Contributors
D.Abbott CityCollegeofNewYork,New York,NY,UnitedStates;Lamont-Doherty EarthObservatoryofColumbiaUniversity, Palisades,NY,UnitedStates
P.Acquafredda UniversitàdegliStudidiBari, Bari,Italy
A.Agangi CurtinUniversity,Bentley,WA, Australia
J.S.Armstrong-Altrin UniversidadNacional AutónomadeMéxico,MéxicoD.F.,México
S.Balakrishnan PondicherryUniversity, Pondicherry,India
R.Baldacconi Freelancer,Taranto,Italy
A.Basu IndianaUniversity,Bloomington,IN, UnitedStates
V.C.Bennett TheAustralianNational University,Canberra,ACT,Australia
P.K.Bose JadavpurUniversity,Kolkata,India
D.Breger Lamont-DohertyEarthObservatory ofColumbiaUniversity,Palisades,NY,United States;MicrographicArts,SaratogaSprings, NY,UnitedStates
N.Chakraborty JadavpurUniversity,Kolkata, India
P.P.Chakraborty UniversityofDelhi,New Delhi,India
M.A.Chan UniversityofUtah,SaltLakeCity, UT,UnitedStates
J.Chiarenzelli St.LawrenceUniversity, Canton,NY,UnitedStates
A.R.Chivas UniversityofWollongong, Wollongong,NSW,Australia
G.daCosta UniversityofJohannesburg, AucklandPark,SouthAfrica
K.Das HiroshimaUniversity,HigashiHiroshima,Japan
P.Dasgupta DurgapurGovernmentCollege, Durgapur,India
S.De PresidencyUniversity,Kolkata,India
W.deLorraine St.LawrenceZincCompany, Gouverneur,NY,UnitedStates
A.Dey JadavpurUniversity,Kolkata,India
P.G.Eriksson UniversityofPretoria,Pretoria, SouthAfrica
C.L.Fergusson UniversityofWollongong, Wollongong,NSW,Australia
V.Festa UniversitàdegliStudidiBari,Bari, Italy
C.R.L.Friend Glendale,Oxon,UnitedKingdom
K.Galinskaya BrooklynCollege,NewYork, NY,UnitedStates
S.Ghosh PresidencyUniversity,Kolkata, India
V.Gusiakov TsunamiLaboratory,ICMMGSD RAS,Novosibirsk,Russia
Y.Han ChinaUniversityofGeosciences, Beijing,China
Z.Han ShandongUniversityofScienceand Technology,Qingdao,China
R.A.Henderson JamesCookUniversity, Townsville,QLD,Australia
A.Hofmann UniversityofJohannesburg, AucklandPark,SouthAfrica
K.Horie NationalInstituteforPolarResearch, Tokyo,Japan
M.Ibanez-Mejia MassachusettsInstituteof Technology,Cambridge,MA,UnitedStates; UniversityofRochester,Rochester,NY,United States
J.Jong JXNipponOilandGasExploration (DeepwaterSabah)Limited,KualaLumpur, Malaysia
F.L.Kessler GoldbachGeoconsultantsO&G, Glattbach,Aschaffenburg,Germany
D.Kratzmann SantaRosaJuniorCollege, Petaluma,CA,UnitedStates
S.Lisco UniversitàdegliStudidiBari,Bari,Italy
D.G.F.Long LaurentianUniversity,Sudbury, ON,Canada
M.Lupulescu NewYorkStateMuseum, Albany,NY,UnitedStates
A.Mandal JadavpurUniversity,Kolkata,India
G.Mastronuzzi UniversitàdegliStudidiBari, Bari,Italy
R.Mazumder CurtinUniversity,Sarawak, Malaysia
W.Mejiama OsakaCityUniversity,Osaka, Japan
M.Moretti UniversitàdegliStudidiBari,Bari, Italy
V.Moretti RegionePuglia ServizioEcologia UfficioProgrammazione,PoliticheEnergetiche, Bari,Italy
S.Mukherjee JadavpurUniversity,Kolkata, India
J.Mukhopadhyay PresidencyUniversity, Kolkata,India;UniversityofJohannesburg, AucklandPark,SouthAfrica
R.Nagarajan CurtinUniversity,Miri, Sarawak,Malaysia
R.Nagendra AnnaUniversity,Chennai,India
A.P.Nutman UniversityofWollongong,Wollongong,NSW,Australia;ChineseAcademyof GeologicalSciences,Beijing,China
R.Offler UniversityofNewcastle,Callaghan, NSW,Australia
M.Pisarska-Jamro _ zy GeologicalInstitute, AdamMickiewiczUniversity,Poznan,Poland
G.Rambolamanana UniversityofAntananarivo, Antananarivo,Madagascar
C.A.Rosiere FederalUniversityofMinas Gerais,BeloHorizonte,Brazil
S.Saha UniversityofDelhi,NewDelhi,India
S.Sanyal JadavpurUniversity,Kolkata,India
S.Sarkar JadavpurUniversity,Kolkata,India
T.Sato INPEXCorporation,Tokyo,Japan
R.Scotti Freelancer,Taranto,Italy
B.Selleck ColgateUniversity,Hamilton,NY, UnitedStates
P.Sengupta JadavpurUniversity,Kolkata, India
G.Shanmugam TheUniversityofTexasat Arlington,Arlington,TX,UnitedStates
H.A.Tawfik TantaUniversity,Tanta,Egypt
M.Tropeano UniversitàdegliStudidiBari, Bari,Italy
Y.Tsutsumi NationalScienceMuseum, Tsukuba,Japan
A.J.(Tom)VanLoon GeocomConsultants, Benitachell,Spain
G.M.Young UniversityofWesternOntario, London,ON,Canada
SedimentProvenance:Influence onCompositionalChangeFrom SourcetoSink
R.Mazumder
CurtinUniversity,Sarawak,Malaysia
OUTLINE
Acknowledgment4References4
Theterm “ provenance ” originatesfromtheLatinword “provenire,” meaningtooriginate. Althoughcommonlyusedtoindicatesourceorparentrockfromwhichsedimentswere generated,theterm “ provenance ” actuallyencompasses all factorsrelatedtosediment production,with “specificreferencetothecompositionoftheparentrocksaswellasthe physiographyandclimateofthesourcearea” (WeltjeandEynatten,2004).Sedimentary provenancedataplayacriticalroleinassessingpalaeogeographicreconstructions,in constraininglateraldisplacementsinorogens,incharacterizingcrustthatisnolonger exposed,inmappingdepositionalsystems,insubsurfacecorrelation,andinpredicting reservoirquality(Haughtonetal.,1991;WeltjeandEynatten,2004;Garzantietal.,2014; Bhattacharyaetal.,2016).
Thesourcetosink(S2S)isanapproachthatconnectsareasofsedimentproductionwith sitesoftransferandlocationsofstoragethroughthequanti ficationofearthprocessesina budgetarymanner(Walshetal.,2016;Bhattacharyaetal.,2016).Understandably,sediment transport,climate,life,environment,diagenesis/lithi fication,andcontemporaneoustectonismalsohavesignificantin fluencesonsedimentcomposition/geochemistryalongthe wayfromsourcetosink.Therecentspecialissueof EarthScienceReviews (Walshetal., 2016)presentsseveralinterestingrecenttoMioceneS2Ssedimentprovenancestudieson
differentcontinents.OneofthecriticalareasthatdeservescloserscrutinybytheS2Scommunityislinkingthepresentandthepast(Walshetal.,2016).Aspointedoutby Walshetal. (2016), “therecontinuestobetoomuchcommunitydisconnectamong ‘modern’ (process), Quaternaryanddeep-timeresearchers.” Itmustbenotedthatresearchershaveundertaken provenanceanalysisofmucholder(asoldasearlyArchean)sedimentarydepositsofthemajorcratonicblocksoftheworld,includingthoseofAntarcticaandGreenland(see Eriksson etal.,2004 andreferencestherein).Inspiteofsignificanttechnologicaldevelopmentand consequentscientificadvancementinlast20years,thereisalmostnomemoir/specialpublication/bookthattreatssedimentaryrocksfromanS2Sperspective.Thisbookprovidesa criticalandcomprehensiveoverviewaswellasnewdata-basedsedimentprovenance analysesfromPrecambriantorecentfromseveralcontinentsandwill fillinthegapinthe knowledgebase.
Thecontentofthebookhasbeendividedinto19chapters.The first(Basu)isacritical appraisaloftheconceptualevolutionandtheenhancedscopeofinquiriesintotheprovenanceofsiliciclasticsediments.VanLoonetal.havetracedthesourceofbio/siliciclastic beachsandsoftheApulianCoastofItaly.Theiranalysesrevealawave-erodedlithified sandsourceforthebeachsandsandcontributionfromawidevarietyoforganisms.Van LoonandPisarska-Jamro _ zyhaveundertakenadetailedheavymineralstudyofPleistocene sandurs,ice-marginalvalleyandanearbyriverinPoland,andhaveshownthatheavy mineralanalysescansigni ficantlycontributetothereconstructionofthepathwayofsedimentaryparticlesandofthechangesintheheavy-mineralspectrafromsourcetosink.The hydraulicconditionsprevailingduringsedimenttransportationhavetheprimecontrolon sedimentdispersalpatterns,andthushaveasignificantinfluenceonthechangesinsediment compositionduringthejourneyfromsourcetosink.Dasguptahascriticallyreviewedthe problematicaspectsofpaleohydraulicparameterreconstructionsfromprimarysedimentary structuresandbelievesthatquantitativemethodologyforthepreciseestimationofpaleohydraulicparametersfromdepositionalsedimentarystructures “isyettobedevelopedthrough systematiclaboratoryand fieldexperimentsthatcanberepeatedandempiricallyverified.”
SedimentologicalanalysisoftheLowerCretaceoussiliciclasticrocks(sandstones)ofthe Pondicherryembryonicriftbasin,IndiabySarkaretal.clearlyrevealscratonicsourcegaining relativematuritytowardthedistaldepositionalsetting.Variabledegreesofmixingoffelsic andmaficcomponentsandsource-shiftingasaconsequenceofriftinghavebeenestablished bytheseauthors.Nagarajanetal.haveundertakenpetrographicandgeochemicalanalyses ofNeogeneSibutiandLambirformations,eastMalaysia(Borneo).Theirresearchindicates derivationofsedimentsfromrecycledfelsicprovenanceinapredominantlycontinentalto passivemarginsettingassociatedwithriftingoftheproto-SouthChinaSeaduringtheearly tomiddleMiocene.Theoriginof “V”-shapedelongateddunecomplexesofMadagascar (Chevroncomplexes)isdisputed;Abbottetal.havearguedagainsttheAeolianoriginof thesedunecomplexes.Theirsedimentological(grain-size),micropaleontological,and geochronologicaldatafromthreedunecomplexesofMadagascarindicatethesedune complexesarethedepositionalproductofaHolocenemegatsunamipossiblyrelatedtoa Holocenelandslide,orbolideimpact(Abbottetal.).ManyfundamentalproblemsofcontouriteresearchhavebeenpointedoutbyShanmugaminhisdetailedandcriticalreview.The contouritedomain,accordingtoShanmugam,is “stillinastateof fluxafternearly60years ofresearch ” becauseofthosefundamentalproblems. 1.SEDIMENTPROVENANCE:INFLUENCEONCOMPOSITIONALCHANGEFROMSOURCETOSINK
Continentalsequencesgenerallyrecordastrongin fl uenceofsedimentsourceondepositionalfaciesandprovideexcellentopportunitiesforS2Sanalyses.SatoandChanhaveundertakenadetailedsedimentologicalanaly sisoftheEoceneDuchesneRiverformationof theUintaBasin,Utah,USA,andhavedemonstratedhowdifferentsourceinputscontrol sedimentaryfaciesdevelopmentandsandstonepetrophysicalpropertiesinthesink.Their studyrevealstheimportanceofsedimentp rovenanceanalysisforexplorationof fl uvial sandstonereservoirs.VanLoonetal.haveexaminedaseriesoflensesoflimestonebreccia fromtheLateCambrian(Furongian)ChaomidianFormationinShandongProvince,China andinterpretedtheseasaconsequenceoffra gmentationfollowedbyslidingofabreccia layerfromtheparentlayer(thesource)toitsd epositionalsite(thesink).Longhasexamined chertsofUpperJurassictoLowerCretaceousTa ntalusFormation,insouth-centralYukon, Canada.Hisstudyrevealsthatalargeslabof CacheCreekwasobductedoverstrataofthe Yukon Tananaterrane,andthisnowerodedslabwasthesourceofchertintheTantalus piggybackbasins.
LateNeoproterozoictoearlyMesozoicsed imentarysuccessionoftheTasmanidesof easternAustraliadevelopedinanactiveplate marginsetting.Multidisciplinaryresearch undertakenbyFergussonrevelsprovenanc eswitchingbetweenthedevelopmentsof igneous-dominateddetritusrelatedtoadjoin ingmagmaticarcs(e.g.,theMacquarieArc), andinteractionswithGondwana-derivedclastics.Chiarenzelliutilizeddetritalzirconsin anupperamphibolitefaciesterraintodocumentsedimentprovenanceandbasinevolution, andtoprovideinitialtemporalconstraints onsedimentation.Dasetal.havepresented detritalrecordsofsedimentprovenanceand itsshiftintheMesoproterozoicSinghora Group,centralIndia.Senguptaetal.inferredsedimentaryprovenance,timingofsedimentation,andmetamorphismfromasuiteofmetapelitesfromtheChotanagpurGraniteGneiss Complex,easternIndia,anddiscussedtheirimplicationsforProterozoictectonicsinthe east-centralpartoftheIndianshield. Mukhopadhayaetal.haveundertakenSEM CLfabricanalysisofquartzframeworkpopulatio nfromtheMesoarcheanKeonjharQuartzite fromSinghbhumCraton,easternIndia.These authorshavediscussedimplicationsofprovenanceanalysisfortheuppercontinentalcrustalevolution.CostaandHofmannhave undertakenprovenanceanalysisofdetrital pyriteintheMesoarchaeanWitwatersrand BasinofSouthAfrica,theworld’slargestgolddeposit.Accordingtotheseauthors,detrital pyriteismainlyderivedfromsedimentaryso urcesandsyn-sedimentaryprecipitates. Younghasdiscussedtheiceagesinearthhistory, “puzzling” paleolatitudes,andregional provenanceoftheicesheets.AccordingtoYoung, “theevolutionofmetazoans,climaxing withthe ‘ Cambrianexplosion, ’ mayhavebeenacceleratedbyrapidandradicalenvironmentalchangesassociatedwithglaciations. ” Theworld ’ soldestsedimentarystructures arepreservedindolomiticcarbonates,banded ironformations,volcaniclasticsedimentary rocks,andveryraresandstonesandconglomeratesinthe3.7 3.8billionyearsoldIsua supracrustalbeltinNorthAtlanticcraton(Gr eenland).TheholisticappraisaloftheIsua supracrustalsbyNutmanetal.indicatestheyformed overa100-million-yearperiodin supra-subductionzonesettings
Istronglybelievethatastate-of-theartexpositionofsedimentprovenanceanalyseswill helptoidentifykeyissuesandgapsintheexistingknowledgebaseandinitiatenewresearch tounderstandsourcerockcharacteristics,paleoweathering,paleoclimate,tectonics,and ultimately,theevolutionofcontinentalcrust.
Acknowledgment
Iamgratefultoallcontributors,reviewers,andcolleaguesatElsevier,especiallyTashaFrankandMarisaLaFleur, whosupportedmeinvariousways.IgratefullyacknowledgeinfrastructuralsupportprovidedbytheFacultyof EngineeringandScience,CurtinUniversity,Sarawak,Malaysia.ProfessorsKennethEriksson,PatrickG.Eriksson, andChristopherFedocriticallycommentedontheoriginalbookproposalandhelpedmetoorganizethebook.
References
Bhattacharya,J.P.,Copeland,P.,Lawton,T.F.,Holbrook,J.,2016.Estimationofsourcearea,riverpaleo-discharge, paleoslope,andsedimentbudgetsoflinkeddeep-timedepositionalsystemsandimplicationsforhydrocarbon potential.EarthScienceReviews153,77 110.
EduardoGarzanti,E.,Vermeesch,P.,Padoan,M.,Resentini,A.,Vezzoli,G.,Andò,S.,2014.Provenanceofpassivemarginsand(SouthernAfrica).JournalofGeology122,17 42.
Eriksson,P.G.,Altermann,W.,Nelson,D.R.,Mueller,W.,Catuneanu,O.,2004.ThePrecambrianEarth,Temposand Events.ElsevierScience,966p.
Haughton,P.D.,Todd,S.P.,Morton,A.C.,1991.Sedimentaryprovenancestudies.In:Morton,A.C.,Todd,S.P., Haughton,P.D.W.(Eds.),DevelopmentsinSedimentaryProvenanceStudies,57.GeologicalSocietySpecial PublicationNo,pp.1 11.
Wals,J.P.,Wiberg,P.L.,Aalto,R.,Nittrouer,C.A.,Kuehl,S.A.,2016.Source-to-sinkresearch:economyoftheEarth’ s surfaceanditsstrata.EarthScienceReviews153,1 6.
Weltje,G.J.,VonEynatten,H.,2004.Quantitativeprovenanceanalysisofsediments:reviewandoutlook.SedimentaryGeology171,1 11. 1.SEDIMENTPROVENANCE:INFLUENCEONCOMPOSITIONALCHANGEFROMSOURCETOSINK
A.Basu
IndianaUniversity,Bloomington,IN,UnitedStates
1.INTRODUCTION
Curiosityaboutoriginisafundamentalhumanurge.Investigatingtheprovenanceofsiliciclasticdebrisandrocksisasubsetofthatcuriosity.HenryCliftonSorbysagaciouslydetermined,morethan150yearsago,onthebasisofopticalpetrography,thatthequartzarenitic
rockoftheMillstoneGritinYorkshirewasderivedfromgraniticgrus: “Therockhadbeen originallyformedfromamixtureofquartzsandandfelsparsand,but,afterdeposition, thefelsparhavingbeendecomposedintoaclay-likematerial,hasbeenforcedbythepressure ofthesuper-incumbentrocksintothespacesbetweenthegrainsofquartzsand” (Sorby,1859, p.672).Itstillstandsthatsiliciclasticrocks,formedbydiageneticpreservationofthedetritus fromthelandsandmountainsthathadbeendestroyedandonlytheruinsofwhichmight havesurvived,aretheonlyancientrepositoriesavailableforprovenanceanalysis.Theoptical microscopewasestablishedbySorbyastheprincipaltoolforprovenancedetermination.It stillis,althoughmanyotheranalyticaltechniquesandtoolshavevastlycontributedtoa farbetterunderstandingofprovenanceanalysisinthemilieuoftheEarthsystem.Atpresent, itiscommontousetraceandrareearthelementdistributions,stableisotopesystematics, robustU-Pbages,magneticresonance,Ramanspectra,aswellasopticalandbackscattered electronimagesofsinglemineralsandwholerockstoinferprovenance.Conceptually,investigationstosolvelocalandsomewhatregionalproblems(Groves,1931;Mackie,1897; Johnson,1872)haveevolvedtoaddressingproblemsofglobalplatetectonicsthroughtime (Myrowetal.,2015;Burrettetal.,2014;Uddinetal.,2007;Argnanietal.,2004;Wombacher andMuenker,2000;KrönerandSengor,1990)andtotrackcrustalgrowth(Avigadetal., 2012;BodetandSchärer,2000).Yet,inferringwhathavebeenlost,i.e.,temporalassemblages ofparentrocks,fromabodyofleftover,drifted,andmodifieddetritus,remainsinexact(e.g., Fitchesetal.,1990). Pettijohnetal.(1972,p.298)wrote: “Thequestionofprovenanceisoneof themostdifficultproblemsthesedimentarypetrographeriscalledontosolve.” TheHoly Grailofthatomnipresentuniquesignatureofprovenanceinsiliciclasticmaterialisstill eludingsedimentarygeologists(e.g., Garzanti,2015;ArtemeivaandShulgin,2015).
2.PURPOSEANDSCOPE
Thepurposeofthischapteristopresentacriticalappraisaloftheconceptualevolutionand theenhancedscopeofinquiriesintotheprovenanceofsiliciclasticsediments.Thetopicis popular.Tensofthousandsofpeer-reviewedpapershavebeenpublishedonthetopic;in 2016alone,thenumberhasexceeded1000ifnot2000!Thescopeofthispaperisrestricted totheinquiriesthathaveforgedfundamentallynewinsightsintoEarthprocessesandEarth history.Afewpredictionsaboutlinesofresearcharemade,whicharelikelytocontinuefor another20years(see Suttner,1989 forcomparison).Althoughmethodologyisnottheprimaryfocusofthepaper,researchinsiliciclasticprovenancehasadvancedintandemwith advancesinnewtoolsandnewdataprocessingcapabilities.Hence,methodologicaladvances areweavedintothediscourse.Theauthordoesnotapologizefornotcitingmanyremarkable worksbecausethisisnotacomprehensivehistoricalreviewbutashortcritique.
Sixgroundbreakingadvancesinprovenancestudiesarerecognizedinthischapter (Fig.2.1). Sorby(1859;alsoseequoteabove)relatedspeci ficrockstoasandstonebodyon thebasisofpetrographyrecognizingthatdetritalfeldsparswouldlosetheiridentitythrough diagenesis.Thuswasbornmodernprovenancestudies. Mackie(1897) calculatedthepercent contributionofdifferentsourcerockstotheproportionofmineralsinsandandsandstones. Thatwastheprimarykernelofwhatwouldbeknownasquantitativeprovenanceanalysis (WeltjeandvonEynatten,2004;BasuandHake,1984).Theimportanceofclimateandrates
SIX MILESTONES
FIGURE2.1 Sixmilestonesinsiliciclasticprovenanceresearch.Thegraphshowstheyearofsignificantpublicationandthenumberofyearsoftheirshelf-lives. 3.MATERIALSANDRELEVANTPROPERTIES
Dickinson Plate Reconstruction
Allen Paleogeography
KryninePaleoclimate
Mackie
Sorby
Quantitative Source Rock
Contribution
Specific Source Rock / Type
oferosioncontrollingtherelativede structionoffeldsparsatthesource( Krynine,1935 ) addedanewdimensiontoprovenanceinvestigations( NesbittandYoung,1982;Suttner etal.,1981;Ruxton,1970). Allen(1965) deducedhowdifferentpaleodrainagesystems wouldgiverisetocoevalsedimentaryprovinces(Fig.2.2 )withdifferentmineralcompositions,thusaddingpetrographicconstraintstoreconstructionsofpaleogeographyandsedimentaryprovinces(Suttner,1974;Dickinson,1970 ).Inagiantleap, DickinsonandSuczek (1979) establishedapositivelinkagebetweenassemblagesofrocksinvariousplatetectonic settingsandmodalcompositionsofsandstones derivedfromthoseplatetectonicassociations(Dickinson,1980,1985;Dickinsonetal.,1983).TheDickinsonianeraofglobaltectonic provenancestudieshadbegunandhasswayeditssceptersincethen(Bhattacharyyaand Das,2015;Nageletal.,2014;Uddinetal.,2007;CawoodandNemchin,2000;Ingersoll, 1990;ValloniandZuffa,1984;Bhatia,1983 ).Whereasprovenancestu dieshaveprincipally andoverwhelminglyinvestigatedthedistributionoftheearth’ ssur fi cialrocksandclimate, theyarenowreachingdeepintothesubsurface exploringandtrackingcrustalgrowth (BodetandSchärer,2000).
3.MATERIALSANDRELEVANTPROPERTIES
Thesiliciclasticmaterialsstudiedforprovenanceanalysesbelongtotwogroups:(1)samplesofthewholerockorthatofasizefraction,and(2)singlegrainsofdetritalminerals.For theformer,petrographicmodalanalysis,chemicalanalysisformajorandtraceelements,and isotopicanalysisforthedeterminationof εNd aretheprincipalmethodsemployedinprovenancestudies.Determinationoftherelativeproportionsofheavyminerals,andthepresence orabsenceofdiagnosticminerals,hasbeencommon,butisnotasextensivelyusedanymore.
FIGURE2.2 PaleogeographicreconstructionofthedepositionalbasinoftheOldRedSandstoneinsouthern Wales(UK)onthebasisof fieldgeology(mappingprimarysedimentarystructuresandinferringpaleocurrent direction)andtherelativedistributionofmicrocline,orthoclase,andplagioclase.Modifiedafter Allen(1965). 2.EVOLUTIONOFSILICICLASTICPROVENANCEINQUIRIES:ACRITICALAPPRAISAL
Forheavyminerals,(1)physicalpropertiessuchascolor,optical,andX-raycrystallography, Ramanspectroscopy,andcathodoluminescence;(2)concentrationsofmajor,minor,andtrace elements;andespecially(3)systematicsofbothstableandradioisotopesincludingabsolute ages,aremoreinuse.
4.INVESTIGATIVETECHNIQUESANDINSIGHTFULRESULTS
4.1OpticalMicroscopy
Opticalmicroscopyhasbeenandcontinuestobethemainstayofprovenanceinvestigationsforidentificationofmineralgrainsassmallas w20 mminsiliciclasticrocks.Objective andreproduciblemodalanalysesofsandstones,however,werehamperedforovera
100yearsbecause “rockfragments” defiedthetraditionaldescriptionof “twoormoremineralsinagrainofsand.” Wouldagrainofrutilatedquartzoragrainofperthitebecountedas arockfragment?Resultsofmodalanalysesarecommonlyplottedintriangulardiagrams ostensiblyforuniformcommunicationwiththethreepolesmarkedasQ,F,andLorRor RF.Threeformal,fairlyrigorous,butdifferentdefinitions(zcountingmethods)havebeen erected(Suttneretal.,1981;Folk,1974;Dickinson,1970;see AppendixI).Modalanalyses bythesethreemethodsofthesamethinsectionofasandstoneplotdifferently(Fig.5in Zuffa, 1985).ThemethodbyDickinson,morepopularlycalledtheGazzi-Dickinson(G-D)method, hasprovedtobethemostusefulandmostwidelyused.Modaldata,collectedbytheG-D methodandplottedintheDickinsondiagram(Fig.2.3),ef ficientlydiscriminatederivation ofsand-sizedsiliciclasticdetritusfromdifferenttectonicprovenance(Dickinson,1985; Dickinsonetal.,1983;DickinsonandSuczek,1979).Allthreemethods,quitewisely,retained theidentificationoftheoriginallabilemineralssuchasfeldsparsas “feldspars” evenifthey werealteredfullytoclaymineralsaslongasthedetritalgrainsretainedtheiroutlinesand othercharacteristicfeaturessuchasghosttwinning.Becauseexperiencedsubjectivejudgment isnecessaryforsuchidentification,automatedanalyticalimageanalysistodeterminethe modalcompositionofsandstonesisstillnotpossible.Butsee Bangs-RooneyandBasu (1994) forapossiblealternative.
4.2ChemicalCompositionsofBulkRocks
Bhatia(1983) and BhatiaandCrook(1986) discoveredthatdifferentsandstonesuitesfrom differenttectonicsettingsinAustralia,plotdifferentlyinCaO-Na2O-K2O,La-Th-Sc,Th-Sc-Zr, Ti/ZrversusLa/Sc,andLa/YversusSc/Crspaces.Theyconductedstatisticalanalysisof
FIGURE2.3 ThebasicQFLdiagramtoplot modalcompositionofsandstones,counted following Gazzi(1966) and Dickinson(1970) Manyhaveassignedtectonicprovenanceoftheir modaldataaccordingly.Adaptedfrom Dickinson(1985)
theirdataasdid RoserandKorsch(1988) onadditionaldatatovalidatethediscriminatory powerofthegeochemicalapproach.Otherfollow-upstudiesbearthemout.Becauseweatheringanddiagenesisconvertrock-formingmineralsintoclay,chemicalcompositionsof whole-rocksrepresenttheirmineralcompositionsatthetimeoftheirsamplingandanalysis. Theydonotrequirethesubjectivejudgmentofanoperatortodecidewhatshouldbecounted asaprecursordetritalgrain(e.g.,feldspar,mica,rockfragment).Elementsthatarerelatively immobileunderlow-temperatureaquaticalterations,andtheirelementalratios,likelyretain theiroriginalrelativeabundancesinsedimentaryrocks(Alietal.,2014).Onesuchplotof ppmTh-Sc-Zr/10(Fig.2.4)isverywidelyusedasatemplateforprovenancediscrimination (Bhatia,1983).Techniquesforanalyzingrock-material(e.g.,XRF,INAA,ICPMS,etc.)have improvedconsiderablyinthelast30yearsandmanymoreelementscannowbeanalyzed atever-smallerconcentrationsandwithever-higherprecision.Theenlargedmoreprecise chemicaldatabasehasledtoquitesuccessfuluseofmultidimensionaldiscriminantfunction analysistoinfertectonicprovenanceofsiliciclasticsedimentaryrocks(Armstrong-Altrin, 2014).
Thesetwoavenuesfortrackingprovenance,utilizingwhole-rocksamples,havebeenand arethemosttraveled,andlikelytostayso,albeitwithsomeadjustments(seeCritiquebelow).
4.3PopulationsofSingleDeritalMinerals
Provenance-sensitivepropertiesofpopulationsofsinglegrainsofthesamemineralhave beendeterminedbymanydifferentmethods(e.g.,opticalmicroscopy,XRD,SEMwith BSEandCLdetectors,EPMA,LA-MC-ICPMS,SHRIMP,nanoSIMS)moretoidentifysource rocktypesandpetrologicprovincesthantoidentifyplatetectonicprovenance.Quartzisan extremelydurableandthemostabundantdetritalmineralinclasticsedimentaryrocks.Its physicalpropertiessuchasundulosityofopticalextinction(Basuetal.,1975)andCLcolor
FIGURE2.4 ThestandardLa-Th-Scplotto discriminatetectonicprovenanceofsandstones andshales(BhatiaandCrook,1986). PCM,passivecontinentalmargin; ACM,activecontinental margin; CIA,continentalislandarc; OIA,oceanic islandarc.Alsopottedarethe fieldsofmodern sedimentsfromfelsic,intermediate,andmafic sourcerocksinColorado(USA)showingthe inadequacyofthestandardplot(Cullers,2002). Adaptedfrom Sinhaetal.(2007)
(AugustssonandReker,2012),andchemicalpropertiessuchastraceelementconcentrations (Götze,2009;Dennen,1967),havebeenusedwidelyinprovenancestudies.Discountingdiamond,zirconisthemostdurabledetritalheavymineralinsedimentaryrocks.Insituanayses ofindividualdetritalzircongrainsbySHRIMPorLA-MC-ICPMStodeterminetheirtrace elementcharacteristics,andisotopicdistributionsofU-PbandLu-Hfinthem,haveproven tobethemostusefulandmostproductiveininvestigatingsiliciclasticprovenanceinrecent years(e.g., Fornellietal.,2015;Fosdicketal.,2011;Grimesetal.,2007;Fedoetal.,2003; CompstonandPidgeon,1986).Manydetritalzircons,becauseoftheirdurabilityinrockformingsystems,commonlyhavesuccessiveovergrowthsonanigneousormetamorphic core.Absoluteagesofthecoreandtheovergrowthsrecordthegenetichistoryoftheirsource rocks(e.g., Wintschetal.,2007).Additionally,alargecollectionofdetritalzirconsyieldsa largenumberofabsoluteagesofparentrocks.Thedataarebestviewedinplotsofageversus frequency(Fig.2.5A B; Bickfordetal.,2013,2009).Inferringprovenanceofsiliciclasticsedimentsfromspectraofdetritalzircongeochronologyrequiresknowledgeofthegeology, includingmagmaticandmetamorphicevents,inthepotentialsourcearea.Forexample, Fig.2.5 showstwodetritalzirconspectrafromtwodifferentformationsintwodifferentProterozoicbasinswithadominant w2.5Gapeakbutonewithadditionalminoragepeaks, whichconfirmtwoseparatesourcedomains. DickinsonandGehrels(2010) usedtheages of5655detritalzirconsinMesozoicsandstonesinColorado(USA)toinferthepaleogeographyandpaleotectonicsofNorthAmerica.Inacomparativestudyofthelithotectoniczones oftheHimalayasandtheProterozoic earlyCambriansuccessionsintheIndianpeninsula, McKenzieetal.(2011) discovered “thatrocksofsimilardepositionalagebearstrikingly similardetritalzirconagedistributions.” Ifso,detritalzirconagespectrathusbecomesa robusttoolforidentifyingiso-provenancesedimentaryprovinces.Althoughnotasdurable, butbecauseofitslowerblockingtemperature,U-Pbagesofdetritalmonazitestrackthemetamorphichistoryandthecontributionfrommetamorphicrocksinassociationwithgranitic bodies(e.g., Hietpasetal.,2010).Crystallizationagesofmonazitescanbeobtainedbythe cheaperandeasierCHIMEmethod(Th-U-Pb)withdedicatedEPMA,andareusefulin trackingprovenance(Pe-Piperetal.,2014;SuzukiandKato,2008).Datingrutile(U-Pb)isa newdevelopment(Braccialietal.,2013).Followingthetrailofdetritalzircons(>480Ma) andrutile(w10Ma), Bracciallietal.(2015) havediscoveredthe “timingofrivercaptureof theYarlungTsangpobytheBrahmaputra.” Thesefewexamplesshowhowthescopeofsedimentaryprovenancestudieshasbroadenedinthelastfewyears.Despitesuchsuccesswith detritalzircongeochronology,itisnecessarytonotethatnoneofthemostdurableminerals (e.g.,diamond,quartz,zircon,tourmaline,rutile,etc.)occurinallparentrocksofimportance. Therefore,relianceonthepropertiesofonlyoneoftheseminerals,zircongeochronologyfor example,maybeseverelymisleadinginidentifyingsourceregionsdominatedbymafic volcanicrocks.
Major,minor,andtraceelementconcentrationsinmanyotherdetritalminerals,e.g.,feldspar(TrevanaandNash,1979 ),garnet(Morton,1985 ),tourmaline( vanHinsbergetal., 2011),magnetite-ilmenite-hematite(DillandKlosa,2010;Grigsby,1990),pyroxene (Cawood,1991 ),andotherheavyminerals( MangeandWright,2007 ),determinedmostly withEPMA,havebeenwidelyusedtosolvemostlylocalandregionalproblemssuchas paleogeography,paleodrainagepatterns,andstratigraphiccorrelations(Mortonetal., 2013).
2.EVOLUTIONOFSILICICLASTICPROVENANCEINQUIRIES:ACRITICALAPPRAISAL
FIGURE2.5 Detritalzirconagespectraof(A)OakShale(lateNeoproterzoic?orlateMesoproterozoic?)inthe Cuddapahbasin,India,and(B)KansapatharSandstone(bracketedbetween1000and1400Ma)intheChhattisgarh basin,Indiashowingthatthemainsourceforbothsedimentaryunits some600kmapart arethe w2.5Gagranitic rocksoftwodifferentcratons.Fieldgeologyprecludesanycorrelationoracommonprovenance.After Bickfordetal. (2009,2013).
5.THECRITIQUE
5.1BulkMineralogicalCompositions
Empiricalstudiesled DickinsonandSuczek(1979),Dickinsonetal.(1983),and Bhatiaand Crook(1986) toidentifytectonicprovenancesinNorthAmericaandAustraliainwell-de fined spacesinQFLandLa-Th-Scandadditional/subsidiaryplots.Becausetheirsamplingwas geographicallyandtemporallylimited,itwouldbedoubtfuliftheirresultscouldbetaken asgeneraltemplates.Afewcounter-examplestotheirperceiveduniversalapplicabilityare discussedbelowwithsomeexplanatorynotes.Onemightnotehereinparenthesis,thatstatisticaltestsoftheverydatasetsusedtoerecttheQFLtemplatescanachieve “ success ” upto 85%andnomore(Molinarolietal.,1991).
Climateisasigni ficantfactorincontrollingthecompositionofsandsattheirorigin.The largeorographicbarrieroftheHimalayashasamuchwetterandwarmerclimatetoitssouth thantoitsnorth.EvenasmallorographicbarrierinJamaicahasthesamecontrast(Gupta, 1975).Compositionsofsandsgeneratedonthetwosidesofsuchorographicbarriersareobviouslydifferent,althoughtheyhavebeensourcedfromthesamemountainrange(zorogen). Quartzenrichmentatthesourcebecauseofclimaticeffectshasbeenwelldocumentedin modernsandsandancientsandstones(e.g., Garzantietal.,2015;Mack,1984;Suttneretal., 1981).Long-distancetransportofsandwithmultiplestoragesin floodplains,andreworking onthebeach,mayproduce “quartzsand” irrespectiveofitsultimateprovenance.Incontrast, beachsandsinPapuaafteraveryshorttransportdownasteepslope,eveninthehothumid climate,retainthequartz-poorcharacteroftheirsourceofavolcanicislandarc(Ruxton, 1970).Rivers,longorshort,mayalsocollectdetritusenroute,includingrecycledgrains fromoldertectonicregimes,orcrossothertectonicregimes,whichcompromisetheirQFL signature(e.g., Mack,1984;DickinsonandSuzcek,1979).Actually,compositionsofsome modernsandsareshowntobeaffectedbydifferentdegreesofweathering,systemsoftransport,andenvironmentsofdepositionsuf ficientlyenoughtodefyQFL-typeexpectations(e.g., Garzanti,2015;Garzantietal.,2015;andtheextensivereferencestherein).Diageneticprocessesdestroylabilegrainsinsandstonestodifferentdegreesandintheextrememaybe flushedawaybygroundwater flow,leavingsecondaryporesandproducingdiagenetic quartzarenitesthat,ofcourse,donotretainaQFLmemoryoftheirtectonicprovenance (McBride,1987).Diagenesisalsoproducespseudomatrixoutoflabilegrains,especiallyfeldsparandargillaceousgrains(Dickinson,1970;Sorby,1859).Ifnotconvertedfullytopseudomatrix,precursors(e.g.,feldspars,volcaniclithicfragments,schist,shale)ofsomeofthe argillaceousgrainsmaybeidentifiedandcountedassuch.Butthepreservationisvariable. Hence, Helleretal.(1985) recommendedthatasandstonewith >20%pseudomatrixshould notbeincludedintheQFL-typeprovenanceanalysis.
InDickinson’scompilationofthepetrographyofPhanerozoicNorthAmericansandstones,carbonaticsandgrainsareinsigni ficantandneglected.Theyare,however,quiteprofuseinsandstonesderivedfromMediterraneanorogens(Zuffa,1980).Whereasdisregarding suchsandstonesinQFL-typeprovenanceanalysis(Dickinson,1985,p.336)wouldnotnecessarilyinvalidatetectonicinferences,itwouldleaveouttheprovenanceinformationcontained inthecarbonaticgrains,especiallythosewithfossils.Theycouldalsodistortthemodaldata notenvisagedintheQFLmodel.Additionally,QFL-typemodaldatacouldbedistortedifa
fewsandstoneshadmixedheritagewithrecycledgrains,andhadsuffereddifferentialweatheringunderdifferentclimaticconditionsthatwouldproduceerraticquartzconcentrations (Mack,1984).
Basalticfragmentsandcalcicplagioclasecomenotonlyfromrocksinmagmaticarcsbut alsofromlargeintraplateigneousprovinces(seemapinFig.1of Xia,2014)thatoccurin “continentalblock” tectonicprovenance.Asomewhatunnoticedpapershowshowthe QFLcompositionsofsandsderivedprincipallyfromthelargest floodbasaltofthepresent time theDeccanTrapsinIndia plotprimarilyinthemagmaticarcprovenance fieldand alsoinother fields(inresponsetoquartzenrichmentbecauseofweatheringunderhothumid tropicalclimate)intheQFLdiagram(seeFigs.2and3of Garzanti,2015,andFig.3of Saha etal.,2010).Theinterpretativeerroris potentially enormouswhenProterozoicandArchean (meta-)sandstonesplottinginthemagmaticarc fieldsareusedasindicatorsofconvergent boundariesofthepast.Notrecognizing “anorogenicmagmatic” fieldsassubstantialsources ofvolcanicfragmentsinsiliciclasticsedimentaryrocksisadeficiencyoftheDickinsonian QFL-typeprovenanceanalysis(Garzanti,2015).Sedimentaryrocksandtheirmetamorphic equivalentsareabundantinorogens,especiallyinPhanerozoicorogens.Fragmentsofsuch rocksarepronetobeargillaceousorrenderedargillaceousthroughweatheringanddiagenesis.Thus,countedwiththeGDmethod,suchgrainswouldplotattheL-pole(Fig.2.3)and indicatetheirrecycledorogenprovenance.However,upliftedcontinentalblocksinmany partsoftheworldcradlemany flat-lyingundeformedandunmetamorphosedsedimentary rockssuchasinmanyoftheProterozoicandtheLatePaleozoic MesozoicbasinsintheerstwhileGondwana-Laurentiacontinents.Sedimentarylithicfragmentsderivedfromthese basins,plottingattheL-pole,wouldstronglydistortinterpretationsoftectonicprovenance.
Many,manymonomineralicquartzgrainsinsiliciclasticsediments,thiswritercontends, arerecycledfragmentsofsedimentaryrocks.Detritalquartzgrainswithovergrowthsare morecommonlyseeninmodernsedimentsthaninancientsandstoneswhere,inrarecases, abradedovergrowthsarepreserved(Basuetal.,2013;Critellietal.,2003;Garzantietal., 2003).Suchrarequartzgrainsarerecycledsedimentaryrockfragments;butmostothers remainunidentifiedassuch.QFL-typeanalysesmisstherelevantprovenanceinformation. Asofnow,however,wehavenootherpetrographicmeanstodistinguish first-cyclequartz fromrecycledquartz.
5.2BulkChemicalCompositions
Chemicalcompositionsofsiliciclasticsedimentaryrockshavetheadvantageofrepresentingthebulksedimentandnotonlythesand-sizedfractionasinthecaseofpetrographicanalysesalthoughtheylackthemineralogicalinformation,i.e.,anydirectknowledgeofthe hostsofthechemicalcomponents.Forexample,quartzorcalcitecementedquartzarenites willshowanomalousenrichmentofSiO2 orCaOandassociatedtraceelementsoverwhat wasdepositedoriginally.Likewise,adiageneticquartzarenitewithsecondaryporesafter feldsparwillshowanomalouslydepletedAl2O3,Na2O,K2O,andassociatedtraceelements. Barringsuchextremes,chemicalcompositionsofthemuddypartsofsandstonesaddtothe informationaboutthediageneticproductsoflabiledetritalgrains,whicharenowpreserved as “matrix” sensulatu.Ifwemakeanassumption,asveryeloquentlyandboldlystatedby Ali etal.(2014),thatweatheringanddiageneticprocessesbehavelikeaclosedsystemwith
respecttoafewcriticalandlessmobileelements,thenespeciallytheirratios(e.g.,La/Sc, Th/Sc,Cr/Th,Th/Co,La/Co,Eu/Eu*,Ba/Co,Nb/La,etc.)inbinaryorternaryplotswould discriminatetheirtectonicprovenance.Infact,allempiricalchemicalmodelsfordiscriminatingtectonicprovenance(e.g., RoserandKorsch,1986;BhatiaandCrook,1986)aredependentonthisassumption.
ThegeneralreservationsabouttheQFLapproachmentionedabovealsoapplytothe geochemicalapproach.TheempiricaldatafromthesamplesuitesfromAustraliaandNew Zealandarenotuniversallyapplicable.Forexample,chemicalcompositionsofsandsderived primarilyfromtheDeccanbasaltsintheIndianpeninsulaplotallalongthefullstretchfrom theoceanicarctothepassivemargin fieldinallcommonlyusedgeochemicaltectonicprovenancediagrams(Figs.7to10in Sahaetal.,2010).Inaseriesofpapers,Cullersdemonstrated thatthediscriminationbetweenOceanicIslandArc,ContinentalIslandArc,ActiveContinentalMargins,andPassiveContinentalMarginsisactuallyadiscriminationbetweentherelativedominanceofultramafic,mafic,intermediate,andfelsicsuitesofrocksinsourceareas (e.g., Cullers,2002 andreferencestherein). Fig.2.3 showsthecommonLa-Th-Scdiagram of BhatiaandCrook(1986) inwhich Sinhaetal.(2007) haveplottedtherock-type fieldsof Cullers(1994).Chemicalprocessesduringweatheringanddiagenesisaffecttheultimate chemicalcompositionsofsedimentaryrocks.Someelementsortheirratiosmaybefarless affectedthanothersandretaintheiroriginalparentrockcharacteristics(cf. Alietal.,2014). Someothers,althoughusedinprovenancedetermination,maybeaffectedmore.For example,redoxconditionsduringpedogenesisanddiagenesisaffecttheoxidationstates andsolubilityofFe,Cr,Eu,Ce,U,etc.(e.g., Maulanaetal.,2014;Mukhopadhyayetal., 2014;Ozeetal.,2004;ShieldsandStille,2001;PanandStauffer,2000;Panahietal.,2000;Sverjensky,1984).Thisindicatesthat,forexample,relianceonEuandCeanomaliesasprovenanceindicatorsmayhavetobetempered.
Itisclearthat,byandlarge,chemicalsignaturesofthesourcerock-typesarepreservedin theirdetritus.But,asinthecaseofmineralogicalcompositions,chemicalcompositionsofsiliciclasticdetritusdonotuniquelyidentifytectonicprovenance(Basuetal.,2016).Indeed, PePiperetal.(2016) concludes “Detritalgeochemistryaloneshowstoomuchvariabilityto interpretprovenance.”
5.3PropertiesofSingleMinerals
Fresh,unaltereddetritalminerals,individuallyorinanassemblage,preservetheirparental identities.Forexample,simultaneouspresenceofhigh-Crspinel,uvarovite,andNi-richforsteriteinasandstonewouldindicatederivationfromultramaficbodiessuchaskimberlite clanrocks.Therarityofsuchanassociationofmineralsinasuiteofheavymineralsmakes theexampleratherunrealistic.Inreality,alldetritalminerals,otherthandiamond,quartz, zircon,andtosomeextenttourmaline,rutile,andgarnet,arequitepronetodifferentialpreservationinthesedimentarymilieu.Thus,althoughsomeoftheirphysical,chemical,andisotopiccompositionsarediagnosticoftheirprovenance,theirabsencedoesnotnecessarily excludeundetectedprovenances.
Evendetritalzircongeochronology,despitethesuccessesdescribedabove,hasmorethan onenemesis.Smallzircongrains(<30 mm)arenotreadilyamenabletodatingbecausethe commonlyusedanalyzingbeams,laserorion,arenotmuchsmaller.Henceapopulation
ofsmalldetritalzirconsmaygounrepresentedintheresults.Becausezirconissodurable,itis recycledmanytimeswithsomemechanicalattrition,andolderdetritalzirconstendtobe smallerthanyoungerzircons. Lawrenceetal.(2011) haveshownthatdifferentsizefractions ofdetritalzirconsmayhavedifferentagesandinferencesaboutprovenancefromjustone sizefractionmaynotbecorrect. Vermeesch(2004) calculatesthat,tobestatisticallyadequate, atleast117grainsofdetritalzirconsshouldbedated.Thisnumber,ofcourse,willgoupifthe diversityofagesgoesupinasample(seealso Andersen,2005).Similaritybetweentwoage spectra,givenahighprobabilityofasinglesource,mayaidinstratigraphiccorrelation (McKenzieetal.,2011);but,the “similarity” mustbetestedstatistically.Itiseasiertoinfer differentprovenancefromevenminordissimilaritybetweenagespectra(Fig.2.5A B). Zirconscomefromfelsicrocks.Forprovenancestudies,theymissmaficandultramaficsources, forwhichbaddeleyitemustbesought.Therefore,zirconsalonecannotcomprehensively demarcateprovenance.Similarreservationsapplytopopulationsofothersingleminerals.
6.DISCUSSION
Forabout170years, fieldgeologyandopticalmicroscopicpetrographyhavebeenand continuetoprovidetheprincipaldatabaseforprovenanceinterpretationofsiliciclasticsedimentaryrocks.Inthelast50years,chemicalandisotopicanalyseshavesupplementedsuch inquiries(e.g., Blatt,1967;Middleton,1960).Bothmethodsandtheirsubsidiarieshaveinvestigatedbulkcompositionsandthoseofindividualminerals.Thescopehasexpandedfrom findinglocalorregionalcontextsofsandstonegenesistotheplatetectonicregime(s)ofprovenance.Ithasbecomeabundantlyclearthatnosinglemethod,orevenacombinationofafew methods,canalwaysarriveatauniquesolution.Forexample, ArtemeivaandShulgin(2015) showedthatgeophysicalcharacteristicsoftheLadogaRiftintheBaltics theriftmodel widelyacceptedprincipallyonthebasisofchemicalcompositionsofvolcanicrocks conformtocraton-margindeformationandnotarift.Thecurrenttrendistomoveaway frompigeonholecharacterizationoftectonicprovenanceandtoweighinthegeological context sensulatu. Garzanti(2015) dispenseswiththeoriginalQFLapproachonthebasis ofextensiveworkonmodernsediments.Forpetrographicmodalanalyses,Zuffa(personal communication)recommendscountingabout50graintypesand500pointsstrictlyfollowing Chayes(1956);buthestillrelies,verywisely,onthepetrographiccharacteristicsofeachgrain. Thetrendisalsoevidentinthegeochemicalrealmwherethedominanceandmixingofchemicalcharacteristicsofsourcerocksprovidethe first-orderinference(e.g., Cullers,2002,2000). Aconsensusisemergingthatsourcerocktypesinferredfrommineralogicalandchemical compositionsofsiliciclasticrocksalonedonotuniquelyidentifytectonicprovenances(cf. Nieetal.,2012).
Onecurrenttrendistouseonlythequantitativedatacollectedwithexistingmethodologiesandapplyingrobustmultivariatestatisticalprocedurestoextractprovenanceinformation(e.g., Armstrong-Altrin,2014;Weltje,2012).Theresultslookpromisingsofar,butthey areconstrainedbythe flawsintheoriginalpremiseandlimitedsampling,insuccessfully erectinguniversallyapplicableboundariesoftemplatesfortectonicprovenance determination.
7.THEFUTURE
Forcenturies,bothcuriosityandsocietalneedshaveinspiredbasicandappliedscienti fic research.Searchfortheoriginalsourcerocksorevenintermediate “stop-overs ” ofeconomic placerdeposits,suchasofdiamondandgold,arewell-knowntime-honoredexamples(e.g., Oppenheim,1943;Atkin,1904).Thereisnowaconcentratedeffortinthefossilfuelindustry topredictthepetrophysicalpropertiesofsubsurfacesiliciclasticrocksonthebasisoftheir inferredprovenanceandtheestimatedextentoftheirdiagenesis(e.g., HeinzandKairo, 2007).Suchstudiesandpredictivemodelswillgrowasneedsforfossilfuelincrease.Contemporaryclimaticchangeisareality.Localandglobalpaleoclimatesofthelasthundredsto thousandsofyears,asre flectedinmodernalluvialtodeep-seasediments(e.g., Asahara etal.,2012;Paletal.,2012;Luglietal.,2007),arecluestopredictingtheimmediatefuture. Becausetheresultsrequirecorrectionsandnormalizationforthesourcerockinput,provenancestudiesofmodernsedimentswillexpandtodecoupletectonicandclimaticsignatures.
Thecurrenttrendsinmeasurementsanddefiningoriginalcharacteristicsofdetritalminerals,which survive inthesedimentarymilieu,arelikelytogainprominenceinthenext 20yearsorso(cf. Suttner,1989).Determinationofabsoluteagesofcrystallizationofindividualmineralgrainsandtheovergrowthsonthem,forexample,zircon,monazite,rutile,feldspar,andothers,arelikelytoincreasemanifold.Ifsomeofthemineralgrainsarerecycled (e.g.,zircon,rutile),thentheirhistories,especiallytherecordsofpostdepositionalheating events,wouldhelpin “purifying” theprocessofidentifyingrelevantprovenance.Thedistributionsoftraceelementsandstableisotopes(e.g.,O,S,Si,Ti,Cr,Fe,Ni)lockedupinminerals(e.g.,zircon,quartz,rutile,pyroxene,etc.)arecommonlyindicativeoftheenvironments oftheircrystallization.Insituanalysesforsuchclues(e.g., Hofmannetal.,2009;Götzeetal., 2004)arelikelytobecomecommoninthenextdecadeortwo.
Thuswefollow Mackie(1897) inouroptimisticyetcautiousreasoning,andsay: “Thedust oftheoldlandshasbeenbuiltintothenew.Wehavetakenthesetinyfragments witnesses ofavenerablepast andaskedthemtotellussomethingoftheancientworldwhichthey beheld,” andconfess,withhumility,thatprovenanceremainsthemostdifficultproblem forasedimentarygeologisttosolve(Pettijohnetal.,1972).
8.CONCLUSIONS
Sixgiantconceptualleapsinthelast170yearsconstitutethefoundationsofcontemporary provenancestudiesofsiliciclasticsedimentsandsedimentaryrocks.Theyhavebeenevaluated,constrained,modified,andcontestedovertheyears.Thesenewconceptshavesurvived thetestsoftimeandarelikelyto “goonforever ” (Tennysonisgratefullyacknowledged). However,therearecaveats.
Therevolutionarymineralogical(QFL)approachby Dickinson(1985) followedupbythe chemicalapproach(elementalratios)erectedby BhatiaandCrook(1986),todeterminethe tectonicprovenanceofsiliciclasticrocks,andthusunravelthegeologicalhistoriesofdepositionalbasins,orogens,andplatemovement,donotnecessarilyleadtouniquesolutions. Neglectingcarbonaticdetritus,ignoringtheextentofrecycledoriginofdetritalquartz, ignoring floodbasaltsaspartsofupliftedcontinental/cratonicblocks,ignoringthediversity
2.EVOLUTIONOFSILICICLASTICPROVENANCEINQUIRIES:ACRITICALAPPRAISAL
ofuni-sourceddetritalmineralassemblagesunderdiverseclimaticconditions,andnot consideringtheeffectsofvariableamountsofporespacesandpore- fillingcements,are someofthefactorsthathaveaffectedtheempiricalrubricsforinferringtectonicprovenances.
Multivariatedataanalysesappeartodiscriminateafewtectonicprovenancesquitewell. Butitisnotclearifincorporatingnewdatafrom,forexample,continental floodbasalts, wouldstillprovideuniquesolutions.
Physical,chemical,andisotopicpropertiesofsinglemineralsareemergingasstronger discriminatingparametersinprovenancestudies.
Provenanceresearchhasgonebacktoitsrootsofidentifyingrocktypesintheirsource areasinsteadofuniquelyidentifyingtectonicprovenance.
Acknowledgments
ThispaperisdedicatedtothememoryofWilliamR.Dickinson,whorevolutionizedsedimentaryprovenance research.
IndianaUniversity,NASA,andNSFhavesupportedmyresearchovertheyears.Dr.RajatMazumderkindly askedmetowritethischapter.ReviewsandfeedbackfromProfessorDanielaFontana(UniversitáModena,Italy), Dr.KasturiBhattacharyya(IITKGP,India),Dr.SarbaniPatranabis-Deb(ISI,India),andespeciallyDr.Suzanne Kairo(ExxonMobil,USA)helpedincorrectingerrorsandomissions.Iamgratefultoall.
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