RapidDetection ofFoodAdulterants andContaminants
TheoryandPractice
ShyamNarayanJha
CentralInstituteofPost-HarvestEngineering andTechnology,India
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Thisbookis dedicatedtomyGrandFather(baba) whoinculcatedhighvaluesand sanskaras inme.Ialwaysstudiedwithhisinspiration,keepinglanternnearhishead whilesleepingindarknightofmyruralvillage
7.4
Preface
Nowadaysfoodsafetyisofparamountimportanceforconsumers,retailers,aswellasregulatorswho areengagedinenactingfoodlaws.Adulterationofhigh-valuefoodswithlow-valueones,color-and taste-enhancingingredients,andmislabelingarerampant,particularlyinprocessedfoodmarkets. Insecticide/pesticideresidues,heavymetals,toxinsbeyondpermissiblelimits,dangerousbacteria, andsooninfreshaswellasprocessedfoodsarenowfoundinvariouscountries.Thesemostlyare checkedbycollectingsamplesfrommarketsandusingtraditionallaboratory(wetchemistry)methods, whicharetime-consuming,laborious,andexpensive.Testreportsusuallyaremadeavailableseveral daysormonthsaftertesting;bythenmanyarealreadyaffectedbyeatingthoseinfectedfoods.Rapid testingmethodsthatcandetectpossibleadulterants,contaminants,andtoxinsinaveryshorttimeand preferablyatthemarketsiteareurgentlyrequiredandthereforeareincreasinglybeingtriedtheworld over.
Numerousarticlesandresearchpapersthatdealwithapplicationsofvariousrapidandoftennondestructivemethodsoffoodtestingarebeingpublishedeveryyear.Foodstandardsandpermissiblelimits ofvariouscontaminantsandtoxinsare,however,differentindifferentcountries.Theaccuracyofthe methodbeingusedalsovaries,anditisdifficulttohaveknowledgeofallstandardsandpermissible limits,thoughthisknowledgechangestimetotimeforeveryone.Thisbookwasdevelopedafter receivinganoverwhelmingresponsetomyearlierbook, NondestructiveEvaluationofFoodQuality: TheoryandPractice,tofillthegapoffoodsafety,includingonechapteroneachofthetopicoffood safetyandquality,commonadulterantsandcontaminants,standardsandpermissiblelimits,aswellas otherchaptersondifferenttechniquescoveringtheory/basicsinbriefandtheirpracticalapplicationsin termsofafewrecentworksreportedintheliterature.
Thepurposeofthisbookistoprovidebasicknowledgeandinformationtopostgraduatestudents andscientistsinterestedintheupstreamresearchonfoodsafetyaspects.Itisparticularlyusefulto beginners.Italsomaybeusefultoresearchersdirectlyengagedindevelopingfast,reliable,andnondestructivemethodsfortheevaluationoffoodqualityandsafetyaspects,aswellasthefoodindustries andregulatorsindirectlyresponsibletocheckfoodqualitytominimizepublichazards.Thebookmay beusedasatextbook;however,Iamnotresponsibleforanylossand/ordamagewhilepracticingor usinganyinformationandknowledgeprovidedbythisbook.
RapidDetectionofFoodAdulterantsandContaminants:TheoryandPractice containswideinformationincludingcommonadulterantsandcontaminantsinvariousfoods,standardsandpermissible limitsofdifferentfoodregulatoryauthorities,andrelateddetectiontechniques;itwouldnothave beenpossibletoprepareamanuscriptwithoutthehelpofmycolleagues,Dr.K.Narsaiah,Dr.Pranita Jaiswal,Dr.YogeshKumar,Dr.RahulKumarAnurag,aswellasvariousresearchassociatesinmy laboratory.Isincerelyacknowledgethecontributionofeachofthem.
Iamindebtedforchildhoodcontributionsandteachingofmymother,father,uncle(Lalkaka),and lateelderbrotherinaruralvillage,whichmademereachthisstatusofwritingabookofinternational standing.Thesacrificesofmywife,Bandana,anddaughters,PriyaandPreeti,especiallyduringmy
extramuralprojectsfortheNationalAgriculturalInnovationProjectandNationalAgriculturalScience Fund,whichgavemein-depthunderstandingofthissubject,aregreatlyappreciated.Ithankin advancethereaderswhosendtheirsuggestions,ifany,forfurtherimprovementstofutureversions ofthisbook.
S.N.Jha Ludhiana June28,2015
Table1.1TypeofAdulterantsandContaminants
S.No.TypeSubstancesAdded
1IntentionaladulterantsSand,marble,chips,stone,mud,otherfilth,talc,chalkpowder, water,mineraloil,andharmfulcolor
2IncidentaladulterantsPesticideresidues,droppingsofrodents,larvaeinfoods,orsimilar unwantedmaterials
3MetalliccontaminantsArsenicfrompesticides,leadfromwater,effluentfromchemical industries,tinfromcans,oranysimilarmaterials
Table1.2PhysicalAdulterantsandTheirEffectsonHealth
S.No.PhysicalAdulterantsFoodsCommonlyInvolvedHealthEffects
1Argemoneseeds Argemoneoil
2Artificiallycolored foreignseeds
3Foreignleavesor exhaustedtealeaves, artificiallycolored sawdust
Mustardseeds Edibleoilsandfats
Asasubstituteforcumin seed,poppyseed,black pepper
Epidemicdropsy,glaucoma, cardiacarrest
Injurioustohealth
TeaInjurioustohealth,cancer
4TricresylphosphateOilsParalysis
5RancidoilOilsDestroysvitaminsAandE
6Sand,marblechips, stones,filth Foodgrains,pulses,etc.Damagesdigestivetract
7 LathyrussativusKhesaridal aloneormixed inotherpulses
8Nonfoodgradeor contaminatedpacking materials
Lathyrism(cripplingspastic paraplegia)
AfoodBloodclot,angiosarcoma, cancer,etc.
environmentswherefoodisbeingprepared.Commonphysicalcontaminantsinfoodincludehair,dirt, insects,andevenglass.Foodcanbecontaminatedbyavarietyofdifferentmethods.Ifyouareinafast foodchainorarestaurant,themostcommonmethodofphysicalcontaminationoffoodisthroughdirty hands.Ifhandsremainunwashed,itispossiblethatworkerscouldcontaminateafoodsupply.Foodcan alsobecontaminatedinfactories.Poorsanitaryconditionscantaintfoodeasilyandcausefood poisoning.Somepossiblecommonphysicalcontaminantsinfoodarelistedin Table1.3.
1.1.2 CHEMICALADULTERANTSANDRESIDUES
Chemicaladulterantsarechemicalsandresiduespresentwherethefoodisgrown,harvested,processed,packaged,stored,transported,marketed,andconsumed.Foodgetsadulteratedorcontaminated bytheseharmfulchemicalsbeyondthepermissiblelimitsfixedbyregulators.Chemicalssometimes
Table1.3CommonPhysicalAdulterants/ContaminantsinDifferentFoods
S.No.FoodArticlesAdulterants
1MilkWater,starch,urea,detergent
2Ghee,cottagecheese,condensedmilk, Khoa,milkpowder,etc.
Vegetableoil,syntheticmilk,formalin
Coaltar,dyes
3SweetcurdVanaspati
4RabdiBlottingpaper
5KhoaanditsproductStarch
6 Chhana orpaneerStarch
7GheeVanaspatiormargarine
8ButterVanaspatiormargarine
9EdibleoilProhibitedcolor
10CoconutoilAnyotheroil
11SugarChalkpowder,urea,color
12HoneySugarsolution
13JaggeryWashingsoda,chalkpowder,sugarsolution,metanil (yellowcolor)
14Sweetmeats,icecream,andbeveragesMetanilyellow(anonpermittedcoaltarcolor),saccharin
15Wheat,rice,maize,jawar,bajra,chana, barley,etc.
Dust,pebble,stone,straw,weedseeds,damagedgrain, “weevilled”grain,insects,rodenthairandexcreta
16MaidaResultantattaorcheapflour
17Maida/riceBoricacid
18Wheat,bajra,andothergrainsErgot(afunguscontainingapoisonoussubstance), dhaturakanelbunt
19ParboiledriceMetanilyellow(anonpermittedcoaltarcolor),turmeric (forgoldenappearance)
20ParchedriceUrea
21WheatflourChalkpowder
22Dal,wholeandsplitKhesaridal,clay,stone,gravels,webs,insects,rodent hairandexcreta,metanilyellow(anonpermittedcoaltar color)
23Atta,maida,suji(rawa)Sand,soil,insect,webs,lumps,rodenthairandexcreta, ironfilings
24BajraErgot-infestedbajra
25PulsesLeadchromate
26MustardseedArgemoneseed
27PowderedspicesAddedstarch,commonsalt
28TurmericpowderColoredsawdust
29TurmericwholeLeadchromate,chalkpowder,oryellowsoapstone powder
30ChilipowderBrickpowder,saltpowderortalcpowder,artificialcolor, water-solublecoaltarcolor
31CommonsaltWhitepowder
32TealeavesExhaustedtea
arealsoaddedintenselytoincreasefoods’shelflife,taste,andappearance.Theyalsosometimescome intofoodinsmalleramountsfromtheair,water,andsoil.Someexamplesarearsenic,mercury,and nitrates.Chemicalresiduesinfoodsarecommontodaybecauseoftherampantuseofagrochemicalsin agriculturalpracticesandanimalhusbandrywiththeintenttoincreasecropsandreducecosts.Such agentsincludepesticides(e.g.,insecticides,herbicides,rodenticides);plantgrowthregulators;veterinarydrugs(e.g.,nitrofuran,fluoroquinolones,malachitegreen,chloramphenicol);andbovine somatotropin.Thereisaseparateissueofgeneticallymodifiedfood,orthepresenceinfoodsof ingredientsfromgeneticallymodifiedorganisms.Theimpactofchemicalcontaminantsonconsumer healthandwell-beingisoftenapparentonlyaftermanyyearsofprolongedexposureatlowlevels(e.g., cancer).Chemicalcontaminantscanbeclassified(Tables1.4and1.5)accordingtothesourceof contaminationandthemechanismbywhichtheyenterthefoodproduct.
Table1.4ChemicalContaminantsinFoodsandTheirIllEffectsonHealth
S.No.ContaminantsFoodsCommonlyInvolvedHealthEffects
1Mineraloil(whiteoil, petroleumfractions)
Edibleoilsandfats,black pepper Cancer
2LeadchromateTurmeric(wholeand powdered),mixedspices Anemia,abortion,paralysis, braindamage
3MethanolAlcoholicliquorsBlurredvision,blindness,death
4Diethylstilbestrol(additivein animalfeed) MeatImpotence,fibroidtumors,etc.
53,4-BenzopyreneSmokedfoodCancer
6ExcessivesolventresidueSolventextractedoil, oilcake,etc.
7Nonpermittedcoloror permittedfoodcolorbeyond safelimit
8Butylatedhydroxyanisoland butylatedhydroxytoluene beyondsafelimit
9Monosodiumglutamate(flour) (beyondsafelimit)
10Coumarinand dihydrocoumarin
Possibilityofnumbnessinfeet andhand
ColoredfoodMentalretardation,cancer,other toxiceffects
OilsandfatsAllergy,liverdamage,increase inserumcholesterol,etc.
Chinesefood,meatandmeat products
Braindamage,mental retardationininfants
FlavoredfoodBloodanticoagulation
11FoodflavorsbeyondsafelimitFlavoredfoodChancesoflivercancer
12BrominatedvegetableoilsColddrinksAnemia,enlargementofheart
13Sulfurdioxideandsulfite beyondsafelimit
Inavarietyoffoodsas preservatives
Acuteirritationofthe gastrointestinaltract,etc.
14Artificialsweetenersbeyond safelimit SweetfoodsChanceofcancer
15ArsenicFruitssuchasapplessprayed withleadarsenate
16BariumFoodscontaminatedbyrat poisons(bariumcarbonate)
Dizziness,chills,cramps, paralysis,death
Violentperistalsis,arterial hypertension,muscular twitching,convulsions,cardiac disturbances
Table1.4ChemicalContaminantsinFoodsandTheirIllEffectsonHealth cont’d S.No.ContaminantsFoodsCommonlyInvolvedHealthEffects
17CadmiumFruitjuices,softdrinks,etc.,in contactwithcadmium-plated vesselsorequipment; cadmium-contaminatedwater andshellfish
Increasedsalivation,acute gastritis,liverandkidney damage,prostatecancer
18CobaltWater,liquorsCardiacinsufficiencyand myocardialfailure
19LeadWater,naturalandprocessed foods
Leadpoisoning(foot-drop, insomnia,anemia,constipation, mentalretardation,brain damage)
20CopperAnyFoodVomiting,diarrhea
21TinAnyFoodColic,vomiting
22ZincAnyFoodColic,vomiting
23MercuryMercuryfungicide-treated seedgrainsor mercury-contaminatedfish
Braindamage,paralysis,death
1.1.3 MICROBIOLOGICALANDPATHOGENICCONTAMINANTS
Food-borneillnesscausedbymicroorganismsisalargeandgrowingpublichealthproblem.Most countrieswithsystemsforreportingcasesoffood-borneillnesshavedocumentedsignificantincrease sincethe1970sintheincidenceofdiseasescausedbymicroorganismsinfood,includingpathogens suchas Salmonella, Campylobacterjejuni,andenterohemorrhagic Escherichiacoli,andparasitessuch as Cryptosporidium, Cryptospora,andtrematodes.Someimportantbacterialandfungalcontaminants, andpathogens,incommonlyavailablefoodsandtheirilleffectsonhealtharelistedin Tables1.6 1.8, respectively.
1.1.4 TOXINS
Toxinsaresubstancescreatedbyplantsandanimalsthatarepoisonoustohumans.Toxinsalsoinclude medicationsthatarehelpfulinsmalldosesbutpoisonouswhenusedinalargeamount.Toxinscanbe smallmolecules,peptides,orproteinsthatarecapableofcausingdiseaseoncontactwithorupon absorptionbybodytissues,interactingwithbiologicalmacromoleculessuchasenzymesorcellular receptors.
Naturaltoxinsarechemicalsthatarenaturallyproducedbylivingorganisms.Thesetoxinsarenot harmfultotheorganismsthemselvesbuttheymaybetoxictoothercreatures,includinghumans,when eaten.Someplantshavethecapacitytonaturallyproducecompoundsthataretoxictohumanswhen consumed(HealthCanada,2011).
Mycotoxins areanothergroupofnaturaltoxins.Theword mycotoxin isderivedfromtheGreek wordforfungus, mykes,andtheLatinword toxicum ,meaning“poison.”Mycotoxinsaretoxic chemicalproductsformedbyfungithatcangrowoncropsinthefieldorafterharvest.Foodsthatcan
Table1.7CommonFungalContaminantsandTheirIllEffectsonHealth S.No.FungalContaminantsFoodsInvolvedHealthEffects
1Aflatoxins
2Ergotalkaloidsfrom Claviceps purpurea,toxicalkaloids, ergotamine,ergotoxin,and ergometrinegroups
3Toxinsfrom Fusariumsporotrichioides
4Toxinsfrom Fusarium sporotrichiella
5Toxinsfrom Penicilliuminslandicum, Penicilliumatricum, Penicilliumcitreovirede, Fusarium, Rhizopus, Aspergillus
6Sterigmatocystinfrom Aspergillusversicolour, Aspergillusnidulans,and Bipolaris
Aspergillusflavus-Contaminated foodssuchasgroundnuts, cottonseeds,etc.
Ergot-infestedbajra,ryemeal orbread
Grains(millet,wheat,oats,rye, etc.)
Liverdamageandcancer
Ergotism(St.Anthony’s fire-burningsensationin extremities,itchingofskin, peripheralgangrene)
Alimentarytoxicaleukia (epidemicpanmyelotoxicosis)
MoistgrainsUrovdisease(Kaschin-Beck disease)
YellowriceToxicmoldyricedisease
FoodgrainsHepatitis
7 Ascarislumbricoides Anyrawfoodorwater contaminatedbyhumanfeces containingeggsoftheparasite
Ascariasis
8 Entamoebahistolytica (viral)RawvegetablesandfruitsAmebicdysentery
9Virusofinfectious hepatitis(virusA)
Shellfish,milk,unheatedfoods contaminatedwithfeces,urine, and/orbloodofinfectedhuman
10MachupovirusFoodscontaminatedwithrodent urine,suchascereals
1.1.5.2SeparateRawandCookedMaterials
Infectioushepatitis
Bolivianhemorrhagicfever
•Keeprawmeat,poultry,andseafood,vegetables,andsoonseparatefromotherfoods.
•Useseparateequipmentandutensils,suchasknivesandcuttingboards,forhandlingrawfoods.
•Storefoodincontainerstoavoidcontactbetweenrawandpreparedfoods.
1.1.5.3CookThoroughly
•Besurethatmeatandpoultryjuicesareclearandnotdiscolored.
•Cookfoodthoroughly,especiallymeat,poultry,eggs,andseafood.
•Bringfoodslikesoupsandstewstoboilingtomakesurethattheyhavereached70 C.
•Reheatcookedfoodproperlybeforeeating.
Table1.10OtherFoodContaminantsandTheirHealthEffects
CategoriesContaminantsPotentialHealthConcerns
Microorganisms
Cryptosporidium
Giardialamblia
Heterotrophicplatecount
Disinfectionby-products
Legionella
Total coliforms (including fecalcoliformand Escherichiacoli)
Viruses(enteric)
Brucella
E.coli
Staphylococcus sp.
Streptococcus sp.
Listeria sp.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Mycobacteriumbovis
Salmonella
Clostridium
Yeastandfungus
Bromate
Chlorite
Haloaceticacids(HAA5)
· Gastrointestinalillness(suchasdiarrhea, vomiting,andcramps)
· Gastrointestinalillness(suchasdiarrhea, vomiting,andcramps)
· Heterotrophicplatecounthasnohealtheffects; itisananalyticmethodusedtomeasurethe varietyofbacteriathatarecommoninwater.The lowertheconcentrationofbacteriaindrinking water,thebettermaintainedthewatersystemis.
· Legionnaire’sdisease,atypeofpneumonia
· Notahealththreatinitself;itisusedtoindicate whetherotherpotentiallyharmfulbacteriamay bepresent.
· Gastrointestinalillness(suchasdiarrhea, vomiting,andcramps)
· Accordingtopathogenicityofindividual microorganism
· Accordingtopathogenicityofindividual microorganism
· Accordingtopathogenicityofindividual microorganism
· Accordingtopathogenicityofindividual microorganism
· Accordingtopathogenicityofindividual microorganism
· Accordingtopathogenicityofindividual microorganism
· Accordingtopathogenicityofindividual microorganism
· Accordingtopathogenicityofindividual microorganism
· Accordingtopathogenicityofindividual microorganism
· Increasedriskofcancer
· Anemia;nervoussystemeffectsininfantsand youngchildren
· Increasedriskofcancer
Totaltrihalomethanes · Liver,kidney,orcentralnervoussystem problems;increasedriskofcancer
Table1.10OtherFoodContaminantsandTheirHealthEffects cont’d
CategoriesContaminantsPotentialHealthConcerns
Disinfectants
Inorganicchemicals
Inorganicchemicals (pesticides/insecticides/ fungicides/environmental contaminants/processing contaminantsetc.)
Chloramines(asCl2)
Chlorine(asCl2)
Chlorinedioxide(asClO2)
Antimony
Barium
Copper
Cyanide(asfreecyanide)
Fluoride
Mercury(inorganic)
Nitrates(measuredas nitrogen)
Nitrites(measuredas nitrogen)
· Eye/noseirritation,stomachdiscomfort,anemia
· Eye/noseirritation,stomachdiscomfort
· Anemia;nervoussystemeffectsininfantsand youngchildren
· Increaseinbloodcholesterol;decreaseinblood glucose
· Increaseinbloodpressure
· Short-termexposurecausesgastrointestinal distress
· Long-termexposurecausesliverorkidney damage
· PeoplewithWilson’sdiseaseshouldconsult theirpersonaldoctoriftheamountofcopperin theirwaterexceedstheactionlevel.
· Nervedamageorthyroidproblems
· Bonedisease(painandtendernessofthebones); childrenmaygetmottledteeth
· Kidneydamage
· Infantsyoungerthantheageof6monthswho drinkwatercontainingnitratesinexcessofthe MCLcouldbecomeseriouslyilland,if untreated,maydie.Symptomsincludeshortness ofbreathandblue-babysyndrome.
· Infantsyoungerthantheageof6monthswho drinkwatercontainingnitritesinexcessofthe MCLcouldbecomeseriouslyilland,if untreated,maydie.Symptomsincludeshortness ofbreathandblue-babysyndrome.
Selenium · Hairorfingernailloss;numbnessinfingersor toes;circulatoryproblems
Thallium · Hairloss;changesinblood;kidney,intestine,or liverproblems
Acrylamide · Nervoussystemorbloodproblems;carcinogenic
Benzene · Anemia;decreaseinbloodplatelets; carcinogenic
Benzopyrene(polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons)
· Reproductivedifficulties;carcinogeniceffects
Carbofuran · Problemswithblood,nervoussystem,or reproductivesystem
Chlordane · Liverornervoussystemproblems;carcinogenic effects