sugarwasthefirstproducttobeexportedinlargequantities. ItsgreatdemandbeginsinthecolonialperiodinCE1520,havinggreat importanceforthedevelopmentofthecountry.Duringthedecadesof 1530 40,theproductionofsugarwascharacterizedbysmallsugarmills (Fig.1.3).Atthebeginningofthefirstmills,themainproductwaswhat wenowcallbrownsugar,aless-refinedsugarthatwasthemainproduct ofsugarcaneatthetime.DespitebeingthelargestBrazilianeconomyin colonialtimes,thisindustryisnotexhaustedduringthisperiod,andits effectscanbeseenthroughoutthe17th,18th,19th,and20thcenturies, enteringthetropicalterritoryofthecontinentsofAmericaandAfrica.In themid-19thcentury,duetotheincreaseofsugarbeetintheinternationalmarket,thesugarcanecropsufferedafinancialcrisis.Inadditionto competition,sugarcanefarmingwasextremelydependentonslavelabor and,duetotheextinctionofAfricantrafficandtheemergenceofemancipationistlaws,attheendofthe19thcentury,themaincolonialcrops wereincrisis. Table1.1 showstheoccupationofslavesattheendofthe
Table1.1 OccupationofslavesinBrazilbetween1870and1887.
OccupationFrequencyPercentual
Craftsman223.9
Domestic264.7 Carriagedriver223.9
Nurse40.8 Foreman20.4
Worker81.4 Herdsman40.8
Seaworker101.8 Agriculture45982.3 Total557100
Source:AdaptedfromFilho,W.F., 2006.CrossroadsofFreedom(inPortuguese: EncruzilhadasdaLiberdade).UnicampPublishing,SãoPaulo,Brazil.
19thcenturyinBrazil.Itisnotedthatmorethan80%oftheslaveshad agricultureasoccupation,mainlytheplantationsofsugarcane.
Thefermentationofsugarforalcoholproductiondatesbackmorethan 9000years,bytheChinese,whousedthetechniquetomakealcoholic beverages.Thetechniqueoffermentationwaspassedovertheyears,being usedinseveraldrinksinhistoryasbeer,wine,and “sake.” Bythe9thcentury, anArabchemist,Al-Kindi,describedthedistillationofwine.From there,thedistillationisusedinseveralotherdrinks,withreportsfromthe 12thcenturyuntilthe14thcentury.Onlyinthelate18thcentury,a German-Russianchemist,JohannTobias,obtainedpureethanolfrom chemicalsynthesis.Inthefollowingyears,withadvancesinthechemical area,itbecamepossibletousealcoholonalargerscale,wherein1840in theUnitedStates,ethanolwasusedinlanterns.Then,intheearly1990s, ethanolwasusedinfuel-injectedengines,primarilyinearlyFordmodels suchastheFordModelT,whichcouldusebothgasolineandethanol. ThenBrazilwouldfollowthesameUSmodel,usingcarswithethanol combustionengines,wherethefuelwasproducedfromsugarcane. Alcoholdevelopmentandincentiveprograms,suchasthepro-alcohol programinBrazil,madepossiblethegreatgrowthinsugarcanecultivation,aswellasanincreaseinethanolproduction,makingthecountryone ofthelargestproducersofethanoltodate(Santosetal.,2018).
Worldscenarioofsugarcaneanditsmainproducts
Fromahistoricalappreciationofthepastofculture,wenowturntoa comparativeexerciseofworldsugarcaneproductionsinthefourth
Table1.2 Sugarcaneproduction,inthousandsoftonsofsugarcane(TS),harvested area,inhectares(Ha),andsugarcaneproductivity,intonsperhectare(TH),between 1961and2014forthefourlargestproducersintheworld. Year1961197420002014
(TS)Tonsofsugarcane( 3 103)
Brazil59,37795,6243,27,7057,36,109 India1,10,0011,40,8052,99,3253,52,142 China12,41625,57869,2991,26,153 Thailand200013,33954,0521,03,697 World4,47,9776,48,51612,558,8818,842,46 (Ha)Hectaresharvested
Brazil13,666,4020,566,9148,459,90104,196,78 India24,13,00027,52,10042,19,70050,12,000 China2,92,6005,96,80011,885,8917,683,88 Thailand63,0002,58,6098,93,35313,53,025 World89,118,7911,932,31319,397,90227,124,723
(TH)Tonsofsugarcaneperhectares
Brazil43.446.567.670.6 India45.651.170.970.2 China42.442.858.358.3
Thailand31.751.660.576.6
Source:AdaptedfromFAOSTAT,2019.FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations. FAOSTATStatisticsDatabase.FAO,Rome.
countriesresponsiblefor70%oftheworld’sproductions(Brazil,India, China,andThailand),whereBrazilaccountsforabout30%ofproduction (Table1.2 and Fig.1.4).Thesedatahavesimplyinformative,economical, andquantitativevalue,sincedifferentecologicalsystemsofproduction, cropwaterregimes,extensivism(LISA),intensivism(HISA),etc.,are compared.In Fig.1.5,itispossibletoobservetheworldproductionof sugarcanefromthe1960suntillastrecorded.Thesteadyincreaseinproductionisevident,assugarcaneproductsareincreasinglyinsertedintothe worldeconomy(Table1.3).
Thesefiguresindicatea21.3%globalconsumptionincreaseforecastin theindicateddecade(Fig.1.3).Ifweconsiderthat80%ofsugarisproduced fromsugarcane,wecansaythatifthisproportionremainslinear,therewill beaverifiedsurplusof36milliontonsofsugar.Thiscorrespondsto316 milliontonsofsugarcane,whichatanaverageof9tonsofsugarcaneper tonofsugarandanaverageproductionyieldof70t/haofsugarcane,
Figure1.4 Evolutionofworldproductionforthefourmajorsugarcane-producing countries,inthousandsoftonsofsugarcane,from1961to2014. Adaptedfrom FAOSTAT, 2019.FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations.FAOSTAT StatisticsDatabase.FAO,Rome.
Figure1.5 Worldsugarcaneproductionthroughtime. AdaptedfromFAOSTAT,2019. FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations.FAOSTATStatisticsDatabase. FAO,Rome.
willrepresentanincreaseof4.5millionhectaresaboveofthecurrentsugarcaneareainBrazil.Thisprovidesforaplantationof450,000haperyearto beplantedbetween2015and2025.With667,000haplantedbetween 2013/15and2017accordingtothesamestatistics,wewillhave3.5million hectarestobeplantedbetween2017and2025,withBrazilalready accountingformorethanathirdofworldsugarproduction.
Table1.3 Estimatesofsugarproductionincreases(inmillion tons)from2015to2025.
YearThousandtons%Increase 2015169 20161732.4 20171751.2 20181781.7 20191822.2 20201862.2 20211902.2 20221942.1 20231971.5 20242012.0 20252052.0
Source:AdaptedfromOECD/FAO, 2018.OECD-FAOAgriculturalOutlook 2018 2027.OECDPublishingParis/FAO,Rome.
Approximatevaluesforthe2016/17harvest
ThevolumeofthecropinBrazil(2016/17)wassignificantlylowerthan inthepreviousyear,althoughthepercentageofsugarcanedestinedfor sugarproductionwashigherinthisharvest 46.4%in2016/17compared to40%ofthepreviousharvest.
InIndia,sugarproductionreached12.9milliontonnesattheendof January2017,10%belowthepreviousharvest.
SugarproductioninChinainthe2016/17harvestwasestimatedtobe about9.9milliontonnes,or13.8%aboveproductionintheprevious year.
InThailand,the2016/17cropbegan11dayslaterthantheprevious year.OfficialThaistatisticsrevealedonFebruary8,2017,that46.82 milliontonneshadalreadybeenproduced,afiguresignificantlylowerthanthe 2015/16cropwhichatthesametimeannouncedaproductionof5.43million tonnes.Itisbelievedthatthisfallinproductionwasmainlyduetotheworst droughtinrecentyears,asseeninthepreviousyear.
Insub-SahelianAfrica,theestimationforthisharvestwas7.58million tons,representinganincreaseof223,000tonsdueinparticular:
• thepositiveprogressnotedinthisharvestintheGrandExpansionPlan ofEthiopiaand
• tothegradualimprovementofproductionverifiedinSouthernAfrica, wheretheclimatewasmorestableafter2yearsofdrought.
