RelationshipBetweenMicrobesandtheEnvironment forSustainableEcosystemServices,Volume2: MicrobialMitigationofWasteforSustainable EcosystemServicesJastinSamuel
https://ebookmass.com/product/relationship-between-microbesand-the-environment-for-sustainable-ecosystem-servicesvolume-2-microbial-mitigation-of-waste-for-sustainableecosystem-services-jastin-samuel/
Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) ready for you
Download now and discover formats that fit your needs...
Relationship Between Microbes and the Environment for Sustainable Ecosystem Services, Volume 3: Microbial Tools for Sustainable Ecosystem Services Jastin Samuel
https://ebookmass.com/product/relationship-between-microbes-and-theenvironment-for-sustainable-ecosystem-services-volume-3-microbialtools-for-sustainable-ecosystem-services-jastin-samuel/ ebookmass.com
Relationship Between Microbes and the Environment for Sustainable Ecosystem Services, Volume 1: Microbial Products for Sustainable Ecosystem Services Jastin Samuel
https://ebookmass.com/product/relationship-between-microbes-and-theenvironment-for-sustainable-ecosystem-services-volume-1-microbialproducts-for-sustainable-ecosystem-services-jastin-samuel/ ebookmass.com
Ecosystem services : from biodiversity to society. Part 2 1st Edition Bohan
https://ebookmass.com/product/ecosystem-services-from-biodiversity-tosociety-part-2-1st-edition-bohan/
ebookmass.com
Gender, Power and Restorative Justice: A Feminist Critique
Jodie Hodgson
https://ebookmass.com/product/gender-power-and-restorative-justice-afeminist-critique-jodie-hodgson/
ebookmass.com
Desalination Sustainability. A Technical, Socioeconomic, and Environmental Approach 1st Edition Edition Hassan Arafat (Eds.)
https://ebookmass.com/product/desalination-sustainability-a-technicalsocioeconomic-and-environmental-approach-1st-edition-edition-hassanarafat-eds/
ebookmass.com
For the Love of Metaphysics: Nihilism and the Conflict of Reason from Kant to Rosenzweig Karin Nisenbaum
https://ebookmass.com/product/for-the-love-of-metaphysics-nihilismand-the-conflict-of-reason-from-kant-to-rosenzweig-karin-nisenbaum/
ebookmass.com
Studies In The History Of Monetary Theory: Controversies And Clarifications 1st Edition David Glasner
https://ebookmass.com/product/studies-in-the-history-of-monetarytheory-controversies-and-clarifications-1st-edition-david-glasner/
ebookmass.com
Sustainable Mega City Communities Woodrow W. Clark Ii
https://ebookmass.com/product/sustainable-mega-city-communitieswoodrow-w-clark-ii/
ebookmass.com
All Children Read: Teaching for Literacy in Today’s Diverse Classrooms (What’s New in Literacy) 5th Edition, (Ebook PDF)
https://ebookmass.com/product/all-children-read-teaching-for-literacyin-todays-diverse-classrooms-whats-new-in-literacy-5th-edition-ebookpdf/ ebookmass.com
Holcomb y Ashcraft. Cirugía pediátrica
George W. Holcomb Iii Md Mba
https://ebookmass.com/product/holcomb-y-ashcraft-cirugiapediatrica-7a-edition-george-w-holcomb-iii-md-mba/
ebookmass.com
MicrobialMitigationofWaste forSustainableEcosystem Services
Editedby
JASTINSAMUEL
AssistantProfessor,WasteValorizationResearchLab, DepartmentofTrans-disciplinaryResearch, DivisionofResearchandDevelopment(DRD), LovelyProfessionalUniversity,Jalandhar,Punjab,India
AJAYKUMAR
VisitingScientist,DepartmentofPostharvestScience,Agriculture ResearchOrganization,VolcaniCenter,RishonLeZion,Israel
JOGINDERSINGH
Professor,MicrobiologyClimateMitigationandSustainableAgriculture ResearchLab(CMaSAR),DivisionofResearchandDevelopment,Lovely ProfessionalUniversity,Phagwara,Punjab,India
Elsevier
Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands
TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates
Copyright©2022ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor mechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermission inwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’ s permissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandthe CopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher(other thanasmaybenotedherein).
Notices
Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenour understanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary.
Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusingany information,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodsthey shouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessional responsibility.
Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliability foranyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfrom anyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein.
ISBN:978-0-323-89937-6
ForinformationonallElsevierpublications visitourwebsiteat https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher: JosephHayton
AcquisitionsEditor: CandiceJanco
EditorialProjectManager: HowiM.DeRamos
ProductionProjectManager: PaulPrasadChandramohan
CoverDesigner: VickyPearsonEsser
1.Effectofpollutiononsedimentsandtheirimpactontheaquatic ecosystem1
SwarnkumarReddyandW.JabezOsborne
1.Introduction 1 2.Hydrologiccycle 2 3.Effectofpollutantsonaquaticsediments3 4.Futureprospective12 References 13
2.Impactofemergingcontaminantsonbiologicalwastewatertreatment process 17
RajneeshKumar,GurvinderK.Saini,andMohammadJawed
.Classificationofemergingcontaminants18
.SourcesofECs
.Impactofemergingcontaminantsonbiologicalprocesses22
3.Thepotentialroleofmicrobesinthetreatmentofcontaminatedwaterbodies: CurrenttrendsandCaseStudies41
T.C.PrathnaandAnkitSrivastava
.Strategiestorevivewaterbodies43 3.Wetlandsaseffectivetreatmentsystemstorevivewaterbodies45
.Casestudies
4.Microbialremovaloftriarylmethanedyes:Asustainableapproach fortheaquaticecosystemservices57
RuchiraMitra,JingHan,HuaXiang,AjayKumar,andSurojitBera
1.Introduction 57
2.Differenttypesoftriarylmethanedye58
3.Impactsonaquaticlife:Athreattotheecosystem61
4.Dyeremovaltechnologies:Progressandlimitations62
5.Factorsaffectingmicrobialdyeremoval64
6.Microbialremovaloftriarylmethanedyes66
7.Conclusion 70 Acknowledgment 71 References 71
5.Roleofbiofilmstocurbcontaminationinwaterbodies77
AbhishekKumarVerma,SuchetaKarande,andAnkitaMathur
1.Introduction 77
2.Biofilmsandtheirdistributionpatterns78
3.Biofilmsinwatersystem(aquatic,wastewaterandothersources)80
4.Biofilmandbioremediation82
5.Roleofconsortiumbiofilmstocurbcontamination86
6.Conclusion 88 References 89
6.Potentialofmicrobesfordegradationofxenobiotics:Withspecialfocus onpetroleumhydrocarbons95
AditiSingh,ManishDwivedi,HitendraYadav,andGarima
1.Introduction 95
2.Bioremediation 98
3.Degradationofxenobioticcompoundsbydifferentmicroorganisms101
4.Petroleumhydrocarbons104
5.Multi-omicsapproachtowardthemicrobialdegradationofxenobiotic compounds 112
6.Advantagesanddisadvantagesofbioremediation114
7.Conclusionandfutureprospects115
Acknowledgment 116 References 116
7.Microbesasaneffectivetooltomitigateemergingpollutants119
AnilPappachanandRahulKamidi
1.Introduction 119
2.SignificanceofmicrobemediatedbioremediationofEPs121
3.KeyplayersinvolvedinmicrobialbioremediationofEPs122
4.HowmicroorganismsdegradeEPs123
5.Factorsaffectingmicrobialbioremediationprocess124
6.StrategiestoenhancebioremediationofEPs127
7.TreatmentsystemsinvolvingmicroorganismsfortheremovalofEPs129
8.PotentialexploitationofmicroorganismsforthedegradationofEPs130
9.Roleofbiotechnologyinthemicrobialbioremediationofemergingpollutants134
10.Futureprospects136
11.AdvantagesofusingmicrobesinbioremediationofEPs137
12.DisadvantagesofusingmicrobesinbioremediationofEPs137
8.Microbialstrategiestoaddressenvironmentalnanopollutants151
NabanitaGuha,ShirinWalke,andPadmaThiagarajan
1.Introduction 151
2.Environmentalnanopollutants152
3.Bacterialremediation159
4.Fungalremediation164
5.Remediationofnanopollutantswithyeasts167
6.Remediationofnanopollutantswithalgae168
7.Conclusion
9.Removalofemergingpollutantsfromtheenvironmentthrough microbes181
YasarNishat,MohammadDanish,NidaSiddiqui,andTouseefHussain
1.Introduction 181
2.Biologicalindicators/monitors:Anoverview182
3.Emergingcontaminantsandassociatedhumanhealthhazards185
4.Emergingpollutantsinwastewater189
5.Emergingpollutantsremovaltechnique:Bioremediation191
6.Factorsaffectingmicrobialbioremediation194
7.Conclusionandfutureprospectus196 References 197
10.Wastemanagementthroughbioremediationtechnology:Aneco-friendly andsustainablesolution205
MargaretGyaawahDuodu,BishalSingh,andEvangelineChristina
1.Introduction205
2.Waste 206
3.Harmfuleffectsofwasteontheenvironment208
4.Majorstrategiesinwastemanagement210
5.Factorsaffectingmicrobialbioremediation212
6.Majorstrategiesinbioremediation215
7.Commonorganismsusedinbioremediation221
8.Advantagesofbioremediationoverotherconventionalapproaches226
9.Factorsassociatedwithdeterminingtheefficiencyofbioremediation227
10.Limitationsinbioremediationprocess228
11.Recentadvancementsintheareaofbioremediation229
12.Conclusion 231 References 231
11. Insitu bioremediationofheavymetalcontaminatedsoil235
SumedhaMohan,AyushiVarshney,andPraveenDahiya
1.Introduction 235
2.Heavymetalcontaminatedsoilandplanthealth238
3.Microbesinvolvedinbioremediation241
4.Mechanismofmetal-microbeinteraction244
5.Futureprospectsofmicrobialremediation248
6.Conclusion 250 References 251
12.Geneticallymodifiedmicrobesasaneffectivetoolforsustainable solidwastemanagement255
AnkitaNayak,KanikaKisku,ManmataDhara,andUmeshChandraNaik
1.Introduction 255
2.Roleofmicroorganismsinwastedecomposition257
3.Decompositionofbiodegradablesolidwaste259
4.Contemporarystudiesonmolecularbiologyforsolidwastemanagement261
5.Challengesformicro-biotechnologyinsolidwastetreatment262
6.Geneticallymodifiedmicroorganisms263
7.AdvancedmoleculartechnologyforthedevelopmentofGMMs263
8.Geneticallymodifiedmicrobesforwastemanagement265
9.Conclusion 266 References 267
13.Indigenousmicroorganismsasaneffectivetoolfor insitu bioremediation273
BishalSinghandEvangelineChristina
1.Introduction273
2.Indigenousmicroorganismfor insitu bioremediation274
3.Types 275
4.Factorslimiting insitu bioremediationefficiency275
5.Majorpollutantsintheenvironment277
6.Bioremediation277
7.Roleofindigenousmicroorganismsin insitu bioremediation284
8.Advantagesofindigenousmicroorganismsovernon-indigenousmicroorganisms ingeneticengineeringfor insitu bioremediation289
9.Indigenousmicroorganismasanemergingtool290
10.Prosandconsof insitu bioremediation292 References 292
14.Roleofinsectmicrobiotaindecompostingurbanwaste297
A.M.Nadaf,S.Venukumar,S.Shilpa,HasansabA.Nadaf,B.H.Renuka, G.B.Chethan,andMuddasar
1.Introduction 297
2.Wastemanagement298
3.Methodsofwastemanagement298
4.Roleofinsectsandassociatedmicrobesinsolidwastedegradation299
5.Digestionininsects300
6.Decomposinginsectsandassociatedmicro-organismsindecomposition300
7.Roleofinsectsandassociatedmicrobesinplasticdegradation305
8.Recommendationsforallnationsaroundtheworldawaitingeffectivemean solidwastemanagement(MSWM)308 References 308
Furtherreading 309
15.Processingoflignocellulosicbiomassforenhancedproducts311
PriyankaSingh,PratibhaTeotia,AjayKumar,andNikunajBhardwaj
1.Introduction 311
2.Structureoflignocellulosicbiomass312
Contributors
SurojitBera
DepartmentofMicrobiology,SchoolofBioengineeringandBiosciences,LovelyProfessional University,Phagwara,Punjab,India
NikunajBhardwaj
DepartmentofZoology,M.S.College,Saharanpur,UP,India
G.B.Chethan
DepartmentofEntomology,KitturRaniChannammaCollegeofHorticulture,Arabhavi, Karnataka,India
EvangelineChristina
DepartmentofMolecularBiologyandGeneticEngineering,SchoolofBioengineeringand Biosciences,LovelyProfessionalUniversity,Phagwara,Punjab,India
PraveenDahiya
AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityUttarPradesh(AUUP),Noida, UttarPradesh,India
MohammadDanish
DepartmentofBotany,AligarhMuslimUniversity,Aligarh,UttarPradesh,India
ManmataDhara
DepartmentofBotany,RavenshawUniversity,Cuttack,India
MargaretGyaawahDuodu
DepartmentofForensicScience,SchoolofBioengineeringandBiosciences,LovelyProfessional University,Phagwara,Punjab,India
ManishDwivedi
AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityUttarPradesh,LucknowCampus, Lucknow,India
Garima
CentreofNanobiotechnology,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,India
NabanitaGuha
SchoolofBiosciencesandTechnology,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,TamilNadu, India
JingHan
StateKeyLaboratoryofMicrobialResources,InstituteofMicrobiology,ChineseAcademyof Sciences;CollegeofLifeScience,UniversityofChineseAcademyofSciences,Beijing,People’s RepublicofChina
TouseefHussain
DepartmentofBotany,AligarhMuslimUniversity,Aligarh,UttarPradesh;DivisionofPlant Pathology,ICAR-IndianAgriculturalResearchInstitute,NewDelhi,India
MohammadJawed
DepartmentofCivilEngineering,IndianInstituteofTechnologyGuwahati,Guwahati,Assam, India
RahulKamidi
CentralSericulturalResearch&TrainingInstitute,CentralSilkBoard,MinistryofTextiles: Govt.ofIndia,Berhampore,Murshidabad,WestBengal,India
SuchetaKarande
DepartmentofBotany,MUIS,GanpatUniversity,Mehsana,Gujarat,India
KanikaKisku
DepartmentofBotany,RavenshawUniversity,Cuttack,India
AjayKumar
DepartmentofPostharvestScience,AgricultureResearchOrganization,VolcaniCenter,Rishon LeZion,Israel;DepartmentofMicrobiology,SchoolofBioengineeringandBiosciences,Lovely ProfessionalUniversity,Phagwara,Punjab,India
RajneeshKumar
CentrefortheEnvironment,IndianInstituteofTechnologyGuwahati,Guwahati,Assam,India
AnkitaMathur
DepartmentofLifeSciences,MewarUniversity,Chittorgarh,Rajasthan,India
RuchiraMitra
StateKeyLaboratoryofMicrobialResources,InstituteofMicrobiology,ChineseAcademyof Sciences;InternationalCollege,UniversityofChineseAcademyofSciences,Beijing,People’s RepublicofChina
SumedhaMohan
AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityUttarPradesh(AUUP),Noida, UttarPradesh,India
Muddasar
DepartmentofEntomology,CollegeofHorticulture,Bagalkot,Karnataka,India
A.M.Nadaf
DepartmentofEntomology,KitturRaniChannammaCollegeofHorticulture,Arabhavi, Karnataka,India
HasansabA.Nadaf
BasicTasarSilkwormSeedOrganisation(BTSSO),CentralSilkBoard,Bilaspur,Chhattisgarh, India
UmeshChandraNaik DepartmentofBotany,RavenshawUniversity,Cuttack,India
AnkitaNayak DepartmentofBotany,RavenshawUniversity,Cuttack,India
YasarNishat
DepartmentofBotany,AligarhMuslimUniversity,Aligarh,UttarPradesh,India
W.JabezOsborne BiomoleculesLab,SchoolofBioSciencesandTechnology,VelloreInstituteofTechnology, Vellore,India
AnilPappachan
P2BasicSeedFarm,NationalSilkwormSeedOrganization(NSSO),CentralSilkBoard,Ministry ofTextiles:Govt.ofIndia,YelagiriHills,Tamilnadu,India
T.C.Prathna
DepartmentofIrrigationandFloodControl,Govt.ofNCTofDelhi,DelhiSecretariat, NewDelhi,India
SwarnkumarReddy BiomoleculesLab,SchoolofBioSciencesandTechnology,VelloreInstituteofTechnology, Vellore,India
B.H.Renuka
DepartmentofEntomology,KitturRaniChannammaCollegeofHorticulture,Arabhavi, Karnataka,India
GurvinderK.Saini
DepartmentofBiosciencesandBioengineering,IndianInstituteofTechnologyGuwahati, Guwahati,Assam,India
S.Shilpa
DepartmentofEntomology,KitturRaniChannammaCollegeofHorticulture,Arabhavi, Karnataka,India
NidaSiddiqui
DepartmentofEnvironmentalScienceandEngineering,IndianInstituteofTechnology, Bombay,Mumbai,Maharashtra,India
AditiSingh
AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityUttarPradesh,LucknowCampus, Lucknow,India
BishalSingh
DepartmentofMicrobiologyandCellBiology,IndianInstituteofScience,Bangalore,Karnataka, India
PriyankaSingh
DepartmentofBiotechnology,NoidaInternationalUniversity,GreaterNoida,UP,India
AnkitSrivastava
DelhiJalBoard,Govt.ofNCTofDelhi,NewDelhi,India
PratibhaTeotia
DepartmentofBiotechnology,NoidaInternationalUniversity,GreaterNoida,UP,India
PadmaThiagarajan
SchoolofBiosciencesandTechnology,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,TamilNadu, India
AyushiVarshney
AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityUttarPradesh(AUUP),Noida, UttarPradesh,India
S.Venukumar
DepartmentofEntomology,KitturRaniChannammaCollegeofHorticulture,Arabhavi, Karnataka,India
AbhishekKumarVerma
DepartmentofLifeSciences,MewarUniversity,Chittorgarh,Rajasthan,India
ShirinWalke
SchoolofBiosciencesandTechnology,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,TamilNadu, India
HuaXiang
StateKeyLaboratoryofMicrobialResources,InstituteofMicrobiology,ChineseAcademyof Sciences;CollegeofLifeScience,UniversityofChineseAcademyofSciences,Beijing,People’s RepublicofChina
HitendraYadav
AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityUttarPradesh,LucknowCampus, Lucknow,India
Effectofpollutiononsedimentsand theirimpactontheaquaticecosystem
SwarnkumarReddyandW.JabezOsborne BiomoleculesLab,SchoolofBioSciencesandTechnology,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,India
1.Introduction
Aquaticpollutioncanbedefinedasthephenomenonofcontaminatingawaterbodyby theingressofmaterialsorcompoundsintotheaquaticecosystem.Climaticchangeusuallyhasavastimpactontheaquaticecosystembyaffectingvariousabioticfactorssuchas precipitationandtemperature,whichimpactsthesystem’snormalfunctioning(Harley etal.,2006).Waterbeingthemostvitalnaturalsource,thepollutionoftheaquaticecosystemhitchesbothenvironmentalhealthandhumanwell-being(Schmelleretal.,2018). Thequalityofthewaterishighlyaffectedbypollution,andthedegreeofpollutionis measuredbythequalityofthewater.Themajorsourceoffreshwaterpollutionisdomesticsewagefromcitiesandtownsreleasedintoriversandlakes.Domesticsewagecontributesover20%ofoverallwaterpollutants(WahaabandBadawy,2004).
Apartfromdomesticsewage,industrialandagriculturaladvancementsandvarious xenobioticshaveseriousfreshwaterandmarineecosystemthreats.Thedisposaloftreated oruntreatedsewageandindustrialwastewateraccountsforthepointsourceofpollution. Inthecaseofagriculturalrunoffsandanthropologicaldisposalofgarbageonthecoastal line,watertransportationwasconsideredthenon-pointsourceofaquaticpollution (MantzavinosandPsillakis,2004; TaebiandDroste,2004).Pesticidesandfertilizersfrom agriculturalactivitiespollutethewaterbodiesbyhighlyaffectingtheirphysicochemical parameters,particularlybiologicaloxygendemandandotherfactorslikephosphorous andnitrogenconcentrations.Amongthenumeroussourcesofpollution,themajorrepresentativesareindustrialdrains,agriculturalrunoffs,anthropologicaldisposalinmarine cost, etc. Theseactivitiesalterthequalityofthewaterbytheadditionofadiversegroupof pollutants,includinghydrocarbons,polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons,chlorinatedsolvents,andvariousheavymetals(PratibhaandShachi,2016; Sprovierietal.,2007).
Beingaseriousthreatandalsoanalarmingsituation,aquaticpollutionhasbecomea globalconcern.Globallyaquaticpollutionwasaddressedthroughthreemajorclasses, namelyorganicandinorganicpollutants,heavymetals,andvariouspandemic
RelationshipBetweenMicrobesandtheEnvironmentforSustainableEcosystemServices,Volume2 Copyright © 2022ElsevierInc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-89937-6.00001-2
microorganisms.Butinrecentdecades,theadvancementsinindustrializationandagriculturehavegivenrisetovariouspollutants.Microplastics,nanoparticles,radioactive pollutants,andvariouscompoundsfrompharmaceuticalindustrieslikeantibiotics, etc. (Naiketal.,2019).Wateristhemostambientandvitalingredientoftheenvironment andanintegralpartofhumanlife.Pollutionintheaquaticecosystemalsoleadstothe depositionofthesepollutantsinhumansbecauseoftheconsumptionofaquaticlivestock. Thewaterpollutantsalsohinderthegrowthofaquaticfloraandfaunasuchasseaweed, waterbird,mollusks,andfisheswhichactasamajornutritionalsourceforhumans.All thesepollutantsalsoenterthehumanbodyandareknowntodepositinfatandother tissues(Berglundetal.,1992).Evenattraceamounts,thesepollutantsaretoxicand areknowntocausevariousserioushealthcomplicationssuchasinflammation,gastrointestinaldisorders,compressiveimmunedisorders,infertility, etc. Thischapterofthebook detailsthevariouspollutantsofaquaticsedimentsandtheireffectsonthehealthofthe aquaticecosystem.
2.Hydrologiccycle
Thehydrologiccyclecanbedefinedastheinflowandoutflowofwaterfromtheaquatic ecosystembetweensurfacewaterbodiesandthesea.Thehydrologiccycleisacomplex processthatassistsavitalprocessincirculatingmatterandenergyintotheaquaticecosystem(MollmannandDiekmann,2012).Thehydrometeorologicalregimehighlyinfluencesthelifeofaquaticorganismsandthedevelopmentoftheecosystem.The hydrologicalregimeishighlycharacterizedbygroundwatertable,variousrunoff,water quality,precipitation,iceandsedimentdrift,temperature,andsolarinterface(Koryto etal.,2017).
Beingthefascinatingmatter,whichencompassesallfieldsofscience,alsokeepsall lifeformsalive.Apartfromthis,waterisalsousedinvariousanthropologicalactivitieslike industrialactivities,includingrecreationandtransportation.Varioushumanactivitiesin anecosystemexhibitvariouseffectsonvariouscomponentsoftheecosystem(Crowder andNorse,2008).Theself-hinderingprocessofwaterisabletoregeneratetheoriginal equilibriumofwaterhomeostasis.Prolongedeffectsofanthropologicalactivitiesaffect theecosystembylong-termnegativeeffectsonwaterquality,groundwatertable,runoff andsedimentdrift, etc.,whichalsodegradestheregionalecosystem(Singhetal.,2010).
Theexcessiveuseofwaterresourcesandhumanactivitieslikeindustrialdischargeaffect bothwaterqualityandquantity.Thechangeinthewaterqualityisaffectedbyadirectdischargeofcontaminatedwatersandthedecreaseinthequantityofwaterinanecosystemby changingthephysiologicalpropertiesofwater(CarrandNeary,2008).Theeffectsofpollutiononwaterqualitycanbedistinguishedintotwomodessuchaspointsourceandnonpointsource.Inwhich,pointsourcecanbegivenasthepollutionwhichsourcecanbe
defined(industrialanddomesticdischarge),whereasnon-pointsourcecanbedefinedasthe secondaryeffectsofhumanactivities(Shenetal.,2012).
3.Effectofpollutantsonaquaticsediments
3.1Organicpollutantsandplantnutrients
Thisclassofpollutantscompartsofmajorfreshwatercontaminantssuchasaquaticmetabolites,domesticsewagefromurbantreatmentplants,andotherdomesticactivities. Organicpollutantswidelyinvolvebiodegradableforms(mostlyplant-basedproducts). Thesealsoincludevariousnon-biodegradableinertpollutants(Badmusetal.,2018; Wuetal.,2008).Organicpollutantsfromanaturalsourcearebiodegradableanddo nothaveanydirecteffectontheecosystem.Inwhereincaseofsyntheticman-made organiccompounds,theyoftenneedspecialtreatmentstoremovethemfromtheecosystem( JonerandLeyval,2003).
Organicpollutioncanbeclassifiedintothree-stagebasedonthedegreeofpollution: Asmallloadoforganicpollutantscharacterizesthefirstdegreeoforganicpollution.In thispollutionstage,therewillbelittlevariationinthenaturalcycleecosystem,whichalso affectsfloraandfauna.Thepointofdischargeisfoundtobewithamaximalloadofpollutants,wherethepollutantsdisappearwithinashortdistancedownstream,anditis removedbythewater’sself-renewalprocess(Barlettaetal.,2019).Organicpollutants atminimalconcentrationwerefoundtobebeneficialtotheecosystem,whereitincreases thenutrientsupplyfortheecosystem,andthewholedegreeofpollutioncanbebefitting totheaquaticsystem(ReddyandOsborne,2020b).
Further,anincreaseinthelevelofpollutionresultsinasignificantdecreaseindissolvedoxygen.Theseorganicpollutantsenrichthegrowthofcertainspeciesofplants andanimals,whichinturnaffectseveralotherorganisms(ReddyandOsborne, 2022).Thedispersionofpollutionisnotablefromaconsiderabledistancefromthesite ofpollution.Further,theabsenceofpollutionprobablyrecoversthepollutantsdownstream.Theprolongedpersistenceofpollutionmayresultinabarrierformigratoryfishes.
Theincreaseinpollutionbeyondthetolerablelimitaffectstheaquaticecosystem,and theecosystemlosesself-purification.Aprolongedincreaseinthepollutantsdrastically decreasesdissolvedoxygenaslowaszero(Wangetal.,2010).Thisdegreeofpollution affectsthegrowthofallorganismsintheecosystem,anditonlyflourishesthesewage fungus,parasiticworms,andseverallarvae.Thelevelofpollutioncanbedeterminedwith BiologicalMonitoringWorkingParty(BMWP)score.Severeorganicpollutiondrasticallydecreasesthegrowthofphotosyntheticbacteria,whichinturnaffectsreoxygenation.Duetolowoxygenlevels,severalanaerobicbacteriathriveandmetabolizethe organicmatterinthewater,resultinginmethane,ammonia,andhydrogensulfide.This stageofpollutioncannotberemediated,andthepollutionpersistsfromamuchgreater distancedownstreamfromthepointofpollution(LovleyandPhillips,1988) Table1
Table1 Commonaquaticpollutants,modeofcontamination,andtheirsources.
PollutantModeofcontaminationSourceofpollutant
Plantnutrients (organicpollutants)
Plantnutrients (nitrate,phosphate, urea, etc.)
Pathogenic microbes
Oxygendepleting pollutants
Agriculturalrunoff,plantwastesFarmlands,foodprocessing industries
Agrochemicals (pesticides, insecticides)
Industrialeffluents withheavymetals, dyesanddetergents
Metals,plastics,mandmade fibers, etc. 4 Relationshipbetweenmicrobesandtheenvironmentforsustainableecosystemservices,volume2
AgriculturalrunoffFertilizersappliedoncrops, detergents
Householdactivities,swimming, agriculturalactivitieslike irrigation
Dumpingorreleasingthe pollutantsintowaterstreamsand drainingfromtheretoother waterbodies
Runoffsfromthefarmlands treatedwithpesticides
Anthropologicaldischargeof effluentsintowaterbodies
SedimentsSoilerosionduetodeforestation, floods,dredgingactivities
Othersolid pollutants
Developmentinindustrialization, poorwastemanagementpolicies
3.2Physicalpollutants
Domesticsewagewithanimaland humanwastes,hospitalwastes withhumanwastes
Domesticandindustrialwaste withlargequantitiesoforganic wastes. E.g.,wastesfromwood pulpmillsandfoodprocessing industries.
Organicandinorganic agrochemicals
Includesawideclassofindustries butnotlimitedtotextile processingindustries,tanneries, mining,confectionaries, etc.
Acceleratedsoilerosion
Achangeincolorprimarilycausespollutantsthatimpactthephysicalappearanceand propertiesofwaterthesepollutants,increaseintemperature,thereleaseofradioactive compounds,andfoam.Physicalpollutantscanbeclassifiedbasedontheirmodeofdispersionandnatureofpollutant.Commonphysicalpollutantincludes,
3.2.1Suspendedsolids
Industriesarethemainsourceofexcretingsuspendedsolidsandparticulatematter.Suspendedsolidshaveseveralconsequencesonthehealthoftheaquaticecosystem.Suspendedsolidshinderthepenetrationofsunlight,therebyaffectingthephotosynthesis ofaquaticplants.Thelackofphotosyntheticplantshasasecondaryeffectonthefood chain.Suspendedparticlestendtosettleonaquaticplantsandanimals,affectingtheirregularmetabolism(Auetal.,2004).
Prolongedexposuretoelevatedlevelsresultsinlethaleffectsonanimalsduetoeffects onsublethalorgansandaffectstherespiratorysystem.Moreparticularly,suspendedsolids
insomeindustrialeffluentswithdiversechemicalsreactwiththesaltsinthewaterand enterthefoodchain.Forexample,theironcontentintheminingeffluentsreactswith oxygeninthewater,formingironhydroxideprecipitates(Nazia,2020).
3.2.2Immisciblesolvents
Immiscibleliquidscanbegivenasthecolloidalsuspensionofoneliquidinanother, resultinginemulsions.Oils,greases,andvarioustarrysubstanceswithlowdissolvingabilityinwatercomeunderimmisciblepollutants.Oilrefineriesandwatertransportation accountforthistypeofpollution.Immisciblepollutantsarelikelytoaffecttheturbidity ofthewaterlikesuspendedsolids,butimmisciblesolventsaremorelikelytofloatonthe surfaceandadheretothevegetativepartofthewater(Drinanetal.,2012).Thesepollutantsarelesslikelytosettleonthesurface.Organicsolventsandsomeoilsarelikelyto decomposeinthecourseoftimebytheactionofmarinemicrobes.
Variouspetroleumproductsandtarsareslightlysolubleinwater,contaminatingwater byaddingcolorandodor.Generally,oilislessdense,whichspreadsasanextremelythin surfaceonthewater.Evenasmallamountofoilislikelytopollutealargesurfaceofthe water(Hrubeshetal.,2001).Thespreadofoilonthesurfaceofwaterlimitsthetransportationofoxygenandincreasesthebiologicalload.Thisalsoaffectstheregularlife cycleofvariousinsects.Todate,therearemorethan3000knownimmisciblepollutants. Althoughtheseaffecttheterrestrialecosystem,theystillhavewideadverseeffectsonthe aquaticecosystem(ZhuandGuo,2016).
3.2.3Thermalpollutants
Elevatedlevelsoftemperaturehighlycharacterizeindustrialeffluents.Anegligible increaseintheeffluenttemperaturemightnothaveanyundesirableeffectonaclean, fast-movingwaterecosystem(Vasistha,2014).Theincreaseintemperatureactsasapositivecatalystandincreasesthemetabolicratesofallaquaticorganisms.Inthiscase,the dissolvedoxygencanstillbeavailable,buttheregularmetabolismoftheplantsandanimalswillbealtered.Anincreaseinthetemperatebeyondtolerablelimitsdecreasesthe dissolvedoxygenlevelsbyhydrolysis(Kalogirou,2009).Theextentofoxygenlevelat thepointofdischargeinfluencestheoveralleffectoftheoxygenbalanceoftheparticular effluent.Theriseinthetemperaturebeyondthetolerablelevelsaffectsthebiodiversityof theecosystembypromotingthepopulationofspeciousindigenoustothewarmertemperatures.Ariseintemperaturealsoincreasesthebiochemicaloxygendemandinsewage water.Theriseintemperatureandincreaseinchemicaloxygendemanddrastically decreasesthedissolvedoxygen,whichhaslethaleffects n theplantandanimalspecies.
3.2.4Physiologicalpollutants
Physiologicalpollutantscanbedescribedasthepollutantsorphysicalparametersofthe effluentswhichaffecttheaquaticecosystem.Simpleexamplesofphysiologicalpollutants
arevariationsintheflowofwater,changesinthetaste,odorand,colorofwater (Chapman,2007).Thereleaseofanenormousamountofeffluentsintoawaterbody affectsthestateofthewater.Extensiveabstractionandreleaseofrelativelylargevolumes ofintermittenteffluentscausehugediscrepanciesinthestateofwater.Thesudden increaseinwaterinflowwithrepeatedfluctuationsallowsonlytheorganismsthatcan withstandtheadverseconditions.Afast-flowingwaterstreamwillaffecttheplantswhich arehabituatedonthebed.Also,whenwaterrevertsbacktoitsnormalinflow,therewill beasharpdecreaseindissolvedoxygenconcentration,whichaffectstheorganism dependingonthehighoxygenlevels(Bolongetal.,2009).
Variouschemicalpollutantsatnegligibleconcentrationsmightnotaffectthebiotaof theecosystemdirectly,butithasaconsiderableamountofindirectharmfuleffectsonthe organism.Thechemicalpollutantsatloverconcentrationaffectthestateofwaterbygivingitanunpleasantcolorandodor.Thephysiologicaleffectofcolordependsonthe light-absorbingpropertywithrespecttoplantsandphotosyntheticalgaeandaffects photosynthesis.
3.3Toxicpollutants
3.3.1Pesticides
Pesticidesareoneofthemajoragrochemicalsusedinagriculture.Thisincludesvarious classesofchemicalssuchasinsecticides,herbicides,andfungicides.Anincreaseinthe demandforagriculturalproductsresultedinlandclearanceandtheproductionofagriculturalproducts(Singhetal.,2010).Anincreaseintheproductionofagriculturalproductsresultedinadrasticincreaseintheuseofagrochemicals.Thepesticidesappliedtothe cropsgetwashedandresultinpollutingtheaquaticecosystem(Ecobichon,2001).All classesofpesticidesarecharacterizedasshightoxicsubstancesandknowncarcinogens. Thesecarcinogensexhibitlethaleffectsonaquaticlifeandalsoentersintomarineorganisms,therebyposinghumans.Theacutetoxicityofpesticidescausesvariouscarcinogenic effectsandalsomortality.Withtheincreaseddemandforfoodduetooverpopulationand lessknowledgeontheuseofpesticides,developingcountriesarethemosteffectiveby pesticidepoising(Pimenteletal.,1993).
3.3.2Salts
Saltsareoneofthemajorpollutantscausedbyagriculture.Theincreaseinirrigationalso increasesthegenerationofbrackishandleachingwater,whichresultsinanincreased levelofsalinityintheaquaticecosystem.Irrigationalsoincreasesthegroundwater tablebyincreasingtheseepagefromsalineaquifersintowatercourses(Velascoetal., 1764).Excessiveirrigationalsomobilizesthesaltsinthesurfacesoliandcausesleaching, causingsalinizationinthesubsequentaquaticsystem(Hillel,2000).Severalotheranthropologicalactivitiesaccountforsalinization,suchassaltmining,mineralmining,excessive useofgroundwaterfordomesticpurposes, etc. Rapidclimatechangeandrisingsealevels
alsoresultinincreasedsaltconcentrations.Anincreaseinsalinitycausesharmfuleffectson thefreshwaterecosystem,whereasadecreaseinthesalinityofthemarineecosystemalso affectsthebiologicalfunctioningofthemarinebiota.Constantinputsoffreshwaterfrom agriculturalrunoffsandaridlandscapesdilutenaturallysalineecosystemslikebackwater rivers,estuaries,andsaltmarsheswithseriousadverseeffects(Herbertetal.,2015).The salinityinanaquaticecosystemcanbegivenasanisosmoticpoint.Thesalinitylevels aboveorbelowthispointhavedeleteriouseffectsontheorganisminthecorresponding ecosystem.Thechangeintheisosmoticpointalterstheosmoticpressureintheorgansof aquaticanimalsanddisruptsthemetabolism.Theorganism’sinnateosmoregulation mechanismmightnotbesufficientindealingwithanthropologicalsalinizationordilution( Jollyetal.,2008).
3.3.3Heavymetals
Heavymetalpollutionhasbeenthemostpredominantpollutioninthepasttwodecades. Beingthemostpersistentandtoxicpollutantmakesthistopthelistofinorganicpollutants.Heavymetalsareintroducedintotheenvironmentbyvariousanthropogenicactivitiesthroughvariousindustriesbutarenotlimitedtotextileindustries,tanneryindustries, mining,paintindustries, etc. (Fairweather-Taitetal.,2011).Apartfromhumanactivities, variousnaturalfactorsalsoaddheavymetalstotheenvironment.Theseincludevolcanic eruptionandweatheringofrocks.Rocksandsoilarenaturalcomponentsofheavymetals releasedintotheenvironmentbyconstantweatheringanderosion(ReddyandOsborne, 2020a).Thereleaseofheavymetalsbynaturalprocessessuchasslowleachingfromsoil androcksactuallyreleaseslowlevelsofheavymetals,whicharenaturallynon-toxic.The releaseofheavymetalsbyhumanactivitiesresultsinanenormousnumberofheavy metals.Industrialeffluentsarethemajorsourceofheavymetalcontaminationthat directlyaffectsfreshandmarineecosystems(Deanetal.,1972).Heavymetalsaremore significantthanotherpollutantsintermsofecotoxicologysinceheavymetalscannotbe removedbymicrobialdegradationandhencetendstoremainaccumulatedinvariouslife forms(Gilleretal.,1998).Thebioavailabilityofheavymetalsinwaterbyvariousmodes ofpollutionincreasesthemetaluptakebytheorganismsintheecosystem.Theabsorption ofheavymetalsintothelivingsystemcausesdeleteriouseffectsontheorganismandalso exhibitsvariousdysfunction(Ansarietal.,2003).Anaquaticecosystemistheprimesuspectofheavymetalpollution,whichisboundtoparticulatematterandallowsthesettling ofmetals.Surfacedepositionisthemostcommonscenarioofmetalpoisoningwherethe sediment-bondedmetalionsarereadilyadsorbedbytherootedplantsintheecosystem (Babyetal.,2010; ForstnerandWittmann,2012).
Variousunicellularphytoplanktonandzooplanktonsplayamajorroleinthetransfer ofheavymetalstotheupperclassofthefoodchain.Theconsumptionofaquaticunicellularbyhigherclassorganismslikefishesandfurthertheconsumptionoffishesby humansleadstometalpoising.Humansgetmostofthemetalpoisoningfromaquatic
