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G. O’Sullivan
Maurice
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgment
Chapter one. Understanding the requirement to reformulate; science, health, consumer demand, regulation, and capability
Abstract
Contents
Introduction
Pricing
Taxes
Capability
Regulatory guidelines
Safety
Least cost formulation
Technological capability
Line extensions
Pre- and postapproval—shelf life testing
References
Further reading
Chapter two. Nutritional optimization—reduced-sugar products and challenges
Abstract
Contents
Introduction
Sugar
Sweeteners and noncaloric artificial sweeteners
Dietary fiber
Sensory properties of biscuits, cookies, cakes, and muffins
Sugar-reduction in dairy products
Sugar-reduction in beverages
Sugar-reduction in alcoholic beverages
References
Further reading
Chapter three. Reduced-fat products and challenges
Abstract
Contents
Introduction
Fat reduction in meat products
Reduced-fat cheese
Milk and flavored milk
Salad dressing and sauces
References
Chapter four. Reduced-salt products and challenges
Abstract
Contents
Introduction
Salt in bread
Salt in processed meats
Salt in cheese
Salt in convenience foods
References
Chapter five. Other nutritional modifications
Abstract
Contents
Introduction
Gluten-free products
References
Further reading
Chapter six. Descriptive methods for reformulation
Abstract
Contents
Introduction
Environment and panel conditions
Panelist selection
Sampling and sample presentation
Spectrum
Quantitative descriptive analysis
Case study. Quantitative descriptive analysis of salt- and fatreduced traditional breakfast sausages containing monosodium glutamate
References
Further reading
Chapter seven. Quantitative and qualitative affective methods for reformulation
Abstract
Contents
Introduction
Preference tests
Sensory acceptance and consumer testing
Conjoint analysis
Ranking preference tests
Preference mapping
Adaptation methods and masking
Focus groups
References
Further reading
Chapter eight. Rapid sensory methods for reformulation
Abstract
Contents
Introduction—the need for new methods
Ranking test
Flash profiling
Ranking descriptive analysis
Free sorting
Projective mapping: napping, partial napping, sorted napping, and ultraflash profiling
Rapid profiling using references: polarized sensory positioning, the optimized sensory profile method, off-flavor quantification, and polarized projective mapping
Check-all-that-apply
Temporal dominance of sensations
Temporal check-all-that-apply
Just-about-right scales
The ideal profile method
Pivot profile
References
Further reading
Chapter nine. Discrimination testing for reformulated products
Abstract
Contents
Introduction
The A–Not A method
The paired comparison test and the 2 alternative forced choice test
The duo-trio test
The triangle test and the 3 alternative forced choice test
The ranking test
The tetrad test
Rating, weighting, and in/out tests
References
Chapter ten. Validation and safety of reformulated products (shelf-life testing)
Abstract
Contents
Introduction
Sensory shelf life testing. Experimental design and sample handling
Sensory shelf life determination; difference, affective, and descriptive approaches
Color and sensory shelf life prediction
Texture changes effecting shelf life
Shelf life of bread
Flavor profile changes effecting shelf life
Chemical determination of shelf life indices
Accelerated storage tests
References
Chapter eleven. Packaging and compensatory processes
Abstract
Contents
Introduction
High O2 modified atmosphere packs
Low O2 modified atmosphere packs
Vacuum packaging technologies
Retort technologies and packaging
High-pressure processing
Bread and bakery product packaging
Sustainable packaging
Packaging for the elderly
References
Chapter twelve. Magnitude estimation—alignment of sensory and instrumental analysis
Abstract
Contents
Introduction
Color vision systems and color determination
Instrumental methods for measuring texture
Tribology
Sensory-instrumental methods—gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
Sensory-instrumental methods—electronic nose
Near infrared (NIR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
Package testing
References
Index
Copyright
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Preface
Nutritional optimization of foods and beverages has always been a part of product innovation. However, in my long career as a food scientist, both in industry and as an academic, I cannot remember a period when this innovation has reached such intensity. A trip to the supermarket reveals a product range for celiacs far more diverse than at any other time. Processed meats have brand leading reduced salt and fat variants with some developed cured meats containing alternate or even organic nitrite sources. The number of vegans in Ireland and the United Kingdom increased fourfold between 2014 and 2019. Six percent of consumers in the United States claim to be vegans, a 600% increase in 3 years. Plant-based lifestyles have got the attention of producers with reduced meat or meat-free variants of main-stream products reaching the marketplace. Bioactive containing dairy and beverage products are widely available to assist in maintaining a healthy “microbiome.” In the spring of 2018, Ireland and the United Kingdom introduced a coordinated sugar tax on soft drinks. For producers in Ireland, this resulted in products containing between 5 and 8 g sugar/100 mL being levied at 20c/L, while those over 8 g/100 mL are levied at 30c/L. This resulted in dramatic increases in reformulation projects by the beverage sector.
This inertia to reformulate is being driven by consumers who are demanding products to provide their nutritional desires for healthier lifestyles and by government incentives devised to combat the civilization diseases obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and even cancer. This, in turn, has encouraged the industry to reformulate, through commercial necessity, and if they are to succeed, they must maintain safety, shelf life, and commercial viability. Salt, fat, and sugar are the main targets for reformulation in industry by reduction or replacement because of their contribution to the abovementioned civilization diseases, although this is
easier said than done. Salt and sugar are tastants, preservatives, flavor enhancers, as well as functional ingredients; salt assists in water binding in meat, whereas sugar in baking is essential for cake volume. Fat is a functional ingredient and plays a vital sensory role in baked products, and for all fat-containing foods it contributes to flavor, mouthfeel, taste, aroma, appearance, structure, texture, and satiety. Modifying recipes thus has complex effects and interactions. However, food scientists have successfully risen to the challenge as evidenced by the plethora of reformulated products available in our supermarkets across the product spectrum. This book outlines the background, issues, and challenges required in the reformulation of foods and beverages. This is presented with an emphasis on sensory- and consumer-driven strategies as ultimately the consumer demands healthier products that still taste great and have high acceptance and appeal.
C H A P T E R
O N E
Understanding the requirement to reformulate; science, health, consumer demand, regulation, and capability
Abstract
This chapter will explore a brief review of the major negative-targeted ingredients, salt, sugar and fat, and their current scientific basis for linking them to the civilization diseases. Consumer awareness of the negative nutritional impact of these ingredients will be discussed through feedback from some recent survey work as well as government initiatives such as pricing and sequential ingredient reduction programs. Sugar, fat, and salt taxes will also be discussed as well as all the, abovementioned, factors as drivers for nutritional optimization through reformulation in the food and beverage industries. Finally a brief summary of reformulation capability is presented where essential steps must be reviewed before any project is implemented. These include regulatory requirements, safety, pricing, technological capability and product stability monitoring.
Keywords
Salt; fat; sugar; pricing; taxes; capability
Contents
OUTLINE
Introduction 1
Salt 2
Fat 7
Sugar 9
Pricing 11
Taxes 13
Capability 15
Regulatory guidelines 16
Safety 17
Least cost formulation 19
Technological capability 19
Line extensions 20
Pre- and postapproval—shelf life testing 20
References 21
Further reading 27
Introduction
Nutritional optimization of processed foods is driven by four distinct processes. The first involves scientific understanding of the civilization diseases, such as hypertension, obesity, diabetes, and coronary heart disease (CHD), which result from the consumption of processed foods. The unhealthiness of too much fat, salt, and sugar in the human diet has been studied now for many years by virtually thousands of scientists. This scientific understanding is disseminated into the academic databases and
journals, which ultimately filters through to the main stream media. This in turn propagates the second driver, which is consumer awareness and understanding by the population in general of the scientific findings of the first driver. Stage three is the modification of processed food recipes by the industry because of consumer demand. This manifests as either a drop in sales of “unhealthy products” and the then essential need to reformulate or the capitalization of the industry to develop healthier processed food variants to meet consumer needs. The fourth stages are the government incentives to make foods healthier. This occurs through collaboration with industry to set realistic targets for unhealthy ingredient usage, for example, salt levels [the Food Standards Agency (FSA) and the Food Safety Authority of Ireland (FSAI) salt-reduction programs]. This results in gradual reduction in products over time and can be achieved through stealth, without the consumer really being aware of the reduction strategy. This is a very satisfactory approach for the industry as it means the gradual reduction of an ingredient can be well understood, achieved safely and without loss of commercial viability and most importantly sensory profile. The fourth stage can also be enforced by a government in order to achieve an immediate reduction of an “unhealthy” ingredient. The perfect example of this is the introduction of taxes. On May 1, 2018, Ireland introduced a sugar tax on soft drinks. Products containing between 5 and 8 g/100 mL sugar were levied at 20 c/L while those over 8 g/100 mL were levied at 30 c/L (Table 1.1). This resulted in dramatic increase in reformulation projects by the beverage sector in order for their business strategies to best fit with the new regulation. Again, such incentives are further driving the industry to reformulate, and if they are to succeed, this must be undertaken in a consumer-driven fashion while maintaining safety, shelf life, and commercial viability.
aValue Added Tax. http://www.moneyguideireland.com/sugar-tax-ireland-much-will.html
Salt
More than 90% of sodium in humans’ diet is provided by salt (sodium chloride) (He, Campbell, & MacGregor, 2012), with excessive consumption associated with negative effects on human health, principally as elevated blood pressure (≤140/90 mmHg), where the prevalence exceeds 40% in most European countries (Kearney, Whelton, Reynolds, Whelton, & He, 2004; Strazzullo, D’Elia, Kandala, & Cappuccio, 2009). Elevated blood pressure is estimated to induce 7.5 million deaths annually, equivalent to ~12.8% of all deaths worldwide as it is the major risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) (strokes, heart attacks, and heart failure), the leading cause of deaths globally (World Health Organization (WHO), 2010). A diet rich in salt has also been linked to left ventricular hypertrophy (Kupari, Koskinen, & Virolainen, 1994; Schmieder & Messerli, 2000) progression of renal disease and albuminuria (Cianciaruso et al., 1998; Heeg, De Jong, Van Der Hem, & De Zeeuw, 1989; Swift, Markandu, Sagnella, He, & Macgregor, 2005), stomach cancer (Joossens et al., 1996; Tsugane, Sasazuki, Kobayashi, & Sasaki, 2004), bone demineralization (Devine, Cridle, Dick, Kerr, & Prince, 1995), colorectal cancer (WCRF, 2007) and hypertension in about 20% of the population with increased risk of CVD (Desmond, 2006; Paik, Wendel, & Freeman, 2005). With the increased consumption of processed foods, salt intake has increased to a level of 9–12 g salt per day in nearly all countries worldwide (Henderson,
Gregory, Irving, & Swan, 2002) which is 40–50 times higher than the evolutionary intake (0.25 g salt per day) (Eaton & Konner, 1985). A sodium intake of less than 5 g/day is the recommended level (WHO, 2012). Changing consumer lifestyle patterns show a significant impact on consumer diets. A greater number of women are at work, people work longer hours, and spend more time on leisure activities (Hitchman, Christie, Harrison, & Lang, 2002), which has caused an increased demand for convenience foods, with most energy dense and poor in nutrition. After the bread and cereals group the largest source of sodium (salt) in the European diet is processed meat products (Kloss, Meyer, Graeve, & Vetter, 2015). Processed meat products contribute 20%–30% to the daily salt (NaCl) intake in industrialized countries amounting to between 9 and 12 g/day, a much larger value than the recommended value of <5 g/day (Desmond, 2006; Jiménez-Colmenero, Carballo, & Cofrades, 2001; WHO, 2003).
The reduction of salt in processed food causes technological challenges as salt has an essential function in meat products in terms of safety, taste, flavor, texture, and shelf life as well as being a preservative and functional ingredient for the binding of water (Desmond, 2006; O’Sullivan, 2017c; O’Sullivan & Kerry, 2008). Salt is basic to all meat curing mixtures and is the primary ingredient necessary for curing. Food manufacturers have to achieve satisfactory sensory quality in reduced-salt and reduced-fat products, which is challenging as salt and fat perform multipurpose roles in many processed foods and beverages. Salt is a preservative and imparts not only a salty taste but also enhances flavor, inhibits bitterness (Lindsay, 2007), and is important for yield in processed meats due to its waterbinding functionality (Fellendorf, Kerry, Hamill, & O’Sullivan, 2018; Fellendorf, Kerry, & O’Sullivan, 2018; Fellendorf, O’Sullivan, & Kerry, 2015, 2016a, 2016b, 2017). Sodium chloride solubilizes myofibrillar proteins during manufacturing (Hamm, 1972), which are responsible for activation of the proteins to increase hydration and water-binding capacity, increase the binding properties of protein, and improve texture (Offer & Knight, 1988). As a consequence, a reduction of salt impacts all these processes with several researchers reported detrimental effects on waterbinding capacity, texture, and flavor (Desmond, 2006; Totosaus & PérezChabela, 2009). Also, salt reduction is difficult to achieve due to
supermarket concerns about reductions in shelf life, as well as processing concerns pertaining to traditional product labels (Honikel, 2008).
Improving population diets plays an important role in preventing chronic noncommunicable diseases. Traditionally, strategies have focused on public campaigns and health education, despite these efforts, change has been slow (EPHAC, 2010). In addition, several studies found that Americans reported getting the majority of their health-related information from news media (Coleman, Thorson, & Wilkins, 2011). However, due to negative press and governmentally lead health campaigns, consumers are demanding products that are low in salt, fat, cholesterol, nitrites, and calories in general and contain in addition health-promoting bioactive components such as carotenoids, unsaturated fatty acids, sterols, and fibers (Weiss, Gibis, Schuh, & Salminen, 2010).
Some countries have taken a very progressive stance with regard to reducing salt in processed foods. The governments of the United Kingdom and Ireland are good examples. Cured and other processed meat products are the main contributors to salt intakes in the Irish population, followed by bread. FSA from the United Kingdom and the FSAI have agreed guidelines for the meat industry in order to reduce the salt content of several products, including bacon and ham. In the case of bacon products the FSAI agreed guidelines in 2012 were 3.3 g salt/100 g and the FSA salt targets for 2017 are 2.88 g/100 g. The FSA 2017 target for salt in ham products is 1.63 g/100 g (Delgado-Pando et al., 2018).
The food industry has already successfully started to implement processed foods low in salt and fat. Different strategies have been attempted to achieve this objective, including reducing the total amount of salt or by (partly) substitution of sodium chloride with salt replacer ingredients (Aaslyng, Vestergaard, & Koch, 2014; Aliño, Grau, Toldrá, & Barat, 2010; Aliño, Grau, Toldrá, Blesa, et al., 2010b; Fellendorf, Kerry, Hamill et al., 2018; Fellendorf et al., 2015, 2016a, 2016b, 2017; Gou, Guerrero, Gelabert, & Arnau, 1996; Guàrdia, Guerrero, Gelabert, Gou, & Arnau, 2008; Tobin, O’Sullivan, Hamill, & Kerry, 2012a, 2012b, 2013).
Consumer surveys are a powerful tool, which can assist us in understanding how consumers view products and concepts. They can also tell us how effective scientific and government health campaigns are at disseminating important information regarding diet and nutrition to the
consumer. Tobin, O’Sullivan, Hamill, and Kerry (2014) undertook a consumer study investigating European consumer attitudes on the associated health benefits of nutraceutical-containing processed meats using coenzyme Q10 as a sample functional ingredient. Of the 548 individuals surveyed, the majority of consumer attitudes toward processed meat indicate that they are unhealthy products. Most believed that processed meats contain large quantities of harmful chemicals, fat and salt (Tobin et al., 2014). In 2018 Fellendorf et al. (2018) published a paper on consumer attitudes on salt- and fat-reduced foods in the Republic of Ireland. The survey investigated how well consumers (n=1045) in Ireland have assimilated the message of consuming healthier foods, including salt- and fat-reduced foods, into their diet. In Ireland, it seems that public health campaigns relating the importance of a balanced diet have reached the consumer in good order with them well informed of the health benefits of a balanced diet and the negative aspects over high salt consumption. Only a minority of those surveyed did not take care at all about maintaining a balanced diet, independent of age, gender, and level of education; 59% of participants were very cognizant in maintaining a balanced diet with 38% of participants taking some care. Furthermore, an increase in the purchasing of salt-reduced food (43%) was observed. This displays to the processing industry that reformulation strategies appear to be having a positive effect on consumer behavior with the adoption of recognizable salt-reduced products and not just those produced over time by stealth through alignment with the government agency salt-reduction guidelines and program. Fatreduced food products were already better accepted (64%) as determined from the data from this survey. In general, men, young adults (<30 years), and less educated people purchased less salt- and fat-reduced foods and took less care of consuming a balanced diet.
The majority of the participants (>90%) in the Fellendorf study (Fellendorf et al., 2018) were also aware of the health risks leading from a diet rich in salt and fat, although less participants transferred this knowledge into their diet. A very high demand for more salt and fat-reduced foods on the market was observed, although smaller product ranges and higher prices might diminish the level of acceptance. An increasing body of evidence shows that factors such as availability, accessibility, and price play more predominant roles in food choice. It is increasingly argued that
improving diets will require change in the environments we live in and policy that supports making the healthy choice the easy choice (Foresight, 2007). Fellendorf, Kerry, Hamill, et al. (2018) and Fellendorf, Kerry, and O’Sullivan (2018) determined from the data of their survey that there was also no conflict for traditional foods reduced in salt and fat content when intrinsic character is kept. It has even been suggested that traditional food reformulation in the future may suffer from a less favorable attitude regarding health and nutritional aspects. The greatest threat for the future is seen in an insufficient adaptation to new requirements demanded by consumers (Jordana, 2000). The traditional food sector faces additional challenges of a potential discrepancy between the concept of traditional food and innovation (Guerrero et al., 2009; Stolzenbach, Bredie, & Byrne, 2013) which show an insufficient adoption of optimization strategies, possibly due the resistance to reformulate because of conservatism (Jordana, 2000). Stolzenbach et al. (2013) indicated that alterations in traditional foods without a clear understanding of the impact on consumers’ perception and acceptance can potentially be more harmful than beneficial. Therefore insights in consumer requirements and expectations are imperative for a successful market launching of product innovations (Grunert, Verbeke, Kügler, Saeed, & Scholderer, 2011). In Chapter 4, Reduced-salt products and challenges, and Chapter 5, Other nutritional modifications, consumer-driven product-development strategies for traditional food are presented through the use of coordinated affective and descriptive testing using novel rapid methods but validated by traditional consumer studies in order to determine product success.
Fellendorf, Kerry, Hamill, et al. (2018) and Fellendorf, Kerry, and O’Sullivan (2018) speculated that launching taxation and subsidies in tandem might counteract limited innovation regarding nutritional optimization and reformulation of traditional foods. On the one hand, food manufacturers might be encouraged in reformulating their products, and, on the other hand, it underlines to consumers the importance of a healthy diet. Furthermore, a user-friendly product labeling scheme is required so that consumers are able to make easier food choices (Fellendorf, Kerry, Hamill, et al., 2018; Fellendorf, Kerry, & O’Sullivan, 2018).
The use of salt in preserving processed food products was vital in the past, but the advent of modern packaging and refrigeration reduced its
primary role and necessity (O’Sullivan & Kerry, 2008). This will be discussed in Chapter 12, Magnitude estimation—alignment of sensory and instrumental analysis, regarding the use of packaging innovations to compensate for the reduced shelf life and safety of low salt–containing products.
Fat
Overconsumption of fat is linked with, obesity, as well as high blood cholesterol and CHDs (Melanson, Astrup, & Donahoo, 2009; O’Sullivan, 2017a, 2017c; WHO, 2003). Also, obesity is a risk factor for many other diseases including high blood pressure, abnormal blood fat levels [affecting low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides], increased blood-clotting tendency, and raised blood insulin levels and type 2 diabetes mellitus (Department of Health & Children, 2005). The nonfatal but restricting health problems related with obesity include respiratory difficulties, chronic musculoskeletal problems, infertility, and skin problems, whereas the chronic health problems associated with obesity include cardiovascular problems (including hypertension, stroke, and CHD), conditions associated with insulin resistance (e.g., noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus), cancer (especially the hormonally related and large-bowel cancers), and gallbladder disease (WHO, 2000). In addition, saturated fatty acids and cholesterol are linked in increasing the plasma LDL level. High LDL levels can lead to plaque buildup in arteries and result in CVDs (strokes, heart attacks, and heart failure) (Grundy & Denke, 1990).
Therefore low fat intakes are strongly recommended (WHO, 2003). This recommendation is addressed not only to the consumer but also requires the food industry to reduce sugar and fat in processed foods (Barclay et al., 2008).
Fat has an important role in human nutrition and is part of a normal balanced diet. Fats are required for hormone production (prostaglandins) and are used in blood clotting, oxygen transport, as well as the making of new cells and are required for energy production, without which muscles would cease to function. Animal fats play important functional, sensory, and nutritional roles in many food products, including processed meats
