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SavingFood
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Listofcontributors
ElisabeteM.C.Alexandre QOPNA&LAQV-REQUIMTE,Departmentof Chemistry,UniversityofAveiro,Aveiro,Portugal;CenterforBiotechnologyand FineChemistry AssociatedLaboratory,SchoolofBiotechnology,Catholic UniversityofPortugal,Porto,Portugal
Vale ´ rieL.Almli SensoryandConsumerScienceDepartment,Nofima,A ˚ s, Norway
GracielaAlvarez RefrigerationProcessEngineeringResearchUnit,IRSTEA, Antony,France
JessicaAschemann-Witzel MAPPCentre,DepartmentofManagement,Aarhus SchoolofBusinessandSocialSciences,AarhusUniversity,Aarhus,Denmark
CarlaCaldeira EuropeanCommission,JointResearchCentre(JRC),Ispra,Italy
SaraCorrado EuropeanCommission,JointResearchCentre(JRC),Ispra,Italy
ChristineCostello AssistantProfessor,Industrial&ManufacturingSystems Engineering,UniversityofMissouri,Columbia,MO,UnitedStates
IlonaE.deHooge MarketingandConsumerBehaviourgroup,Wageningen University,Wageningen,TheNetherlands
HansDeSteur DepartmentofAgriculturalEconomics,FacultyofBiosciences Engineering,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium
ManojK.Dora CollegeofBusiness,Arts&SocialSciences,BrunelBusiness School,BrunelUniversity,London,UnitedKingdom
GabrieldaSilvaFilipini FederalUniversityofRioGrande,SchoolofChemistry andFood,RioGrande,Brazil
XavierGellynck DepartmentofAgriculturalEconomics,FacultyofBiosciences Engineering,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium
SelaleGlaue EfesVocationalSchool,DokuzEylulUniversity, ˙ Izmir,Turkey
NihanGogus EfesVocationalSchool,DokuzEylulUniversity, ˙ Izmir,Turkey
TizianoGomiero Independentscholar,Treviso,Italy
GangLiu SDULifeCycleEngineering,DepartmentofChemicalEngineering, Biotechnology,andEnvironmentalTechnology,UniversityofSouthernDenmark, Odense,Denmark
LaraManzocco DepartmentofAgricultural,Food,EnvironmentalandAnimal Sciences,UniversityofUdine,Udine,Italy
PaolaChavesMartins FederalUniversityofRioGrande,SchoolofChemistry andFood,RioGrande,Brazil
Vila ´ siaGuimara ˜ esMartins FederalUniversityofRioGrande,Schoolof ChemistryandFood,RioGrande,Brazil
UltanMcCarthy SchoolofScience&Computing,DepartmentofScience, WaterfordInstituteofTechnology,Waterford,Ireland
SamuelMercier DepartmentofElectricalEngineering,UniversityofSouth Florida,Tampa,FL,UnitedStates;DepartmentofChemicalandBiotechnological Engineering,Universite ´ deSherbrooke,Sherbrooke,QC,Canada
MartinMondor Saint-HyacintheResearchandDevelopmentCentre,Agriculture andAgri-FoodCanada,Saint-Hyacinthe,QC,Canada
Sı´lviaA.Moreira QOPNA&LAQV-REQUIMTE,DepartmentofChemistry, UniversityofAveiro,Aveiro,Portugal;CenterforBiotechnologyandFine Chemistry AssociatedLaboratory,SchoolofBiotechnology,CatholicUniversity ofPortugal,Porto,Portugal
SemihOtles FoodEngineeringDepartment,EgeUniversity, Izmir,Turkey
AdityaParmar NaturalResourcesInstitute,UniversityofGreenwich,London, UnitedKingdom
DarianPearce DepartmentofAgriculturalEconomics,FacultyofBiosciences Engineering,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium
ManuelaPintado CenterforBiotechnologyandFineChemistry Associated Laboratory,SchoolofBiotechnology,CatholicUniversityofPortugal,Porto, Portugal
CarlosA.Pinto QOPNA&LAQV-REQUIMTE,DepartmentofChemistry, UniversityofAveiro,Aveiro,Portugal
StellaPlazzotta DepartmentofAgricultural,Food,EnvironmentalandAnimal Sciences,UniversityofUdine,Udine,Italy
VivianePatrı´ciaRomani FederalUniversityofRioGrande,SchoolofChemistry andFood,RioGrande,Brazil
SerenellaSala EuropeanCommission,JointResearchCentre(JRC),Ispra,Italy
JorgeA.Saraiva QOPNA&LAQV-REQUIMTE,DepartmentofChemistry, UniversityofAveiro,Aveiro,Portugal
TaijaSinkko EuropeanCommission,JointResearchCentre(JRC),Ispra,Italy
DespoudiStella AstonBusinessSchool,AstonUniversity,Birmingham,United Kingdom
SebnemTavman FoodEngineeringDepartment,EgeUniversity, Izmir,Turkey
IsmailUysal DepartmentofElectricalEngineering,UniversityofSouthFlorida, Tampa,FL,UnitedStates
SebastienVilleneuve Saint-HyacintheResearchandDevelopmentCentre, AgricultureandAgri-FoodCanada,Saint-Hyacinthe,QC,Canada
JoshuaWesana DepartmentofAgriculturalEconomics,FacultyofBiosciences Engineering,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium;SchoolofAgriculturaland EnvironmentalSciences,MountainsoftheMoonUniversity,FortPortal,Uganda
LiXue InstituteofGeographicSciencesandNaturalResourcesResearch,Chinese AcademyofSciences,Beijing,P.R.China;SDULifeCycleEngineering, DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,Biotechnology,andEnvironmental Technology,UniversityofSouthernDenmark,Odense,Denmark;Universityof ChineseAcademyofSciences,Beijing,P.R.China
Preface
Aboutone-thirdofthefoodproducedintheworldforhumanconsumptiongetslost orwastedeveryyear.Thisquantityisshockingconsideringthatitaccountsapproximatelyfor1.3billiontonsoffood.Asitcanbeeasilyunderstood,theproblemof foodlossandwasteisdirectlyconnectedtohungerandglobalsustainabilityinthe 21stcentury.However,theproblemisevenbiggerthanitseems,asfoodlossalso accompaniesamajorsquanderingofresourcessuchaswater,land,energy,labor, andcapital.Inaddition,itisconnectedtoincreasedandunwantedgreenhousegas emissionsthatcontributetoglobalwarmingandclimatechange.Theproblemof foodlossandfoodwasteissobigthatitcannotbesolvedwithmereactivitiesor simplesuggestions.Itcanbeeliminatedonlybyfacingchallengesandproviding continuoussolutions,atalllevelsoffoodproductionandconsumptionforallthe involvedactorsandstakeholders.Correctingthepolicyframework,optimizingagriculturalpractices,shapingfoodproduction,changingconsumers’andcompanies’ attitudes,motivatingretailers,promotingpackagingandprocesstechnologies,valorizingwastestreams,andotheractionsshouldalsobetakenintoaccount.
Subsequently,aguidecoveringthelatestdevelopmentsinthisparticulardirectionisrequired.Thisbookfillsthesegapsbycoveringalltheaspectsoffood-loss reductionatallrelevantstagesandinallpossibleways.Itprovidesdetailsabout introducingsustainablefoodproduction,adaptingmoresustainablemethodsfor efficientcropcultivationandharvesting,optimizingutilizationofresources,eliminatinglossesinthesupplychain,adaptingsustainablepackagingsolutions,appealingenterprisestochangeconsumerbehavior,developingfoodwastevalorization strategies,andraisingpeople’sawarenessofwastedfood.Theultimategoalisto supportthescientificcommunity,policymakers,professionals,andenterprises,that aspiretosetupactionsandstrategies,toreducewastageoffood.Thereby,thebook targetsallinvolvedactorsandaimstodriveinnovations,promoteinterdisciplinary dialogues,andsparkdebatestogeneratesolutionsacrosstheentirevaluechain fromfieldtofork.
Itconsistsof13chapters.Chapter1providesanintroductiontoglobalfoodloss andfoodwasteusingdatafor84countriesand52individualyears.Chapter2 reviewssoilandcropmanagementpracticesthatmayreduceyieldloss,or increaseyields,whilereducingtheuseofinputsandtheenvironmentalimpactof agriculturalactivities.Anumberoffoodlossreductionmeasures(technicaland behavioral)areavailablealongtheentirevaluechain,butthemotivationtoimplementthemistheonethatneedsdueconsiderationandaction.Furtheroptimization ofagriculturalpracticestosavefoodisdescribedinChapter3.
Duringfoodproduction,transport,storage,andfinalconsumption,thefoodpropertiesmaygetaffectedinseveralways.Toensuresafetyandstabilityoffoodsand avoidtheirdischarge,effectiveandeconomicfoodpreservationmethodsshouldbe selected.Chapter4dealswiththeconventionalandemergingpreservation techniques,suchaspasteurization,sterilization,cooling,freezing,ohmicheating, microwave,andradiofrequency,whicharethermalpreservationtechnologies.On theotherhand,Chapter5dealswiththeapplicationofnonthermalandeco-friendly emergentprocessingmethodologiessuchashighpressureprocessing,pulsedelectricfields,andultrasounds.Thesemoderntechnologiesassureproducts’safetyas wellasmaintaintheiroriginalquality,thuscontributingtofoodlossreductionduringproduction.
Anefficientwaytopreservefoodisusingindustrialprocesses,butitisalso possibletouseactivepackagingtoextendtheshelflifeoffoodproducts.Tothis end,Chapter6discussesexistingandinnovativepackagingsolutionstominimize foodwaste.Chapter7reviewsthemainstagesandtechnologiesusedforthepreservationofperishablefoodproductsalongthesupplychain,andtheamountoffood lostorwastedalongthesestagesforthemainfamiliesofproducts.Italsohighlights theneedforbetterrefrigerationoffoodalongthelaststagesofthecoldchain(retail andconsumerhandling)andforbettermanagementalongthecommercialportion ofthecoldchainindevelopedcountries.Chapter8aimstoprovideanoverviewon lossesinthefoodindustry.Atfirst,foodlossesintheupstreamanddownstream supplychainarediscussedpriortodenotingthedifferentwaystoreducefood lossesbyoptimizingsupplychains.Solutionsatthesupplychainentity levelas wellassupplychainnetwork levelareprovided.Chapter9presentsmitigating approachesthatcouldbeinitiatedalongfoodsupplychains.Thisisconductedby discussingacasestudyofmeasuringfoodlossesinthesupplychainthroughvalue streammappinginthedairysectorinUganda.
Foodwastevalorizationincludesdifferentfoodwastemanagementstrategies, whosegoalistoturnfoodwasteintovalue-addedderivativestobeusedinfoodor otherindustrialsectors.Thesestrategiespresenttheadvantageofexploitingan always-availableandcheapsource,suchasfoodwaste,forproducingderivatives presentingahighpotentialmarketvalue.Chapter10,discussesthebasicdefinitions andprinciplesatthebasisoffoodwastevalorizationandpresentsrelevantstrategies,withparticularemphasisonthoseinwhichthegreatpotentialoffoodwasteis maximallyexploited.
InChapter11,theenvironmentalimpactsoffoodproductionandconsumption ofanaverageEuropeancitizenareassessedtakingthefoodwastegeneratedalong thefoodsupplychainintoaccount.Inaddition,theimpactoffoodwastereduction andadoptionofdifferentdietsareestimated.Chapter12discussesfoodwasteat theconsumer retailerinterface,theso-called“suboptimalfood”(reductionoffood lossesandwastesisoneoftheagriculturalresearchareas,thathasreceivedonly limitedresourcesandattentionfromthepublicandprivatesectorsincomparisonto increasedyieldsperhectare).Finally,Chapter13providesanintroductiontothe conceptsofZeroWasteandlife-cycleassessment;anoverviewofthechallenges presentedbytheUnitedStatesagriculturalsystemasitistoday;andadiscussion
onthefoodwastemanagementoptionsincludedintheEnvironmentalProtection Agency’sFoodRecoveryHierarchy.
Conclusively,thebookisaguideforfoodretailers,supplychainspecialists, foodscientists,foodtechnologists,foodengineers,professionals,agriculturalists, andfoodproducerstryingtominimizethefoodlossandadaptzerowastestrategies. Itprovidescriticalinformationinthisdirection,sothatthegeneralpubliccanbe aware,thegovernmentcansetrelevantguidelines,andfinallythefoodindustrycan optimizeproductionlines.Itprovidesanoverviewanddescriptionoftheproblem fromdifferentangles(e.g.,environmentalimpacts,somesocialandmanytechnologicalissues)andcoveringdifferentactors(consumers,producers,processors, industry,policymakers,etc.).Thiswayitcanhelpidentifycurrentresearchgaps andspurmorein-depthinvestigationsofcertaintopicsdescribedinthedifferent chapters.Itcouldbeofparticularinteresttofoodindustrystakeholdersasit highlightsstrategiesandtechnologiesthatcouldhelpmitigatefoodwaste. Knowledgeofbestpracticesandadvancedproceduresforthebalancedproduction ofagriculturalresourcesandfoods,andtheirredistribution,transportation,and consumptionwouldmakeitpossibletoachievesustainablefoodsystems.
Atthispoint,Iwouldliketoexpressmygratitudetoalltheauthorsofthebook fortheiracceptanceofmyinvitationandtheirparticipationinthiscollaborative bookthatbringstogether,forthefirsttime,differentscientific,technological,and managerialissuesofsavingfoodinonecomprehensivetext.Theyacceptedand followedtheeditorialguidelines,thebook’sconcept,andthetimelinewithultimate attention.Alltheseactionsconcludeinagreathonorformeandarehighlyappreciated.Iconsidermyselffortunatetohavehadtheopportunitytobringtogetherso manyexpertsfromBelgium,Brazil,Canada,China,Denmark,France,Italy, Ireland,Norway,Portugal,TheNetherlands,Turkey,Uganda,theUnitedKingdom, andUnitedStates.IwouldliketothanktheacquisitioneditorMeganBall,thebook managerKaterinaZaliva,andallElsevier’sproductionstafffortheirhelpduring theeditingandpublishingprocess.
IwouldalsoliketothanktheFoodWasteRecoveryGroup(www.foodwasterecovery.group)ofISEKIFoodAssociationanditspoolofexpertsthatprovidedus withvaluableinformationaboutdifferentwaysofsavingfood.
Lastbutnottheleast,amessageforallthereaders:Suchcollaborativeprojects ofhundredsofthousandsofwordsmaycontainafewerrorsandgaps.Anyinstructivecommentsorevencriticismsareandalwayswillbewelcome.Thus,neverhesitatetocontactmetodiscussanyissueswiththebook.
CharisM.Galanakis1,2
1FoodWasteRecoveryGroup,ISEKIFoodAssociation,Vienna, Austria, 2Research&InnovationDepartment,GalanakisLaboratories, Chania,Greece
Introductiontoglobalfoodlosses andfoodwaste
LiXue1,2,3 andGangLiu2
1
1InstituteofGeographicSciencesandNaturalResourcesResearch,ChineseAcademyof Sciences,Beijing,P.R.China, 2SDULifeCycleEngineering,DepartmentofChemical Engineering,Biotechnology,andEnvironmentalTechnology,UniversityofSouthern Denmark,Odense,Denmark, 3UniversityofChineseAcademyofSciences,Beijing,P.R. China
ChapterOutline
1.1Introduction1
1.2Systemdefinition4
1.2.1Foodlossesandfoodwaste4
1.2.2Foodsupplychain4
1.2.3Foodcommoditygroups5
1.2.4Geographicalandtemporalboundary5
1.3Foodlossesandfoodwastequantification6
1.3.1Bibliometricanalysisofliterature6
1.3.2Differentmethodsusedforfoodlossesandfoodwastequantification9
1.3.3Foodlossesandfoodwasteingeneral16
1.4Implicationsforfuture23
1.5Conclusions26 References26
1.1Introduction
Foodlossesandfoodwaste(FLW)occuralongthewholefoodsupplychain.In recentyears,FLWhasbecomeaglobalconcernandposesconsiderablechallenges tofoodsecurity(TheEconomistIntelligenceUnit,2014),naturalresources(FAO, 2013),environment(Katajajuurietal.,2012),andhumanhealth(Phametal., 2014),andisthereforeconsideredasakeyobstacletosustainabledevelopment. Therefore,reducingFLWhasbeenputonthepoliticalagendaattheglobaland nationallevels.Forinstance,theUnitedNationshassetatargetofhalvingpercapitaglobalfoodwasteattheretailandconsumerlevelsandreducingfoodlosses alongproductionandsupplychainsby2030,intheSustainableDevelopmentGoals (SDG)Target12.3(UnitedNations,2017).TheEuropeanUnion(European CommissionFoodSafetyHomePage,2017)hastakenactionstoworktowardsthis
target;in2015,theUnitedStates(UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,2017) alsoannounceditsfirst-evernationalgoaltoreducefoodwasteby50%by2030to improvefoodsecurityandprotectnaturalresources;andtheAfricanUnionalso madeacommitmenttohalvepostharvestlossesby2025inthe2014Malabo Declaration(Lipinskietal.,2016).
Overthepastfewdecades,withgrowingconcernsandattentiononFLWfrom publicandpoliticalsectors,moreandmorestudieshavequantifiedFLWacrossthe foodsupplychainatnational,regional,andglobalscales.Forexample,according totheFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)oftheUnitedNations,aboutonethirdoffoodproductionwaslostorwastedworldwidethatwasmeantforhuman consumption(Gustavssonetal.,2011).ThissignificantamountofFLWwould mean4.4gigatonnesofCO2 equivalent(FAO,2015),250km3 ofbluewaterfootprint(FAO,2013),28%ofthetotalagriculturelandgloballyduringagricultureproduction,aneconomiccostofaboutUSD750billion(equivalenttothegross domesticproduct(GDP)ofTurkey)(FAO,2013),andapproximately24%ofall foodproducedwhenconvertedintocalories(Gustavssonetal.,2011).
ManyotherstudieshavealsorevealedasimilarscaleofFLWontheregionalor countrylevelanditssignificantimpactsonenvironment,economicdevelopment, andfoodsecurity.Forexample,itisreportedthattheEU-28generateabout100 milliontonnesofFLWeachyear,andthelargestcontributionisfromhouseholds (45%)(FUSIONS,2015).Forthememberstates,householdsintheUnited Kingdomwastedapproximately7.2milliontonnesoffoodin2012(WRAP,2014). ThewastedfoodfromhouseholdsinFinland,Denmark,Norway,andSwedenmake up30%,23%,20%,and10% 20%offoodpurchased,respectively(Gjerrisand Gaiani,2013).InSwitzerland,aboutone-thirdoffoodproduced(calorieequivalent) iswastedandhouseholdscontributethemost(Berettaetal.,2013).Someother developedcountriesalsohighlightasimilartrend.Forexample,intheUnited States,thepercapitaFLWincreasedbyabout50%between1979and2003(Hall etal.,2009).InAustralia,morethan4.2milliontonnesofFLWgoestolandfillper year(Vergheseetal.,2013).
Inthepastdecades,somegovernmentalorganizationsandnationalagencies havemadegreatefforttoquantifyFLW.Forexample,theFAOhasissuedanumberofrelevantreportsonFLWataglobalscale(Gustavssonetal.,2011;FAO, 2014).TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgricultureEconomicResearchService (USDA-ERS)developedtheLoss-AdjustedFoodAvailabilityDataSeriesin1997, whichcoversabout200itemsforthreestages(productiontoretail,retail,andconsumer)oflossesintermsofquantities,values,andcalories(Buzbyetal.,2009; BuzbyandGuthrie,2002).IntheUnitedKingdom,theWasteandResources ActionProgramme(WRAP)organizationhasbeensetuptoreducefoodwaste,and hasreleasedanumberofreportsonFLWinthefoodsupplychainsince2007 (WRAP,2008,2009).
Inrecentyears,relevantstakeholdersfromacademia,industry,andgovernmental andnongovernmentalorganizationshaveparticipatedinresearchprojectsand workedonthestandardizationofquantificationandmethodsofFLW.Forexample, theprojectFoodUseforSocialInnovationbyOptimizingWastePrevention
Strategies(FUSIONS)(2012 16)fundedbyEuropeanCommissionhasbeenworkingtowardsamoreresourceefficientEurope,andhasissuedanumberofreports, coveringtheframeworkofFLWdefinition,measurement,andmitigationstrategies (Ostergenetal.,2014;FUSIONS,2016).In2015,theEuropeanCommission fundedafurtherprojectcalledResourceEfficientFoodanddRinkfortheEntire SupplycHain(REFRESH)(2015 19),whichinvolves26partnersfrom12 EuropeancountriesandChinaandfocusesonthereductionofavoidablewasteand improvedvalorizationoffoodresources(RefreshHomePage,2017).In2016, WorldResourcesInstitute,UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP), WorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopment,FAO,andWRAPtogether asapartnershipofmajorinternationalorganizationsannouncedthefirstglobalstandardtoquantifyFLW(WorldResourcesInstitute,2016).
ThoughtherearecontinuouseffortsonquantifyingFLWandsomeresearchers havealsostressedthedatadeficiencyandinconsistencyandraisedconcernsonthe demandofbettermeasurementofFLW(Parfitt,2013;Liu,2014;Shafiee-Joodand Cai,2016),therearestillmajorgapsintheexistingglobalFLWdataasfollows:
● Thespatialcoverageofexistingstudiesisnarrow.Mostresearchiscarriedoutindevelopedcountries.Forinstance,thereareplentyofpublicationsdrawingoutthesituationof FLWintheUnitedStates(Thybergetal.,2015;BuzbyandHyman,2012;Kantoretal., 1997)andSweden(Brautigametal.,2014;FilhoandKovaleva,2015).Incontrast,onlya fewstudiesquantifiedFLWindevelopingcountries,suchasNepal(Choudhury,2006) andthePhilippines(Parfittetal.,2010)andsomecountriesexperiencingarapiddevelopment,suchasChinaandIndia(ParfittandBarthel,2011).
● Thereisanunevenfocusonthedifferentfoodsupplystages.Agreatmanystudieshave illustratedfoodwasteatretailingandconsumptionstages(DaviesandKonisky,2000; Stenmarcketal.,2011;Parryetal.,2015),mainlyconductedindevelopedcountries,such astheUnitedStates.Ontheotherhand,therearefewstudiesrevealingthesituationof postharvestlosses,whicharemainlycarriedoutindevelopingcountries,suchasIndia (Gangwaretal.,2014).
● Someexistingdataareoutdatedbutstillinuse.Somestudieshavetodependontheolder dataduetothelackofupdatedones.Forexample,dataonthepostharvestlossesoffresh fruitsandvegetablesfromonestudyinthe1980sand1990swereusedintworecentstudies(Parfittetal.,2010;Kader,2005).
● Thereisalackofprimarydataandagreatmanystudieshavetocitedataintheexisting studies.Forexample,manyresearchershaverepeatedlyciteddatafromtheFAOreport issuedin2011(OelofseandNahman,2013;Lipinskietal.,2013;NahmananddeLange, 2013).Butitmaynotberepresentativeintermsoftimeandcountriesforcommodities (Liu,2014).ThedataprovidedbytheAfricanPostharvestLossInformationSystemhas beenmostlyusedtoaddresspostharvestlosses(Prusky,2011;WorldBank,2011;Segre ` etal.,2014).
● ThedefinitionofFLW,methodsused,andsystemboundariesaredifferentinexistingstudies.ThismakesitdifficulttosystematicallycompareandverifyFLWdatabetweencountries,commodities,andstages.Therefore,itisuncertaintodoanalysisontherelationship betweenFLWandsocial,economic,andenvironmentalfactorsbasedontheexistingdata.
Itisparticularofimportancetoclearlyandcomprehensivelyunderstandthe existingglobalFLWdataontheirqualityandavailability.First,itisaprerequisite
fortrackingtheprogresstowardtheSDGTarget12.3andthenationalFLWreductiongoals,andevaluatingtheeffectofrelevantpolicies.Second,itwillcontribute toraisingawareness,informingmitigationstrategies,andgivingprioritytoprevent andreduceFLW.Third,betterdatacanbeenverifiedandcomparedamongcountries,stages,andcommodities,helpingtodistinguishpatternsanddriversofFLW generated.Fourth,itcanbeanessentialfoundationforfurtheranalyzingthesocial, economic,andenvironmentalimpactsofFLW.
Inthischapter,acriticaloverviewofalltheavailableFLWdatain202publicationsisprovided,whichcouldprovideabasicdatabaseforfurtheranalysisofenvironmentalimpactsandmitigationstrategiesofFLW.Bibliometriccharacteristicsof existingliteratureandmethodsofmeasurement(advantagesanddisadvantages)are assessed,theirpatternsbetweencountries,foodsupplychainstages,andfoodcommoditiesarediscussed,andsomeimplicationsforfutureworkaredenoted.
1.2Systemdefinition
1.2.1Foodlossesandfoodwaste
FLWoccursacrossthefoodsupplychain.Somestudieshavemadeadifference betweenthedefinitionofFLW,edibleandinediblefoodwaste,avoidableand unavoidablefoodwaste.Forexample,accordingtotheFAO(FAO,2014),food lossreferstofoodthatislostduetoquantityorqualityreasons,andfoodwaste referstofoodthatislefttospoilorexpireduetocarelessnessofconsumers,which isusuallyrelatedtodiscardingdeliberatelyorotheruseoffood(e.g.,animalfeed). Becauseofthedeficiencyofconsistenciesintheliteraturereviewed,thedistinctionswerenotconsideredandwedonotdifferentiatebetweenfoodlossandfood wasteinthisstudy,sowedefineFLWasthecombinedamountofFLW.
1.2.2Foodsupplychain
Asshownin Fig.1.1,FLWinvolvessixmajorprocesses.FLWcouldbefurther classifiedintothreetypes:farmlosses/waste(duringagriculturalproductionand harvesting),postharvestlosses/waste(duringpostharvesthandlingandstorage, manufacturing,distribution,andretailing),andconsumerwaste(bothinhousehold andout-of-home).Agriculturalproductslosses/wasteonthefarmaremainlycaused byinsects,diseases,andsevereweather.Forlivestockproducts,itrelatestosicknessanddeathduringbreedingstageforcattle,pig,andpoultrymeat,anddiscarded fishduringfishing.Postharvestlosses/wastereferstofoodspoilageanddegradation duringdifferentstages.Itincludespostharvesthandlingandstorage(whenfoodis underthreshing/shellingoricingandanimalstransportedtoslaughtering), manufacturing(whenfoodisprocessedintovariousproducts),distribution(when foodistransported,loaded,anduploaded),aswellasretailing(includeswholesale, supermarket,andwetmarket).Consumerfoodwasteoccursbothinhouseholdand diningoutawayfromhome.
Figure1.1 Foodsupplychainforfoodlossesandfoodwaste.
1.2.3Foodcommoditygroups
ThecommoditiescategoriesweredefinedbasedontheclassificationofFAOand bytakingconsiderationofcharacteristicsofdatainthepublications.Asaresult,10 groupsoffoodcommoditieswerepresented:
1. Cerealandcerealproducts(e.g.,wheat,maize,andrice);
2. Rootsandtubers(e.g.,potatoesandcassava);
3. Oilseedsandpulses(e.g.,peanutsandsoybeans);
4. Fruits;
5. Vegetables;
6. Meat;
7. Fishandseafood;
8. Dairyproducts; 9. Eggs; 10. Othersornotspecified.
1.2.4Geographicalandtemporalboundary
TheFLWdatawascollectedfromasearlyaspossibleto2015attheglobal, regional,andnationallevels.BasedonpercapitaGDPandtheclassificationprinciplesofFAO(Gustavssonetal.,2011),thecountriesaredividedintomedium/highincomecountriesandlow-incomecountries(Table1.1).
Table1.1 Groupingofdifferentdevelopmentlevelsofcountries
Medium/high-incomecountriesLow-incomecountries
ArmeniaLithuaniaAngolaMalaysia
AustraliaLuxembourgArgentinaMexico
AustriaMaltaBangladeshMyanmar
BelarusNetherlandsBeninNepal
BelgiumNewZealandBoliviaNigeria
BulgariaNorwayBrazilPakistan CanadaPolandCambodiaPeru ChinaPortugalCameroonPhilippines
CyprusRomaniaChileSaudiArabia
CzechRepublicRussiaColombiaSouthAfrica
DenmarkSingaporeCostaRicaSriLanka
EstoniaSlovakiaEgyptSwaziland
FinlandSloveniaEthiopiaTanzania FranceSouthKoreaGhanaThailand
GermanySpainIndiaTogo
GreeceSwedenIndonesiaTurkey
HungarySwitzerlandIranUganda
IrelandUnitedKingdomJamaicaVenezuela
ItalyUkraineKenyaVietnam
JapanUnitedStatesLaosZambia
LatviaMadagascarZimbabwe Malawi
1.3Foodlossesandfoodwastequantification
1.3.1Bibliometricanalysisofliterature
1.3.1.1Typeofpublications
WebofScienceandGoogleScholarwerethemainsourcefortheresearch,and reportsissuedbyresearchinstitutionsaswellasgovernmentalornongovernmental organizationswerealsocollectedtoensureawidercoverageofavailabledata. Finally,202publicationswerereviewed.Theyincludefivetypes:peer-reviewed journalarticles(53.5%),reports(35.6%),PhDandmaster’stheses(5.9%),conferenceproceedings(3.0%),andbookchapters(2.0%).Journalarticlesweredominant (108)inthereviewedpublications,whichwerepublishedin69differentjournals andcoveredawiderangeofsubjects.Intotal,approximately45%ofthemwere publishedinthetop10journals(Fig.1.2).Themajorityofthepublications outletswere WasteManagement, WasteManagement&Research, Resources, ConservationandRecycling, FoodPolicy,and JournalofCleanerProduction, representing15.7%,7.4%,5.6%,4.6%,and2.8%ofthetotalpublishedarticles, respectively.
Figure1.2 Thetop10journalsthatpublishesfoodlossandfoodwastedata.
1.3.1.2Temporaltrendforyearofpublicationsandestimation
Fig.1.3A showsthenumberofpublicationsduringthe76-yearperiod(1939 2015). Ingeneral,thenumberofpublicationsi ncreasedthroughoutthewholeperiod.It wassmallandremainedstablebefore 2000.Afterwards,ithasseenagradual increaseduring2001 10.Inthelastfiveyears,thenumberofstudieshasgrown substantially(137),accountingfor67. 8%ofthetotalpublications.Thismeans thereisanincreasingfocusonFLWresearcharoundtheworld.
Fig.1.3B illustratesthetimetrendoftheyearofestimation.Accordingtoliterature, theFLWdatawasdiscoveredasearlyas1933,andthenumberremainedstableand lowuntil1995.Afterwards,thenumberhas increasedsignificantlybymorethan60% overthepast10years,38.1%from2006to2010and25.1%from2011to2014.
1.3.1.3Distributionofcountries
The202publicationsreportedFLWdatathroughoutthefoodsupplychaincovering 84countries(reported498times)distributedallovertheworld.However,thefocus onFLWwasunbalancedindifferentregions.Moststudieswereconductedinthe developedareas,suchasNorthAmerica,NorthernandWesternEurope,whereaslittle attentionwaspaidtothedevelopingcountries,suchasIndia. Fig.1.4 showsspatial distributionandthetop10countrieshavebeenstudied.Mostresearchwasconducted intheUnitedKingdom(Langleyetal.,2010;Menaetal.,2014;Vanhametal.,2015; Xuetal.,2015)andUnitedStates(Thybergetal.,2015;BuzbyandHyman,2012; Kantoretal.,1997),bothofwhichmadeupmorethan10%ofthereportedtimes, respectively.ThenSweden(Br ¨ autigametal.,2014;FilhoandKovaleva,2015), Germany(Kranertetal.,2012;Jorissenetal.,2015),andFinland(Silvennoinenetal., 2012;Silvennoinenetal.,2015)accountedfor5.4%,4.4%,and3.2%,respectively.
Figure1.3 (A)Temporaltrendofreviewedfoodlossesandfoodwaste(FLW)dataintermsof yearofpublication.(B)TemporaltrendofreviewedFLWdataintermsofyearofestimation.
Figure1.4 Geographicaldistributionofcasecountries.Thenumbersarethereportedtimes ofindividualcountries.
Source:AdoptedfromXue,L.,Liu,G.,Parfitt,J.,Liu,X.,VanHerpen,E.,Stenmarck,A
., etal.,2017.Missingfood,missingdata?Acriticalreviewofglobalfoodlossesandfood wastedata.Environ.Sci.Technol.51(12),6618 6633.
1.3.1.4Foodsupplychaincoverage
Accordingtothepublicationsfound,theycovereddifferentstagesinthefoodsupplychainintermsofmedium/high-incomecountriesandlow-incomecountries.
Fig.1.5 showsthatmoststudiescoveredtheretailingandconsumptionstages.In total,thelargestnumberofstudieswerecarriedoutinhousehold,accountingfor
Figure1.5 Thenumberofpublicationsintermsofdifferentfoodsupplystagesanddifferent developmentlevelsofcountries.
49%ofallthepublications,whichwasfollowedbytheretailingstages(35%). However,onlyasmallportionofstudiesincludedthestagesbetweenagricultural productionanddistribution.Indetail,agriculturalproduction,postharvesthandling andstorage,manufacturing,anddistributionstagesaccountedfor26.7%,18.8%, 28.7%,and21.8%,respectively.
Inthecaseofregionstudied,thenumberofpublicationsinmedium/high-income countrieswasmuchhigherthanthatinlow-incomecountriesalongthefoodsupply chain,apartfromthepostharvesthandlingandstoragestagewiththesamenumber ofpublicationsforboth.Themajorityofstudiesinvolvingretailingandconsumptionstageswereconductedinmedium/high-incomecountries,occupying31.2% and42.6%ofalltheliterature,respectively.Ontheotherhand,low-incomecountriesweretargetedmainlyintheearlyandmiddlestagesofthefoodsupplychain, especiallyfortheagriculturalproductionandpostharvesthandlingandstorage stages. 1.3.2Differentmethodsusedforfoodlossesandfoodwaste
1.3.2.1Overviewofmethods
TherewerevariousmethodsusedtomeasurethequantityofFLWalongthefood supplychain. Table1.2 summarizesthemethodsusedtoquantifyFLW.Twokinds ofmethodologieshavebeenusedtoquantifyFLW,whichcanbedividedintotwo
Table1.2 Descriptionofdifferentmethodsusedforfoodlossesandfoodwastequantification
MethodSymbolExampleofcase countries/regions
Direct measurement
Indirect measurement
FoodsupplychainReferences
WeighingWPortugalP6b Dias-Ferreiraetal.(2015)
GarbagecollectionGAustriaP6a Dahle ´ nandLagerkvist(2008)
SurveysSUnitedKingdomP1,P2,P3,P5 Menaetal.(2014)
DiariesDUnitedKingdomP6a Langleyetal.(2010)
RecordsRSwedenP5 Scholzetal.(2015)
ObservationOItalyP6b Saccaresetal.(2014)
ModelingMUnitedStatesP6 Halletal.(2009)
FoodbalanceFGlobalP1,P2,P3,P4,P5,P6 Gustavssonetal.(2011)
UseofproxydataPSingaporeP6a GrandhiandAppaiahSingh(2016)
UseofliteraturedataLDenmarkP1,P3,P4,P6 Halloranetal.(2014)
Note:P6a 5 Household,P6b 5 Out-of-home.
groups:(1)directmeasurementorapproximationbasedonfirst-handdata,and(2) indirectmeasurementorcalculationderivedfromsecondarydata.Thesemethods couldprovideaninsightoforiginsandspecificstagesinthewholefoodsupply chainofFLW,oranoverviewofFLWattheregionalorgloballevelfromamacroperspective.Detailedinformationonthemethodsusedisoutlinedasfollows: Directmeasurementinvolvesavarietyofmethodstoquantifyorestimatethe amountofFLW:
● Weighing:Itisusuallyusedinrestaurants,hospitals,andschoolviainstrumentordevice tomeasuretheweightofFLW.ItmayormaynotinvolveweighingeachpartofFLWfor thecompositionalanalysis.
● Garbagecollection:Thisinvolvesseparationfromothertypesofresidualwastescollected todeterminetheweightorproportionofFLW.Itmayormaynotinvolvecompositional analysisofFLW.Itcanbecollectedfromhouseholds(Gutie ´ rrez-BarbaandOrtega-Rubio, 2013).
● Surveys:Questionnairesareusedtocollectinformationaboutperceptionsandbehaviors onFLWansweredbyagreatmanyindividuals,orbyface-to-faceinterviewswithmajor stakeholdersinthefield.Thisusuallytakesplaceinhouseholds,wherepeoplecandirectly estimatethequantityoffoodwasteorthepercentageoffoodpurchasedthatgoestowaste intheirfamilies(Stefanetal.,2013).
● Diaries:Itisoftenusedinhouseholdsandcommercialkitchensbyrecordingthequantity ofFLWforacertaintime,whereweighingscalesaresometimesusedtoquantifythe amountofthefoodwaste(RathjeandMurphy,2001).
● Records:Itisusuallyusedintheretailingandmanufacturingstages,especiallyforsupermarketsandlarge-scalefoodcompanies,whereregularcollectionofinformation(notinitiallyusedforFLWrecord)candeterminethequantityofFLW.
● Observation:VisuallyestimatingtheamountoffoodleftoverbyusingscaleswithmultiplepointsorassessingthevolumeofFLWbycountingthenumberofgoods.
Theothergroupincludesmethodsbasedontheexistingdatafromdifferentsecondarysources:
● Modeling:ItusesmathematicalmodelstoobtaintheamountofFLWonthebasisofthe factorsthataffectFLWgeneration.
● Foodbalance:Usingfoodbalancesheet(e.g.,FAOSTAT)basedoninputs,outputs,and stocksinthefoodsupplychaintocalculateFLW,orhumanmetabolism(e.g.,therelationshipbetweenbodyweightandtheamountoffoodeaten).
● Useofproxydata:Usingdatafromcompaniesorstatisticalinstitutions(inanaggregated level)toestimatetheamountofFLW.
● Useofliteraturedata:UsingdatafromliteraturedirectlyorestimatingquantitiesofFLW accordingtothedatainotherliterature.
Fig.1.6 showsthemethodsusedinthe202publications.Itcanbeseenthat mostofthepublicationsdependedontheindirectmeasurement(red-yellow(dark grayinprintversion)colorsin Fig.1.6).Morethan40%ofthemwereonlybased onliteraturedata,andaboutone-thirdusedothertypesofmethodswithliterature data,forinstance,modeling(KhanandBurney,1989;Liuetal.,2013)orproxy data( Gooch,2012;Anetal.,2014)(indirectmeasurement)orweighingorsurveys( Papargyropoulouetal.,2014;Edjabouetal.,2015)(directmeasurement).
Figure1.6 Anoverviewofthemethodsusedinthereviewed202publications.Eachcircle indicatesonepublication,andthecolorsrepresentdifferentmethodsused.Direct measurementincludes:weighing(W),garbagecollection(G),surveys(S),diaries(D), records(R),andobservation(O).Surveysalsocontainquestionnaires,interviewsand experts’estimation.Indirectmeasurementinvolves:useofliteraturedata(L),useofproxy data(P),foodbalance(F),andmodeling(M).
Source:AdoptedfromXue,L.,Liu,G.,Parfitt,J.,Liu,X.,VanHerpen,E.,Stenmarck,A ˚ ., etal.,2017.Missingfood,missingdata?Acriticalreviewofglobalfoodlossesandfood wastedata.Environ.Sci.Technol.51(12),6618 6633.
Onlyasmallfractionofth epublicationsdependedonthedirectmeasurement. Inaddition,forthe138publicationsusingliteraturedata,theyoftendepended oneachotherandsomepublicationshavebeenhighlycited.Morethanonefourthofthemreferredtothedatafromthetop10publicationscited,andthe numberofcitationshasgreatlyincreasedsince2008( Fig.1.7 ).ThehighpercentageofusingthesecondarydatamayindicatethattheavailableglobalFLWdatabasehashighuncertainties,especiallywhenthereislackoforiginaldatafor acertaincountryoracertainyearbutliteraturedatathatarenotrepresentative areused.
1.3.2.2Advantagesanddisadvantagesofmethods
Table1.3 liststheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofdifferentmethodsbasedon somecriteria(e.g.,time,cost,andaccuracy).
● Weighingandgarbagecollectioncanproviderelativelydetailed,objective,andaccurate informationoffooddiscarded.ThesetwomethodsmayleadtofullquantificationofFLW andcanproducemoredetaileddataatthefoodtypeslevel.However,theycanbe
Figure1.7 Thecitationnetworkofthe138publicationsthatusedliteraturedata.Eachdot indicatesonepublication.Thesizeofthedotrepresentsthenumberofcitations,andthe arrowrepresentsthedirectionofcitation.Thedotsinwhiteontherightrepresent publicationsoutsidethecitationnetwork.Thetop10citedpublicationsare:(1) Kantoretal. (1997);(2a) WRAP(2009);(2b) Gustavssonetal.(2011);(3a) WRAP(2008);(3b) Monier etal.(2010);(3c) BuzbyandHyman(2012);(4a) Kader(2005);(4b) Kranertetal.(2012); (5a) Buzbyetal.(2009);(5b) Langleyetal.(2010).
Source:AdoptedfromXue,L.,Liu,G.,Parfitt,J.,Liu,X.,VanHerpen,E.,Stenmarck,A
., etal.,2017.Missingfood,missingdata?Acriticalreviewofglobalfoodlossesandfood wastedata.Environ.Sci.Technol.51(12),6618 6633.
performedonlywhenspaceavailableforclassifyingfoodandwithdevicetoweigh,and theyarealsomoretime-consumingandexpensivethanothermethods.Forexample,a studyonfoodwasteinrestaurantswasconductedinfourChinesecasecities(Beijing, Shanghai,Chengdu,andLhasa)in2015,whichdirectlyweighedfoodwastefrom3557 tablesin195restaurantsofdifferentcategories,includinglunchanddinnerbyindividual items.Itisestimatedthatfoodwastepercapitainrestaurants(approximately11kg/cap) isclosetotheaveragelevelofWesterncountries.Thisisafirstapproximationofthe scalesandpatternsofrestaurantsfoodwasteinChinesecities,whichcanhelpinformthe strategiesonfoodwastereduction(Wangetal.,2017).Inaddition,theaccuracyofwaste compositionanalysisreliesonthemethodsused,andithasidentifiedvarioussourcesof error(LebersorgerandSchneider,2011).
● Surveys,diaries,records,andobservationareotherwaysofdirectmeasuringand approximatingFLWdata,whichconsumeslesstimeandcostsmorethanweighing. However,duetosomefactorssuchaspers onalviews,thewayofrawdatacollection,
Table1.3 Advantagesanddisadvantagesofdifferentmethodsusedforfoodlossesandfoodwastequantification
andsubjectivityofobservers,theaccuracyofthedatacollectedmaybelower.Surveys thatincludequestionnairescanbecompletedbyemailorbyphone,orbyface-to-face interviewsandexpertestimation.ButbiasesmayoccurinFLWestimationbecausethis methoddependsonthememoryofpeopleand theymayprovideanswersthatthesocietyexpects.Forexample, Nazirietal.(2014) conductedquestionnairesurveys,focus groupdiscussion,andkeyexpertinterviewsonpostharvestlossesofcassavaduring JulyandOctober2012infourindividualdevelopingcountries(Ghana,Nigeria, Thailand,andVietnam)toinvestigatetheamountoflossesandexploremitigationstrategies.Diariescanbeaheavytaskforparticipants,andcausegradualdeclineofparticipants’enthusiasm( Langleyetal.,2010 ),aswellasdifficultiesinrecruitmentandhigh dropoutrates( Sharpetal.,2010).Inaddition,keepingdiariesmayhaveinfluenceson changesinawarenessandbehavior,whichw illleadtouncertainaccuracyofthediaries ( Sharpetal.,2010).Forexample,toanalyzethecompositionoffoodwasteinthe UnitedKingdomhouseholds, Langleyetal.(2010) asked13householdstokeepadiary for7days,recordingtheinformationonthetype,origin,andweightoffoodwaste. RecordsoftencostlessandtakelittletimetogetFLWdata.Observationisarelatively quickwaytoestimateFLW,buttheaccuracyandreliabilityarequestioned.
● Becauseoflowcostandhighfeasibility,secondarydataiswidelyusedtomeasurethe amountofFLW.Butthereishigheruncertaintyamongthesemethods.Formodeling,the choiceofmodelparametersandtherelationshipbetweenthesefactorsandthequantityof FLWwouldlargelyaffecttheresults.Forfoodbalancemethod,theaccuracyisdeterminedbythequalityandcomprehensivenessofthefoodbalancesheetdata.Themost cost-effectiveandfeasiblewaytoobtaindataisbyusingproxydataandliteraturedata, however,theiraccuracyprimarilyreliesonthequalityandrepresentativenessofthe sourcedataused.Ifthedataareuncertainandinaccurate,theresultswouldalsonotbe reliable.
Inreality,nodirectorindirectmethodscanbesatisfactory.Despitetheadvantages,directmeasurementusuallyinvolvesalimitednumberofparticipantsina certaincommunityorcityandacertainstageofthefoodsupplychain,whichcould leadtoanunavoidableproblemofdeficiencyofrepresentativeness,especiallyfor thelargecountriesliketheUnitedStatesandChina.Ontheotherhand,indirect measurementcanprovideanoverviewoftheentirecountryandvariousstages.A combinationofdirectandindirectmeasurementcouldbeabetterchoicetoillustratetheFLWproblem.Forpolicymakingandmitigationstrategies,basedonthe statisticaldataatthenationalorregionallevelitcoulddeterminetheseverityofthe problem.Forthedesignofeffectiveinterventionsteps,usingfirst-handdataand exploringthedrivingandinfluencingfactorscouldbeagoodapproach.
ThechoiceofmethodhasasignificantimpactontheFLWquantification,which couldresultindatadisparityintheliteratureexamined.Forexample,itwas reportedthatthefoodmanufacturingindustryinItalyproducedabout5.7million tonnesofFLWin2006(Monieretal.,2010),whileanotherstudybasedonmodelingestimatedabout1.9milliontonnesofFLWforthissector(Brautigametal., 2014).Suchbigdifferenceexistsbetweenthembecausetheyuseddifferentdata sourcesandassumptions.TheformeroneincludedFLWandrecycledorreused byproducts,whereasthelatteroneadoptedthelossrateinthemanufacturingsector andthemethodreportedbyFAO(Gustavssonetal.,2013).
1.3.3.1Farmlossesandwaste
Attheagricultureproductionstage,theFLWinlow-incomecountriesisgenerally higherthanthatinmedium/high-incomecountries,becausethereismoreadvanced technologyandinfrastructureforharvestinginrichcountries.Forexample,itis reportedthatFLWatthisstageaccountsforthelargestportion(26%)ofthetotal FLWinSouthAfrica(SpeschaandReutimann,2013)whereasitmakesup13%ofthe overallFLWacrossthefoodsupplychaininCanada(NahmananddeLange,2013).
Accordingtotheexistingdata,thereislittleinformationonFLWoffoodcommoditiesintheagriculturalproductionandharvestingstage.Fordifferentfoodcategories,onapercapitalevel,cereallossisthelargestwithamedianofroughly 16kg/cap.Forexample,itisreportedthatabout5% 9%ofcerealwaslostatthis stageinChina,andasimilartrendcanbeseeninGhana(WorldBank,2011). Fruitsandvegetablesarethesecondlargestwastedcategoryatthisstagewitha valueof13kg/cap.However,thereisasignificantdifferenceoffruitand vegetablelosses/wastebetweenlessdevelopedandindustrializedcountries.For example,fruitandvegetableFLWmadeupabout20% 30%ofthetotalproductioninChina(Liu,2014)whileitaccountedforonly6% 15%atthisstageinItaly (Segre ` etal.,2014).Thereasonforthebigdifferenceisthatmoreadvancedand newertechnologiesareusedindevelopedcountries.ThereisasmallfarmFLWof meatandfish,dairyproducts,andeggsattheproductionlevel(Fig.1.8).
1.3.3.2Postharvestlossesandwaste
PostharvestFLWoccursduringthepostharvesthandlingandstorage,manufacturing,distribution,andretailingstages,wheredistinctivecharacteristicscanbeseen
Figure1.8 Percapitafarmfoodlossesandfoodwasteofdifferentfoodcommodities.
