Acknowledgements
Agreatmanypeoplehavehelpedinvariouswayswiththethirdeditionof thisbook.IputthechaptersonlineforcommentasIwrotethem,andIowe thankstothemanypeoplewhoreadthemandpointedoutassortederrorsand obscurities.Theyare:MansoorAhmed,SamAinsworth,PeterAllan,Amit SealAmi,JamesAndrews,TomAuger,Asokan,MariaBada,DanielBates, CraigBauer,PilgrimBeart,GerdBeuster,JohannBezuidenhoudt,FredBone, MattBrockman,NickBohm,FredBone,PhilBooth,LorenzoCavallaro,David Chaiken,YiTingChua,ValerioCini,BenCollier,HugoConnery,Lachlan Cooper,FranckCourbon,ChristopherCowan,OtvanDaalen,EzraDarshan, RomanDickmann,SaarDrimer,CharlesDuffy,MarlenaErdos,AndyFarnell, BobFenichel,DavidFernee,AlexisFitzGerald,Jean-AlainFournier,Jordan Frank,SteveFriedl,JerryGamache,AlexGantman,BenGardiner,JonGeater, StuartGentry,CamGerlach,JohnGilmore,JanGoette,RalphGross,Cyril Guerin,PedramHayati,ChengyingHe,MattHermannson,AlexHicks,Ross Hinds,TimothyHowell,NickHumphrey,JamesHumphry,DuncanHurwood, GaryIrvine,ErikItland,ChristianJeschke,GaryJohnson,DougJones,Henrik Karlzen,JoudKhoury,JonKilian,TimmKorte,RonnyKuckuck,MartKung, JayLala,JackLang,SusanLandau,PeterLandrock,CarlLandwehr,Peter Lansley,JeffLeese,JochenLeidner,TomdeLeon,AndrewLewis,David Lewis,SteveLipner,JimLippard,LizLouis,SimonLuyten,ChristianMainka, DhruvMalik,IvanMarsa-Maestra,PhilMaud,PatrickMcCorry,TJMcIntyre, MarcoMesturino,LukeMewburn,SpencerMoss,StevenMurdoch,Arvind Narayanan,LakshmiNarayanan,KristiNikolla,GregNorcie,Stanislav Ochotnický,AndyOzment,DeborahPeel,StephenPerlmutter,TonyPlank, WilliamPorquet,DavidPottage,MarkQuevedo,RoderickRees,LarryReeves, PhilippReisinger,MarkRichards,NiklasRosencrantz,AndySayler,Philipp
Schaumann,ChristianSchneider,BenScott,Jean-PierreSeifert,MarkShawyer, AdamShostack,IliaShumailov,BarbaraSimons,SamSmith,SaijaSorsa, MichaelSpecter,ChrisTarnovski,DonTaylor,AndrewThaeler,KurtThomas, AnthonyVance,JonasVautherin,AlexVetterl,JeffreyWalton,AndrewWatson,DeboraWeber-Wulff,NienkeWeiland,DavidWhite,BlakeWiggs,Robin Wilton,RonWoerner,BrunoWolff,StuartWray,JeffYan,TomYates,Andrew Yeomans,HaaroonYousaf,TimZanderandYirenZhao.Iamalsogratefulto myeditorsatWiley,TomDinse,JimMinatelandPeteGaughan,andtomy copyeditorsJudyFlynnandKimWimpsett,whohaveallhelpedmakethe processrunsmoothly.
Thepeoplewhocontributedinvariouswaystothefirstandsecondeditions includedthelateAnneAnderson,AdamAtkinson,JeanBacon,RobinBall, AndreasBender,AlastairBeresford,JohannBezuidenhoudt,Maximilian Blochberger,DavidBoddie,KristofBoeynaems,NickBohm,MikeBond, RichardBondi,RobertBrady,MartinBrain,JohnBrazier,IanBrown,Mike Brown,NickBohm,RichardBondi,thelateCasparBowden,DuncanCampbell,PiotrCarlson,PeterChambers,ValerioCini,RichardClayton,FrankClish, JolyonClulow,RichardCox,DanCvrcek,GeorgeDanezis,JamesDavenport, PeterDean,JohnDaugman,WhitDiffie,RogerDingledine,NickDrage, AustinDonnelly,BenDougall,SaarDrimer,OrrDunkelman,SteveEarly,Dan Eble,MikeEllims,JeremyEpstein,RasitEskicio ˇ glu,RobertFenichel,Fleur Fisher,ShawnFitzgerald,DarrenFoong,ShailendraFuloria,DanGeer,Gary Geldart,PaulGillingwater,JohnGilmore,BrianGladman,VirgilGligor,Bruce Godfrey,JohnGordon,GaryGraunke,RichGraveman,WendyGrossman, DanHagon,FengHao,TonyHarminc,PieterHartel,DavidHåsäther,BillHey, FayHider,KonstantinHyppönen,IanJackson,NeilJenkins,SimonJenkins, RogerJohnston,OliverJorns,NikolaosKarapanos,thelatePaulKarger,Ian Kelly,GrantKelly,AlistairKelman,RonaldDeKeulenaer,HyoungJoongKim, PatrickKoeberl,OliverKömmerling,SimonKramer,MarkusKuhn,Peter Landrock,SusanLandau,JackLang,Jong-HyeonLee,thelateOwenLewis, StephenLewis,PaulLeyland,JimLippard,WillieList,DanLough,John McHugh,thelateDavidMacKay,GarryMcKay,UdiManber,JohnMartin, NickMathewson,TylerMoore,thelateBobMorris,IraMoskowitz,Steven Murdoch,ShishirNagaraja,RogerNebel,thelateRogerNeedham,Stephan Neuhaus,AndrewOdlyzko,MarkOeltjenbruns,JoeOsborne,AndyOzment, AlexandrosPapadopoulos,RoyPaterson,ChrisPepper,OscarPereira,Fabien Petitcolas,RaphaelPhan,MikeRoe,MarkRotenberg,AviRubin,JerrySaltzer, MarvSchaefer,DeniseSchmandt-Besserat,GusSimmons,SamSimpson, SergeiSkorobogatov,MatthewSlyman,RickSmith,SijbrandSpannenburg,the lateKarenSpärckJones,MarkStaples,FrankStajano,PhilippSteinmetz,Nik Sultana,DonTaylor,MartinTaylor,PeterTaylor,DanielThomas,PaulThomas,
VlasiosTsiatsis,MarcTobias,HalVarian,NickVolenec,DanielWagner-Hall, RandallWalker,RobertWatson,KeithWillis,SimonWiseman,StuartWray,Jeff YanandthelateStefekZaba.Ialsoowealottomyfirstpublisher,CarolLong. ThroughthewholeprocessIhavebeensupportedbymyfamily,andespeciallybymylong-sufferingwifeShireen.Eacheditionofthebookmeantover ayearwhenIwasconstantlydistracted.Hugethankstoallforputtingup withme!
PartII
Chapter9MultilevelSecurity315
Chapter10Boundaries341
Chapter11InferenceControl375
Chapter12BankingandBookkeeping405
Chapter13LocksandAlarms471
Chapter14MonitoringandMetering497
Chapter15NuclearCommandandControl529
Chapter16SecurityPrintingandSeals549
Chapter17Biometrics571
Chapter18TamperResistance599
Chapter19SideChannels639
Chapter20AdvancedCryptographicEngineering667
Chapter21NetworkAttackandDefence699
Chapter22Phones737
Chapter23ElectronicandInformationWarfare777
Chapter24CopyrightandDRM815
Chapter25NewDirections?865
PartIII
Chapter26SurveillanceorPrivacy?909
Chapter27SecureSystemsDevelopment965
Chapter28AssuranceandSustainability1015
Chapter29Beyond“ComputerSaysNo”1059 Bibliography1061 Index1143
2.2.1.5BullrunandEdgehill22
2.2.1.6Xkeyscore23
2.2.1.7Longhaul24
2.2.1.8Quantum25
2.2.1.9CNE25
2.2.1.10Theanalyst’sviewpoint27
2.2.1.11Offensiveoperations28
2.2.1.12Attackscaling29
2.2.2China30
2.2.3Russia35
2.2.4Therest38
2.2.5Attribution40
2.3Crooks41
2.3.1Criminalinfrastructure42
2.3.1.1Botnetherders42
2.3.1.2Malwaredevs44
2.3.1.3Spamsenders45
2.3.1.4Bulkaccountcompromise45
2.3.1.5Targetedattackers46
2.3.1.6Cashoutgangs46
2.3.1.7Ransomware47
2.3.2Attacksonbankingandpaymentsystems47
2.3.3Sectoralcybercrimeecosystems49
2.3.4Internalattacks49
2.3.5CEOcrimes49
2.3.6Whistleblowers50 2.4Geeks52
2.5Theswamp53
2.5.1Hacktivismandhatecampaigns54
2.5.2Childsexabusematerial55
2.5.3Schoolandworkplacebullying57
2.5.4Intimaterelationshipabuse57 2.6Summary59 Researchproblems60 Furtherreading61 Chapter3PsychologyandUsability63
3.1Introduction63
3.2Insightsfrompsychologyresearch64
3.2.1Cognitivepsychology65
3.2.2Gender,diversityandinterpersonalvariation68
3.2.3Socialpsychology70
3.2.3.1Authorityanditsabuse71
3.2.3.2Thebystandereffect72
3.2.4Thesocial-braintheoryofdeception73
3.2.5Heuristics,biasesandbehaviouraleconomics76
3.2.5.1Prospecttheoryandriskmisperception77
3.2.5.2Presentbiasandhyperbolicdiscounting78
3.2.5.3Defaultsandnudges79
3.2.5.4Thedefaulttointentionality79
3.2.5.5Theaffectheuristic80
3.2.5.6Cognitivedissonance81
3.2.5.7Theriskthermostat81
3.3Deceptioninpractice81
3.3.1Thesalesmanandthescamster82
3.3.2Socialengineering84
3.3.3Phishing86
3.3.4Opsec88
3.3.5Deceptionresearch89 3.4Passwords90
3.4.1Passwordrecovery92
3.4.2Passwordchoice94
3.4.3Difficultieswithreliablepasswordentry94
3.4.4Difficultieswithrememberingthepassword95
3.4.4.1Naïvechoice96
3.4.4.2Userabilitiesandtraining96
3.4.4.3Designerrors98
3.4.4.4Operationalfailures100
3.4.4.5Social-engineeringattacks101
3.4.4.6Customereducation102
3.4.4.7Phishingwarnings103
3.4.5Systemissues104
3.4.6Canyoudenyservice?105
3.4.7Protectingoneselforothers?105
3.4.8Attacksonpasswordentry106
3.4.8.1Interfacedesign106
3.4.8.2Trustedpath,andbogusterminals107
3.4.8.3Technicaldefeatsofpasswordretry counters107
3.4.9Attacksonpasswordstorage108
3.4.9.1One-wayencryption109
3.4.9.2Passwordcracking109
3.4.9.3Remotepasswordchecking109
3.4.10Absolutelimits110
3.4.11Usingapasswordmanager111
3.4.12Willweevergetridofpasswords?113
3.5CAPTCHAs115
3.6Summary116 Researchproblems117 Furtherreading118
Chapter4Protocols119
4.1Introduction119
4.2Passwordeavesdroppingrisks120
4.3Whogoesthere?–simpleauthentication122
4.3.1Challengeandresponse124
4.3.2Two-factorauthentication128
4.3.3TheMIG-in-the-middleattack129
4.3.4Reflectionattacks132
4.4Manipulatingthemessage133
4.5Changingtheenvironment134
4.6Chosenprotocolattacks135
4.7Managingencryptionkeys136
4.7.1Theresurrectingduckling137
4.7.2Remotekeymanagement137
4.7.3TheNeedham-Schroederprotocol138
4.7.4Kerberos139
4.7.5Practicalkeymanagement141
4.8Designassurance141
4.9Summary143 Researchproblems143 Furtherreading144
Chapter5Cryptography145
5.1Introduction145
5.2Historicalbackground146
5.2.1Anearlystreamcipher–theVigenère147
5.2.2Theone-timepad148
5.2.3Anearlyblockcipher–Playfair150
5.2.4Hashfunctions152
5.2.5Asymmetricprimitives154
5.3Securitymodels155
5.3.1Randomfunctions–hashfunctions157
5.3.1.1Properties157
5.3.1.2Thebirthdaytheorem158
5.3.2Randomgenerators–streamciphers159
5.3.3Randompermutations–blockciphers161
5.3.4Publickeyencryptionandtrapdoorone-way permutations163
5.3.5Digitalsignatures164
5.4Symmetriccryptoalgorithms165
5.4.1SP-networks165
5.4.1.1Blocksize166
5.4.1.2Numberofrounds166
5.4.1.3ChoiceofS-boxes167
5.4.1.4Linearcryptanalysis167
5.4.1.5Differentialcryptanalysis168
5.4.2TheAdvancedEncryptionStandard(AES)169
5.4.3Feistelciphers171
5.4.3.1TheLuby-Rackoffresult173
5.4.3.2DES173
5.5Modesofoperation175
5.5.1Hownottouseablockcipher176
5.5.2Cipherblockchaining177
5.5.3Counterencryption178
5.5.4Legacystreamciphermodes178
5.5.5Messageauthenticationcode179
5.5.6Galoiscountermode180
5.5.7XTS180
5.6Hashfunctions181
5.6.1Commonhashfunctions181
5.6.2Hashfunctionapplications–HMAC,commitments andupdating183
5.7Asymmetriccryptoprimitives185
5.7.1Cryptographybasedonfactoring185
5.7.2Cryptographybasedondiscretelogarithms188
5.7.2.1One-waycommutativeencryption189
5.7.2.2Diffie-Hellmankeyestablishment190
5.7.2.3ElGamaldigitalsignatureandDSA192
5.7.3Ellipticcurvecryptography193
5.7.4Certificationauthorities194
5.7.5TLS195
5.7.5.1TLSuses196
5.7.5.2TLSsecurity196
5.7.5.3TLS1.3197
5.7.6Otherpublic-keyprotocols197
5.7.6.1Codesigning197
5.7.6.2PGP/GPG198
5.7.6.3QUIC199
5.7.7Special-purposeprimitives199
5.7.8Howstrongareasymmetriccryptographic primitives?200
5.7.9Whatelsegoeswrong202
5.8Summary203 Researchproblems204 Furtherreading204
Chapter6AccessControl207
6.1Introduction207
6.2Operatingsystemaccesscontrols209
6.2.1Groupsandroles210
6.2.2Accesscontrollists211
6.2.3Unixoperatingsystemsecurity212
6.2.4Capabilities214
6.2.5DACandMAC215
6.2.6Apple’smacOS217
6.2.7iOS217
6.2.8Android218
6.2.9Windows219
6.2.10Middleware222
6.2.10.1Databaseaccesscontrols222
6.2.10.2Browsers223
6.2.11Sandboxing224
6.2.12Virtualisation225
6.3Hardwareprotection227
6.3.1Intelprocessors228
6.3.2Armprocessors230
6.4Whatgoeswrong231
6.4.1Smashingthestack232
6.4.2Othertechnicalattacks234
6.4.3Userinterfacefailures236
6.4.4Remedies237
6.4.5Environmentalcreep238
6.5Summary239 Researchproblems240 Furtherreading240
Chapter7DistributedSystems243
7.1Introduction243
7.2Concurrency244
7.2.1Usingolddataversuspayingtopropagatestate245
7.2.2Lockingtopreventinconsistentupdates246
7.2.3Theorderofupdates247
7.2.4Deadlock248
7.2.5Non-convergentstate249
7.2.6Securetime250
7.3Faulttoleranceandfailurerecovery251
7.3.1Failuremodels252
7.3.1.1Byzantinefailure252
7.3.1.2Interactionwithfaulttolerance253
7.3.2Whatisresiliencefor?254
7.3.3Atwhatlevelistheredundancy?255
7.3.4Service-denialattacks257
7.4Naming259
7.4.1TheNeedhamnamingprinciples260
7.4.2Whatelsegoeswrong263
7.4.2.1Namingandidentity264
7.4.2.2Culturalassumptions265
7.4.2.3Semanticcontentofnames267
7.4.2.4Uniquenessofnames268
7.4.2.5Stabilityofnamesandaddresses269
7.4.2.6Restrictionsontheuseofnames269
7.4.3Typesofname270
7.5Summary271 Researchproblems272 Furtherreading273 Chapter8Economics275 8.1Introduction275 8.2Classicaleconomics276
8.2.1Monopoly278 8.3Informationeconomics281
8.3.1Whyinformationmarketsaredifferent281
8.3.2Thevalueoflock-in282
8.3.3Asymmetricinformation284
8.3.4Publicgoods285 8.4Gametheory286
8.4.1Theprisoners’dilemma287
8.4.2Repeatedandevolutionarygames288 8.5Auctiontheory291
8.6Theeconomicsofsecurityanddependability293
8.6.1WhyisWindowssoinsecure?294
8.6.2Managingthepatchingcycle296
8.6.3Structuralmodelsofattackanddefence298
8.6.4Theeconomicsoflock-in,tyingandDRM300
8.6.5Antitrustlawandcompetitionpolicy302
8.6.6Perverselymotivatedguards304
8.6.7Economicsofprivacy305
8.6.8Organisationsandhumanbehaviour307
8.6.9Economicsofcybercrime308 8.7Summary310 Researchproblems311 Furtherreading311
PartII
Chapter9MultilevelSecurity315
9.1Introduction315
9.2Whatisasecuritypolicymodel?316
9.3Multilevelsecuritypolicy318
9.3.1TheAndersonreport319
9.3.2TheBell-LaPadulamodel320
9.3.3ThestandardcriticismsofBell-LaPadula321
9.3.4TheevolutionofMLSpolicies323
9.3.5TheBibamodel325
9.4HistoricalexamplesofMLSsystems326
9.4.1SCOMP326
9.4.2Datadiodes327
9.5MAC:fromMLStoIFCandintegrity329
9.5.1Windows329
9.5.2SELinux330
9.5.3Embeddedsystems330
9.6Whatgoeswrong331
9.6.1Composability331
9.6.2Thecascadeproblem332
9.6.3Covertchannels333
9.6.4Thethreatfrommalware333
9.6.5Polyinstantiation334
9.6.6PracticalproblemswithMLS335
9.7Summary337 Researchproblems338 Furtherreading339
Chapter10Boundaries341
10.1Introduction341
10.2Compartmentationandthelatticemodel344
10.3Privacyfortigers346
10.4Healthrecordprivacy349
10.4.1Thethreatmodel351
10.4.2TheBMAsecuritypolicy353
10.4.3Firstpracticalsteps356
10.4.4Whatactuallygoeswrong357 10.4.4.1Emergencycare358 10.4.4.2Resilience359
10.4.4.3Secondaryuses359
10.4.5Confidentiality–thefuture362
10.4.6Ethics365
10.4.7Socialcareandeducation367
10.4.8TheChineseWall369 10.5Summary371 Researchproblems372 Furtherreading373 Chapter11InferenceControl375 11.1Introduction375
11.2Theearlyhistoryofinferencecontrol377
11.2.1Thebasictheoryofinferencecontrol378 11.2.1.1Querysetsizecontrol378 11.2.1.2Trackers379 11.2.1.3Cellsuppression379
11.2.1.4Otherstatisticaldisclosurecontrol mechanisms380
11.2.1.5Moresophisticatedquerycontrols381
11.2.1.6Randomization382
11.2.2Limitsofclassicalstatisticalsecurity383
11.2.3Activeattacks384
11.2.4Inferencecontrolinrichmedicaldata385
11.2.5Thethirdwave:preferencesandsearch388 11.2.6Thefourthwave:locationandsocial389 11.3Differentialprivacy392 11.4Mindthegap?394 11.4.1Tacticalanonymityanditsproblems395 11.4.2Incentives398 11.4.3Alternatives399 11.4.4Thedarkside400 11.5Summary401 Researchproblems402 Furtherreading402 Chapter12BankingandBookkeeping405 12.1Introduction405 12.2Bookkeepingsystems406
12.2.1Double-entrybookkeeping408
12.2.2Bookkeepinginbanks408
12.2.3TheClark-Wilsonsecuritypolicymodel410
12.2.4Designinginternalcontrols411 12.2.5Insiderfrauds415
12.2.6Executivefrauds416
12.2.6.1Thepostofficecase418
12.2.6.2Otherfailures419
12.2.6.3Ecologicalvalidity420
12.2.6.4Controltuningandcorporategovernance421
12.2.7Findingtheweakspots422
12.3Interbankpaymentsystems424
12.3.1AtelegraphichistoryofE-commerce424
12.3.2SWIFT425
12.3.3Whatgoeswrong427
12.4Automatictellermachines430
12.4.1ATMbasics430
12.4.2Whatgoeswrong433
12.4.3Incentivesandinjustices437 12.5Creditcards438
12.5.1Creditcardfraud439
12.5.2Onlinecardfraud440
12.5.33DS443
12.5.4Fraudengines444
12.6EMVpaymentcards445
12.6.1Chipcards445
12.6.1.1Staticdataauthentication446
12.6.1.2ICVVs,DDAandCDA450
12.6.1.3TheNo-PINattack451
12.6.2Thepreplayattack452
12.6.3Contactless454 12.7Onlinebanking457
12.7.1Phishing457
12.7.2CAP458
12.7.3Bankingmalware459
12.7.4Phonesassecondfactors459
12.7.5Liability461
12.7.6Authorisedpushpaymentfraud462
12.8Nonbankpayments463
12.8.1M-Pesa463
12.8.2Otherphonepaymentsystems464
12.8.3Sofort,andopenbanking465
12.9Summary466 Researchproblems466 Furtherreading468
