REFRAMING ORGANIZATIONS
Thisisthesixthreleaseofaworkthatbeganin1984as ModernApproaches toUnderstandingandManagingOrganizations andbecame Reframing Organizations in1991.We’regratefultoreadersaroundtheworldwhohave toldusthatourbooksgavethemideasthatmakeadifference atworkand elsewhereintheirlives.
Itisagaintimeforanupdate,andwe’regratifiedtobebackbypopulardemand.Like everythingelse,organizationsandtheirleadershipchallengescontinuetoevolverapidly, andscholarsarerunninghardtokeeppace.Thiseditiontriestocapturethecurrent frontiersofbothknowledgeandart.
Thefour-framemodel,withitsviewoforganizationsasfactories,families,jungles,and temples,remainsthebook’sconceptualheart.Butwehaveincorporatednewresearchand revisedourcaseexamplesextensivelytokeepupwiththelatestdevelopments.Wehave updatedafeatureweinauguratedinthethirdedition: “GreatestHitsinOrganization Studies.” Thesefeaturesofferpithysummariesofkeyideasfromthesomeofthemost influentialworksinthescholarlyliterature(asindicatedbyacitationanalysis,describedin theAppendixattheendofthebook).Asacounterpointtothescholarlyworks,wehavealso addedoccasionalsummariesofmanagementbestsellers.Scholarlyandprofessionalliteratureoftenrunonseparatetracks,butthetwostreamstogetherprovideafullerpicturethan eitheralone,andwehavetriedtocapturethebestofbothinourwork.
Lifeinorganizationshasproducedmanystoriesandexamples,andthereisnew materialthroughoutthebook.Atthesametime,weworkedzealouslytominimizebloatby trackingdownandexpungingeveryredundantsentence,marginalconcept,orextraneous example.We’vealsotriedtokeepitfun.Collectivelifeisanendlesssourceofvividexamples asentertainingastheyareinstructive,andwe’vesprinkledthemthroughoutthetext.
Weapologizetoanyonewho findsthatanoldfavoritefelltothecutting-room floor,butwe hopereaderswill findthebookanevenclearerandmoreefficientread.
Asalways,ourprimaryaudienceismanagersandleaders.Wehavetriedtoanswerthe question,whatdoweknowaboutorganizationsandleadershipthatisgenuinelyrelevant andusefultopractitionersaswellasscholars?Wehaveworkedtopresentalarge,complex bodyoftheory,research,andpracticeasclearlyandsimplyaspossible.Wetriedtoavoid wateringitdownorpresentingsimplisticviewsofhowtosolvemanagerialproblems.Thisis notaself-helpbook filledwithready-madeanswers.Ourgoalistooffernotsolutionsbut powerfulandprovocativewaysofthinkingaboutopportunitiesandpitfalls.
Wecontinuetofocusonbothmanagement and leadership.Leadingandmanagingare different,butthey’reequallyimportant.Thedifferenceisnicelysummarizedinanaphorism fromBennisandNanus: “Managersdothingsright.Leadersdotherightthing.” Ifan organizationisovermanagedbutunderled,iteventuallylosesanysenseofspiritorpurpose. Apoorlymanagedorganizationwithastrong,charismaticleadermaysoarbriefly onlyto crashshortlythereafter.Malpracticecanbeasdamagingandunethicalformanagersand leadersasforphysicians.
Myopicmanagersoroverzealousleadersusuallyharmmorethanjustthemselves.The challengesoftoday’sorganizationsrequiretheobjectiveperspectiveofmanagersaswellas thebrilliant flashesofvisionthatwiseleadershipprovides.Weneedmorepeoplein managerialroleswhocan findsimplicityandorderamidorganizationalconfusionand chaos.Weneedversatileand flexibleleaderswhoareartistsaswellasanalysts,whocan reframeexperiencetodiscovernewissuesandpossibilities.Weneedmanagerswholove theirwork,theirorganizations,andthepeoplewhoselivestheyaffect.Weneedleaderswho appreciatemanagementasamoralandethicalundertaking,andwhocombinehardheaded realismwithpassionatecommitmenttolargervaluesandpurposes.Wehopetoencourage andnurturesuchqualitiesandpossibilities.
Asinthepast,wehavetriedtoproduceaclearandreadablesynthesisandintegrationof the field’smajortheoreticaltraditions.Weconcentratemainlyonorganizationtheory’ s implicationsforpractice.Wedrawonexamplesfromeverysectorandaroundtheglobe. Historically,organizationstudieshasbeendividedintoseveralintellectualcamps,often isolatedfromoneanother.Worksthatseektogiveacomprehensiveoverviewoforganizationtheoryandresearchoftendrowninsocialsciencejargonandabstractionandhavelittle tosaytopractitioners.Worksthatstrivetoprovidespecificanswersandtacticsoftenoffer advicethatappliesonlyundercertainconditions.Wetryto findabalancebetween misleadingoversimplificationandmind-bogglingcomplexity.
Thebulkofworkinorganizationstudieshasfocusedontheprivate or public or nonprofitsectorbutnotallthree.Wethinkthisisamistake.Managersneedtounderstand similaritiesanddifferencesamongalltypesoforganizations.Allthreesectorsincreasingly interpenetrateoneanother.Federal,stateandlocalgovernmentscreatepolicythatshapesor intendstoinfluenceorganizationsofalltypes.Whenbadthingshappennewlawsare promulgated.Publicadministratorswhoregulateairlines,nuclearpowerplants,orpharmaceuticalcompaniesfacetheproblemof “indirectmanagement” everyday.Theystruggle toinfluencethebehavioroforganizationsoverwhichtheyhaveverylimitedauthority. Private firmsneedtomanagerelationshipswithmultiplelevelsofgovernment.The situationisevenmorecomplicatedformanagersinmultinationalcompaniescoping withthesubtletiesofgovernmentswithverydifferentsystemsandtraditions.Around theworld,voluntaryandnongovernmentorganizationspartnerwithbusinessandgovernmenttoaddressmajorsocialandeconomicchallenges.Acrosssectorsandcultures, managersoftenharbornarrow,stereotypicconceptionsofoneanotherthatimpede effectivenessonallsides.Weneedcommongroundandasharedunderstandingthat canhelpstrengthenorganizationsineverysector.Thedialoguebetweenpublicandprivate, domesticandmultinationalorganizationshasbecomeincreasinglyimportant.Becauseof theirgenericapplication,thefourframesofferanecumenicallanguagefortheexchange. Ourworkwithavarietyoforganizationsaroundtheworldhascontinuallyreinforcedour confidencethattheframesarerelevanteverywhere.Translationsofthebookintomany languages,includingChinese,Dutch,French,Korean,Norwegian,Russian,Spanish, Swedish,andTurkish,provideampleevidencethatthisisso.Politicalandsymbolicissues, forexample,areuniversallyimportant,eventhoughthespecificsvarygreatlyfromone countryorculturetoanother.
Theideaof reframing continuestobeacentraltheme.Throughoutthebook,weshow howthesamesituationcanbeviewedinatleastfouruniqueways.InPartVI,weincludea seriesofchaptersonreframingcriticalorganizationalissuessuchasleadership,change,and ethics.Twochaptersarespecificallydevotedtoreframingreal-lifesituations.
Wealsocontinuetoemphasizeartistry.Overemphasizingtherationalandtechnical sideofanorganizationoftencontributestoitsdeclineordemise.Ourcounterbalance emphasizestheimportanceofartinbothmanagementandleadership.Artistryisneither exactnorprecise;theartistinterpretsexperience,expressingitinformsthatcanbefelt, understood,andappreciated.Artfostersemotion,subtlety,andambiguity.Anartist representstheworldtogiveusadeeperunderstandingofwhatisandwhatmightbe. Inmodernorganizations,quality,commitment,andcreativityarehighlyvaluedbutoften
hardto find.Theycanbedevelopedandencouragedbyleadersormanagerswhoembrace theexpressivesideoftheirwork.
OUTLINEOFTHEBOOK
Asitstitleimplies,the firstpartofthebook, “MakingSenseofOrganizations,” focuseson sense-makingandtacklesaperplexingquestionaboutmanagement:Whyisitthatsmart peoplesooftendodumbthings?Chapter1, “ThePowerofReframing,” explainswhy: Managersoftenmisreadsituations.Theyhavenotlearnedhowtousemultiplelensestogeta bettersenseofwhatthey’reupagainstandwhattheymightdo.Chapter2, “SimpleIdeas, ComplexOrganizations,” useswell-knowncases(suchas9/11)toshowhowmanagers’ everydaythinkingandtheoriescanleadtocatastrophe.Weexplainbasicfactorsthatmake organizationallifecomplicated,ambiguous,andunpredictable;discusscommonfallaciesin managerialthinking;andspelloutcriteriaformoreeffectiveapproachestodiagnosisand action.
PartII, “TheStructuralFrame,” exploresthekeyrolethatsocialarchitectureplaysinthe functioningoforganizations.Chapter3, “GettingOrganized,” describesbasicissuesthat managersmustconsiderindesigningstructureto fitanorganization’sstrategies,tasks,and context.Itdemonstrateswhyorganizations fromAmazontoMcDonald’stoHarvard University needdifferentstructuresinordertobeeffectiveintheiruniqueenvironments. Chapter4, “StructureandRestructuring,” explainsmajorstructuralpathologiesandpitfalls. Itpresentsguidelinesforaligningstructurestosituations,alongwithcasesillustrating successfulstructuralchange.Chapter5, “OrganizingGroupsandTeams,” showsthat structureisakeytohigh-performingteams.
PartIII, “TheHumanResourceFrame,” exploresthepropertiesofbothpeopleand organizations,andwhathappenswhenthetwointersect.Chapter6, “PeopleandOrganizations,” focusesontherelationshipbetweenorganizationsandhumannature.Itshows howmanagers’ practicesandassumptionsaboutpeoplecanleadeithertoalienationand hostilityortocommitmentandhighmotivation.Itcontraststwostrategiesforachieving effectiveness: “leanandmean,” orinvestinginpeople.Chapter7, “ImprovingHuman ResourceManagement,” isanoverviewofpracticesthatbuildamoremotivatedand committedworkforce includingparticipativemanagement,jobenrichment,self-managingworkgroups,managementofdiversity,andorganizationdevelopment.Chapter8, “InterpersonalandGroupDynamics,” presentsanexampleofinterpersonalconflictto illustratehowmanagerscanenhanceorunderminerelationships.Italsodiscussesemotionalintelligenceandhowgroupmemberscanincreasetheireffectivenessbyattendingto
Preface
groupprocess,includinginformalnormsandroles,interpersonalconflict,leadership,and decisionmaking.
PartIV, “ThePoliticalFrame,” viewsorganizationsasarenas.Individualsandgroups competetoachievetheirparochialinterestsinaworldofconflictingviewpoints,scarce resources,andstrugglesforpower.Chapter9, “Power,Conflict,andCoalition,” analyzesthe tragiclossofthespaceshuttles Columbia and Challenger,illustratingtheinfluenceof politicaldynamicsindecisionmaking.Itshowshowscarcityanddiversityleadtoconflict, bargaining,andgamesofpower;thechapteralsodistinguishesconstructiveanddestructive politicaldynamics.Chapter10, “TheManagerasPolitician,” usesleadershipexamplesfrom anonprofitorganizationinIndiaandasoftwaredevelopmenteffortatMicrosoftto illustratebasicskillsoftheconstructivepolitician:diagnosingpoliticalrealities,setting agendas,buildingnetworks,negotiating,andmakingchoicesthatarebotheffectiveand ethical.Chapter11, “OrganizationsasPoliticalArenasandPoliticalAgents,” highlights organizationsasbotharenasforpoliticalcontestsandpoliticalactorsinfluencingbroader social,political,andeconomictrends.CaseexamplessuchasWalmartandRossJohnson explorepoliticaldynamicsbothinsideandoutsideorganizations.
PartVexploresthesymbolicframe.Chapter12, “OrganizationalSymbolsandCulture,” spellsoutbasicsymbolicelementsinorganizations:myths,heroes,metaphors,stories, humor,play,rituals,andceremonies.Itdefinesorganizationalcultureandshowsitscentral roleinshapingperformance.Thepowerofsymbolandcultureisillustratedincasesas diverseastheU.S.Congress,Nordstromdepartmentstores,theU.S.AirForce,Zappos,and auniquehorseraceinItaly.Chapter13, “CultureinAction,” usesthecaseofacomputer developmentteamtoshowwhatleadersandgroupmemberscandocollectivelytobuilda culturethatbondspeopleinpursuitofasharedmission.Initiationrituals,specialized language,groupstories,humorandplay,andceremoniesallcombinetotransformdiverse individualsintoacohesiveteamwithpurpose,spirit,andsoul.Chapter14, “Organizationas Theater,” drawsondramaturgicalandinstitutionaltheorytorevealhoworganizational structures,activities,andeventsserveasseculardramas,expressingourfearsandjoys, arousingouremotions,andkindlingourspirit.Italsoshowshoworganizationalstructures andprocesses suchasplanning,evaluation,anddecisionmaking areoftenmore importantforwhattheyexpressthanforwhattheyaccomplish.
PartVI, “ImprovingLeadershipPractice,” focusesontheimplicationsoftheframesfor centralissuesinmanagerialpractice,includingleadership,change,andethics.Chapter15, “IntegratingFramesforEffectivePractice,” showshowmanagerscanblendtheframesto improvetheireffectiveness.Itlooksatorganizationsasmultiplerealitiesandgivesguidelinesforaligningframeswithsituations.Chapter16, “ReframinginAction,” presentsfour Preface xiii
scenarios,orscripts,derivedfromtheframes.Itappliesthescenariostotheharrowing experienceofayoungmanagerwhose firstdayinanewjobturnsouttobefarmore challengingthansheexpected.Thediscussionillustrateshowleaderscanexpandtheir optionsandenhancetheireffectivenessbyconsideringalternativeapproaches.Chapter17, “ReframingLeadership,” discusseslimitationsintraditionalviewsofleadershipand proposesamorecomprehensiveviewofhowleadershipworksinorganizations.It summarizesandcritiquescurrentknowledgeonthecharacteristicsofleaders,including therelationshipofleadershiptocultureandgender.Itshowshowframesgenerate distinctiveimagesofeffectiveleadersasarchitects,servants,advocates,andprophets.
Chapter18, “ReframingChangeinOrganizations,” describesfourfundamentalissues thatariseinanychangeeffort:individualneeds,structuralalignment,politicalconflict,and existentialloss.Itusescasesofsuccessfulandunsuccessfulchangetodocumentkey strategies,suchastraining,realigning,creatingarenas,andusingsymbolandceremony. Chapter19, “ReframingEthicsandSpirit,” discussesfourethicalmandatesthatemerge fromtheframes:excellence,caring,justice,andfaith.Itarguesthatleaderscanbuildmore ethicalorganizationsthroughgiftsofauthorship,love,power,andsignificance.Chapter20, “BringingItAllTogether,” isanintegrativetreatmentofthereframingprocess.Ittakesa troubledschooladministratorthroughaweekendofreflectiononcriticaldifficultieshe faces.Thechaptershowshowreframingcanhelpmanagersmovefromfeelingconfused andstucktodiscoveringarenewedsenseofclarityandconfidence.TheEpiloguedescribes strategiesandcharacteristicsneededinfutureleaders.Itexplainswhytheywillneedan artisticcombinationofconceptual flexibilityandcommitmenttocorevalues.Effortsto preparefutureleadershavetofocusasmuchonspiritualasonintellectualdevelopment. LeeG.Bolman
July2017
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Wenotedinour firstedition, “Bookwritingoftenfeelslikealonely process,evenwhenanoddcoupleisdoingthewriting.” Thisodd couplekeepsgettingolder(ancient,tobemoreprecise)and somewould say evenodderandgrumpier.Itseemslikeonlyyesterdaywewereyoung, vibrantnewauthors,butthatwas40yearsago.Toouramazement,we’restill atitandhaveremainedclosefriends.Thebestthingaboutteachingandbook writingisthatyoulearnsomuchfromyourreadersandstudents,andwehave beenblessedtohavesomanyofboth.
StudentsatStanford,Harvard,Vanderbilt,theUniversityofMissouri–KansasCity,the UniversityofLaVerne,andtheUniversityofSouthernCaliforniahavegivenusinvaluable criticism,challenge,andsupportovertheyears.We’regratefultothemanyreaderswho haverespondedtoouropeninvitationtowriteandaskquestionsorsharecomments.They havehelpeduswriteabetterbook.(Theinvitationisstillopen ourcontactinformationis in “TheAuthors.”)Wewishwecouldpersonallythankalloftheleadersandmanagerswho helpeduslearninseminars,workshops,andconsultations.Theirknowledgeandwisdom arethefoundationandtouchstoneforourwork.
WewanttothankallthecolleaguesandreadersintheUnitedStatesandaroundthe worldwhohaveofferedvaluablecommentsandsuggestions,butthelistisverylongandour memorieskeepgettingshorter.BobMarx,oftheUniversityofMassachusetts,deserves specialmentionasachartermemberoftheframesfamily.Bob’sinterestintheframes, creativityindevelopingteachingdesigns,andeyeforvideomaterialhaveaidedourthinking andteachingimmensely.ConversationswithDickScottandJohnMeyerofStanford Universityhavehelpedusexplorethenuancesofinstitutionaltheory.EllenHarris,of
HarvardandOutwardBound,providedmanythoughtfulcommentsonthemanuscript. SusanGriggs,oftheUniversityofDenver,offeredaprovocativecritiqueofourhandlingof issuesrelatedtogenderandleadership.ElenaGranelldeAldaz,oftheInstitutefor AdvancedStudyofManagementinCaracas,collaboratedwithusondevelopinga Spanish-languageadaptationof ReframingOrganizations aswellasonamorerecent projectthatstudiedframeorientationsamongmanagersinVenezuela.Weareproudto considerheravaluedcolleagueandwonderfulfriend.AzarmGhareman,aclinical psychologist,deepenedourunderstandingofCarlJung’sviewoftheimportantrole symbolsplayinhumanexperience.CaptainGaryDeal,USN,attheEisenhowerSchool, NationalDefenseInstitute,teachesleadershipandtheframestohigh-rankingofficersfrom allbranchesofthemilitaryandgovernmentservices.Dr.PeterMinich,atransplant surgeon,nowbringstheworldofleadershiptophysicians.MajorKevinReed,oftheUnited StatesAirForce,andJanandRonHaynes,ofFzioMed,allprovidedvaluablecasematerial. RichardandSharonPescatorehavebeenavaluablesourceforinsightsintoHewlettPackard.TheirrepressibleCharlieAlfanoandco-ownerAudreyofAlfanoMotorcars(San LuisObispo)haveprovidedusaglimpseofkeyingredientsforsuccessinasales organization(theAlfanosalsoownadealershipinPhoenix).AngelaSchmiedeofMenlo Collegehasbroadenedourviewsofthewaystheframescancontributetoundergraduate education.
AnumberoffriendsandcolleaguesattheOrganizationalBehaviorTeachingConferencehavegivenusmanyhelpfulideasandsuggestions.Weapologizeforanyomissions,but wewanttothankAnkeArnaud,CaroleK.Barnett,MaxElden,KentFairfield,Cindi Fukami,OlivierHermanus,JimHodge,EarleneHolland,ScottJohnson,MarkKriger, HyoungbaeLee,LarryLevine,MarkMaier,MagidMazen,ThomasP.Nydegger,Dave O’Connell,LyndaSt.Clair,MabelTinjacá,SusanTwombly,andPatVilleneuve.Wecan onlywishtohavesucceededinimplementingallthewonderfulideaswereceivedfromthese andothercolleagues.
LeeisgratefultoallhisBlochSchoolcolleaguesandparticularlytoNancyDay,Pam Dobies,DaveDonnelly,DoranneHudson,JaeJung,TushaKimber,SandraKruse-Smith, RongMa,BrentNever,RogerPick,StephenPruitt,LauraRees,DavidRenz,MarilynTaylor, andBobWaris.Terry’scolleaguesCarlCohn,StuGothald,andGibHentschke,ofthe UniversityofSouthernCalifornia,haveofferedbothintellectualstimulationandmoral support.SharonConley,ProfessorattheUniversityofSantaBarbara,isaconstantsourceof ideasandfeedback.Herworkkeepsusattunedcloselytotheworldofeducation.Terry’ s recent(2013)team-teachingventurewithPresidentDevorahLiebermanandProfessorJack MeekoftheUniversityofLaVerneshowedwhat’spossiblewhenconventionalboundaries
aretrespassedinaclassofaspiringundergraduateleaders.Thisexperienceledtothe foundingoftheTerrenceE.DealLeadershipInstitute.
OtherstowhomourdebtisparticularlycleararethelateChrisArgyris,SamBacharach, CliffBaden,MargaretBenefiel,EstellaBensimon,BudBilanich,BobBirnbaum,Barbara Bunker,TomBurks,EllenCastro,CarlosCortés,LintonDeck,PatrickFaverty,DaveFuller, JimHonan,TomJohnson,BobKegan,JamesMarch,GradyMcGonagill,JudyMcLaughlin, JohnMeyer,KevinNichols,HarrisonOwen,ReginaPacheco,DonnaRedman,Peggy Redman,MichaelSales,JoanVydra,KarlWeick,JilieWheeler,RoyWilliams,andJoe Zolner.ThanksagaintoDaveBrown,PhilMirvis,BarryOshry,TimHall,BillKahn,and ToddJickoftheBrooklineCircle,nowinitsfourthdecadeofsearchingforjoyandmeaning inthoselivesdevotedtothestudyoforganizations.
OutsidetheUnitedStates,wearegratefultoPoulErikMouritzeninDenmark;Rolf Kaelin,CünoPumpin,andPeterWeismaninSwitzerland;IlpoLinkoinFinland;TomCase inBrazil;EinarPlyhnandHaakonGraninNorway;PeterNormarkandDagBjorkegrenin Sweden;Ching-ShiunChunginTaiwan;HelenGluzdakovaandAnastasiaVitkovskayain Russia;andH.R.H.PrincePhilippvonundzuLichtenstein.
Closertohome,LeealsoowesmorethanhecansaytotherecentlyretiredBruceKay, whosegenialandunflappableapproachtowork,coupledwithhighlevelsoforganization andfollow-through,hadawonderfullypositiveimpactwhilehetookonthechallengeof bringingamodicumoforderandsanitytoLee’sprofessionalfunctioning.Wealsocontinue tobegratefulfortheenduringsupportandfriendshipofLindaCorey,ourlong-time residentrepresentativeatHarvard,andHomaAminmadani,adelightfulcharacterand irreplaceableassistant,whonowsplitshertimebetweenNashvilleandTeheran.
ThecouplesoftheEdnaRanchVintnersGuild thePecatores,Donners,Hayneses, Alfanos,andAndersons linkeffortswithTerryinexploringtheups,downs,andmysteries oftheartandscienceofwinemaking.Threeprofessionalwinemakers,Romeo “Meo” Zuech ofPiedraCreekWinery,BrettEscaleraofConsilienceandTresAnelli,andBobShiebelhutof Tolosaofferadvicethatappliestoleadershipaswellaswinemaking.Meoremindsus, “Neverovermanageyourgrapes,” andBrettprefacesanswerstoallquestionswith “Itall depends.”
We’redelightedtobewellintothefourthdecadeofourpartnershipwithJossey-Bass andWiley.We’regratefultothemanyfriendswhohavehelpedusovertheyears,including BillHenry,StevePiersanti,LynnLuckow,BillHicks,DebraHunter,CedricCrocker,Byron Schneider,KatheSweeney,andmanyothers.Inrecentyears,JeanenneRayhasbeena wonderfuleditorandfriend.JennyNgandLaurenFreestoneofWileyhavedonevitaland
much-appreciatedworkbackstageinhelpingtogetallthepiecesofthiseditiontogetherand keeptheprocessmovingforward.
Lee’ssixchildren Edward,Shelley,Lori,Scott,Christopher,andBradley andthree grandchildren James,Jazmyne,andFoster allcontinuetoenrichhislifeandcontribute tohisgrowth.Terry’sdaughterJanie,achef,hasararetalentofalmostmagically transformingsimpleingredientsinto finecuisine.SpecialmentionalsogoestoTerry’ s deceasedparents,BobandDorothyDeal.Bothlivedlongenoughtobepleasantlysurprised thattheiroft-waywardsoncouldwriteabook.EqualmentionisduetoLee’sparents,Eldred andFlorenceBolman.
Weagaindedicatethisbooktoourwives,whohavemorethanearnedallthecreditand appreciationthatwecangivethem.JoanGallos,Lee’sspouseandclosestcolleague, combinesintellectualchallengeandcritiquewithsupportandlove.Shehasbeenanactive collaboratorindevelopingourideas,andherteachingmanualforpreviouseditionshas beenaframe-breakingmodelforthegenre.Hercontributionshavebecomesointegrated intoourownthinkingthatwearenolongerabletothankherforallthewaysthatthebook hasgainedfromherwisdomandinsights.
SandyDeal’spsychologicaltrainingenableshertoapproachthe fieldoforganizations withadistinctiveandilluminatingslant.Hersuccessfulpracticeproducesexamplesthat havehelpedusmakesomeevenstrongerconnectionstotheconceptsofclinicalpsychology. Sheisoneofthemostgifteddiagnosticiansinthe field,aswellasadelightfulpartnerwhose loveandsupportoverthelongrunhavemadeallthedifference.Sheisararecombinationof courageandcaring,intimacyandindependence,responsibilityandplayfulness.
ToJoanandSandy,thanksagain.Astheyearsaccumulate(rapidly),weloveyoueven more.
Acknowledgments
Introduction
ThePowerofReframing
Bytheseconddecadeofthetwenty-firstcentury,theGermancarmaker VolkswagenandtheU.S.bankWellsFargowereamongtheworld’ s largest,mostsuccessful,andmostadmired firms.Thenbothtrashedtheir ownbrandbyfollowingthesamescript.It’sadramainthreeacts:
ActI:Setdauntingstandardsforemployeestoimproveperformance.
ActII:Looktheotherwaywhenemployeescheatbecausetheythinkit’sthe onlywaytomeetthetargets.
ActIII:Whenthecheatingleadstoamedia firestormandpublicoutrage,blame theworkersandpainttopmanagersasblameless.
InWellsFargo’scase,thebank firedmorethan5,000lower-levelemployeesbutoffered anexitbonusof$125milliontotheexecutivewhooversawthem(Sorkin,2016).
VolkswagenCEOMartinWinterkornwasknownasaneagle-eyedmicromanager butpleadedignorancewhenhiscompanyadmittedin2015thatithadbeencheatingfor yearsonemissionstestsofits “ clean ” diesels.HewasquicklyreplacedbyMatthias Müller,whoclaimedthathedidn ’ tknowanythingaboutVW ’ scheatingeither.Müller alsoexplainedwhyVWwasn ’ texactlyguilty: “ Itwasatechnicalproblem.Wehadnot
theinterpretationoftheAmericanlaw...Wedidn ’ tlie.Wedidn ’ tunderstandthe question fi rst ” (SmithandParloff,2016).ApparentlyVWwassmartenoughtodesign cleversoftwaretofudgeemissionstestsbutnotsmartenoughtoknowthatcheating mightbeillegal.
Thesmokescreenworkedforyears VWsoldalotofdieselstoconsumerswho wantedjustwhatVolkswagenclaimedtooffer,acaratthesweetspotoflowemissions, highperformance,andgreatfueleconomy.Thecheatingapparentlybeganaround2008, sevenyearsbeforeitbecamepublic,whenVolkswagenengineersrealizedtheycouldnot makegoodonthecompany ’ spublic,clean-dieselpromises(Ewing,2015).BobLutz,an industryinsider,describedVW ’ smanagementsystemas “ areignofterrorandaculture whereperformancewasdrivenbyfearandintimidation ” (Lutz,2015).VWengineers facedatoughchoice.Shouldtheytellthetruthandlosetheirjobsnoworcheatand maybe losetheirjobslater?TheengineerschoseoptionB.Thestorydidnotendhappily. InJanuary,2017,VWpleadedguiltytocheatingonemissionstestsandagreedtopaya fi neof$4.3billion.Inthesameweek,sixVWexecutiveswereindictedforconspiringto defraudtheUnitedStates. 1 InSpringof2017,VW ’ slegaltroublesappearedtobe windingdownintheUnitedStates,atatotalcostofmorethan$20billion,butwerestill rampingupinGermany,whereauthoritieshadlaunchedcriminalinvestigations (Ewing,2017).
ThestoryatWellsFargowassimilar.Foryears,ithadsuccessfullybilleditselfasthe friendly,communitybank.Itranwarmandfuzzyadsaroundthemesofworkingtogether andcaringaboutpeople.Theadsdidnotmentionthatin2010afederaljudgeruledthatthe bankhadcheatedcustomersbydeliberatelymanipulatingcustomertransactionstoincrease overdraftfees(Randall,2010),northatinAugust,2016,thebankagreedtopaya$4.1 millionpenaltyforcheatingstudentborrowers.Butnoamountofadvertisingwouldhave helpedinSeptember,2016,whenthenewsbrokethatemployeesinWellsFargobranches, underpressurefromtheirbossestosellmore “solutions,” hadopenedsometwomillion accountsthatcustomersdidn’twantandusuallydidn’tknowabout,atleastnotuntilthey receivedanunexpectedcreditcardinthemailorgothitwithfeesonanaccounttheydidn’t knowtheyhad.
NoneofitshouldhavebeennewstoWellsFargo ’ sleadership.Backin2005, employeesbegantocallthe fi rm ’ shumanresourcesdepartmentandethicshotlineto reportthatsomeoftheircoworkerswerecheating(Cowley,2016).Thebanksometimes solvedthatproblemby fi ringthewhistleblowers.Takethecaseofabranchmanagerin Arizona.Whilecoveringforacolleagueatanotherbranch,hefoundthatemployeeswere
openingaccountsforfakebusinesses.HecalledHR,whichtoldhimtocalltheethics hotline.Ethicsaskedhimforspeci fi cdatatosupporttheallegations.Hepulleddatafrom thesystemandreportedit.Amonthlater,hewas firedforimproperlylookingupaccount information.
In2013,the LosAngelesTimes ranastoryaboutphonyaccountsinsomelocal branches.WellsFargo’ ssolutionwasnottolowerthe flameunderthepotbuttotryand screwdownthelideventighter.Theykeptuptheintensepushforcross-sellingbutsent employeestoethicsseminarswheretheywereinstructednottoopenaccountscustomers didn’ twant.CEOJohnStumpfachievedplausib ledeniabilitybyproclaimingthathe didn’ twant “ wantanyoneeverofferingaproducttosomeonewhentheydon ’ tknowwhat thebene fi tis,orthecustomerdoesn’ tunderstandit,ordoesn ’twantit,ordoesn’ tneedit” (Sorkin,2016,p.B1).Butdespitehispublicassurances,theincentivesupanddownthe linestillrewardedsalesratherthanethicalsqueamishness.Manyemployeesfelttheywere inabind:they’ dbeentoldnottocheat,butthatwasthebestwaytokeeptheirjobs (CorkeryandCowley,2016).LiketheVWengineers,manydecidedtocheatnowand hopethatlaternevercame.
MaybeleadersatVolkswagenandWellsFargoknewaboutthecheatingandhopedit wouldnevercometolight.Maybetheywerejustoutoftouch.Eitherway,theywere clueless failingtoseethattheircompanieswereheadedforcostlypublic-relations nightmares.Buttheyarefarfromalone.Cluelessnessisapervasiveafflictionforleaders, eventhebestandbrightest.Oftenitleadstopersonalandinstitutionaldisaster.But, sometimestherearesecondchances.
ConsiderSteveJobs.Hehadtofailbeforehecouldsucceed.Failhedid.Hewas fired fromAppleComputer,thecompanyhefounded,andthenspent11years “inthe wilderness” (Schlender,2004).Duringthistimeofreflectionhediscoveredcapacitiesas aleader andhumanbeing thatsetthestageforhistriumphantsecondactatApple. Hefailedinitiallyforthesamereasonthatcountlessmanagersstumble:likethe executivesatVWandWellsFargo,Jobswasoperatingonalimitedunderstandingof leadershipandorganizations.Hewasalwaysabrilliantandcharismaticproduct visionary.ThatenabledhimtotakeApplefromstartuptomajorcomputervendor, butdidn ’ tequiphimtoleadAppletoitsnextphase.Being fi redwaspainful,butJobs laterconcludedthatitwasthebestthingthateverhappenedtohim. “ Itfreedmetoenter oneofthemostcreativeperiodsofmylife.I ’ mprettysurenoneofthiswouldhave happenedifIhadn ’ tbeen fi redfromApple.Itwasawful-tastingmedicine,butIguess thepatientneededit. ” Introduction 5
Duringhisperiodofself-reflection,Jobskeptbusy.HefocusedonPixar,acomputer graphicscompanyheboughtfor$10million,andonNeXT,anewcomputercompanythat hefounded.Onesucceededandtheotherdidn’t,buthelearnedfromboth.Pixarbecameso successfulitmadeJobsabillionaire.NeXTnevermademoney,butitdevelopedtechnology thatprovedvitalwhenJobswasrecalledfromthewildernesstosaveApplefromadeath spiral.
HisexperiencesatNeXTandPixarprovidedtwovitallessons.Onewastheimportance ofaligninganorganizationwithitsstrategyandmission.Heunderstoodmoreclearlythat heneededagreatcompanytobuildgreatproducts.Lessontwowasaboutpeople.Jobshad alwaysunderstoodtheimportanceoftalent,butnowhehadabetterappreciationforthe importanceofrelationshipsandteamwork.
Jobs’sbasiccharacterdidnotchangeduringhiswildernessyears.TheSteveJobswho returnedtoApplein1997wasmuchlikethehumanparadox fired12yearsearlier demandingandcharismatic,charmingandinfuriating,erraticandfocused,opinionated andcurious.Thedifferencewasinhowheinterpretedwhatwasgoingonaroundhimand howheled.Tohislong-timegiftsasamagicianandwarrior,hehadaddednewfound capacitiesasanorganizationalarchitectandteambuilder.
Shortlyafterhisreturn,heradicallysimpli fiedApple’ sproductline,builtaloyaland talentedleadershipteam,andturnedhisoldcompanyintoahit-makingmachineas reliableasPixar.TheiMac,iPod,iPhone,andiPadmadeJobstheworld ’ smostadmired chiefexecutive,andApplepassedExxonMobiltobecometheworld’ smostvaluable company.Hissuccessinbuildinganorganizationandaleadershipteamwasvalidatedas Apple’ sbusinessresultscontinuedtoimpressafterhisdeathinOctober2011.Likemany otherexecutives,SteveJobsseemedtohaveitalluntilhelostit butmostnevergetit back.
MartinWinterkornhadseemedtobeontracktomakeVolkswagentheworld’sbiggest carcompany,andWellsFargoCEOJohnStumpfwasoneofAmerica’smostadmired bankers.Butbothbecamesococoonedinimperfectworldviewsthattheymisreadtheir circumstancesandcouldn’tseeotheroptions.That’swhatitmeanstobeclueless.Youdon’t knowwhat’sgoingon,butyouthinkyoudo,andyoudon’tseebetterchoices.Soyoudo moreofwhatyouknow,eventhoughit’snotworking.Youhopeinvainthatsteadyon coursewillgetyouwhereyouwanttogo.
Howdoleadersbecomeclueless?Thatiswhatweexplorenext.Thenweintroduce reframing theconceptualcoreofthebookandourbasicprescriptionforsizingthingsup. Reframingrequiresanabilitytothinkaboutsituationsfrommorethanoneangle,whichlets youdevelopalternativediagnosesandstrategies.Weintroducefourdistinctframes ReframingOrganizations
structural,humanresource,political,andsymbolic eachlogicalandpowerfulincapturing adetailedsnapshot.Together,theyhelptopaintamorecomprehensivepictureofwhat’ s goingonandwhattodo.
VIRTUESANDDRAWBACKSOFORGANIZEDACTIVITY
Therewaslittleneedforprofessionalmanagerswhenindividualsmostlymanagedtheirown affairs,drawinggoodsandservicesfromfamilyfarmsandsmalllocalbusinesses.Sincethe dawnoftheindustrialrevolutionsome200yearsago,explosivetechnologicalandsocial changeshaveproducedaworldthatisfarmoreinterconnected,frantic,andcomplicated. Humansstruggletoavoiddrowningincomplexitythatcontinuallythreatenstopullthemin overtheirheads(Kegan,1998).Formsofmanagementandorganizationeffectiveafewyears agoarenowobsolete.Sérieyx(1993)callsittheorganizationalbigbang: “Theinformation revolution,theglobalizationofeconomies,theproliferationofeventsthatundermineallour certainties,thecollapseofthegrandideologies,thearrivaloftheCNNsocietywhich transformsusintoanimmense,planetaryvillage alltheseshockshaveoverturnedthe rulesofthegameandsuddenlyturnedyesterday’sorganizationsintoantiques” (pp.14–15).
BennerandTushman(2015)arguethatthetwenty-firstcenturyismakingmanagers’ challengesevermorevexing:
Theparadoxicalchallengesfacingorganizationshavebecomemorenumerous andstrategic(Besharov&Smith,2014;Smith&Lewis,2011).Beyondthe innovationchallengesofexplorationandexploitation,organizationsarenow challengedtobelocalandglobal(e.g.,Marquis&Battilana,2009),doingwell anddoinggood(e.g.,Battilana&Lee,2014;Margolis&Walsh,2003),social andcommercial(e.g.,Battilana&Dorado,2010),artisticorscienti ficand profitable(e.g.,Glynn,2000),highcommitmentandhighperformance (e.g.,Beer&Eisenstadt,2009),andpro fi tableandsustainable(e.g.,Eccles, Ioannou,&Serafeim,2014;Henderson,Gulati,&Tushman,2015;Jay,2013). Thesecontradictionsaremoreprevalent,persistent,andconsequential. Further,thesecontradictionscanbesustainedandmanaged,butnotresolved (Smith,2014).
Thedemandsonmanagers’ wisdom,imaginationandagilityhaveneverbeengreater, andtheimpactoforganizationsonpeople’swell-beingandhappinesshasneverbeenmore consequential.Theproliferationofcomplexorganizationshasmademosthumanactivities
moreformalizedthantheyoncewere.Wegrowupinfamiliesandthenstartourown.We workforbusiness,government,ornonprofits.Welearninschoolsanduniversities.We worshipinchurches,mosques,andsynagogues.Weplaysportsinteams,franchises,and leagues.Wejoinclubsandassociations.Manyofuswillgrowoldanddieinhospitalsor nursinghomes.Webuildtheseenterprisesbecauseofwhattheycandoforus.Theyoffer goods,entertainment,socialservices,healthcare,andalmosteverythingelsethatweuseor consume.
Alltoooften,however,weexperienceadarkersideoftheseenterprises.Organizations canfrustrateandexploitpeople.Toooften,productsare flawed,familiesaredysfunctional, studentsfailtolearn,patientsgetworse,andpoliciesbackfire.Workoftenhassolittle meaningthatjobsoffernothingbeyondapaycheck.Ifwebelievemissionstatementsand publicpronouncements,almosteveryorganizationthesedaysaimstonurtureitsemployees anddelightitscustomers.Butmanymissthemark.Schoolsareblamedfor “mis-educating,” universitiesaresaidtoclosemoremindsthantheyopen,andgovernmentiscriticizedfor corruption,redtape,andrigidity.
Theprivatesectorhasitsownproblems.Manufacturersrecallfaultycarsorinflammable cellphones.Producersoffoodandpharmaceuticalsmakepeoplesickwithtaintedproducts. Softwarecompaniesdeliverbugsand “ vaporware. ” Industrialaccidentsdumpchemicals, oil,toxicgas,andradioactivematerialsintotheairandwater.Toooften,corporategreed, incompetence,andinsensitivitycreatehavocforcommunitiesandindividuals.Thebottom line:Weseemhard-pressedtomanageorganizationssothattheirvirtuesexceedtheirvices. Thebigquestion:Why?
Management’sTrackRecord
Yearafteryear,thebestandbrightestmanagersmaneuverormeandertheirwaytotheapex ofenterprisesgreatandsmall.Thentheydoreallydumbthings.Howdobrightpeopleturn outsodim?Onetheoryisthatthey’retoosmartfortheirowngood.FeinbergandTarrant (1995)labelitthe “self-destructiveintelligencesyndrome.” Theyarguethatsmartpeopleact stupidbecauseofpersonality flaws thingslikepride,arrogance,andanunconsciousdesire tofail.It’struethatpsychological flawshavebeenapparentinbrilliant,self-destructive individualssuchasAdolfHitler,RichardNixon,andBillClinton.Butonthewhole,thebest andbrightesthavenomorepsychologicalproblemsthaneveryoneelse.Theprimarysource ofcluelessnessisnotpersonalityorIQbutafailuretomakesenseofcomplexsituations.If wemisreadasituation,we’lldothewrongthing.Butifwedon’tknowwe’reseeingthings inaccurately,wewon’tunderstandwhywe’renotgettingtheresultswewant.Soweinsist we ’rerightevenwhenwe’reofftrack. ReframingOrganizations
Vaughan(1995),intryingtounravelthecausesofthe1986disasterthatdestroyedthe Challenger spaceshuttleanditscrew,underscoredhowharditisforpeopletosurrender theirentrenchedconceptionsofreality:
Theypuzzleovercontradictoryevidence,butusuallysucceedinpushingit aside untiltheycomeacrossapieceofevidencetoofascinatingtoignore,too cleartomisperceive,toopainfultodeny,whichmakesvividstillothersignals theydonotwanttosee,forcingthemtoalterandsurrendertheworld-viewthey havesometiculouslyconstructed(p.235).
Sowhenwedon’tknowwhattodo,wedomoreofwhatweknow.Weconstructourown psychicprisonsandthenlockourselvesinandthrowawaythekey.Thishelpsexplaina numberofunsettlingreportsfromthemanagerialfrontlines:
• Hogan,Curphy,andHogan(1994)estimatethattheskillsofonehalftothreequartersof Americanmanagersareinadequateforthedemandsoftheirjobs.Gallup(2015)putsthe numberevenhigher,estimatingthatmorethan80percentofAmericanmanagerslack thetalenttheyneed.Butmostprobablydon’trealizeit:KrugerandDunning(1999) foundthatthelesscompetentpeopleare,themoretheyoverestimatetheirperformance, partlybecausetheydon’tknowgoodperformancewhentheyseeit.
• Abouthalfofthehigh-profileseniorexecutivesthatcompanieshirefailwithintwoyears, accordingtoa2006study(BurnsandKiley,2007).
• Theannualvalueofcorporatemergershasgrownmorethanahundredfoldsince1980, yetevidencesuggeststhat70to90percent “areunsuccessfulinproducinganybusiness benefitasregardsshareholdervalue” (KPMG,2000;Christensen,Alton,Rising,and Waldeck,2011).Mergerstypicallybenefitshareholdersoftheacquired firmbuthurt almosteveryoneelse customers,employees,and,ironically,thebuyerswhoinitiated thedeal(Kingetal.,2004).Stockholdersintheacquiring firmtypicallysuffera10 percentlossontheirinvestment(Agrawal,Jaffe,andMandelker,1992),whileconsumers feelthatthey’repayingmoreandgettingless.Despitethisdismalrecord,thevast majorityofthemanagerswhoengineeredmergersinsistedtheyweresuccessful(KPMG, 2000;Graffin,Haleblian,andKiley,2016).
• Yearafteryear,managementmiscuescauseoncehighlysuccessfulcompaniestoskid intobankruptcy.Injustthe firstquarterof2015,forexample,26companieswentunder, includingsixwithclaimedassetsofmorethan$1billion.(Amongthebiggestwerethe casinogiant,CaesarsEntertainment,andthevenerableelectronicsretailer,RadioShack.)
SmallwonderthatsomanyorganizationalveteransnodinassenttoScottAdams’ s admittedlyunscientific “Dilbertprinciple” : “themostineffectiveworkersaresystematically movedtotheplacewheretheycandotheleastdamage management” (1996,p.14).
StrategiesforImprovingOrganizations
Wehavecertainlymadeanobleefforttoimproveorganizationsdespiteourlimitedability tounderstandthem.Legionsofmanagersreporttoworkeachdaywithhopeforabetter futureinmind.Authorsandconsultantsspinoutatorrentofnewanswersandpromising solutions.Policymakersdeveloplawsandregulationstoguideorshoveorganizationsonthe rightpath.
Themostuniversalimprovementstrategyisupgradingmanagementtalent.Modern mythologypromisesthatorganizationswillworksplendidlyifwellmanaged.Managersare supposedtoseethebigpictureandlookoutfortheirorganization’soverallwell-being.They havenotalwaysbeenequaltothetask,evenwhenarmedwiththefullarrayofmoderntools andtechniques.Theygoforthwiththisrationalarsenaltotrytotameourwildandprimitive workplaces.Yetintheend,irrationalforcestoooftenprevail.
Whenmanagers findproblemstoohardtosolve,theyhireconsultants.Thenumberand varietyofadvicegiverskeepsgrowing.Mosthaveaspecialty:strategy,technology,quality, finance,marketing,mergers,humanresourcemanagement,executivesearch,outplacement, coaching,organizationdevelopment,andmanymore.Foreverymanagerialchallenge,there isaconsultantwillingtoofferassistance ataprice.
Foralltheirsageadviceandremarkablefees,consultantsoftenmakelittledentin persistentproblemsplaguingorganizations,thoughtheymayblametheclientsforfailingto implementtheirprofoundinsights.McKinsey&Co., “thehighpriestofhigh-level consulting” (Byrne,2002a,p.66),workedsocloselywithEnronthatitsmanagingpartner (RajatGupta,whoeventuallywenttojailforinsidertrading)senthischieflawyerto HoustonafterEnron’scollapsetoseeifhis firmmightbeinlegaltrouble.2 Thelawyer reportedthatMcKinseywassafe,andarelievedGuptainsistedbravely, “Westandbyallthe workwedid.Beyondthat,wecanonlyempathizewiththetroubletheyaregoingthrough. It’sasadthingtosee” (p.68).
Whenmanagersandconsultantsfail,governmentrecurrentlyrespondswithlegislation, policies,andregulations.Constituentsbadgerelectedofficialsto “dosomething” abouta varietyofills:pollution,dangerousproducts,hazardousworkingconditions,discrimination,andlowperformingschools,tonameafew.Governingbodiesrespondbymaking “policy.” Butpolicymakersdon’talwaysunderstandtheproblemwellenoughtogetthe solutionright,andasizablebodyofresearchrecordsacontinuingsagaofperversewaysin
whichtheimplementationprocessunderminesevengoodsolutions(Bardach,1977; Elmore,1978;FreudenbergandGramling,1994;GottfriedandConchas,2016;Peters, 1999;PressmanandWildavsky,1973).Policymakers,forexample,havebeentryingfor decadestoreformU.S.publicschools.Billionsoftaxpayerdollarshavebeenspent.The result?AboutassuccessfulasAmerica’sswitchtothemetricsystem.Inthe1950sCongress passedlegislationmandatingadoptionofmetricstandardsandmeasures.Morethansix decadeslater,ifyouknowwhatahectareisorcanvisualizethesizeofa300-grampackageof crackers,you’reaheadofmostAmericans.Legislatorsdidnotfactorintotheirsolutionwhat itwouldtaketogettheirdecisionimplementedagainstlongstandingcustomandtradition.
Inshort,thedifficultiessurroundingimprovementstrategiesarewelldocumented. Exemplaryintentionsproducemorecoststhanbenefits.Problemsoutlastsolutions.Still, therearereasonsforoptimism.Organizationshavechangedaboutasmuchinrecent decadesasintheprecedingcentury.Tosurvive,theyhadto.Revolutionarychangesin technology,theriseoftheglobaleconomy,andshortenedproductlifecycleshavespawneda flurryofeffortstodesignfaster,more flexibleorganizationalforms.Neworganizational models flourishincompaniessuchasPretàManger(thesociallyconsciousU.K.sandwich shops),Google(theglobalsearchgiant),Airbnb(anewconceptoflodging)andNovoNordisk(aDanishpharmaceuticalcompanythatincludesenvironmentalandsocialmetrics initsbottomline).Thedispersedcollectionofenthusiastsandvolunteerswhoprovide contentforWikipediaandthefar-flungnetworkofsoftwareengineerswhohavedeveloped theLinuxoperatingsystemprovidedramaticexamplesofpossibilitiesinthedigitalworld. Butdespitesuchsuccesses,failuresarestilltoocommon.Thenaggingquestion:Howcan leadersandmanagersimprovetheoddsforthemselvesaswellfortheirorganizations?
FRAMING
GoranCarstedt,thetalentedexecutivewholedtheturnaroundofVolvo’sFrenchdivisionin the1980s,gottotheheartofachallengemanagersfaceeveryday: “Theworldsimplycan’t bemadesenseof,factscan’tbeorganized,unlessyouhaveamentalmodeltobeginwith. Thattheorydoesnothavetobetherightone,becauseyoucanalteritalongthewayas informationcomesin.Butyoucan’tbegintolearnwithoutsomeconceptthatgivesyou expectationsorhypotheses” (Hampden-Turner,1992,p.167).Suchmentalmodelshave manylabels maps,mind-sets,schema,paradigms,heuristics,andcognitivelenses,toname afew.3 FollowingtheworkofGoffman,Dewey,andothers,wehavechosenthelabel frames, atermthathasreceivedincreasingattentioninorganizationalresearchasscholarsgive greaterattentiontohowmanagersmakesenseofacomplicatedandturbulentworld
(see,e.g.,FossandWebber,2016;Gray,Purdy,andAnsari,2015;CornelissenandWerner, 2014;Hahnetal.,2014;MaitlisandChristianson,2014).Indescribingframes,we deliberatelymixmetaphors,referringtothemaswindows,maps,tools,lenses,orientations, prisms,andperspectives,becausealltheseimagescapturepartoftheideawewantto convey.
Aframeisamentalmodel asetofideasandassumptions thatyoucarryinyourhead tohelpyouunderstandandnegotiateaparticular “territory.” Agoodframemakesiteasier toknowwhatyouareupagainstand,ultimately,whatyoucandoaboutit.Framesarevital becauseorganizationsdon’tcomewithcomputerizednavigationsystemstoguideyouturnby-turntoyourdestination.Instead,managersneedtodevelopandcarryaccuratemapsin theirheads.
Suchmapsmakeitpossibletoregisterandassemblekeybitsofperceptualdataintoa coherentpattern animageofwhat’shappening.Whenitworks fluidly,theprocesstakes theformof “rapidcognition,” theprocessthatGladwell(2005)examinesinhisbestseller Blink. Hedescribesitasagiftthatmakesitpossibletoread “deeplyintothenarrowestslivers ofexperience.Inbasketball,theplayerwhocantakeinandcomprehendallthatis happeninginthemomentissaidtohave ‘courtsense’” (p.44).Themilitarystresses situationalawarenesstodescribethesamecapacity.
DaneandPratt(2007)describefourkeycharacteristicsofthisintuitive “blink” process:
• Itisnonconscious youcandoitwithoutthinkingaboutitandwithoutknowinghow youdidit.
• Itisveryfast theprocessoftenoccursalmostinstantly.
• Itisholistic youseeacoherent,meaningfulpattern.
• Itresultsin “affectivejudgments”—thoughtandfeelingworktogethersoyoufeel confidentthatyouknowwhatisgoingonandwhatneedstobedone.
Theessenceofthisprocessismatchingsituationalcueswithawell-learnedmental framework a “deeplyheld,nonconsciouscategoryorpattern” (DaneandPratt,2007, p. 37).ThisisthekeyskillthatSimonandChase(1973)foundinchessmasters theycould instantlyrecognizemorethan50,000configurationsofachessboard.Thisabilityenables grandmasterstoplay25lesseropponentssimultaneously,beatingallofthemwhile spendingonlysecondsoneachmove.
Thesameprocessofrapidcognitionisatworkinthediagnosticcategoriesphysicians relyontoevaluatepatients’ symptoms.TheHippocraticOathto “donoharm” requires
physicianstobeconfidentthattheyknowwhatthey’reupagainstbeforeprescribinga remedy.Theirskilledjudgmentdrawsonarepertoireofcategoriesandclues,honedby trainingandexperience.Butsometimestheygetitwrong.Onesourceoferrorisanchoring: doctors,likeleaders,sometimeslockontothe firstanswerthatseemsright,evenifafew messyfactsdon’tquite fit. “Yourmindplaystricksonyoubecauseyouseeonlythe landmarksyouexpecttoseeandneglectthosethatshouldtellyouthatinfactyou’restillat sea ” (Groopman,2007,p.65).
ThatproblemtrippedupleadersatVolkswagen,WellsFargo,andcountlessother organizations.Organizationsareatleastascomplexasthehumanbody,andthediagnostic categorieslesswelldefined.Thatmeansthatthequalityofyourjudgmentsdependsonthe informationyouhaveathand,yourmentalmaps,andhowwellyouhavelearnedtouse them.Goodmapsalignwiththeterrainandprovideenoughdetailtokeepyouoncourse.If you ’retryingto findyourwayaroundBeijing,amapofChicagowon’thelp.Inthesame way,differentcircumstancesrequiredifferentapproaches.
Evenwiththerightmap,gettingaroundwillbeslowandawkwardifyouhavetostopand studyateveryintersection.Theultimategoalis fluidexpertise,thesortofknow-howthat letsyouthinkonthe flyandnavigateorganizationsaseasilyasyoudrivehomeonafamiliar route.Youcanmakedecisionsquicklyandautomaticallybecauseyouknowataglance whereyouareandwhatyouneedtodonext.
Thereisnoshortcuttodevelopingthiskindofexpertise.Ittakeseffort,time,practice, andfeedback.Someoftheefforthastogointolearningframesandtheideasbehindthem. Equallyimportantisputtingtheideastouse.Experience,oneoftenhears,isthebestteacher, butthatistrueonlyifonelearnsfromit.McCall,Lombardo,andMorrison(1988,p.122) foundthatakeyqualityamongsuccessfulexecutiveswastheyweregreatlearners, displayingan “extraordinarytenacityinextractingsomethingworthwhilefromtheir experienceandinseekingexperiencesrichinopportunitiesforgrowth.”
Reframing
Framesdefinethequestionsweaskandsolutionsweconsider(Berger2014).JohnDewey definedfreedomasthepowertochooseamongknownalternatives.Whenmanagers’ optionsarelimitedtheymakemistakesbuttoooftenfailtounderstandthesource.Takea simpleexample: “Whatisthesumof5plus5?” Theonlyrightansweris “10.” Askadifferent way, “Whattwonumbersadduptoten?Nowthenumberofsolutionsisinfinite(onceyou includefractionsandnegativenumbers).Thetwoquestionsdifferinhowtheyareframed. AlbertEinsteinonceobserved: “IfIhadaproblemtosolveandmywholelifedependedon thesolution,Iwouldspendthe first fifty-fiveminutesdeterminingthequestiontoask,for
onceIknowtheproperquestion,Icouldsolvetheproblemin fiveminutes” (Seelig,2015,p. 19).Askingtherightquestionenhancestheabilitytobreakframes.Whydothat?Anews storyfromthesummerof2007illustrates.Imagineyourselfamongagroupoffriends enjoyingdinneronthepatioofaWashington,DC,home.Anarmed,hoodedintruder suddenlyappearsandpointsagunattheheadofa14-year-oldguest. “Givemeyour money, ” hesays, “orI’llstartshooting.” Ifyou’reatthattable,whatdoyoudo?Youcould faint.Orfreeze.Youcouldtryaheroicfrontalattack.Youmighttrytorun.Oryoucouldtry tobreakframebyaskinganunexpectedquestion.That’sexactlywhatCristina “ChaCha” Rowandid.
“Wewerejust finishingdinner,” [she]toldtheman. “Whydon’tyouhavea glassofwinewithus?”
TheintruderhadasipoftheirChateauMalescotSt-Exupéryandsaid, “Damn,that’sgoodwine.”
Thegirl’sfather...toldtheintrudertotakethewholeglass,andRowan offeredhimthebottle.
Therobber,withhishooddown,tookanothersipandabiteofCamembert cheese.Heputtheguninhissweatpants...
“IthinkImayhavecometothewronghouse,” theintrudersaidbefore apologizing. “CanIgetahug?”
Rowan...stoodupandwrappedherarmsaroundthewould-berobber. Theotherguestsfollowed.
“Canwehaveagrouphug?” themanasked.The fiveadultscomplied.
Themanwalkedawayafewmomentslaterwitha filledcrystalwineglass, butnothingwasstolen,andnoonewashurt.Policewerecalledtothesceneand foundtheemptywineglassunbrokenonthegroundinanalleybehindthe house(Hagey,2007).
Inonestroke,ChaChaRowanredefinedthesituationfromarobbery—“wemightallbe killed”—toasocialoccasion—“let’sofferourguestsomewineandincludehiminour party.” Likeher,artisticmanagersframeandreframeexperience fluidly,sometimeswith extraordinaryresults.AcriticoncecommentedtoCézanne, “Thatdoesn’tlookanythinglike asunset.” Ponderinghispainting,Cézanneresponded, “Thenyoudon’t seesunsetstheway Ido.” LikeCézanneandRowan,leadershaveto findwaysofaskingtherightquestionto shiftpointsofviewwhenneeded.Thisisnoteasy,whichiswhy “mostofuspassivelyaccept decisionproblemsastheyareframed,andthereforerarelyhaveanopportunitytodiscover
