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Coarsetoverycoarse-grainedscoriaceoussandstone(darkcolored)interbandedwith finesandstone/siltstone (lightcolored)andmudstone(brownish),Mio-PlioceneMisakiFormation,MiuraPeninsula,Japan.Thecoarse sandstonesarenormallygraded(turbidites)andwerederivedfromvolcanoes.The finerclasticsareindigenous backgroundsedimentsformedinadeepmarinesedimentarybasin(2000 3000mdeep)inanarc-arccollision zoneandthushavedifferentsedimentprovenancefromthecoarserclastics.Mostofthesoftsediment deformationstructurespreservedwithinlaterallycontinuousandselectivestratigraphichorizonshavebeen interpretedasseismite.
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W.Mejiama OsakaCityUniversity,Osaka, Japan
M.Moretti UniversitàdegliStudidiBari,Bari, Italy
V.Moretti RegionePuglia ServizioEcologia UfficioProgrammazione,PoliticheEnergetiche, Bari,Italy
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J.Mukhopadhyay PresidencyUniversity, Kolkata,India;UniversityofJohannesburg, AucklandPark,SouthAfrica
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A.P.Nutman UniversityofWollongong,Wollongong,NSW,Australia;ChineseAcademyof GeologicalSciences,Beijing,China
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Continentalsequencesgenerallyrecordastrongin fl uenceofsedimentsourceondepositionalfaciesandprovideexcellentopportunitiesforS2Sanalyses.SatoandChanhaveundertakenadetailedsedimentologicalanaly sisoftheEoceneDuchesneRiverformationof theUintaBasin,Utah,USA,andhavedemonstratedhowdifferentsourceinputscontrol sedimentaryfaciesdevelopmentandsandstonepetrophysicalpropertiesinthesink.Their studyrevealstheimportanceofsedimentp rovenanceanalysisforexplorationof fl uvial sandstonereservoirs.VanLoonetal.haveexaminedaseriesoflensesoflimestonebreccia fromtheLateCambrian(Furongian)ChaomidianFormationinShandongProvince,China andinterpretedtheseasaconsequenceoffra gmentationfollowedbyslidingofabreccia layerfromtheparentlayer(thesource)toitsd epositionalsite(thesink).Longhasexamined chertsofUpperJurassictoLowerCretaceousTa ntalusFormation,insouth-centralYukon, Canada.Hisstudyrevealsthatalargeslabof CacheCreekwasobductedoverstrataofthe Yukon Tananaterrane,andthisnowerodedslabwasthesourceofchertintheTantalus piggybackbasins.
LateNeoproterozoictoearlyMesozoicsed imentarysuccessionoftheTasmanidesof easternAustraliadevelopedinanactiveplate marginsetting.Multidisciplinaryresearch undertakenbyFergussonrevelsprovenanc eswitchingbetweenthedevelopmentsof igneous-dominateddetritusrelatedtoadjoin ingmagmaticarcs(e.g.,theMacquarieArc), andinteractionswithGondwana-derivedclastics.Chiarenzelliutilizeddetritalzirconsin anupperamphibolitefaciesterraintodocumentsedimentprovenanceandbasinevolution, andtoprovideinitialtemporalconstraints onsedimentation.Dasetal.havepresented detritalrecordsofsedimentprovenanceand itsshiftintheMesoproterozoicSinghora Group,centralIndia.Senguptaetal.inferredsedimentaryprovenance,timingofsedimentation,andmetamorphismfromasuiteofmetapelitesfromtheChotanagpurGraniteGneiss Complex,easternIndia,anddiscussedtheirimplicationsforProterozoictectonicsinthe east-centralpartoftheIndianshield. Mukhopadhayaetal.haveundertakenSEM CLfabricanalysisofquartzframeworkpopulatio nfromtheMesoarcheanKeonjharQuartzite fromSinghbhumCraton,easternIndia.These authorshavediscussedimplicationsofprovenanceanalysisfortheuppercontinentalcrustalevolution.CostaandHofmannhave undertakenprovenanceanalysisofdetrital pyriteintheMesoarchaeanWitwatersrand BasinofSouthAfrica,theworld’slargestgolddeposit.Accordingtotheseauthors,detrital pyriteismainlyderivedfromsedimentaryso urcesandsyn-sedimentaryprecipitates. Younghasdiscussedtheiceagesinearthhistory, “puzzling” paleolatitudes,andregional provenanceoftheicesheets.AccordingtoYoung, “theevolutionofmetazoans,climaxing withthe ‘ Cambrianexplosion, ’ mayhavebeenacceleratedbyrapidandradicalenvironmentalchangesassociatedwithglaciations. ” Theworld ’ soldestsedimentarystructures arepreservedindolomiticcarbonates,banded ironformations,volcaniclasticsedimentary rocks,andveryraresandstonesandconglomeratesinthe3.7 3.8billionyearsoldIsua supracrustalbeltinNorthAtlanticcraton(Gr eenland).TheholisticappraisaloftheIsua supracrustalsbyNutmanetal.indicatestheyformed overa100-million-yearperiodin supra-subductionzonesettings
Istronglybelievethatastate-of-theartexpositionofsedimentprovenanceanalyseswill helptoidentifykeyissuesandgapsintheexistingknowledgebaseandinitiatenewresearch tounderstandsourcerockcharacteristics,paleoweathering,paleoclimate,tectonics,and ultimately,theevolutionofcontinentalcrust.
A.Basu
IndianaUniversity,Bloomington,IN,UnitedStates
1.INTRODUCTION
Curiosityaboutoriginisafundamentalhumanurge.Investigatingtheprovenanceofsiliciclasticdebrisandrocksisasubsetofthatcuriosity.HenryCliftonSorbysagaciouslydetermined,morethan150yearsago,onthebasisofopticalpetrography,thatthequartzarenitic
FIGURE2.2 PaleogeographicreconstructionofthedepositionalbasinoftheOldRedSandstoneinsouthern Wales(UK)onthebasisof fieldgeology(mappingprimarysedimentarystructuresandinferringpaleocurrent direction)andtherelativedistributionofmicrocline,orthoclase,andplagioclase.Modifiedafter Allen(1965). 2.EVOLUTIONOFSILICICLASTICPROVENANCEINQUIRIES:ACRITICALAPPRAISAL
Forheavyminerals,(1)physicalpropertiessuchascolor,optical,andX-raycrystallography, Ramanspectroscopy,andcathodoluminescence;(2)concentrationsofmajor,minor,andtrace elements;andespecially(3)systematicsofbothstableandradioisotopesincludingabsolute ages,aremoreinuse.
4.INVESTIGATIVETECHNIQUESANDINSIGHTFULRESULTS
4.1OpticalMicroscopy
Opticalmicroscopyhasbeenandcontinuestobethemainstayofprovenanceinvestigationsforidentificationofmineralgrainsassmallas w20 mminsiliciclasticrocks.Objective andreproduciblemodalanalysesofsandstones,however,werehamperedforovera
100yearsbecause “rockfragments” defiedthetraditionaldescriptionof “twoormoremineralsinagrainofsand.” Wouldagrainofrutilatedquartzoragrainofperthitebecountedas arockfragment?Resultsofmodalanalysesarecommonlyplottedintriangulardiagrams ostensiblyforuniformcommunicationwiththethreepolesmarkedasQ,F,andLorRor RF.Threeformal,fairlyrigorous,butdifferentdefinitions(zcountingmethods)havebeen erected(Suttneretal.,1981;Folk,1974;Dickinson,1970;see AppendixI).Modalanalyses bythesethreemethodsofthesamethinsectionofasandstoneplotdifferently(Fig.5in Zuffa, 1985).ThemethodbyDickinson,morepopularlycalledtheGazzi-Dickinson(G-D)method, hasprovedtobethemostusefulandmostwidelyused.Modaldata,collectedbytheG-D methodandplottedintheDickinsondiagram(Fig.2.3),ef ficientlydiscriminatederivation ofsand-sizedsiliciclasticdetritusfromdifferenttectonicprovenance(Dickinson,1985; Dickinsonetal.,1983;DickinsonandSuczek,1979).Allthreemethods,quitewisely,retained theidentificationoftheoriginallabilemineralssuchasfeldsparsas “feldspars” evenifthey werealteredfullytoclaymineralsaslongasthedetritalgrainsretainedtheiroutlinesand othercharacteristicfeaturessuchasghosttwinning.Becauseexperiencedsubjectivejudgment isnecessaryforsuchidentification,automatedanalyticalimageanalysistodeterminethe modalcompositionofsandstonesisstillnotpossible.Butsee Bangs-RooneyandBasu (1994) forapossiblealternative.
4.2ChemicalCompositionsofBulkRocks
Bhatia(1983) and BhatiaandCrook(1986) discoveredthatdifferentsandstonesuitesfrom differenttectonicsettingsinAustralia,plotdifferentlyinCaO-Na2O-K2O,La-Th-Sc,Th-Sc-Zr, Ti/ZrversusLa/Sc,andLa/YversusSc/Crspaces.Theyconductedstatisticalanalysisof
FIGURE2.3 ThebasicQFLdiagramtoplot modalcompositionofsandstones,counted following Gazzi(1966) and Dickinson(1970) Manyhaveassignedtectonicprovenanceoftheir modaldataaccordingly.Adaptedfrom Dickinson(1985)
2.EVOLUTIONOFSILICICLASTICPROVENANCEINQUIRIES:ACRITICALAPPRAISAL
FIGURE2.5 Detritalzirconagespectraof(A)OakShale(lateNeoproterzoic?orlateMesoproterozoic?)inthe Cuddapahbasin,India,and(B)KansapatharSandstone(bracketedbetween1000and1400Ma)intheChhattisgarh basin,Indiashowingthatthemainsourceforbothsedimentaryunits some600kmapart arethe w2.5Gagranitic rocksoftwodifferentcratons.Fieldgeologyprecludesanycorrelationoracommonprovenance.After Bickfordetal. (2009,2013).
5.THECRITIQUE
5.1BulkMineralogicalCompositions
Empiricalstudiesled DickinsonandSuczek(1979),Dickinsonetal.(1983),and Bhatiaand Crook(1986) toidentifytectonicprovenancesinNorthAmericaandAustraliainwell-de fined spacesinQFLandLa-Th-Scandadditional/subsidiaryplots.Becausetheirsamplingwas geographicallyandtemporallylimited,itwouldbedoubtfuliftheirresultscouldbetaken asgeneraltemplates.Afewcounter-examplestotheirperceiveduniversalapplicabilityare discussedbelowwithsomeexplanatorynotes.Onemightnotehereinparenthesis,thatstatisticaltestsoftheverydatasetsusedtoerecttheQFLtemplatescanachieve “ success ” upto 85%andnomore(Molinarolietal.,1991).
Climateisasigni ficantfactorincontrollingthecompositionofsandsattheirorigin.The largeorographicbarrieroftheHimalayashasamuchwetterandwarmerclimatetoitssouth thantoitsnorth.EvenasmallorographicbarrierinJamaicahasthesamecontrast(Gupta, 1975).Compositionsofsandsgeneratedonthetwosidesofsuchorographicbarriersareobviouslydifferent,althoughtheyhavebeensourcedfromthesamemountainrange(zorogen). Quartzenrichmentatthesourcebecauseofclimaticeffectshasbeenwelldocumentedin modernsandsandancientsandstones(e.g., Garzantietal.,2015;Mack,1984;Suttneretal., 1981).Long-distancetransportofsandwithmultiplestoragesin floodplains,andreworking onthebeach,mayproduce “quartzsand” irrespectiveofitsultimateprovenance.Incontrast, beachsandsinPapuaafteraveryshorttransportdownasteepslope,eveninthehothumid climate,retainthequartz-poorcharacteroftheirsourceofavolcanicislandarc(Ruxton, 1970).Rivers,longorshort,mayalsocollectdetritusenroute,includingrecycledgrains fromoldertectonicregimes,orcrossothertectonicregimes,whichcompromisetheirQFL signature(e.g., Mack,1984;DickinsonandSuzcek,1979).Actually,compositionsofsome modernsandsareshowntobeaffectedbydifferentdegreesofweathering,systemsoftransport,andenvironmentsofdepositionsuf ficientlyenoughtodefyQFL-typeexpectations(e.g., Garzanti,2015;Garzantietal.,2015;andtheextensivereferencestherein).Diageneticprocessesdestroylabilegrainsinsandstonestodifferentdegreesandintheextrememaybe flushedawaybygroundwater flow,leavingsecondaryporesandproducingdiagenetic quartzarenitesthat,ofcourse,donotretainaQFLmemoryoftheirtectonicprovenance (McBride,1987).Diagenesisalsoproducespseudomatrixoutoflabilegrains,especiallyfeldsparandargillaceousgrains(Dickinson,1970;Sorby,1859).Ifnotconvertedfullytopseudomatrix,precursors(e.g.,feldspars,volcaniclithicfragments,schist,shale)ofsomeofthe argillaceousgrainsmaybeidentifiedandcountedassuch.Butthepreservationisvariable. Hence, Helleretal.(1985) recommendedthatasandstonewith >20%pseudomatrixshould notbeincludedintheQFL-typeprovenanceanalysis.
InDickinson’scompilationofthepetrographyofPhanerozoicNorthAmericansandstones,carbonaticsandgrainsareinsigni ficantandneglected.Theyare,however,quiteprofuseinsandstonesderivedfromMediterraneanorogens(Zuffa,1980).Whereasdisregarding suchsandstonesinQFL-typeprovenanceanalysis(Dickinson,1985,p.336)wouldnotnecessarilyinvalidatetectonicinferences,itwouldleaveouttheprovenanceinformationcontained inthecarbonaticgrains,especiallythosewithfossils.Theycouldalsodistortthemodaldata notenvisagedintheQFLmodel.Additionally,QFL-typemodaldatacouldbedistortedifa
fewsandstoneshadmixedheritagewithrecycledgrains,andhadsuffereddifferentialweatheringunderdifferentclimaticconditionsthatwouldproduceerraticquartzconcentrations (Mack,1984).
Basalticfragmentsandcalcicplagioclasecomenotonlyfromrocksinmagmaticarcsbut alsofromlargeintraplateigneousprovinces(seemapinFig.1of Xia,2014)thatoccurin “continentalblock” tectonicprovenance.Asomewhatunnoticedpapershowshowthe QFLcompositionsofsandsderivedprincipallyfromthelargest floodbasaltofthepresent time theDeccanTrapsinIndia plotprimarilyinthemagmaticarcprovenance fieldand alsoinother fields(inresponsetoquartzenrichmentbecauseofweatheringunderhothumid tropicalclimate)intheQFLdiagram(seeFigs.2and3of Garzanti,2015,andFig.3of Saha etal.,2010).Theinterpretativeerroris potentially enormouswhenProterozoicandArchean (meta-)sandstonesplottinginthemagmaticarc fieldsareusedasindicatorsofconvergent boundariesofthepast.Notrecognizing “anorogenicmagmatic” fieldsassubstantialsources ofvolcanicfragmentsinsiliciclasticsedimentaryrocksisadeficiencyoftheDickinsonian QFL-typeprovenanceanalysis(Garzanti,2015).Sedimentaryrocksandtheirmetamorphic equivalentsareabundantinorogens,especiallyinPhanerozoicorogens.Fragmentsofsuch rocksarepronetobeargillaceousorrenderedargillaceousthroughweatheringanddiagenesis.Thus,countedwiththeGDmethod,suchgrainswouldplotattheL-pole(Fig.2.3)and indicatetheirrecycledorogenprovenance.However,upliftedcontinentalblocksinmany partsoftheworldcradlemany flat-lyingundeformedandunmetamorphosedsedimentary rockssuchasinmanyoftheProterozoicandtheLatePaleozoic MesozoicbasinsintheerstwhileGondwana-Laurentiacontinents.Sedimentarylithicfragmentsderivedfromthese basins,plottingattheL-pole,wouldstronglydistortinterpretationsoftectonicprovenance.
Many,manymonomineralicquartzgrainsinsiliciclasticsediments,thiswritercontends, arerecycledfragmentsofsedimentaryrocks.Detritalquartzgrainswithovergrowthsare morecommonlyseeninmodernsedimentsthaninancientsandstoneswhere,inrarecases, abradedovergrowthsarepreserved(Basuetal.,2013;Critellietal.,2003;Garzantietal., 2003).Suchrarequartzgrainsarerecycledsedimentaryrockfragments;butmostothers remainunidentifiedassuch.QFL-typeanalysesmisstherelevantprovenanceinformation. Asofnow,however,wehavenootherpetrographicmeanstodistinguish first-cyclequartz fromrecycledquartz.
5.2BulkChemicalCompositions
Chemicalcompositionsofsiliciclasticsedimentaryrockshavetheadvantageofrepresentingthebulksedimentandnotonlythesand-sizedfractionasinthecaseofpetrographicanalysesalthoughtheylackthemineralogicalinformation,i.e.,anydirectknowledgeofthe hostsofthechemicalcomponents.Forexample,quartzorcalcitecementedquartzarenites willshowanomalousenrichmentofSiO2 orCaOandassociatedtraceelementsoverwhat wasdepositedoriginally.Likewise,adiageneticquartzarenitewithsecondaryporesafter feldsparwillshowanomalouslydepletedAl2O3,Na2O,K2O,andassociatedtraceelements. Barringsuchextremes,chemicalcompositionsofthemuddypartsofsandstonesaddtothe informationaboutthediageneticproductsoflabiledetritalgrains,whicharenowpreserved as “matrix” sensulatu.Ifwemakeanassumption,asveryeloquentlyandboldlystatedby Ali etal.(2014),thatweatheringanddiageneticprocessesbehavelikeaclosedsystemwith
7.THEFUTURE
Forcenturies,bothcuriosityandsocietalneedshaveinspiredbasicandappliedscienti fic research.Searchfortheoriginalsourcerocksorevenintermediate “stop-overs ” ofeconomic placerdeposits,suchasofdiamondandgold,arewell-knowntime-honoredexamples(e.g., Oppenheim,1943;Atkin,1904).Thereisnowaconcentratedeffortinthefossilfuelindustry topredictthepetrophysicalpropertiesofsubsurfacesiliciclasticrocksonthebasisoftheir inferredprovenanceandtheestimatedextentoftheirdiagenesis(e.g., HeinzandKairo, 2007).Suchstudiesandpredictivemodelswillgrowasneedsforfossilfuelincrease.Contemporaryclimaticchangeisareality.Localandglobalpaleoclimatesofthelasthundredsto thousandsofyears,asre flectedinmodernalluvialtodeep-seasediments(e.g., Asahara etal.,2012;Paletal.,2012;Luglietal.,2007),arecluestopredictingtheimmediatefuture. Becausetheresultsrequirecorrectionsandnormalizationforthesourcerockinput,provenancestudiesofmodernsedimentswillexpandtodecoupletectonicandclimaticsignatures.
Thecurrenttrendsinmeasurementsanddefiningoriginalcharacteristicsofdetritalminerals,which survive inthesedimentarymilieu,arelikelytogainprominenceinthenext 20yearsorso(cf. Suttner,1989).Determinationofabsoluteagesofcrystallizationofindividualmineralgrainsandtheovergrowthsonthem,forexample,zircon,monazite,rutile,feldspar,andothers,arelikelytoincreasemanifold.Ifsomeofthemineralgrainsarerecycled (e.g.,zircon,rutile),thentheirhistories,especiallytherecordsofpostdepositionalheating events,wouldhelpin “purifying” theprocessofidentifyingrelevantprovenance.Thedistributionsoftraceelementsandstableisotopes(e.g.,O,S,Si,Ti,Cr,Fe,Ni)lockedupinminerals(e.g.,zircon,quartz,rutile,pyroxene,etc.)arecommonlyindicativeoftheenvironments oftheircrystallization.Insituanalysesforsuchclues(e.g., Hofmannetal.,2009;Götzeetal., 2004)arelikelytobecomecommoninthenextdecadeortwo.
Thuswefollow Mackie(1897) inouroptimisticyetcautiousreasoning,andsay: “Thedust oftheoldlandshasbeenbuiltintothenew.Wehavetakenthesetinyfragments witnesses ofavenerablepast andaskedthemtotellussomethingoftheancientworldwhichthey beheld,” andconfess,withhumility,thatprovenanceremainsthemostdifficultproblem forasedimentarygeologisttosolve(Pettijohnetal.,1972).
8.CONCLUSIONS
Sixgiantconceptualleapsinthelast170yearsconstitutethefoundationsofcontemporary provenancestudiesofsiliciclasticsedimentsandsedimentaryrocks.Theyhavebeenevaluated,constrained,modified,andcontestedovertheyears.Thesenewconceptshavesurvived thetestsoftimeandarelikelyto “goonforever ” (Tennysonisgratefullyacknowledged). However,therearecaveats.
Therevolutionarymineralogical(QFL)approachby Dickinson(1985) followedupbythe chemicalapproach(elementalratios)erectedby BhatiaandCrook(1986),todeterminethe tectonicprovenanceofsiliciclasticrocks,andthusunravelthegeologicalhistoriesofdepositionalbasins,orogens,andplatemovement,donotnecessarilyleadtouniquesolutions. Neglectingcarbonaticdetritus,ignoringtheextentofrecycledoriginofdetritalquartz, ignoring floodbasaltsaspartsofupliftedcontinental/cratonicblocks,ignoringthediversity
2.EVOLUTIONOFSILICICLASTICPROVENANCEINQUIRIES:ACRITICALAPPRAISAL
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