DetailedContents
Preface
Acknowledgments
AbouttheAuthors
PARTI:FOUNDATIONS
LearningObjectives
1 ResearchintheRealWorld
DoMethodsMatter?
GoodEvidenceComesFromWell-MadeResearch
MaytheBestMethodsWin
Research-SavvyPeopleRule
Research,Policy,andPractice
PerformanceMeasurement
EvaluationResearch
Evidence-BasedPolicyandPrograms
EvidenceCanMislead MisleadingMeasurements
MisleadingSamples
MisleadingCorrelations
WhatIsResearch?
SecondaryandPrimaryResearch
ItComesinVariousShapesandSizes
It’sNeverPerfect
It’sUncertainandContingent
ItAimstoGeneralize
BitsandPiecesofaPuzzle
ItInvolvesCompetitionandCriticism
ItCanBeQuantitative,Qualitative,oraMixofBoth
ItCanBeAppliedorBasic
DescriptiveandCausalResearch
Description:WhatIstheWorldLike?
Causation:HowWouldtheWorldBeDifferentIfSomethingChanged?
DescriptionofaCorrelationIsNotProofofCausation
Epistemology:WaysofKnowing
TheScientificMethod
IsThereOneTruthinSocialScience?
InductionandDeduction
ProofRequiresFreshData
ApproachingResearchFromDifferentAngles
ConsumingResearch
CommissioningResearch
ConductingResearch
EthicsofResearch
PoisonedbyNewYork’sBestRestaurants
HistoryofHumanSubjectsAbusesinResearch
PrinciplesofEthicalResearchEmerge
WhatConstitutesInformedConsent?
EthicalIssuesDependonResearchFormandContext
Conclusion:TheRoadAhead
ChapterResources
KeyTerms
Exercises
StudentStudySite
LearningObjectives
2. Theory,Models,andResearchQuestions
FightingCrimeinNewYorkCity
WhatIsaTheory?
TheoriesIdentifyKeyVariables
TheoriesTellCausalStories
TheoriesExplainVariation
TheoriesGenerateTestableHypotheses
TheoriesFocusonModifiableVariables
WhereDoTheoriesComeFrom?
GrandSocialTheories
AcademicDisciplines
InductionandDeduction
ExploratoryandQualitativeResearch
Theories,Norms,andValues
WhatIsaModel?
VariablesandRelationships
IndependentandDependentVariables
BOX2.1INDEPENDENTANDDEPENDENTVARIABLES
CausalMechanisms
BOX22EQUATIONSASMODELS:RIGHT-HANDSIDEANDLEFT-HANDSIDE VARIABLES
DirectionofaRelationship
NamingVariables
ModelsWithMultipleCauses
CausalandNoncausalRelationships
UnitofAnalysis
SameTheory,DifferentUnitofAnalysis
LogicModels
BOX23WHATISALOGICMODEL?
DoSmallerClassesHelpKidsLearn?
InterveningVariables
WhatAboutOtherCauses?
UsefulnessofaLogicModel
BOX2.4CHINALAUNCHESNATIONWIDEAIDSPREVENTIONPROGRAM
TipsforCreatingaLogicModel
Inputs,Activities,Outputs,andOutcomes
AdditionalIssuesinTheoryBuilding
InterpretivistTheory
DoesTheoryShapeObservation?
TheoriesoftheIndependentVariable
Moderators
Hierarchical(Multilevel)ModelsandContextualVariables
TheoreticalResearch
HowtoFindandFocusResearchQuestions
AppliedResearchQuestions
QuestionsYouIdeallyWanttoAnswer,andThoseYouReallyCan KnowIfYourQuestionIsDescriptiveorCausal
MakeYourQuestionPositive,NotNormative
GeneratingQuestionsandIdeas
Conclusion:TheoriesArePractical
BOX25CRITICALQUESTIONSTOASKABOUTTHEORY,MODELS,ANDRESEARCH QUESTIONS
BOX2.6TIPSONDOINGYOUROWNRESEARCH:THEORY,MODELS,AND RESEARCHQUESTIONS
ChapterResources
KeyTerms
Exercises
StudentStudySite
LearningObjectives
3 QualitativeResearch
FightingMalariainKenya
Theory,Causes,andQualitativeResearch
WhatIsQualitativeResearch?
ContrastingQualitativeWithQuantitativeResearch
SchoolsofThoughtinQualitativeResearch
AdvantagesofQualitativeResearch
ExistingQualitativeData
ArchivalandOtherWrittenDocuments
VisualMedia,PopularCulture,andtheInternet
QualitativeInterviews
UnstructuredInterviews
SemistructuredInterviews
AskingTrulyOpen-EndedQuestions
ThePowerofProbes
SomePracticalConsiderationsWhenDoingInterviews
FocusGroups
WhatDoPeopleThinkofCongestionPricing?
ModeratingaFocusGroup
WhyaFocusGroup?WhyNotIndividualInterviews?
TelephoneandOnlineFocusGroups
QualitativeObservation
ParticipantObservationandEthnography
WhyDotheHomelessRefuseHelp?
LevelsonaParticipation-ObservationContinuum
SecretShoppingandAuditStudies
CaseStudyResearch
Maryland’sGunViolenceAct
SelectingaCasetoStudy
ComparingCases
QualitativeDataAnalysis
IntegrationofAnalysisandDataGathering
ToolsofQualitativeAnalysis
CodingandContentAnalysis
QualitativeDataAnalysisSoftware
TheQualitative-QuantitativeDebate
ABriefHistoryoftheDebate
BlurringtheLines:HowQualitativeandQuantitativeApproachesOverlap
AQualitative-QuantitativeResearchCycle
Mixed-MethodsResearchandTriangulation
BOX3.1TRANSITIONSERVICESFORINCARCERATEDYOUTH:AMIXEDMETHODS EVALUATIONSTUDY
EthicsinQualitativeResearch
PresentingQualitativeData
CanYouObtainInformedConsent?
ShouldYouHelpPeopleWithTheirProblems?
ShouldYouEmpowerPeople?
Conclusion:MatchingMethodstoQuestions
BOX3.2CRITICALQUESTIONSTOASKABOUTAQUALITATIVESTUDY
BOX3.3TIPSONDOINGYOUROWNQUALITATIVERESEARCH
ChapterResources
KeyTerms
Exercises
StudentStudySite
Measurement:TheBasicModelandaRoadMap
Conceptualization
DefiningCanBeDifficult
WhereDoConceptualizationsComeFrom?
BOX41ISPOVERTYTHESAMETHINGTHEWORLDOVER?
ManifestandLatentConstructs
Dimensions
Operationalization
BirthoftheU.S.PovertyMeasure
Instruments
BOX42OPERATIONALDEFINITIONOFPOVERTYINTHEUNITEDSTATES
ProtocolsandPersonnel
ProxiesandIndicators
CompositeMeasures:ScalesandIndexes
BOX4.3WHATISALIKERTSCALE?
Validity
BOX44USINGITEMSTHATVARYINDIFFICULTY:ITEMRESPONSETHEORY IstheUS PovertyMeasureValid?
FaceValidity
ContentValidity
ValidforWhatPurpose?
Criterion-RelatedValidity
Self-ReportedDrugUse:IsItValid?
DoestheMeasurePredictBehavior?
DoestheMeasureRelatetoOtherVariablesasExpected?
LimitationsofValidityStudies
BOX4.5THEVARIOUS(MEASUREMENT)VALIDITIES
BOX4.6EXAMPLEOFAVALIDITYSTUDY
MeasurementError
Bias
RandomError Noise
BOX47BIAS,BIASEVERYWHERE
BiasandNoiseintheUS PovertyMeasure
BOX4.8CLASSICALTESTTHEORY
Reliability
WhyReliabilityMatters
ManyWaystoTellIfaMeasureIsReliable
ValidityandReliabilityContrastedandCompared
ValidityandReliabilityinQualitativeResearch
LevelsofMeasurement
QuantitativeMeasures
BOX4.9UNIT/LEVELOFMEASUREMENT/ANALYSIS?
CategoricalMeasures
TurningCategoricalVariablesIntoQuantitativeOnes
UnitsofAnalysisandLevelsofMeasurement
MeasurementintheRealWorld:Trade-offsandChoices
WhatWillItCost?
IsItEthical?
HowWillItAffecttheQualityandRateofResponding?
Validity-ReliabilityTrade-off
HighStakes?GamingandOtherBehavioralResponses
UseMultipleMeasuresforMultipleDimensions orAggregatetoOneMeasure?
Conclusion:MeasurementMatters
BOX4.10CRITICALQUESTIONSTOASKABOUTMEASUREMENT
BOX4.11TIPSONDOINGYOUROWNRESEARCH:MEASUREMENT
ChapterResources
KeyTerms
Exercises
StudentStudySite
LearningObjectives
5. Sampling
GaugingtheFalloutFromHurricaneKatrina
Generalizability
PopulationofInterest,Sampling,andGeneralizability
AreExperimentsMoreGeneralizable?
ReplicatingResearchandMeta-Analysis
AreRelationshipsMoreGeneralizable?HealthandHappinessinMoldova
GeneralizabilityofQualitativeStudies
BasicSamplingConcepts
Population,Sample,andInference
CensusVersusSample
HowtoSelectaSample:SamplingFramesandSteps
ProblemsandBiasesinSampling
CoverageProblems
NonresponseProblems
WhenDoesNonresponseCauseBias?
WhenDoCoverageProblemsCauseBias?
BOX51STEPSINASSESSINGCOVERAGEANDNONRESPONSEBIAS
BOX5.2SAMPLINGBIAS
EthicsofNonresponse
NonprobabilitySampling
VoluntarySampling
BOX5.3STEPSINASSESSINGVOLUNTEERBIAS
ConvenienceSampling
SnowballSampling
QuotaSampling
SamplingOnline:OpenWebPollsandInternetAccessPanels
PurposiveSamplingandQualitativeResearch
Random(Probability)Sampling
TheContributionofRandomSampling
RandomSamplingVersusRandomizedExperiments
SimpleRandomSampling
SamplingVariability
SamplingDistributions,StandardErrors,andConfidenceIntervals
ConfidenceIntervals(MarginsofError)
BOX54RELATIONSHIPBETWEENVARIOUSPRECISIONMEASURES
SampleSizeandthePrecisionofGovernmentStatistics
DeterminingHowLargeaSampleYouNeed
WhatIstheTrueSampleSize?
SamplinginPractice
SystematicSampling
StratifiedSampling
DisproportionateSampling(Oversampling)
PoststratificationWeighting
SamplingWithProbabilitiesProportionaltoSize
MultistageandClusterSampling
DesignEffects:ComplexSurveySamplingCorrections
RandomDigitDialingSampling
SamplingandGeneralizability:ASummary
BOX5.5CRITICALQUESTIONSTOASKABOUTSAMPLINGINSTUDIES
BOX56TIPSONDOINGYOUROWNRESEARCH:SAMPLING
ChapterResources
KeyTerms
Exercises
StudentStudySite
LearningObjectives
6. SecondaryData
TrackingtheFlu
BigDataandtheVirtualWorld
QuantitativeData andTheirForms
QuantitativeDataVersusQuantitativeVariables
FormsofQuantitativeData
Micro,Aggregate,andMultilevelData
BOX61UNITOFOBSERVATIONVERSUSUNITOFANALYSIS
TimeDimensionofData
Metadata
WhereDoQuantitativeDataComeFrom?
AdministrativeRecords
AdaptingAdministrativeDataforResearch
VitalStatistics,CrimeReports,andUnemploymentClaims
DataforPurchase
EthicsofAdministrativeRecordData
PublishedDataTables
WheretoFindPublishedTables
PublishedTime-SeriesandPanelData
PublicUseMicrodata
SecondaryAnalysisofPublicUseData:ANewModelofResearch?
KnowtheMajorSurveysinYourField
AccessingandAnalyzingPublicUseData
DataArchives
EthicsofPublicUseMicrodata
SecondaryQualitativeData
LinkingData
SomeLimitationsofSecondaryData
DoesDataAvailabilityDistortResearch?
WhentoCollectOriginalData?
Conclusion
BOX6.2CRITICALQUESTIONSTOASKABOUTSECONDARYDATA
BOX6.3TIPSONDOINGYOUROWNRESEARCH:SECONDARYDATA
ChapterResources
KeyTerms
Exercises
StudentStudySite
LearningObjectives
7. SurveysandOtherPrimaryData
TakingtheNation’sEconomicPulse
WhenShouldYouDoaSurvey?
DoYouKnowEnoughAbouttheTopic?
DoestheInformationExistAlreadyinAnotherSource?
CanPeopleTellYouWhatYouWanttoKnow?
WillPeopleProvideTruthfulAnswers?
StepsintheSurveyResearchProcess
IdentifythePopulationandSamplingStrategy
DevelopaQuestionnaire
PretestQuestionnaireandSurveyProcedures
RecruitandTrainInterviewers
CollectData
EnterandPrepareDataforAnalysis
AnalyzeDataandPresentFindings
ModesofSurveyDataCollection
InterceptInterviewSurveys
HouseholdInterviewSurveys
TelephoneInterviewSurveys
MailSelf-AdministeredSurveys
GroupSelf-AdministeredSurveys
WeborInternetSurveys
BOX7.1WEBSURVEYSOFTWARE
Establishment(BusinessorOrganization)Surveys
PanelorLongitudinalSurveys
ChoosingorMixingModes
CraftingaQuestionnaire
StartWithSurveyPurposeorConstructs
IfYouCouldAskOnlyOneorTwoQuestions…
PrepareMockTablesandChartsofSurveyResults
LookforPriorSurveysonYourTopic
HookRespondentsWithYourFirstFewQuestions
BOX72COMPARINGOPENINGQUESTIONS
Closed-EndedVersusOpen-EndedQuestions
BOX7.3QUESTIONNAIRECOMPOSEDOFOPEN-ENDEDQUESTIONS
SomeAdviceonQuestionWording
PhysicalandGraphicalDesign
PutYourselfinYourRespondent’sShoes
EthicsofSurveyResearch
InformedConsent
PushingforaHighResponseRate
OverburdeningRespondents
ProtectingPrivacyandConfidentiality
SurveyingMinorsandOtherVulnerablePopulations
MakingSurveyDataAvailableforPublicUse
OtherWaystoCollectPrimaryData
TrainedObservation
ScientificInstruments
ComputerCodeandDataExtractionAlgorithms
Conclusion
BOX74CRITICALQUESTIONSTOASKABOUTSURVEYSANDOTHERPRIMARY DATA
BOX7.5TIPSONDOINGYOUROWNSURVEY
ChapterResources
KeyTerms
Exercises
StudentStudySite PARTIII:STATISTICALTOOLSANDTHEIRINTERPRETATION
LearningObjectives
8. MakingSenseoftheNumbers “LastWeekendIWalkedEight”
Units,Rates,andRatios
WhatUnits?
RatesorWhyCountsOftenMislead
BOX8.1RELEVANTCOMPARISONS
PercentChangeandPercentagePointChange
TheStrangenessofPercentChangeontheReturnTrip
RatesofChangeandRatesofChangeofRates
Odds
PrevalenceandIncidence
StatisticsStartingPoint:VariablesinaDataSet
Distributions
DistributionofaCategoricalVariable
DistributionofaQuantitativeVariable
MeasuresofCenter:MeanandMedian
BOX82MEAN:THEFORMULA
WhentoUseMedian?WhentoUseMean?
MeasuresofSpreadandVariation
StandardDeviation
BOX83STANDARDDEVIATION:THEFORMULA
PayAttentiontotheStandardDeviation,NotJusttheMean
Standardized(z)Scores
Quantiles:AnotherWaytoMeasureSpread
CoefficientofVariation:AWaytoCompareSpread
RelationshipsBetweenCategoricalVariables
Cross-Tabulation
RelativeRisksandOddsRatios:AnotherWaytoShowRelationshipsinCategoricalData
AdjustedandStandardizedRates:WhentoUseThem
RelationshipsBetweenQuantitativeVariables:ScatterplotsandCorrelation
Scatterplots
Correlation
BOX84CORRELATION:THEFORMULA
RelationshipsBetweenaCategoricalandaQuantitativeVariable BOX8.5WHICHONEISTHEDEPENDENTVARIABLE?WHICHONEISTHE INDEPENDENTVARIABLE?
SimpleRegression:Best-FitStraightLine
BOX8.6SIMPLEREGRESSION:THEEQUATIONS
InterpretingtheRegressionCoefficient(Slope)
BOX8.7STEPSFORINTERPRETINGAREGRESSIONCOEFFICIENT
CanaRegressionCoefficientBeInterpretedasaCausalEffect?
ChangesVersusLevels
R-SquaredandResiduals:HowWellDoestheLineFittheData?
PracticalSignificance
PracticalSignificanceIsaMatterofJudgment
EffectSize
StatisticalSoftware
Spreadsheets
StatisticalPackages:SAS,SPSS,Stata,andR
SpecializedModelingandMatrixLanguagePrograms
Conclusion:ToolsforDescriptionandCausation
BOX8.8TIPSONDOINGYOUROWNRESEARCH:DESCRIPTIVESTATISTICS
ChapterResources
KeyTerms
Exercises
StudentStudySite
LearningObjectives
9 MakingSenseofInferentialStatistics
ButIsItSignificant?
StatisticalInference:What’sItGoodFor?
TheSamplingDistribution:FoundationofStatisticalInference
WhataSamplingDistributionLooksLike
TheStandardError(ofaProportion)
TheStandardError(ofaMean)
ConfidenceIntervals
UnivariateStatisticsandRelationshipsBothHaveConfidenceIntervals ConfidenceIntervalsReflectOnlySomeSourcesofError
CalculatingaConfidenceInterval(MarginofError)foraProportion
CalculatingaConfidenceInterval(MarginofError)foraMean
HowBigDoestheSampleSizeNeedtoBe?GettingthePrecisionYouWant
SignificanceTests
FalsificationandtheLogicofSignificanceTesting
RunningaSignificanceTest
pValues
SignificanceTestsforSimpleRegression
Chi-SquareTestofCross-Tabs
OtherTestStatistics
StatisticalSignificance,PracticalSignificance,andPower
CombinationsofStatisticalandPracticalSignificance
BOX9.1SOURCESOFSTATISTICALSIGNIFICANCEANDOFSTATISTICAL INSIGNIFICANCE
FailingtoRecognizeaDifference:TypeIIErrors Power
MultipleComparisonCorrections
SampleSizeCalculationsforSignificanceTests
AdjustingInferenceforClusteringandOtherComplexSampling
IssuesandExtensionsofStatisticalInference
InferenceWithaNonprobabilitySample:WhatDoesItMean?
Bootstrapping:InferenceforStatisticsWithNoStandardErrorFormulas
BayesianInference
Conclusion
BOX9.2TIPSONDOINGYOUROWNRESEARCH:INFERENTIALSTATISTICS
ChapterResources
KeyTerms
Exercises
StudentStudySite
LearningObjectives
10. MakingSenseofMultivariateStatistics
MultipleRegression:TheBasics
BOX101HOWTORUNAMULTIPLEREGRESSIONUSINGSOFTWARE
MultipleRegressionforPrediction
BOX10.2STEPSFORPREDICTINGWITHREGRESSION
TheDanger(andNecessity)ofOut-of-SampleExtrapolation R-SquaredandAdjustedR-Squared
AllElseHeldConstant:ABitMoreMathematics
Multicollinearity
StandardizedCoefficients:TheRelativeImportanceofIndependentVariables
InferenceforRegression
StandardErroroftheCoefficient
ConfidenceIntervalsinRegression
ConfidenceIntervalofaPredictedValue
SignificanceTestinginRegression
InfluencesonInferenceinMultipleRegression
CategoricalIndependentVariables
DummyVariablesinRegression
CategoricalVariablesWithMoreThanTwoPossibleValues
BOX10.3REPRESENTINGACATEGORICALVARIABLEWITHMORETHANTWO
CATEGORIES:DIABETESEXAMPLE
InterpretingtheCoefficientofaDummyVariable
BOX10.4INTERPRETINGTHECOEFFICIENTOFADUMMYVARIABLE
AnalysisofVariance(ANOVA)
InteractionsinRegression
HowtoUseandInterpretInteractionVariables
InteractionsWithQuantitativeVariables
AlwaysIncludeBothMainEffects
FunctionalFormandTransformationsinRegression
HowtoFitaCurvedRelationship
HowtoInterpretCoefficientsWhenaVariableIsLogged
TheValueofRobustnessandTransparency
CategoricalVariablesasDependentVariablesinRegression
LinearProbabilityModel
LogisticandProbitRegression
WhatIftheDependentVariableHasMoreThanTwoCategories?
BewareofUnrealisticUnderlyingAssumptions
WhichStatisticalMethodsCanIUse?
OtherMultivariateMethods
PathAnalysis
FactorAnalysis
StructuralEquationModeling
MultilevelModels
TimeSeriesandForecasting
PanelDataMethods
SpatialAnalysis
